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GENDER AND SOCIETY

Introduction to Gender
Gender as Social Construct
 All academic disciplines as they now exist, whether sociology,
psychology, astronomy, physics, theology or chemistry, have been
developed largely by men.
 It is men who run governments, control education systems, who earn
most of the money, and who are generally considered the movers and
shakers of the society.

In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft, wrote a book entitled, Vindication of the Rights


ofWomen. The mainstream should be deemed malestream.

A 1987 United Nations report claimed, “women constitute half of the world’s
population, perform nearly 2/3s of its work hours, receive 1/10 of its income, and
own less than one-hundredth of its property.

Sex - The biological aspects of an individual, differences between males and


females by chromosomal, anatomical, reproductive, hormonal characteristics.

Sex status is biologically determined but socially constructed. All human societies
make distinctions based on inborn characteristics of sex.

Gender is a status designation derived from the physiological aspects linked to


males and females. to allow individuals to function within particular social
contexts.
Differential distributions of
 roles
 tasks,
 resources,
 privileges and disadvantages

Biological Sex
Some babies (2-3%) each year are born with ambiguous external genitalia. These
babies receive a sexual assignment as one of the two sexes and if required, surgical
intervention is provided.

Sex assignment - The categorization into either male or female seems like an
irrefutable biological fact.
There are several components which may comprise biological sex:
 chromosomal sex,
 gondola sex (sexual production organ),
 internal sex organs,
 external genitalia.
Gender: A Continuum?
Transsexuals are individuals who have the genotype of one sex but are convinced
they are in the wrong body, in other words, they are really the opposite sex.

Sexual reassignment - The dramatic choice of sexual reassignment is the product


of societal intolerance.

Social constructionist - Who believes that heterosexuality and homosexuality are


matters of mere definition that vary across time and place.

Biology vs. Construction


Kinsey criticized the rigid dichotomization of homosexual vs. heterosexual. He
proposed that sexual behavior existed on a continuum.

Feminist Approaches to the Study of Gender Inequality

1. Liberal Feminism - seeks to make


incremental changes to legislation and piecemeal changes in attitudes. Aim is
working towards gender equality.
2. Marxist Feminists - believe that gender inequality was given an added boost by
the capitalist mode of production.

Marxist Feminism 4 points


 Capitalism separates home and work,
 The public and the private spheres
 Women’s sphere is the private domestic sphere, her labour in the home is
devalued.
 The solution is transformation of the capitalism.

3. Radical Feminists - Believe gender


stratification is not just the result of
Capitalism…. The problem is capitalism and patriarchy.
4. Post-Modernist Feminism - Seeks to deconstruct old theories on family.
 Modernist theorizes are grand narratives which
limit understanding.
 Emphasis should be on uniqueness and diversity.

Feminist Concerns - Five Key

1. Social construction: Gender - The central concept of feminist theory is the


social construction of gender.
2. Social Change (Commit to social change) - It is an analysis of women’s
subordination for the purpose of figuring out how to change it.
3. Family - Feminist theories question the family.
 Capitalism and patriarchy thrive upon traditional family (father as
provider, mother as homemaker) …
4. Social theory - Feminist theory emphasizes women’s lives and their
experiences. The emphasis is upon putting on a new set of glasses.
5. Social Justice - Feminist theorists and researchers put their beliefs into action.
 Barbra Allen was one of the first who put into practice a feminist
pedagogy.
Feminist Sociology History
1. First Wave-Suffragettes – Maternal
2. Second Wave-Civil Rights late 60’s and beyond-has various branches.
3. Third Wave - 1990’s-more inclusive

Chapter 1

Sex - Biological traits that society associates with being male or female.
Gender- Cultural meanings attached to being masculine, feminine, which
influence personal identities.
Ex: Man, Woman, Transgender, Intersex, Gender Queer
Sexuality - Sexual attraction, practices & identity which may or may not align
with sex and gender
Ex: Heterosexual, Homosexual (Gay or Lesbian), Bisexual, Queer

Ideology of Gender
 What is expected of us
 What is allowed of us
 What is valued of us

Manifestation of gender differences can be found in construction of


 Roles - What women and men do
 Relations - How women and men relate to each other.
 Identity - How women and men perceive themselves.

Ideology of Gender
 Contains norms and rules regarding appropriate behavior
 Determine attributes
 Reproduces range of beliefs and customs to support these norms and
social rules
 Norms and rules determine material reality of relative access of men and
women to and claims over different resources

Gender as a Social Construction

Gender is a process, stratification system and structure;

Process = day to day interactions reinforce gender as opposites. Ex: conversations,


rituals of daily life, sayings
Stratification = Men as a group have more status and power than women as a
group.

Structure = Gender divides work in the home economic production. Organizes


sexuality and emotional life.

Patriarchy
 A form of social organization in which men dominate women
 Promotes partri-locality and patrilineage
 Controls sexuality, fertility and labor of women
 Promotes double standard of sexual morality

Power of Patriarchy flows from


 Family
 Proverb
 Religion
 Kinship Network
 Custom-tradition
 Education System
 Media
 State - Law
 Leisure activities

Chapter 2

Physical Dimensions of Sex

Sex Dimensions Male Female

Chromosomes XY XX

Gonads Testes Ovaries

Hormones Androgens Estrogens

External genitalia Penis, scrotum Labia, clitoris, vaginal opening

Prostate, seminal, vesicles, vas Vagina, uterus,


Internal accessory organs
deferens fallopian tubes, cervix

Secondary sex characteristics Beard, low voice, sperm


Breasts, menstruation
emission
Sexual orientation Heterosexual, gay, bisexual Heterosexual, lesbian, gay

Gender Identity Perceives self as male Perceives self as female

Gender Role Masculine Feminine

Human Reproductive Structures

Figure A. Male Part Figure B. Female Part

Gender identity is self-defined. Gender role is socially-defined.


Gender identity refers to the personal view of oneself. Gender roles are societal
expectations for normal and appropriate female and male behavior.

Sexual Arousal Cycle

Sexual Dysfunctions
Male sexual problems
 Impotence (inability to maintain an erection)
 Premature ejaculation
Male and Female
 Dyspareunia (painful intercourse)
 Inhibited Desire
Female
 Orgasmic dysfunction
 Vaginismus (painful contraction of the vaginal muscles)

Drug Actions on Sexuality


Alcohol: Reduced testes size and suppressed hormone function.
Cocaine: Erectile disorder, inhibited orgasm, lowered sperm counts
Barbiturates: Reduced desire, erectile disorder, delayed orgasm
Marijuana: Reduced testosterone levels, reduced desire
Tobacco: Decreases the frequency and duration of erections and of vaginal
lubrication
Gender and Sex

Gender and Development is about recognizing that gender biases impede


development because :
 They prevent people from attaining their full potentials
 They exacerbate social inequity
 They distort understanding of social realities and limit the impacts of
development efforts

Millenium Development Goals

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women


Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Attaining a full and satisfying life for all is a shared responsibility


 Of everyone, regardless of age, sex, religion, ethnicity.
 Of government as duly mandated authority
 Of those who benefit or suffer from the lack of it

Fully equality and development for women and men is anchored on a vision of
development that is equitable, sustainable, and free from violence, respectful of
human rights, supportive of self-determination, and the actualization of human
potentials, and participatory and empowering...

Challenge
 GAD plans submitted only for compliance
 Lack of sex-disaggregated data crucial for gender analysis and GAD
planning
 Weak political and popular support
 Limited technical capabilities and expertise of agencies and LGUs on
gender planning and budgeting
 Inability to influence mainstream macro policies and programs and total
budget
 Lack of mechanisms to track progress and measure impact: monitoring

Key Principles
Development planning and practice should:
 Deliberately address obstacles to women’s effective participation and
enjoyment of benefits
 Expand women ‘s range of choices and opportunities
 Strengthen their capabilities to attain a full and satisfying life
 Bridge the gender gap
 Promote gender equality

For governments, the responsibility to promote the attainment of a full and


satisfying life for all means:
 Protecting people’s rights
 Creating opportunities for the development of peoples’ abilities and
individual strengths

Know your stuff: Sex vs. Gender


Sex - biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.
Sex typing: Male and females
Gender - socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women.
Gender typing: Masculine and feminine.

Gender Role Development


Gender Identity - knowledge
Gender Roles - roles that should be adopted and behaviours in those roles

Gender Involves the Differentiations


Attribute by a given culture to women and men, in following aspects:
1. Social roles
2. Capacities
3. Traits and characteristics

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