Management of Mastalgia+++

Management of Mastalgia
Ayat ElSherif, MD, Stephanie A. Valente, DO*
KEYWORDS
Mastalgia Breast pain Cyclic pain Noncyclic Mastodynia
Extramammary pain Tamoxifen Danazol
KEY POINTS
Patients with new, persistent focal breast pain should undergo a history, examination, and
targeted imaging to determine the underlying cause.
Most breast pain is self-limited and will resolve spontaneously over time and therefore
reassurance and support is the first step in initial treatment.
Some women experience prolonged and debilitating breast pain. In these cases evalu-
ating stress factors, modifying diet, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can be
useful.
Occasionally hormonal medications can be used short-term at the lowest possible dose to
treat mastalgia.
INTRODUCTION
Mastalgia is a term describing breast pain in one or both breasts. It is the most com-
mon breast complaint experienced in 70% of women of childbearing age.1,2 The pain
is usually described as a dull aching discomfort and sometimes as heaviness or
burning pain that could be unilateral or bilateral. The extent to which mastalgia dis-
rupts the patient’s normal lifestyle in terms of sleep, work, and intimacy provides a
useful assessment of severity. Breast pain can be severe enough in 10% of women
that it significantly interferes with a woman’s activities of daily living.3,4 Importantly,
isolated breast pain is a rare symptom of breast cancer.5 A recent study showed
that the incidence of breast malignancy in women who underwent mammogram for
breast pain was 1.8%.6 The etiology of mastalgia has been attributed to many causes.
Classification of mastalgia is useful in determining the cause and ultimately the optimal
plan of treatment. There are 3 main categories of breast pain, which include structural/
extramammary pain (chest wall causes), cyclical mastalgia (related to menstrual cy-
cle), or noncyclical mastalgia (not related to menstrual cycle).7 A good breast history
Division of Breast Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave,
Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Surg Clin N Am 102 (2022) 929–946

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2022.06.001 surgical.theclinics.com
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930 ElSherif & Valente
and examination can help the clinician identify the origin. Fig. 1 demonstrates the
management approach for mastalgia and will be reviewed in the “Management of
physiologic mastalgia” section.
Examination and Workup

History
A thorough history of the pain is the first step to identify the differential of mastalgia
and guide the next step in workup (Table 1). History should include obtaining informa-
tion regarding the site, severity, duration, nature of pain, its relationship to the men-
strual cycle, and any associated relieving or exacerbating factors.8 The length of
time the patient has been having pain is important, as well as review of what the pa-
tient has previously done to treat the pain. Evaluating if the pain is constant, worse at
certain times of the day than others, wakes the patient up from sleep at night, or is in
relation to menstrual cycle is important to discern. Review of whether patients have a
normal menstrual cycle, are perimenopausal, take birth control pills or other hormonal
supplements or bioidenticals is necessary history to obtain. Discussing stress is
important because increased stress can play a role in breast pain. Reviewing any
recent history of trauma to the breast or chest wall as asking if the patient performs
any repetitive movements to the musculoskeletal system in that area (recent new ex-
ercise regimen, gardening, and so forth) can aid in identifying underlying causes. A
family history of breast cancer should be obtained. A pregnancy test should be per-
formed if history confers this possibility.9 Medications, especially addition of new
medications should be reviewed.8
Examination
Bilateral breast and lymph node examination should be directed primarily to exclude
the presence of any masses. The patient should be examined for chest wall tender-
ness to exclude extramammary pain, and the breast should be gently manipulated
to palpate underlying chest wall and position changes such as the patient examined
in lateral semirecumbent position can be helpful.10,11 Palpation to determine if the
pain is reproducible or isolated to a certain area of the breast is helpful. Talking with
Fig. 1. Algorithm of management of mastalgia.

Management of Mastalgia 931
Table 1
Pain description at different types of mastalgia
Cyclical Mastalgia Noncyclical Mastalgia Extramammary Pain

Site Bilateral Unilateral Reproducible by
palpation of trigger
points
Relation to Related to menstrual Not related to Not related to
menstrual cycle (increases 2 wk menstrual cycle menstrual cycle,
cycle before menses) reproducible by
activity
Character Dull, diffuse, shooting, Localized, constant or Located at the lateral or
stabbing, heaviness, intermittent burning medial side of the
aching, throbbing pain breast
pain
the patient during the breast examination helps to take their mind of the examination
can be helpful to physician to determine the degree of pain in relation to symptom
complaints.
Anatomy
The breast receives sensory innervation from the anterior and lateral cutaneous
branches of intercostal nerves as well as supraclavicular nerves. These nerves origi-
nate from T2 to T5 intercostal nerves.12 The nipple areola complex (NAC) is supplied
by the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches arising from T3 to T4. Any irritation to
these nerves can lead to a referred pain that could be felt in the breast tissue or the
nipple. Some women may suffer a shooting pain traveling up to the nipple; this pain
is due to the irritation of a T4 branch that penetrates the deep surface of the breast
before running up toward the nipple.11
Imaging
A woman with any new or focal symptoms should be assessed radiologically. Early
breast abscess versus cyst may be difficult to determine on examination alone and ul-
trasound in these cases is useful. An ultrasound as first imaging modality should be
performed in patients aged younger than 30 years, and mammogram followed by tar-
geted ultrasound should be performed for patients aged 30 years or older.13 Any sus-
picious mass or abnormality requires a core needle biopsy.14,15 In some cases, breast
imaging is done for reassurance to alleviate the sense of anxiety with the negative
results.16
STRUCTURAL AND EXTRAMAMMARY CAUSES OF BREAST PAIN
First, it is important for a clinician to assess the structural components of the breast
and chest wall. A large breast cup size is considered one of the anatomic and extrinsic
factors for the development of breast pain.5 The weight of the breast has been hypoth-
esized to cause breast discomfort by the resultant strain on the suspensory liga-
ments.17 Women with a large breast cup size are more likely to experience breast
pain after participating in sports activities, especially with ill-fitted nonsupportive
bras.18 Determining how a women feels about bras is important. For example, asking
if she wears one consistently, intermittently, or not at all can be helpful. Large breasts
can benefit from the support of a well-fitted bra and could be an easy solution to breast
pain. It is estimated that 70% to 90% of women wear a wrong size bra and approxi-
mately 25% of women have never been measured for a cup size before.19 Studies

have shown that breast pain is related to the actual breast cup size rather than the bra
band size.18,20–22 Another study showed that ill-fitted bra creates chaffing and shoul-
der strap discomfort.20 Seventy-five percent of the breast weight should be supported
by the back strap.23 Proper cup size and well-fitted bra provide breast pain improve-
ment in 75% to 85% of women.23,24 A recent study compared the effect of wearing a
sports bra versus receiving danazol for breast pain; women who wore a sports bra
experienced higher pain relief after 12 weeks than those who received danazol
(85% vs 58%). Additionally, wearing a sports bra comes with no side effects, whereas
42% of women who received danazol suffered side effects.24 The “best-fit” bra size
method was recently introduced; this method is based on professional bra fitting
criteria.25 The discrepancies in cup size measurements between retail companies
can lead to inconsistent bra size and subject women to breast discomfort, and there-
fore, a bra-sizing measurement can be offered to patients at breast clinics.17
Some women with bilateral diffuse breast pain and macromastia may have struc-
tural pain related to breast size that does not improve with bra support. Breast pain
that causes headaches, back pain, and an examination showing shoulder bra strap
grooves in a macromastia patient are signs that the weight of their breast size itself
is causing the pain. These patients would benefit from a formal breast reduction to
alleviate pain and consultation to a plastic/reconstructive surgeon to discuss this pos-
sibility is recommended.
Extramammary pain refers to the breast pain originating outside of the breast tissue;
most commonly presenting as referred pain originating from the chest wall, heart,
lung, or esophagus.2 A thorough history can help rule out cardiac causes of referred
chest pain. Patients with a recent hard or constant cough many also experience chest
wall and referred breast pain, as well as those with gastroesophageal reflux disease or
shoulder/bursitis issues. At times, electrocardiogram, chest X-ray, chest computed
tomographic scan, shoulder X-ray or esophagogastroduodenoscopy may be helpful
for diagnosing these causes. Musculoskeletal wall pain is more common in this setting
and characterized by pain described as unilateral and reproducible by activity or
palpation of chest wall trigger points. It is almost always felt on the very lateral or
medial side (costochondral junction) of the breast.11,26
Postmenopausal women who are not on hormone replacement therapy or have a
known arthritis are more likely to experience a musculoskeletal pain rather than a
true mastalgia.11 The management of extramammary breast pain requires the exclu-
sion of true breast pain by clinical assessment and imaging.10,11 All patients present-
ing with a breast pain should undergo a complete breast examination while sitting and
lying on each side to allow the breast to fall away from the chest wall to palpate the
underlying muscles and ribs. One of the most effective methods is to allow the patient
herself to locate the point of maximal tenderness on the chest wall rather than the true
breast tissue.11 Examination of the back and dermatome patterns of the chest wall are
also important, to rule other findings such as herpes zoster. The evaluation of repro-
ducible trigger points along the medial area of the scapula on the back can help iden-
tify referred musculoskeletal pain caused by scapulothoracic bursitis.27 For the
treatment of localized trigger point pain, infiltrating the tender point with 4.5 cc xylo-
caine 1%, 4.5 cc bupivacaine 0.5%, or 40 mg methylprednisolone can provide
long-term improvement. Repeated injections after 4 to 6 weeks can be performed
to offer improved pain control.7,11,27
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and modifying any exacerbating life-
style behaviors are crucial.10 The use of topical NSAIDs is recommended in these
cases because they act locally on the tissue where they are applied and have fewer
gastrointestinal side effects.11

CYCLIC MASTALGIA
Cystic mastalgia is breast pain that has a temporal relation to menstrual cycle; specif-
ically the hormonal stimulation of the breast tissue that occurs at the end of luteal
phase.28 It accounts for 67% of patients with true mastalgia who are aged 30 to
40 years.7,29 Pain usually occurs 1 week before the start of menstruation, and the
pain intensity starts to decrease by the first day of menstruation and subsides within
the next few days.11 Cyclical breast pain is usually associated with breast swelling,
lumpiness, tenderness, and nodularity (also termed fibrocystic changes).2,11 The pa-
tient describes the pain as diffuse, dull, burning, or aching that might radiate to the ax-
illa and arm in a sharp shooting sensation due to the breast glandular association with
the intercostobrachial nerve in that area.5 Pain is usually bilateral, however, pain inten-
sity might be higher in one side than the other.5 The condition might be exacerbated in
women receiving hormonal therapy and sometimes just before menopause en-
sues.11,30 Cyclical mastalgia typically resolves spontaneously in most patients over
time.31 Cyclical mastalgia improves after menopause in 42% of patients.30
Hormonal Causes
Several hormonal abnormalities have been attributed to cause mastalgia, which will be
reviewed here. These abnormalities included excess estrogen,32 progesterone defi-
ciencies,33 discrepancies in progestin/estrogen ratio,34 receptor sensitivity varia-
tions,35 hyperprolactinemia,36 water retention,37 abnormalities in follicle-stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone secretion,38 and low androgens.39
Studies have shown that estrogen levels interestingly were similar in patients with
mastalgia versus asymptomatic controls.40–44 Studies evaluating progesterone levels
have produced discrepant results with some showing a significantly low luteal proges-
terone level among the mastalgia patients,34,45,46 whereas other studies refuted this
finding.42,43,47,48 Regarding hyperprolactinemia, several studies have reported a
significantly higher level of prolactin and hyperresponsiveness of prolactin to
thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation among mastalgia patients.38,49,50 Addition-
ally, several studies have addressed the possibility of water retention in mastalgia pa-
tients and concluded that there is no correlation between breast pain and total body
water between mastalgia patients and controls.37,38 This observation supports no
benefit to the use of diuretics or sodium restriction in mastalgia patients.51
Nonhormonal Causes
Dietary habits and lifestyle are also 2 major hypotheses of the factors in the pathophys-
iology of mastalgia. For patients with breast pain, discussion regarding keeping a food
diary, avoiding trigger foods, and improving a healthy diet can be helpful. Patients
should be reassured that this improvement may take 6 to 8 weeks to notice. Some the-
ories regarding breast pain causes and therefore interventions are discussed below.
Methylxanthines are naturally occurring substances that are found in many food
products such as coffee, tea, and chocolate. Methylxanthines are implicated as a
possible cause of mastalgia because they increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP) levels by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cAMP, which
has a role in the increased production of catecholamines. Additionally stress, nicotine,
and tyramine (found in red wine, for example) can increase catecholamine levels. Cat-
echolamines in turn can stimulate cellular proliferation and cause a hypersensitivity of
the breast tissue thereby creating fibrocystic breast changes and resultant mastal-
gia.52–54 Randomized clinical trial (RCTs), which investigated the efficacy of methyl-
xanthine abstinence, demonstrated breast pain symptom resolution after

8 weeks,54–56 whereas other studies showed no benefit after abstinence for

6 months.57–59
Soy milk is rich in genistein and isoflavones, which are phytoestrogens that bind to
estrogen receptors and block estrogen binding, thus potentially relieving mastal-
gia.60,61 In a trial that investigated the use of soy milk versus cow milk, 56% of the
soy-milk group reported symptom relief versus 10% of the control cow-milk group.
The challenge encountered with the use of soy milk was the unpopular taste of soy
milk for many patients.62
Lipid and Essential Fatty Acids

A high-fat diet or abnormal lipid metabolism has been hypothesized to be a cause of
mastalgia. This is based on the theory that increased lipid levels can have similar clin-
ical effects as increased endogenous estrogen levels because estrogen is a steroid
hormone, which is essentially synthesized from lipid.11,63,64 Additionally, the increased
saturated fat levels interfere with the formation of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) by inhib-
iting the desaturation of linoleic acid, which in turn renders the breast tissue hypersen-
sitive to estrogen.35,65 Studies have found an elevation in high-density lipoproteins
among mastalgia patients, and symptom relief occurred in these patients with the
normalization of high-density and low-density lipoprotein levels.66,67 Interestingly,
one study evaluated a reduction in dietary fat intake (<15% of total calories) and found
that patients on a low-fat diet had significant reduction in breast swelling and tender-
ness at 6 months compared with patients on placebo.64
Another theory is that women with breast pain have lower levels of essential fatty
acids. Essential fatty acids are important for the normal function of the cell membrane
receptors of the breast. Deficiency of essential fatty acids could create a supersensi-
tive state and perpetuate the inflammatory component of mastalgia.68 Additionally,
essential fatty acids inhibit prostaglandin production and therefore have anti-
inflammatory effects.35,68
Vitamins
Studies reporting on the efficacy of vitamin E on mastalgia relief have showed incon-
sistent results.69–71 It has been shown that there was no superior benefit of vitamin E
over placebo in the management of benign breast pain, although 40% of patients re-
ported some improvement, it was not clinically significant.71 Similarly, vitamin B1 and
B6 did not significantly improve cyclical mastalgia.72–75 Non-RCTs showed that the
use of vitamin A in mastalgia patients lead to symptom improvement but Vitamin A
was associated with toxic side effects such as skin and mucosal dryness, owing to
the high daily dose needed.76,77
Iodine
It has been hypothesized that an iodine-deficient diet renders the breast tissue more
sensitive to estrogen.78 Iodine was found to have extrathryoid actions especially on
the breast, specifically the epithelium of terminal intralobular ducts.79 A few studies
have investigated the effect of prescribing molecular iodine to mastalgia patients
and have shown to be beneficial for breast pain. Molecular iodine has no effect on
the thyroid, so there are no side effects, only the benefits of breast pain relief.78,80 A
study reported that more than 50% of women who took a daily iodine supplement
of 6 mg showed resolution of breast pain at 6 months.80 A novel iodine formulation,
IoGen, which generates molecular iodine by the action of gastric juice, was also exam-
ined and a significant improvement was noted in 50% of mastalgia patients after
6 months.80

Smoking
An observational study showed that smoking women are more likely to suffer from
breast pain than nonsmokers.4 The mechanism by which smoking causes mastalgia
remains unclear. It has been hypothesized that smoking interrupts the production of
endogenous estrogen, as smoking women were found to have low estrogen levels
and experienced early menopause; however, this contradicts the common knowledge
that mastalgia is caused by excess estrogen.32,81,82
Activity
Breast pain is more common in women with a sedentary lifestyle and low activity
levels.20,22
Psychological
Despite the growing theories that mastalgia patients can be associated with a psycho-
somatic disorder, due to some cases of no clear organic cause to the pain, this asso-
ciation was disputed.83 Notably, the control group scored higher for psychoneurosis
than the mastalgia group.83 However, patients with severe refractory mastalgia
were noted to have a higher level of depression and anxiety.84 It was even reported
that the level of anxiety and depression in the mastalgia patients is comparable to
that of patients with breast cancer at the morning of their surgery.85 These mood dis-
orders were more likely to be present in patients with severe mastalgia rather than
nonsevere mastalgia.85,86 In the light of these potential disorders, patients with severe
mastalgia without an underlying cause and nonresponsive to conservative measures
should be screened and proper psychological support should be provided if
indicated.86
NONCYCLIC MASTALGIA
Noncyclic mastalgia is breast pain that is nonhormonal and unrelated to menstrual cy-
cle. It accounts for one-third of the patients referred to breast clinic.8 Pain is usually
described as constant or intermittent localized burning pain. It is almost always unilat-
eral and confined to one quadrant.87 It affects perimenopausal women typically in their
40s and 50s.13,28 Unlike cyclical pain, it does not have a precipitating factor and has a
shorter duration with a spontaneous resolution without treatment in 50% of the
cases.9,30 However, pain might exacerbate without an apparent underlying cause
and become more difficult to treat.3,5
Noncyclical pain can be inflammatory, vascular, or neoplastic in nature. There are
several causes for this type of pain, which include a pendulous breast, stretching of
Cooper’s ligaments, breast cysts, traumatic fat necrosis, mastitis (lactational or non-
lactational), breast abscess, duct ectasia, diabetic mastopathy, superficial thrombo-
phlebitis (Mondor disease) or previous breast surgery.2,8,29 Breast imaging can
identify many of these causes that can be improved with targeted treatment.
MANAGEMENT OF PHYSIOLOGIC MASTALGIA

Conservative and Supportive Treatment
Reassurance and daily pain charting
The first step in managing mastalgia is reassurance.51 Reassuring patients that their
symptoms are not related to cancer or any serious disease will alleviate their anxi-
ety.8,28 Reassurance was found to be sufficient in 85% of patients with mild symp-
toms, 70% in moderate cases, and 52% in severe cases.88 Reassurance is
especially recommended in patients who exhibit mood disorders such as depression

and anxiety.88 Incorporating a daily activity provides symptoms relief because it de-
creases estrogen levels.2 Relaxation therapy has some potential in pain relief with
61% of women showing substantial pain relief in comparison to 25% in the control
group as well as improvement in pain-free duration.89 Wearing a well-fitted bra or
sports bra that provides support and reduces pressure on suspensory ligaments of
the breast was proven to be significantly efficient in pain relief.90 Applying hot and
cold compresses to the breast especially at nighttime showed some improvement.2
Asking the patient to note the severity of pain in the daily chart using the visual
analog scale (VAS) is beneficial in providing reliable data about severity and duration
of pain and its association to the menstrual cycle.29,31 A VAS score of 3 or greater is
considered to be significantly associated with severe pain and requiring therapy.91
Fig. 2 shows the VAS. Having the patient keep a daily pain and dietary log will be help-
ful in determining the cause in unknown cases as well of what type of intervention may
be best.
Diet and lifestyle modifications

A low-fat diet (<15% fat/d) has been shown to have some beneficial effects in reducing
pain.66,67 Reducing food containing methylxanthines or increasing food rich in vita-
mins (A, B1, B6, E) did not show superior benefits when compared with giving placebo
but may be discussed with patients as dietary change options.
Over-the-Counter Medications and Supplements

Oral and topical analgesics
NSAIDs are effective for the treatment of mastalgia in approximately 80% of pa-
tients.29 The use of topical forms is recommended because it has fewer side effects
than systemic forms.92 The stronger types of topical NSAIDs such as diclofenac
and piroxicam (such as aspercreame or voltaren gel) are more effective than weaker
types such as ibuprofen.73,92 Diclofenac gel to the breast every 8 hours demonstrated
decreased pain noticed at 15 days.92 Use of stronger agents, either topical or sys-
temic, can be helpful to patients with both cyclical and noncyclical breast pain.92–94
Opiates are not recommended for the treatment of physiologic breast pain.
Alternative therapies
Evening Primrose oil (EPO) and its active form, GLA, have been used for the treatment
of mastalgia due to the fact that mastalgia patients have essential fatty acid
Fig. 2. Visual analog pain scale.

deficiency.35,95,96 However, most of the large multicentric trials reported improvement

in breast pain but there was no significant difference between the EPO group and the
placebo group.97–100 These studies refute the efficacy of EPO and GLA for mastalgia.
For patients interested in trialing alternative therapies, the recommendation is to either
use EPO ointment topically applied to the breast or as an oral supplement of up to 1 g
per day because it has minimal side effects and may be effective in some women.
Additionally, Flaxseed 25 mg daily and Chasteberry (Vitex angus) 3.2 to 4.8 mg sup-
plementation has been evaluated as natural supplements, which have shown to be
helpful to significantly reduce breast pain during a 2 month period and could be
considered.101 Chasteberry or Angus castus, a fruit extract, was shown to be well
tolerated and lead to an improvement of pain score on the VAS.102,103 Other herbs
such as ginseng should be avoided because some studies reported that mastalgia
is common complaint in women consuming ginseng.104,105
Rarely, breast pain significantly inhibits ones daily life activities and additional ther-
apies need to be considered. In this situation, the balance the breast pain complaints
versus the side effects of treatment needs to be evaluated and discussed with the
focus being on treatment for the shortest amount of time that gives benefit with the
understanding that trial of stopping treatment may result in the return of breast pain
symptoms.
Hormonal Treatments
Tamoxifen
Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) because it carries estro-
gen agonist effects on uterus and bones but antiestrogen effect on the breast.106 It is
widely used in the treatment of breast cancer. Tamoxifen 20 mg was found to be asso-
ciated with mastalgia improvement in 71% of cases.107 However, a wide spectrum of
menopausal side effects such as hot flashes, sweating, fatigue, nausea, menstrual ir-
regularities, weight gain, bloating, and vaginal dryness were reported.108 The efficacy
of low dose tamoxifen 10 mg was compared with 20 mg dose, higher doses were not
more effective but were associated with higher risk of side effects.109,110 Side effects
were reported in 65% of 20 mg group and 20% in the 10 mg group.109 Moreover,
administering tamoxifen only during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle was asso-
ciated with fewer side effects and with pain improvement in 85% of women regardless
of the dose given.111
A recent meta-analysis that compared the efficacy of tamoxifen, bromocriptine, da-
nazol, and placebo showed that tamoxifen is the most effective with the lower side ef-
fects.98 However, tamoxifen is associated with some serious side effects such as
endometrial carcinoma and high risk of thromboembolic disease, especially in
smokers.112,113
A newer generation SERM, toremifene, was compared with tamoxifen and showed
that toremifene had comparable therapeutic effects to tamoxifen with fewer side ef-
fects.82 Toremifene was associated with mastalgia improvement in 64% of
patients.114
Topical gel containing a potent tamoxifen metabolite, afimoxifene has been exam-
ined for the management of mastalgia. Topical afimoxifene 4 mg showed a significant
symptom relief compared with placebo. The use of such topical form was not associ-
ated with side effects because it has 1000-fold lower serum level compared with oral
forms.115
There are set of precautions to consider when using tamoxifen for mastalgia:
(a) Patient must be informed that tamoxifen is given for mastalgia not cancer.116

(b) Low dose (10 mg) given during the luteal phase only should be used to avoid side
effects.11,111
(c) Tamoxifen is contraindicated in patients with history of thromboembolic disease.51
(d) Tamoxifen should be stopped after 3 months if there is no effect.2,116
(e) The regimen (10 mg) should be reviewed after 3 months and titrated according to
the severity of pain to either reducing the dose to every other day or increasing the
dose to 20 mg.110
Progesterone (topical, oral, vaginal)

The different forms of progesterone have been studied for the management of mastal-
gia. Sixty-six to 80% of the patients reported significant pain improvement on micron-
ized progesterone.117,118 However, hormonal treatment should not be taken for more
than 6 months owing to the risk of side effects as nausea, vomiting, weight gain, and
metrorrhagia.29 Oral medroxyprogesterone is not effective against mastalgia and its
therapeutic effect was not superior over placebo in cyclical mastalgia.119
Danazol
Danazol is a testosterone derivative, which has an antigonadotrophin actions and mild
androgenic effects.120,121 It is the only drug approved by the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration for the treatment of mastalgia. Danazol 200 mg has been proven to be efficient
in symptom resolution as early as in 4 weeks.122 The rate of noncompliance is high
owing to the intolerable androgenic side effects as acne, voice changes, weight
gain, hirsutism, hot flushes, menstrual irregularities, depression, headache, and dys-
pareunia.123 Women at child-bearing age should be advised to take a nonhormonal
contraceptive while taking danazol. Danazol is contraindicated in women with throm-
boembolic disease and pregnant women due to teratogenicity.5 In the light of these
wide spectrum of side effects, danazol should be reserved for women with severe
mastalgia who failed to respond to 3 to 6 months of tamoxifen and should be given
in the luteal phase only.124,125
Gestrinone
Gestrinone, an androgen derivative, is a synthetic steroid similar to danazol but does
not require contraception. Gestrinone was found to improve mastalgia in 55% of pa-
tients in 3 months of use; however, owing to the antiestrogen and antiprogesterone
effects, 41% of women suffered side effects as hirsutism, acne, menstrual irregular-
ities, and reduced breast size.126,127 Low doses have fewer side effects.
Bromocriptine
Hyperprolactinemia is one of the hormonal causes of mastalgia.36 This lead to exam-
ining the effect of dopaminergic agonists such as bromocriptine in relieving mastalgia.
Bromocriptine is an ergot alkaloid that suppresses prolactin secretion. Studies re-
ported that lowering prolactin by the use of bromocriptine was associated with a sig-
nificant symptom improvement specifically in the cyclical mastalgia patients but not in
the noncyclical mastalgia patients.75,128,129 Relief of mastalgia was reported in 65%
and side effects occurred in 45% of patients with 11% discontinuation rate. Side ef-
fects reported were nausea, headaches, and dizziness due to hypotension.128 Studies
have shown that serious side effects as seizure, stroke, and death might occur during
bromocriptine use, which limited its indications.130 Cabergoline, a newer generation,
traditionally used to treat high prolactin levels is a long-lasting dopamine agonist
that was found to be as effective as bromocriptine with fewer side effects and no ten-
dency to serious side effects.131

When comparing bromocriptine efficacy to the danazol, higher response rate was
reported with danazol.75 Owing to the associated side effects, bromocriptine use is
limited and no longer recommended except in cases where danazol is contraindicated
as in women with thromboembolic diseases.110
Holistic Medicine
Acupuncture
Alternative therapies such as inserting acupuncture needles at the inner side of the
arm in the pressure point to relief mastalgia have been documented.132,133 Overall,
67% of women who underwent acupuncture reported significant symptom improve-
ment.133 In some women, pain might be localized to a specific point; massaging
this tender point can also lead to pain relief in 60% of patients.134 Further studies
are needed for the use of kinesiology and holistic medicine in the management of
mastalgia.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A thorough history and careful examination can differentiate between true mas-
talgia and extramammary pain.
Breast imaging should be performed for new complains of breast pain, especially
focal pain in the breast.
Reassurance is the mainstay of treatment for most of cyclical mastalgia patients
without an underlying cause.
Low-fat diet with active lifestyle and the use of well-fitting bra provide symptom
relief for true mastalgia patients.
NSAIDs are considered first-line treatment of mastalgia especially topical forms
such as diclofenac and piroxicams.
Tamoxifen or danazol should be considered as second-line treatment after reas-
surance and simple analgesics failure.
Surgery should not be considered in the management of mastalgia.
FUNDING
No funding. Dr. Valente is a consultat/ speaker for Impedimed, Merit Medical, AxoGen
and Pacira
DISCLOSURE
The authors have nothing to disclose.
CLINICS CARE POINTS
Breast pain requires a good history physical to determine the underlying cause, with directed
imaging as needed.
Breast pain can be categorized into noncyclical, cyclical, and extramammary/structural.
Most patients with physiologic breast pain can be managed with reassurance, dietary
modifications, over-the-counter topical medications and time.
Occasionally, physiologic breast pain can be severe and consideration for additional
therapies should be discussed.

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Management of Mastalgia

Ayat ElSherif, MD, Stephanie A. Valente, DO*

Surg Clin N Am 102 (2022) 929–946

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Examination and Workup

Fig. 1. Algorithm of management of mastalgia.

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Cyclical Mastalgia Noncyclical Mastalgia Extramammary Pain

STRUCTURAL AND EXTRAMAMMARY CAUSES OF BREAST PAIN

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8 weeks,54–56 whereas other studies showed no benefit after abstinence for

Lipid and Essential Fatty Acids

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MANAGEMENT OF PHYSIOLOGIC MASTALGIA

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Diet and lifestyle modifications

Over-the-Counter Medications and Supplements

Fig. 2. Visual analog pain scale.

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deficiency.35,95,96 However, most of the large multicentric trials reported improvement

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Progesterone (topical, oral, vaginal)

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

CLINICS CARE POINTS

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106. Cupceancu B. Short-term tamoxifen treatment in benign breast diseases. Endo-

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127. Peters F, Brandl E, Tykal P, et al. Multicentre study of gestrinone in cyclical

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