U20ECST09

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT III
SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND SIGNAL ANALYZERS

DC and AC bridges – Wheatstone, Kelvin, Maxwell, Hay and Schering. Pre-

amplifier – Isolation amplifier – Filters. Spectrum Analyzers – Wave analyzers – Logic
analyzers.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown
resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of
unknown resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one
unknown resistor and one variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very
reliable as it gives accurate measurements.

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of known
resistances while the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance.
The circuit also consists of a galvanometer and an electromotive force source. The emf source is
attached between points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d.
The current that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference.
The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their
resistances is equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal conditions, the
bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge
is said to be balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be
achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.
KELVIN BRIDGE

Definition: The Kelvin bridge or Thompson bridge is used for measuring the unknown
resistances having a value less than 1Ω. It is the modified form of the Wheatstone Bridge.

Wheatstone bridge use for measuring the resistance from a few ohms to several kilo-ohms. But
error occurs in the result when it is used for measuring the low resistance. This is the reason
because of which the Wheatstone bridge is modified, and the Kelvin bridge obtains. The Kelvin
bridge is suitable for measuring the low resistance.

In Wheatstone Bridge, while measuring the low-value resistance, the resistance of their lead and
contacts increases the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily be understood with
the help of the circuit diagram.
The r is the resistance of the contacts that connect the unknown resistance R to the standard
resistance S. The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range between which the galvanometer is connected for
obtaining a null point.

When the galvanometer is connected to point ‘m’, the lead resistance r is added to the standard
resistance S. Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the
galvanometer is connected to point n then the r adds to the R, and hence the high value of
unknown resistance is obtained. Thus, at point n and m either very high or very low value of
unknown resistance is obtained.

So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any intermediate point
say d where the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts, i.e., r1 and r2
The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at point d then the resistance of lead
will not affect their results.

The above mention process is practically not possible to implement. For obtaining the desired
result, the actual resistance of exact ratio connects between the point m and n and the
galvanometer connects at the junction of the resistor.
MAXWELL’S BRIDGE

The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit is known as the
Maxwell bridge. It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge. The Maxwell
bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the value of unknown inductance is
determined by comparing it with the known value or standard value.

In such type of bridges, the value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing it with the
known value of the standard self-inductance. The connection diagram for the balance Maxwell
bridge is shown in the figure below.
HAY’S BRIDGE

The Hay’s bridge is used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. The bridge is
the advanced form of Maxwell’s bridge. The Maxwell’s bridge is only appropriate for measuring
the medium quality factor. Hence, for measuring the high-quality factor the Hays bridge is used
in the circuit.
In Hay’s bridge, the capacitor is connected in series with the resistance, the voltage drop
across the capacitance and resistance are varied. And in Maxwell bridge,
the capacitance is connected in parallel with the resistance. Thus, the magnitude of a voltage pass
through the resistance and capacitor is equal.
CONSTRUCTION OF HAY’S BRIDGE

The unknown inductor L1 is placed in the arm ab along with the resistance R1. This
unknown inductor is compared with the standard capacitor C4 connected across the arm cd. The
resistance R4 is connected in series with the capacitor C4. The other two non-inductive
resistor R2 and R3 are connected in the arm ad and bc respectively.

The C4 and R4 are adjusted for making the bridge in the balanced condition. When the
bridge is in a balanced condition, no current flows through the detector which is connected to
point b and c respectively. The potential drops across the arm ad and cd are equal and similarly,
the potential across the arm ab and bc are equal.
Advantages of Hay’s Bridge
1. The Hays bridges give a simple expression for the unknown inductances and are suitable for
the coil having the quality factor greater than the 10 ohms.
2. It gives a simple equation for quality factor.
3. The Hay’s bridge uses small value resistance for determining the Q factor.

Disadvantages of Hay’s Bridge

The only disadvantage of this type of bridge is that it is not suitable for the measurement
of the coil having the quality factor less than 10 ohms.

SCHERING BRIDGE

The Schering bridge is one type of AC bridge, which is used to measure the unknown
capacitance, relative permeability, dissipation factor, and dielectric loss of a capacitor. The high
voltage in this bridge is obtained by using the step-up transformer. The main objective of this
bridge is to find capacitance value. The main apparatus required for connection are trainer kit,
decade capacitance box, multimeter, CRO, and patch chords.
 The basic circuit diagram of an AC bridge circuit consists of Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 four
impedances, a detector and an AC voltage source. The detector is placed between the point ‘b’
and, ‘d’ and this detector is used to balance the bridge. An AC voltage source is placed between
the point ‘a’ and ‘c’ and it supplies power to the bridge network. The potential of point ‘b’ is the
same as the potential point ‘d’. In terms of amplitude and phase, both the potential points like b
& d are equal. In both magnitude and phase, the point ‘a’ to ‘b’ the voltage drop is equal to the
voltage drop point a to d.

When the AC bridges used for the measurement at low frequencies then the power line is
used as a source of supply and when the measurements are done at the high frequencies then the
electronic oscillators are used for the power supply. An electronic oscillator is used as a source
of power supply, the frequencies provided by the oscillator is fixed and the output waveforms of
an electronic oscillator is sinusoidal in nature. There are three types of detectors used in AC
bridges they are headphones, vibrational galvanometers, and tunable amplifier circuits.
 There are different frequency ranges and in that, a particular detector will be used. The
headphone lower frequency range is 250Hz and the high-frequency range is above up to 3 to
4KHz. The vibrational galvanometer frequency range is from 5Hz to 1000Hz and it is more
sensitive below 200Hz. The tunable amplifier circuits frequency range is from 10Hz to 100KHz.

Applications

Some of the applications of using Schering bridge are

 Schering bridges used by generators

 Used by power engines
 Used in house industrial networks, etc
Advantages of Schering Bridge

The advantages of the Schering bridge are

 Compared to other bridges, the cost of this bridge is less

 From frequency the balance equations are free
 At low voltages, it can measure small capacitors
Disadvantages of Schering Bridge

There are several disadvantages in low voltage Schering bridge, because of these
disadvantages the high frequency and voltage Schering bridge are required to measure the small
capacitance.

PREAMPLIFIER

A preamplifier, also known as a preamp, is an electronic amplifier that converts a weak

electrical signal into an output signal strong enough to be noise-tolerant and strong enough for
further processing, or for sending to a power amplifier and a loudspeaker. Without this, the final
signal would be noisy or distorted. They are typically used to amplify signals from analog
sensors such as microphones and pickups. Because of this, the preamplifier is often placed close
to the sensor to reduce the effects of noise and interference.

ISOLATION AMPLIFIER

The isolation amplifier contains a voltage-to-frequency converter connected through a

transformer to a frequency-to-voltage converter. The isolation between input and output is
provided by the insulation on the transformer windings. An optically isolated amplifier
modulates current through an LED optocoupler.

In isolation amplifier, as the name suggests is used to isolate two parts of a circuit and
provide amplification to low power signals. Their first major principle is to provide isolation
between two parts of a circuit. They provide isolation from the source side to load side, such that
there is no direct connection between the two. With this, they act as a safety barrier to the user on
the power side. With such isolation, it creates a possibility for high current to pass through both
sides. As this high current is isolated to the user, we can say that there is a break in the ohmic
continuity of electrical signals between input and output. Since the ohmic continuity is
discontinued, we say that the resistance is infinity. As the resistance of the open circuit is infinity
and the short circuit is zero. Hence isolation amplifier also provides infinite resistance.
SPECTRUM ANALYSERS

The electronic instrument, used for analyzing waves in frequency domain is

called spectrum analyzer. Basically, it displays the energy distribution of a signal on its CRT
screen. Here, x-axis represents frequency and y-axis represents the amplitude.

The working of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer is mentioned below.

 The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator. If the signal

amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator.
 Low Pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less than the cut-off
frequency.
 Mixer gets the inputs from Low pass filter and voltage tuned oscillator. It produces an
output, which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are applied to it.
  IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output of mixer.
The amplified IF signal is applied to detector.

The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO displays the
frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen.

So, we can choose a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of the signal that
is to be analyzed.

WAVE ANALYSERS

The electronic instrument used to analyze waves is called wave analyzer. It is also called
signal analyzer, since the terms signal and wave can be interchangeably used frequently.

We can represent the periodic signal as sum of the following two terms.

Basic wave analyzer mainly consists of three blocks − the primary detector, full wave
rectifier, and PMMC galvanometer. The block diagram of basic wave analyzer is shown in below
figure −

The function of each block present in basic wave analyzer is mentioned below.
  Primary Detector − It consists of an LC circuit. We can adjust the values of inductor, L
and capacitor, C in such a way that it allows only the desired harmonic frequency
component that is to be measured.
 Full Wave Rectifier − It converts the AC input into a DC output.
 PMMC Galvanometer − It shows the peak value of the signal, which is obtained at the
output of Full wave rectifier.

We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective
component(s) in above block diagram of basic wave analyzer. So, the circuit diagram of basic

wave analyzer will look like as shown in the following figure −

LOGIC ANALYZER

A logic analyzer is an electronic instrument that captures and displays

multiple signals from a digital system or digital circuit. A logic analyzer may convert the
captured data into timing diagrams, protocol decodes, state machine traces, opcodes, or may
correlate opcodes with source-level software. Logic analyzers have advanced triggering
capabilities, and are useful when a user needs to see the timing relationships between many
signals in a digital system.[1]
 A logic analyzer can be triggered on a complicated sequence of digital events, then
capture a large amount of digital data from the system under test (SUT).

When logic analyzers first came into use, it was common to attach several hundred
"clips" to a digital system. Later, specialized connectors came into use. The evolution of logic
analyzer probes has led to a common footprint that multiple vendors support, which provides
added freedom to end users. Introduced in April, 2002, connectorless technology (identified by
several vendor-specific trade names: Compression Probing; Soft Touch; D-Max) has become
popular. These probes provide a durable, reliable mechanical and electrical connection between
the probe and the circuit board with less than 0.5 to 0.7 pF loading per signal.

Once the probes are connected, the user programs the analyzer with the names of each
signal, and can group several signals together for easier manipulation. Next, a capture mode is
chosen, either "timing" mode, where the input signals are sampled at regular intervals based on
an internal or external clock source, or "state" mode, where one or more of the signals are
defined as "clocks", and data are taken on the rising or falling edges of these clocks, optionally
using other signals to qualify these clocks.

After the mode is chosen, a trigger condition must be set. A trigger condition can range
from simple (such as triggering on a rising or falling edge of a single signal) to the very complex
(such as configuring the analyzer to decode the higher levels of the TCP/IP stack and triggering
on a certain HTTP packet).

At this point, the user sets the analyzer to "run" mode, either triggering once, or
repeatedly triggering.Once the data are captured, they can be displayed several ways, from the
simple (showing waveforms or state listings) to the complex (showing decoded Ethernet protocol
traffic). Some analyzers can also operate in a "compare" mode, where they compare each
captured data set to a previously recorded data set, and halt capture or visually notify the
operator when this data set is either matched or not. This is useful for long-term empirical
testing. Recent analyzers can even be set to email a copy of the test data to the engineer on a
successful trigger.