Course Title : General Biology - First Term

Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

The Cell
Definition of cell: A Cell is the basic living structural and functional
unit of the body.
Cytology: - It is a branch of science concerned with a study of cells
Cell Theory Explains About
a) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b) Cell is the basic unit of structure & function of all living organisms.
c) All cells come from the division of existing cell.
Two Major Types of Cells in the Body:
– Sex cells (gametes) - sperm or egg
– Somatic cells - ALL other cells in body
To know more about cell, we can divide the cell in to four principal
parts: -
1- Plasma (cell) membrane: it is the outer lining, limiting membrane
separating the cell internal parts from extra cellular materials &
external environment.
2- Cytoplasm: cytoplasm is the substance that surrounds organelles and
is located between the nucleus and plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm is made up of three parts: Cytosol (fluid
component), Organelles and Inclusions.
3- Organelles: Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles
( these are permanent structures with characteristic morphology that
are highly specialized in specific cellular activity).
4- Inclusions: they are the secretions and storage products of cells.
Extra cellular materials are also referred to as the matrix, which are
substances external to the cell surface.

81
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Cell Shape
• Cell shape (form) is related to function
• Skin cells flat
• Blood cells mobile
• Muscle cells contracting fibers
• Nerve cell have wire-like parts
• Cytology depends on seeing cells
Characteristics of All Cells:
➢ A surrounding membrane
➢ Cytoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
➢ Organelles – structures for cell function
➢ Control center with DNA
Two Categories of Cells
There are two basic forms of cells found in nature; the prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cell type.
1. Prokaryotic Cells
pro = before; karyote means nucleus
• Contain cell membranes and cytoplasm but no nucleus
• DNA is scattered through cytoplasm
Examples: bacteria

81
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

2. Eukaryotic Cells
Eu = true; karyote means nucleus
• Contain a nucleus that holds DNA and membrane bound organelles
that have specific functions
Examples: All Plants, Animals, Some Fungi, Some Microorganisms

Animal Cell – Eukaryotic

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Plant Cell – Eukaryotic

The differences among Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cell

Small cells ˂ 5 µm Large cells ˃ 10 µm

Nucleus is absent Nucleus is present

Unicellular Multicellular

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes absent Lysosomes and Peroxisomes present

Microtubules absent Microtubules present

Endoplasmic reticulum absent Endoplasmic reticulum present
Mitochondria absent Mitochondria present

08
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Cytoskeleton absent Cytoskeleton present

Ribosomes smaller Ribosomes larger

Vesicles present Vesicles present

Golgi apparatus absent Golgi apparatus present
Chloroplasts absent, chlorophyll Chloroplasts present in plants
scattered in the cytoplasm
Permeability of Nuclear membrane is Permeability of Nuclear membrane is
not present selective
Reproduction always asexually (Sexual Sexual reproduction is present
reproduction is absent) (Reproduction sexual or asexual)

DNA circular without protein DNA is linear with protein

Cell division is by binary fission cell division is by meiosis and mitosis

Endocytosis and exocytosis are absent Endocytosis and exocytosis occurred

Transcription occurs in the cytoplasm Transcription occurs inside the nucleus.

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

00
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Cell Structure and Function

➢ Animal cells and plant cells share the common components of a
nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria and cell membrane.
➢ Plant cells have three extra components, vacuole, chloroplast and
cell wall.
Animal Cell contains the following organelles.
➢ Cell Membrane.
➢ Nuclear Membrane.
➢ Nucleus.
➢ Centrosome.
➢ Cytoplasm.
➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth and Rough)
➢ Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)
➢ Golgi apparatus.
➢ Mitochondrion.
➢ Vacuoles.
➢ Ribosomes.
➢peroxisomes.
Plant cell contains the following organelles.
➢ Nucleus.
➢ Cell Wall.
➢ Plastids.
➢ Central Vacuole.
➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth and Rough)
➢ Golgi apparatus.
➢ Ribosomes.
➢ Mitochondria.
➢peroxisomes.

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Tabular form show the difference between a plant cell and animal cell.
Features Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape Rectangular (fixed shape) Round (irregular shape)

Cell Wall Present and is formed of Absent

Cellulose
Cell Membrane Present and is covered by the Present
cell wall
Nucleus Present Present
Centrosomes Absent Present
Vacuole One, large central vacuole One or more small
taking up 90% of the cell Vacuoles ( much smaller
volume than plant cell )
Plastids Present Absent
Chloroplast Present and make their own Absent
food
Plasmodesmata Present Absent
Desmosomes Absent Present
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum (smooth
and Rough)

Lysosomes Lysosomes usually not evident Lysosomes occur in

cytoplasm

Peroxisomes Present Present

Ribosomes Present Present

Mitochondria Present in fewer number Present in large number

Golgi Apparatus Present Present

Cilia Most plant cells do not contain Present
cilia

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

What is Cell Wall?

It is the outer most membrane of plants cells and it is lack in animal
cells.
Formation of cell wall
Plant Cell Walls Are Primarily Made of (Cellulose, Hemicelluloses,
Pectins, Lignin and Structural Proteins).
In Fungi (Chitin), in algae (cellulose-pectin).
Characteristics
➢ It is found in plants, bacteria and fungi cells.
➢ It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid.
➢ It provides the cell with both structural support and
protection.
➢ It also acts as a filtering mechanism

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

1- The Plasma Membrane

It also called the cell membrane and it is the membrane found in all
cells. The Plasma Membrane surrounds all cells and Regulates
exchange with the external environment.
Formation of Cell Membrane _
1-Membrane Lipids
• Double layer of phospholipid molecules
The phospholipids have one head and two tails. The head is polar and
hydrophilic (water loving).
1 glycerol molecule, 2 fay acids and 1 phosphate group
2-Membrane Proteins
• Integral Proteins
– Within the membrane
• Peripheral Proteins
– Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane
3-Membrane Carbohydrates
• Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
– Extend outside cell membrane
• Functions of the Plasma Membrane
➢ The primary function of the plasma membrane is to protect and
support the cell from its surroundings.
➢ the plasma membrane is selectively permeable to ions or organic
molecules and regulates the movement of substances into the cell and
out of the cells.
➢ It playas the major role in cellular adhesions between the cell and its
neighbors.

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Plasma Membrane

02
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

2- Cytoplasm
It is a thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell
membrane.
Formation
Cytoplasm is made up of three parts: Cytosol (fluid), Organelles
(Structures with specific functions) and Inclusions.
Characteristics
➢ Cytoplasm consists of all of the contents outside of the nucleus and
enclosed within the cell membrane of a cell.
➢ It is clear in color and has a gel like appearance.
➢ Cytoplasm It is mainly composed of water, salts and proteins but
also contains enzymes, organelles and several organic molecules.

The Organelles
• Nonmembranous Organelles
– No membrane
– Direct contact with cytosol

01
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

– Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, flagellum and

ribosomes
➢ The Cytoskeleton — structural proteins for shape and strength:
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules

➢ Microvilli:
• The are Finger-like
• Increase surface area for absorption
• Attach to cytoskeleton
➢ Centrioles in the centrosome:
• Centrioles form spindle apparatus during cell division
• Centrosome: cytoplasm surrounding centriole
➢ Cilia:
• Small hair-like extensions

01
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

• Cilia move fluids across the cell surface

➢ Flagellum
• Long cilium and fewest
• In human: flagella found only in Spermatozoon
➢ Ribosomes
– Ribosomes are tiny particles comprising of r-RNA and proteins
– That Function to synthesize proteins.
– Two types:
• Free ribosomes can be found floating ( scattered freely) within the
cytoplasm.
• Fixed ribosomes attached to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit.

• Membranous Organelles
– Covered with plasma membrane
– Isolated from cytosol

22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

– Include the :
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Golgi apparatus
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Plastids
• Central Vacuole
1- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Functions:
• Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
• Storage of synthesized molecules and materials
• Transport of materials within the ER
• Detoxification of drugs or toxins
It have two types:
A – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
• No ribosomes attached
• Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates
• Calcium storage
• Detoxification of foreign substances
B – Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
• Surface covered with ribosomes (Fixed Ribosomes )
• It plays a central role in the synthesis of proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough)

28
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

2- Golgi Apparatus
It is also called Golgi complex or Golgi body. It is an organelle
found in most eukaryotic cells usually located near nucleus.
• Made of flattened membranous bound stacks discs called cisternae
• It consist 4-8 membranous sacs.
• Major functions
1- Modifies packages and deliver protein to various parts of the cell.
2. Renews or modifies plasma membrane (membrane renewal
vesicles) - add or remove membrane components
3. Formation of lysosomes (Intracellular Digestion)
4. Formation of secretory vesicles
5. It is also a major site of carbohydrate synthesis

3- Mitochondria
➢ Mitochondria are membrane bound cell organelles that make most
of the chemical energy required to power the cell biochemical
reactions (“Powerhouse of cell”).
➢ Have smooth outer membrane and inner membrane with numerous
folds (Cristae).
20
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

➢ Site of major ATP production through aerobic metabolism, or

cellular respiration.
➢ Matrix:
• Fluid around cristae
– Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food (glucose):
• Produces chemical energy is stored in a small molecule called
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
– Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)
• Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP
Glucose + Oxygen + ADP → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
• Glycolysis:
– Glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol)
• Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle):
– Pyruvic acid to CO2 (in matrix)
• Electron transport chain
– Inner mitochondrial membrane

Mitochondria
22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

4- Lysosome (also called cell vesicles)

– Produced by Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes
• Functions of Lysosomes
– Clean up inside cells:
• Break down large molecules
• Attack bacteria
• Recycle damaged organelles
• Eject wastes by exocytosis
– Autolysis
• Auto- = self, lysis = break
• Self-destruction of damaged cells:
– Lysosome membranes break down
– Digestive enzymes are released
– Cell decomposes

5-Vacuoles
In animal cells
- Smaller than in plant cells
- Stores materials
22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

- Used in cellular digestion

6- Peroxisomes
Morphological features: Peroxisomes (peroxide + soma) are
membrane-bound. The matrix of peroxisome contains some specific
enzymes, such as catalase.
Functions:
The key enzyme of peroxisome is catalase, an enzyme that
decomposes hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen
(2H2 O 2 —>2H2O + O2).
• Thus, peroxisomes protect the cell from the effects of hydrogen
peroxide
• Break down fatty acids, organic compounds
• Produce hydrogen peroxide (H202)
• Replicate by division
• Peroxisomes also contain certain enzymes that take place in the
formation of the bile acids in hepar cells.
7- Plastids
➢ They are double membrane organelle which are found in the cells
of plants and algae.
➢ They are responsible for development and storing of food.
➢ They commonly contain pigments that are used in photosynthesis.
➢ The different types of pigments that can change the color of the cell.

Plastids

22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Types of Plastids
It is divided into three:
1- Chloroplast
➢ It is an organelle that found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae.
➢ It site of photosynthesis.
➢ Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in combination with water
and carbon dioxide to produce energy for the plant.
Chlorophyll
Green pigment found in leaves.
- They have three part.
A- Thylakoid
➢ It is membrane bounded section inside chloroplast and
cyanobacteria.
➢ It is the site of the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
➢ Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a
thylakoid lumen.
B- Stroma
It comprise the enzymes which essential for carbon fixation
➢ It plays a key role in both the light dependent and light independent
reactions of photosynthesis (light and Dark Reaction).
C- Granum
It is a stack of thylakoid discs. Chloroplasts can have from 10 to 100
grana. Grana are connected by stroma thylakoids, also called lamellae.
2- Chromoplast
It Contains carotene and xanthophyll's. Thus both of them convey a
particular color to flowers and fruits which help in pollination and
dispersal of seeds.

22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

3- Leucoplasts
It is colorless plastids located in roots and non-photosynthetic tissues
of plants.

8- Central Vacuole
➢ Vacuoles are single membrane bound sac like vesicles present in
cytoplasm.
➢ The plant cells have large vacuole and animal cells may have
smaller vacuoles.
➢ The membrane of the vacuole is called Tonoplast ( Tonoplast is a
semi permeable membrane).
➢ Vacuoles store substances (water, salts, sugars, organic acids,
pigments, enzymes and waste products).

22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Vacuole

3. Nucleus
Nuclear Structure and Contents
➢ The nucleus is the information center of the cell and is surrounded
by a nuclear me mbrane in all eukaryotic.
➢ A cell normally contains only one nucleus.
➢ The Nucleus is largest organelle and the cell’s control center
Formation
➢ The structure of a nucleus contains the nuclear membrane,
nucleoplasm, chromosomes and nucleolus.
➢ The nuclear membrane is a double layered structure that encloses
the contents of the nucleus.
➢ The nucleus communicates with the remaining of the cell or the
cytoplasm through several openings called nuclear pores movement of
substances in and out of the nucleus.
Function
• The nucleus controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g.,
growth and metabolism).
• It carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information.

21
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

Nucleus
• DNA
➢ Deoxyribonucleic acid a self-replicating material which is present
in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes.
➢ Contain the genetic code
➢ It is the carrier of genetic information.
A- Nucleoplasm
– Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA
B- Nucleoli
– Are related to protein production
– Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones
– Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits
• RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal
role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for
controlling the synthesis of proteins.
• Chromatin
- Strand that contain genetic material
- Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)
C- Chromosomes
– Found in the nucleus and store instructions of protein synthesis

21
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

– Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing).

• Centrosome
➢ a dense area of cytoplasm generally spherical and located near the
nucleus it contain centrioles.
➢ Centrosmes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking
straws. They are Involved in the movement of chromosome during
cell division.
➢ There are nine groups of microtubules.
➢ A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific
way.
➢ The centrioles are cytoplasmic organelles that play a key role during
cell division.
➢ The centrioles are found in pairs and move towards the poles
(opposite ends) of the nucleus when it is time for cell division( Helps
to form spindle).

22
Course Title : General Biology - First Term
Level : 1 Prof.Cours:Ateeq.M.J.Al- Arami

28