A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Photosynthesis
Is the transfer of light energy into chemical potential energy of organic molecules where this energy
can then be released for work by respiration.
Photosynthesis is the trapping ( fixation ) of CO2 and its subsequent reduction to carbohydrate, using
hydrogen from water.
It takes place inside the chloroplast.

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
6 CO2 + 6 H2O 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍 6 O2 + C6H12O6

Photosynthesis is made up of 2 sets of reactions.

1. Light dependent reactions, for which light energy is necessary.
2. Light independent reactions, for which light energy is not needed.

Photosynthetic Pigments

Present in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.

These pigments absorb certain wavelengths of the light spectrum.

Group Pigment Colour Absorbs

Chlorophyll a Yellow - Green Red & Blue Violet region
Chlorophylls
Chlorophyll b Blue - Green
β Carotene Orange Blue Violet region
Carotenoids
Xanthophyll Yellow

Note Magnesium is needed for the synthesis of Chlorophyll (a).

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Absorption Spectrum

Is a graph which shows the absorbance of different wavelengths of light by pigments.

Note 1 with different types of pigments, wider range of wavelengths can be absorbed & used in light
dependent reactions.
Note 2 Chlorophylls have 2 peaks since they absorb light in the red & blue violet regions while
Carotenoids have only 1 peak in the blue violet region.

Action Spectrum

is a graph of the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light.

Note 3 This shows the effectiveness of different wavelengths, which depends on their absorption
and to their energy content where the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy it contains.

Note 4 the shape of the action spectrum is very similar to the combined shapes of the absorption
spectrum of individual pigments.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Photosystems

According to their role in light dependent reaction, the photosynthetic pigments are categorized as
• Primary pigments : Chlorophyll a ( 700 nm & 680 nm ).
• Accessory pigments : Chlorophyll b & Carotenoids.

The pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters with a funnel shape called Photosystems.

Each consisting of several hundreds of accessory pigments surrounding a primary pigment at the
reaction center, & the light energy absorbed by the different pigments is passed to the primary
pigment.

There are 2 types of Photosystems

Photosystem 𝚰 ( PS𝚰 ): with Chlorophyll (a) primary pigment having absorption peak at 700 nm.
Photosystem 𝚰𝚰 ( PS 𝚰𝚰 ): with Chlorophyll (a) primary pigment having absorption peak at 680 nm.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Light Dependent Reaction

Occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.

• Photophosphorylation : Synthesis of ATP.

• Photolysis : Splitting of water to give hydrogen ions & electrons that combine with NADP.

ATP & reduced NADP pass to the Stroma where light independent reactions take place.

Non Cyclic Photophosphorylation (Z Scheme)

Light energy is absorbed by both PS𝚰 & PS𝚰𝚰 accessory pigments and passed to Chlorophyll (a) 700nm
& 680 nm respectively, which are the primary pigments at the reaction center, they become
photoactivated, so an electron is excited to a higher energy level and is emitted from both
chlorophyll molecules leaving them + ve charged & oxidized.

The electron released from PS𝚰 is accepted by NADP along with H+ to form reduced NADP.

2 H+ + 2 e- + NADP → reduced NADP

The electron released from PSΙΙ is captured by an electron acceptor & is passed to an Electron
Transport Chain (ETC), While the electron is being transported, it loses some of its energy to the ETC
which is used to pump protons into the thylakoid space creating an electrochemical gradient, that
drives the flow of protons into the stroma through ATP synthase making ATP by chemiosmosis.
Then the electron is passed to the oxidized primary pigment of PS𝚰 to neutralize it.
At the PSΙΙ there is a water splitting enzyme which catalyzes photolysis.

𝟏
H2O → 2H+ + 2e- + O2
𝟐

The electrons produced by photolysis are used to neutralize the oxidized primary pigment of PSΙΙ.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Cyclic Photophosphorylation

1. Light energy is absorbed by PS𝚰 accessory pigments and passed to Chlorophyll (a) 700nm which is
the primary pigment at the reaction center, which is photoactivated, so an electron is excited to
a higher energy level and is emitted from the chlorophyll molecule leaving it + ve charged &
oxidized.
2. The electron is captured by an electron acceptor & is passed to an Electron Transport Chain
(ETC).
3. While the electron is being transported, it loses some of its energy to the ETC which is used to
pump protons into the thylakoid space creating an electrochemical gradient, that drives the flow
of protons into the stroma through ATP synthase making ATP by chemiosmosis.
4. At the end, the electron passes back to the chlorophyll (a) of PSΙ hence it’s a cycle.

Note that the photophosphorylation depends mainly on light intensity rather than temperature.

Hill Reaction ( Practical )

Redox reactions are oxidation–reduction reactions and involve the transfer of electrons from an
electron donor (reducing agent) to an electron acceptor (oxidizing agent).
Sometimes hydrogen atoms are transferred, so that dehydrogenation is equivalent to oxidation.
Robert Hill showed that isolated chloroplasts had ‘reducing power’ and liberated oxygen from water
in the presence of an oxidizing agent.
The reducing power is demonstrated using a Redox agent that changes colour when reduced.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Light Independent Reaction

Takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplasts.
Also known as the Calvin cycle.

CO2 combines ( Fixation ) with a 5 carbon sugar called Ribulose Bisphosphate ( RuBP ) to give an
unstable 6 carbon compound.
This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase ( Rubisco ).
The 6 carbon compound splits into 2 molecules of glycerate phosphate ( GP ).
GP is reduced into triose phosphate ( TP ) in presence of ATP & reduced NADP coming from the light
dependent reaction.
The Calvin cycle runs 6 times to produce 12 TP, 10 of which will be used to regenerate RuBP & the
remaining 2 TP will combine to form glucose.

Glucose formed can be converted into

• Starch for storage
• Sucrose for translocation
• Cellulose
• Lipids
• Amino acids when combined with nitrates from the soil

Note that the Calvin cycle is affected by temperature and not by light intensity thus sometime
referred to by “light independent, temperature dependent reaction”.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Palisade Mesophyll

1. Closely packed → to absorb more incident light.

2. Near upper surface of leaf → to maximize light interception.
3. Arranged at right angles to leaf surface → to reduce number of light absorbing walls.
4. Cylindrical cells → producing air spaces between cells.
5. Air spaces → act as reservoir of carbon dioxide.
6. Large surface area → for gas exchange.
7. Cell walls thin → short diffusion distance for CO2.
8. Large vacuole → pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell.
9. Chloroplasts on periphery → to absorb light more efficiently.
10. Large number of chloroplasts → to maximize light absorption.
11. Chloroplasts can move within cells towards light.
12. Chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity → to avoid damage.

Note some of these adaptations are for maximum light absorption & some are for maximum CO2
absorption.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Chloroplast

Structure

Biconvex shape
3 – 10 𝜇m in diameter.
Double membrane ( Envelope ).
Internal membrane system of flattened fluid filled sacs called thylakoids, with photosynthetic
pigments in its membrane → Light dependent Reactions.
A stack of thylakoids is called granum ( grana : plural ).
Intergranal lamellae membranes connect the grana together.
Stroma (ground substance) → Light Independent Reactions.

Adaptations

1. Large surface area of thylakoid membranes → Maximum light absorption & holds many
pigments, electron carriers & enzymes ( ATP synthase ) for light dependent reactions.

2. Pigments are arranged in a light harvesting clusters called photosystems, with a primary pigment
at the reaction center surrounded by several accessory pigments that absorb different
wavelengths of light energy and pass it to the primary pigment.

3. Stroma contains enzymes ( rubisco ) → light independent reactions.

4. Stroma contains its circular DNA & 70S ribosomes for the synthesis of its own enzymes.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
6 CO2 + 6 H2O 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒍 6 O2 + C6H12O6

From that equation we can determine factors affecting photosynthesis.

1. Carbon Dioxide Concentration.
2. Light Intensity & Wavelength.
3. Temperature.

Note 1 these factors are said to be external or environmental or physical factors.

Note 2 there are some internal or biological factors such as number & surface area of leaves,
number of stomata.

Limiting Factors

if a process is affected by more than one factor, the rate will be limited by the factor which is nearest
its lowest value.
Since photosynthesis is affected by many factors thus its rate will be limited by the factor present at
the lowest value, whether its CO2, light intensity or temperature.

As light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases part (A) since light was the limiting
factor, till it reaches a plateau part (B), since light was no longer the limiting factor.

As CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis increases part (C) since it was a limiting
factor, till it reaches a plateau part (D) , since CO2 was no longer the limiting factor.

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A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Green Houses

Are designed to control those limiting factors to give the highest yield.
They have sensors that monitor light intensity, temperature, CO2 concentration.

1. Provides artificial light when light intensity is low.

2. Controls the temperature either by heating or cooling.
3. Carbon dioxide enrichment by burning fossil fuel (provides heat also), using a gas cylinder or
using sodium hydrogen carbonate as a CO2 source.
4. Controls the watering of the plants.
5. Controls humidity.
6. Provides fertilizers and necessary nutrients.
7. Easier to control pests.
8. Protects the plants from extreme weather.

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 A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content

Syllabus

13 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the energy transfer process that is the basis of nearly all life on Earth. It provides energy
directly or indirectly to all the organisms in most food chains. In eukaryotes, the process occurs within
chloroplasts. Candidates should apply their knowledge of plant cells from Cell structure (Topic 1) and leaf
structure from Transport in plants (Topic 7) while studying photosynthesis. Various environmental factors
influence the rate at which photosynthesis occurs.

The practical activities in this topic give opportunities for candidates to plan investigations, analyse and interpret
data and evaluate experimental procedures and the quality of the data that they collect.
13.1 Photosynthesis as an energy Learning outcomes
transfer process Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the relationship between the structure of chloroplasts,
as shown in diagrams and electron micrographs, and their
function
2 explain that energy transferred as ATP and reduced NADP from
the light-dependent stage is used during the light-independent
stage (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis to produce complex
organic molecules
3 state that within a chloroplast, the thylakoids (thylakoid
membranes and thylakoid spaces), which occur in stacks called
grana, are the site of the light-dependent stage and the stroma
is the site of the light-independent stage
4 describe the role of chloroplast pigments (chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll) in light absorption in
thylakoids
5 interpret absorption spectra of chloroplast pigments and action
spectra for photosynthesis
6 describe and use chromatography to separate and identify
chloroplast pigments (reference should be made to Rf values in
identification of chloroplast pigments)
7 state that cyclic photophosphorylation and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation occur during the light-dependent stage
of photosynthesis
8 explain that in cyclic photophosphorylation:
• only photosystem I (PSI) is involved
• photoactivation of chlorophyll occurs
• ATP is synthesised
9 explain that in non-cyclic photophosphorylation:
• photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are both
involved
• photoactivation of chlorophyll occurs
• the oxygen-evolving complex catalyses the photolysis of
water
• ATP and reduced NADP are synthesised
continued

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Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content

A2 Biology 2) Photosynthesis June 2024

13.1 Photosynthesis as an energy Learning outcomes

transfer process continued Candidates should be able to:
10 explain that during photophosphorylation:
• energetic electrons release energy as they pass through
the electron transport chain (details of carriers are not
expected)
• the released energy is used to transfer protons across the
thylakoid membrane
• protons return to the stroma from the thylakoid space by
facilitated diffusion through ATP synthase, providing energy
for ATP synthesis (details of ATP synthase are not expected)
11 outline the three main stages of the Calvin cycle:
• rubisco catalyses the fixation of carbon dioxide
by combination with a molecule of
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C compound, to yield two
molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), a 3C compound
• GP is reduced to triose phosphate (TP) in reactions involving
reduced NADP and ATP
• RuBP is regenerated from TP in reactions that use ATP
12 state that Calvin cycle intermediates are used to produce other
molecules, limited to GP to produce some amino acids and TP
to produce carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
13.2 Investigation of limiting Learning outcomes
factors Candidates should be able to:
1 state that light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature are examples of limiting factors of photosynthesis
2 explain the effects of changes in light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
3 describe and carry out investigations using redox indicators,
including DCPIP and methylene blue, and a suspension of
chloroplasts to determine the effects of light intensity and light
wavelength on the rate of photosynthesis
4 describe and carry out investigations using whole plants,
including aquatic plants, to determine the effects of light
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the
rate of photosynthesis

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