Stefan Daniel B.

Fuentes
Instructor I
UNIT I
SOIL GENESIS, COMPOSITION AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Introduction
1.1. Soil as a natural resource
1.2. Soil defined
1.2.1. Soil as a science
1.2.2. Fields of specialization in soil science
1.2.3. Soil study approaches
1.3. Soil Composition
1.3.1. Mineral composition and significance of each component
1.3.2. Elemental composition of the Earth’s crust
1.3.3. Soil as a medium for plant growth
1.3.4. Essential nutrient elements
1.3.4.1. Classification of nutrient elements
2. Soil genesis
2.1. Soil-forming rocks and minerals
2.1.1. Classes of rocks
2.1.2. Soil-forming minerals
2.2. The weathering process
2.3. Soil formation
2.4. The soil profile
1.1. Soil as a natural resource

The emphasis on the study of soils is on its

properties and potentials to better serve human
needs, i.e. to develop ways for its effective use and
extract medium benefit and at the same time
conserve it for posterity.

The soil is a non-renewable resource considering

that it takes about a hundred years for natural
processes to form an inch of soil.
1.2. Soil defined

The soil is a natural body occupying part of the Earth’s surface

which supports plant growth and has properties due to the
integrated effects of climate and living organisms acting upon
parent material as conditioned by relief over periods of time
(Brady, 1985).

1.2.1. Soil as a science

It is a body of knowledge that has accumulated from the study

of soils through the application of the basic sciences of:
- Chemistry - Geology
- Physics - Biology

It is a science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the

surface of the earth including soil formation, classification
and mapping.
1.2.2. Fields of specialization in soil science

 Soil chemistry and mineralogy – The chemical processes that distribute matter
among the solid, aqueous, and atmospheric compartments of the environment.

 Soil survey and classification - is “a systematic examination, description,

classification, and mapping of the soils in a given area.” Brady and Weil. 1996

 Soil fertility and management – The quality of a soil to provide optimum level of
nutrients for plant growth.

 Soil physics - The study of soil physical properties and processes. It is applied to
management and prediction under natural and managed ecosystems. Soil
physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their phases as
solid, liquids, and gases.

 Soil microbiology - The study of organisms in soil, their functions, and how they
affect soil properties.

 Soil conservation and management - The prevention of soil from erosion or

reduced fertility caused by overuse, acidification, salinization or other
chemical soil contamination.

 Land use – This involves the management and modification of natural environment
or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural
habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods.
1.2.3. Soil study approaches

1. Edaphological approach – study of soil

characteristics in relation to crop production
2. Pedological approach – study of origin, classes
and description of soils

1.3. Soil composition

The soil consists of about 50% solids and 50% pore

space. The soil solids are made up of mineral or
organic materials and organic matter. Pore spaces
are occupied by air and water. The relative amount
of these components will determine soil suitability
for plant growth.
1.3. The Composition of Soil

Figure 1. Volume composition of an ideal silt loam soil.

Approximate Composition of Gases

Soil Air Atmospheric air
N High ( 78.6 %) Low (78.3 %)
O2 Low (20.0 %) High (21.0 %)
CO2 High (0.5 %) Low (0.03 %)
Approximate Composition of typical topsoil
SOIL

SOLID LIQUID GAS

% by
VOLUME 50% 25% 25%

INORGANIC ORGANIC
40% 10%

SAND & SILT CLAY HUMUS

Primary Min. Secondary Colloids.
(quartz, Min. Life of soils
feldspar, mica, (silicate
etc. clays,
hydrous
oxide,
colloids)
 Approximate Composition
LIQUID GASES
25% 25%

SOIL SOLUTION SOIL AIR

WATER AND SALTS SOIL AIR ATMOS. AIR

CATIONS ANIONS % %
(Ca 2+ , (HCO3-, RH ~ 100
Mg 2+ , SO4-2, Cl-, ~
Na+, K+, N2 78.6 78.3
NO3-,
H+, Al 3+ )
HPO4-2, O2 20.0 21.0
H2PO4- )
CO2 0.5 0.03
Ar 0.9
0.94
Soil as a natural resources
▪ Non-renewable resource
▪ Philippines total land area: 30 million has
17 M ha forest
13 M ha agricultural land

Function of soil in our Ecosystem

1. Medium for plant growth

- provides anchorage, heat, air, water and nutrients
2. Soil properties control the fate of water in the hydrologic
system
3. Habitat for organisms
4. Foundation materials for engineering works
5. recycler of new materials
6. For sewage disposal
7. For recreation
Soil and the Environment

▪ Basic resource for food production

▪ Collects and purifies water.
▪ Acts as a disposal system for wastes
▪ Can be a pollutant as dust in the air
▪ Can be a pollutant as sediment in water
1.4 Elemental composition of the earths crust
The earths crust.
➢ 16 km deep
➢ Earths crust---rocks---minerals---ions/elements
➢ Abundance: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca. Na, K, Mg, Ti, P, Mn, S, Cl,
and C
➢ O, 90%; SiO2, 59%; Al2O3, 15%

soil ( a few inches to

a few feet)
Crust ( 16 km deep)
(Oceanic crust)
Mantle (1,800 miles)
Outer core
Inner Core
The earths crust
The earths crust
➢ Oceanic Crust
- Below the ocean
- 4 – 7 miles (6-11 km) thick
- Basalt, dark-fine & gritty
- density, 3 g/cc

➢ Continental Crust
- 71 % of earths is water
- 29% land called continents
Eurasia
North America
South America
Antarctica
Australia
- 20-25 miles (30-40 km) thick
max. 45 miles (70 km)
- basalt, diorite, Granite
Composition of the Earths Crust
▪ Abundance of elements
Element % by weight
Rocks Oxygen 48.0
Silicon 27.7
Aluminum 8.1
Minerals Iron 5.0
Calcium 2.8
Potassium 2.6
Ions/elements Magnesium 2.1
Titanium 0.5
Phosphorus 0.11
Hydrogen 0.14
Manganese 0.99
Sulfur 0.03
1.3.3. Soil as a medium for plant growth

The soil is a major source of water and most of the essential nutrient
elements for plants.

1.3.4. Essential nutrient elements

Nutrient elements requires for the normal life cycle of the plant and whose
function cannot be substituted by other chemical compounds.

These elements are absorbed by the plants in the form of charged ions,
either as positively-charged ions (cations) or as negatively-charged ions
(anions).

1.3.4.1. Classification of nutrient elements

1. Macronutrients – elements needed in large amounts and > 0.1 % of dry

plant tissue
2. Micronutrients - elements needed in small amounts and < 0.1 % of dry
plant tissue
Used in relatively large amounts Used in relatively small amounts
Most from From Soil Colloids From Soil Colloids
air and water
Element Available Element Available
Form Form
Carbon Nitrogen No3-, NH4+ Iron Fe+++,Fe++
Hydrogen Phosphorus H2PO4-, HPO4= Manganese Mn++
Oxygen Potassium K+ Boron BO4=
Calcium Ca++ Molybdenum MoO4=
Magnesium Mg++ Copper Cu++
Sulfur SO4= Zinc Zn++
Chlorine Cl-
Cobalt Co-
 CHAPTER 2
SOIL GENESIS
2. Soil genesis

2.1. Soil-forming rocks and minerals

 Rock – an aggregate of minerals

 Minerals – naturally-occurring substances with

more or less definite composition and
specific physical properties
2.1.1. Classes of rocks
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
1. Igneous Rock
 solidified molten magma within
or outside the earth’s crust
Examples of Igneous rock
1. Granite (quartz, K-feldspar, biotite)
2. Diorite (plagioclase, amphibole, quartz)
3. Rhyolite (K-feldspar, quartz, biotite)
4. Gabbro (pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine)
5. Andesite (plagioclase, amphibole, olivine)
6. Basalt (pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine)
7. Obsidian (Volcanic glass)
8. Volcanic tuff (fragmental volcanic rocks)
 Classification of Igneous Rocks based on mode of occurrence

1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks

e.g. granite, gabbro,
diorite.
➢ Plutonic rocks.
Deep seated
coarse
crystalline
➢ Hypabassal rocks.
Intruded rocks
occurring at
shallow depth

2. Extrusive Igneous Rocks

e.g. basalt, andesite, rhyolite.
➢ Volcanic rocks. Extruded fine crystalline or glassy rocks
➢ Pyroclastics rocks. Materials of volcanic activity (lava, ash)
Classification of Igneous Rocks based on silica content

1. Acidic Igneous rock: > 66 % silica

Granite. Granodiorite, syenites

2. Intermediate Igneous rock: 52-66 % silica

Andesite (oceanic continental
boundaries)

3. Basic or Mafic Igneous rock: 44-52 % silica

Olivine, basalt, gabbro

4. Ultrabasic/Ultramafic: < 44 % silica

Serpentine, Peridote
Properties of igneous rocks
The common soil-forming rocks are: granite, diorite,
gabbro, ryolite, basalts, andesites and obsidian.
Granite and diorite are lighter in color due to the high
proportion of light-colored minerals such as feldspar
and muscovite. Gabbro is darker in color due to the
dark-colored minerals: biotite, hornblende and augite.

Fine-textured rocks include felsites and obsidian which

are lighter in color and basalt which is darker in color.
Granite is acidic, basalt is basic.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
fragmentation, transportation deposition and
recementation of other rocks

Examples of sedimentary rocks and some important Properties

Sedimentary RockMineral Composition
Limestone Calcite CaCO3
Sandstone Cemented sand grains SiO2
Shale Clay cemented together
Conglomerate Cemented gravels
Gypsum CaSO4.2H20
Siltstone
Chert SiO2 -quartz
Dolomite Carbonate mineral CaMg (CO3)2
Three groups of sedimentary rocks according to origin:

I. Clastic, detrital or fragmental sediments.

▪ Formed by accumulation of mineral or rock fragments

e.g. shale, sandstone, conglomerates/breccia

II.Organic sediments
▪ Residues of mainly crustaceous animals (skeletons).

Carbonate rocks or limestones

▪ Carboniferous sediments

- plant residues e.g. peat, coal

- marine deposits e.g. oil, gas
III. Chemical sediments
▪ precipitation of compounds from solution and those
produced by biotic activity
e.g. lagoons (evaporates); calcite (limestone); gypsum, dolomite
3. Metamorphic rock - metamorphism of
other rocks under the influence of heat and
or pressure
Examples of metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic rock
1. Granite Gneiss
2. Basalt Schists
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble
5. Shale Slate
6. Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate
Transformation of the Major Classes of Rocks

IGNEOUS ROCK

Fragmentation
Transportation
Deposition Pressure
Recementation Heat
chemical reaction
Remelting
Recrystallization

Remelting
Recrystallization

Pressure, heat, chemical reaction

SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
ROCKS ROCKS
Fragmentation, Transportation
Deposition, Recementation
Figure 2. Processes involved in the trasformation of major classes of rocks
MINERALS. Naturally occurring inorganic substance with more or
less definite chemical composition and specific physical
properties.

Two groups of minerals

1. Primary minerals - persisting more or less unchanged from the
original rocks
2. Secondary minerals - originate from the chemical weathering
of least resistant primary minerals

Important Primary Minerals and their contribution to soil properties

- Chief source of the sand and silt fractions of soils.

1. Quartz, SiO2 .sandy soils

2. Orthoclase/Feldspar, KAlSi3O8. K to soils and clay formation
3. Plagioclase Feldspar, (Ca, Na)AlSi3O8. Na and Ca and clay
formation
4. Muscovite, KAlSi3O10(OH)2. source of K
5. Biotite, KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2. sources of K, Fe and Mg
 6. Hornblende, NaCa2(Mg,Fe2+)4(Al,Fe3+) (Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2
sources of Ca, Mg, Na and Fe
7. Augite, Ca2 (Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24. Sources of Ca, Fe, Mg
8. Apatite, Ca5(PO4)3(OH).(Cl,F). Source of P

Important Secondary Minerals and their contribution to soil

properties

1. Silicates:
Clay minerals : Al silicates
Montmorillonite : Si8(Al4.Mgx)O20(OH)4
Kaolinite : Al2Si2O5(OH)2
Illite:mixed with mica and montmorillonite
Tourmaline : source of boron
2. Non-silicates
a. Oxides:
Hematite : Fe2O3 Goethite: FeO(OH)
Gibbsite : Al(OH)3 Limonite : Fe2O3.3H2O
b. Carbonates:
Calcite : CaCO3 Dolomite : CaMg(CO3)2
c. Sulfates:
Gypsum : CaSO4.2H2O Barite: BaSO4
d. Apatite : Ca5(PO4).(Cl,F)
e. Sulfides : Galena ( PbS)
Contributions: clay fractions
Release nutrient elements, Ca, Mg, S, P, Cl
and Fe. Philippine soils derived mainly from
calcite are Alimodian and Lugo.
2.2 Weathering
Two forces of weathering:
1. Physical 2. Chemical

2.2.1 Physical weathering - mechanical breakdown of rocks and

minerals without change in their chemical compositon.
a. Exfoliation
b. Unloading – removal of overlying materials by erosion
c. Abrasion – they abrade against one another, removing
corners first, then edges.
d. Disintegration by water – The cutting force of waves creates a
depression which may later cause the overlying rocks to cave
in.
e. Crystal growth – Water that freezes in rock crevices
expands with a force of 1040 lbs/in2 or 150 t/ft2.

f. Other mechanical forces – temperature, plants, influence

of water, ice, wind and man
Frost wedging – the daily freeze-thaw cycle at high
altitudes, water seeps into cracks, freezes and expands
extending the crack, then melts and seeps deep into the
newly lengthened cracks as the cycle repeats.
Thermal expansion – daily temperature cycles expand and
contract the rocks causing fracturing

g. Other processes and agents caused by geological

phenomena such as landslides, earthquakes, uplift, etc.
2.2.2 Chemical Weathering - decomposition and synthesis of new
materials
- produce clays on which vegetation
can grow

Two kinds of Chemical weathering

Pedochemical weathering
Geochemical weathering

Chemical Processes of Weathering

1. Hydrolysis. reaction of water with mineral to form an acid or

base, which is usually more soluble
KAlSi3O8 + HOH HAlSi3O8 + KOH
(Orthoclase feldspar) Acid-silicate K hydroxide

2 HAlSi3O8 + HOH Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4SiO2

Kaolinite
HalSi3O8 + HOH Al(OH)3 + 3SiO2
Gibbssite
2. Hydration. minerals with water to form hydrates
2Fe2O3 + 3H2O 2Fe2O3.3H2O
Hematite (reddish) Limonite (yellowish)

3. Carbonation and Other Acid Process/Acidification.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
Limestone Carbonic acid Soluble bicarbonate

4. Oxidation. Removal of one or more electrons from an ion

4FeO + 3O2 2Fe2O3
Ferrous Oxide Hematite (Ferric oxide)

5. Reduction . removal of oxygen; important in changing soil

colour to grey, blue or green as ferric iron is converted to
ferrous iron compounds.
2Fe2O3 - O2 4FeO
(Hematite) ( Ferrous oxide) reduced form

6. Solution. Dissolving of minerals through the solvent action of

H2CO3 or H+ ions
CaCO3 + 2 H H2CO3 + Ca++

NaCl + HOH Na+, Cl-, H2O

Process of Weathering
Physical
ROCK Physical forces forces
of weathering of weathering
Rock
Cracked P.M. Fragment

Chemical forces

SOIL MASS Soil + Primary

& Secondary Particles
2.3 Soil Formation

Factors Influencing Soil Formation

Dokuchaeve (1846-1903), a Russian Pedologist, first to

publish a soil-forming factor equation :
S= f (cl, o, p) t°

Where:
S = soil
c = climate
o = organisms (plants and animals)
p = the geologic substratum
t°= the relative age of the soil

Jenny (1961), formulated a soil-forming factor equation:

S= f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)
Factors of Soil Formation C
(Climate)
O
(Organism)

SOIL BODY

_ _101
_ _ R
(Relief)
_ _103
P (Parent
_ _
Material)
_ _105
_ _

T (Time) (Source: Buol et al, 1980)

2.3.1 Parent Material. Inorganic (rocks and minerals) and organic
material where soils may originate.

Types of parent material

a. Residual. Bedrocks such as igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic
b. Transported. sand, silt and clay deposits where soils
developed (alluvium, colluvium, lacustrine, ash, glacial drift,
dune)
c. Organic.

Those transported from place of origin

Agent Deposited in or by Name of Deposit
Water Stream Alluvium
Lakewaters, Ocean Lacustrine, Marine
Ice/glaciers Ice Glacial Till or moraine
Melt water Alluvium, Lacustrine
Wind Wind Loess (silt, very fine sand)
Dune (sand)
Volcanic ash
Gravity Colluvium (coarse sandy
Properties of Parent Materials Affecting Rate of Weathering

1. Texture. fine texture, shallow soils;

Coarse textured: formation of deep soils.
2. Hardness and degree of concentration. Dense SiO2
or Sandstone, resistant to mechanical / physical weathering;
porous rocks (volcanic ash)are readily broken down into
smaller particles.

3. Chemical and structural characteristics. Minerals containing Fe are

easily weathered:

Fe+++ + O2 Fe+ + (make it unstable)

4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3
(ferrous oxide) Hematite
General order of weathering of some common minerals:

Quartz > Muscovite > K-feldspar > Na + Ca feldspar>mica

Biotite, Hornblende and Augite > Olivine > Dolomite and Calcite >
Gypsum
4. Stratification.
2.3.2 Topography
- Modifies climate and on movement and accumulation of water

Summit
Shoulder

Backslope

Footslope

Summit and backslope. Develop horizons the fastest

Shoulder and footslope Soil develop slower
Steep slopes vs Nearly level
➢ Drainage is faster slower

➢ Greater runoff lesser

➢ Erosion is faster slower/lesser

➢ Soil profile generally

have indistinct and
shallower horizon
2.3.3 Climate
➢ Most influential soil forming factor
➢ Climate Influences:
1. Temperature.
- Weathering and biochemical reaction increases with
increasing temperature.
❖ Hot and Humid: Soil formation is fast—by chemical
weathering processes
❖ Hot and dry: slow, shallow solum

2. Precipitation or rainfall.
- More rainfall, greater weathering and leaching, thus
faster rate of soil development

2.3.4 Organism/Biosphere
1. Phytosphere/flora/plant kingdom promotes soil formation.

2. Zoosphere/fauna/animal kingdom/microorganism retard the

differentiation of the soil into horizons. Rodents, mites,
rabbits, etc.
2.3.5 Time
➢ The length of time for the soil to form.
➢ Age of soil is not considered in years but how much
development the soil has undergone
Relative age of soil
Young soil: A-Bw-C and/R. Slightly to moderately weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C.Moderate to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo—C
A A A
A2
C C Bt Bt

C
T I M E
A B C D
Parent material Young soil Mature Soil Old Soil
 2.4 Soil development
2.4.1 Pedogenic Process
Processes of Soil Horizon development

1. Addition. Gains to the soil body

(OM, soil particles, salt).
2. Losses. Removals
(of OM, CO2, nutrients by plants)
3. Transformation. Weathering
of minerals
4. Translocation. Movement
from one horizon
to another of OM, clay, nutrients.
2.5 Soil Profile
Soil Profile Symbol

➢ O. Horizon dominated
by organic matter

➢ A. Organic rich mineral

horizon at or adjacent
to the surface

➢ E. Mineral horizon
of maximum eluviation

➢ B. Mineral horizon of maximum

illuviation and formed
beneath an O, A, or E horizon

➢ C. Weathered parent material

➢ R. Underlying consolidated
bedrock which cannot be cut
by spade
 Soil
Solum
Regolith
 UNIT QUIZ
1. Soil comes from the weathering of naturally
occurring rocks and minerals thus it is called:

a. natural resource
b. natural body
c. dynamic body
d. weathered rock
e. natural soil
2. Rocks formed by cooling and solidification
of molten magma and lava.

a. sedimentary rocks
b. igneous rock
c. metamorphic rocks
d. intrusive rocks
e. extrusive rocks
3. Rocks that are formed when magma did not
reach the earth’s surface but solidifies in
cavities or cracks that the magma had made
by pushing the surrounding rock apart or by
melting or dissolving it.

a. extrusive rocks
b. intrusive rocks
c. granitic rocks
d. plutonic rocks
e. basaltic rocks
4. A sedimentary rock which is a recemented
clay

a. Conglomerate
b. sandstone
c. siltstone
d. Shale
e. Marble
5. Studies the organic and inorganic
components of soils and how these affect
the soil as a medium for crop growth

a. Soil chemistry
b. Soil fertility
c. Soil conservation and management
d. Soil composition and development
e. Soil technology
6. Minerals that are crystallized from the
cooling of magma

a. primary minerals
b. secondary minerals
c. primary and secondary minerals
d. Quartz
e. tertiary minerals
7. The primary source of calcium in the soil
a. gypsum
b. hematite
c. Shale
d. dolomite
e. Calcite
8. The decomposition of the complex
substances of rocks and minerals resulting
in changes in chemical composition, release
of soluble materials and formation of new
minerals
a. exfoliation
b. weathering
c. chemical weathering
d. physical weathering
e. weathering
9. The soil is seen as a 3-phased system
containing solids, liquids and gases
a. The solids are composed of inorganic
and organic materials
b. The liquid, the soil solution
c. The gases composed of mixture
of gaseous element
d. All of the above
10. Considered as the matrix of the soil
comprising about 45 % of the total volume
of the soil

a. Soil solution
b. Soil air
c. Soil solids
d. Mineral or inorganic matter
e. Organic matter
11. The original source of most inorganic
matter in soil is

a. Plant residues
b. Bodies of dead animals and insects
c. Soil inhabiting microorganisms
d. Rocks
e. All of the above
12. A farmer considers the soil as a medium for
crop production. He is therefore an

a. Operator
b. Edaphologist
c. Pedologist
d. Petrologist
e. Ecologist
13. A soil component that promotes and
improve physical conditions in soils like
granulation, aeration, increased water
holding capacity

a. Inorganic matter
b. Organic matter
c. Soil air
d. Soil solutions
e. Soil structure
14. The inorganic or mineral fraction of the soil
comes from the

a. Weathering of rocks and minerals

b. Solid components of living things
c. Remnants of living things
d. Sand materials
e. Clay particles
15. This is not considered a sedimentary rock
a. Limestone
b. Siltstone
c. Conglomerate
d. Granite
e. Shale
16. The soil air has a composition similar to
the atmospheric air except for the

a. Higher CO2 content of the soil air

b. Higher N content of the soil air
c. Absence of O2 in the soil air
d. Presence of other gases in the soils
e. Absence of other gases in the soil
17. Part of the earth’s structure where the soil
is found

a. Core
b. Mantle
c. Crust
d. Inner core
e. Outer core
18. The most abundant element on the earth’s
crust

a. C
b. O
c. H
d. Si
e. Al
19. Mineral soils are

a. Unsuitable for growing crops

b. Very rare in regions of the world
c. The majority devoted to agriculture
d. Soils that do not contain OM at all
e. Mostly coarse textured soils
20. It is an aggregate of one or more minerals

a. Rock
b. Gravel
c. Stone
d. Pebbles
e. Boulders
21. An igneous rock that contains > 65 %
SiO2

a. Basic igneous rock

b. Alkaline igneous rock
c. Acidic igneous rock
d. Neutral rock
e. Solid rock
22. The dominant mineral found in limestone

a. Calcite
b. Dolomite
c. Gypsum
d. Gibbsite
e. Augite
23. A primary mineral that contributes
potassium to the soil and is very important
in clay formation

a. Quartz
b. Pyroxenes
c. Orthoclase feldspar
d. Plagioclase feldspar
e. Hornblende
24. This is not a soil forming factor

a. Climate
b. Organism
c. Parent material
d. Soil color
e. Time
25. This is not an element of climate

a. Relief
b. Precipitation
c. Temperature
d. Sunshine
26. Parent material deposited in lakes

a. Alluvium
b. Collovium
c. Marine
d. Tuff
e. Lacustrine
27. Parent material that has formed by
weathering of bedrock in place is:

a. Transported
b. Residual
c. Colluvial
d. Alluvial
28. An element found in the earth’s crust
which is an important component of
chlorophyll

a. Sodium
b. Silicon
c. Aluminum
d. Magnesium
e. Oxygen
29. Soil formation slows down because of
constant mixing within the profile, nullifying
colloid movement downward by

a. plant roots
b. burrowing animals
c. water
d. Leaching
e. Hydration
30. The dark color of igneous rock is usually
caused by:

a. Quartz
b. Feldspar
c. Calcite
d. Ferromagnesian minerals
e. Dolomite
31. Water deposited sediments are called

a. colluvial deposits
b. pyroclastic sediments
c. alluvial deposits
d. glacial deposits
e. aeolian deposits
32. The smallest volume that can be called a
soil individual
a. soil profile
b. regolith
c. Pedon
d. Polypedon
e. soil
33. Soil horizon which is considered as colloid
accumulation layer

a. O horizon
b. A horizon
c. B horizon
d. E horizon
e. R horizon
34. A soil is classified as organic when it
contains organic matter of

a. < 15%
b. > 15%
c. < 20%
d. > 20%
e. = 25%
35. The regolith includes horizons

a. ABCR
b. AB
c. BC
d. ABC
e. OA
36. A recreated soil profile mounted for
observation

a. pedrolith
b. regolith
c. pedolith
d. litolith
e. Monolith
37. A true soil corresponds to:

a. C
b. AB
c. ABC
d. AEBC
e. ABCR
38. The two soil forming factors that normally
show the greatest variation from one
geographic region to another are:

a. topography and parent material

b. Topography
c. Climate and vegetation
d. Time and relief
39. Bacteria belong to the factor of soil
formation
a. Climate
b. Time
c. Living organisms
d. Parent material
` e. Topography
40. The topsoil usually refers to this horizon

a. AB
b. A
c. B
d. C
e. AE
41. The subsoil usually refers to this horizon

a. AB
b. A
c. B
d. C
e. AE
42. The most abundant gas in the soil
a. CO2
b. H2
c. N2
d. O2
e. S2
43. Mature soil have the following horizons
a. AB
b. ABC
c. BC
d. AC
44. Young soils have the following horizons
a. AB
b. ABC
c. ABCD
d. AC
45. A parent material that is formed in place
a. residual
b. Eolian
c. Glacial
d. lacustrine
46. A soil horizon formation process that is
responsible to the gains of materials to a
soil body.
a. Transfer
b. Removal
c. addition
d. transformation
47. Soil profile characteristic important to a
civil engineer
a. Color
b. Texture
c. Structure
d. Microbial population
e. roots
48. Soil profile characteristic important to a
biologist

a. Color
b. Texture
c. Structure
d. Microbial population
e. roots
49. Standard reference system for soil color
a. Soil Taxonomy
b. Soil survey report
c. Soil map
d. Munsell color chart
e. Soil chart
50. Horizontal layers of soil differentiation

a. Concretions
b. Horizons
c. Structure
d. Hardpans
e. Soil profile