MRI - Connecting The Dots

MRI: Connecting the Dots
A start to concepts
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A start to concepts
Dee Wu
Department of Radiological Sciences, University of Oklahoma
Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma, USA
IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK

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ISBN 978-0-7503-1284-4 (ebook)

ISBN 978-0-7503-1285-1 (print)
ISBN 978-0-7503-1858-7 (myPrint)
ISBN 978-0-7503-1286-8 (mobi)
DOI 10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4
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For residents, technologists, scientists, and/or anyone curious.
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgement xv
Author biography xvi
How to use this book xvii
Introduction for residents, technologists, scientists, and for anyone curious xxiii
1 Five big ideas for MRI 1-1

1 Introduction 1-1
1.1 Waves 1-7
1.1.1 Two types of waves 1-8
1.1.2 Electromagnetic (EM) waves 1-9
1.1.3 Mathematical properties of transverse waves 1-9
1.1.4 Understanding energy of waves in relation to frequency 1-10
of waves
1.1.5 Decay/damping of waves 1-12
1.1.6 ‘Phase versus frequency’ 1-14
1.1.7 Understanding frequency spectrum and frequency bandwidth 1-16
1.1.8 Adding different waves together (a form of synthesizing waves) 1-20
1.1.9 Fourier transform 1-23
1.1.10 Summary 1-27
1.2 MRI as a water image 1-28
1.2.1 MRI utilizes water 1-30
1.2.2 Electric dipoles 1-31
1.2.3 Water shifts 1-32
1.3 Multiple looks (contemplating image weighting and the multiple 1-33
appearances possible in MRI)
1.3.1 How do we achieve multiple looks/multiple weightings 1-34
1.3.2 Multiple looks and weightings as the analogy of different 1-35
dimensions
1.4 Interlude and segue into concepts of electricity and magnetism 1-37
1.4.1 Checkpoint up to this part of the chapter 1-37
1.4.2 Review of basics of electricity and a little bit of history 1-37
1.4.3 Electricity and magnetism and the world around us 1-40
1.4.4 Learning objectives 1-41
1.4.5 Michael Faraday and the EM field 1-41
vii
1.5 Changing fields alter E&M 1-46

1.5.1 Concept number 4, changing electric field → makes magnetic field, 1-46
and changing magnetic field → makes electric field, which we can
also provide names to as Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and
Ampère’s law (ΔE→M)
1.5.2 Putting together ΔM→E and ΔE→M—suggested experiment 1-47
to run in class
1.5.3 Electromagnets 1-48
1.6 Dipoles and precession 1-50
1.6.1 What is a dipole? 1-50
1.6.2 Magnetic dipole 1-51
1.6.3 Precession 1-54
1.6.4 Putting together the main idea: protons have ‘spin’ and thus 1-56
angular momentum, so they have ability for precession in the
electrical sense, just like gyroscopes have the ability to precess
in the mechanical domain
1.6.5 Knowledge check for the magnetic dipole 1-58
I-A Appendix of chapter 1 1-59
References 1-72
2 Hardware: five important components and beyond 2-1

2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.1.1 Ten reasons why it may be good to start with a perspective 2-3
on MRI hardware
2.1.2 Yield bubble 2-4
2.1.3 Brief overview of the anatomy of the scanner 2-4
2.2 Main magnet 2-5
2.2.1 Different MRI magnet types 2-6
2.2.2 Suggestions on DLS and how to think about the main magnet field 2-7
2.2.3 Location of the main field 2-8
2.2.4 Role of the solenoid 2-9
2.2.5 Summary to this point 2-10
2.2.6 Alignment of spins 2-11
2.2.7 Fun-fact bubble: Analogy for the two states in MRI 2-12
for ‘parallel’ and ‘antiparallel’ spins
2.2.8 Scaffolding bubble 2-14
2.2.9 Permit precession 2-15
2.2.10 Precession revisited and Larmor frequency 2-15
2.2.11 Summary of the main field 2-16
viii
2.3 Shim coils 2-17

2.3.1 The goals of shimming (reduce unintended gradients) 2-17
2.4 MRI gradient coils 2-19
2.4.1 Summary 2-24
2.5 Radiofrequency (RF) transmitter 2-25
2.5.1 Roles of the RF transmitter 2-25
2.6 RF receiver 2-28
2.7 Scaffolding bubble 2-30
2.8 The briefest of introductions to k-space (traversing frequency space) 2-32
2.9 Summary and looking ahead 2-37
Appendix 2.A 2-37
References 2-41
3 Basic building blocks for MRI 3-1

3.2 Contrast and spatial resolution 3-4
3.2.1 Contrast 3-5
3.2.2 Spatial resolution 3-7
3.3 Relaxation (what, how, and when?) 3-10
3.3.1 What does weighting look like? 3-11
3.3.2 Scaffolding bubble: Synthetic imaging, creating images from 3-11
weighting parameters, and synthesis
3.3.3 How do TR and TE affect weighting of T1 and T2? 3-12
3.3.4 How does relaxation work? Examining longitudinal and 3-15
transverse magnetization
3.3.5 T1 as regrowth (dissecting the details) 3-15
3.3.6 Scaffolding bubble, visualizing T1 3-17
3.3.7 T2 as decay 3-18
3.3.8 When you understand weighting and how it works, where 3-21
do we go next with relaxation, clinically?
3.3.9 Application of imaging weighting (given TE, TR parameters) 3-28
3.4 Including inhomogeneity T2* (into T2)! 3-30
3.4.1 What does T2* effect look like on images 3-30
3.4.2 What is meant by susceptibility? 3-31
3.4.3 T2 versus T2* 3-32
3.4.4 How does inhomogeneity term contribute? 3-34
3.4.5 Summary 3-34
ix
3.5 Table of T1/T2 and physical values 3-35

3.6 Summary 3-36
References 3-36
4 The inside details of MRI 4-1

4.2 Free induction decay (FID)—your first signal 4-2
4.2.1 A simplistic recipe for producing an FID 4-4
4.2.2 Summary: two key memorization points for FID 4-5
4.2.3 Scaffolding Bubble: Motivations for waves revisited 4-6
4.3 Pulse sequence diagrams 4-8
4.3.1 Let’s look at the ‘tusk/spear’ of the elephant, 4-13
i.e., the slice encode
4.3.2 Looking at the ‘ear/fan’ of the elephant, 4-17
i.e., the frequency encode
4.4 Scaffolding box: Steps of what is happening in frequency encoding 4-18
4.4.1 Summary: two key memorization points for frequency/read 4-21
encoding gradient
4.4.2 Looking at the ‘legs/pillars’ of the elephant, i.e., the phase encode 4-22
4.4.3 Summary: two key memorization points for phase encoding 4-23
gradient
4.4.4 INSTRUCTOR TIP 4-24
4.4.5 Summary of parts of the PSD all together 4-25
4.4.6 Scaffolding bubble on TE and TR 4-27
4.5 Spin echo 4-27
4.5.1 Applied bubble: pituitary gland 4-29
4.5.2 History bubble: runners on a track analogy for the spin echo 4-32
4.6 Summary 4-34
Appendix 4.A 4-35
References 4-42
5 Getting serious with MRI 5-1

5.1 Excitation with RF transmit 5-2
5.2 Traversing with k-space and qualities of the image 5-8
5.2.1 Retrieving spectrum in multiple dimensions and the center 5-9
versus periphery k-space
5.2.2 Traversing k-space with gradient structure of the pulse 5-13
sequence diagram
x
5.3 On the receiver side 5-15

5.3.1 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) 5-16
5.3.2 Contrast-to-noise 5-17
5.3.3 Bandwidth (receiver): a listening perspective 5-17
5.4 Summary 5-20
References 5-22
6 Three tradeoffs in MRI (Clinically relevant) 6-1

6.2 Factors that change time 6-1
6.2.1 Repetition time (TR) 6-3
6.2.2 Number of phase-encoding steps and number of averages 6-4
effects change on time
6.2.3 Knowledge check 6-6
6.3 SNR tradeoffs 6-7
6.3.1 Spatial size and abundance 6-10
6.3.2 Averaging 6-13
6.3.3 Scaffolding bubble: signal averaging 6-14
6.3.4 SNR changes based on time-related effects (sampling 6-16
time/receive bandwidth) and relaxation effects
6.3.5 Knowledge check 6-20
6.4 Tradeoffs with SAR (energy) 6-21
6.4.1 Fun-fact bubble 6-22
6.5 Knowledge check 6-25
6.6 Summary of MRI tradeoffs 6-26
References 6-27
7 MRI Artifacts (clinically relevant) 7-1

7.2 Starting with initial concepts on artifacts 7-2
7.2.1 Distortion (geometric)/susceptibility artifact 7-2
7.2.2 Partial voluming 7-4
7.2.3 Multislice cross talk 7-5
7.2.4 Dielectric effects 7-6
7.2.5 Aliasing 7-8
7.3 Advanced ideas that are more concerned with frequency space 7-9
7.3.1 Truncation/Gibbs 7-9
7.3.2 Zippers 7-10
xi
7.3.3 Corduroy artifact (spikes) 7-12

7.3.4 Moiré fringes 7-13
7.3.5 Ghosting 7-14
7.4 Material control 7-17
7.4.1 Chemical shift (Type 1) 7-17
7.4.2 Chemical shift (Type 2) 7-18
7.4.3 Magic angle 7-20
References 7-24
8 Concluding a journey through MRI 8-1
xii
Preface
We have formed this book that uses a conceptual approach as one that has links and
a format that is a little different from others, as it includes animations and videos,
encourages other sources, and hopefully connects some of the dots with topics about
which you may have been interested in learning more. Perhaps it can be used as a
bridge from the different approaches ground-up, from proton physics to webpage
and to outline for board preparation and to applications. Just as Dr Elster
comments, ‘there still exists common confusion that has not been answered
satisfactorily by existing books and web sources.’ We hope to reward the patient
reader by enhancing critical thinking skills and to further create sense and meaning
from the vast and complex MRI concepts.
First of all, I want to thank the many colleagues and students who have improved
this work: Marlee Reust (senior lab analyst and an amazing illustrator); Caroline
(Carlie) Preskitt (dancer and devoted healthcare professional); Natalie Norton (Pre-
med Biomedical Engineer, and former athlete); Gail Harmata, Ph.D. (thoughtful
neuroscience post-doc); Kwong Hui, Ph.D. (eternal classmate/friend), Whitney Geis
R.T. (R)(MR) ARRT (MR Safety Officer); Justin North, M.D. (Radiology
Attending); William Sattin, Ph.D. (MR physicist); Amy Barnett; Nicholas Psencik
(MS3); Cole Lindley (MS4); Willow Arana; Nathan Vo; Phillip Rhoton; Daniel
Lawerence (R)(MR) ARRT, Asa Brown; Kaustav Sahoo Ph.D.; Bennett Hogan
M.S.; Everett Cavanaugh M.S.; Monica Senese; Kathy Kyler; Trista Mythen; Eng-u
Wu (my supportive brother); and of course my loving wife, Hannah B Swallow,
Ph.D. and three wonderful children Ian, Oliver, and Lillian, who make all things
possible. Finally, I want to thank the IOP Publishing team for assisting me in
establishing a new way to present information using their e-book platform.
Finally, while the field of MRI is vast and can be daunting for the beginner, it is
not impossible to grasp. Whether you are a radiology resident and/or a technologist,
or any practicing physician attending, we hope these materials enable you to better
connect the dots in MRI. Additionally, medical physicists, researchers (such as in
psychology/neuroscience), and/or biomedical engineers who are interfacing with
medicine can also get a window on both technology and clinical concepts. We start
with five core principles in chapter 1, then five hardware components in chapter 2.
Next, in chapter 3, we discuss relaxation essential for contrast and resolution in
MRI. Chapter 4 dissects the initially mysterious pulse sequence diagram that I have
been asked to cover many times by physicians, radiological technologists, and
medical physicists. In chapter 5, we included a few topics to bridge a couple of
‘missing’ concepts that include transmit and receiver bandwidth and coverage of k-
space for resolution and contrast. Chapter 5 is meant to aid the reader in bridging to
the final important and key clinically relevant ideas of the closing chapters 6 and 7.
The topics that we hope to emphasize include chapter 6 on pulse sequence tradeoffs
in time, signal-to-noise ratio, and heating, and chapter 7 on artifacts recognition,
sources, and potential remedies. All of these are important components, as they
xiii
drive the efficiency, reliability, and performance of a well-functioning MRI center,

and are topics that are currently a focus for board evaluation. Driven by our desire
to understand and look within the body at its structure, function, and anatomy,
MRI is an exquisite modality that is a great science with an ultimate utility that
serves our patients. It is a pleasure to try to express my passion for it in this format,
and I hope you find this a useful tool to augment your own understanding.
Dee H Wu, MSSE, Ph.D., DABMP, DABMRS

University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
xiv
Acknowledgement
For my parents Ta-Sun and Ling-Tung Wu.
xv
Author biography
Dee Wu
Dee Wu, Ph.D. currently serves as Professor and the Chief of
Technology Applications and Translational Research in the depart-
ment of Radiological Sciences at the University of Oklahoma
Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), where he has been since 2002.
Dr Wu started his MRI career at the University Hospitals of
Cleveland over 30 years ago as a programming analyst and research
assistant. He received his doctorate degree under Dr Jeffery Duerk
and Dr Jonathan Lewin. He was previously a clinical scientist with
Picker/Marconi Medical Systems and then briefly with Philips Medical Systems where
he worked on designing and constructing applications in industry before joining the
medical physics and radiological science team at OUHSC.
Dr Wu has devoted his career to better understanding imaging, particularly in the
hospital environment. His experience has spanned morphological, biophysical, neuro-
functional, and metabolic alterations associated with disease. Dr Wu has been a faculty
member of the Oklahoma Center for Neuroscience (OCNS) and the Department of
Geriatrics, and has been an associate member of the Stephenson Cancer Center.
Further, Dr Wu is a board-certified diplomate in Magnetic Resonance Imaging Physics
from the American Board of Medical Physics (DABMP) and has over 30 years of
professional experience working both in industry and academic medicine.
Dr Wu has 14 patents regarding the development of MRI techniques and
applications, and 55 peer-reviewed publications in relevant MRI-related journals.
Additionally, Dr Wu’s technical skills have led to affiliate/adjunct faculty member
status in both the Department of Computer Science at the University of Oklahoma
(Norman) and the department of Electrical Engineering at the University of
Oklahoma (Norman). Dr Wu is currently the chair of the American Association
of Medical Physicists in Medicine Medical Physics 3.0 Smart Expansion committee.
Dr Wu has had translational projects in far-reaching subspecialty areas of medicine
(from neonatology, neurosurgery, genetics, oncology, emergency medicine to
geriatrics, etc). His passions are aimed at practical implementations that seek to
improve medicine and society by novel technology use.
Dr Wu further relies on broad but solid physics/computational/engineering skills
that are then applied to real-time problems and challenges that occur in medical
practice. He has worked on Bruker System’s sequences specifically for development
work on pre-clinical MRI scanners to collaborate directly with molecular biologists. He
complements this with his experience in pulse programming experience on GE, Siemens,
and Philips scanners that he has developed over the span of his 30-year career. Finally,
at OUHSC, Dr Wu heads the Mentorship and Scholarship of the Academy of Teaching
Scholars, which has over 20 medical faculty members, as a co-chair for that group.
Dr Wu has mentored multiple students at various stages of degree completion and
professional development, and is a passionate teacher and educator.
xvi
How to use this book
Welcome to MRI—Connecting the Dots: A conceptual approach. This e-book is

intentionally designed to be read by different types of learners. Whether you are a
medical resident, technologist, radiologist, MRI scientist, or anyone else curious about
MRI, there may be different paths to how readers might like to receive this information.
Where to start? The answer is where you, as the reader, feel most comfortable.
The following matrix is provided to suggest where the reader could start in this book
based on their current background as seen in figure A1.
* = first choice for starting reading

X = second choice for starting reading
O = third possibility for starting reading
• = later topic for reading.
Figure A1. Matrix to determine where the reader should begin based on their previous experience1.
1
Some veteran radiological technologists have read through chapter 6, which concerns signal-to-noise ratios
(SNR) and time tradeoffs in pulse sequences. Then, they looked through chapter 7 on imaging artifact review
before returning to earlier chapters that support understanding these concepts (chapters 1–5). Additionally, the
goal of medical physicists and MRI scientists is to be able to discuss and explain the concepts in chapter 6 and
chapter 7 through the fundamental understanding of mechanisms (i.e., topics in chapters 1–5). However, this
communication should be done in a way that appears ‘applicable’ to radiologists and radiological
technologists. Also, communication by the physicists and scientists should be done in collaboration, as there
is still much to learn about the patient-facing side of the service that can be mutually gained by the
communication with their fellow healthcare workers.
xvii
I Where and how to start reading?

Chapter 1 provides five core concepts upon which the science of MRI is built.
Chapter 2 outlines the five pieces of hardware that together make the MRI scanner.
Think of the fundamental nature of these concepts as the fingers on your hands: five
core principles, five fingers on each hand. You can build strength and teamwork
skills by developing both hands, or simply start with one hand (chapter 1 or chapter 2).
In the lectures I give, I cover both chapters in a single lecture, and provide handouts
from my book for more inquisitive first-year residents. For an allied health, medical
physics, or biomedical engineering class, I present two lectures and provide addi-
tional resources over more basic, science-oriented materials. So, based on the
reader’s background and interests, there are three possible places to begin reading
this book. The reader should choose one of three places to start:
Chapter 1: Five big ideas for MRI

For the learners that like to start with
fundamentals, start at chapter 1 and proceed
onward. Chapter 2 is important, as it represents a
concrete explanation of MRI (i.e., the hardware/
equipment). Understanding MRI hardware is
crucial for communicating with technologists,
physicians, and scientists. We must also consider
how the hardware operates from a safety point of
view. Chapter 1 can be helpful for preparing to
understand artifacts, a subject that is covered in
chapter 7.
Chapter 2: Hardware
If you are an MRI scientist, allied health or medical
student, and/or technologist, then I recommend that
you start with the hardware components and skim
and/or refer back to chapter 1. Core concepts of
chapter 1 can help the reader connect fundamental
physical science topics with medical concepts. It is
useful to know these ideas if the reader interacts
with the clinical environment and/or hopes to
conceptualize deeper MRI topics, but starting with
hardware may be a good place to start your journey
into MRI.
xviii
Chapter 3: Basic building blocks

If you are a resident and already integrated into
clinical environments, you may choose to begin
with content that captures the ‘big picture’ rather
than building upon concepts2. We encourage those
with a sufficient background in MRI to jump to
later chapters in this book while referring back to
chapter 1 and chapter 2 as needed. Chapter 3 dives
into describing signal contrast and resolution. Some
of the strongest clinicians, chair-holders, and
leaders in the MRI field grasp deeper concepts and
continuously work to improve their craft so they
can adapt to new technologies and to ‘connect the
dots’ through concepts.
No matter where the reader is coming from, the content in this book is provided
to introduce the core principles in a logical fashion to help all learners. Regardless of
background, I highly recommend looking at the interactive components, partic-
ularly on waves. MRI is built on waves, and if you better understand waves, it may
help you grasp some of the other concepts more readily. This is useful whether you
are looking backward in approach by reading later chapters and then coming back
to earlier core ideas, or if you are developing a forward approach by starting with
the fundamentals in this first chapter, as depicted in figure A2.
II How to use the ‘FLASHY’ box system

The book utilizes text ‘bubbles’ that highlight non-crucial information. The text
bubbles are categorized into six types: Fun-fact, Literature, Applied, Scaffolding,
Historical, and Yield. Shorthand, we refer to these as ‘FLASHY’ bubbles. The book
is meant to be read without pausing to read over the FLASHY ‘bubble’. These
‘bubbles’ of topics are used to either preview or refine knowledge and permit the
curious reader to reflect more. However, the book is also written to permit the reader
to move more quickly by skipping the bubbles to concentrate on essential ideas if
time is limited. The reader will ultimately be led to two prime interests: (1) making
tradeoffs in MRI between signal-to-noise, time, and controlling energy deposition;
and (2) MRI image artifacts. These two topics seem to engage the interest of
radiology residents and technologists.
2
Understandably so, time may be limited during residency and primarily focused on clinical learning. It would
be most useful to begin with the chapters most relevant to your current mindset. The chapters are written to
easily reference earlier fundamental concepts should further clarification be needed.
xix
Figure A2. The FLASHY3 ‘boxes’ system connects the reader with one of the thematic approaches spelled out
in the acronym letters. They are meant to stand alone; the reader who may be rushed to get through the
material can skim these ‘boxes’ without losing much in their conceptual understanding. Adobe Stock Images:
© N.Savranska.
• ‘Fun-fact’ bubble—meant to stimulate interest. It may have a fun-fact or emotional

resonance that helps you to remember concepts. It is not fully meant to be
instructive, but this boxed material can add whimsy and fun to the learning process.
• ‘Literature that is evolving’ bubble—connects you with evolving literature.
• ‘Applied’ bubble—a small summarizing snippet of information on how you can
apply the knowledge or concepts to solve a clinical problem or real-life scenario.
• ‘Scaffolding’ bubble—lays the foundation for something covered later on, and
will help you understand concepts. It differs from the applied bubble, as it
may be more abstract or intangible at the moment. You may only see
secondary effects of what it does. Nevertheless, these will be important to
your understanding.
• ‘Historical-reference’ bubble—connects you with old references that were
instrumental in the development of MRI concepts and technologies. This
could be an ‘oldie but goody’ piece so you can check sources and look at how
past scientists, physicians, and other people figured things out.
• ‘Yield (significant yield) question’ bubble—slightly ‘worked’ through provo-
cative questions that require some understanding of the materials. We believe
these are topics that may be more frequently evaluated on tests for conceptual
understanding.
Wherever you choose to start in this book as a radiology resident, physician, more
seasoned technologist, or MRI scientist in training, I hope you find the ‘FLASHY’
bubbles and Deductive Learning Sketches to be useful. A Deductive Learning
Sketches (DLS) jumps to a real world example, asking the reader to independently
work through the question by learning to apply what they have learned. We will then
discuss the example in more detail. In addition to the bubbles, we intersperse real
readers who are practicing MR technologists, physicians, medical students,
3
FLASHY is an acronym for Fun-fact, Literature, Applied, Scaffolding, Historical, Yield, and refers to the
‘boxes’ system used in this book to separate thematic topics that are adjunctive to the main content provided in
the ‘unboxed’ sections.
xx
psychology and neuroscience researchers, and premedical students who reflect on

sections to provide authentic reactions and voices to help the reader connect with not
only the technological content, but also the clinical content. In particular, for
educators of residents or technology students, we like to focus on the ‘key’
fundamental ideas and provide handouts from the book to supplement a deeper
understanding of the topic. A goal would be to eventually lead the learner to engage
with and understand resources developed for clinicians, such as MRIQuestions.com
by Allen Elster, MD and RadiopediaTM, and for those with specific interests to
watch relevant topics of interest to them from Michael Lipton M.D., Ph.D.’s 56
YouTube online MRI lectures series.
For radiological technologists, the choice could be based on where they are in
their career: some veterans can also follow a plan that starts with advanced chapters
(chapter 2 or chapter 3) and then return to fundamentals at a later time, and in this
way connect and augment their day-to-day practice. For example, I would consider
this a form of looking forward to the themes that you might encounter in real life,
like those in chapter 6 or chapter 7, and then going back to learn fundamentals
when/if needed to strengthen understanding. For radiological technologists early in
their careers, we highly recommend that these readers proceed with these chapters in
order. In this way, they can create a learning scaffold aimed at connecting the
learner to the application of MRI and to enable them to better adapt to new and
emerging concepts as the technology evolves.
For those who seek to be MRI clinical scientists (medical physicists, biomedical
engineers, and others), these chapters can provide insights into how clinicians relate to the
technology. It is highly recommended to read the chapters in order and then move forward
to guide their knowledge building. While this book broadly aims at clinical learners and
develops core concepts without heavy mathematics, a deeper and more fundamental
understanding willbeachievedby being able toreadthroughclassicreferences,suchas that
from MRI Imaging by Brown et al and MRI Handbook of Pulse Sequences by Bernstein
et al. These resources include a mathematical, physics, and engineering approach to
learning MRI that is adjunctive to starting with the themes and principles of this book.
Some referring physicians and/or even allied science professionals interested in the
topic will hopefully find that these concepts provide a missing link that will help
them build knowledge. For these learners, I highly recommend looking at the
interactive components (such as animations and/or interactive online sources). Even
if you don’t easily fall into one of the above professional categories (perhaps you are
a referring physician or allied science professional and/or casual reader interested in
the topic), I still hope that you find these concepts practical. I have used parts of the
content to instruct non-radiology attendings and allied health professionals, such as
experimental psychologists, medical students, and neuroscience students over many
years, and asked for comments from a variety of people interested in MRI.
Throughout the book, I have interspersed reflections by readers who are medical
students, premedical students, residents, technologists, attendings, and scientists to
help the reader potentially ‘dialogue’ with the concepts in this book. Here are the
‘cast of characters’ who have with great appreciation for their thoughtfulness and
insights propelled me throughout the writing of this book.
xxi
Finally, regardless of which domain you as the reader may be coming from, the
content of this book is provided to introduce the core principles in a logical fashion
to help all learners. We hope that this approach to content is useful whether you are
looking backward by starting with reading later chapters and then coming back to
earlier core ideas, or if you are simply developing a forward approach that starts
with the fundamentals in the first chapter.
xxii
Introduction for residents,
technologists, scientists, and
for anyone curious
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a discipline encompassing a vast, challeng-

ing, and fascinating amount of knowledge that crosses over numerous domains of
physical and medical sciences. There are many ways that people come to be involved
with MRI, from those engineers and service professionals that build/augment the
inner workings of the scanners, technologists that diligently operate the scanner,
those that research new uses, and the many physicians that use the images
diagnostically. This technology has captivated many, and a countless number of
people have contributed to new scientific discoveries and applied their skills and
knowledge to impact a countless number of lives.
MRI is useful to people from many different backgrounds and application areas,
including:
a. Technologists who have some experience on the scanner, but also may like to
receive a deeper familiarity with MRI concepts;
b. Residents/Fellows who are curious and want to have a ‘scaffold’ of knowl-
edge to understand what is happening as they interact with the hospital’s
imaging world;
c. Allied professionals, such as neuroscientists, psychologists, and/or post-docs
in other fields, who may be interested in understanding MRI when they
encounter it directly or peripherally;
d. Medical physicists or biomedical engineers who need a brief introduction;
and perhaps they could be looking for materials that could be useful for them
teaching others, perhaps using the material as handouts for radiology
lectures they may provide for other disciplines4;
e. A casual learner, such as a vendor, preferably with a little bit of engineering
and math (STEM) background, who wants to gather more clinical-specific
knowledge on how MRI works from a conceptual point of view.
The primary goal of this book is to provide an informative and initial summary of
key MRI principles for the broad ranges of individuals who work with MRI
machinery, but come potentially from a multitude of backgrounds. However, in any
craft, it is still important to have some practice with these science fundamentals to
gain a more robust orientation to the content area of MRI. Pre-medical students and
radiological technology students are already required to take several levels of
4
Additionally, therapy medical physicists who are interested in MRI-RT could find the sections/chapters on
MRI Pulse Sequence Tradeoffs and MRI Artifacts to be a quick start into understanding concepts around
problem solving clinical issues for image quality and machine calibration purposes.
xxiii
chemistry and some physics. So, we start with some basic assumptions with which
the reader might have a little bit of prior exposure. Luckily, for those whose
fundamentals are relegated to the past, the internet is teeming with resources for
reviewing and beginning to learn these STEM topics, and there are many techniques
for eventually gaining mastery. Leveraging strong content from Chem-libretext,
Hyperphysics, EdX, Coursera, and Khan Academy websites, readers can bolster
their fundamental science understanding. Alternatively, readers can find the con-
tents they want for review just in case they have forgotten parts of the earlier
fundamental materials to which they were exposed.
A basic chemistry and/or physics class will support the reader’s understanding of
MRI, as well as medicine. We’ve had radiology residents, medical students, pre-med
students, radiological technologists, medical physics, undergraduate computer and
electrical engineering, and psychology students able to grasp the contents of this
book (enough to gain new insights), and it even encouraged some to take a chemistry
and physics course to connect their knowledge with higher levels of detail. In
particular, prior exposure to electric and magnetic charge, the Bohr model, dipoles,
force, torque, waves, and energy can be helpful. We hope that the growth in
knowledge about MRI may lead the reader back to some fundamental concepts as
they continue and as their passion leads them in this topic.
We hope this book is useful for those who are curious to learn more about MRI,
but also for those who need an adjunctive study aide. Such tools need to change
continuously, and we may update frequently. However, conceptual ideas remain
more consistent for a longer period of time. We realize that board review and exams
may bring the readers to seek more knowledge. But, we also wish for clinicians and
scientists to stay true to the initial passion and curiosity with which they first came to
the field, and hopefully refresh their passion for the sciences.
I currently serve as the Chief of Technology Applications Development and
Translational Research in the Department of Radiological Sciences at the
University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; Adjunct/Affiliate Associate
Professor in the School of Computer Sciences; and Adjunct/Affiliate Associate
Professor in the School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Oklahoma.
The value of communication among the clinical sciences was stressed in my training
and reinforced by my years as a clinical scientist at Philips Medical Systems Cleveland
and Marconi Medical Systems. I am a DABMP board-certified medical physicist and
Diplomate of the American Board of Magnetic Resonance Safety (DABMRS).
I was lucky to be mentored by several fellows of the International Society in
Magnetic Resonance and Medicine (ISMRM) and pioneers of their field, including
Mark E Haacke and Jeffrey Duerk. I received my Ph.D. with two advisors,
Dr Duerk, a medical physicist, and Dr Jonathan Lewin. Dr Duerk is currently
the Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs and Provost at the University of
Miami. Dr Lewin is a physician who had served as chair of the University Hospitals
of Cleveland, then Johns Hopkins Radiology, and now is the Executive Vice
President for Health Affairs at Emory University. Also, formative were mentorship
and encouragement by many accomplished industrial clinical scientist colleagues
early in my career, including Wayne Dannels, David Foxall, and James Murdoch.
xxiv
Further, I have been amazed by the commitment of many radiologists, including my

current mentor, Chair of Radiological Sciences Anthony Alleman, M.D., who also
was/is an Otolaryngology Surgeon and Public Health specialist. From the teaching
and leadership side, I want to acknowledge my many colleagues in the Academy of
Teaching Scholars (ATS), where I currently serve as Mentoring and Scholarship co-
chair. I believe that teaching is an organized activity that nurtures learning at all
levels of education, and it is one that can be enhanced when shared between different
disciplines. As subspecialties become increasingly more specialized, a greater need to
provide opportunities for dialogue and interchange emerges. I’m hoping to help
colleagues use tools to develop their education and service skills.
So where did this book come from? As a medical physicist, applications scientist,
affiliated healthcare specialist, and bioinformatician, I have come to value the full
range of professionals with whom I collaborate in the hospital with a goal of
improving healthcare. The application of technology requires being able to converse
and work with a multitude of disciplines. OU Medicine, our hospital system, has
over 11,000 employees and over 1,300 physicians and advanced practice providers.
Over the years, I have had the privilege of working alongside numerous physicians
and practice providers across a wide variety of medical disciplines. This work has
spanned subspecialties from neonatology to geriatrics and from medical genetics to
neurosurgery. As such, I currently serve as a committee member on the Medical
Physics 3.0 initiative for the American Association of Physicists in Medicine
(AAPM). This committee seeks to enhance the full value of physics towards human
health, including clinical practice, administrative, scientific, and educational oppor-
tunities, as well as to seek and identify and explore other areas where medical
physicists can assist in healthcare. Each day, I hope to educate colleagues and
learners about how to use their equipment more effectively, to develop a stronger
safety culture, and to gain greater knowledge of the principles they are ‘applying.’
There are so many sources of information on MRI on the internet. I can only list a
few from which I have grown to discover more and more ideas and information.
Breaking these down into domains that include the interface of technology and the
clinical world of MRI, MRIQuestions.com stands out as a personal favorite. In fact, if
I can get Radiologists, MR Technologists and/or Medical Physicist Residents and
students to have the aptitude to read this site, I would consider it a big teaching/
mentorship win. This is maintained and written by Alan Elster, M.D., from
Mallinckrodt Department of Radiology and previous chair of the Wake Forest
Radiology department. This content, according to Dr Elster, presents concepts in a
way that is radically different from ‘standard’ Q&A books. These were not questions
of his own creation, but were questions actually posed to him by trainees over the
years. As such, they reflected areas of common confusion that had not been answered
satisfactorily by existing books and web sources. The other clinical asset that I use is
Radiopedia [1], which provides content open for editing articles and allows radiol-
ogists, radiology residents/radiographers, and other healthcare professionals to modify
and refine the content and updates. I hope that the content of our book will be an
entree to the aforementioned clinically bridging websites as the reader grows their
interest over time.
xxv
If you are a reader who wants to increase your understanding along a physics- or
an engineering-based trajectory, I highly recommend the book MRI Imaging by
Brown et al. I use this resource mainly with our medical physics and engineering
graduate students. This book stands as one of the most important educational books
in the field of MRI. The Brown et al book can be well complemented by the MR
Handbook of Pulse Sequences by Matt Berstein et al, which is a thorough and
thoughtful collection of highly relevant ‘recipes’ that dives deep into the construction
of pulse sequences applicable for both engineers and scientists. Much of this
knowledge in Bernstein’s book is not readily available outside the confines of the
industrial laboratories that construct these machines. I also want to thank Dr Larry
Wald, Mass General Hospital (MGH), for the hands-on experience he provided me
in understanding more about MRI coil development. This helped me bridge some of
my gaps in the art of coil-making that I was able to gain on a brief visit to him.
A good starting book concerning MRI coil building is RF Coils for MRI by Thomas
Vaughan, with advanced details on the subject of RF coil construction [2].
Sample pathways for learning for different professionals

You may choose to use this book as teaching materials to provide additional
structure to your lessons and to assist in your delivery of instruction. As illustrated in
figure A1, there are many potential places to start in this book, based on the reader’s
background. We acknowledge there are many sources of information on MRI
throughout the internet and other books, and we encourage the reader to explore
these resources to aid in their understanding. The book serves as a potential way to
connect some of these resources for the learner, which can help improve their
understanding and fluency. Below are a few suggestions on pathways for learning
that have worked for the author.
For radiologist residents

During the first year (three lectures), we cover concepts in the first three chapters.
Chapter 1 contains five fundamental biological and physics concepts. Chapter 2
concerns the five components of MRI hardware scanners. Upon learning ten
concepts, in chapter 3 we cover relaxation and spin physics, which is the cornerstone
of MRI contrast and physiological differentiation of disease. The ideas in chapter 3
set up the future topics in the second-year lectures.
During the second year (seven lectures), we start with a review of relaxation in
chapter 3, since it has been one year since they explored the concept and it is central
to understanding later ideas. Chapter 4 provides the fundamental concept of pulse
sequences, so that the concept is not foreign and becomes less mysterious. Chapter 5
has three essential ideas that are related to pulse sequences: transmit bandwidth,
receiver bandwidth, and how pulse sequences cover k-space. In this second year, we
also include additional advanced topics that are not covered in this introductory
book, but are relevant for board preparation. These topics include inversion
recovery, diffusion, cardiac, breast imaging, angiography, and so on [3–6].
During the third year (three review sessions), we focus on board review questions.
This approach is based on the RSNA review modules, Imaging Physics Case Review
Book, and Radiologic Physics War Machine Book [7–9].
xxvi
For veteran radiological technologists

These professionals may consider reading chapter 6 on MRI tradeoffs and chapter 7
on MRI artifacts first. Both chapters are pragmatic and used in the clinic on a day-to-
day basis. Further, these veteran technologists can review chapters 1–5 to strengthen
their foundations and to further connect the dots of their understanding, as needed.
For beginning technologists and those preparing for boards

Beginning technologists can rely on primary text, such as MRI in Practice by
Westbrook and Talbot [10] or MRI Physics: Tech to Tech Explanations by Powers [11].
Then, they may focus on chapter 6 on MRI Tradeoffs and chapter 7 MRI Artifacts for
board preparation and use chapters 2–5 to aid in their understanding of hardware,
relaxation, and pulse sequences.
For veteran radiologists

Start anywhere in the book that you are curious about. You might use the book to
springboard your ability to read MRIQuestions.com.
For vendors who are application specialists

With a little bit of chemistry and physics, this book could help you better understand
what happens in the radiology environments. Vendors who conduct technical sales
or account executives would find some of the materials, such as our animations,
could help them better connect with the radiology team.
For medical students and referring physicians

It may be helpful to develop knowledge of concepts and vocabulary so that you can
better connect with your radiology colleagues. In this way, you can guide your
patients to achieve the best results and build your practice.
For master’s level medical physicists/residents

You can use this book to review medical physics 3.0 practices, which include being
able to communicate effectively with fellow healthcare professionals. The book can
be used to supplement the MRI chapters in The Essential Physics of Medical
Imaging by Bushberg et al, MRI from Picture to Proton by McRobbie et al [12, 13].
Medical physics readers can use the diagrams and additional explanations to break
down the materials to greater generalization. Based on feedback in 2021 by our
medical physics residents, they felt that the book would set grad students up for solid
preparation on the MRI portion of the ABR part one exam.
For MRI scientists/engineers

Use this book as a springboard to understand the role of clinical scientists and/or
better conduct research and development. The book can also help you start your
preparation for boards in the MRI Physics Specialization.
For practicing/veteran medical physicists

Use the book to supplement other sources, such as Brown et al [14], Bernstein et al
[15], and Nishimura [16], which contain a more mathematical treatment of the topic.
xxvii
This book be used to facilitate communication with radiologists and technologists.

Additionally, this book can be used to consider eventual board certification in MRI
and/or MRI-RT.
Finally, it would be impossible to cover all of the books and resources from which
one can learn about MRI. I would highly encourage the reader to find which content
sources match the reader’s interests and stimulate their curiosity. If I had to choose
just five resources (a hard choice) that I would use to draw ideas to teach from,
beyond those previously mentioned, I would consider the following:
a. MRI made easy: (…well almost) by Hans Schild—This resource includes
some wit and whimsy, and it uses a cartoon illustrative style. It is a good starter
for relaxation and the spin echo, which has also been reported to me by learners.
It is out of print, but some modified versions are available online [17].
b. Crack the Core by Promeus Lionhart is a resource starting point for
diagnostic radiology residents. It is a great resource for the busy mindset
of residents, as it provides focused materials and simple outlines. It is
updated and clear with the bare minimum that you need to know for the
diagnostic radiology boards in terms of physics [9].
c. MRI in Practice by Catherine Westbrook This book is a useful starting point
for radiology technologists. Our radiology technologists in training quote
this book many times [10].
d. Xrayphysics.com by Mark Hammer, M.D., who created it when he was a
medical resident. It illustrates concretely many of the examples, including
some simulations [18]. Well done!
e. Introducing MRI Videos by Michael Lipton is a tome of 56 free lectures online
that assumes non-technical and practical information [19]. It is inspiring to me to
see a physician demonstrate such passion and interest in physics. It is even a
reminder for myself to take an equivalent passion in understanding medical
school topics, which for myself include immunology, genetics, molecular biology,
pathology, physiology, and anatomy. I strive to understand these topics on a
day-to-day basis to be a better provider of my craft. Our residents enjoy Lipton’s
resource, especially as they can pick and choose the relevant content from it.
There are also other quality references that I have learned about from different
students and colleagues. I browse these resources from time to time, especially in terms
of inspiration for teaching ideas. I’m listing ten more from those I know about below.
1. Donald McRobbie’s MRI Picture to Proton—Dr McRobbie is a medical
physicist from the UK. The book has excellent figures and engaging content
that is especially useful for early medical physics students as a starter [13].
2. Perry Sprawls’ Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Principles, Methods, and
Techniques has great PowerPoint slides with appealing style and a high
level of content. It is a source for clarifying much of the knowledge not only
of MRI, but also of other medical physics areas [20].
3. Kiaran McGee’s Mayo Clinic Guide to Cardiac Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (Mayo Clinic Scientific Press), 2nd Edition. I’ve enjoyed this
resource, especially as it focuses on Cardiac MRI [21].
xxviii
4. Ray H Hashemi, M.D., Ph.D.’s MRI: The Basics. I really like this book as it
includes a physician’s view on physics. Particularly enlightening are the descrip-
tions for some of the applications, such as angiography and cardiac MRI [22].
5. Joseph P Hornak’s The Basics of MRI website—Dr Hornak was one of the
first Ph.D.s to put materials on the internet that was shared freely. This has
helped many learners since 1996, and is still being updated to this day [23].
6. Dwight Nishimura’s Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Nishimura’s
book presents the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The
emphasis is on the signal processing elements of MRI, particularly the
Fourier transform relationships, as it was developed as a teaching text for an
electrical engineering course at Stanford University [16].
7. Michael Lipton, Totally Accessible MRI: A User’s Guide to Principles,
Technology, and Applications. This book could be nice adjunctive material
to accompany his YouTube lectures that I previously mentioned [24].
8. Brian Dale updated and edited one of the early books entitled MRI: Basic
Principles and Application, which was first created by Mark Brown in 1995. It
still is an enjoyable entree to MRI and includes very valuable insights from
Richard Semelka, M.D., of body MRI publishing and knowledge fame [25].
9. Stewart Bushing and Geoff Clarke’s Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical
and Biological Principles. I personally met both medical physicists and have
enjoyed talking to them. They are both very committed to the field of MRI and
their book is timeless, with great illustrations and physics descriptions [26].
10. Jerrold T Bushberg’s The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging. This book
has been a staple in terms of a summary of the entirety of Medical Physics, and
has a couple of introductory chapters on MRI. Medical Physics residents study
heavily from this source, which is not only for MRI, but also contains other
topics [12].
All of the many sources above are great, have received ample interest, and
provide different ways of explaining physics. There have been many more over the
last 30 or so years, and I wish I could list them all.
Dee H Wu, MSEE, Ph.D., DABMP, DABMRS

University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
References
[1] Radiopaedia.org, the wiki-based collaborative Radiology resource (n.d.) Radiopaedia.
Retrieved April 3, 2022, from https://radiopaedia.org/
[2] Vaughan J T and Griffiths J R (eds) 2012 RF Coils for MRI (1st edn) (New York: Wiley)
[3] T2-FLAIR (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/t2-flair.html
[4] Diffusion (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/diffusion-basic.html
[5] Breast DCE (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/breast-dce.html
xxix
[6] MRA methods (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from
http://mriquestions.com/mra-methods.html
[7] Physics modules (n.d.) Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://www.rsna.org/education/
trainee-resources/physics-modules
[8] Abrahams R B, Huda W and Sensakovic W F 2019 Imaging Physics Case Review (New
York: Elsevier)
[9] Lionheart P 2017 Radiologic Physics—War Machine (independently published)
[10] Westbrook C and Talbot J 2018 MRI in Practice (5th edn) (New York: Wiley–Blackwell)
[11] Powers S J 2021 MRI Physics: Tech to Tech Explanations (New York: Wiley)
[12] Bushberg J T, Seibert J A Leidholt E M Jr and Boone J M 2011 The Essential Physics of
Medical Imaging (3rd edn) (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins)
[13] McRobbie D W, Moore E A, Graves M J and Prince M R 2017 MRI from Picture to Proton
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
[14] Brown R W, Cheng Y-C N, Haacke E M, Thompson M R and Venkatesan R 2014 Magnetic
Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles and Sequence Design 2nd edn (New York: Wiley)
[15] Bernstein M A, King M F and Zhou X J 2004 Handbook of MRI Pulse Sequences (Oxford:
Elsevier)
[16] Nishimura D G 1996 Principes of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University)
[17] Schild H H 1997 MRI: Made Easy (2nd edn) (Berlin: Schering AG)
[18] XRayPhysics—Interactive Radiology Physics (n.d.) Retrieved 3 April 2022 from http://
xrayphysics.com/
[19] Albert Einstein College of Medicine 2014 Introducing MRI: The Basics (1 of 56) https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=35gfOtjRcic
[20] Magnetic Resonance Imaging (n.d.) Retrieved April 3, 2022, from http://www.sprawls.org/
mripmt/
[21] McGee K, Williamson E and Martinez M (eds) 2015 Mayo Clinic Guide to Cardiac Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (2nd edn) (Oxford: Oxford University Press)
[22] Hashemi R H 1997 MRI: The Basics (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins)
[23] The Basics of MRI (n.d.) Retrieved April 3, 2022, from https://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/
inside.htm
[24] Lipton M R 2010 Totally Accessible MRI: A User’s Guide to Principles, Technology, and
Applications (Cham: Springer)
[25] Dale B M, Brown M A and Semelka R C 2015 MRI: Basic Principles and Applications
(5th edn) (New York: Wiley–Blackwell)
[26] Bushing S C and Clarke G 2013 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical and Biological
Principles (Amsterdam: Elsevier)
xxx
IOP Publishing

A start to concepts
Dee Wu
Chapter 1
Five big ideas for MRI
(Waves, water, multiple looks, dipoles/precession, and changing EM fields)
1 Introduction
About four years ago, after showing a neurosurgeon a list of the last 50 Nobel Prizes in
Medicine, I asked that neurosurgeon which of those innovations he considered to be
the most impactful in his daily work [1]. He took some time to think over the list, but, in
the end, the neurosurgeon put Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI) at the top of the list. These two technologies guide diagnosis of
conditions, identify the locations of lesions (tumors, aneurysms, etc), and even direct
therapies, such as Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy (LITT), among other treatment
possibilities. This is not to say that any of the other Nobel Prize findings were of a lesser
magnitude1, but, in his daily practice, the innovations enabled by MRI and, more
generally, imaging technology could not be ignored. Beyond neurosurgery, CT and
MRI impact the development and application of many clinical disciplines.
Almost every department in a hospital (including Emergency Medicine,
Neurology, Neurosurgery, Pulmonology, Hematology–Oncology, and almost all
clinical subspecialties) will refer2 cases to the Radiology Department for MRI daily.
Scaffolding concepts can be useful for improving understanding and communication
in the hospital across these departments. It is thus important to understand the five
concepts highlighted in this chapter because medicine is built on teamwork. We can
infer that MRI is certainly a powerful diagnostic tool in medicine just from the number
of exams and diagnostic consultations that are requested and conducted each year.
The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC) and neighboring
1
Some disciplines, such as Hematology–Oncology, may rate other Nobel prizes higher from the list taken from
the last 50 years. We do not mean to diminish any other accomplishments, especially in Nobel prizes, but we
hope to advocate for what MRI can do for medicine from different subspecialists’ points of view
2
In radiology, we refer to all physicians who are not radiologists as referrings. The ‘referrings’ are the ones who
are seeking answers to medical problems, which are focused on patient care.
doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4ch1 1-1 ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2023

Veterans Administration Health Care System (VAHCS) have over 10 imaging

systems that run almost around the clock to meet the demand of imaging services.
MRI not only provides obvious and critical clinical utility, but it also offers
advanced research opportunities in the study of pathophysiological processes [2]. MRI
provides one of the most exciting glimpses into the human body, physiology, and even
the mind for researchers in Psychology, Neuroscience, and Rehabilitation Sciences3.
As of January 2022, a search on PubMed for MRI has returned 685,510 search results.
Learning about MRI is a journey that many physicians, radiological technologists,
and researchers begin in their training each year. In this book, we hope that we
approach this topic in a way that increases your ability to consider the elegance and
importance of MRI in both a mechanistic and a clinically applicable way. We will
guide you in the core concepts that bring you to the important and influential topics of
making tradeoffs in MRI pulse sequences that we cover in chapter 6, and another vital
topic, MRI artifacts, that we cover in chapter 7. We will also develop your conceptual
understanding by directing you to resources that may help you on this journey. There
are many educational mediums, including YouTube videos, other books, blogs, and
even courses, that you could use to consolidate your learning.
What we are going to do now is get you started by providing you with the initial
toolkit, which consists of five items. These are five tools or core concepts that you will
need to chart a productive path on your journey into MRI, as depicted in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1. The five core concepts: (1) MRI incorporates waves, (2) MRI is a water image, (3) MRI has
‘Multiple Looks,’ (4) MRI in terms of electricity and magnetism. Changing electric field → makes magnetic
field, and changing magnetic field → makes electric field. (5) MRI relies on dipoles and precession.
3
For research in domains of cognitive science, neuroscience and psychology, there are many important topics
of investigation for which there are now academic departments that have invested in managing their own MRI
scanners [3, 4]. Education that assists learners from clinical, translational, and basic science researchers who
may come from different areas across the world may also receive benefit from reading this book. There are so
many areas of study that find applicability in MRI that societies such as the International Society of Magnetic
Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM) were formed to respond to the clinical and research needs of the many
multidisciplinary users.
1-2
1.01 Scaffolding Box: overview of core concepts
This book is intentionally designed to be read by many different types of

learners. Whether you are a resident, technologist, MRI scientist, and/or
anyone else curious about MRI, there may be different paths to how you
would like to receive this information. Some readers may be already integrated
into clinical environments and prefer to begin with content that feels closer to
the ‘big picture’ rather than establishing ideas through a theoretical framework.
In that case, those readers could start their reading by beginning with a later
chapter4 and refer to the earlier chapters when they would like to engage with
this content.
As mentioned in the ‘how to use this book’ section in the preface, readers will
hopefully find that these concepts provide a missing link that will help them build
knowledge. We highly recommend at least looking over the interactive components,
particularly on waves, in this chapter, if that is not already familiar. The content in this
chapter will introduce the core principles in a logical fashion to help all learners. This is
useful whether they are looking backward in approach by reading later chapters and
then coming back to earlier core ideas, or if they are developing a forward approach by
starting with the fundamentals in this chapter. Please feel free to continue with items in
this chapter or start in chapter 2 or chapter 3, whichever works best for you.
MRI Made Easy: (…well Almost) by Hans Schild [5] is radiology resident- and/or
technologist-friendly and uses a cartoon illustrative style that is very ‘adjunctive’ to
chapter 3. We also recommend everybody beginning with MRI to read it in
conjunction with this text.
However, please consider the following ideas (figure 1.1), whether you are reading
on throughout this chapter or if you are starting at a different point in this book:
(1) MRI relies on electromagnetic (EM) waves. Different waves have frequency
and phase offsets, which are important to pulse sequences and artifacts in
images later in this book.
(2) MRI is water-centric in terms of clinical imaging. Abnormal alterations in
water content can be signs of disease.
(3) ‘Multiple Looks’ can provide multiple contrasts that guide more confirmatory
evidence for a diagnosis. At the same time, multiple looks can lead to greater
complexity and require greater experience and understanding when applying
MRI.
(4) MRI relies on imaging that results from magnetic dipoles and precession of
these dipoles. The precessional frequency is known as the Larmor frequency.
(5) ΔE → M, and ΔM → E5 is thematic in the understanding of MRI, especially in
terms of excitation and reception of signal.
These core concepts are discussed in the following subsections of this book.
4
In the preface of this book, there is a chart and suggested table of where different types of learners and
professionals may chose to use this book.
5
The Greek symbol Δ is shorthand for a ‘change’ in value. This symbol is widely used in chemistry,
mathematics, and physics, and will be used throughout this book.
1-3
Figure 1.2. Chapter 1 will describe these five core principles useful for understanding MRI.
We have created the following symbols that are used to remind you to reflect on
the five scaffolding ideas shown in figure 1.2. These symbols will serve as a potential
guide to remind you of these five ‘core’ concepts of this chapter.
This book is attempting something that we wish we could do for you in person—
to provide a strategy of learning that meets you where you are as a learner. In this
chapter, we will introduce the core concepts. Each concept will be indicated by a
corresponding symbol; in later chapters, these symbols will indicate when material is
related to one of the core concepts. When you see one of the symbols, you may wish
to refer ‘back’ to the list of core concepts and make sure you understand how the
content is related to these core ideas. Boxed items (□) are meant more to provide a
small aside, point out fun or interesting facts, provide historical context, and/or
suggest further learning scaffolds which in turn may help preview some ideas needed
for understanding complex topics. As 21st-century learners, you have many ways to
get to information. Thus, we also encourage you to cruise the web, follow up on
references, search out instructional videos, and so forth. Use this book as a guide to
form a framework for understanding MRI, whether you are a resident, medical
student, technologist, or interested in research.
On a final note, we will apply a deductive approach to train your

observational skills, and to develop your critical thinking. We will call
these ‘Deductive Learning Scenes,’ or DLS, which will be marked by the
‘detective’ magnifying glass.
For these sketches, please write down what you observe in the sketches/scenes. Then,
look at the suggested answers that we provided. The goal is to be able to help you through
the sketch to help you retain the evidence in the image. Observe, while paying particular
attention to the five core concepts that can enhance your framework of these concepts.
This exercise matches more closely with the medical model, in which you are
presented with a complex model, and you must deconstruct and analyze it in
an organized fashion.
In this section, we continue to discuss five core concepts of understanding
for MRI. Please note that in this book, learners are not expected to derive
mathematical or physics-based answers or even memorize formulas, but
1-4
rather are encouraged to focus on understanding the conceptual under-

pinnings of MRI physics. It is, however, helpful if you have had previous
prerequisites in chemistry and physics that are required for a medical
school or radiologic technologist degree. We believe and have observed
that the more you can organize the information that you are learning and
connect with more concepts, the more you may gather some longer-term
benefits. You may first try to simply memorize facts at the start (one could
equate this with first starting to learn vocabulary when one tries to acquire a
new language, and it is very much part of the learning process), but as you
progress, you will develop conceptual skills that may also help you retain
more complex facts and information (in the learning language analogy, this
could be understanding culture and specific nuances of a society). Similarly,
in terms of medicine, the nuances and ideas can be differential to clinicians in
the hospital realm. These conceptual skills at a minimum can be helpful to
serve to organize the vast ‘forest’ of information needed for medicine. Maps
and topics help us navigate the knowledge; we are also hoping that these
frameworks serve to assist you to understand and retain the key information
on the very elegant but complex topic of MRI.
In our program at OUHSC, the diagnostic radiology residents are allotted a relatively
limited amount of time to study each modality and each anatomical domain (neuro,
vascular, musculoskeletal body, etc), so the exposure to the MRI curricula is spread out
over many years. It is especially helpful to develop problem-solving skills as you move from
the first year in your training program through the second year. In the third year, it is
beneficial to focus on flashcards and practice problems. Depending on your prior exposure
to the material, during residency you may find that the information includes a fair bit of
review of already-familiar concepts, even from high school or college math and science
coursework. If your prior exposure is more limited, you may find that it is challenging to
recall older materials, but once you learn some of the reasons why these concepts are
important, you can seek to bolster and review your knowledge in that domain.
At this time, let us work through our first DLS, which is shown in figure 1.3. The
following are observations from fellow residents and technologists.
Looking initially at the CT scan…

1. We see the high density (bright values on the CT image)
located within the left hemisphere of the brain (left is
defined with reference to the patient orientation, which
would be right from the point of view of looking at the page).
2. On CT, a high density (bright on image) would demon-
strate a hyper-dense signal in the brain, indicative of a
hemorrhage.
If we stopped there, we might send the patient to be treated with stroke clot busters
(blood thinners).
1-5
Now let’s turn our focus to the MRI scan….

1. Notice the ‘long’ enhanced edge of the brain, which
may resemble a tail. This is known in MRI as the ‘dural
tail enhancement signal’. Enhancement of the dura/
meninges is indicative of a meningioma, a tumor of
meninges [6].
2. As MRI is a ‘water’ image, locations where water
shifts6, accumulates, and/or reacts differently can create
strong contrast in the image. The treatment for tumors
would lead to different outcomes for this patient than if
the diagnosis was a hemorrhage from a stroke. Some of
the treatment could lead to potentially dangerous and/
or unnecessary interventions if made in accordance
with an incorrect diagnosis.
3. The MRI illustrates that it has vital potential in patient care
and in this case has provided some critical diagnostic
evidence.
Dr Justin N. (Radiology Attending) reflects on the DLS in figure

1.2 above:
“I think it is important when looking at diagnostic images to realize
that knowing what you are looking at is a skill and takes practice. It
is a synthesis of knowing anatomy and pathology, but also knowing
how the image is generated, so you know what the image is trying
to tell you. It can be frustrating to face so much data head on... but
keep looking! Each image you see teaches you something.”
At this point, we have labeled items on the images below to guide you to a better
understanding of this DLS7, as shown in figure 1.3, and to learn more about
anatomical structures in the brain.
The example above illustrates the power of MRI to image the brain and soft
tissues in figure 1.4. Soft tissues connect, support, or encompass other structures in
the body. Soft tissue refers to all of the tissue in the body that is not hardened by
the processes of ossification and/or calcification. MRI excels at soft tissue contrast
6
For this book, we discuss ‘water shifts’ to describe the effects that move water from one part of the body to
another. There are differences in water between intracellular space and the extracellular space that can vary
due to the functioning of active sodium–potassium pumps, as well as the distribution of water during ongoing
inflammatory or wound healing processes. Signal changes that are expressed due to differences in water
content on the images can be indicative of the presence or absence of disease.
7
This Deductive Learning Sketch (DLS) may be less obvious to researchers, as it is targeted to health care
professionals. It illustrates that MRI provides unique presentations that more clearly aid diagnosis, and thus is
an important clinical modality.
1-6
Figure 1.3. DLS comparison between CT scans and MRI scans.
Figure 1.4. Labeled anatomy for the DLS sketch; (A) (1) skull, (2) centrum semiovale, (3) longitudinal cerebral
fissure (B) (4) frontal lobe, (5) longitudinal cerebral fissure, (6) scalp, (7) lateral ventricle, (8) falx cerebri,
(9) meningioma dural tail, (10) sagittal sinus. Adobe Stock Images: © VectorMine.
(due to its physics accentuating the imaging of the hydrogen of the water; we will
discuss this further in section 1.2) as MRI provides unique clinical information
compared with other imaging modalities. Now we will proceed to cover the five
concepts of this chapter, starting with a section about waves. Waves are important
to the understanding and context of MRI in many areas of its use, including
relaxation, signal contrast and artifacts.
1.1 Waves
Learning objectives:
1. Understand two types of waves: transverse and longitudinal. Relate the
transverse form of wave to E&M waves.
2. State several sources of E&M waves.
3. Understand frequency of a (transverse) wave.
4. Conceptualize energy relationship to frequency of wave.
5. Conceptualize that the decay of wave strength could be due to inherent
natural causes.
6. Understand the phase of a (transverse) wave.
1-7
7. Understand the definitions of bandwidth and spectrum.

8. Look at a real-world application of spectrum in magnetic resonance imaging.
9. Conceptualize the addition of waves from several frequencies (sometimes
called synthesis).
10. Describe what the Fourier transformation is and what it does.
1.1.1 Two types of waves

It is valuable to quickly understand two different forms of waves: some that move
through a medium or material and some that do not need a medium. A wave transports
energy from one location (its source) to another location without transporting matter.
The two types of waves of focus are longitudinal and transverse, as illustrated in figure
1.5, which are classified by the vibration patterns and direction they travel in.
Longitudinal waves require a physical medium, such as a solid, liquid, or gas, for
propagation. To picture longitudinal waves, imagine particles rhythmically compress-
ing together and expanding apart. Longitudinal waves that propagate parallel to the
particle vibration are important to ultrasound, but are less commonly relied on in MRI
for imaging8. Note that MRI relies on the electromagnetic (EM) waves, which are of the
transverse form of the wave. The transverse wave is discussed in the next paragraph.
In transverse waves, the particles vibrate perpendicular to the propagation of the
wave. They can utilize a solid medium for travel or be self-propagating, meaning
they require no medium and can travel within a vacuum. This is the case with EM
waves. MRI utilizes only EM waves, so we will focus on EM waves for the rest of
this book, referring to them only as ‘waves’.
Scaffolding Box
Figure 1.5. (A) Longitudinal waves are shown on the left, and (B) transverse waves shown on the
right. Note that EM waves that are used in MRI are transverse waves. If you interested in reviewing
more about these two types of waves, please look at the following reference [7].
8
One exception for the use of longitudinal waves in MRI is in the domain of magnetic resonance elastography
(MRE). MRE integrates MR imaging with a method that stimulates low-frequency vibrations in the patient.
Such techniques create a visual map that can illustrate different material composition of body tissues. MRE
can be used to detect stiffening that could evolve from fibrosis, wound healing, and inflammation in pathology,
such as in chronic liver disease and/or in breast disease.
1-8
1.1.2 Electromagnetic (EM) waves

MRI uses EM waves to create the signal used in the image. Gaining a fluid
understanding of the transverse wave can improve your comprehension of MRI in
its reliance on waves. Electromagnetic radiation can be described as both an electrical
and magnetic disturbance traveling through space at the speed of light. Examples of
EM waves include light (from the Sun), x-rays, and microwaves (such as those in your
kitchen microwave oven). For those who are curious, consider some basic material as a
brief tour/review of the concepts [8].
1.1.3 Mathematical properties of transverse waves

At this point, let us look at the wave and review some of a wave’s mathematical properties.
First, the height of the wave goes up and down, creating a peak-to-trough effect. The
amplitude of the wave is from the x-axis to the peak, as shown in figure 1.6 (also equivalent
to the distance from the x-axis to the trough). A second feature is the period, defined as the
peak-to-peak spacing of each repetition (trough-to-trough can be used also, as it is
identical). The ‘period’ of the wave is also referred to as the wavelength. When we decrease
the space between each period, we are increasing the rate of fluctuations of the wave. The
decrease in period also increases the frequency of the wave9. Note this form of wave is for
the spatial wave form [7].
Figure 1.6. Illustration of the components of a transverse wave. Amplitude = distance between the peak and the
y-axis of a wave (in y-direction): Period = distance between two peaks or troughs in a wave (in x-direction)10.
9
For further insight on waves, you can also watch videos such as those at Introduction to waves (video) Khan
Academy [7].
10
Waves are patterns that can occur in space and/or time. The reader may encounter either ‘time’ or ‘space’,
such as distance on the x-axis. Amplitude is usually on the y-axis and may physically represent different
features, such as distance, energy, etc [13].
1-9
As you see in figure 1.6, the wave contains a repetition of cycles. As the wave
propagates from left to right, the distance from the y-axis oscillates up and down,
from peak to trough. This displacement is called the amplitude of the wave.
A second feature (other than amplitude) is the spacing between the peaks. Note
the spacing in a wave between peaks is the same as the space between troughs. The
wavelength, or period, refers to one cycle and is measured from one peak to the next.
The period of a wave is measured in units of time, such as seconds that it takes to
complete a cycle in seconds/cycle. In mathematical terms, the frequency is the
inverse of the period; it is measured as the number of complete cycles of a wave in a
given amount of time. Units for frequency could be reported in hertz, which is equal
to the quantities in terms of cycles/second. The frequency has an inverse relationship
to the period of a wave, such as described by the following equation11:
Frequency = 1/period (1.1)
As a final note, there are two different types of frequency: spatial and temporal.
Depending on what is represented on the x-axis, which can be space in some cases
and/or time, then ‘frequency’ will have units of inverse distance (cycles/cm) and/or
inverse time (cycles/sec). The reader will have to carefully consider the context (space
and/or time) in which a wave is represented. In space (spatial frequency is known as
k-space in MRI) and in time, like we describe precession and how it works, we refer
to a temporal frequency (i.e., time-based frequency).
1.1.4 Understanding energy of waves in relation to frequency of waves

Inspect the image below and write down what you observe in the following deductive
learning sketch. Remember that a wave transports energy from one location (its
source) to another location as sketched in the DLS example in figure 1.7.
Note in the above figure that the two waves have different frequencies. Energy
within a wave is determined by both frequency and amplitude. Keeping amplitude
constant, we can focus on frequency in that figure. The amplitudes in the above DLS
are the same (height of the oscillations). However, the number of periods, or
oscillations, differs. Examining the top of figure 1.7, the oscillations are more
numerous, indicating that the top rope has a higher frequency and carries more
energy when compared with the lower rope.
For a conceptual understanding of this relationship, think of the waves in a
wiggling ‘jump’ rope. To generate a higher-frequency wave in a rope, you must move
the rope up and down more quickly. This takes greater energy; thus, conceptually, a
higher-frequency wave has more energy than does a lower-frequency wave.
11
Sometimes you might see frequency expressed as angular frequency (in radians per second). In this book, we
will use frequency to be measured in units of Hz (in cycles per second, which is called hertz or Hz). Note that
the difference between angular frequency and frequency is a factor of 2π. This is because 2π rad/s corresponds to
1 Hz if you are ever asked to convert units between the two systems of expressing frequency.
1-10
Figure 1.7. DLS highlighting the relationship between frequency and energy. Note that the amplitudes of the
two waves are the same in this example.
1.1.4.1 Fun-fact bubble: a fun experiment thinking about energy and wavelength with a
jump rope
If you have a rope available, you can do an experiment on what (energy) is required to
generate higher frequencies. Can you describe why it would seem to take more energy
to generate faster frequency?
(a) Take a rope and tie it to a tree or a post. (Use a 5-ft-

length rope for convenience, but one that is at least
long enough for you to generate waves.)
(b) Oscillate the rope by shaking it up and down. Now, keep
the amplitude of the wave about the same by creating a
higher frequency wave. Moving closer to or further
from the tree can change the amplitude of the wave12.
If this seems trivial to you, then show your kids and/or your nieces/nephews as a fun
assignment to have them get a feeling of waves. If you haven’t already, once you begin to start
thinking more about waves, it will help you become more insightful when it comes to MRI.
This is especially the case for the more complex topics, such as signal to noise and time
tradeoffs (chapter 6) and imaging artifacts (chapter 7), that arise in day-to-day clinical practice.
12
This rope image has been obtained by the author from the Pixabay website where it was made available
under the Pixabay License. It is included within this book on that basis.
1-11
1.1.5 Decay/damping of waves

Many things in nature have a decay and/or attenuation of that wave, as seen in figure 1.8,
which is created through a dampening effect. The physics definition of the term dampening
means reduces the amplitude of a signal. Consider a bouncing ball that bounces less and
less, and eventually stops bouncing over time. An exponential decay envelope can be used
to model more natural decay elements of a wave as depticted in figure 1.813. Dampening
can arise when you are sending energy that is not traveling in a vacuum.
Self-propagating waves can continue ‘forever’ in the absence of obstructions.
Transverse waves can travel for long distances. In fact, some waves can seem to go
on forever; think of starlight, which travels through the vacuum of space, but still
reaches us, as portrayed in figure 1.9. Other waves (unlike starlight) have greater
attenuation as they travel through space, much like the pond waves that emanate
off the splashing tail of a beaver, as shown in figure 1.1014.
Returning back to more about the attenuated signal. Mathematically, the
exponential function can be written as:
f (t ) = e−αt or alternatively, f (t ) = e−t /T (1.2)
where e is the natural exponent, ɑ is a decay rate constant, and T is the time constant
of decay. f(t) is the change of the function’s value as time (t) changes. Note that ɑ = 1/T,
so that the decay rate constant (ɑ) is the inverse of the time constant of decay (T ).
Figure 1.8. Dampening of a sinusoidal wave, note the exponential decay. Balls can exhibit an attenuating
motion as they diminish each bounce over time when they are permitted to freely bounce.
13
The enthusiastic reader may like to preview an upcoming topic known as Free Induction Decay that will be
further described in chapter 4, by watching the following video from Dr Paul Callahan on Acquiring a Free
Induction Decay (FID) [11].
14
We have introduced the concept of the transverse wave with both electricity and magnetism (E&M) physics, as well
as with mechanical waves. While the underlying physics appear differently due to how they are formed and the
fundamental forces that underlie them, we still encourage the reader to try to think about these concepts in both the
E&M world and the mechanical world. For further exploration, consider going to the hyper physics website, which is
a great resource for refreshing physics fundamentals, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/wavplt.html.
1-12
Figure 1.9. Ever thought about starlight? We can even observe the light from stars in Alpha Centauri (closest known
stars to the Earth) that has travelled over ~4.3 light-years from us. These waves travel through space and don’t have
inherent damping, at least not as significantly as we would see in other types of waves here on Earth that occur in Nature.
Left image, credit: NASA/Penn State University; right image, this ‘File:Alpha, Beta and Proxima Centauri (1).jpg’ image
has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia website where it was made available User:Skatebiker under a CC
BY-SA 3.0 licence. It is included within this article on that basis. It is attributed to User:Skatebiker.
Figure 1.10. (A) A dampening wave generated by a beaver as it swims. This File:Beaver at Meadowbrook Pond,
Seattle 18.jpg image has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia website where it was made available by
User:Jmabel under a CC BY 4.0 licence. It is included within this article on that basis. It is attributed to User:
Jmabel. (B) A simulated 2D wave, further evidencing the motion and decay in multiple dimensions.
See figure 1.8 for the decay curve. Note that the time constant will be something of
particular interest when we talk about T1 and T2 relaxation in chapter 3.
Now that you have reached this point in the waves concept, you have done an
excellent job. The next step is to gain some interactive and intuitive practice. Please
go to the PHET website [12]. Many learners have really enjoyed this simulation,
particularly as it provides a visual intuitive sense of a physical wave, as seen in
figure 1.11. It is worth trying the app at least one time for the fun of it to place
yourself in the mood for understanding waves.
Instructions for this website at the time of publication of this book:
(1) Open the app on the PHET website [12] and select ‘wave intro’.
(2) Click ‘water’, turn on ‘Side View’.
(3) Select graph checkbox in the upper right.
(4) Hit the ‘green round button’ on faucet to turn on the water and start it
dropping and creating waves.
(5) Slide the amplitude and frequency back and forth to see what happens.
(6) Observe properties of wave and decay.
1-13
Figure 1.11. PHET simulation for altering properties of a wave, available at https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/
html/waves-intro/latest/waves-intro_en.html [16].
Natalie (premedical biomedical engineering student) reflects on

attenuation and waves:
“I have always thought about attenuation as you mentioned as
illustrated with the ball, or also like a ripple in the water that slowly
decays out. Like when you are fishing and make your first cast that
starts a ripple that slowly fades out. I personally played basketball
and softball in high school, so I also imagine figure 1.8 as when you
shoot the ball and then it first hits the ground and fades out. I never
gave much thought about self-propagating waves. I am curious to
see how both wave properties will impact signals in MRI.”
Dr. Wu added:
“That sounds like you are understanding decaying waves. The
reason for the discussion of decaying waves is a preview for under-
standing ‘relaxation’ in MRI. Properties such as decay and/or
attenuation in waves are ideas that are particularly important
when we discuss the key concepts of T1, T2, and T2* relaxation.
We will go into relaxation in greater detail in chapter 3.”
1.1.6 ‘Phase versus frequency’

Let us look at the following deductive learning sketch, focusing on differences
between phase and frequency of the blue, green, and red waves. Note: in this example,
assume all waves have the same amplitude (i.e., their maximums and minimum
1-14
Figure 1.12. DLS comparing properties of waves. The reader should try to develop ‘interpretations’ of the
differences between sets A, B and C in the first row. The second row exhibits comparisons between curves
shown in the first row, which the reader would be asked to interpret. ‘D’ shows comparison between A and C.
‘E’ shows comparison between A and C. ‘F’ shows comparison between B and C.
values are the same in scale). The DLS sketch is shown in figure 1.12. For the
exercise here, look at the second row (D, E and F) and try to guess what
the differences are between the two curves (these are drawn from A, B, C) that
are overlapped in pairs. In the first row, singular waves are shown for clarity, and
are used in the second row of the DLS.
Answers or things to consider after performing the exercise from DLS of
comparison of phase and frequency from the graph:
1.1.6.1
In figure 1.12D, the figures show frequency difference between the blue line in figure
1.12A and dotted green lines in figure 1.12B. Note that the peak-to-peak space is
different between the green dotted line and the blue solid line.
1.1.6.2
In figure 1.12E, the frequency is the same between the blue figure 1.12A and the red
figure 1.12C, but the phase is different. You can note that the peak-to-peak spacing
in the wave is the same, but the starting positions are slightly offset.
1.1.6.3
In figure 1.12F, just provided for completeness in terms of comparisons (between case B
and C), both the phase and the frequency are different in these cases.
1-15
1.1.6.4 Fun-fact bubble: thinking about cars and waves
Figure 1.13. Comparing period and frequency using the cyclic motion of a wheel on a car. This image
has been obtained by the author from the Pixabay website where it was made available under the Pixabay
License. It is included within this article on that basis. The reader may be able to use the animation to
better gain an intuition of both frequency and phase by considering aspects of rate of rotation and
the start point of the oscillations. Animation available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5_zul5wrTY.
Say your friend has a car, as portrayed in figure 1.13. Looking at one of the tires,
imagine a point at the top. As you drive, the tire begins to ‘cycle’ and the point makes a
full rotation with the tire. This is the ‘period.’ The ‘frequency’ of the period is directly
correlated with the speed of the car. Note that the ‘red’ car has a faster frequency of
rotation than the ‘green’ car because the red car is traveling at a faster speed.
Additional resources can be found at [14].
Practice thinking questions

1. Can you describe frequency?
2. Can you describe two forms of waves: transverse and longitudinal?
3. Can you describe what is meant by phase?
4. Can you conceptualize energy relationship to frequency of wave?
5. Can you conceptualize the decay of wave strength as an exponential curve?
6. Can you tell the difference between amplitude, frequency, and oscillation?
1.1.7 Understanding frequency spectrum and frequency bandwidth

You may remember from your classes the concept of the visible light spectrum,
which consists of a small range (380–740 nm) extracted from the entire spectrum of
electromagnetic wavelengths. A similar concept with audio waves allows us to tune
1-16
Figure 1.14. Radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma rays are shown in the EM
spectrum. Note that buildings, humans, a butterfly, a needle, a protozoa and molecule, and the nucleus of an
atom are shown for reference as a scalar sense of size that can be compared with a ‘wavelength’ size. The
reference exhibits a sense of spatial scale for the wavelength in this picture [15]. Note that a bandwidth (BW) is
a range of frequencies of interest within a spectrum. For example, in figure 1.14, we marked the spectrum in the
infrared range between 10–5 to 0.5 × 10–6, but this range can be anywhere in a spectrum and of any size.
Another example that is relevant for use in MRI is a bandwidth of 120 KHz. For example, a frequency range
of 63.74 to 64.86 MHz could be a bandwidth of frequencies that is used in pulse sequences for a 1.5T Scanner
(i.e., has center frequency ~63.8 MHz)15. This ‘File:EM Spectrum Properties edit.svg’ image has been obtained
by the author from the Wikimedia website where it was made available User:Inductiveload under a CC BY-SA
3.0 licence. It is included within this article on that basis. It is attributed to User:Inductiveload, NASA.
in to specific signals from specific radio stations. This analogy will be used in the
book to remind us that MRI scanners are not observing at a single frequency, but at
many frequencies across a bandwidth. For this book, the spectrum of a signal is a set
of (continuous) frequencies contained in the signal, as rendered in figure 1.14. The
bandwidth refers to a range between a lower bound and upper bound of frequencies
in the EM spectrum. See figure 1.14, which demonstrates both spectrum and
bandwidth. Recall that waves carry energy. Waves can also carry data by converting
energy to said data. These data can be auditory—as in music from a radio, or
visual—as in an MRI image.
Sound waves from a radio station are altered to travel further when transmitted.
When received by an antenna, the radio converts the wave back to audio. Similarly,
protons give off energy and the frequency of the energy waves is received by MRI
coils16. A computer can then convert the waves to an image using a mathematical
transform known as the Fourier transform, which is depicted in figure 1.15.
15
The Larmor frequency is 63.8 MHz for a 1.5T magnet. A bandwidth of 20 kHz could represent a range
of frequencies that expands around that central frequency such as the Larmor Frequency [63.79 MHz,
63.81 MHz]. The bandwidth is the magnitude of that range (i.e., 20 kHz).
16
A key concept here is that the MRI acquires the signal in the frequency space (spectrum) and that by
algorithms these sets of frequencies and their corresponding amplitudes are used to form the signal as we
describe in section 1.1.13.
1-17
Amy B (psychology graduate student) reflected about spectrum and

bandwidth:
“When I think of wavelength, I think of vision, and that seems to
happen in the specific set of continuous frequencies. When I think of
bandwidth, I think of it in regards to technology.”
Natalie (premedical biomedical engineering student) also said:

“I think I can visualize what you are saying, I think I’ll read on and
figure how bandwidth and spectrum are used in MRI, but that gave
me a good insight into the topics.”
Figure 1.15. Sound is encoded using a wave with varying frequency and converted back to sound by a radio.
This image has been obtained by the author from the Pixabay website where it was made available under the
Pixabay License. It is included within this article on that basis. Similarly, energy waves with varying frequency
are released from protons and interpreted to form a MRI image. K-space image on the left depicts the varying
frequencies that make up the portrait of Vincent van Gogh on the right17. This ‘File:Vincent van Gogh - Self-
Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg’ image has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia website, where it
is stated to have been released into the public domain. It is included within this article on that basis.
17
When you hear about MRI, you will sooner or later come across the term k-space. We introduce the concept here,
but it is additionally covered or used in chapters 4–7. Do not be too bothered by the term now. I have found that
many people from all sorts of disciplines—technologists, chemists, psychology, medical students—are able to
understand some of the core components of k-space after some time spent with the concepts in this book.
1-18
1.1.7.1 Fun-fact box: radio stations and understanding bandwidth
In the United States, frequency-modulated broadcasting stations

operate between 87.8 MHz to 108 MHz, for a total of 20.2 MHz.
This range of frequencies is an example of bandwidth.We will further
review bandwidth in chapter 5
1.1.7.2 Applied bubble
Real-world application
Each element interacts uniquely with frequencies based on nucleic properties such as
charge and spin.
NMR spectroscopy utilizes these characteristics to identify molecules by their chemical
structures. Clinically, NMR spectroscopy can be used to identify metabolites indicative of
a diagnosis, such as abnormal cell growth due to a brain tumor, as shown in figure 1.16.
Figure 1.16. A single voxel is scanned at a specific frequency. This is an MRI of a brain tumor. The
spikes in spectral data identify various functional groups that are pieced together like a puzzle to
identify present metabolites. The area under the curve reflects the amount of chemical makeup in a
part of the brain. This information can help stage and/or monitor the cancer.
1-19
Carlie (premedical student, with chemistry and psychology empha-

sis, and dancer) reflects on NMR in her former chemistry class:
“I remember using NMR spectroscopy in my organic chemistry class
to verify if certain products were present after reactions. After
acquiring our spectrum, we would measure the area under the peaks,
which would give us information about the structure and constitu-
ents of the compound. While NMR is a staple in the chemistry lab, it
is just as important in the clinic because its multidimensional
application led to the development of MRI and the ability to observe
tissue matter like the brain or heart in a non-invasive way.”
1.1.8 Adding different waves together (a form of synthesizing waves)

The reason we are introducing this topic is that MRI utilizes an acquisition process
that collects multiple simultaneous waves at different frequencies that are received by
the MRI hardware. MRI encodes each point in space in both frequency and phase,
and then sends the sum of all those waves to a receiver coil (more on this topic will be
covered in chapters 2 and 3). The term ‘synthesizing’ waves that we will use in this
chapter comes from the audio world and is used to describe the concept of adding a
bunch of waves with different frequencies and phases to create a new wave (figure 1.16).
We have included interactive exercises that one can do as a DLS in figure 1.18.
This may provide greater intuition regarding the synthesis of waves. Otherwise,
please read on, as this section is setting up one of the most important concepts in
MRI, the Fourier transform, which is discussed in the next subsection, 1.1.12.
Nick (third-year medical student) said:

“The synthesis of the waves seems to be summing up the separate
waves’ frequencies and amplitudes to a resultant summarized wave,
which is fortunately done automatically by the MRI machines. The
Fourier Transform seems to be an equation that does the same thing
as the MRI, but adds up each individual wave by hand.”
To help understand the process of synthesis (or acquisition) in MRI, we will look
at two examples. Figure 1.17 above provides an analogy for wave synthesis. Swells
in the ocean are naturally occurring due to varied wind patterns and physical
interferences. Opposing winds influence the ocean currents, making it very
unpredictable and choppy because the currents interact both constructively and
destructively. Figure 1.18 demonstrates the same phenomenon from a mathematical
viewpoint. Every point within a wave has a value, or slope. Each simultaneous,
individual point within a wave can be added to create a new wave.
Next, let us move on to an exercise that provides you with an interactive
experience that students have found useful, that represents two different waveforms
as a combination of subcomponent waves that each have different amplitudes, as
shown in figure 1.18. Note that the final result (green wave on the right of I and II)
can look dramatically different.
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Figure 1.17. Multiple waves that are simultaneous will be perceived as a single wave. The ‘addition’ of waves
has both constructive and destructive interference. This technique can be used intentionally to create unique
wave patterns. Imagine that you can keep on adding more and more waves together to make a myriad of
different shapes.
Figure 1.18. Cases I and II illustrate the same frequency and oscillations (i.e., four selected from a subset of
frequencies). In A, we have altered the amplitude so that the sum of all waves with their amplitude results in a
different synthesized wave. The amplitudes of each of four waves shown on the left axis (dotted line) are 0.35,
−2.0, 2.3, and 1.0, respectively. The waves are then summed (additive synthesized) into the final form (green
pattern shows over a 0 to 2pi range). Note that the frequencies of the waves are 4, 3, 2, and 1. In B, the
amplitudes of each of four waves shown on the left axis (dotted line) are 2, 1.2, −1, and 0.3, respectively. The
waves are then summed (additive synthesized) into the final form (green pattern shown over a 0 to 2pi range).
Note that the frequencies of the waves are 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively18.
We have included interactive exercises that one can do as a DLS in figure 1.19.
This may provide greater intuition regarding the synthesis of waves. Otherwise,
please read on as this section is setting up one of the most important concepts in
MRI, the Fourier transform, which is discussed in the next subsection 1.1.12.
18
Note, in case I on the left wave, ‘A’ is the same as in case II, except that they are scaled with different heights.
If you end up adding all the waves on the left to produce the green result in case I and compare it with the green
result in case II, observe how you can generate almost an endless number of shapes if you just scale each
subwave (purple, yellow, orange, blue) differently and add (synthesize) them together.
1-21
Figure 1.19. Synthesizing two waves together in the interactive online program at ComPADRE Digital Library
website, https://www.compadre.org/osp/EJSS/4030/138.htm, similar to what is shown in this figure 1.17 [50].
Amy B. (psychology graduate student) reflects after looking at figure

1.18 and scanning ahead to figure 1.21:
“If the MRI is created, the ‘synthesized’ wave forms, and we know
what frequencies were used to make those waves. It seems like the
inverse Fourier transform is extracting out the individual amplitudes
from those frequencies that synthesized the MRI signal. This was like
we looked at A + B + C + D together in figure 1.18. The final image
we get from the MRI is the ABCD synthesized frequencies that the
inverse Fourier transform gives us based on the individual A + B + C + D
amplitudes for the given frequencies. I think you are next going to
show us the PHET wave game in figure 1.21, which I think is coming
up in a following section of this chapter, and with figure 1.18 and the
upcoming figure 1.21 it helped me solidify these concepts together
about encoding waves.”
Dr. Wu responded to Amy B. and said:
“Amy, I think you are getting why we put that figure 1.17 and connecting
that with the later figures 1.18 and 1.19. It’s helpful to relate to how we
can encode images from the MRI machine. These MRI signals are
spectral in nature and we then end up applying the inverse Fourier
transform to decode those images into an image. I don’t think these
concepts come easy at first, but if you are able to walk through figure
1.21, which is coming up shortly, I think you’ll be able to feel more
comfortable with MRI concepts that are coming up in the later chapters.”
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Try to change the frequency between the two, and the phase and/or a combina-
tion of both. After you compare the waves, look at the addition of f(x,t) and g(x,t)
by clicking on the u(x,t) box. For example, enter the following functions for ‘g,’
function ‘f’ will remain constant.
f(x,t) = 2.0*sin(x)
g(x,t) = 1.0*sin(x) ← different amplitude compared with f(x,t)
g(x,t) = 2.0*sin(2*x) ← different frequency compared with f(x,t)
g(x,t) = 2.0*sin(x-2) ← different phase compared with f(x,t)
g(x,t) = 2.0*sin(2*x-2) ← different frequency and phase compared with f(x,t).
Amy B. (psychology graduate student) reflects:

“I get it, I’m adding waves together and you see the merged version
of them, which is a synthesized wave. I felt the compadre site was
also helpful in visualizing the synthesis. I’ll keep reading more and
see how we end up using this in MRI.”
1.1.9 Fourier transform

In MRI, the Fourier transform decomposes any function of space into constituent
spatial frequencies. Inverse Fourier transform can be also used to retrieve spectral
information from an image. Because an MRI is constructed by waves that are
combined together during the acquisition process, the resulting synthesized
waves that are produced can be Fourier transformed into an image, as depicted in
figure 1.20.
Gail H. (neuroscience postdoctoral researcher) reflects on the

Fourier transform:
“Complex signals can be reconstructed by adding together simpler
wave signals. The opposite is also true; you can break down a
complex signal into the component waves that create it. The Fourier
transform breaks down a signal into its component information, and
the inverse Fourier transform reconstructs a signal using its compo-
nents. Since we are talking about waves, the information inside the
signal involves frequency, phase, and amplitude. When you start
talking about k-space, that is getting into storing signal information
about phase and frequency. You have to sample the information
from k-space to reconstruct the image using inverse Fourier
transform.”
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Figure 1.20. There is a mathematical method known as the ‘inverse Fourier transform,’ which will enable us to
retrieve the values. The key here is to think in two spaces: the spatial map (y is amplitude and x is position),
and the spectral space (y is the amplitude in frequency space, and x is the frequency values). While this figure
may initially appear to be complex. the idea of encoding multiple signal values in a spectrum is one that will
appear repeatedly throughout this book in several places (for example, sections 2.4 and 4.2),
1.1.9.1 Fun-fact bubble on mechanical Fourier transform

If you are curious and want to see the mechanical Fourier transform machine made from
gears, please see the linked video. This mechanical Fourier transform machine can provide
an intuitive feeling for the algorithm. The following ‘job’ of the Fourier Transform is to
take ‘synthesized’ frequency signals and turn them into spatial coordinates [16].
A key concept here is that the MRI acquires the signal in the frequency space,
which is a spectral wave, and that by algorithms known as the inverse Fourier
transform [17] takes this signal, and this set of frequencies and their corresponding
amplitudes are used to create the image. Another resource for understanding the
Fourier transform is provided in the article by Gallagher et al in the American
Journal of Roentgenology in 2008, for those who would like to see more details
written in article form [18]. The goal is to provide the ‘analysis or desynthesis’—in
the latter, we’re referring to the extraction of the components, such as the amplitude
and the frequency and phase from the mixed signal that is retrieved from the scanner
during signal acquisition.
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1.1.9.2 Fun-fact bubble: Complexity of the wave domain: bats and dolphins
It may initially be a little hard to think in terms of frequencies. After all, we are not
dolphins and/or bats! To help us recognize when we are seeing something in the
spectral space, consider looking for one of these symbols19.
While, it may almost seem impossible to grasp concepts like the Fourier Transform,
please consider looking at videos. Consider the concepts of adding different waves
together with different amplitudes and realize there are mathematical waves to extract
these amplitudes. This mathematical method is known as the Fourier transform [18]20.
To try to have intuition for the Fourier transform without having to apply
mathematical formulas, the reader should try to work at the DLS in figure 1.21.
We believe that you will be on your way to some understanding of its ‘magical’
ability to extract images from waves of signals.
Please add the following after the figure:
Instructions for DLS in figure 1.21 above.
1. Go to PHET Fourier: Making Waves website [19].
2. Click Wave Game, and select a level (three would be a reasonable level
to try.)
3. Move the ‘amplitudes’ slider bars up and down and observe the figure on the
lower row, which shows the synthesized waves. The amplitudes will be your
‘image.’ The slider bars appear as three circular dots in a gray rounded
rectangle.
4. Note that there is only one pattern of amplitudes (that you picked in the top
figure) that match the final complex wave form. The middle layer represents
waves that have the specified frequency with the corresponding amplitudes
you specified. You should try to match the pattern.
5. Check your answer and/or show the answer, but it’s worth a try to move the
sliders up and down.
6. We do this in our lectures and it is well received. Give it an ‘attempt’ to
match the waves. It may provide you with a sense of how you can encode
images with waves.
19
Dolphin image rom Dolphin silhouettes Stock Vector, Adobe Stock, jan stopka/stock.adobe.com. Bat ‘File:
Bat shadow black.svg’ image from the Wikimedia website, where it is stated to have been released into the
public domain. It is included within this article on that basis.
20
For simplification, we describe the inverse Fourier transform (IFT) as reconstructing the MRI image from
the spectral domain. The Fourier transform is the forward version of the transform, which is basically the
encoding that the scanner apparatus employs to generate the spectral signal that will be decoded later as the
image by the IFT. To learn more, see the Gallagher et al AJR publication [17].
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Figure 1.21. Please try this interactive tool for understanding the Fourier transform/inverse Fourier transform,
available at https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/fourier-making-waves/latest/fourier-making-waves_en.html.
It is highly recommended by several students, and users of this book found this simulation extremely
useful [19].
1.1.9.3 Fun-fact box
The above is an advanced video for those who are both visual and enjoy a
mathematical approach to understanding the Fourier transform [20].
While it could take some time to really understand the mechanics of the Fourier
transform, please consider the following take-home points:
(1) You can add several sinusoidal waves with different frequencies and phase
together.
(2) You can create any periodic function using a sum of many frequencies and
phases of waves. This is the basis of the Fourier transform and what we will
refer to as k-space in the later chapters.
1-26
Natalie N. (Pre-Med Biomedical Engineering Student) reflected:

“So that you are saying that you can encode information into waves
and send it distances...then somehow turn that information into an
image? I wonder how frequencies and phase could be used with that.
That is so interesting, I look forward to learning more.”
Dr. Wu replied:
“Yes, it may not appear obvious at first, as we aren’t dolphins or bats, as
we mentioned in 1.1.12.2. We must learn to feel more comfortable with
waves and keep on working on it. We will see in chapter 2 how we can
encode spatial information with hardware gradients, and in chapter 4 we
cover frequency and phase encoding in pulse sequences, which center
around those concepts you learned. As you get some practice, classroom
time, experience, and understand the value of these concepts, it should
impact clinical work and become more intuitive.”
Final knowledge check:

• Understand frequency.
• Understand that there are two types of waves: transverse and longitudinal.
The former is important.
• Understand phase.
• Conceptualize energy relationship to frequency of wave—can you relate this
to the more advanced concepts?
• Conceptualize the decay of wave strength—did you try to relate this to the
more advanced concepts?
• Conceptualize the exponential curve.
• Conceptualize a bandwidth of frequencies.
• Conceptualize a real-world spectrum, such as MR spectroscopy.
• Conceptualize the machinery of Fourier transform.
• Recognize that waves are not only important to MRI, but also to other
modalities, such as ultrasound and even x-ray equipment.
1.1.10 Summary
Remember, waves are everywhere. Waves can have different frequencies. For
example, your cell phone has a different frequency than your neighbor’s cell phone,
so that if you both need to make a phone call at the same time, the cell tower
recognizes these different frequencies so that this is possible. This also means that
waves can be combined. When combined, they can reproduce (or add up to) another
wave. In the Fourier transform, waves with different amplitudes and frequencies
from the spectral domain are added together (synthesized) to create a spatial image,
like we see in MRI. Another real-life example: a note on a guitar makes a certain
sound based on the waves. We can isolate (decompose) those waves so that we can
see each component, and in turn we can then ‘add up’ (synthesize) those waves to
recreate the note on the guitar. The opposite is true for the inverse Fourier
1-27
transform; if we have a spatial image, we can ‘decompose’ the image into the
separate waves (each with their own amplitude and frequency).
1.1.10.1 Yield bubble: a brief preview of ‘k-space’

A majority of the MR image information is contained in the center of k-space, which we
refer to as contributing to the ‘contrast’ of the image. Low-spatial-frequency data have the
highest amplitude, which leads to largest changes in grayscale levels (altering the contrast).
High-spatial-frequency data typically have lower amplitude in most images, as they focus
on the details. Thus, the outside k-space contributes to the details of the image.
Here is a sample board question:
Which portion of k-space has lower typical gray scale values?
(a) Even lines.
(b) Outside portion.
(c) Inside portion.
(d) Neither; they are likely equal.
(e) Diagonal lines.
Answer: (b) Lower grayscale is lower amplitude. The details are more likely to have
finer adjustment and lower amplitude than the major contrast.
To learn more, consider looking at this excellent Imaios resource [21].
Nick P. (third-year medical student) reflects on waves:

“It seems like waves are used everywhere in just normal life,
including our phones, microwaves, even just seeing colors. It also
seems to be integral to the workings of many of the imaging
modalities used in radiology like MRI and ultrasound, and under-
standing the basics of how waves work and interact helps give a
better understanding of what we are interpreting in the imaging.”
Justin N. (attending radiologist) reflects on what Nick wrote:

“It’s really interesting to hear about how medical students think
about waves. I love how technology has forced people to have some
concept of waves. Especially the microwave—it so clearly demon-
strates how energy can pass through space and be detected or
deposited. This basic understanding is very helpful when trying to
teach concepts in MRI and ultrasound.”
1.2 MRI as a water image

MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to measure how much water is in
different tissues of the body; it then maps the location of the water and uses
this information to generate an image. Because our bodies are composed
of ~70% water [22], there is sufficient signal to produce detailed images (i.e.,
spatial and contrast resolution, as discussed in chapters 3 and 5).
1-28
Carlie P. (premed and dancer) reflects about what she sees in the
DLS in figure 1.22:
“In this picture, I see that the body is mostly made up of water, as
well as features like the polar nature of water, and the spin of an
atom. I’ll read on to see why these elements are important.”
Let’s look at the DLS in figure 1.22. As you inspect it, write down what you see
and describe in this image as depicted.
Below are items that you may notice and learn from the above deductive learning
sketch:
• We are composed mostly of water molecules.
• There is H2O: two hydrogen atoms + one oxygen atom. (Note these
hydrogens give rise to the signal content in MRI/NMR [23]).
• Water has electrical polarity.
Figure 1.22. After observing the DLS and brainstorming what you see, consider what you learn from these
observations. This is the interpretive phase of the DLS.
1-29
• We are concerned with the magnetic dipole associated with the hydrogen’s
nucleus, the proton, which is less commonly discussed. Protons are always
spinning. The spin induces a magnetic field. Think of a magnetic dipole as just
an idealized vector that functions as the pair of separated magnetic charges.
• There are waves, as illustrated in figure 1.24. (See waves within the figure,
which was designed as a memory aid for your study.)
• Describe how ‘water shifts’ (such as edema) can be indicative of location of disease.
This leads us to the following learning objectives:

(1) Water is a large portion of the body, and the amount of water contributes to
the amount of hydrogen that is needed to produce the MRI images.
(2) Protons spin, and have a magnetic moment21. This was predicted by the
Stern–Gerlach Experiment, shown in the appendix.
(3) Electric dipole moments are shown, since you may have heard of these
before, although we are most concerned with the magnetic moment.
(4) Describe edema and its relationship to water. Can edema be thought of as
‘water shifts’?
1.2.1 MRI utilizes water

The water molecule (H2O) is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
The hydrogen (H) atoms are what make water pertinent to MRI. Protons, or
hydrogen atoms, directly produce the signal measured by an MRI scan. Aside from
one of the essential reasons why we can create clinical MRI images with these
hydrogen protons, water is also miraculous due to the polar nature. This feature
permits ‘life’ on our planet, as it prevents the oceans and seas from freezing solid all
the way through (consider reading more in the ‘fun-fact box’ below in figure 1.24) [22].
1.2.1.1 Scaffolding fun-fact box: polarity of water and the oceans

The polarity of water has enabled life to arise from the ocean. Without the dipolar
molecular nature of water, oceans and seas would freeze from the bottom up, and there
would be no way for life beneath the surface of solid ice! Luckily, ice floats. In other
words, if ice didn’t float to the surface when it froze, it would be impossible for life to
develop underwater!
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole–dipole attraction between molecules.
Ice floats to the top and gradually thickens freezing lakes and ponds (and other bodies
of water, such as oceans and seas) from the top of the surface down. Hydrogen bonding
(these electric dipoles interactions) is a key reason why ice is less dense than liquid
water (i.e., if you put ice in a cup of water, you will note that the ice floats) and is an
amazing substance that is essential to all life on our planet [24, 26]. See figure 1.23 for
contemplative thinking that impacts life on earth and the importance of dipoles and
water. Life on earth cannot survive without water. It is a precious natural resource.
Water supports all human, plant, and animal life [24, 26].
21
A ‘moment’ is a general physics expression product of distance and a physical quantity.
In the case of ‘magnetic moment’ it is the amount of magnetism expressed over a distance.
1-30
Figure 1.23. The world’s oceans are home to giant icebergs that float freely at the surface. This floating nature
of water molecules is a unique property of the substance due to its polar nature [25]. Reproduced from
Matthieu/stock.adobe.com.
Figure 1.24. An interesting activity to examine a water molecule in more detail shown above (mostly review for
those who have had a college chemistry class) [24]. Also, for those who remain curious, you may consider
reviewing the chemistry of water blogs that are present on the internet [22].
1.2.2 Electric dipoles

Let us take a tiny detour and review a little about water. Water is made of both
positively and negatively charged molecular portions, and actually has two electrical
poles (one positive and one negative), as rendered in figure 1.24.
1-31
1.2.3 Water shifts

The presence of edema can indicate a response in wounds or damaged tissue that
brings fluid to an affected area. Swelling is the result of the increased deposition of
fluid and white blood cells in the injured area. An inflammatory response is
associated with leaky vessels, which can be the cause of the swelling. ‘Water shifts’
to different anatomical locations can indicate tissue damage and can be used to
detect disease using MRI, as can be seen in figure 1.25.
Figure 1.25. An image illustrating cerebral edema. Cerebral edema refers to a number of interconnected
processes (including inflammation and trapped fluid) that can result in abnormal shifts of water in various
compartments of the brain [27].
1-32
Summary
We are made of 70% water (a large fraction of our bodies is water).
The electromagnetic characteristics of water are harnessed to
generate the signal in MRI/NMR.
The spin of the proton plays a role in the MRI/NMR.

Waves play a role.
Notice the vectorial direction of the ‘spin,’ which is called a magnetic
moment (produced by the magnetic dipole), in this case g.
Conceptualize protons as little tiny magnets that create magnetic

moment.
Edema can be a response in the body for wound healing and
inflammatory events. It can be thought of as ‘water-shifts.’
So far, we have talked about ‘mathematics’ (of waves) and chemistry (of water). In the
next section, we’ll do some discussion in the medical decision-making field concerning
‘multiple looks.’
Nick P. (third-year medical student) reflects on spins:

“So, the spin of the individual protons on each water molecule is
what creates the image that we see on the MRI? I wonder how the
MRI is able to convert the spin into a wave signal that is then used
by the MRI machine to map the anatomy.”
Dr. Wu answered:
“Nick, these are good starting thoughts on ‘spin.’ In section 2.6,
we cover the receiver and, as the spin points to the receiver, the vectorial
direction causes a changing magnetic field, which induces a current!”
1.3 Multiple looks (contemplating image weighting and the

multiple appearances possible in MRI)
1. Provide a clinical description where multiple presentations aid a diagnosis.
2. Describe ‘multiple looks’ in terms of dimensions. Then, describe challenges.
You may have heard this saying before: If it looks like a duck, swims
like a duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck. This is
what we will be referring to as multi-looks. It can be also thought of as
multiple dimensions, multiple vantage points, multiple weightings,
1-33
having a multifactorial nature, and/or several different lines of

evidence. The way you see something. Different set of eyes on a
problem.
Medical devices are designed to solve clinical problems. While there is a spectrum
of possibilities for research, science, and exploration, we also hope that day-to-day
these technologies can help us in the clinic. By having multi-looks, we have more
ways of honing in on a correct diagnosis.
*Note: Multiple weightings may encompass a large majority of MRI, but in later
chapters we will also learn the different ways we can create different ‘looking’ images
(for example, perfusion, time of flight, diffusion tractography, etc). When we refer to
multiple looks, we describe the advantages and possible disadvantages of having a
number of vantage points (please note the discussion on the challenge of dimension-
ality below).
1.3.1 How do we achieve multiple looks/multiple weightings

In MRI we are able to achieve multiple ‘looks’ through the ability to select different
pulse sequences to achieve different multiple imaging weightings (such as T1 or T2;
see chapter 3 for more on relaxation and contrast weightings), FLAIR (chapter 4),
and/or DWI, see figure 1.26. Again, this approach provides possibilities to have
additional viewpoints—representations that will hopefully lead to better problem
solving and more confidence in the findings.
For example, let us start with looking at a singular T2 image. Suppose you are
attempting to make a diagnosis from this image in figure 1.27.
Now, examine when you have multiple weightings/looks at the same location.
Figure 1.26. In this case, there are post-surgical changes, as well as the opportunity to identify locations of
gliosis, hemorrhage, and the possibility of a recurrent tumor. Regardless, isn’t it better to start with four looks
instead of a single image? Multiple ways to get information provide a better likelihood of a correct diagnosis.
MRI is versatile and complex, as it has several looks (T1, T2, etc).
1-34
Figure 1.27. An example of a case where you can imagine you are trying to derive a diagnosis from just a single
image that has just a single weighting. We will demonstrate the concept of ‘multiple looks’ in the following section.
1.3.2 Multiple looks and weightings as the analogy of different dimensions

MRI can be an excellent problem solving tool since it provides multiple looks. These
multiple looks provide multiple dimensions of features (dimensionality is used here as
another way to describe multiple contrasts or appearances), which permit the
appearances that help the physician ‘reader’ to be more confident of their conclusions.
However, note that multiple looks can add additional complexity. If you want to only
see ‘A,’ then you must suppress B, C, and D as portrayed in figure 1.28.
Knowledge check:
(1) Understand the implication in MRI of having multiple looks.
(2) Can you come up with several ways of describing what ‘multiple looks’
means? How about examples in real life?
(3) Describe ‘multiple looks’ in terms of dimensions.
Possible Answer for (1): Having multiple images provides confirmatory evidence
(more information from different vantage points). For example, with brain images,
we end up being more certain that this is hemorrhage (as opposed to gliosis, etc) and
its location in the image.
1-35
Figure 1.28. Challenge of realistic dimensionality within the context of multiple looks. Outwardly appearing
images may include components even from the suppressed or reduced affects contained in other forms of
weighting/contrast.
Possible Answer for (2): Multiple looks can be also thought of as multiple
dimensions, multiple vantage points, multiple contrasts, multifactorial, and/or a
number of different lines of evidence (restated from the text).
Possible Answer for (3): If you want to look at one dimension, then you have to
suppress all other dimensions. For example, there are some consequences to interpreting
DWI images with T2 shine-through, a topic that will be discussed in a future chapter.
We have now covered waves (mathematical), water (chemistry), and multiple
looks (medical decision making). The next two subsections pertain mostly to
chemistry and physics.
Multiple looks and multiple weightings is a tool that radiologists and research
scientists use in their daily practice and provides a large advantage (with the slight
curse of realistic dimensionality) in MRI. Note that some of the concepts occur in
areas such as diffusion weighted imaging22.
Nick P. (third-year medical student) and Justin N. (radiology attending) reflect on the
concept of multiple “looks”:
“We really like the explanation of the importance of multiple looks. As clinicians, this concept
will be key to recognizing certain pathological processes like acute ischemic stroke and/or
trauma in MRI, where standard images might not show any change at earlier stages.”
“Every ‘look’ I get is a new piece of information. With a single perspective, I may
not be able to provide specific data or diagnosis. An X-ray may get me to normal or
abnormal, but I may not know the exact problem. But, the X-ray data can lead me to
my next step, like CT or ultrasound.”
22
According to one of our residents, In a sense we are previewing the concept of T1 and T2 relaxation with the
different appearances. However, when we refer to multiple looks, there are so many other variations that
produce contrast. So, we lump all the multiple ways that an MRI contrast can appear in images into the term
‘multiple-looks’ for the reader.
1-36
1.4 Interlude and segue into concepts of electricity and magnetism

Up to this point in chapter 1, we have accomplished the review of three core
concepts: 1) waves, 2) water, and 3) multiple-looks (see figure 1.29). The last two
concepts mainly involve the electromagnetic nature of particles and atoms. It may be
intriguing and helpful for readers to understand the history behind these concepts.
1.4.1 Checkpoint up to this part of the chapter

Electricity and Magnetism concepts we will next be ‘dissecting’ to help you
understand more concepts concerning MRI.
a) ΔE → M and ΔM → E are thematic in the understanding of MRI, especially

in terms of excitation and reception of signals. These concepts are essential
building blocks for chapter 2, where we learn about the MRI Hardware.
b) MRI relies on imaging that results from magnetic dipoles and precession
of these dipoles. The precession frequency is known as the Larmor frequency
in MRI. We will see that dipoles are the fundamental concept for chapter 2,
when we discuss the main magnetic field and the generation of signals.23
However, at this point, let us take a moment to refresh our knowledge concerning
electricity and magnetism (E&M).
1.4.2 Review of basics of electricity and a little bit of history

The concept of electrostatics, which you may have already learned about in high
school, encompasses stationary electric charges. These E&M charges are important
to the understanding of MRI, as charges are a fundamental property of the universe.
Figure 1.29. Checklist of core concepts already completed at this point of the chapter.
23
Additionally, both dipoles and precession are essential to the understanding of T1 and T2 relaxation, which
are described in chapter 3.
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The word electricity is derived from the Greek word ‘elektron’, the Hellenistic24
name for amber, which is a gemstone. It has been thought that in ancient Greece,
people noticed that amber would attract feathers, straws, and other light
materials when rubbed with a cloth or fur. Fast forward to later days where a
much deeper understanding of moving charges began to evolve. This was notably
investigated starting in the 18th Century, particularly due to some of the initial
contributions of Benjamin Franklin, who demonstrated the effects of electricity
from lightning, as seen in figure 1.30. During that time, Franklin and his
Figure 1.30. Benjamin Franklin depicted holding a key attached to a string and a kite that has been struck by
lightning on a U.S. postage stamp, which marks some of his early investigations in the subject of electricity.
Reproduced from Blue Moon/stock.adobe.com.
24
The word ‘Hellenistic’ refers to the cultural and linguistic influences of Greek culture on the ancient world at
that time.
1-38
colleagues investigated the effects of electricity and even knew that electricity
passed through metals. Later in this chapter, we will also discuss more about the
discoveries by Michael Faraday and James C Maxwell, who made additional
contributions to E&M in the 19th Century. These discoveries are further
discussed in section 1.5.
To create a greater personal understanding of E&M, let us look at things around us
that have static charge. Note in figure 1.31 how static charges can attract polar water.
You can see this effect directly in your own sink! However, we can also see this effect
using our own bodies.
To create a greater personal understanding of E&M, let us look at things around
us that have static charge. Note in figure 1.31 how static charges can attract polar
water. You can see this effect directly in your own sink! But, we can also see this
Figure 1.31. The balloon in this figure illustrates how static charges on its surface attract the polar water
molecules toward it. Note how the static charge of the balloon alters the pathway of the flowing water.
Reproduced from harunyigit/stock.adobe.com.
Figure 1.32. Static hair is the result of electrical charges being transferred to hair and exhibiting a repelling
effect. Perhaps this sometimes happens to you between your hat and your hair [28]. Adobe Stock Images:
© RachelKolokoffHopper
1-39
effect using our own bodies. Did you ever wonder what causes static in your hair, as
in figure 1.32?
Static electricity is created when two objects rub against each other and transfer
the charges. Without any humidity or moisture in your hair, like on a dry winter
morning, the charge causes the strands to repel from another like a magnet [29].
These day-to-day examples remind us of static charge on a personal basis. Perhaps,
this brief review may have you recalling static charges.
1.4.3 Electricity and magnetism and the world around us

We will start by describing the world of MRI through a quick reflection on
electricity. You might have encountered the concept of charge particles, such as
shown in figure 1.33. This topic was taught pervasively not only in your physics
classes, but also in your chemistry classes. Moving charges also include basic
scientific concepts with which we are already familiar. Electricity surrounds us in our
daily environment, as well as in Nature. Electricity powers our laptops, as shown in
figure 1.34. As we plug our computer into the wall socket, we can begin to visualize
the flow of charges that comes from the wall socket and enters and powers our
computer. In Nature, we consider the electrical discharge of lightning. Lightning is
much more dramatic than plugging in a laptop; however, it is fueled by the same
distribution of positive and negative charges. The moment before electrical
discharge happens, positive and negative charges align on two sides. Between
them is something we will learn about next: the electric field. First, though, we
will state our learning objectives.
Figure 1.33. The concept of a charge has been an ‘iconic’ tool with which we are quite familiar in our
chemistry and physics classes. Reproduced from benjaminec/stock.adobe.com.
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Figure 1.34. We use electricity every day. Electrons power our laptops and enable us to access information
from around the world. There are also examples found in nature; one that comes to mind readily is lightning
through electric discharge.
Amy B. (psychology graduate student) reflected on Electrostatics

and E&M charges:
“Thanks for this reminder about the basics of static electricity. It
helped me see the Electricity and Magnetism (E&M) foundational
concept that similar electrons attract and dissimilar electrons repel
each other.”
1.4.4 Learning objectives

Proceeding forward, we will discuss the essential learning objectives for this section.
These objectives will help us understand changing magnetic and electric fields and
how they create the events that make MRI possible.
(1) Review the definition of a field (physics).
(2) Describe what a magnetic field is—i.e., a spatial area in which magnetic or
electric particles will experience a ‘force.’
(3) Discuss how current in a loop can produce a magnetic field.
(4) Understand how a magnetic field in a loop induces a current.
(5) Evaluate an example of a real-world device that relies on one of the
principles ΔE field →M and ΔM→E field (Note: current flows because something
is producing an electric field that forces the charges around the wire, as can be seen
in figure 1.34).
1.4.5 Michael Faraday and the EM field

In order to understand EM waves, we must understand the EM field. Note that an
EM field is made up of both electrical and magnetic components [10].
1-41
Electromagnetism is known as a ‘fundamental force’ in physics [30]. Another

example of a fundamental force is the gravitational force. You are probably well
aware of how the Earth’s gravitational force works on us each day.
In this section, we will try to unravel one of the most fundamental sets of laws in
electricity and magnetism. Please find and watch the video entitled ‘Einstein’s Big
Ideas.’ I’d highly recommend you watch it, as it has the drama that surrounds the
amazing discovery by Michael Faraday [31].
In physics, a field means that a physical quantity is assigned to every point in
space (or, more generally, spacetime). A field is seen as extending throughout a large
region of space so that it influences everything—‘an area.’ The strength of a field
usually varies over a region. Michael Faraday (figure 1.35) was thought to be the
first to coin the term ‘field’ [32].
Figure 1.35. Michael Faraday, although he received little formal education, performed fundamental research
on magnetism. It was Faraday who established the basis and initial concept of the electromagnetic field in
physics. Reproduced from Georgios Kollidas/stock.adobe.com.
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Natalie (pre-med biomedical engineering student) reflects on fields:

“When I hear the word field, the first thing that comes to my mind is
like a softball field (I played shortstop in school). I do not think this
is what Faraday had in mind when he coined the term, but that fact
that every point in space has a response (like a force) to items that
enter that field.
Also, what immediately comes to mind is a magnetic field, and I
know we have all seen that in pre-med physics. This is where the
instructor showed that we have the negative and positive ends of a
magnet with arrows extending out from each end, showing the field
(this can be seen below in figure 1.38). A more formal way to think of
a field is something that extends through a large region of space that
interacts with physics. In the physics realm, though, this field
influences everything around it and has a strength that varies,
depending on what point in the field you are at.”
Dr. Wu responded:
“Sounds like you are on your way to understanding fields in the
context of E&M.”
Amazingly, the use of ‘field’ appears for the first time in Faraday’s paper, ‘On new
magnetic actions,’ in 1846. Faraday was referring to a region in the vicinity of a
magnet affected by physical forces. Here is a direct quote from Faraday describing a
‘field’ [32]:
‘the capability of placing magnetic portions of matter one within another, and
so observing dynamic and other phenomena within magnetic media. In fact,
not only may these substances be placed as magnets in the magnetic field, but
the field generally may be filled with them, and then other bodies and other
magnets examined as to their joint or separate actions in it.’
1.4.5.1 Scaffolding box: review of vectors and vectorial pictures

Here we provide a very brief review of a vector and vector fields. A vector quantity
represents direction and magnitude, depicted as an arrow. Vectors are commonly used
in physics to represent component and net force within a system. See vector
representations in figure 1.36.
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Figure 1.36. The vector above represents a net displacement of 6 units to the left and 4 down, written as (6, -4).
Figure 1.37. You may also have encountered or find useful vector fields. Note the vector field showing wind
shear in the map above. This image has been obtained by the author from the Pixabay website where it was
made available under the Pixabay License. It is included within this article on that basis.
A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence of electric
charges in relative motion and magnetized materials. You have previously seen
other kinds of vector fields, probably including ones like the wind current map
shown in figure 1.36. You may also have encountered or find useful vector fields.
Note the vector field showing wind shear in the map. At each point in space, a
certain physical force can be visualized, as demonstrated in that image. Similarly, a
magnetic field can also be described as the magnetic effect of electric currents and
magnetic materials and expressed as a vector on a map (figure 1.37). The magnetic
field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or
strength).
It is helpful recognize this pattern of a vector field. These vector fields are
common to the depiction of magnetic fields, as seen as in figure 1.38.
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Figure 1.38. Note on the (left) iron filings follow the force lines around a simple bar magnet (reproduced from
milkchocolate/stock.adobe.com). (right) These can be turned in a visual vector field, which would also indicate
the directions of the flow (reproduced from Vasily Merkushev/stock.adobe.com).
1.4.5.2 Historical reference bubble: James Clerk Maxwell: consolidation of electrical

and magnetic phenomena through his famous equations still used to this day
James Clerk Maxwell (shown in figure 1.39) studied and commented on electricity and
magnetism in his paper ‘On Faraday’s lines of force.’ Maxwell presented a model of
Faraday’s work and how electricity and magnetism were related using a set of differential
equations. We still apply Maxwell equations today in MRI and other E&M devices.
Maxwell also calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is that
of the speed of light. He showed that the equations could predict the existence of waves of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through space at a speed that were
consistent with results as predicted from simple electrical experiments [9].
Figure 1.39. James C Maxwell was a Scottish scientist whose work unified electromagnetic radiation
equations. In this work electricity, magnetism and light were into a unified set of physics equations.
This ‘File:James Clerk Maxwell.png’ image has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia
website, where it is stated to have been released into the public domain. It is included within this article
on that basis.
Summary:
1. Static charge and attraction and repulsion of charge.
2. Fields.
3. There are equations (Maxwell’s equations shown in section 1.4.5.2) that can be
used to describe the physics of the EM field.
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Gail H. (neuroscience postdoctoral researcher) reflects on E&M

concepts:
“From reading these sections, it seems like Faraday was the great
experimentalist who demonstrated a lot of evidence that led to these
ideas. It was then I guess Maxwell who wrote them down as coherent
equations that we use even today. I think when I watched the videos it
was really super interesting. Some of the interesting terms that Maxwell
figured out in the E&M equations actually correlated with the speed of
light, making us realize that light itself is an E&M phenomenon. Light
is very fascinating and I’m really happy that I learned this.”
“In physics, electromagnetics consists of waves of the electromag-
netic (EM) field, propagating through space, that carry energy.”
1.5 Changing fields alter E&M

1.5.1 Concept number 4, changing electric field → makes magnetic field, and
changing magnetic field → makes electric field, which we can also provide names
to as Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and Ampère’s law (ΔE→M)
Thematically, these changes operate in the direction that follows the right-hand rule
that is often taught in high school and university physics classes. The right-hand rule
is a memorable tool that we have found helps connect students to the concepts of
ΔE →M field and ΔM→E field that we would like students to review and gain
greater intuition. To provide a name for these terms, we will describe them as
Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and Ampère’s law (ΔE→M) at this point, but we will next
try to provide more physical intuition about these concepts (as pictorialized in figure 1.40)
by suggesting an experimental lecture setup and pointing to a couple of videos on the
topic. Note, as mentioned in the historical box, that it was James C Maxwell who
combined the insights by Faraday and Ampère together mathematically that helped
consolidate the concepts (see section 1.4.5.2). These Maxwell equations are in
common use by engineers and physicists to this day, and this topic is highly relevant
to MRI scanner understanding and design.
Figure 1.40. (left) The central idea shown as a conceptual sketch of the relationship between electrical and
magnetic fields as the ‘key’ point of this subsection 1.5 (right). Also please review the right-hand rule, as the
direction of changing field effects is more easily recalled by using this simple hand mnemonic.
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1.5.1.1 Applied bubble: a simple thought experiment and application

If you are not able to perform this experiment that is seen in figure 1.41, then it is
informative to look at an image and imagine the effect of moving a magnet bar
between a loop of coil as shown in that figure. One way to gain more intuition on the
laws of E&M is to see that if you move a magnet back and
Figure 1.41. One way to gain more intuition on the laws of E&M is to see that if you move a magnet
back and forth through a loop of coil, a current will be created through the attached wire,
demonstrating that a changing magnetic field can produce a current. Reproduced from VectorMine/
stock.adobe.com.
forth through a loop of coil, a current will be created through the attached wire,
demonstrating that a changing magnetic field can produce a current. Do not worry; we
provided another experiment with a motor and voltmeter that also provides physical
intuition. However, the reader might consider watching the following Khan Academy
[33] video that provides additional information on the topic.
1.5.2 Putting together ΔM→E and ΔE→M—suggested experiment to run in class

As seen in figure 1.41, a central idea that we will discuss throughout the book is that
a changing magnetic field in a loop can induce a current, as well as how a changing
electric field in a loop can create a magnetic field. This can feel somewhat abstract,
and if it does, you are not alone! Realize that the discovery of this effect did not even
arise until the 19th century under scientists such as Faraday, Ampère, Maxwell,
Gauss, and others who were able to understand this concept.
Below is a simple experiment that you can do (or have your instructor do), with items
that are relatively inexpensive ($25–30 as of the current publication of this book). This
experiment demonstrates how a magnetic field can induce a current. Seeing is believing!
Items shown in figure 1.42 are used for an experiment to demonstrate the effect of
changing a magnetic field inducing a current. The wrench shown is just for
convenience. You can perform the experiment without vice grips or a wrench, as
long as you have a way to grip the ends of the motor so you can physically turn it.
For further description, see appendix 1.A.1 for the steps we used to help set up the
experiment.
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Figure 1.42. Items for experiment to demonstrate the effect of changing a magnetic field inducing a current.
The wrench shown is just for convenience. You can do the experiment without it.
Nick P. (third-year medical student) reflects on ΔM→E and ΔE→M:

“So, I understand that MRI scanner uses current passing through
coils to create the magnetic field, but what role does the magnetic
field play in producing the images that we are able to see?”
Dr. Wu replied:
“Hey Nick, that is a great question that lets me preview what is coming
up in chapter 2, where we discuss the MRI hardware through how the
machinery works. In chapter 3, we mainly discuss relaxation, signal-to-
noise, and contrast. Water content plays some role in the signal, but
what you end up seeing will be described by image weightings, which
can be described through the lens of relaxation (decay) that creates the
image contrast that our radiologists look at. I think your question
about how magnetic fields play to produce images is a sophisticated
one and will require the reading of several chapters to get to the ‘meat’
of the issue. Keep reading on, I think you are grasping these concepts.”
1.5.3 Electromagnets
The main magnet (which we will learn more about in chapter 2) used in a majority of
clinical magnets are of the electromagnet form. At this point, it is instructive to see
how a magnet can be constructed from electric current and coil loops. An electro-
magnet is a magnet that runs on the principle of electricity, as shown in figure 1.43.
We are able to create a changing electric field through the use of coils because the
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Figure 1.43. A video is presented that illustrates how to make a simple electromagnet [34, 35].
Reproduced from Fridas/stock.adobe.com.
current is changing directions in a loop. Note the interesting fact that unlike
permanent magnets (discussed in the appendix), the strength of an electromagnet
can be altered by changing the amount of electric current that flows through it and/or
just by increasing the number of loops. We will revisit this concept in chapter 2 when
we discuss the main magnetic field. Another thought-provoking fact is that we can
also simply reverse the north and south poles on the electromagnet just by changing
the direction of the flow of electricity.25
1.5.3.1 Physical laws

An electric circuit and magnetic field interact and can be ‘transformed’ into the
opposite, via Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and Ampère’s law (ΔE→M). Note that Maxwell
equations are how most physicists have integrated the concepts of E&M together
neatly into mathematical rules that include additional concepts, but we have simplified
the concepts here for the reader.
Discovered in 1823, Ampère’s law [36] relates the current passing through the loop
to be equal to the ‘integrated’ magnetic field. A current would be generated by a
changing electric field, for example. Another way of saying it is that the law states that
for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the magnetic field is
equal to the electric current.
Faraday’s law states that a change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
cause a voltage (EMF) to be ‘induced’ in the coil. Faraday’s law of induction is one of
the important concepts of electricity. It looks at the way changing magnetic fields can
cause current to flow in wires. Basically, it is a formula/concept that describes how
potential difference (voltage difference) is created and how much is generated. It’s a
huge concept to understand that the changing of a magnetic field can create voltage
[10]. Faraday’s experiments showed induction between coils of wire. In his experi-
ments, the liquid battery provides a current that flows through the small coil, creating a
magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But, when the
small coil is moved in or out of the large coil, the magnetic flux through the large coil
changes, inducing a current that is detected by the galvanometer [34].
25
In appendix 1.A.3.2, we describe a different type of magnet (the permanent magnet). In that case, the magnet
has been exposed to a field and no longer needs the changing electric field (i.e., current) to preserve its field. In
the case of the electromagnet, which is the majority of MRI systems today, if the magnet loses power, then the
system will quickly lose field.
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Finally, we move on to the very last concept, which is dipoles and precession.
With this last core item, we believe you can now scaffold a big chunk of MRI and
start focusing on the more intricate and intriguing parts of MRI.
1.6 Dipoles and precession

Despite the complexity of the topic, we will provide a conceptual approach
to understanding E&M. For those who are curious, please refer to the end
of our chapter for several references that provide more physics derivation.
For the purpose of a conceptual understanding, we provide you with the
following learner goals that are focused on the practicalities that an applied
clinician or researcher may consider for first understanding.
1. Dipoles model two physically separate ‘poles’ of opposite force. For magnet-
ism, one can generally consider the north and south poles of a magnet.
2. Dipole is a vector consisting of both direction and quantity.
3. Examine the difference between electrical dipoles and magnetic dipoles.
4. Understand that we are concerned with magnetic dipoles, which are
equivalent to a theoretical infinitesimal ring of current.
5. Conceptualize the idea of precession.
6. What is mechanical angular moment?
7. Elements needed for precession (i.e., tilt in the angular momentum and
gravity/main magnetic field).
As we discussed earlier, water functions as the key element to be measured in MRI.

Water is similar to a magnet, and the following section will describe how water is a
magnetic dipole. A central motivation for understanding the dipole is that it forms the
signal carriers in MRI. In chapter 2, the concept of measuring water molecules will be
further explored as it relates to hardware. The signals produced by water molecules
are very small in scale. Therefore, it makes sense that we would need a large magnet
such as that we use for MR scanners to be able to measure those signals. In order to
understand how this process works, we will proceed with reviewing what is a dipole.
1.6.1 What is a dipole?

Breaking down the concept, let us start with the basic word ‘di-pole.’ The word
DI-POLE indicates two poles, i.e., having two opposites. The type of dipole that we
are interested in is two opposing charges that are separated by a distance, such as an
electric dipole or, more importantly, a magnetic dipole. The magnetic dipole is the
source of the magnetic moment in MRI.
How do we study the dipole? First, take a positive charge and then put a negative
charge some distance away. The easiest way to think about these charges is with a
charge +Q (where Q is a numerical value) and a charge –Q. There are several reasons
that cause these molecules to be charged. One is molecular structures: there are positive
charges in one location and negative charges in another. One particular location of
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interest is the outside orbital of elements that are involved in the construction of a
molecule, as you may have previously learned in your chemistry classes.
This can be seen in molecules such as NaCl (table salt), where the chlorine in one part
of the molecule is electronegative and the sodium in another part of the molecule is more
positive. The presence of opposite charges results in polarity that acts like a vector. A
vector is a quantity that has a direction. With a positive and a negative charge, there is a
distance between the two that creates the dipolar model. When you stand very far away
from it, all you see in the distance is a single molecule. Up close, you can see the individual
charges. For the most part, if you start to add up many of these dipoles as vectors, you can
begin to see a magnitude and a direction in terms of a population of dipoles. In MRI, we
think of the population of magnetic dipoles as forming something called an isochromat
[38, p54], or the sum of all the individual dipoles as a unit.
We wanted to trigger your memory from your previous chemistry classes
(chemistry is a prerequisite class for medical students, radiological technologists,
and many other scientists and engineers). If you recall the ionic bond, it may help
further visualize the dipole. As seen in figure 1.44. NaCl, an ionic compound, is
shown with chemical bonds. A concrete way to think of practical dipoles is to
consider table salt, or in chemistry nomenclature, NaCl, written with its charges as
Na+ and Cl−. The ionic bonds between sodium and chlorine are shown with orbital
models. As will be seen in the figure below, the current is in an infinitesimal current
loop with a magnetic dipole.26
1.6.2 Magnetic dipole

It is important to understand that we are concerned with magnetic dipoles, which are
equivalent to a theoretical infinitesimal current ring. Magnetic monopoles (i.e.,
isolated magnetic charges) don’t exist in Nature. Isolated ‘m’ charges don’t exist as
single elements, but according to our current physics knowledge, we believe that
magnetic charges +m and–m come in pairs (i.e., magnetic monopoles are currently
considered not to exist in Nature).
Understand that a dipole is two poles. It represents or models the effect of two
physically separated equal and opposite charges. For magnetism, consider the N and S
poles of a magnet as representing opposite ‘poles’ of a system, as illustrated in figure 1.45.
Another way to create a magnetic dipole is to use electricity as a current in a
ring. Remember that we can turn a changing electric field into a magnetic field. So
if you can imagine a small infinitesimal loop of coil that had a small current in it,
the resulting system would function as a magnetic dipole.27 It is useful to
26
Note that we can also apply the ΔE → M and ΔM → E concept for relating to this concept for the
infinitesimal coil loop [38].
27
Brown et al describe the concept of this model in their book [38]. Recall a magnetic dipole moment as a pair
of magnetic charges with equal magnitudes and opposite signs separated by distance. The choice of the word
‘dipole’ is analogous to the way electric charges lead to electric dipole moments, though the concept for
magnetic dipole perhaps is better represented as the current loop. We will describe more about this concept in
section in 1.A.3.1 when it is also referred to as the magnetic moment. The word ‘dipole’ has its origin in this
model, which is acceptable to the current loop picture as long as we use it to investigate only the field outside
the moment structure.
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Figure 1.44. NaCl, an ionic compound, is shown with chemical bonds. A concrete way to think of
practical dipoles is to consider table salt, or in chemistry nomenclature, NaCl, written with its charges as
Na+ and Cl−. Reproduced from designua/stock.adobe.com
understand this model for future purposes. The direction of current proceeds in a
loop similar to how a magnetic field can generate current in a wire, as shown in
figure 1.46.
1-52
Figure 1.45. In this figure, we show applications of an electronic dipole (top), and a representation of the
magnetic dipole (bottom) [39].
Figure 1.46. A visual representation of a magnetic dipole (shown in red) as modeled by the small loop coil. Note,
the direction of the moment follows the right-hand rule, as shown in the figure to the left (reproduced from
ScientificStock/stock.adobe.com). A basic review of the right-hand rule (RHR) can be seen at Khan Academy.
Physical processes. MCAT. Test prep [40]. This Dipole magnetic-ring.svg image (right) has been obtained by the
authors from the Wikimedia website where it was made available by User:MikeRun under a CC BY-SA 3.0
licence. It is included within this article on that basis. It is attributed to User:Geek3 and User:MikeRun.
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Carlie P. (dancer and premedical student with chemistry and

psychology emphasis) reflection on the magnetic dipole:
“It seems like a bit of leap to go between the electric dipole and the
magnetic dipole. If there are isolated electric charges (monopoles)
that when bonded together form a dipole, wouldn’t that suggest
there are magnetic monopoles too? It’s hard for me to imagine why a
magnetic monopole does not exist, but I better understand this
concept when imagining a ring. While I can identify points along the
ring that are on opposite sides, it is an infinite loop that does not
have individual parts.”
Once we understand the ‘magnetic’ dipole, we can move on to deeper concepts

such as precession, which is the final part of this section and fifth core concept of this
chapter.
Natalie N. (premed) said:

“It’s nice to see this concept gone over several times—it’s making it
more clear. Also, it seems like there are several terms that mean
about the same thing, which is the magnetic dipole/magnetic
moment, which are actually two ways to refer to a very similar
principle in physics. I’m looking forward to seeing what happens
next, but I can also visualize this vector as being something that we
have to worry about or think about.”
1.6.3 Precession
We will find out in chapter 2 that the MRI scanners operate and work at the
precessional frequency (known as the Larmor frequency in MRI). The precessional
frequency is an important concept in the hardware of MRI. In fact, each magnet
will have to be tuned (much like a tuning fork to a certain frequency of operation)
to a specific frequency, as described by Catherine Westbrook [41]. To be useful,
there will be a specific frequency range for each field strength and molecule we are
attempting to image. In the clinical MRI case, this is typically water. First, it is
important to take a step back and examine what is precessional motion in simple
mechanics.
We found that it was most intuitive for students who may not have studied lots
of physics or have not seen it in many years to just visualize the spinning
gyroscopes and understand that there has to be intrinsic spin in protons for those
spins to be tipped and for the entire system to be placed in a large field (such as a
gravitational field for mechanical gyroscopes, and a magnetic field for protons in
MRI). For those who are interested in the physics approach to learning the topic,
please see appendix 1.A.3. Please consider watching the video link on precession in
figure 1.47.
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Figure 1.47. Gyroscopic motion is a key element to understand when it comes to the physics of precession. If
you like animations and want to get additional animation to help you see the vectors, refer to the video. This
illustrates how the angular momentum vector is affected by torque, causing precession. Note that appendix 1.A.3
further delves into the physics of precession. For those who are interested in more information, see [11].
The spinning motion of particles is known as precession.28 At any moment in

time, all of the billions of hydrogen protons in our bodies are in random positions
and spinning on their own axes. Water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. The hydrogen nucleus contains one positive charge a proton spinning
around on its axis, which acts like a tiny magnet reordered as an animation in
figure 1.48. Spinning objects, including protons, have angular momentum. Angular
momentum points along the axis of rotation. For those who are interested in the
physics approach to learning the topic, please see appendix 1.A.4. Please consider
watching the video link on precession in figure 1.47. Gyroscopic motion is a key
element to understand when it comes to the physics of precession. If you like
animations and want to get additional visualizations to help you see the vectors, refer
to the video. This illustrates how the angular momentum vector is affected by torque,
causing precession. Note that appendix 1.A.4 further delves into the physics of
precession, for those who are interested in more information [11].
We will find out in chapter 2 that the MRI scanners operate and work at the
precessional frequency (which is referred to as the Larmor frequency in MRI). We
will discuss Larmor frequency in a little more detail in chapter 2.
28
All physical materials have spin. One form of spin is a quantum-mechanical property akin to angular
momentum in classical physics. Spin angular momentum is an intrinsic (built-in) property, just like rest mass
and charge. Spin is carried by elementary particles and atomic nuclei. In MRI, we are most interested in the
proton, which we depicted in figure 1.22 (the spinning). A more detailed chemistry-based description is
contained in [42].
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Figure 1.48. A simplified look at precession. Notice the axis of the spin. Animation available at https://doi.org/
10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4.
1.6.4 Putting together the main idea: protons have ‘spin’ and thus angular momentum,
so they have ability for precession in the electrical sense just like gyroscopes
have the ability to precess in the mechanical domain
The Greek symbol phi shows the tipping angle on the picture, which refers to the
angle relative axis of precession (which is indicating what we will come to find out
will be the main field).29 The tipping angle will be later known as the ‘flip angle.’30
Justin N. (radiology attending) reflects on gyroscopes:

“I think the gyroscopes are very helpful in getting a truer concept of
what is happening on a molecular level in a magnetic field. Just being
able to see that not every molecule is perfectly lined up and may in
fact be upside down is helpful.”
Table 1.1 provides an important summary of precession for MRI. If you

memorize it and have gained some intuition of what the concept of precession is
29
We will learn more about the main field in section 2.2, as it is in the direction of the cylindrical bore of the magnet.
30
We will learn about the RF transmitter, which will be responsible for tipping the spins off the main axis, in
section 2.5.
1-56
Table 1.1. Comparison of roles of the mechanical gyroscope and the analogous particles in the E&M domain
(the latter relevant for MRI).
Mass MRI/NMR proton

Spinning top Spin in the ‘proton’
Angular momentum from mass Angular momentum intrinsic to atomic particles (the proton),
rotating intrinsic magnetic moment
Gravitation field Magnetic field (main field) must be very strong to get the
number of spins to be converted to signal
Tilting top, I tipped manually Tilting magnetic moment. But what is going to be able to tip
mechanically in this case it? (See RF transmit later)
Figure 1.49. Gyroscope example of physical precession compared with a proton example of atomic precession.
This ‘File:Gyroscope precession.gif’ image has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia website,
where it is stated to have been released into the public domain. It is included within this article on that basis.
Animation available at https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4.
and are able to relate it to spinning protons, it will help you in future concepts
through MRI, as seen in figure 1.49. It is not entirely essential that you fully grasp
the derivation. It may be sufficient for you to conceptualize that there is the effect of
E&M in MRI interaction with the protons in the body and that there is precession.
However, some of you may find that the topic is demystified to a point that you are
able to apply the concepts to connect the dots.
The Greek symbol phi (ϕ) shows the tipping angle on the picture, which refers to
the angle relative axis of precession (which is indicating what we will come to find
out will be the main field).31 The tipping angle will be later known as the ‘flip angle.’
31
We will learn more about the main field in section 2.2, as it is in the direction of the cylindrical bore of the magnet.
1-57
Table 1.1 provides an important summary of precession for MRI. If you

memorize it and have gained some intuition of what the concept of precession is
and are able to relate it to spinning protons, it will help you in future concepts
through MRI, as seen in figure 1.49. It is not entirely essential that you fully grasp
the derivation. It may be sufficient for you to conceptualize that there is the effect of
E&M in MRI interaction with the protons in the body and that there is precession.
However, some of you may find that the topic is demystified to a point that you are
able to trace the motion of precession.
This understanding will aid your ability to comprehend the clinical environment,
which includes ‘relaxation,’ MRI hardware, and pulse sequences, as well as
advanced applications later. As you work through those ideas, keep the concept
of precession and dipoles in mind.
Nick P. reflects on what is different or similar for precession in the

gyroscope versus precession of protons in a magnetic field:
“Table 1.1 helps solidify the different components that go into the
generation of the precession of the protons, and really helps me get a
better image of what is going on.”
If you have not quite yet understood all the concepts of spin and precession, you
will have further chances to see these concepts again in chapters 2 and 3, where we
will apply these ideas directly to MRI hardware and relaxation.
1.6.5 Knowledge check for the magnetic dipole

1. What is a dipole?
2. Can you describe the difference between electric dipoles and magnetic
dipoles?
3. Does water have both electric and magnetic dipoles?
4. Can you describe the elements that are required for precession?
Answers:
(1) A dipole represents two separate poles (one positive, one negative). The
magnitude and direction of the charge separation is indicated by using an
arrow (typically drawn starting from the positive charge, then pointing to
the negative direction).
(2) An electric dipole can be visualized as separate but opposite charges.
However, we visualize the magnetic moment simply as a dipole arrow
and/or a circular ring of current (they have a similar function, except that
magnetic solitary charges do not exist).
(3) Yes, water has both electric and magnetic dipoles.
(4) For mechanical precession, you need spinning angular momentum, in a
gravitational field with mass, something to tip the ‘top’ (torque is a turning
1-58
Figure 1.50. (Left) is a micro motor (silver). It functions through conversion in E&M energy. It has two leads
(red and black) that can be attached to the multimeter to convert magnetic current to electrical current [35].
(Right) inside the motor are magnets. The spinning assembly interacts and changes the fields (i.e., ΔM), so this
is what is generating the current.
force with lever arm). A top and a proton can be used to portray precession,
as shown in figure 1.50. For greater details, see appendix 1.A.3.
I-A Appendix of chapter 1

Five topics are included in this appendix:
In section 1.A.1, you will learn details about the less-than-$25
experiment that demonstrates that a changing magnetic field
produces current and a changing current can generate a change
in magnetic field. We found this to be the easiest way for students
to gain some intuition to see the direct application and observa-
tion of effects in class. Note, Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and
Ampère’s law (ΔE→M) are relied on, particularly in chapter 2,
when we cover how the RF receiver and RF transmitters work.
In section 1.A.2, you will learn scales of magnetic fields, units, and
relative field strength as compared with the earth’s magnetic field.
Learning the units of gauss and Tesla and their relative scale to
the earth’s magnetic field can provide intuition about the strength
of the fields produced in MRI scanners.
In section 1.A.3, you will receive a brief description of the physics

of precession and change in angular momentum. The intrinsic
knowledge of the mechanism of precession is obtainable by an
understanding of torque, and changing angular momentum in
a mechanical model can aid in developing intuition about the
physics of precession. Some advanced readers will be able to put
together the picture that incorporates application of the right-
hand rule.
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In section 1.A.4 you will conceptualize alignment of spins in a

strong magnetic field. Parallel and antiparallel spins will again
be revisited in greater detail in chapter 2. This parallel and
antiparallel concept of spin are essential to the understanding of
signal-to-noise levels in MRI also covered in that chapter.32
In section 1.A.5 you will understand what the ‘lattice’ in MRI is

(the topic is helpful to preview this concept for chapter 3, when we
cover T1 relaxation in more detail). Some students may have
heard of MRI relaxation (T1 and T2, for example). Relaxation
forms the key element for understanding of image contrast, and
spin-lattice requires the understanding of what is a ‘lattice.’ Thus,
this appendix can preview this fundamental topic before we
explore the idea in later chapters in applications.
1.A.1 Description of the experimental setup for ΔE → M and ΔM → E

Want to try your own E&M experiment for under approximately $25 at the time of
writing this book? Also, you might be able to borrow the multimeter, and a small
motor could be found at any university lab, extracted from a discarded toy, or ordered
easily online, which could reduce your cost. Below are a few links that we used at the
time of writing this book, but you may have to search for them if the links are no longer
working at a later date.
1. Digital multimeter [43].
2. Motor. You can see the addition of the electric current [44].
Note that vice grips (see vice grips in figure 1.50) provide easier manipulation of
the motor. Alternatively, you can use any wrench or attachment device, and even
some paper clips could be bent to create a lever to turn the motor.
Below is a digital multimeter, which measures electrical current and voltage. A
digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values—
principally voltage (volts), current (amps), and/or resistance (ohms). It is a standard
diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries (figure 1.50).
1. Attach the positive and negative ends of the leads to the respective spots on the
multimeter (see figure 1.51).
2. After connecting, turn on the multimeter to any voltage. It will read at 0 or –0. In
order for the multimeter to read a voltage, you must create a current. A wrench
32
This is important, as when working with equipment you will need to understand what parameters are being
used by that hardware, not only for day-to-day operations, but also for when you are purchasing equipment
for your facility. It is also essential to understand parameters for MRI safety, as certain devices are conditional
for scanning in the MRI environment. Parameters will allow you to meet guidelines. Without that knowledge,
it will be more difficult to ascertain the appropriateness of conditions and the components used in MRI.
1-60
Figure 1.51. Step 1—attach leads with alligator clips. Note that these motors do not necessarily require
polarity, so you connect the black and red to either side of the motor.
attached to the motor will do this. However, as you can see, when just attached,
the meter still reads at zero (see figure 1.52) before you have rotated the wrench.
3. Then, once you begin to rotate the wrench around the motor, the multimeter
detects a current due to the changes in the magnetic field inside the motor
(see figure 1.53 to observe a magnet configuration inside of the motor). Rotating
the wrench causes a disturbance in the charges of the magnetic field. Then, these
charges create a current that can be transformed into electrical activity, since
magnetic fields are caused by electric currents.
Finally, recall the times you’ve put batteries in a toy and suddenly you see a
motor turning, such as in a toy car. This comes from the fact that a changing current
can induce changes in the magnetic field. The magnetic field drives the motor of the
car! I hope if you do this experiment that you also feel the significance of the motor
and what it has meant to us in our lives, as many things would not be possible
without the electric motor.
1.A.2 Units
The familiarity and sense of the scale of units and the magnitude of magnetic units is
important to MRI (figure 1.47). Magnet units are a licensing board testable topic
and can be equally important to learn for clinical understanding.
Below is a bulleted list for you to memorize:
▪ The goal of this section is to understand scales of magnetic units (Tesla and
Gauss) and relative strength to as it relates to the strength of Earth’s magnetic
field.
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Figure 1.52. Step 2—attach the wrench, vice grips, or whatever you can form a simple way to grip the motor so
you can turn it quickly.
Figure 1.53. Step 3—rotate the wrench or lever you created. You will see that the multimeter registers a voltage
indicating that there is current being generated by the action of the changes in the magnetic fields of the motor.
1-62
Figure 1.54. As shown on the figure to the left, we are well familiar with how gravity influences the space
around the earth is used to explain the influence that a mass extends into the space that surrounds that area
above the earth’s source. This gravity is producing a force on other bodies of mass. However, there is also a
magnetic field, as shown on the right figure, in the Earth’s field.
▪ An MRI magnet has 20,000 times the Earth’s magnetic field. As you learn
more about MRI, it is important to learn the scales of units of the magnetic
field. 1 Tesla = 10 000 Gausss.
▪ Note, for a sense of scale of field strength, the Earth’s magnetic field is about
0.5 to 1.0 Gausss.
▪ Main magnetic fields are on the order of Tesla (i.e., 1.5 T or 3 T) and the
gradient strengths are on the order of tens of Gausss cm–1.
1.A.3 Further discussion on magnetic moments and magnetic domains

This section follows up on key concepts related to the magnetic moment. As we
previously discussed in the dipole section, we have a north and south pole associated
with magnetic dipoles. The missing link to these concepts is that these poles are
separated by a distance. A moment is a physics quantity. In physics, a moment is an
expression involving the product of a distance and physical quantity, and in this
way, it accounts for how the physical quantity is located or arranged.
Moments are usually defined with respect to a fixed reference point; they deal
with physical quantities located at some distance relative to that reference point.
Magnetic moments are nearly synonymous33 with the concept of a magnetic
dipole, and you may hear these words used interchangeably.
A particle with a magnetic dipole moment is often referred to as a magnetic
dipole. (A magnetic dipole may be thought of as a tiny bar magnet.) To date,
singular magnetic charges that would be called magnetic monopoles have not yet
33
We have a section on magnetic dipole moment in MRI because people have described the MRI physics through
discussion of magnetic dipoles and magnetic moments. There may be subtle differences between concepts in the
two nomenclatures, but effectively in the clinic and in translational research you may hear these terms nearly
being synonymously applied to describe the sample and why that sample may have precession.
1-63
been found to exist in Nature [31]. Thus, a simple model that describes an
infinitesimal loop coil has been proposed to be a reasonable approximation. The
model magnetic dipole has a magnetic field as such a magnet and reacts to the
influences of external magnetic fields. When placed in an external magnetic field, a
magnetic dipole can be subjected to a torque that tends to align it with the field; if the
external field is not uniform, the dipole also can be subjected to a force [39].
1.A.3.1 Magnetic moment

In MRI, we are using the magnetic moment, which is an advanced topic. We will provide some
references in this appendix 1.A.3.1 for those who seek to have a more physics-based approach
to understanding MRI (figure 1.55). As a ‘simplified’ model, you can think of moments as
infinitesimal magnets combined in space (see magnet domains in appendix 1.A.3.2).
Magnetic moments are a fundamental concept in physics. Specifically, the term
magnetic moment normally refers to a system’s magnetic dipole moment, the
component of the magnetic moment that can be represented by an equivalent
magnetic dipole: a magnetic north and south pole separated by a very small distance.34
1.A.3.2 Learning about permanent magnets and domains

It is instructive to provide a little more information on magnetic domains, which are
a major part of permanent magnets. The kind of magnets we use in MRI are
typically of the electromagnetic type that we described in section 1.5.3, i.e., loops of
coil that follow Faraday’s law (ΔM→E) and Ampère’s law (ΔE→M). However,
there are some MRI systems that use permanent magnets, which we describe below.
Figure 1.55. Magnetic dipoles can be represented as tiny magnets of microscopic to subatomic dimensions, and would
have physics that result in equivalent behavior to an electric charge going around a loop. Rotating, positively-charged atomic
nuclei all act as magnetic dipoles. Note: I = current, m = magnetic moment, s = surface area of the coil in this diagram.
34
The magnetic dipole moment of an object can be expressed in terms of the torque that the object experiences
in a given magnetic field. Recall that a dipole may be represented to be a vector. The same applied magnetic
field (created by the main magnet field) creates larger torques on objects with larger magnetic moments. The
strength (and direction) of this torque depends not only on the magnitude of the magnetic moment, but also on
its orientation relative to the direction of the magnetic field, as will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 2.
1-64
Permanent magnets35 typically are constructed by the magnetization of a piece of

ferromagnetic material. Strange and wonderful is the world of magnetism. What
happens in this world is that it divides into many small regions called magnetic
domains. These domains are separated from each other by spatial boundaries called
domain walls. The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform direction,
but the magnetization of different domains may point in different directions.
A magnetic domain is highly relevant to permanent magnets, i.e., those magnets
that have been exposed to a field and retain their strength without active energy.
Note the picture of magnetic domains, as shown in figure 1.56. One fascinating
component of these domains is that it seems you can keep on cutting them into
smaller and smaller regions and they return this infinitesimal property, which is a
region of dipoles that point in a direction; this region is known as a magnetic
domain.
1.A.4 More on electricity and magnetism

Earlier in this chapter, we drew an analogy between the spinning proton and a more
tangible spinning gyroscope. In fact, in class, we bring in physical models for the
residents and technologists to see. This approach seems to help learners visualize the
precession and helps them bridge the concepts into practice.
Once students have gained some confidence with the macro description of a
gyroscope, the next learning opportunity applies the nature of imaging through a
little loop of current generating a magnetic moment. Note that this simulation has
intentional imperfections to illustrate the variation across a variety of theoretical
spins. From visualizing an ensemble of rotating magnetic moments, we can also
consider the appearance and construction of magnetic domains, as shown in
figure 1.56 [36]. Ensembles of spins are magnetic moments that have angular
Figure 1.56. Magnetic domains are portions of magnetic materials (shown to the left). When exposed to a field,
the dipoles can align, as shown to the right.
35
Permanent magnets are similar to those that you may have worked or played a lot with when you were
younger. They are energized by an initial magnetization and retain that magnetization for some time.
Electromagnetics like loop coils with current that creates the magnetization through Maxwell equations
(particularly Ampère’s Law are a different form) are the primary form of magnet that is used in MRI to create
the large magnetic fields we typically use in most MRI systems.
1-65
Figure 1.57. When a magnet is cut in half, the poles are not isolated. Cutting a magnet in half only produces
more magnets. See video for a live experiment performed by the YouTube presenter [45].
Figure 1.58. A precessing gyroscope is shown, which may evoke memories from the reader’s childhood.
It definitely has been a part of mine and many others who received this ‘serendipitous’ gift when they were
young [46]. Animation available at https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4. This ‘File:Gyroscope preces-
sion.gif’ image has been obtained by the author from the Wikimedia website, where it is stated to have been
released into the public domain. It is included within this article on that basis.
momentum. It could be nice for some advanced readers to do a little physical

analysis and comparison between the linear/straight-line components comparing
effects, as shown in table 1.2.
To understand this, consider the relationship between force (mass × acceleration)
to be the time derivative of linear momentum (mass × velocity)36.
The analogy in rotation is the torque (which is an angular force) to have a time
derivative equal to the angular momentum, figure 1.58. As seen in figure 1.59, the
change in angular momentum of a gyroscope will be perpendicular to the torque by
the right-hand rule. Thus, the gyroscope rotates around in a circle at a rate known as
precession. Rather than look at equations, you can gather the sense of the motion of
the mechanical gyroscope and translate those ideas to a spinning proton. That
36
F = ma and p = mv. Note p is the symbol for linear momentum. Also recall that acceleration is the time
derivative of velocity and so the relationship between force and momentum is the derivative in time.
1-66
Figure 1.59. Shown in the figure is torque, with all the parts of the ‘recipe’ for torque in a gyroscope. This is
important because soon we will make an analogy between the spinning top and a spinning proton (i.e., part of
the hydrogen atom) [46].
Table 1.2. Comparison of formula between the linear frame and rotating frame for comparison.
Linear/straight-line motion Rotational motion
Distance Δx Δθ
Velocity v ω
Acceleration a α
Inertia M (mass) I (rotational inertia)
Inertia x Acceleration F (force) τ (torque)
Momentum P = mv L = Iω
Table 1.3. Elements required for precession in the E&M model with protons in MRI.
MRI/NMR elements needed for precession and spin of the ‘proton’

Angular momentum intrinsic to atomic particles (the proton)
Magnetic field (main field), which must be very strong to get the number of spins to be converted
to signal
Tilting magnetic moment. But what is going to be able to tip it? (see RF transmitter later in
section 2.5 in chapter 2 on MRI hardware)
approach would be sufficient to glean the overarching concept of precession. This

section attempted to help describe the thinking pattern that physicists and engineers
understand when they think of precession.
A more detailed explanation of the physics of a gyroscope can be seen in [47].
Table 1.3 is a shorter table that focuses on the dipole moments and precession in
MRI as a comparison with the mechanical derivation [47].
Some of this information can be difficult to understand, but serves as a
PREVIEW for future concepts that will be discussed in this book. This is
important for understanding the properties of matter that are interacting with
E&M fields (important for T1 and T2 relaxation, which is a topic in chapter 3).
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1.A.5 Populations of spins (parallel and anti-parallel spins)

Ever wonder how they discovered some of the fundamental portions of physics that are
related to magnetic spin that are relevant for MRI? If so, please read on. Since we have
discussed dipoles, then at this point it is good to introduce the reasons for the up and
down states of spins. Understanding up and down spins (i.e., parallel and antiparallel
spins) is further covered in the main field section of chapter 2 section 2.2.6. The
following is a preview of that material.
As you recall, we described how protons have ‘spin,’ which is intrinsic. But in
MRI, we are concerned with many protons. From a single spin, we will move to
discussing what happens in an environment with multiple spins (a population of
spins). Each spin aligns either parallel or antiparallel to the field. Each
orientation has a different energy. The parallel spins have a lower energy state,
while the antiparallel is in a higher state. If you add all the vectors of spins up,
there will be a composite signal (isochromat) that will generate the net magnetic
moment, which will be measurable by techniques like MRI. If you want to read
more, please go to chapter 2, where we discuss this again in terms of the main
magnet (figure 1.60).
Now the energy difference is a very slight difference between energy levels. This
means that there is only a slight difference in the number of ‘spins,’ i.e., that will be
between the lower and upper energy state. The ratio of differences in population can
be on the order of tenths of a million. This is why the number of molecules of water in
the body is so vital in MRI. The high availability of protons (i.e., in water) is what
permits there to be enough signal (figure 1.61).
1.A.6 Introduction to the ‘lattice’ in MRI

At some point in your MRI journey, you’ll likely hear the word or concept of ‘lattice’
being thrown around, particularly when you hear about spin-lattice relaxation, which
Figure 1.60. (A) For those curious about the historical experimental perspective, it is instructive to look at the
original Stern–Gerlach experiment in 1921, in which a beam of silver atoms passed through a magnetic field
[48]. The spot on the receiving plate was found to split into two, each having approximately the same size. The
detected distributions were approximately half the intensity of a spot in the middle without the application of
the magnetic field. This was the original experiment that illustrates a ‘quantized’ result. (B) Energy level
representation of parallel and antiparallel spins. The ‘minute’ differences (on the order of parts per million)
between the parallel and antiparallel spin distributions were determined later by another experiment, as shown
in this figure [48].
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Figure 1.61. Application of a magnetic field B0 aligns the spins parallel and antiparallel. Take-home message:
in the presence of a strong and constant magnet field, alignment of spins creates two conditions: one in the
direction of the main field (parallel) and the other in the opposite (antiparallel). The difference is small, but
there are slightly more in the parallel direction.
is also known as T1-relaxation.37 It is instructive to consider this physically relatable

analogy with heat and exchange with the surrounding environment.
Natalie N. (premed & biomedical engineering student) thinks about

the significance of the Stern-Gerlach experiment:
“I remember learning about this experiment in physics, and this
experiment was significant because it proved some concepts that
people had theorized for a long time. But why does the field matter?
I understand that the particles split when they pass through the field
and go into two locations as opposed to a single smear, but how
does this apply to MRI? I’m having trouble seeing the big picture
here.”
Dr. Wu replies:
“Hi, Natalie. Yes, this may be hard to recognize, but it’s the
impetus for the parallel and anti-parallel spins that we talk about in
chapter 2 (section 2.2.6). If it was a continuous smear of locations
instead of the two that this experiment shows, then the response
would be continuous. However, what was shown is that there are
two different states into which spins are grouped by magnetization.
Keep up the great thoughts and ideas. You are seeing lots of
important concepts that we will revisit later and definitely ‘up’ and
‘down’ spins are an important concept in MRI to wrap your head
around.”
The lattice is as much a concept as it is a physical structure. It’s easy to get lost in
the details of how it ‘works’ and what it means, but we can describe the lattice as
37
Synonyms for T1 relaxation include longitudinal relaxation, thermal relaxation, and spin-lattice relaxation
(www.mriquestions.com) [49].
1-69
representing the environment or reservoir that surrounds the ‘irradiated’ object.

Energy must therefore leave the spin system for T1 relaxation to occur.38 This
energy loss is unrecoverable and represents the transfer of heat; hence the origin of
the T1 synonym ‘thermal relaxation.’ This energy must be transferred somewhere,
and that ‘somewhere’ is into nearby nuclei, atoms, and molecules through collisions,
rotations, or electromagnetic interactions.
T1-relaxation can be described through the energy exchange between spins and
their external environment. This energy is dispersed quickly. Please recall the law of
conservation of energy; energy needs to go somewhere so that the sum of all energies
ends up being conserved. We will see the applied topic of relaxation as covered in
chapter 3, but we will then proceed on to the next chapter, where we discuss five
different hardware components of MRI.
Now that you have come to this point, have you ever thought about the
conservation of energy and MRI? It turns out that MRI has a mechanism for
exchange for spins with something called the lattice. As the energy returns to its
equilibrium state, it has to send its energy somewhere.
When I describe this in class. we discuss the ‘heat’ analogy as described above,
when you place a coffee cup with hot liquid on a table. We ask the students where
they think the heat goes from the liquid as it cools down, as shown in figure 1.62.
Figure 1.62. Imagine a delicious cup of hot coffee (left) that you place on a table (reproduced from
luckybusiness/stock.adobe.com). Note what happens to the heat energy if you leave the coffee on the table
for some period of time. The heat gets exchanged with the surrounding environment (right) (reproduced from
nikolya/stock.adobe.com). There is an analogy in MRI between the excited spins and where they can exchange
their energy, which is called the ‘lattice.’
38
We will find in chapter 2 that we must excite the spins to get an image. Spins are the essence of signal in
MRI. The excitation of these signals is part of the mechanism that produces the image contrast. But once they
have been excited, where does all the energy end up going?
1-70
The answer is the ‘environment.’ The lattice is like that environment of spins with
which the energy of spins can exchange energy after being excited. It’s not a perfect
analogy, but it provides the learner an opportunity to visualize a complex concept
such as the lattice, which we describe below.
In physics, a lattice model describes a region as being a lattice as opposed to a
continuous space. Lattice models originally occurred in the context of condensed
matter physics, where the atoms of a crystal automatically form a lattice. A dipole
lattice is the main physics structure that we will be considering, particularly
with T1-relaxation. First, recall the conservation of energy. We can describe the lattice
as representing the environment or reservoir that surrounds the ‘irradiated’ object.
(Note that this is a new concept here. The radiation is induced by RF energy, which in
turn is transferred to the magnetic dipoles of the object, in our case, water.) However,
the irradiated object will eventually decay, and this will then return the energy to its
surroundings. The surroundings in our case is the ‘lattice.’ We will revisit this concept
when we talk about T1-Relaxation in chapter 3 (figure 1.63) [49].
Finally, this interlude provides a brief conceptual understanding that dipoles have
directional influence, as well as influencing each other as an ensemble. Dipole
interactions are the basis of relaxation parameters in MRI.
Summary:
1) We already looked at the impact of exposing the spins to a large magnet field
(they align to states, parallel and antiparallel).
2) Consider what happens if you expose them to some energy that tips them
away from their equilibrium positions.
Figure 1.63. The lattice models the environment surrounding individual spins. It will be useful to have heard of
this concept later when you study T1 relaxation (spin-lattice relaxation). Further, when spins attempt to return
to the main field, the energy for that must go somewhere by conservation of energy.
1-71
3) However, when things are tipped away from equilibrium positions, they
want to go back to their original states. Let us finally pause and review the
coffee cup analogy. When the coffee cools down, where does the heat energy
go? It must go somewhere by conservation of energy. Excited spins as they
return to the equilibrium state will exchange energy with the aforementioned
‘lattice.’ This enables the conservation of energy of the entire system.
4) The lattice describes a ‘theoretical space’ of spins outside the sample. The
sample naturally wants to return to its equilibrium position. It must
exchange energy with something (by conservation of energy). Energy ends
up being conserved if the spins in the sample that are returning to their
equilibrium state in the field end up exchanging their energy with this
‘lattice.’
References
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title=List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine…oldid=1065446407
[2] van Beek E J R et al 2019 Value of MRI in medicine: more than just another test? J. Magn.
Reson. Imag. 49 e14–25
[3] Martinos T (n.d.) Center for Biomedical Imaging (Retrieved April 6, 2022) https://www.nmr.
mgh.harvard.edu/training
[4] Friston K Statistical parametric mapping https://fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/
[5] Schild H H and Berlex Laboratories 1999 MRI Made Easy (...well Almost) (Wayne, NJ:
Berlex Laboratories)
[6] Gaillard F and Baba Y 2021 Dural tail sign Radiopaedia.org (accessed 26 January 2022)
https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-1247
[7] Khan Academy. Introduction to waves https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
mechanical-waves-and-sound/mechanical-waves/v/introduction-to-waves
[8] Khan Academy. Light: Electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum and photons
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electromagnetic-spectrum
[9] Encyclopaedia Britannica https://britannica.com/science/Maxwells-equations
[10] Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law. Boundless Physics (n.d.) (Retrieved April 6,
2022) https://courses.lumelearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetic-flux-induction-
and-faradays-law/
[11] Callaghan P 2009 Introductory NMR & MRI: Video 01: Precession and Resonance https://
youtu.be/7aRKAXD4dAg?t=122
[12] Boulder, U.O.C. Waves Intro (retrieved January 2022) https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simu-
lation/waves-intro
[13] Stafanick G 2015 Frequency, cycle, wavelength, amplitude and phase https://blogs.arubanet-
works.com/industries/frequency-cycle-wavelength-amplitude-and-phase/
[14] Aruba Blogs 2015 Frequency, cycle, wavelength, amplitude and phase https://blogs.aruba-
networks.com/industries/frequency-cycle-wavelength-amplitude-and-phase/
[15] Inductiveload 2008 A diagram of the EM spectrum, showing the type, wavelength(with
examples), frequency, the black body emission temperature. Temporary file for gauging
response to an improved version of this file. Adapted from EM_Spectrum3-new.jpg, which is
a NASA image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM_Spectrum_Properties_it.svg
1-72
[16] Engineerguy 2014 (4/4) Operation: The details of setting up the Harmonic Analyzer https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=jfH-NbsmvD4
[17] 3Blue1Brown 2018 But what is the Fourier Transform? A visual introduction https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=spUNpyF58BY
[18] Gallagher T A, Nemeth A J and Hacein-Bey L 2008 An introduction to the Fourier
transform: relationship to MRI Am. J. Roentgenol. 190 1396–405
[19] Boulder, U.O.C. Fourier: Making waves https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/cheerpj/fourier/lat-
est/fourier.html?simulation=fourier
[20] 2018 SmarterEveryDay What is a Fourier Series? (Explained by drawing circles)—Smarter
Every Day 205 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ds0cmAV-Yek&t=52s
[21] MRI image formation - Objectives (n.d.) IMAIOS. Retrieved March 22, 2022 https://www.
imaios.com/en/e-Courses/e-MRI/The-Physics-behind-it-all/Spatial-frequency-image-contrast-
and-resolution
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shapes-basics/latest/molecule-shapes-basics_en.html
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boundless-biology/chapter/water/
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v=UukRgqzk-KE
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water/v/hydrogen-bonding-in-water?modal=1
[27] Milani G P, Bianchetti M G, Mazzoni M B M, Triulzi F, Mauri M C, Agostini C and
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133/3/e771/tab-figures-data
[28] Why Is My Hair Staticky? How to Get Rid of Hair Static This Winter Redken (Retrieved
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fight-it
[29] Rains H 2018 9 ways to stop getting static hair; from old wives’ tales to must-have products Good
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to-stop-static-hair-products-tips-tricks/
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[31] PBS. Movie: Einstein’s Big Idea https://pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/einsteins-big-idea/
[32] Faraday M and Royal Society (Great Britain) 1846 On new magnetic actions, and on the
magnetic condition of all matter, continued c. 1 R. Soc. https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.389652.
mq591311
[33] Khan Academy Electromagnetic induction (& Faraday’s experiments) https://www.khana-
cademy.org/science/in-in-class10th-physics/in-in-magnetic-effects-of-electric-current/electro-
magnetic-induction/v/electromagnetic-induction-faradays-experiments
[34] Khan Academy What is Faraday’s Law? https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
magnetic-forces-and-magnetic-fields/magnetic-flux-faradays-law/a/what-is-faradays-law
1-73
[35] K&J Magnetics 2015 K&J Magnetics–Electromagnet Experiment https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=9NniZSJL6Xs
[36] 7activestudio 2016 THE BAR MAGNET https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWQfL5IJTaQ
[37] Encyclopaedia Britannica Ampère’s Law https://www.britannica.com/science/Amperes-law
[39] Magnetic dipole | physics | Britannica (n.d.). Retrieved March 9, 2022 https://www.
britannica.com/science/magnetic-dipole
[40] Khan Academy. Physical processes. MCAT. Test prep https://www.khanacademy.org/test-
prep/mcat/physical-processes/magnetism-mcat/a/usingthe-right-hand-rule
[41] Westbrook C and Talbot J 2018 MRI in Practice 5th edn (New York: Blackwell)
[42] Kohama Y, Ishikawa H, Matsuo A, Kindo K, Shannon N and Hiroi Z 2019 Possible
observation of quantum spin-nematic phase in a frustrated magnet Proc. Natl Acad. Sci.
USA 116 10686–90
[43] AstroAI Multimeter 2000 Counts Digital Multimeter with DC AC Voltmeter and Ohm Volt
Amp Tester; Measures Voltage, Current, Resistance; Tests Live Wire, Continuity -
Amazon.com. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2022 https://www.amazon.com/AstroAI-Digital-
Multimeter-Voltage-Tester/dp/B01ISAMUA6/ref=sr_1_5?dchild=1&keywords=multimeter&
qid=1595721751&sr=8%E2%80%935
[44] Amazon.com: Uxcell DC 6V 500RPM Micro Speed Reduction Motor Mini Gear Box with 2
Terminals for RC Car Robot Model DIY Engine: Toys & Games. (n.d.). Retrieved February
16, 2022 https://www.amazon.com/uxcell-18000RPM-Speed-Micro-Motor/dp/B00TX2Z6
OQ/ref=sr_1_60?dchild=1&keywords=Motor&qid=1595722026&sr=8%E2%80%9360
[45] QM Oxford 2019 Magnetism: Cutting a magnet in half https://youtu.be/q0d_SS-0Puk?t=162
[46] Lumen University Physics Volume 1. 11.4 Precession of a gyroscope https://courses.
lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/11-3-precession-of-a-gyroscope/
[47] van Biezen M 2016 Physics - Mechanics: The Gyroscope (3 of 5) The Torque of a Spinning
Gyroscope https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qS_dcNqs3d4
[48] Gerlach W and Stern O 1922 Der experimentelle Nachweis der Richtungsquantelung im
Magnetfeld Zeit. Phys. 9 349–52
[49] T1 relaxation (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved April 6, 2022 http://
mriquestions.com/what-is-t1.html
[50] Christian W and Forinash K 2018 Adding two linear waves (superposition) https://
compadre.org/osp/EJSS/4030/138.htm
1-74
Full list of references

Prelims
[1] Radiopaedia.org, the wiki-based collaborative Radiology resource (n.d.) Radiopaedia.
Retrieved April 3, 2022, from https://radiopaedia.org/
[2] Vaughan J T and Griffiths J R (eds) 2012 RF Coils for MRI (1st edn) (New York: Wiley)
[3] T2-FLAIR (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/t2-flair.html
[4] Diffusion (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/diffusion-basic.html
[5] Breast DCE (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from http://
mriquestions.com/breast-dce.html
[6] MRA methods (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from
http://mriquestions.com/mra-methods.html
[7] Physics modules (n.d.) Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://www.rsna.org/education/
trainee-resources/physics-modules
[8] Abrahams R B, Huda W and Sensakovic W F 2019 Imaging Physics Case Review (New
York: Elsevier)
[9] Lionheart P 2017 Radiologic Physics—War Machine (independently published)
[10] Westbrook C and Talbot J 2018 MRI in Practice (5th edn) (New York: Wiley–Blackwell)
[11] Powers S J 2021 MRI Physics: Tech to Tech Explanations (New York: Wiley)
[12] Bushberg J T, Seibert J A Leidholt E M Jr and Boone J M 2011 The Essential Physics of
Medical Imaging (3rd edn) (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins)
[14] Brown R W, Cheng Y-C N, Haacke E M, Thompson M R and Venkatesan R 2014
Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles and Sequence Design 2nd edn (New York:
Wiley)
Elsevier)
[16] Nishimura D G 1996 Principes of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University)
[17] Schild H H 1997 MRI: Made Easy (2nd edn) (Berlin: Schering AG)
[18] XRayPhysics—Interactive Radiology Physics (n.d.) Retrieved 3 April 2022 from http://
xrayphysics.com/
[19] Albert Einstein College of Medicine 2014 Introducing MRI: The Basics (1 of 56) https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=35gfOtjRcic
[20] Magnetic Resonance Imaging (n.d.) Retrieved April 3, 2022, from http://www.sprawls.org/
mripmt/
[21] McGee K, Williamson E and Martinez M (eds) 2015 Mayo Clinic Guide to Cardiac Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (2nd edn) (Oxford: Oxford University Press)
[22] Hashemi R H 1997 MRI: The Basics (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins)
[23] The Basics of MRI (n.d.) Retrieved April 3, 2022, from https://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/
inside.htm
[24] Lipton M R 2010 Totally Accessible MRI: A User’s Guide to Principles, Technology, and
Applications (Cham: Springer)
[25] Dale B M, Brown M A and Semelka R C 2015 MRI: Basic Principles and Applications
(5th edn) (New York: Wiley–Blackwell)
[26] Bushing S C and Clarke G 2013 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical and Biological
Principles (Amsterdam: Elsevier)
Chapter 1
[1] List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine…oldid=1065446407
[2] van Beek E J R et al 2019 Value of MRI in medicine: more than just another test? J. Magn.
Reson. Imag. 49 e14–25
[3] Martinos T (n.d.) Center for Biomedical Imaging (Retrieved April 6, 2022) https://www.nmr.
mgh.harvard.edu/training
[4] Friston K Statistical parametric mapping https://fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/
[5] Schild H H and Berlex Laboratories 1999 MRI Made Easy (...well Almost) (Wayne, NJ:
Berlex Laboratories)
[6] Gaillard F and Baba Y 2021 Dural tail sign Radiopaedia.org (accessed 26 January 2022)
https://doi.org/10.53347/rID-1247
[7] Khan Academy Introduction to waves https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
mechanical-waves-and-sound/mechanical-waves/v/introduction-to-waves
[8] Khan Academy. Light: Electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum and photons
https://khanacademy.org/science/physics/light-waves/introduction-to-light-waves/a/light-
and-the-electromagnetic-spectrum
[9] Encyclopaedia Britannica https://britannica.com/science/Maxwells-equations
[10] Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law. Boundless Physics (n.d.) (Retrieved April 6,
2022) https://courses.lumelearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetic-flux-induction-
and-faradays-law/
[11] Callaghan P 2009 Introductory NMR & MRI: Video 01: Precession and Resonance https://
youtu.be/7aRKAXD4dAg?t=122
[12] Boulder, U.O.C. Waves Intro (retrieved January 2022) https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simu-
lation/waves-intro
[13] Stafanick G 2015 Frequency, cycle, wavelength, amplitude and phase https://blogs.arubanet-
works.com/industries/frequency-cycle-wavelength-amplitude-and-phase/
[14] Aruba Blogs 2015 Frequency, cycle, wavelength, amplitude and phase https://blogs.aruba-
networks.com/industries/frequency-cycle-wavelength-amplitude-and-phase/
[15] Inductiveload 2008 A diagram of the EM spectrum, showing the type, wavelength(with
examples), frequency, the black body emission temperature. Temporary file for gauging
response to an improved version of this file. Adapted from EM_Spectrum3-new.jpg, which is
a NASA image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM_Spectrum_Properties_it.svg
[16] Engineerguy 2014 (4/4) Operation: The details of setting up the Harmonic Analyzer https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=jfH-NbsmvD4
[17] 3Blue1Brown 2018 But what is the Fourier Transform? A visual introduction https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=spUNpyF58BY
[18] Gallagher T A, Nemeth A J and Hacein-Bey L 2008 An introduction to the Fourier
transform: relationship to MRI Am. J. Roentgenol. 190 1396–405
[19] Boulder, U.O.C. Fourier: Making waves https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/cheerpj/fourier/lat-
est/fourier.html?simulation=fourier
[20] 2018 SmarterEveryDay What is a Fourier Series? (Explained by drawing circles)—Smarter

Every Day 205 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ds0cmAV-Yek&t=52s
[21] MRI image formation - Objectives (n.d.) IMAIOS. Retrieved March 22, 2022 https://www.
imaios.com/en/e-Courses/e-MRI/The-Physics-behind-it-all/Spatial-frequency-image-con-
trast-and-resolution
[22] User R (n.d). Water is Life. Root User. Retrieved March 22, 2022 https://www.waternsw.
com.au/water-quality/education/exhibitions/water-for-life-exhibition/timeline2/water-is-life
[23] Boulder, U.O.C. Molecule Shapes: Basics https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/molecule-
shapes-basics/latest/molecule-shapes-basics_en.html
[24] Water. Boundless Biology (Retrieved 26 January 2022) https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
boundless-biology/chapter/water/
[25] Zaidan G and Morton C 2013 Why does ice float in water? https://youtube.com/watch?
v=UukRgqzk-KE
[26] Khan Academy. Water, acids, and bases. Biology library. Science (retrieved 26 January
2022) https://khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-
water/v/hydrogen-bonding-in-water?modal=1
[27] Milani G P, Bianchetti M G, Mazzoni M B M, Triulzi F, Mauri M C, Agostini C and
Fossali E P 2014 Arterial hypertension and posterior reversible cerebral edema syndrome
induced by risperidone Pediatrics 133 e771–4 https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/
133/3/e771/tab-figures-data
[28] Why Is My Hair Staticky? How to Get Rid of Hair Static This Winter Redken (Retrieved
April 6, 2022) https://www.redken.com/blog/haircare/what-causes-hair-static-and-7-ways-to-
fight-it
[29] Rains H 2018 9 ways to stop getting static hair; from old wives’ tales to must-have products
Good Housekeeping http://www.goodhousekeeping.co.uk/fashion-beauty/hair-advice/
a555691/how-to-stop-static-hair-products-tips-tricks/
[30] Rehm J and Biggs B 2021 Facts about four fundamental forces of nature Space.com https://
www.space.com/four-fundamental-forces.html
[31] PBS. Movie: Einstein’s Big Idea https://pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/einsteins-big-idea/
[32] Faraday M and Royal Society (Great Britain) 1846 On new magnetic actions, and on the
magnetic condition of all matter, continued c. 1 R. Soc. https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.389652.
mq591311
[33] Khan Academy Electromagnetic induction (& Faraday’s experiments) https://www.khana-
cademy.org/science/in-in-class10th-physics/in-in-magnetic-effects-of-electric-current/electro-
magnetic-induction/v/electromagnetic-induction-faradays-experiments
[34] Khan Academy What is Faraday’s Law? https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/
magnetic-forces-and-magnetic-fields/magnetic-flux-faradays-law/a/what-is-faradays-law
[35] K&J Magnetics 2015 K&J Magnetics–Electromagnet Experiment https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9NniZSJL6Xs
[36] 7activestudio 2016 THE BAR MAGNET https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWQfL5IJTaQ
[37] Encyclopaedia Britannica Ampère’s Law https://www.britannica.com/science/Amperes-law
Wiley)
[39] Magnetic dipole ∣ physics ∣ Britannica (n.d.). Retrieved March 9, 2022 https://www.
britannica.com/science/magnetic-dipole
[40] Khan Academy. Physical processes. MCAT. Test prep https://www.khanacademy.org/test-

prep/mcat/physical-processes/magnetism-mcat/a/usingthe-right-hand-rule
[41] Westbrook C and Talbot J 2018 MRI in Practice 5th edn (New York: Blackwell)
[42] Kohama Y, Ishikawa H, Matsuo A, Kindo K, Shannon N and Hiroi Z 2019 Possible
observation of quantum spin-nematic phase in a frustrated magnet Proc. Natl Acad. Sci.
USA 116 10686–90
[43] AstroAI Multimeter 2000 Counts Digital Multimeter with DC AC Voltmeter and Ohm Volt
Amp Tester; Measures Voltage, Current, Resistance; Tests Live Wire, Continuity -
Amazon.com. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2022 https://www.amazon.com/AstroAI-
Digital-Multimeter-Voltage-Tester/dp/B01ISAMUA6/ref=sr_1_5?dchild=1&keywords=-
multimeter&qid=1595721751&sr=8%E2%80%935
[44] Amazon.com: Uxcell DC 6V 500RPM Micro Speed Reduction Motor Mini Gear Box with 2
Terminals for RC Car Robot Model DIY Engine: Toys & Games. (n.d.). Retrieved February
16, 2022 https://www.amazon.com/uxcell-18000RPM-Speed-Micro-Motor/dp/B00TX2Z6OQ/
ref=sr_1_60?dchild=1&keywords=Motor&qid=1595722026&sr=8%E2%80%9360
[45] QM Oxford 2019 Magnetism: Cutting a magnet in half https://youtu.be/q0d_SS-0Puk?t=162
[46] Lumen University Physics Volume 1. 11.4 Precession of a gyroscope https://courses.
lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/11-3-precession-of-a-gyroscope/
[47] van Biezen M 2016 Physics - Mechanics: The Gyroscope (3 of 5) The Torque of a Spinning
Gyroscope https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qS_dcNqs3d4
[48] Gerlach W and Stern O 1922 Der experimentelle Nachweis der Richtungsquantelung im
Magnetfeld Zeit. Phys. 9 349–52
[49] T1 relaxation (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved April 6, 2022 http://
mriquestions.com/what-is-t1.html
[50] Christian W and Forinash K 2018 Adding two linear waves (superposition) https://
compadre.org/osp/EJSS/4030/138.htm
Chapter 2
[1] Koch K M, Rothman D L and de Graaf R A 2008 Optimization of static magnetic field
homogeneity in the human and animal brain in vivo Prog. Nucl. Magn. Reson. Spect. 54 69–96
Togo H, Rokicki J, Yoshinaga K, Hisatsune T, Matsuda H, Haga N and Hanakawa T 2017
Effects of field-map distortion correction on resting state functional connectivity MRI Front.
Neurosci. 11 656
[2] Khan Academy (nd) Magnetic fields through solenoids (video) (Retrieved April 6, 2022)
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/in-in-class10th-physics/in-in-magnetic-effects-of-elec-
tric-current/magnetic-field-dueto-current-carrying-loops-and-solenoids/v/magnetic-fields-
through-solenoids
[3] IMAIOS (nd) Nuclear spin and MRI (Retrieved April 6, 2022) https://www.imaios.com/en/e-
Courses/e-MRI/NMR/nuclear-spin
[4] Nuclear precession (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI (Retrieved April 6, 2000) https://
mriquestions.com/why-precession.html
[5] Broadhouse K (n.d.) The Physics of MRI and How We Use It to Reveal the Mysteries of the Mind
(Queensland: University of the Sunshine Coast) (Retrieved February 16, 2022) https://research.
usc.edu.au/esploro/outputs/journalArticle/The-Physics-of-MRI-and-How/99450906702621
[6] Precession and Larmor frequency (n.d.) IMAIOS Retrieved April 6, 2022 https://www.
imaios.com/en/e-Courses/e-MRI/NMR/Precession-and-Larmor-frequency
[7] Definition of SHIM (n.d.) Retrieved April 15, 2022 https://www.merriam-webster.com/

dictionary/shim
[8] Magnetic shimming (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved February 18, 2022
http://mriquestions.com/why-shimming
[9] Definition of gradient (n.d.) OED Online. Retrieved April 15, 2022 https://www.oed.com/
view/Entry/80428
[10] Gradients (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved April 6, 2022 http://mriquestions.
com/what-is-a-gradient.html
[11] Paul Lauterbur (n.d.) The Enonomist Retrieved April 6, 2022 https://www.economist.com/
obituary/2007/04/04/paul-lauterbur
[12] Lauterbur P C 1973 Image formation by induced local interaction; examples employing
nuclear magnetic resonance Nature 242 190–1
[13] B1 effect (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved January 26, 2022 http://
mriquestions.com/how-does-b1-tip-m.html
2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511545405
[15] NMR signal (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI. Retrieved March 22, 2022 http://
mriquestions.com/signal-squiggles.html
[16] Maklin C (n.d.) Fast Fourier transform Towards Data Science Retrieved March 22, 2022
https://towardsdatascience.com/fast-fourier-transform-937926e591cb
[17] Bloch F, Hansen W W and Packard 1946 Nuclear induction Phys. Rev. 69 127
[18] Purcell E M, Torrey H C and Pound R V 1946 Resonance absorption by nuclear moments in
a solid Phys. Rev. 69 37–8 (the original announcement by Purcell’s group)
[19] Rabi I I, Zacharias J R, Millman S and Kusch P 1938 A new method of measuring nuclear
magnetic moment Phys. Rev. 53 318 (the first demonstration of resonance absorption in
LiCl, whose graph is shown above)
[20] Bushberg J T, Seibert J A, Leidholt E M Jr and Boone J MK M 2011 The Essential Physics
of Medical Imaging (3rd edn) (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott/Williams & Wilkins)
[21] Vaughn J T and Griffiths J R (ed) 2012 RF Coils for MRI (New York: Wiley)
[22] Hoult D I 2009 The origins and present status of the radio wave controversy in NMR Conc.
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Chapter 3
[1] Step-by-step building guide (n.d.) Thehousedesigners.com (retrieved 26 January 2022)
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v=is8TscwFOvM&list=PL40F1EE0DF59D777A&index=2
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on-mri-mnemonic?lang=us
[13] Fermilab 2019 Why does light bend when it enters glass? https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NLmpNM0sgYk
[14] Moderate Republican 2013 T2* MRI :-) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHLje7mc8RY
Wiley)
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[2] Kernighan Brian 1974 Programming in C: A Tutorial (PDF). Bell Labs. Retrieved 9 January
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[4] 3Blue1Brown. 2018, January 26. But What Is the Fourier Transform? A Visual Introduction
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=spUNpyF58BY)
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[7] The AAPM/RSNA Physics Tutorial for Residents. Contrast Mechanisms in Spin-Echo MR
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[12] Elster A D 2021 Slice-select rephasing (http://mri-q.com/ss-gradient-lobes.html)
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[7] https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/File:The_open_window_(6028681236).jpg
Chapter 6
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[4] Frequency Wrap-Around (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI (https://mriquestions.com/
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[5] Phase oversampling? (n.d.) Questions and Answers in MRI (http://mriquestions.com/phase-
oversampling.html)
[6] FDA 2021 MRI information for industry (https://fda.gov/radiation-emitting-products/mri-
magnetic-resonance-imaging/mri-information-industry)
[7] Safety topic/article (n.d.) (http://mrisafety.com/SafetyInformation_view.php?editid1 = 362)

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radiopaedia.org/articles/phase-encoded-motion-artifact-3

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MRI: Connecting the Dots

Online at: https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4

Editorial Advisory Board Members

Carmel Caruana John Hossack

Penelope Allisy-Roberts Tingting Zhu

Rory Cooper Dennis Schaart

Alicia El Haj Indra J Das

About the Series

A number of IPEM–IOP titles are being published as part of the EUTEMPE

IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK

ISBN 978-0-7503-1284-4 (ebook)

Multimedia content is available for this book from https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4.

Published by IOP Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London

1 Five big ideas for MRI 1-1

1.5 Changing fields alter E&M 1-46

2 Hardware: five important components and beyond 2-1

2.3 Shim coils 2-17

3 Basic building blocks for MRI 3-1

3.5 Table of T1/T2 and physical values 3-35

4 The inside details of MRI 4-1

5 Getting serious with MRI 5-1

5.3 On the receiver side 5-15

6 Three tradeoffs in MRI (Clinically relevant) 6-1

7 MRI Artifacts (clinically relevant) 7-1

7.3.3 Corduroy artifact (spikes) 7-12

drive the efﬁciency, reliability, and performance of a well-functioning MRI center,

Dee H Wu, MSSE, Ph.D., DABMP, DABMRS

For my parents Ta-Sun and Ling-Tung Wu.

Welcome to MRI—Connecting the Dots: A conceptual approach. This e-book is

* = ﬁrst choice for starting reading

I Where and how to start reading?

Chapter 1: Five big ideas for MRI

Chapter 3: Basic building blocks

II How to use the ‘FLASHY’ box system

• ‘Fun-fact’ bubble—meant to stimulate interest. It may have a fun-fact or emotional

psychology and neuroscience researchers, and premedical students who reﬂect on

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a discipline encompassing a vast, challeng-

Further, I have been amazed by the commitment of many radiologists, including my

Sample pathways for learning for different professionals

For radiologist residents

For veteran radiological technologists

For beginning technologists and those preparing for boards

For veteran radiologists

For vendors who are application specialists

For medical students and referring physicians

For master’s level medical physicists/residents

For MRI scientists/engineers

For practicing/veteran medical physicists

This book be used to facilitate communication with radiologists and technologists.

Dee H Wu, MSEE, Ph.D., DABMP, DABMRS

MRI: Connecting the Dots

(Waves, water, multiple looks, dipoles/precession, and changing EM ﬁelds)

doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-1284-4ch1 1-1 ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2023

Veterans Administration Health Care System (VAHCS) have over 10 imaging

1.01 Scaffolding Box: overview of core concepts

This book is intentionally designed to be read by many different types of

On a ﬁnal note, we will apply a deductive approach to train your

rather are encouraged to focus on understanding the conceptual under-

Looking initially at the CT scan…