Culture

1. Jaipur Literature Festival - TeamWork Arts

2. Utsav - Bollywood adaptation of Sudraka’s Mricchakatikam
3. World Hindi Day - Jan 10 - anniversary of first World Hindi Conference which was
held in 1975 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
4. National Hindi Diwas - Sep 14 - In 1949, the constituent assembly adopted Hindi,
written in Devanagari script, as the official language of the Union.
5. Rajtarangini has 8 tarangas
6. National Archives of India - Under Ministry of culture (originally established as
Imperial Record Dept, Calcutta in 1891) - now located in Delhi
7. Church of Saint Francis and Mosque of Grand Imam Ahmad AI-Tayyeb - Abu Dhabi
8. First Music Museum - Tamil Nadu (birthplace of Thyagaraja)
9. First Cinema Museum - Mumbai
10. Dhamek and Dharmarajika Stupa - Sarnath
11. Gwalior gharana was patronised by Akbar
12. India’s tallest bronze statue of Vivekananda - Ranchi
13. Ahilya Fort is on banks of Narmada
14. Qila-i-Kuhna - Purana Qila, built during reign of Humayun or Sher Shah Suri
15. Second Taj Mahal - Tomb of Rabia-ud-Durani (Aurangabad)
16. Kalidasa is mentioned in Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II
17. Kathakar - Kerala - Part of Ghumakkad Narain Travelling Literature Festival under
UNESCO
18. Natyashastra - Bharata (aspects of Classical Sanskrit theatre)
19. Abhinav Bharati - Abinavagupta - Commentary on Natya Shastra
20. Palaiyagar - Military Chiefs (Deccan)
21. Nyaya-Vaishesika schools encompassed by Mimamsa
22. Rishi order of Sufism - Sheikh Nuruddin Wali - Kashmir in 15th and 16th centuries
23. Bihar - 70ft statue of Buddha - Rajgir - Middle of Lake Ghora Katora - pink
sandstone
24. Lexicon for rare tribal languages - Odisha
25. Odisha has maximum number of ST communities
26. Survival International is a movement that advocates rights of Tribals
27. World’s earliest cave painting of an animal - Borneo in Indonesia (40,000 years ago)
28. Central Tribal University will come up in Andhra Pradesh (Amendment to Central
universities Act)
29. World’s first discovery of rock paintings - in UP - Archibald Carlisle
30. Eran Copper Plate in Delhi is the first written recorded of Sati
31. 11 headed Boddhisatva image - Kanheri Caves (Maharashtra, Sanjay Gandhi
National Park)
32. Vallam Kali (Boat Races) are a part of Onam
33. Anuvrat is related to Jainism
34. Hindi is one of the court languages in Abu Dhabi (30% population is Indian)
35. DD Arunprabha - 24x7 channel for Arunachal (DD Northeast was the first)
36. Medarram Jatara - Telengana (Sammakka Saralamma Jatra)
 37. Cheti Chand - Sindhi Hindus (New Year)
38. Chitra Vichitra Fair - Gujarat
39. Wangala Festival - Garo Tribe, Harvest Festival (1000 drum festival)
40. Pagoda - Tiered tower with multiple eaves associated with Buddhist temples in SE
Asia - draws influence from Stupas
41. My Son Temple Complex - Vietnam - UNESCO World Heritage Site
42. Saurath Sabha Fair - Mithila
43. Qadam Rasul Mosque - WB - black marble and Bengal roof
44. Atala Mosque - Jaunpur
45. Teen Darwaza - Gujarat (promoted by Ahmed Shah, Mahmud Begara)
46. Mosque with shaking minarets - Ahmedabad - Sidi Bashir Mosque - Gentle shaking
of either minaret results in other minaret shaking for a few min
47. 8 types of Hindu marriages are listed in Manusmriti
48. Reggae music from Jamaica has been included in UNESCO Intangible Heritage
49. Tauhid-i-Wajudi - Ibn Arabi’s was a propounder of the doctrine of unity of being
50. Octagonal Dome - Sher Shah’s Tomb in Sasaram
51. Mehrabi Tomb - Balban

Tribes

Arunachal Pradesh - Abor, Mishmi, Apatani

Manipur - Sema, Tangkhul
Meghalaya - Chakma, Garo
Mizoram - Khasi, Jaintia, Kuki

Amir Khusro

Served under more than 7 rulers of the Delhi Sultanate

Parrot of India
Khayal, Ghazal, Qawwali (Father of Qawwali), Tarana
Ashiqa, Laila Majnu
Tughlaq Nama, Khajain ul Futuh
Invented Sitar
Introduced Persian and Arabic elements into Indian Classical Music

Unglazed pottery making in India. They are - the paper-thin, scrafito and highly polished.

Paper thin pottery - biscuit coloured pottery is decorated with incised patterns
Sgraffito - form of decoration made by scratching through a surface to reveal a
lower layer of a contrasting colour
Black pottery is another famous form of unglazed pottery in Indian villages and it
resembles the Harappan pottery style

Natural Fibres
 Extracting fibre from Banana plant - Okinawa islands
Kauna - Manipuri (Meitei tribe)
Korai - Tamil Nadu
Kora - Kerala
Madur Kathi - Bengal
Shital Pati - Assam, Tripura
Sikki - Bihar (part of Madhubani culture)
Mooda - Haryana (Sarkanda grass)
Macrame - Knotting technique in Jute

Architectural Styles

Battered Walls - Tughlaqs - sloping walls to give more strength to the building -
Tughlaqabad
Hanging Balcony - Rajputs - Hawa Mahal
Fluted Domes - Sikhs - Harmandir Sahib

Music

Saptak - Seven swaras together are called Saptak or Sargam

Rasa - Emotions which are evoked through the singing and playing of instruments
Tala - Rhythmic grouping of beats are called Tala
Thaat - System of classification of the ragas in different groups

HRIDAY Cities

Ajmer

Amravati

Amritsar

Badami

Dwarka

Gaya

Kanchipuram

Mathura

Puri
Varanasi

Velankanni
Once a port that traded with Rome and Greece, the tiny
commercial center gradually lost its importance to the larger
city of Nagapattinam
Vellayar, a minor branch of the Cauvery River, runs south of
the town and discharges into the sea
Home to one of the most visited Roman Catholic Latin Rite
shrines called the Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health.

Warangal

Maurya

Gupta

Post Maurya Shunga

Satavahana
Saka

Gupta

Vakatakas

Chalukyas

Pallavas

Rashtrakutas

Hoysala

Cholas

Pandya

Vijaynagar Varadharaja, Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram

Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram
Vitthalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy Temples at Hampi

Deccan
Sultanates

Sultanate
Mughals

Makaravilakku festival
Annual festival held on Makar Sankranti in Kerala, at
the shrine of Sabarimala
The festival includes the Thiruvabharanam (sacred
ornaments of Ayyappan) procession and a
congregation at the hill shrine of Sabarimala
Sabarimala is dedicated to Lord Ayyapan - son of
Shiva and Mohini
Located inside Periyar Tiger Reserve

Makar Sankranti
Saaji - Himachal Pradesh

Dances on Republic
Day Karakattam - Tamil Nadu (praise of rain goddess
Mariamman) - Aatta Karakam + Shakti Karakam
Taakala - Maharashtra
Koli - Maharashtra
Misra Raas - Gujarat - origins in Krishna Raas,
performed by both men and women
Monpa - Arunachal Pradesh - performed during Losar
New Year
Gangte - Arunachal Pradesh
Mamita - Tripura
Tamang Selo - Sikkim - Traditional instrument called
Damphu
Fusim - Jammu and Kashmir
Satoiya Nitya - Assam
Hudka Chhudka - Uttarakhand

Nataraja
Chola period bronze sculpture
Shiva is balancing himself on his right leg and
suppressing the Apasmara, the demon of ignorance or
forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg.
He raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance, which
represents tirobhava that is kicking away the veil of
maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind
Right hand is posed in abhaya hasta or the gesture
 suggesting
Upper right holds the damaru his favourite musical
instrument to keep on the beat tala
Upper left hand carries a flame
Left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the
abhaya hasta of the right hand
His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the
circular jvala mala or the garland of flames which
surrounds the entire dancing figuration

Dwijing Festival
Annual river festival on the bank of River Aie in
Assam
Celebrated in the Bodoland Territorial Area Districts
(BTAD) region of Assam
The festival also aims to provide help to the flood
victim families through charity generation and
distribution
River Aie originates from the Himalayan Mountains of
Bhutan and flows through the Chirang and
Bongaigaon districts of Assam before joining the river
Brahmaputra

UNESCO Asia-Pacific
Awards for Cultural Award of Distinction: LAMO Center (Ladakh)
Heritage Conservation Honourable Mention: Rajabai Clock Tower, Ruttonsee
Muljee Jetha Fountain (Mumbai)
Award of Excellence: Shijo-cho Ofune-hoko Float
Machiya (Kyoto, Japan)
New Design in Heritage Contexts: Kaomai Estate
(Thailand) and Harts Mill (Port Adelaide, Australia)

Kamsale Dance
Karnataka
Folk art performed by the devotees of God
Mahadeshwara.
Also refers to a brass made musical instrument.
Tradition of Male Mahadeshwara, or Lord Shiva
worship by the haalu kuruba community

Boddhisatvas
Avalokitesvara/Padmapani - Described as holding a
lotus flower
Manjusri - Male Bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword
in his right hand
 Samantabhadra - Means Universal Worthy and he is
associated with meditation. He is manifested through
action and he is a major figure in Flower Garland Sutra
Ksitigarbha - He is described as a Buddhist monk in
the Orient/ East Asia. It means Earth Womb. He is
revered as the guardian of children and patron deity of
deceased children. He carries a staff
Maitreya - Ajita Boddhisattva. It is believed that he will
arrive when oceans will decrease in size. He keeps a
Kumbha, destined to rule Varanasi
Vajrapani - One of the 3 protective deities around
Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avalokiteshwara.
Vajrapani manifests Buddha's power, Avlokiteshwara
manifests Buddha’s compassion
Sadaparibhuta - Bodhisattva which manifests never
disparaging spirit
Akasagarbha - He is boundless as space. He was the
twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He manifests wisdom

Elum Valley
Khyber Pakhtunwa province is planning a heritage
park for Hindus and Buddhists

Cultural Zones
7 zones
Cultural capital of India - Kolkata

Janjira Fort
Only one of its kind Jala Durga
Constructed by Malik Amber - Abyssinian minister in
the service of Sultan of Ahmed Nagar (Nizam Shahi
dynasty)
Portuguese, British and Marathas could not conquer it
from Siddis

India’s first music

museum Thiruvaiyar, TN (birthplace of Thyagaraja)
Trinity of Carnatic Music - Thyagaraja, Muthuswami
Dikshitar, Syama Sastri
Nadopasana - Practice of music to cultivate devotion
Thyagaraja mainly composed in Telugu. His
compositions are called Pancharatna Kritis
Carnatic Music - More emphasis on songs than
instruments
Carnatic Music is based on Kritis, Hindustani Music is
 based on Raga
Carnatic music is also prevalent in Sri Lanka
Carnatic Sangeet Pitamaha - Purandara Dasa
(15th century) - court of Krishna Deva Raya

Kecheopalri Lake
Sacred for both Buddhists and Hindus, and is believed
to be a wish fulfilling lake.
Integral part of the much revered valley of
"Demazong" meaning valley of rice
Part of Buddhist religious pilgrimage circuit involving
the Yuksom, the Dubdi Monasteryin
Yuksom,Pemayangtse Monastery, the
Rabdentseruins, the Sanga Choeling Monastery, and
the Tashiding Monastery.
Leaves are not allowed to float on the lake, which is
ensured by the birds which industriously pick them up
as soon as they drop into the lake surface

Dal Lake
The floating gardens, known as “Rad” in Kashmiri,
blossom with lotus flowers during July and August.
The lake is located in the Zabarwan mountain valley,
in the foothills of the Shankracharya hills, which
surrounds it on three sides.
The lake has four main interconnected basins namely,
Hazratbal, Bod dal, Gagribal and Nagin

Mangi Tungi
Maharashtra - Jain
Sahyadri Range, around 990 million Jains achieved
Salvation, also called Siddha Kshetra
Images of tirthankaras in several postures
Statue of Ahimsa - tallest Jain idol in the world of
Rishabhdeva

Rishabh Deva

First Jain Tirthankara

Consider the founder of Ikshvaku dynasty to which
Lord Rama belongs

Ghumot
Indigenous earthen drum to be notified as a heritage
instrument of Goa.
 Fashioned as a designed clay pot, with the skin of the
monitor lizard stretched taut across the pot’s mouth,
forming a drumhead
Banned due to the use of the skin of the endangered
monitor lizard for the drum membrane
Konkani people - Siddis, Kudumis, Kharvis
Part of Mando musical form of Goan Catholics
Also part of Zagor and Dulpod dances
Smaller form of Ghumot accompanies Burra Katha in
Andhra Pradesh

Maharshi Badrayan
Vyas Samman Awards Contribution in the field of Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
Pali, Prakrit, Classical Oriya, Classical Kannada,
Classical Telugu and Classical Malayalam
Given to selected young scholars in the age group of
30 to 45 years
Carries a certificate of honour, a memento and a one-
time cash prize of Rs.1 lakh

Who was Maharshi Badrayan?

Basic text of the Vedanta system - Brahmasūtra

The date of Badarayana and his Brahma Sutras is
uncertain (500 to 450 BC)

Tansen Samman
Conferred to the exponents of Hindustani music
Tansen Music Festival is organised annually by
Madhya Pradesh culture department in the memory of
Tansen in Gwalior
Tansen was initially in the court of Hindu king of Rewa,
Raja Ramchandra Singh (1555–1592
Akbar sent messengers to Raja Ramchandra Singh
requesting Tansen to join the musicians at the Mughal
court
Contributions - Dhrupad compositions, several new
ragas, Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara

National Culture Fund

(NCF) Under Ministry of Culture - set up in 1996 as a Trust
under the Charitable Endowment Act, 1890
Mobilize extra resources through Public-Private
Partnerships.
Headed by Culture Minister for deciding the policies
 Donations or contributions under NCF are eligible for
100% tax deduction under the Income Tax Act, 1961

Chhau
Purulia Chhau - Bengal - use mask
Seraikella Chhau - Jharkhand - use mask
Mayurbhanj Chhau - Orissa - no mask

Mayurbhanj Chhau

Originated from the forests of Mayurbhanj, Odisha in

the 18th century, it got the status of a martial art
form in the 19th century.
Slowly & steadily Mayurbhanj Chhau left its martial
character and mellowed
Under the Royal Patronage - perfection as a dance of
excellent style in the field of eastern art and culture of
India.

Some narrations use natural themes like Sarpa Nritya and

Mayura Nritya

India International
Cherry Blossom Shillong (Meghalaya)
Festival World’s only autumn cherry blossom festival.
Govt. of Meghalaya’s Forest Dept. + Institute of Bio
resources and Sustainable Development + ICCR
The aim of the festival is to celebrate the unique
autumn flowering of Himalayan Cherry Blossoms. The
Cherry Blossom tree flowers only for a short period in
a year. The festival will showcase full pink and white
cherry blossoms found all along the roadside of the
famous Ward Lake.

Panj Tirath
Hindu religious site in Pakistan
Got its name from five pools of water present there
It is believed that Pandu belonged to this area and
Hindus used to come to these pools for bathing during
the month of Karteek and worship for two days under
the trees.
The site was damaged during the reign of the Afghan
Durrani dynasty in 1747, however it was restored by
local Hindus during the period of Sikh rule in 1834 and
worship started again.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government in northwest
Pakistan has declared it as national heritage
Sangai Festival
Manipur - State animal

Other dances of Manipur - Kabui Naga dance,

Bamboo dance, Maibi dance, Lai Haraoba dance,
Khamba Thoibi dance, Ras Leela

Indigenous sports
Thang Ta - combination Spear & Sword skills,
Yubi-Lakpi - game played with greased coconut like
rugby
Mukna Kangjei - combines hockey and wrestling
Sagol Kangjei- Modern Polo (believed to have evolved
in Manipur)

Kartarpur corridor
Dera Baba Nanak in Gurdaspur district and Gurdwara
Darbar Sahib, Kartarpur on the banks of the Ravi river
Integrated development project with Government of
India funding
Part of Delhi-Lahore bus diplomacy - allow visit
without Visa
Government of Pakistan will be urged to recognize the
sentiments of the Sikh community and develop a
corridor with suitable facilities in their territory as well
Guru Nanak assembled a Sikh community and lived
for 18 years until his death in 1539
Started Langar here
Telescope by MEITY to view Kartarpur Sahib in India

Sikhs travel to Pakistan on

Baisakhi
Martyrdom day of Guru Arjun Dev
Death anniversary of Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Birthday of Guru Nanak Dev

The Indian pilgrims are given access to all gurdwaras in

Pakistan - governed by 1974 protocol on visits to religious
shrines

Dera Baba Nanak is on Indian side

Narowal, Kartarpur are on Pakistan side
 Panj Takht

Akal Takht - Amritsar - Guru Hargobind (rest 4 are

linked to Guru Gobind Singh)
Keshgarh Sahib - Guru Gobind Singh raised Khalsa
Damdama Sahib - Punjab
Patna Sahib - Bihar
Hazur Sahib - Nanded, Maharashtra

Katas Raj Hindu Temple in Pakistan

Located in Potohar plateau region of Pakistan

Jacob Diamond
2x size of Kohinoor Diamond
Found in Kimberley mines in South Africa in 1884 and
secretly transported to England
Now in possession of Govt. of India

Re-Weave.in
Launched by Microsoft India under project ReWeave
to help handloom weavers
Project ReWeave - Microsoft + NGO Chaitanya
Bharathi - infrastructure, financing and marketing
support to help weaver families keep their weaving
traditions alive
Connect artisans to the buyers directly enabling them
to expand to newer customers and markets
Provide a platform to showcase signature collections
created by the weaver communities
Aid in weavers in increasing their income and earning
a sustainable livelihood while also reviving traditional
forgotten Indian art

World Capital for

Architecture World Capital of Architecture is intended to become an
international forum for debates about pressing global
challenges from the perspectives of culture, cultural
heritage, urban planning and architecture
Rio De Janerio - First city to receive the title under a
Program
UNESCO and the International Union of Architects
(UIA)
Brazil - Christ the Redeemer and Museum of
Tomorrow
UIA is a non-governmental organisation recognised by
UNESCO, founded in Lausanne
UNESCO Global
Geopark Status GSI has chosen Lonar Lake (MH) and St. Mary’s
Island and Malpe Beach (KTK)
Given for a period of 4 years. Re-examination after
that.
Aspiring Geopark must have a dedicated website,
corporate identity, comprehensive management plan,
Global Geoparks Network is a legally constituted not-
for-profit organisation
Currently, no site from India on that list.

St. Mary’s Island

Goes back to a time when Greater India broke away

from Madagascar
Unique hexagonal columns of basaltic lava

Lonar Lake

World’s oldest meteoritic crater

Salt water lake created my meteor impact during the
Pleistocene
Only known meteorite crater in Basaltic rock

Guru Padmasambhava
Second Buddha
Buddhist teachings across the Himalayan region
including Northeast India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet
Guru Rinpoche, which means “precious master.”
Thangka paintings, sculptures and photographs
portray the life and teachings of the Guru
Hemis Festival is in his honour

Uru
Ships are made without any work plan, blueprints or
prior sketches
Maistry gives instructions to his workers on a daily
basis on how to go about the construction
Ships are purely made of wood, without using any
modern techniques, and traditional methods are used
to launch this ship into the water
Uru making in Beypore was established since India
began its maritime trade with Mesopotamia
Some traders from Yemen, who had settled in Kerala,
 practised uru making and passed on the craft to the
local carpenters

Bharat Rang Mahotsav

Annual international theatre festival of India organized
by the National School of Drama (NSD)
2019 theme - Gandhi
Parallel festival in other cities as well

National School of
Drama Set up as a constituent unit of Sangeet Natak Akademi
in 1959
Fully financed by Ministry of Culture
Repertory Company + Theatre-in-education company

Nilavembu Kudineer
Siddha medicine to treat Dengue and Chikungunya
(used by TN govt)

Hari Jiroti
Gond and Korku tribes - tribals plant saplings of fruit
bearing trees

Vat Cau festival

Vietnam - started as a training for soldiers
Elements of Rugby and Wrestling
11th century

Maithili language
Mithilakshar or Tirhuta is the script of broader cultural
Mithila
One of the scripts of the broader North Eastern India
Maithili is spoken in Bihar, Jharkhand and Nepal
Scripts of Mithilaksar, Bangla, Assamese, Nebari, Odia
and Tibetan are part of the family
Oldest form of Mithilakshar is found in the Sahodara
stone inscriptions of 950 AD

Akshaya Patra
Funded by International Society for Krishna
Consciousness (ISKCON)
Bengaluru-based not-for-profit organisation that works
with the government on mid-day meal schemes
 World’s largest (not-for-profit run) Mid-Day Meal
Programme

Padmasambhava
Monastery Odisha
He was the founder of Tibetan Buddhism

Bhasha Sangam
Initiative under the Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat
Introduce school students to all the 22 Indian
Languages of Schedule VIII of the Constitution of
India.
Enhance linguistic tolerance and respect, and promote
national integration
Run by State/UT Dept of School Education
Not mandatory, no formal testing

Dakshina Bharat Hindi

Prachar Sabha Chennai
Established in 1918 by Mahatma Gandhi with the sole
aim of propagating Hindi in southern states
First Pracharak was Devadoss Gandhi (son of
Mahatma Gandhi)

Abu Dhabi and Fiji have given official language status to

Hindi

ASI projects abroad

Ananda Temple - Myanmar
Bamiyan Buddha - Afghanistan
Angkor Vat - Cambodia
Ta Prohm - Cambodia
Vat Phou - Laos
My Son - Vietnam

My Son

Constructed between 4th and 14th century by Champa

Kings
Bhadreshwara Shiva
Architectural designs symbolise Mt. Meru

Silappadikaram
 Illango Adigal
One of the 5 Tamil epics - Silappadikaram,
Manimekalai, Civaka Chintamani, Valayapathi,
Kundalakesi
All three Sangam kingdoms are mentioned

World’s largest
Bhagavad Gita Delhi ISKCON temple
Also the world’s largest sacred book.
Printed in Milan, Italy, on YUPO synthetic paper so as
to make it untearable and waterproof

Mainamati
Site in Bangladesh - Buddhist Archaeology

Intangible Heritage
Scheme Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage and
diverse cultural traditions of India
Implemented through Sangeet Natak Akademi, under
Ministry of Culture

Battle of Haifa Part of WWI

Indian cavalry under Edmund Allenby liberated Haifa from
Turkish-German soldiers

Centres of WWI where Indian army fought for British -

Western Front, East Africa, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Gallipoli
(Turkey)
India Gate in New Delhi commemorates the Indian soldiers
who died fighting for the British in WWI
Indian army was the largest volunteer force in the world

Haifa is the 3rd largest city in Israel, home to the Bahai World
Centre

India’s National War

Memorial Delhi
Honours soldiers post independence, including those
who lost their lives in peace keeping and HADR
operations
Param Yodha Sthal - Busts of recipients of Param Vir
Chakra

Kumbh Mela
Largest public gathering and collective act of faith,
 anywhere in the world
Celebrated four times over a course of 12 years
Mentioned by Hiuen Tsang
Shankaracharya also popularised Kumbh Mela
Ardh Kumbh - 6 years
Maha Kumbh - 144 years

Haridwar - Ganges - Uttarakhand.

Ujjain - Shipra - Madhya Pradesh.
Nashik - Godavari - Maharashtra.
Prayagraj - confluence of Ganga/Yamuna/Saraswati -
Uttar Pradesh

Each site’s celebration is based on a distinct set of

astrological positions of Sun, Moon, Jupiter
Celebrations occur at the exact moment when these
positions are fully occupied - holiest time in Hinduism

Prayagraj Kumbh Mela 2019 has been placed in the

Guinness World Records in three sectors

Largest traffic and crowd management plan

The biggest painting exercise of public sites under
Paint My City scheme
Biggest sanitation and waste disposal mechanism

Ambubachi Mela
Kamakhya Temple in Nilachal Hills
One of the 52 Shakti peeth
Seat of Tantric worship
Kamakhya is worshipped as Goddess of Fertility

Vivekananda
Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga -
Equal means to attain Moksha
Lectures from Colombo to Almora
Nationalism based on religion (as opposed to Western
concept of secular nationalism)
All religions have the same value and importance

Pingali Venkayya
 Brain behind designing of National Flag
Served in British Army in South Africa during Anglo
Boer War
Researched farming and cultivation of cotton

Angkor
Angkor Vat - Surya Varman - largest religious structure
ever built
Angkor Thom - Jaya Varman
Capital of Khmer Kingdom (Hindu-Buddhist empire)
UNESCO World Heritage Site

“Dictionary of Martyrs”
Commissioned by the Ministry of Culture to the Indian
Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
Commemorate the 150th anniversary of uprising of
1857
Includes ex-INA or ex-military personnel who died
fighting the British
Martyrs of 1857 Uprising, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
(1919), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Civil
Disobedience Movement (1930-34), Quit India
Movement (1942-44), Revolutionary Movements
(1915-34), Kissan Movements, Tribal Movements,
Agitation for Responsible Government in the Princely
States (Prajamandal), Indian National Army (INA,
1943-45), Royal Indian Navy Upsurge (RIN, 1946)

Statue of Equality
Statue of Ramanujacharya (Ilaiya Perumal) in
Hyderabad
Will become the world’s 2nd tallest sitting statue, after
the Statue of Buddha in Thailand
Made of Panchaloha - Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass,
Tin/Lead
Surrounded by 108 divyadesams

Ramanuja

Vishistadvaita - Qualified monism - living entities are

qualitatively one with the Supreme, but quantitatively
different
Writings - Vedartha Samgraha, Shri Bhashya,
Bhagavadgita Bhashya
Did NOT support the idea of lower castes having
 access to Vedas
But advocated Bhakti as a mode of worship for all,
including Shudras and outcasts
Devotion as the way to salvation

Tanjore Paintings
Created on glass and board instead of cloth
Brilliant colour patterns and gold leaves
Gemstones and cut glasses for embellishment
Smiling Krishna in different poses and different events
from his life
Zenith under Sarfoji Maharaj
Conical crown in the miniature
Patronised by Maratha rulers in the 18th century
(origins in 9th century)
Presently, the school has diversified its themes to
animals and buildings
Granted GI tag

Use Raman spectroscopy to ascertain if gold and gemstones

used in Tanjore paintings are genuine

Paintings with GI Tag - Cheriyal, Kangra, Madhubani,

Mysore, Tanjore

Miniature Paintings

Pala School - Astasahashrika Prajnaparamita

Western Indian School - Kalpa Sutra, Kalakacharya
Katha - Jain texts
Nimat Nama - Cookery
Udaipur - Kulhadar Group - Chaurapanchasika,
Awadh - Laur Chanda
Mughal School - Tuti Nama, Hamza Nama, Gulistan of
Sadi, Ayar-i-Danish, Razm Nama, Anwar-i-Sunavli
Pahari Schools - Basholi, Kangra, Guler, Kulu Mandi

Behdiengkhlam
Festival Jaintia Tribe in Meghalaya (Pnars or Syntengs, who
follow Niamtre sect)
Celebrated after sowing to seek a good harvest
Dat La Wakor - game like football played with a
wooden ball
Rots - Tall bamboo structures decorated with colour
paper
Dein Khlam, Symlend, Khnong - rounded, polished,
 long trunks of trees which are worshipped

Couple’s grave in
Harappa Couple’s grave from Rakhigarhi
No uniformity in types of graves found across IVC
sites
Jewellery has been found in burials of both males and
females

Vakatakas
Suceeded Satavahanas in north Maharashtra and
Vidarbha, contemporary of Guptas
Capital - Nandivardhan (present day Nagardhan)
Founder - Vindhyashakti (In Ajanta Cave inscription,
he is described as the banner of Vakataka family and
a Dvija)
Territorial expansion during the reign of his son
Pravarasena
Caves at Ajanta were built under Harishena
Brahmanas by religion - performed Vedic sacrifices
Land grants on copper plates - attributed to
Prithvisena
Chandragupta II married his daughter to Vakatakas
Clay sealing of Prabhavati Gupta

Badshahi Asoorkhana
Shia Muslim mourning place near Char Minar
Constructed in the memory of Imam Hussain who was
martyred in Battle of Karbala by Muhammad Quli Qutb
Shah, 3 years after building Char Minar

Muhammad Quli Qutb

Shah Fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi Dynasty of Golconda
Built Charminar, Badshahi Asoorkhana, Charmakan
archways
Contemporary of Tulsidas, Mirabai and Surdas
Jean Baptiste Tavernier visited his empire

Sanjhi - Much mean

Kalakar Initiative of Sangeet Natak Academy
Document and promote Intangible Cultural Heritage

Pho Minh Pagoda

 Built by Ly Dynasty and expanded during Tran
dynasty
Place of worship for high ranking mandarins

Pagoda
Found in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Japan, China, Korea,
Vietnam, Myanmar
Pagoda is a temple/sacred/secular building
Pagodas have sets of multiple discs - actually has
interior space

Kashi Vishwanath
Corridor Proposed 50-feet corridor will directly connect Ganga’s
Manikarnika and Lalita Ghat to the Kashi Vishwanath
Jyotirlinga Temple
First renovation since Ahilyabai Holkar

Lkhon Khol
Masked drama dance of Khmer - Cambodia
Listed as Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO

Thailand version - Khon

Navroz
Iranian New Year
Dates back as far as the 6th Century BC, back when
the Iranian community were homogeneously
Zoroastrians
Marked as the day King Jamshid was crowned as the
King of Persia
First day of the Aries Constellation

Sharda Peeth corridor

Second religious tract after Kartarpur corridor in
Pakistan-controlled territory that will connect the two
neighbouring nations.

Revered by Kashmiri Pandits

Once regarded as a major centre of higher learning of
Vedic works, scriptures and commentaries
One of the 18 Maha Shakti Peethas or “Grand Shakti
Peethas”
Abode of Hindu Goddess Saraswati.
 Close resemblance with the Martand temple (another
religious site in Anantnag) in architecture, design and
construction style

Built during the rule of Kushans (early 1st century)

Other claims - Raja Lalitaditya had built the Sharada
Peeth for containing the religious and political
influence of the Buddhism

Since partition, the temple has been out of bounds for

Indian pilgrims
Sharada temple + ruins of Sharada University, are
situated in Neelam Valley

India Pride Project

Group of art enthusiasts who use social media to
identify stolen religious artefacts from Indian temples
and secure their return

Lalitgiri
Major Buddhist complex in Odisha
Tantric Buddhism
Ratnagiri + Udaygiri + Lalitgiri = Diamond Triangle
Part of Pushpagiri University
Cultural continuity from the post-Mauryan period till the
13th century CE
Centre of attraction is a relic casket containing
corporal remains found inside the Mahastupta
3rd museum of the Bhubaneswar circle of the ASI
after Ratnagiri and Konark

Lingayat Followers of 12th-century social reformer Basavanna and his

vachana philosophy
Worship Shiva as Ishtalinga (formless God), which they wear
around their neck

Veerashaivas are a sub-sect of Lingayats

Preceeded Basavanna, the founder of Lingayatism
Roots in the Vedas and Agamas, do not worship any
god other than Shiva
Spread across Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
 Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Basavanna and his contemporary Sharanas - rebellion
against Brahminical hegemony
Gave women equal status in his movement through
the vachanas (verses)
Simple Kannada vachanas so that even lay people
could comprehend them
Did not practise funerary rights - believed that after
death, devotee won’t return to earth
Classified as Hindus since the first Census in 1871

Madhubani Themes
Mentioned in Ramayana
Brushes not used, instead twigs used
Confined to a limited geographic range
Not secular - largely Hindu themes

Bagru
Chippa community of Rajasthan
Red and Black colours are most widely used
Flowers, Leaves and geometrical patterns

Block Printing

Gujarat - Ajrakh
Rajasthan - Sanganeri, Ajrakh, Dabu
Madhya Pradesh - Bagh, Bherogarh
Andhra Pradesh - Kalamkari

Shadow Puppetry
Togalu Gomabayetta - Karnataka
Tholu Bommalata - Andhra Pradesh
Ravana Chhaya - Odisha
Tolpava Kuthu Vellalachetti - Kerala
Chamadyache Bahulya - Maharashtra

Konark Temple
Built by Narasimha Deva I
European sailors called it Black Pagoda - believed that
magnetic powers drew ships to the shore and caused
shipwrecks

PRASAD sites
 Amarkantak - Meeting point of Vindhya, Satpura,
Maikal hills, Origin of rivers Narmada, Son and
Johilla
Parasnath - Highest mountain peak in the state,
Shikarji temple

Gandhi Circuit
Bihar - centenary of Champaran Satyagraha
Under Rural circuit of Swadesh Darshan
Chandrahia
Bhitiharwa - Gandhi ashram
Turkaulia - burning centre of Indigo agitation

Khajuraho Temples
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple - largest
Devi Jagadamba Temple
Chitragupta Temple
Vishwanatha Temple
Parvati Temple
Chaturbhuja Temple
Varaha Temple
Chausath Yogini Temple (made entirely of granite)
Parshvanath Temple - Jain
Ghantai Temple - Jain

Sanchi Stupa
3rd century BC by Ashoka
Vandalised during Pushyamitra Shunga, refurbished
by Agnimitra Shunga
Satavahana Period - Gateways and balustrade were
built

Aipan
Wall painting from Uttarakhand
Similar to Worli

Hindu New Year

Nyepi - Bali and Indonesia
Navreh - Kashmir

Muslim League
Arose out of a literary movement begun at Aligarh
Muslim University in which Syed Ahmad Khan was a
 central figure
Muslim League went on to support the British war
efforts
After Partition, the All India Muslim League, which had
led the movement for Pakistan, was disbanded
Party of Mohammed Ali Jinnah was succeeded by the
Muslim League in West Pakistan and The All Pakistan
Awami Muslim League in East Pakistan
In East Pakistan, the Awami Muslim League
championed the cause of Bengali nationalism, and
sought to chart a course independent from Punjabi-
dominated West Pakistan
In independent India, the All India Muslim League was
succeeded by the Indian Union Muslim League (IUML)
IUML is the strongest in Kerala

Fast Patrol Vessel

Project Rani Rashmoni - Founder of Dakshineshwar Kali
temple, Babu Ghat
Rani Abbakka - Tuluva queen who fought the
Portuguese
Rani Avanti Bai - Revolt of 1857 in Mandla
Rani Durgavati - Leader of Gonds, fought against
Akbar’s forces
Rani Gaidinliu - Heraka Cult

Battle of Kangla Tongbi

One of the fiercest battles of World War II in Manipur
Ordnance personnel of 221 Advance Ordnance Depot
against Japanese forces

Kambala
Bull racing in Karnataka
Non competitive in its traditional form
Kambala is a legal sport - Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals ordinance aims to exempt Kambala from
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1960)
Thanksgiving to Gods for protecting animals from
diseases

Allahabad
City of Allahabad was originally known as Prayag in
ancient times
Between 1574 and 1583, Akbar founded a fort near
the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna -
 Sangam
Named it Ilahabad - “Abode of God”, inspired by Din-i-
Illahi
Shah Jahan renamed the entire city as Allahabad
Name of city/village can be changed by an executive
resolution of the state government

Karma Kagyu -
Buddhism One of the 4 main schools of Tibetan Buddhism
Lineage of direct oral transmission
Doctrine of Mahamudra and Kadampa
Places particular emphasis on meditation and the
realization of the direct experience of mind gained
through the guidance of a teacher
Since the 12th century the Karmapas have been the
heads of the Karma Kaygu lineage and responsible for
the continuation of this direct transmission lineage

Chowmahalla Palace
Palace of the Nizams of Hyderabad state.
Seat of the Asaf Jahi dynasty
Official residence of the Nizams of Hyderabad while
they ruled their state
Palace was built by Nizam Salabat Jung

Vijay
Stambha/Kirtistambha Built by Rana Kumbha (Chittorgarh Fort) - dedicated to
Vishnu
Commemorate his victories over the combined armies
of Malwa and Gujarat led by Muhammad Khilji (Battle
of Banas, Mandalgarh)

Karnavati
Chalukya ruler Karna of Anhilwara (modern Patan)
defeated Bhil king of Ashaval
Established a city called Karnavati on the banks of the
Sabarmati river
Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1411 A.D. - laid the foundation
of a new walled city near Karnavati, named it
Ahmedabad after the four saints in the area by the
name Ahmed

Bamboo Rice
Last harvested in Chandaka-Dampara Wildlife
 Sanctuary
Special rice that is grown out of a dying bamboo shoot

Pietermaritzburg
Incident Gandhi was thrown off a train in South Africa
After the incident, Gandhi stayed on in South Africa to
fight racism

Events in South Africa

Natal Indian Congress

2nd Anglo-Boer War - Gandhi advised the Indian
community to support the British
Transvaal British Indian Association - formed by
Gandhi to prevent proposed evictions of Indians in
Transvaal under British leadership
Asiatic Registration Law (Black Act) - all Indians must
keep registration documents on them at all times -
Gandhi officially used Satyagraha for the first time
Tolstoy Farm
March from Natal to Transvaal to protest against
Immigrants Regulation Act

Sadharan Brahmo
Samaj Formed in 1878 by Anand Mohan Bose and
Dwarkanath Ganguly
In response to KC Sen marrying his underage
daughter
KC Sen headed Tabernacle of New Dispensation

Brahmo Samaj

Calcutta Unitarian Committee - Raja Ram Mohan Roy

+ Dwarkanath Tagore + William Adam (both Indian
and European membership)
Brahmos were the first Hindus to defy the taboo about
crossing the seas to the west
Split into Adi Brahmo Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of
India
KC Sen formed Indian Reform Association in 1870
Devendranath Tagore started Tattvabodhini Patrika
with Akshoykumar Dutta as its editor
Tagore assumed its leadership in 1911
Namdhari Sect Ram Singh
Part of Kuka movement
Abolition of caste and similar discrimination among
Sikhs
Kuka followers actively propagated Civil Disobedience
Turned political from religious after British conquered
Punjab
Ram Singh formally inaugurated Namdhari Sect,
modelled after Guru Gobind Singh’s founding of
Khalsa

Chhotu Ram of
Haryana Also called Rai Richhpal - basic philosophy was that farming is
the primary human activity
Pre-independence period - fought for farmers rights during QIM
Co-founder of Nationalist Union Party
Founded Jat Sabha and Jat Gazette
Conceived the Bhakra Dam Project
Was called Deen Bandhu and Rahbar-e-Azam
Knighthood by British
His legacy has been evoked by the formation of a new
party, National Unionist Zamindara Party by guar farmers in
Rajasthan in 2013

Tribal Freedom Birsa Munda

Fighters
Ulgulan in Chhotanagpur Area
Mundas followed Khunkatti system - Joint holding by
tribal lineages
Dikus tried to replace it with Zamindari
Govt enacted Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 and
recognised Khunkatti system and banned Beth
Begari

Veer Narayan Singh - Chhattisgarh, Offshoot of revolt

of 1857
Alluri Sitaramaraju - Rampa Rebellion in Godavari
district, Fought against Madras Forest Act (1882),
which prevented them from podu agricultural system
(shifting cultivation)
Thalakkal Chandu - commander of Pazzhasi Raja of
Wayanad
Azad Hind Govt Founded as a provisional government by Bose in occupied
Singapore in 1943
Supported by Axis powers - Germany, Japan, Italy
Was also formed in Japan occupied A&N islands

Statue of Unity - Sardar

Patel 182 m, the statue is 23 metre taller than China’s
Spring Temple Buddha statue, 2x Statue of Liberty (93
metre tall)
Located on the Sadhu Bet island, near Rajpipla on the
Narmada river - between the Satpura and the Vindhya
mountain ranges
The Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Rashtriya Ekta Trust
(SVPRET), a special purpose vehicle - arranged 129
tonnes of iron implements from nearly 100 million
farmers across all states to construct the base of the
statue - Loha campaign
Sculptor Ram V Sutar and intricate bronze cladding
work was done by a Chinese foundry, the Jiangxi
Toqine Company (JTQ).

Sardar Patel

1917: Secretary of the Gujarat Sabha, the Gujarat

wing of the Indian National Congress
1918: “No Tax Campaign” - urged the farmers not to
pay taxes after the British insisted on tax after the
floods in Kaira - peaceful movement
Supported the Non-cooperation Movement
1928: Bardoli Satyagraha (peasants of Kheda, Borsad,
Bardoli after land revenue in Bardoli was increased by
30%) - Lands were returned to farmers after a deal
was struck between the government and farmers’
representatives - brought him the title of ‘Sardar’.
1930: Participated in the Salt Satyagraha - released
after Gandhi-Irwin pact
President of Indian National Congress in its Karachi
session
First Home Minister of Independent India
Established modern All India Services
Integrated more than 500 princely states into the
Dominion of India

Instruments of Accession - promise of a wide-

ranging autonomy under the Indian dominion - gave
 sufficient comfort to many rulers, who saw this as the
best deal they could strike given the lack of support
from the British and popular internal pressures.
‘Operation Polo’ - liberate and integrate Hyderabad
after the Nizam of Hyderabad entertained false hopes
of either joining Pakistan or remaining independent -
Hyderabad State was liberated in September 1948

Nanaji Deshmukh
Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya - India’s first
rural university
India’s first Saraswati Shishu Mandir
Participated in Bhoodan Movement of Vinoba Bhave
Joined Total Revolution of

SC Bose
Hoisting of Tricolour for the first time by SC Bose in
Port Blair
Much before India attained Independence declaring
the island as the free territory from the British rule.
On the same occasion, he announced the freedom of
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the first Indian Territory,
from the British rule - liberated from British rule by
Japan during WW II
Andaman - Shaheed
Nicobar - Swaraj
Azad Hind Fauj now had its own land, currency, civil
code and stamps

Ministry of Finance released stamps to commemorate 75

years of hoisting of the Tricolour

Ross Island - Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Dweep

Neil Island - Shaheed Dweep
Havelock Island - Swaraj Dweep
All three are in South Andaman

Intellectual Property Rights

Patent Under Indian Patent Law, 1970 - amended in 2005 to make it

compliant with TRIPS
 Validity - 20 years generally
Meets conditions of Novelty, non-obviousness and industrial use
Product and Process Patent

Trade Mark Trade Marks Act, 1999

Under DIPP
Fair usage for research and education purposes is not available -
need permission from owner every time
Renew every 10 years, for indefinite period

Industrial Design Design Act, 2000

5 years + Maximum renewal to 15 years

Copyright Copyright Act, 1957

Govt works, sound records, photography - 60 years
Artistic works - lifetime of author + 60

Trade Secret No specific law, but cases for violation are filed under Contract Act,
1872
Protected without registration for unlimited period

GI Tag

Agricultural, natural or a manufactured product (handicrafts and industrial goods)

originating from a definite geographical territory.
Conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, which is essentially
attributable to the place of its origin.
No other producer can misuse the name to market similar products - comfort to
customers about the authenticity of that product
Governed statutorily by Union Law (not state government) - Geographical Indication
of Goods Act, 1999
In India, GI tags are also given to products outside India - Scotch of UK, Pisco of
Peru
Given for 10 years, and subject to review after that - not a lifetime guarantee

Paris Convention for Protection of Industrial Property - GI is covered as an element

of IPR
International level: WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS)
Indian law: Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection Act),
1999
Administered by Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trademarks
Managed by CIPAM under DIPP
Civil and Criminal proceedings can be initiated for use of GI Tag in an unauthorised
manner
Darjeeling Tea was the first GI tagged product

Coffee Varieties

Coorg Arabica - Kodagu, Karnataka

Wayanaad Robusta - Wayanaad, Eastern Kerala
Chikmagalur Arabica coffee - Malenad region of Deccan Plateau
Araku Valley Arabica - Hilly tracks of Visakhapatnam (Andhra and Odisha region) -
Tribals follow an organic approach
Bababudangiris Arabica - Birthplace of coffee in India - high grown coffee which
slowly ripens in the mild climate and acquires a special taste and aroma

Shahi Litchi Bihar

Jardalu Mango Bihar

Magahi Paan Bihar

Katrani Rice Bihar

Shanphee Manipur
Lanphee

Kandhamal Haldi Odisha Main cash crop of tribal people in Kandhamal -

50% population grow turmeric
Known for its medicinal value

Nilambur Teak Kerala Oldest teak plantation in the world

World’s first Teak Museum

Etikoppaka Toys Andhra Toys made up of wood

Pradesh Etikoppoka is on banks of river Varaha

Adilabad Dokra Telengana

Tanjore Paintings Tamil Nadu

Durgi Stone Andhra

Carvings Pradesh

Queen Pineapple Tripura

State fruit
Sweetness and unique aroma

Chakeshang Nagaland
Shawl

Marayoor Jaggery Kerala

Muthuva Tribe
Made from sugarcane and no chemicals
are added during the manufacturing
process.
Prepared in sheds located on the
sugarcane farm

Sirsi Supari Karnataka

Areca Nut grown in Uttara Kannada 0
Yellapura, Siddapura and Sirsi taluks
Totgars’ Cooperative Sale Society Ltd.,
Sirsi, is the registered proprietor of the GI
Unique features such as a round and
flattened coin shape, particular texture,
size, cross-sectional views, taste, etc

Alphonso Mango Maharashtra Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg

Pokkali Kerala
Saltwater-tolerant paddy grown in the
coastal fields of Alappuzha, Ernakulam
and Thrissur districts
Endemic to Central Kerala
Single season paddy, followed by a
season of fish farming

Boka Chaul Assam

Can be eaten after soaking in water at
room temperature

Thirubhuvanam Tamil Nadu

Silk Saree

Erode Manjal Tamil Nadu Turmeric

Rajkot Patola Gujarat

Kangra Tea Himachal

Vengurla Cashew Maharashtra

Nanjanagud Karnataka
Banana
Kachai Lemon Manipur

Channapatna Karnataka

Narayanpet Telengana

Muga Silk Assam

Agricultural Product Handicraft Food

Navapur Tur Dal Kathputli (Raj) Bardhaman

(MH) Sikki Grass Mihidana (Bengal)
Solapur Pomegranate Products (Bihar) Bardhaman
(MH) Karvath Kati Sitabhog (Bengal)
Dahanu Dholvad Sarees (MH) Bandaru Laddu
Chikku (MH) Sujini Embroidery (Andhra)
Bhiwapur Chilli (MH) (Bihar)
Joha Rice (Assam) Varanasi glass
Marathwada Kesar beads (UP)
Mango (MH) Mysore Silk (Ktk)
Purandar Fig (MH) Jamnagari
Waigaon (MH) Bandhani (Guj)
Uttarakhand Tejpata Khatwa Applique
(Utk) (Bihar)
Jalna Sweet Orange Molela Clay Work
 (MH) (Raj)
Beed Custard Apple Blue Pottery Jaipur
(MH) (Raj)
Sangli Raisins (MH) Kashmir Knotted
Banganpalle (Andhra) Carpet (JK)
Banaras Metal
Repousse (UP)
Rice

Bengal - Gobindbhog
Rice
UP - Kalanamak Rice
Maharashtra -
Ambemohar Rice
Kerala - Palakkadan
Matta Rice, Navara
Rice, Pokkali Rice,
Wayanad
Jeerakasala Rice,
Wayanad
Gandhakasala Rice,
Kaipad Rice

Temples

Sthambeshwar Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat

Mahadev Shiva Linga seen only during low tide

ARCHITECTURE
ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

Harapaan, Mauryan, Post-Mauryan, Gupta, South Indian

Harappan Urban Civic Planning

Towns laid in rectangular grid pattern - roads cut at right angles

Main types of buildings - dwelling houses, public buildings, public
baths
Burnt mud bricks of standardised dimensions (joined using
Gypsum mortar)
Upraised citadel in Western part - granaries, administrative
buildings, courtyard
Do not have temples/palaces for rulers (unlike
Egyptian/Mesopotamia)
Most buildings had private wells
Some houses might have been double storeyed
Advanced drainage with

Seals

Mostly square (Rectangular, circular, triangular seals were also

found)
Mostly made up of steatite (also agate, chert, faience, copper,
terracotta, gold, ivory)
Pictographic Script or Boustrophedon Writing (inscriptions on
one or both sides)
No evidence of cow
Seals discovered in Mesopotamia and Lothal (indicates large
scale use of seals in trade)
Used as money, as amulets or for decoration
Pashupati Seal - Elephant, Buffalo, Rhino, Tiger, Antelope
Unicorn. Humans, Trees, Monsters
Figures are carved intaglio with a burin

Sculpture

Bronze statues made using Cire Perdue - Lost Wax technique

Lost Wax technique: Figure made of wax —> Coated with clay
—> Heated to pour out the wax —> Molten metal is poured in —
> Outer clay covering is removed
Bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro, Bronze Bull of Kalibangan
Bronze dancing girl is the oldest bronze sculpture in the world
Daimabad (late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites) yielded metal
 cast sculptures
Copper dog and bird at of Lothal
Male torso - Red Sandstone figure (Harappa) - has socket holes
in neck and shoulders
Stone structural remains in Dholavira

Terracotta

Less in number than Bronze figures

Crude in shape and form compared to bronze and stone statues
Pinching method
Found mostly in Gujarat and Kalibangan
Toys, animal figurines, miniature carts, wheels
Mother Goddess, Mask of horned deity
Mother Goddess - found in many IVC sites (probably worshipped
for fertility or prosperity)

Present Day Terracotta vs Indus Valley Terracotta

Present Day Terracotta is more refined

IVC people were not aware of terracotta beyond decorative
purposes
Life of the terracotta product is not as significant anymore due to
availability of alternatives
Across times, Terracotta figures are used in religious idols and
sculptures
Methods of firing terracotta are still similar

Pottery

Plain Pottery - used for household purposes like storage of grain

and water
Red and Black Pottery
Plain pottery is more common than painted ware
Mostly wheel made, very few are hand made
Miniature vessels were used for decorative purposes
Perforated potteries were used in straining liquor
Miniature vessels
Incised ware is rare (mostly incisions were on base of pans and
always on the inside)
Painted earthen jar in Mohenjo Daro (vegetal and geometric
motifs)

Ornaments
 Made up of precious stones, metals, baked clay, bones
Only women - Girdles, Ear rings, anklets
Large amounts of jewellery found in Mohenjo Daro and Lothal -
necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets
and beads, gold earrings and head ornaments
Bead factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal
Beads of steatite, gemstones, carnelian, amethyst, jasper,
crystal, quartz, turquoise, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, faience,
terracotta
Beads - Cornelian, amethyst, Quartz, Steatite (factories in
Chanhu Daro and Lothal)
Cemetery in Farmana at Haryana where dead are buried with
ornaments
Realistic models of animals used as pin heads

Fashion

Cotton and Wool fabrics (spindles and whorls were excavated

within houses)
Whorls remade up of expensive faience and cheap shell -
indicates both rich and boor practised spinning
Fashion conscious - types of hair and beard
Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic, Collyrium as eyeliner

What do we know about Indus Valley people from the excavations?

Knew the art of making textiles (whorls and spindles)

Fashion conscious - cosmetics, ornaments, seals, beard,
hairstyles
Believed in supernatural and spirits (amulets)
Dances were popular
Agriculture (ploughs)
Knew the technique of distilling liquor
Rich and poor classes - diversity in pottery and spindles
Religious (Mother Goddess and Pasupati seal)
Innovative in crafts (Cire Perdue technique)

Bronze Girl - Mohenjo Daro

Bangles on left arm

Bracelet/amulet on right arm
Cowry shell necklace
Possible tribhanga posture

Mauryan Court Art - Palaces, Pillars, Stupas

Popular Art - Caves, Pottery, Sculptures

Court Art

Palaces

Made of wood
Inspired by Achaemenid Palaces of Persepolis, Iran
Megasthenes has written about the palace of Chandragupta
Maurya in Pataliputra
Kumrahar Palace - Ashoka

Pillars

Gained popularity during the time of Ashoka

Used as symbol of state, to commemorate battle victories,
propagate imperial sermons
Lustrous finish of pillars was inspired by Iranian pillars
Made up of Chunar sandstone
Lauria Nandangarh Pillar (Champaran) - Single Lion
Sarnath Pillar (Varanasi) - Quadruple Lion
Basarah Bakhira (Bihar) - Single Lion
Sankisa (Bihar) - Elephant, A stupa was constructed here, ruins
of which form temple of Vishari Devi today
Rampurva (Bihar) - Bull, now in Rashtrapati Bhavan

Parts of a Mauryan Pillar

Shaft - Monolith that formed the base

Capital - Lotus shaped or Bell shaped (Bell shape inspired by
Iranian pillars)
Abacus - Circular or Rectangular base
Animal - Animal Motif on the abacus

Sarnath Pillar

National emblem = abacus + animal

Commemoration of the first sermon by Buddha
(Dharmahakraparivartana) - Lions symbolise Buddha spreading
Dhamma in all directions
Capital is crowned by the Wheel of Law
Circular abacus supported by a lotus capital
Satyameva Jayate (Mundaka Upanishad) inscribed below the
abacus in Devanagari script
Abacus - Circular in shape, Horse (W), Bull (E), Elephant (S),
Lion (N)
 Horse - Kanthaka horse that Buddha used to escape from
princely life
Bull - Taurus (zodiac sign of birth month of Buddha)
Elephant - Queen Maya’s dream of an Elephant entering her
womb
Lion - Attainment of enlightenment

Mauryan vs Achaemenian Pillars

Mauryan Pillars had monolithic shafts, Achaemenian Pillars had

many pieces of sandstone cemented together
Mauryan Pillars were independently erected, Achaemenian
Pillars were mostly attached to state buildings

Stupas

Burial mounds which were prevalent since Vedic times (but

popularised by Buddhists)
After death of Buddha, 9 stupas were erected - 8 of them had
relics of Buddha at their medhi while the 9th had the pot in which
the relics were originally kept
Core of the stupa was built of unburnt brick, outer surface using
burnt brick
Pradakshina path - Circum-ambulatory passageway
Sanchi Stupa - Madhya Pradesh
Piprahwa Stupa (UP) - Oldest Stupa
Bairat Stupa - Rajasthan (circular mound with circumambulatory
path)
9 stupas built after death of Buddha - Rajagriha, Vaishali,
Kapilvastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava,
Kushinagar, Pippalivana (all sites in Gangetic valley)
Stupas outside Gangetic Valley - Avanti, Gandhara
Construction of stupas was patronised by royal family and
common people alike - Donations by guilds are mentioned at
several sites
Few inscriptions mentioning the names of artisans (Kanha at
Pitalkora, Balaka at Kondane Caves)
Initially stupas only had inscriptions and constructions of
symbols of Buddha (footprints, stupa, lotus, chakra)
Later, inscriptions in stupas were based on Jataka narratives
Brahmanical Gods are also found in sculptural representations in
the Stupas
Popular Art

Caves

Lomash Rishi caves - Barabar Hills of Gaya (semi-circular

Chaitya arch as the entrance)
4 hills, Ashokan inscriptions found in 3 of them
Ashoka had patronised Lomash Rishi caves for the Ajivikas
Used as Viharas (living quarters) by Jain and Buddhist monks
Early caves were used by Ajivikas, later used as Buddhist
Monasteries
Highly polished finish of interior walls and decorative gateways
Barabar and Nagarjuni caves in Bihar were formed during the
time of Dasharath

Sculpture

Yaksha and Yakshini sculpture - related to Jainism, Hinduism

and Buddhism
Yaksha/Yakshini sculptures found at Patna, Vidisha, Mathura
Polished surface
Sculptures were mostly used for decoration of Stupas
Earliest mention of Yakshi in Silappadikaram
All the Jain tirthankars were associated with a Yakshi
Yakshi from Didarganj - left arm is broken, right arm holds a
flywhisk
Rock cut elephant at Dhauli (has an Ashokan rock edict)

Pottery

Northern Black Polished Ware

Highly lustrous finish
 Generally used as luxury items
Highest level of Pottery

Worship of Yakshas and Mother Goddess was prevalent in Mauryan

times
Yaksha worship was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism

Post North - Sungas, Kansas, Kushanas, Sakas

Mauryan Peninsula - Satavahana, Ishvakus, Vakatakas
Brahmanical religious sects like Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism
originated
Zenith of Sculpture
Vidisha and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodh Gaya (Bihar),
Jaggayapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (UP), Khandagiri-Udaygiri
(Odisha), Bhaja (Pune), Pavani (Nagpur)
Devnimori in Gujarat is a stupa site outside Gangetic Valley

CAVES

Three architectural types

Apsidal vault roof chaitya - Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja

Apsidal vault roof pillar less halls - Thana-Nadsur
Flat roofed quadrangular vault with circular chamber at the back
- Kondivite/Mahakali caves (became most popular in later times)

Vihara (Residential halls) were developed during Mauryan times

and Chaitya (Prayer halls) were developed during Post-Mauryan
period
Front of the Chaitya hall had a semi-circular Chaitya arch
In all Chaitya caves, cave at the back is common
Karla Chaitya Hall - biggest rock cut chaitya
1st century BC onwards, halls became rectangular - Ajanta,
Bedsa, Nashik, Karla, Kanheri (All in Maharashtra)
Kanheri cave is an elaboration on Karla chiatya

Important cave sites - Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja, Junnar,

Karla, Kanheri
Till the discovery of Konkan Maurya inscription, it was assumed that the
caves belonged to Theravadins (orthodox Buddhists)

Khandagiri-Udaygiri Caves

1st-2nd century BC under Kalinga king Kharavela

 Both natural and man-made caves
18 caves in Udaygiri and 15 in Khandagiri
Carved for residence of Jain Monks
Hathigumpha inscription in Udaygiri (Brahmi script)
Military campaigns of Kharavela
Starts with Jain Namokar Mantra
Ranigumpha cave in Udaygiri - double storeyed

STUPAS

Larger and more decorative compared to Mauryan period

Use of stone rather than wood/brick
Shungas - Toranas as gateways to the Stupas
Figure and patterns carved on Toranas had Hellenistic influence
(Bharhut and Sanchi Stupa)
Bharhut Stupa has story of the Monkey King (Madhya Pradesh)
With rise in construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations began to emerge

Phases of stupa

Bharhut

Sculptures are tall like that of Yaksha/Yakshini in the Maurya

period
General stiffness in body and arms
Narrative panels are shown with fewer characters (but as time
progresses, other characters start appearing)
Queen Maya’s dream of an elephant entering her womb -
Bharhut
Yakshini sculptures
Depiction of Ruru Jataka - Boddhisatva deer rescued a man, but
he led the King to hunt the deer in return for reward - Bharhut
Bodh Gaya, Sanchi Stupa, Jagayyapetta also have similar
sculptures

Sanchi

Upper and lower pradakshina patha

4 torana - depict events from life of Buddha and Jatakas
Carving techniques are more advanced than Bharhut
Symbols continue to be used for Buddha and Manushi buddhas
(past Buddhas)
Narratives - Siege of Kusinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilvastu,
Ashoka’s visit to Ramagrama Stupa
 Also in Mathura and Vengi (Andhra)

South India

Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Guntapalle, Goli

Guntapalle (near Eluru) and Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam)
- Rock cut cave sites
Sannati - largest Stupa site excavated in Karnataka, has a stupa
like Amravati
Guntapalle also has structured temples
Images of Boddhisatvas were also carved - Avalokiteshwara,
Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, Maitreya
Boddhisatvas as personified representations of qualities - due to
rise of Vajrayana

Sanchi Stupa

Three stupas at Sanchi

Sanchi I is presumed to have relicts of Buddha

Sanchi II has relicts of ten Arhats (according to Theravada
Buddhism, one who has gained insights into reality and nirvana)
Sanchi III has relicts of Sariputta and Mahamougalayana

Stupa I

Initially a small brick structure, was developed over successive

periods
Covered with stone later
Pradakshina Patha is covered with Veda, Upper Pradakshina
Patha is unique to Sanchi
Toranas in all 4 directions, intricate carvings in the Toranas
Symbols to represent Buddha and Manushi Buddhas
Ashokan lion capital pillar with an inscription is found on the
southern side of the Stupa
Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne, chhatra, feet
Carving of images on Vedika of Stupa II is older than Stupa I
(though Stupa I is oldest)
Shalabhanjika sculptures (lady holding branch of tree)

Amaravati Stupa

Mahachaitya
Pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika
 Torana has disappeared
Developed between 3rd century BC and 1st-2nd century AD
Early period did not have Buddha images (same as in Sanchi)
Sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi
Animated movement of figures is reduced in sculptures of
Nagarjunakonda and Goli
Queen Maya’s dream

Schools of Sculpture

Gandhara School

50 BC to 500 AD
Western frontiers (Punjab, Peshawar, Afghanistan)
Under Kushana rulers
Influenced by Graeco-Roman styles (Hellenistic), also
Achaemenian, Parthian and Bactrian
Bluish grey sandstone and later mud and stucco (Stucco was
used in Greek art)
Image of Buddha and Boddhisatvas were based on the Graeco-
Roman pantheon
Buddha in spiritual state, few ornaments, wavy hair, half closed
eyes, seated in position of yogi, halo behind head, elongated
ears
Jataka stories and Boddhisattva images are also found in
Gandhara
Buddha Head from Taxila

Mathura School

1st to 3rd century AD

Banks of river Yamuna
Developed indigenously
Under Kushana rulers
Spotted Red Sandstone
Influenced by stories and imageries of all three religions of that
time - Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism
Images were modelled on Yaksha images of the Maurya period
Images of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths (linga and mukhalinga)
are also found
Extensive use of symbolism in the images
Halo around the head of Buddha is larger than in Gandhara
school with geometrical patterns
Buddha is shown surrounded by two Boddhisatvas - Padmapani
and Vajrapani
Kankalitila was famous for Jain sculptures
 Buddha has a smiling face and muscular body, seated in
Padmasana, halo behind head
Influenced Stupa sculptures at Sanghol (Punjab)
Sarnath and Kausambi are offshoots of Mathura school in Gupta
period
Buddha images in Sarnath have plain drapery and the halo has
very little ornamentation

Amravati School

South India (banks of Krishna-Godavari rivers) - Amravati and

Nagarjunakonda
Under Satavahana rulers
Used white marbles
Mainly Buddhist
Dynamic images and narrative art
Extensive use of Tribhanga posture
Less emphasis on individual features since the sculptures are
part of a narrative
Life stories of Buddha and Jataka tales (previous lives of Buddha
in both human and animal form)
3D effect in sculptures by use of pronounced volume, angular
bodies and complex overlapping
Boddhisatvas like Avalokiteshwara, Padmapani, Vajrapani,
Amitabha and Maitreya - especially due to rise of Vajrayana
Buddhism

Greek vs Roman Art

Greek art - Idealistic - Muscular representation showing strength

and beauty - marble sculpture
Roman art - Realistic - Real people and historical events -
Concrete sculptures and mural paintings

Seated Buddha of Katra (Mathura)

Kushana period
Represents Buddha with two Boddhisatva attendants
(Padmapani and Vajrapani)
Buddha in Padmasana with hands in Abhaya Mudra
Halo around head of Buddha is large with simple geometrical
motifs
Sanghati (garment) covers only one shoulder

Gupta Period
 4th century AD - Golden Period of Indian Architecture
Early Gupta rulers were Buddhists
Temple construction was more prominent under the later Gupta
rulers
Stupas declined during Gupta period, except Dhamek Stupa at
Sarnath
Junnar has the largest cave excavations (Ganesh Leni, because
an image of Ganesha was installed later)
Konkan Maurya Inscription (400 AD) - many caves had been
carved in Western India with Buddha images

CAVES

Ajanta Caves

Sahyadri ranges near Waghora river (Aurangabad)

200-650 AD (Chronology is not clear due to lack of dated
inscriptions)
Only surviving example of painting of 1st century BC and 5th
century AD
29 caves - 25 viharas and 4 chaityas
5 developed in Hinayana period (mostly Satavahana), 24 during
Mahayana period (mostly Vakatakas)
Inscribed by Buddhist monks under Vakatakas (e.g. Harishena)
Varahadeva and Upendragupta were important patrons
(feudatories of Harishena), Buddhabhadra, Mathuradasa
Fresco painting with realism (Clay, cowdung and rice husk
applied on surface of rock, coating of lime plaster was applied on
top of it, colours and pigments were then applied on the moist
surface)
Outlines of paintings in red colour
Absence of blue colour
Different colours are used for skin in different figures
Naturalism without over-stylisation
Different guilds of artisans have worked on these paintings
Themed around Buddha, Jataka stories and Avadanas (Sinhala
Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka, Vidhurpundita Jataka, Umag
Jataka, Padmapani and Vajrapani)
Mahajanak Jataka is painted on an entire wall and is the biggest
narrative painting
Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsang have written about Ajanta Caves
Paintings - Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Naga King and his
Consort, Dying Princess, Flying Apsara
Double storied caves are there, but no triple storied
Influence of Vengi and Vidarbha sculptural traditions
Mara Vijaya sculpture near the Buddha image of
Mahaparinirvana - largest sculptural panel at Ajanta
 Mara represents desire and is shown contemplating how to
disturb Buddha before enlightenment
Has some elements of Vidarbha style

Ellora Caves

100 kms away from Ajanta Caves

5th to 11th century AD
17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, 5 Jain
Buddhist caves
Vajrayana themes - Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya,
Avalokiteshwara, Maitreya, Amitabha
Big in size and single/double or triple storied (Ajanta has no triple
storied cave)
Buddha images are guarded by Vajrapani and Padmapani
Other images - Manushi Buddhas, Vairochana, Akshobhya,
Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva, Vajraraja
Hindu caves built by Kalachuris and Chalukya rulers
Only one double storey cave
Images of both Shiva and Vishnu
Ravana shaking mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha,
Kalyanasundara, avatars of Vishnu
Jain temples built by Yadava rulers
Developed by various guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu - greater diversity in terms of themes and architectural
styles
Vishwakarma cave in which Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana
Mudra (same as Vitarka mudra) and Bodhi Tree is carved at his
back
Ravan ki Khai
Dashavatar Temple
Kailash Temple under Rashtrakuta king Krishna
Sculpture on a wall of Kailash Temple of Ravana shaking Mount
Kailash
Largest monolith excavation in the world
Dhumar Leni
Rameshwar Temple
Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha (Jain caves built by
Rashtrakutas)
Inscription of Dantidurga
Cave 29 is similar to the main cave of Elephanta
Cave 16 - Kailash Leni

Elephanta Caves

Built during reign of Rashtrakutas

Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivite faith
 Maheshmurti (Shiva, Bhairava, Uma), Ardhanarishwara,
Gangadhara
Contemporary with Ellora

Junagadh Caves

Buddhist Caves
Khapra Kodiya, Baba Pyare, Uparkot
30-50 ft high citadel known as Upar Kot in front of prayer hall

Nashik Caves

Buddhist Caves
1st century AD - Hinayana Period indicated by use of symbols
(But Mahayana influence like idols of Buddha also found)
Also called Pandav Leni

Mandapeshwar Caves

Developed in Late Gupta period as a brahmanical cave

Later converted into Christian cave
Sculptures of Nataraja, Sadashiva, Ardhanarishwara

Udayagiri Caves

Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh

5th century AD under patronage of Chandragupta II
Varaha sculpture
Among the earliest Hindu sculptures - Shiva, Narasimha,
Narayana, Skanda
Reclining Vishnu

Guntapalle Caves

Excavated in hills with structured monasteries

Structured stupas, viharas and caves all at one place
Smaller compared to Western Caves
Viharas are single or double storied, without a central hall

Other caves in Western India

Aihole/Badami under Chalukyas

Mahabalipuram under Pallavas
Other caves in Eastern India

Anakapalle - Rock cut cave site near Vishakhapatnam, Biggest

rock cut stupas
Rampaerrampullam - rock cut stupas on hillock

SCULPTURE

Sarnath School

Cream coloured sandstone

Use of metal
Immaculately dressed - plain transparent drapery covering
Sultanganj Buddha
Halo was intricately decorated
Standing Buddha at Dharmarajika Stupa (Taxila)

Seated Buddha, Sarnath

Chunar Sandstone
Seated in Padmasana, hands in Dharmachakrapravartana on a
throne which is intricately decorated
Central part of the halo has no decoration

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Temple architecture with squared sanctum and pillared portico emerged

in the Gupta period
Post 6th century development of art history depended more on political
patronage than on collective public patronage

Stage I

Flat roof, square shaped, shallow pillars, low platforms

Temple at Sanchi

Stage II

Higher platforms, ambulatory passageway

Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthara in MP (Chatur Mukhlinga)

Stage III
 Shikharas in place of flat roof
Pachayatan style - 4 subsidiary shrines along with temple of
main deity
Dashavatar Temple at Deogarh (late Gupta Period), Durga
Temple at Aihole

Stage IV

Main shrine became more rectangular

Ter temple, Sholapur

Stage V

Circular Temples
Maniyar Math, Rajgir

Garbhagriha - Houses principal deity

Mandapa - Entrance to the temple (portico or hall)
Shikhara/Vimana - Spire (pyramidal or curvilinear)
Vahana - Vehicle of deity, placed just before Garbha Griha
axially

Based on Pradakshinapatha

Sandhara - Without Pradakshinapatha

Nirandhara - With Pradakshinapatha
Sarvotabhadra - Can be accessed from all sides

Earliest Temples - Deogarh (UP), Eran, Nachna Kuthara, Udaygiri (MP),

Vidisha

Nagara Architecture

5th century onwards

Assembly halls or mandap in front of the main shrine
Images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna outside the
Garbha Griha
No water tanks or reservoirs
Built on upraised platforms
Porticos had pillars
Tallest Shikhara was generally above the Garbhagriha
 Shikhara ended in a horizontal fluted disc known as AMALAK
Spherical shape on top of Amalak was called KALASH
RATHA - Vertical planes into which the temple wall was divided
Pradakshina Patha was covered
Generally did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways
(but Odisha school had)
Entrance has images of mithunas and river goddesses

Types of Shikharas

Latina/Rekha Prasad - Square base, curve upwards to a point

(mostly on Garbhagriha)
Phamsana - Broad base, slope upwards on a straight line,
shorter in height than Latina (mostly in Mandapas)
Valabhi - Rectangular base with the roof rising into vault
chamber (influenced by rock cut Chaitya caves)

Central India // Dashavatara Temple

After the small temples at Sanchi and Udaigiri (Bidisha)

Mostly made up of Sandstone
Panchayatana style
Rekhaprasada Shikhara
Doorway has sculptures of Ganga and Yamuna
Sheshasayana, Nara Narayana (discussion between human soul
and eternal divine), Gajendramoksha (story of achieving
moksha, symbolically Vishnu suppressing an asura who had
taken the form of an elephant)

Khajuraho School (9th to 11th century)

Under Chandela rulers

Both interior and exterior are lavishly decorated
Erotic sculptures drawing inspiration from Vatsayana’s
Kamasutra, Mithun Sculptures
Sandstone
Three chambers - Garbhagriha, Mandapa, Ardhamandapa
ANTARALA - Vestibular entrance to Garbhagriha
North or East facing
Panchayatan Style
Subsidiary shrines also had Latina sikharas
Built on high platforms
Hindu and Jain Temples
Kandariya Mahadev Temple (largest temple of Khajuraho),
Lakshman Temple (has projecting balconies and verandahs),
 Chausath Yogini Temple (associated with esoteric goddesses
associated with Tantric worship)
Vishwanath Temple - Dhanga
Lakshman Temple - Yashovarman
Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, Mahamandapa, Garbhagriha
(Chaturmukha Vishnu)
“Dance Class” - sculpted panel

Solanki School

Gujarat and Rajasthan

Under Solanki rulers
Temple walls are devoid of any carvings
Garbhagriha connected with Mandapa both internally and
externally
Porticos have decorative arched gateways known as torana
Presence of step-tank (Surya Kund) in proximity of the temple
Sandstone, Black basalt, Soft marble (Jain temples of Mount
Abu)
Mostly east facing and designed such that during equinoxes, sun
rays fall directly into the central shrine
Modhera Sun Temple (Built by Bhima I) - early 11th century,
grandest temple tank of India “surya kund”
Every year during equinoxes, the Sun shines directly into the
shrine
Samlaji Temple (Gujarat) - evidence of how indigenous traditions
of the region mixed with post-Gupta elements
Jain temples at Ranakpur and Mount Abu

Odisha School

Mostly in Old Kalinga - Bhubaneshwar, Konark, Puri

Exterior walls were lavishly decorated but interior walls were
plain
Shikharas were called REKHADEUL - almost vertical and curved
inwards sharply
Rekhapida, Pidhadeul, Khakhra
JAGAMOHAN - Mandapa
Ground Plan of main temple was square, becoming circular in
upper reaches (MASTAKA) - almost cylindrical spire
Temples were surrounded by a boundary wall like in Dravidian
style
Konark Temple, Jagannath Temple at Puri, Lingaraj Temple

Kashmir Style
 Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, Kashmir - strong Gandhara
influence due to proximity (5th century)
Mixed Gupta traditions with post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath,
Mathura, Gujarat, Bengal
Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions were mixed
Wooden buildings with pitched roofs
Karkota dynasty patronised temple building
Pandrethan temple (8th to 9th century) - moderately decorated,
in contrast to post Gupta styles of elaborate ornamentation
Laksna Devi Mandir (7th century) - built during the reign of
Meruvarman
Images of Mahisasuramardini and Narasimha (post Gupta style
+ metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir in alloys of zinc and
copper)
Jogeshwar and Champavat temples in Kumaon

South India TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Rock cut caves at Badami and Aihole under Chalukyas, Tamil Nadu
under Pallavas

PALLAVA

Mostly Shaivite, but Vaishanvite temples are also attributed to

Pallava period
Heavy influence of Buddhist elements
Early buildings were rock cut, later temples were structural

Mahendra Group - (Mahendravarman I was contemporary of Pulakesin

II)

Rock cut temples

Temples were known as Mandapas (Nagara style - mandapas
meant only assembly hall)
Mahendravarman built temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu,
Kanchipuram
Inscription at Mandagapattu ascribes titles - Vichitrachitta,
Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists)
Contemporary of Pulakesin II

Narasimha Group - Narasimha Varman I - Mahalbalipuram monuments

- 7th century

Rock cut temples were decorated by intricate sculptures

Mandapas were divided into separate RATHAs
 Biggest was called Dharmaraja Ratha and smallest was called
Draupadi Ratha
Dravidian architecture is a successor of Dharmaraja Ratha

Rajsimha Group (Narasimha Varman II) - 8th century

Development of real structural temples

Shore temple at Mahabalipuram
3 shrines - 2 Shiva, 1 Vishnu in Anantashayana position
(Different shrines may have been added at different times due to
change of patrons?)
Water tank, Gopuram, Nandi sculpture
Arjuna’s penance/Descent of Ganga sculpture panel
Kailashnathar Temple at Kanchipuram

Nandivarman Group

Similar to Dravidian style

Smaller in size

Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram - UNESCO World Heritage

Sites

Ratha Temples (7th century AD) - Earliest rock cut temples in

India - Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest and Draupadi Ratha is
the smallest
Rock cut Caves - Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave temple,
Panchapandava Cave Temple, Mahisasuramardini Mandapa
(Bas-relief of Goddess Durga killing Mahishasura)
Open Air Rock Reliefs - Descent of Ganga (Arjuna’s Penance)
Shore Temple Complex - Has sculpture of Anantasayana Vishnu

CHOLA

Dravidian Architecture

Developed under Chola rulers (continuation of previous temple

art under Pallavas)
Mostly hard granite
Surrounded by high boundary walls (Unlike Nagara School)
Front wall had high entrance gateway - GOPURAM
Panchayatan Style
Spire as a stepped pyramid that rises linearly - VIMANA (unlike
curvilinear Shikhara)
 Only one Vimana on top of the main temple (Subsidiary shrine
don’t have Vimana)
SHIKHARA - Crown of Vimana, octagonal shape (similar to
Kalash of Nagara style)
Entrance of Garbha Griha has sculptures of Dwaarpal, Mithun,
Yakshas (Nagara temples have Mithuna and river goddesses at
their entrance)
Large water reservoir or temple tank within the complex
North Indian style of multiple shikharas rising together was not
popular
Vimana over the Garbhagriha is not necessarily the tallest
Brihadeshwara Temple (Rajaraja Chola),
Gangaikondacholapuram Temple (Rajendra Chola)
Temples became administrative centres, controlling vast areas of
land
STUPIKA - Octagonal dome shaped monolithic shikhara

Five different shapes

Square - Kuta or Caturasra

Rectangular - Shala or Ayatasra
Elliptical - Gaja-prishta or Vrittayata
Circular - Vritta
Octagonal - Ashtasra

SCULPTURE

Pallava Sculpture

Bronze sculpture was present during 8th to 9th century in the Pallava
period, but reached zenith under Cholas
Shiva in Ardhaparyanka asana

Chola Sculpture

Kaliyadaman bronze sculpture, Devi bronze figure,

Kalyanasundara murti (depicts Panigrahana between two
statues), Ardhanarishwara Murti, Parvati in Tribhanga
Kumbakonam and Tanjore were main centres for Bronze craft
Sembiyan Maha Devi (widowed Chola queen) was the main
patron

Nataraja

Earliest known Nataraja sculpture is from Ravana Phadi cave at

 Aihole during early Chalukya rule)
Upper right - Damru - Sound of creation (all creations spring
from sound of Damru)
Upper left - Eternal Fire - Destruction
Lower Right - Abhay Mudra - Reassurance to devotee
Lower Left - Towards the upraised foot and the path of salvation
Right leg on a small dwarf APASMARA - symbolises ignorance
of an individual
Left leg in BHUJANGATRASITA posture - represents “Tirobhava”
kicking away the Maya from mind of devotee
Flowing hair - Flow of river Ganges
One ear has male earring, another has female earring -
Ardhanarishwar
Snake twisted around arm of Shiva - Kundalini power which
resides in human spine in dormant stage
Surrounded by glowing lights - Vast unending cycles of time

Other Vesara Architecture (Karnataka School)

Schools

Mid 7th century under Chalukya rulers

Hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles
Emphasis on Vimana and Mandapa
Open ambulatory passageway
Intricate carvings on pillars, doorways and ceilings
Curvilinear Shikhara and square base like Nagara style
Terraced shikara, Vimana and intricate carvings and sculpture
like Dravida style
Ladkhan Temple at Aihole, Dodabasappa Temple at Dambal

Dynasties that contributed to Vesara style - Developed during

Chalukyan period, reached zenith under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas

Chalukyas

Badami, Kalyani, Aihole, Pattadkal

Early Chalukyan temples were rock cut, later temples were
structural
Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole - Nataraja sculpture surrounded by
Saptamatrikas
Durga temple at Aihole resembles a Buddhist Chaitya
Ladkhan Temple inspired by wooden roof of Kashmir
Pattadkal Temples (during Vikramaditya II)
Sangameshwara and Virupaksha temples borrowed Pallava and
Chola traditions from Kanchi and Mahabalipuram
Papanatha temple borrowed from Nagara traditions
 Mahakuta temple (Badami) and Swarga Brahma (Alampur) have
influence of elements from Orissa and Rajasthan

Rashtrakutas

Kailashnath Temple in Ellora (8th century) - Gopuram like

gateway, subsidiary shrines, Vimana, Nandi shrine
More similar to Dravida style

Hoysala Architecture

1050-1300 AD under Hoysala rulers around Mysore (Belur,

Halebid, Sringeri, Somnathpuram)
Multiple shrines around a central pillared hall (Unlike
Panchayatan style, shrines were laid out in star shape -
STELLATE pattern)
Soft soap stone (chlorite schist) was used - enabled carving of
more intricate structure
Extensive carvings on interior and exterior walls
JAGATI - upraised platform on which the temples were built
Temples at Belur, Halebid and Somanathapuram
Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu - dark schist stone (12th
century), dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, double building with a
large hall as the mandap for dance and music, Nandi pavilion
preceded each building
Vijaynarayana Temple at Belur

Pala and Sena Architecture

Pala - Buddhist rulers following Mahayana Buddhism (9th to 11th

century)
Sena - Hindu rulers (11th to 13th century)
Awareness of all known Nagara subtypes
Architecture reflected influence of both religions - Vanga style
Black to Grey basalt, Chlorite stone pillars
Heavily influenced earliest Bengal sultanate buildings in Gaur
and Pandua
Monuments under Palas - Universities at Nalanda, Jagaddala,
Odantapuri and Vikramshila and the Somapura Mahavira
monastery in Bangladesh
Monuments under Sena rulers - Dhakeshwari Temple in
Bangladesh
Buildings had a curved/sloping roof like Bengali huts - BANGLA
ROOF (later adopted by Mughal architecture)
 Terracotta bricks were the main building material (burnt bricks
and clay) in Bengal and Bangladesh
Tall curving Shikhara crowned by a large Amalaka (similar to
Odisha school)
Sculptures mostly in stone, but also in metal - figures had a
lustrous finish
Siddheshwara Temple in Barakar (9th century) - Vanga style
Some temples were submerged due to construction of dams

Assam Style

Gupta style - Dah Parvatiya sculpted door frame (Tezpur)

Post Gupta style continued till 10th century
12th to 14th centuries - distinct Ahom style emerged (migration
of Tais from Burma + Pala style from Bengal)
Kamakhya Shakti Peeth - 17th century

Vijaynagar Architecture

14th to 16th century under Vijaynagar rulers

Combined features of Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas
Influenced by Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur
Walls of the temples were highly decorated with carvings and
geometrical patterns
Gopurams built on all sides (earlier only on the front)
Monolithic rock pillars
Temple pillars had a mythical creature (Yali) engraved in them
More than one mandap in each temple, Central Mandap was
called Kalyan Mandap
Secular buildings inside the temple were introduced
Temple complex was enclosed by boundaries
Vitthalswami Temple, Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha Temple,
Raghunatha Temple, Rock-cut idol of Narasimha on Shehsha
Mentioned in accounts of Conti, Paes, Nuniz, Barbosa, Abdul
Razzaq

Nayak Architecture (Madurai School)

16th to 18th century AD under the Nayaka rulers

Similar to Dravidian style, but larger in scope
Islamic influence
Presence of huge corridors (PRAKRAMS) in the portico around
the Garbha Griha
 Art of Gopuram reached its zenith - Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
Temple structure was filled with intricate carvings

Mudras of Buddha

Bhumisparsha
Mudra Buddha in meditation, right hand touching
the earth
Associated with Blue Buddha called
Akshobya
Moment of Buddha attaining enlightenment

Dhyana Mudra
Meditation - Samadhi or Yoga mudra
Buddha in meditation, both hands in the lap
Sometimes thumbs are shown joined
together to form a triangle
Attainment of spiritual perfection
Used by Buddha in the final meditation
under Bodhi tree

Vitarka Mudra
Teaching, Discussion, Intellectual debate
Tips of thumb and index finger touch forming
a circle - maintains the flow of energy

Abhaya Mudra
Indicates fearlessness
Shown by Buddha immediately after
attaining enlightenment
Strength and inner security

Dharmachakra
Mudra Turning the wheel of the Dharma
Exhibited by Lord Buddha when he
preached his first sermon after his
enlightenment

Anjali Mudra
Greetings, Devotion, Adoration
 Namaste gesture derives from Anjali Mudra
Should not be shown in Buddha statues
Meant only for Boddhisatvas

Uttarabodhi
Mudra Supreme Enlightenment
Symbolises perfection
Known for charging one with energy
Shakyamuni Buddha (liberator of Nagas)
presents this posture

Varada Mudra
Charity, compassion, granting wishes
Can be a right hand or left hand gesture
Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort,
Meditative Concentration

Karana Mudra
Warding off evil
Energy created by this mudras helps
remove obstacles like sickness and negative
thoughts

Vajra Mudra
Knowledge
Most popular in Korea and Japan
Knowledge is represented by forefinger and
fist of the hand protects it

Inscriptions and Edicts

Sohgaura
Copper Plate Mentions famine relief measures
One of the few examples of Pre-Ashoka Brahmi inscriptions
Ashokan Edicts
Inscriptions on pillars, caves and boulders
Represents the first tangible evidence of Buddhism
Inscriptions show his efforts to spread and develop Buddhist
dharma throughout the kingdom
Focus on social and moral precepts instead of philosophical
and religious aspects
Main themes - Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, His efforts
to spread Buddhism, Social and animal welfare programmes
Ashoka as Devanampiyadassi confirmed at Maski inscription

Categories of Edicts

Pillar Edicts
Major Rock Edicts - 14 edicts (1st to 14th) and 2 found
separately in Odisha
Major Rock Inscriptions - Queen’s Edict, Barabar Cave
inscriptions, Kandahar bilingual inscription

Rummindei
Pillar Edicts Minor Pillar Inscriptions
Written in Brahmi
Records Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini, exemption of Lumbini from
paying tax, contribution of grain at 1/8

Prayag-
Prashasti Allahabad Pillar
Originally engraved on Ashokan Pillar at Kausambi, later
removed to Allahabad fort

Though it is an Ashokan pillar, it has 4 different inscriptions

Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi script

Queen’s edict - charitable deeds of Ashoka’s wife Kaurwaki
Samudragupta’s inscriptions written by Harisena in Sanskrit
(Brahmi script) - conquests of Samudragupta
Jahangir’s inscriptions in Persian

Mehrauli
Located in Delhi in the Qutb Minar complex
Rust resistant composition of metals
Established by Chandragupta II as Vishnupada in honour of
 Lord Vishnu
Conquest of Vanga countries and over Vakatakas

Kalsi
Banks of Yamuna River
Only place in North India with entire set of 14 rock edicts
Prakrit language and Brahmi script
Made up of Quartz
Mention Ashoka’s humane approach in internal administration
after converting to Buddhism

Maski
Banks of Maski River (Karnataka) which meets Tungabhadra
First edict that contains the name Ashoka instead of
Devanampriya or Piyadassi
Dharma Shashank - tells people to follow Buddhism
Shows that Maurya rule spread south upto Krishna Valley

Kalinga Edicts
11 out of 14 major edicts (except11th, 12th, 13th)
Magadhi Prakrit in Brahmi script
2 separate edicts - meant for pacification of people of Kalinga
after the conquest

Aihole
Found at Meguti Temple
Sanskrit in Kannada script
Written by Ravikirti
Victory of Chalukyas over Pallavas
Victory of Pulakeshin II over Harshavardhana
Shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami
Along Malprabha River
Mostly Hindu Temples, a few Jain temples and one Buddhist
temple

Mandagapattu
Describes Mahendravarman as Vichitrachitta, Chitrakarapulli,
Chaityakari

Hathigumpha
2nd century BC
Elephant Cave inscription in Udaygiri Caves
Prakrit language and Brahmi script
 Main source of information about Kharavela

Universities

Odantapuri Bihar Gopala I

Buddhist Mahavihara
Destroyed by Bakhtiyar
Khilji

Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Dharma Pala

Bihar Scholars were invited by
kings outside India to
spread Buddhist teachings
Vajrayana sect flourished
here and Tantric teachings
were taught
Logic, Vedas, Astronomy,
Urban Development, Law,
Grammar, Philosophy

Jagaddala Bengal Rama Pala

Vajrayana Buddhism
Many scholars moved here
after Nalanda and
Vikramshila were
destroyed

Valabhi Saurashtra, Maitraka

Gujarat Dynasty Hinayana Buddhism
Administration, State Craft,
Laws and Philosophy
Visited by Hiuen Tsang

Nalanda Bihar Gupta

Harshavardhan Foundation by
Pala Kumaragupta
Rose in prominence under
Harsha and Pala kings
Major site for Mahayana
Buddhism, but all other
sects of Buddhism were
also taught (Theravada,
Vajrayana)
Mahavihara - complex of
several monasteries of
different sizes
Influenced Tibetan
Buddhism
Sculptures in Stucco,
Stone and Bronze -
influenced by Sarnath
styles
Nalanda Sculpture =
Sarnath + Bihar + Central
Indian style (9th century)
Ordered appearance of
sculptures with very little
crowding
Bronze sculptures from 7th
to 12th century (including
Pala period) - largest
number of metal images
excavated anywhere in
East India
Initial sculptures are of
Mahayana pantheon -
Buddha, Manjushri,
Avalokiteshwara, Naga
Nagarjuna
Crowned Buddha in
sculptures after 10th
century
Brahmanical images not
conforming to Sarnath
style have also been found
at Nalanda
11th-12th centuries when
Nalanda was influenced by
Tantric traditions -
sculptures were of
Vajrayana deities like
Vajrasharada (form of
Saraswati), Khasarpana,
Avalokiteshwara
Scholars - Nagarjuna,
Aryabhatta, Hiuen Tsang,
It-Sing
Only a small portion has
been excavated as most of
it is buried under
contemporary civilisation
Takshashila Pakistan
5th century BC
Chankaya composed
Arthashastra at this place
Buddhist and Hindu
teachings
Scholars - Chanakya,
Charaka, Panini, Jivaka,
Prasenajit

Kancheepuram Tamil Nadu

1st century AD
Rose to prominence under
Pallavas
Hinduism, Jainism and
Buddhism

Manyakheta Karnataka
Rose to prominence under
Rashtrakuta rulers
Scholars of Jainism,
Buddhism and Hinduism
studied here
'Ratha' of Dvaita school of
thought

Pushpagiri Odisha
Lalitagiri 3rd century under Kalinga
kings
Mainly a Buddhist learning
centre

Sharada Peeth Kashmir

Important place for
Sanskrit scholars
Sharda Devi Temple

Nagarjunakonda Andhra
Named after Nagarjuna
(scholar of Mahayana
Buddhism)
Viharas and Stupas
Scholars came from Sri
 Lanka and China

Important Temples

Name Location Deity

Venkateshwara Tirumala Venkateshwara Built by King

Temple Chittoor District (Vishnu) Thondaiman,
Developed by
Chola rulers
Richest temple in
the world
“Swayam Vyakta
Vigraha"

Varaha Lakshmi Simhachalam Hill, Varaha Narasimha Covered in

Narasimha Andhra Sandalwood paste
(Simha Chalam throughout the
Temple) year, except on
Akshaya Tritiya

Bramarambha Srisailam, Andhra Shiva Parvati Inscriptions from

Mallikarjuna Pradesh Satavahana
dynasty
Additions made
during time of King
Harihara of
Vijaynagar Empire
Jyotirlinga +
Shaktipeeth

Arasavalli Sun Arasavalli, Andhra Sun God Creator of the

Temple Pradesh temple - Devendra
(Surya Narayana) Sarma (7th
century AD)
Built to direct the
Sun’s rays to fall at
the feet of the
deity

Sri Nellore, Andhra Lord Ranganatha 12th century

Ranganathaswami Pradesh Gaaligopuram
Temple meaning “wind
tower” - 70 ft high

Veerbhadra Temple Lepakshi, Andhra Shiva Built by Virupanna

Pradesh Nayaka and
 Viranna
(governors of
Vijaynagar empire)
Vijaynagar style of
architecture, with
mural paintings on
walls and ceilings

Malinithan Northern bank of Durga in Shakti 14th - 15th

Brahmaputra, form century
Arunachal Pradesh Built with granite
stones during the
period of Aryan
influence in the
region

Kamakhya Temple Nilachal Hill Kamakhya 8th - 17th century

Guwahati, Assam Ambubachi Mela
Among the oldest
of the 52 Shakti
Peeth
Pilgrimage
destination for
Tantric
worshippers

Tuloni Biya ritual -

celebration of
attainment of
womanhood of
girls in Assam

Umananda Devaloi Peacock Island on Umananda Built in 17th

river Brahmaputra century by Ahom
king Gadadhar
Singha
Shiva is said to
have resided here
as Bhayananda
Mountain is also
called
Bhasmakuta

Navagraha Temple Chitrasal Hill Navagraha Built in 18th

Guwahati century by Ahom
king Rajeshwar
Singha

Neghereting Shiva Dergaon, Assam Shiva Constructed by

Kachari kingdom
of Assam during
 8th to 9th century

Hayagriva Madhava Monikut Hill, Assam Narasimha Kings of Pala

dynasty may have
constructed
Present structure
built by
Raghudeva
Narayan in 16th
century

Mundeshwari Devi Kaura in Kaimur Shiva and Shakti Early 2nd century
District, Bihar AD
Temple built of
stone is on an
octagonal plan
Earliest specimen
of Nagara style in
Bihar

Somnath Temple Gujarat Shiva First among the 12

Jyotirlingas
Chalukyan style of
architecture

Dwarkadheesh Dwarka, Gujarat Lord Krishna Pushtimarg temple

One of the Char
Dham (Dwarka,
Badrinath, Puri,
Rameshwaram)

Bahuchara Mata Gujarat Bahuchara Mata Constructed in

1783 AD
Patroness of Hijra
community in
India

Nageshwara Dwarka, Gujarat Shiva

Jyotirlinga

Modhera Sun Gujarat Sun God Maru-Gurjara style

Temple (close to Chalukya
style - Solankis
were a branch of
the Later
Chalukyas)
Surya Kund -
rectangular step
tank (108
miniature shrines
 carved in between
the steps inside
the tank)
Sabha Mandapa
open on all sides
(typical of western
and central Indian
temples of the
10th-12th century)

Bhoramdeo Temple Chaura, Shiva Khajuraho of

Chhattisgarh Chhatisgarh

Danteshwari Dantewada Danteshwari Shakti Peetha

(place where the
tooth fell)

Mahamaya Chhatisgarh Lakshmi and

Saraswati

Jwalamukhi Devi Kangra, HP Jwalamukhi Shakti Peetha

Temple

Baba Balak Nath Hamirpur, HP Incarnation of Lord Women are not

Shiva in Kaliyuga allowed to enter
the Garbha Griha

Baidyanath Temple Jharkhand Shiva Jyotirlinga

Durga Temple Aihole 7th - 8th century

Karnataka by the Chalukya
dynasty
Shape of temple
resembles the
back of an
elephant

Virupaksha Temple Hampi Built during the

Karnataka Vijaynagar period
UNESCO World
Heritage Site
(Group of
monuments at
Hampi)
Another
Virupaksha temple
at Pattadkal

Vitthala Temple Hampi Stone Chariot

Contains images
of Persians selling
 horses

Hoysaleshwara Halebidu Shiva By Hoysalas in

Temple 12th century
Stellate design
and temples built
on a Jayati

Chennakeshava Belur Vishnu By Hoysalas in

12th century
Stellate pattern

Chennakeshava Somanathapura Three forms of By Hoysalas in

Lord Vishnu 13th century
Sculpture of
Krishna playing
the flute in inner
sanctum
Jagati based on
stellate plan

Padmanabhaswamy Thiruvananthapuram, Vishnu Strict dress code

Temple Kerala has to be followed
for entry
Laksha Deepam
festival once in 6
years

Sabarimala Temple Periyar Tiger Ayyappan Ayappan is an

Reserve incarnation of
Vishnu and Shiva
Pilgrims wear blue
and black

Aranmula Krishna Banks of Tampa

Parthasarathy river
Temple One of the
Divyadesams,
glorified in Divya
Prabandham

Kandariya Mahadev Khajuraho Shiva Built in 11th

century by
Chandela rulers
Erotic sculptures
on walls of
temples
Largest Temple of
Khajuraho
complex
Lakshman Temple Khajuraho Vishnu Chaturmukh
Vishnu
“Dance Class”
sculpted panel

Sahastrabahu Gwalior Vishnu and Shiva Built in 11th

Temple (Sas-Bahu in two separate century by King
temple) temples Mahipala of
Kacchapaghata
dynasty

Omkareshwar Khandwa, MP Shiva Jyotirlinga

Mahakaleshwar Ujjain, MP Shiva Jyotirlinga + Shakti

Peetha

Vitthal or Vithoba Pandharpur, Vitthal (Vishnu) By Hoysala empire

temple Maharashtra in 13th century
Became the first
temple in India to
invite women and
backward classes
as priests

Trimbakeshwar Nashik Shiva Balaji Baji Rao

Temple Jyotirlinga

Konark Odisha Built by Eastern

Ganga dynasty in
13th century
Wheels of the
temple are
sundials and can
measure time to a
minute
Jagamohana is
the largest
enclosed space in
Hindu architecture

Doddabasappa Karnataka Vesara Style,

Chalukyan period

Lingaraj Bhubaneshwar Harihara - form of Built by

Vishnu and Shiva Somavamsi
dynasty in 11th
century
Temple built in
Deul style
Karni Mata Rajasthan Durga Built by Maharaja
Ganga Singh
Temple of rats

Thousand Pillar Telengana Vishnu, Shiva, By Kakatiya

Temple Surya dynasty in 12th-
14th century
Star shaped
temple with three
shrines inside

Ramappa Warangal Ramalingeshwara By Kakatiya

dynasty in 11th
century

Shore Temple Mahabalipuram Shiva By Pallavas in 8th

century AD
One of the oldest
rock cut temples
UNESCO World
Heritage Site

Meenakshi Temple Madurai Parvati Built in 16th

century
Famous for
Prakaran and hall
of 1000 pillars

Murugan Temple Palani Kartikeya Original idol is

believed to have
been made by
Bogga Siddhar
using highly toxic
herbs, which could
kill people

Brihadeshwara Thanjavur Shiva Built by Rajaraja

Temple Chola in early 11th
century AD
Chola murals on
walls
First temple to
have two
Gopurams
Some stucco
figures may have
been added in the
Maratha period

Ranganathaswamy Srirangam Vishnu Largest Temple in

Temple India
 Located on an
island in Kaveri
delta
Foremost of the
108 Divyadesams

Unakoti Cave Tripura Shiva 600-700 AD

Rock carvings and
murals

Vishwanath Varanasi Shiva Current structure

was built by Ahilya
Bai Holkar in 1780
AD
Jyotirlinga
Western bank of
Ganga

Dakshineshwar Kolkata Kali 1855 AD, related

to Ramkrishna
Paramhansa

Tallest Vimana - Brihadeshwara temple (New Vishwanath Temple by Birla family?)

Tallest Gopuram - Murdeshwara Temple (Karnataka) > Sri Ranganathswamy
Temple
Largest Temple Area - Angkor Vat > Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple > Akshar Dham

Jyotirlinga in India

Somnath Gujarat (Considered to be the first Jyotirlinga)

Mallikarjuna Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh (Banks of Krishna river, Kailash of the

South, Shakti Peetha)

Mahakaleshwar Madhya Pradesh (Banks of Shipra, Shakti Peetha, One of the seven
Mukti-Sthal)

Omkareshwar Madhya Pradesh (Island in river Narmada)

Vaidyanath Jharkhand

Bhimashankar Maharashtra (Source of river Bhima)

Rameshwar Tamil Nadu

Nageshwar Gujarat
 Vishwanath Varanasi (Rebuilt by Ahilyabai Holkar)

Trimbakeshwar Nasik (Near Brahmagiri from where Godavari flows)

Kedarnath Uttarakhand

Grishneshwar Aurangabad (Temple built by Ahilyabai Holkar, Close to Ajanta &

Ellora caves)

Temples Outside India

Angkor Vat
Cambodia World’s largest Hindu Temple
Sea faring activities of Cholas and Kalingas brought the
religion to these parts and gave rise to many Hindu
dynasties like the Champa in Vietnam, Khmer in Indo-China,
Majapahit in Java
Angkor Complex was built by Khmer rulers between 800-
1300 AD
Most monuments were built during the reign of Suryavarman
II
Heavily influenced by Chola style of architecture

Prambanan
Temple Largest Temple in Indonesia
Java (Indonesia) UNESCO World Heritage Site
Dedicated to Trimurti gods
Built in 9th century by Sanjaya Kings of Mataram/Medang
Kingdom

Pashupatinath
Nepal On the banks of river Bagmati
Built in Nepalese Pagoda style of architecture
Inner and Outer Garbha Grihas
Inner sanctum contains Shiva Linga with 4 faces

Preach Vihear
Temple, Dedicated to Shiva in the forms of Shikhareshwara and
Cambodia Bhadreshwara
Symbolically represents Mount Meru
Construction started in 9th century, but mainly built by
Suryavarman I and II in 11th-12th century
Located on Thailand-Cambodia border
Katas Raj
Temple, Shiva temple built in Kashmiri architectural styles of Varma
Pakistan and Karkota dynasties
Complex has 7 temples, a sacred lake and ruins of a
Buddhist Stupa
Mentioned by Hiuen Tsang

Aditya Sun
Temple Mentioned by Hiuen Tsang and Al Istakhri
Multan, Pakistan Had an idol of Sun God in gold and rubies
Raided by invaders like Mahmud of Ghazni

Munneshwaram,
SL Mainly dedicated to Shiva with shrines for Ganesha, Kali and
Ayyanayake (Sinhalese Buddhist Deity)
Reconstruction in phases by Sri Lankan kings following
destruction by Portuguese Jesuits

Buddhist Sites Jain Sites

Mahabodhi Temple - Bodh Gaya Earliest sites in Bihar

Mahaviharas of Nalanda, Chanderi, Deogarh, Khajuraho,
Vikramshila, Sompura, Gwalior
Odantapuri, Pushpagiri, Palitana Temples - Kathiawar
Jagaddala (Shatrunjay hills)
Sirpur in Chhatisgarh (Odisha Regarded as holiest site for
style shrine with both Hindu and Svetambaras
Buddhist shrines, sculptures are Mainly dedicated to Rishabanath (1st
similar to Nalanda) Tirthankara)
Lakshman Temple Shikarji, Parasnath - Jharkhand
Lalitagiri, Vajragiri, Ratnagiri 20 Tirthankars attained salvation here
(Diamond Triangle) Girnar - Gujarat (largest temple is of
Sarnath - first Sermon Neminath - 22nd Tirthankar)
Kushinagar, UP Pawapuri - Nalanda, Bihar (Mahavira
Piprahwa, UP (First Stupa, was cremated here)
Nepal-UP border) Dilwara Temples - Mt Abu, Rajasthan
Sanchi, Bharhut - MP (by Vimal Shah)
Nagapattinam - TN (important Temples - Vimal Vasahi, Luna Vasahi,
Buddhist site till the Chola Pittalhar, Parshvanath, Mahavir
period, Chola sculptures in Swami (built between 13th to 17th
century)
 bronze and stone have been Simple exterior, ornately carved
found here, probably an interiors
important port for trade with Sri Shravanabelgola - Statue of Bahubali
Lanka) built by Chamundaraya belonging in
Bhaja and Karla caves - Pune 10th century (minister of Ganga
Ajanta, Ellora, Pithalkora - dynasty), world’s tallest monolithic free
Aurangabad standing structure
Kanheri Caves - Mumbai Shantinath - Deogarh, UP
Pandav Leni - Nashik Bawangaja - MP (Monolith statue of
Ghum Monastery - West Bengal Lord Adinath)
Rumtek, Pemayangste, Enchay Temples at Gwalior, Khanderi,
- Sikkim Khajuraho, Deogarh
Alchi, Spituk, Shey - Ladakh Ranakpur - Rajasthan (built in 15th
Dhankar, Nako, Kye, Tabo - century and has similarities with
Himachal Hoysala architecture and not Nagara)
Tawang, Bomdila - Arunachal Jain bronze statues in Chausa (Bihar),
Pradesh Hansi (Haryana) and Akota (Gujarat)
Namdroling - Karnataka Kankali Tila - UP (Discovery of votive
tablets called AYAGAPATA)
Rock-cut elephant and Ashokan
edicts - Dhauli Udaygiri/Khandagiri - Odisha (Carved
during the reign of Kharavela in 1st-
2nd century)
Hatigumpha inscription, Ganesh
Gumpha, Rani Gumpha
Udaygiri has 18 caves, Khandagiri has
15
Nasiyan Temple - Ajmer (dedicated to
Rishabanath)
Hathi Singh Jain Temple - Ahmedabad
Sittanavasal Caves - Tamil Nadu
Mangi Tunga - Maharashtra
Has images of Padmasana and
Kayotsarga
Monolithic statue of Ahimsa - tallest
Jain idol in the world
Shikharji - Jharkhand
Akota - Jain bronze sculptures (lost
wax technique) of 5th-7th century,
inlaid with silver and copper to bring
out details

Bronze Sculpture

Lost Wax Technique was learnt as long ago as IVC (Present day tribal communities also
use the Lost Wax technique)
Used to make decorative and utility articles
 2500 BC - Dancing Girl from Mohenjo Daro is the oldest bronze sculpture
1500 BC - Chariot bronze statue from Diamabad
200 BC - Bronze images of Jain Tirthankaras from Chausa (Kushana period)
400-700 AD - Buddha with hand in Abhaya Mudra (Gupta and post Gupta period)

Dhaneshar Khera - Folds of drapery in Mathura style

Sultanganj - Buddha bronze in Sarnath style (3rd century AD)
Phophnar - Buddha bronzes of Vakataka period (3rd century AD, contemporary of
Gupta) influenced by Amravati style, style of draping is different from Sarnath style
Akota - Bronze images of Jain Tirthankaras and their associated Yakshinis or
Shasanadevis (6th to 9th century AD)
Himachal - Bronze images of Buddhist and Hindu deities (8th to 10th century),
distinct from bronzes of other parts of India - Vaikuntha Vishnu, Narasimha,
Mahisasuramardhini
Nalanda - Bronze casting emerged around 9th century during Pala dynasty, similar
to Gupta style (four armed Avalokiteswara, female figures which can be attributed to
rise of Vajrayana Buddhism, Tara in Abhaya mudra)
Tanjore and Kumbakonam - Finest bronze images in India under Chola rule (10th to
12th century) - Patronised by Semibiyan Maha Devi - Nataraja, Ardhanarishwara,
Parvati in Tribhanga, Kalyanasundara murti
Pallava period - Ardhaparyanaka Asana (one leg kept dangling)
Tirupati - Vijaynagar bronze figures - Krishnadeva Raya with his two queens
(Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi)

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE

Indo-Islamic or Indo-Saracenic styles started with Arab Conquest of Sind in 712 AD - mix of
Islamic and local elements

Arcuate style replaced the Trabeat style (Constructed with 'voussoirs' - tries of
interlocking blocks)
Use of minars around Mosques and Mausoleums
Mortar was used as a cementing agent (limestone)
Avoided use of Human and animal features - in Islam, authority to create life forms
is only with Allah, creating life forms in art in prohibited
Spaciousness, Massiveness and Breadth (Hindu architecture had become too
congested)
Calligraphy for decoration (instead of sculptures)
Arabesque method was used for decoration - use of geometrical vegetal, flowers
and flower vases
Heavy use of principles of geometry - decorative pattern to imbibing a sense of
symmetry
Intricate Jaali works (signifies the importance of light in Islamic religion)
Use of water in the premises (courtyard pools, fountains, small drains)
Charbagh style
Pietra Dura - inlay of precious stones and gems into walls (sometimes Lapis Lazuli
 was used), Tessellation (Mosaic)
Foreshortening technique - Inscriptions appear closer than they are
High relief carving with 3D look
Stones used for construction - quartzite, buff, sandstone, marble

Trabeat Arcuate

Lintel Arches and Domes

Shikhara - Conical or Curvilinear Domes (generally hemispherical)

Minars were absent Minars on 4 corners of the Mosque

Stone was the main material for Brick, Lime, Plaster and Mortar
construction

Forts
Golconda - Concentric walls
Gwalior - Steep sides
Daulatabad - Staggered entrances/twin forts
Chittorgarh - largest in Asia

Minars
Qutb Minar
Chand Minar - Daulatabad

Main function of minars was to call out for prayer (azaan)

Tombs
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Delhi) - Red Sandstone and White marble
Humayun
Abdur Rahim Khan I Khanan
Akbar
Itmad ud Daulah
Taj Mahal

Sarais
Temporary accommodation to traders and pilgrims
Centres for cross-cultural connection
SULTANATE PERIOD (1206-1526 AD)

Imperial Style

Slave
1206-1290 Mameluke Style
Most Constructions were remodelling of existing Hindu
monuments
Qutb Minar
Started by Qutbuddin Aibak (he constructed 1st storey, next three
by Illtutmish, 5th by Feroz Shah Tughlaq)
Red and Buff sandstone with some marble in the upper storeys
Highly decorative balconies and inscriptions with foliated designs
Quwwat ul Islam Mosque inside Qutb Minar Premises (converted
from a Jain temple)
Adhai Din ka Jhopra

Khilji
1290-1320 Seljuk Style
Use of Red Sandstone
Arcuade style and use of mortar
Alai Darwaza by Alauddin Khilji
Siri Fort

Tughlaq
Low point of Architecture
Used Grey Sandstone
More focus on strength of building and less on decoration
Arch + Lintel styles of entrance design
BATTER style - sloping walls to give more strength to the building
Cities of Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and Ferozabad

Lodi
Dynasty Introduction of double domes (hollow dome inside the top dome)
- lowers the inner height of the dome and gives strength to the
structure
Mostly Tombs were constructed - hard and bare without
decorations and in octagonal shape
Lodi Gardens
City of Agra by Sikandar Lodi
Provincial Style

Bengal
Bricks and black marble
Mosques used sloping Bangla roofs used in temples earlier
Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gaur
Adina Mosque in Pandua

Malwa/Pathan
(Mandu) Mandu was inhabited by Parmaras, Afghans, Mughals
Foundation of Ghauri dynasty by Hoshang Shah
Use of different coloured stones and marble
Stylised use of arches and pillars
Minars were not used
Large windows - made the buildings and rooms well
ventilated
BAULI - artificial reservoirs constructed in premises
Used locally available materials
Example of architectural adaptation to the environment
Use of Batter system introduced by Tughlaqs made the
buildings strong
Pathan Architecture of Afghans
Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal (Ghiyasuddin Khilji),
Ashrafi Mahal (madrasa), Hindola Mahal (buttressed walls),
Hoshang Shah’s tomb (Afghan robustness, jail work, dome),
Jama Masjid

Jaunpur
Under Sharqi dynasty
Minars were not used
Use of bold and forceful characters painted on huge screens
in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall
Atala Mosque, Jaunpur

Bijapur/Deccan
Under influence of Adil Shah
Gol Gumbaz is mausoleum of Adil Shah built by himself
Drum and Whisper Gallery
3-arched Facade and Bulbous Dome
Naqqar Khana - Drum house from which ceremonial music is
played
 Domes were almost spherical with a narrow neck
Use of cornices
Ceilings are without any apparent support

Daulatabad
Under the Yadavas
Daulatabad Fort in 11th century under Bhillamma - staggered
entrances
Chand Minar was constructed by Alauddin Bahamani after he
captured the fort (4 storeys, built by architects from Iran and
Delhi)

Gujarat
Borrowed elements from toranas, lintels in mihrabs, bell and
chain motifs, carved panels with trees
Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej
Influenced the Mughal style later on

MUGHAL PERIOD

Imperial Style - Delhi, Agra, Lahore

Babur 1526 - Mosques in Panipat and Rohilkhand

Humayun Led the foundation of Dinpanah but could not complete it

Sher Shah
Qila-e-Quhunah (Mosque of Old Fort) - Delhi
Rohtas Fort in Pakistan
Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna (Afghan style)
Sher Shah’s Tomb - Sasaram
Period of transition from Lodhi Style to Mughal Style
Grand Trunk Route - reconstruction and extension of the old
Mauryan route
Ensured adequate SARAIs for travellers

Akbar
Use of Red Sandstone
Introduction of the Tudor Arch
Temple of Govind Dev in Vrindavan

Agra Fort
 Started by Akbar, but most buildings inside were built by Shah
Jahan - Moti Masjid, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Jahangiri
Mahal, Sheesh Mahal
Gardens inside the fort are built in Charbagh

Fatehpur Sikri

New Capital City of Akbar

Buland Darwaza (1576) - Largest gateway in the world, Red
Sandstone, commemorates Akbar’s victory over Gujarat
Salim Chisti’s Tomb (1581) - Jaali work in white marble,
Arabesque patterns with inscriptions of Quranic verses, later
decorated by Jahangir
Panch Mahal - five storied structure made of columns, inspired
by concept of Persian badgir
Jodha Bai’s palace - Has Hindu motifs of bells and flowers
Ibadat Khana - discussions with leaders of different religions
Pachisi Court - Akbar played Chess
Hiran Minar - Built in memory of Akbar’s favourite elephant
named Hiran, also served as a lighthouse for travellers

Jahangir
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra
Jahangir’s tomb at Lahore
Moti Masjid at Lahore
Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir
White marble replaced red sandstone as the chief building
material
Tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah - first Mughal architecture entirely in
white marble (has Pietra Dura works)

Shah Jahan
Taj Mahal - Constructed in memory of Mumtaz
Calligraphy (inlay of Jasper in white marble to write Quranic
verses), Pietra Dura, Foresightening, Charbagh, Water in
premises, Jaali work, high and low relief carvings on marble,
Arabesque
Taj Mahal is at the northern extremity of the garden and not the
middle
Marble from Makrana mines in Rajasthan
Red Fort - Delhi
Jama Masjid - Delhi (Red Stone)
Moti Masjid - Agra
Shalimar Bagh - Lahore
 Shahjahanabad
Peacock Throne

Aurangzeb
Moti Masjid in Red Fort

Muhammad
Azam Shah Biwi ka Maqbara (memory of his mother Begum Rabia Durani,
wife of Aurangzeb) - Aurangabad
Zinat Mahal - Delhi

Regional Styles

Sikh
Multiple Chhatris at the top of construction
Shallow cornices
Fluted domes - covered by brass and copper guilds for
decoration and support
Arches were decorated by use of foliations
Golden Temple/Haramandir Sahib (initiated in 1585, completed
by Guru Arjun Dev in 1604)

Rajput
Imposing palaces and forts
Introduced concept of hanging balcony
Cornices were built in shape of an arc
Hawa Mahal
Chittorgarh Fort - Largest fort of Asia

Kashmir Temple making reached its zenith under Karakota dynasty and Utpala
dynasty

Main features (Heavy influence of foreign sources due to location on

trade routes)

Trefoil arches - Gandhara influence

Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard
Straight edged pyramidal roof
Column walls - Greek influence
Triangular pediments - Greek influence
Relatively more number of steps
Hindu Period (7th-9th century)

Martand Sun Temple

Built in 8th century under Karkota dynasty (Lalitaditya Muktapida)

Gandhara, Chinese and Gupta influences
Complex is in shape of a courtyard, surrounded by columns
Main temple has a pyramidal top and carvings of Gods like
Vishnu, Ganga and Yamuna

Awantipora Temples

Built in 9th century AD by Utpala dynasty king Awantivarman

Awantiswamin for Lord Vishnu and Awantiswara for Lord Shiva
Roman and Gandhara influence

Pandrethan Temples

Built in 10th century in Srinagar

Meru Vardha Swami - dedicated to Vishnu but Shiva images are
also there
Carved out of a single block of stone, Domed roof and arches

Mamleshwara Temple

Built around 4th century BC in Pahalgam

Mentioned in Rajtarangini

Paraspore Monuments

Built by Lalitaditya Muktapida

Temples dedicated to Vishnu, Parihaskesana and Buddhist
temples

Muslim Period

Mosques were made up of wood, brick and stone masonry

Monuments are mostly square in shape
Curved dome is absent

Jama Masjid

Constructed in 14th century

Curved dome is absent following the Kashmiri style of
 architecture

Alai Masjid

Constructed in 15th century by Shah Miri king Sultan Hassan

Shah
No dome, Pyramidal top with arch shaped windows

Pari Mahal

Constructed by Dara Shikoh in mid 17th century, on a hill

overlooking the Dal Lake
Also had an observatory

Gardens in Kashmir - inspired by Persian designs

Chasm-e-Shahi
Shalimar Bagh - Jahangir
Nishat Bagh - 2nd largest Mughal garden, located near Dal Lake
Badamwari Garden near Srinagar
Verinag, Kokernag, Achabal

Dado Panels - Lower part of the interior wall when it is finished is different from rest of the
wall (Jamali Kamali tomb in Mehrauli, Turkish Sultan’s palace in Fatehpur Sikri)

Forts

Golconda Qutb Shahi Concentric Circles

dynasty

Gwalior Steep height

Chittorgarh Largest fort of Asia

Daulatabad Staggered entrances, Twin forts

 Parsi Temples

3 types of fire temples - Atash Behram, Adarian, Atash Dadgah

Atash Behram

Exterior is generally kept simple

Inner sanctum where fire is kept
Ceremonies by Priests called Dasturs
8 Atash Behram in India - Iranshah, Desai, Dadiseth, Wadia, Banaji, Anjuman,
Modi, Vakil

Sun Temples

Modhera Gujarat 11th Built by Solankis

century

Konark Odisha 13th Narasimhadeva I

century

Brahmanya Dev Unao, MP

Temple

Suryanaar Kovil Kumbakonam, 11th Dravidian Style

TN century Five layered Gopuram
Also has temples of other 8
Navagraha

Surya Narayana Arasavalli, 7th century Built by a Kalinga king

Swamy Temple Andhra Pradesh

Dakshinaarka Gaya, Bihar 13th Built by king Prataparudra of

temple century Warangal

Navalakha Ghumli, Gujarat 11th Solanki and Maru-Gurjara style

Temple century

Surya Pahar Assam

Temple

Martand Sun Kashmir 8th

Temple century Built during Karkota
dynasty (Lalitaditya
Muktapida)
Gandhara, Chinese and
Gupta influences
Complex is in shape of a
 courtyard, surrounded by
columns
Main temple has a
pyramidal top and carvings
of Gods like Vishnu,
Ganga and Yamuna

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Portuguese
Iberian style of architecture
'Patio Houses' and Baroque style developed in late 16th
century Europe

Important monuments

Se Cathedral - Goa (Portuguese late Gothic style) - has a large

bell called the Golden Bell
Basilica of Bom Jesus - WHS built in Baroque style. Has the
remains of St Francis Xavier
Castella de Aguanda - Mumbai
St. Paul’s Church - Baroque Style
Diu Fort - Houses Church of St. Thomas, St. Paul’s, St. Francis
of Assissi
Church of St. Anne - Talaulim in Goa

French
Introduced concept of urban planning (Pondicherry,
Chandernagore)
Anonymous architecture - simple facade without much
ornamentation or design
Developed coastal towns of Mahi, Karaikal, Yanam
Sacred Heart Church in Pondicherry and Chandannagar

English Indo-Gothic Style

Victorian style = Indian + Persian + Gothic

Constructions were large and elaborate
Walls were thinner than in Indo-Islamic architecture
Arches were pointed (unlike curving arches of Indo-Islamic era)
 Use of large windows
Crucified ground plan in churches
Steel, iron and concrete - advanced engineering standards of
Britain
Victoria Memorial, Gateway of India (Mumbai), St. Paul’s
Cathedral

Iberian vs Gothic Architecture

Brick, wood for roof and stairs // Red Sandstone and coarse
limestone
Not affected by Indian elements // adopted Indian motifs and
styles

Neo-Roman Style

Anonymous constructions without any interesting features

Confluence of many styles, which made it congested and
cramped the space for artistic expression
Focus on circular buildings
Upturned dome - Supreme Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan
New Delhi - Edward Lutyens, Herbert Baker

Post Independence Architecture

Revivalist and Modernist - both had significant borrowings from

colonial style
Le Corbusier - Chandigarh
Laurie Baker - Mass housing concept in Kerala (Environment
friendly buildings using local material, filler slab construction to
reduce consumption of steel and cement, ventilation and
thermal comfort)
Charles Correa - Urban Architecture and Spatial Planning (MP
Assembly, Mahatma Gandhi memorial museum, LIC building

PAINTINGS

Primitive Rock paintings - Bhimbetka, Mirzapur, Panchmarhi

Painted Pottery - Indus Valley Civilisation
Real beginning of paintings from Gupta Age
Buddhist paintings - Ajanta, Alchi Monastery (Ladakh), Bagh
Jain paintings - Sittanavasal
Vatsayana in Kamasutra mentions 6 principles of painting (Shadanga)

Rupabheda - Variety of form

Sadrisyam - Portrayal/likeness
Bhava - Creation of lustre
Varnikabhanga - Mixing of colours
Pramana - Proportion of subject
Lavanyayoganam - Immersion of emotions

References to art of painting in Brahmanical and Buddhist literature

Lepya Chitra - Representation of myths and lore on textiles

Lekhya Chitra - Line drawings and sketches
Dhuli Chitra
Path Chitra

Mudrarakshasa - Mentions names of various paintings which are important to understand

different styles of paintings

Cauka Pitaka - Isolated frame drawings

Dighala Pitaka - Long scrolls of paintings
Yama Pitaka - Isolated paintings

Iconography - Identification of images through symbols/signs

Iconology - Evolution of symbols and signs in its historical, social and philosophical context

General Timeline

10,000 to 8000 BC - Prehistoric paintings in caves

1 to 1000 AD - Buddhist paintings of Ajanta, Alchi monastery, Bagh
1000 to 1700 AD - Wall paintings in Kailashnath Temple (Kanchi) and
Brihadeshwara Temple, Jain paintings in Sittanavasal
1600 to 1900 AD - Regional schools

PRE HISTORIC PAINTINGS

Petroglyphs - paintings/engravings on rocks

Lower Paleolithic - no clear evidence of painting
Earliest records of painting are from Upper Paleolithic - human figures, human
activities, geometric designs, symbols
Discovery of rock paintings was first made in 1867-68 - Archibold Carlisle (12 years
before discovery of Altamira, Spain)
Rock paintings have been found in MP (Bhimbetka), UP, Bihar, Karnataka, Andhra
 Pradesh, Kumaon hills (Lakhudiyar caves)

Bhimbetka - MP

Located in Vindhyan ranges

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Discovered in 1957-58 by VS Wakankar
Estimated to be 30000 years ago - survived due to deep location inside the caves
Continuity in occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD - paintings on
top of another
Paintings belong to Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic, early historic and
medieval times
Majority of paintings belong to mesolithic times
Depict everyday life of pre-historic men in stick-like human figures
Show hunting scenes and war scenes
White and Red were most used colours (but many other colours were used)
Red from Haematite, Green from Chalcedony, White from Limestone
Animals - Elephant, Bison, Deer, Peacock, Snake
Simple geometric designs and symbols
Some paintings are close to the ceilings of rock shelters
Social life - children playing, women making food, community dancing
Colours have remained intact because of chemical reaction of the oxide present on
the surface of the rocks

Lakhudiyar - Uttarakhand

Motifs - Man, animal, geometric patterns

Colours - black, red ochre, white (in that order of superimposition from earliest to
most recent)
Humans are represented as stick like figures
Hand linked dancing human figures
Wavy lines, rectangle filled geometric designs, group of dots
Banks of river Suyal

Why were paintings made over another layer of paintings?

Limited number of suitable sites that could be used as a 'canvas'

When a particular area was invaded, new occupants wanted to remove traces of
older inhabitants?
Lack of sense/need to preserve art traditions of older generations

Upper
Paleolithic Lived in cave shelters made up of Quartzite
Colours were made from minerals (ochre/geru mixed with lime
 and water)
Linear representations in green and dark red (humans, bison,
elephant, tiger, rhino)
Huge animal figures besides stick like human figures
Red used for hunters, green for dancers
In India, earliest paintings are from Upper Paleolithic times

Mesolithic
Use of red colour
Size of paintings are smaller compared to Upper Paleolithic
Group hunting scenes (most common theme), community
dances, Family Life
Men chasing animals, animals chasing men
Men are shown wearing ornaments, using weapons
Hand prints, fist prints and finger prints
Largest number of paintings, highest diversity of themes

Chalcolithic
Increase in number of paintings using green and yellow colours
Most paintings show battle scenes, Men riding horses and
elephants and carrying bow and arrow
Reveal presence of settled agricultural communities
Writings of Ashokan and Gupta Brahmi scripts dated to later
times
Skin of deer left for drying —> Knew the art of tanning skins
Musical instruments like harp
Complex geometrical shapes like spiral, rhomboid and circle
Narsinghgarh - Madhya Pradesh
Jogimara Caves - Chhattisgarh - painted around 1000 BC
Chitwa Dongri - Chhattisgarh - Chinese figure riding a donkey,
dragons, agricultural sceneries
Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings have similar motifs

Neolithic
Granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Kupgallu (Telengana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (Karnataka)
Paintings in white, red ochre over white background and in red
ochre
Vegetal motifs are rare

MURALS
 Works on a wall or a solid structure - natural caves or rock cut chambers (large
size)
Between 10th century BC and 10th century AD

Anantha - Ananthapadmanabh Temple, Kasargod

Shiva chasing boar (Kiratarjuniya) - Lepakshi
Rajaraja and court poet Karuvar Dever - Thanjavur
Rama killing Ravan - Mattancheri Palace (Kochi)
Shasta - Padmanabhapuram Palace
Shiva killing Tripurasura - Thanjavur

Badami
Patronised by Mangalesha
Also called Vishnu caves
Depict palace scenes

Pallava
7th century AD
Panamalai temple - figure of female divinity
Kanchipuram temple - during Rajsimha (depict Somaskanda)
Mandagapattu Inscription - ascribes names of Vichitrachitta,
Chitrakarapulli, Chaityakari to Mahendravarman

Pandya
Tirumalaipuram caves and Sittanavasal Caves
Body is rendered yellow

Chola
Temples of Brihadeshwara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Nartamalai and Darasuram - reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra
Chola
Nayaka rulers painted over the Chola paintings
Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Nataraja etc.
Rajaraja and Kuruvar Dever

Vijaynagar
Tiruparakunram (14th century) - early phase
Hampi - Virupaksha temple has paintings from Ramayana and
Mahabharata on the ceiling of its Mandapa, Vidyaranya -
 spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha
Lepakshi caves have examples of Vijaynagar murals -
“Dakshinamurthy"
“Ladies attending Parvati” is a mural in Veerbhadra Temple,
Lepakshi

Nayaka
17th and 18th century - Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam,
Tiruvarur
Thiruparakunram - early paintings depict the life of Vardhaman
Mahavir
Depict Mahabharata, Ramayana and Krishna-Leela
Tiruvarur - Panel narrating the story of Muchukanda
Chidambaram - Shiva as Bhikshatana Murti, Vishnu as Mohini
Late Phase - Srikrishna Temple at Arcot - story of Ramayana
Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli

Kerala
16th to 18th century
Adopted elements from Nayaka, Vijaynagar schools, Kathakali,
Kalam ezuthu
Dutch palace in Kochi, Krishnapuram Palace,
Padmanabhapuram Palace
Mature phase - Pundareekapuram Krishna Temple,
Vadakkunathan Temple, Pananayanarkavu, Thirukodithanam

Ajanta Buddhism Maharashtra

Caves were carved in 4th century -
consists of 29 caves
Maurya, Satvahana, Sunga, Gupta,
Vakatakas (later caves)
Paintings in Caves 1 and 2 are the
most recent
Both murals and frescos
Tempera - Use of pigments
Each female figure has a unique
hairstyle
Animals are also shown as having
emotions
Vegetable and mineral dyes
Outline of figures in red (Use of
 blue colour is absent)

Important paintings

Jataka Stories (previous births of

Buddha in human and animal form)
Bodhisattvas - Vajrapani (Buddha’s
power), Manjushri (Buddha’s
wisdom),
Padmapani/Avalokiteswara
(Buddha’s compassion)
Dying Princess
Flying Apsara
Shibi Jataka - King Shibi offered his
own flesh to save a pigeon
Matri-Poshaka Jataka

Ellora Buddhism Maharashtra

Hinduism Most of the paintings are in the
Jainism Kailash Temple
Early paintings - Vishnu and
Lakshmi with Garuda
Later paintings - Gujrati style -
procession of Shaiva holy men
Images of Apsaras

Bagh Buddhist Madhya

Pradesh Extension of Ajanta style of
But more paintings (murals)
secular Figures are more tightly modelled,
stronger outline and resemble
humans more closely
Rang Mahal (Cave 4) - Buddhist
and Jataka tales
Religious themes in light of
contemporary lifestyle - more
secular in nature

Armamalai Jain Tamil Nadu

(Vellore) Natural caves converted to Jain
temple in 8th century
Colourful paintings on wall and roof
depict Astathik Palaces (deities
protecting 8 directions)
Sittanavasal Jain Tamil Nadu Tirumalaipuram and Jain caves at
Sittanavasal
Paintings on walls, ceilings and
pillars
Depict Jain Samavasarana
(preaching hall where Tirthankaras
delivered sermons after they
reached Kevala Gyana, with
elephants, gods and apsaras in
attendance)
Central theme - pond with Lotuses
Resemble paintings at Ajanta and
Bagh
Vegetable and mineral dyes
Attributed to Pallava ruler
Mahendravarman I or Pandyas (7th
century)

Ravan Odisha
Chhaya Fresco
7th century - Painting of a royal
procession
11th century - Remains of Chola
period painting

Lepakshi Hinduism Andhra

16th century - During the
Vijaynagar period
Veerabhadra Temple walls
Religious theme - Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Incarnations of
Vishnu
Absence of blue colour, outlines in
black

Jogimara Chhattisgarh
Caves were an attachment to an
amphitheatre
Dancing couples, elephant, fish
Red outline

Badami Hinduism Karnataka

6th-7th century - Among the
earliest surviving Hindu paintings
 Chalukyan kings (painting of
Kirtivarman), Jain saints, Shiva-
Parvati, Puranic themes (Vishnu
cave)
Cave 3 - Four armed Brahma on
his swan
Mangalesha patronised the
excavation of Badami caves
Paintings borrow heavily from
Ajanta paintings
Badami Caves are also called
Vishnu caves

Nayaka
17th and 18th century
Thiruparakunram - paintings dated
to both 14th and 17th century, early
paintings depict life of Mahavira
Tiruvarur - Story of Muchukunda
Chidambaram - Shiva as
Bhikshatana Murti, Vishnu as
Mohini
Sri Krishna Temple, Chengam -
Ramayana (late phase)
Extension of Vijaynagar style
Tiruvalanjuli - painting of Nataraja

MINIATURE

Miniature comes from Latin word 'minium' meaning red lead paint - used in
illuminated manuscripts during the Renaissance period
Small and detailed paintings (25 sq inch max., subject is painted at a maximum of
1/6 the original size)
Indian miniature shows human figures with the side profile
Rajasthani miniatures have brown skin, Mughal miniatures have fairer skin, Divine
beings and gods have blue skin
Developed between 8th to 12th centuries
Mostly made as illustrations for books
Early Miniatures - Pala School + Apabhramsa School

Pala School
Bengal/Bihar in 750-1150 AD
 Generally found as a part of manuscripts and made on palm
leaf or vellum paper
Group paintings are rare, mostly depict a lone figure
Subdued tones of background imagery
Patronised by Vajrayana school
Painters - Dhimman, Vitapala
Came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist
monasteries by Muslim invaders

Apabhramsa
Gujarat and Mewar, 11th-15th century
Initially Jain, later Vaishnava (Gita Govinda and secular love)
Early Jain phase on palm leaf, later on paper
Early phase - red, yellow, ochre (colours had symbolic
meanings), Later phase - bright colours
Fish shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose and double chin
e.g. Kalpasutra, Kalakacharya (15th century)

Transition
Period Arrival of Muslim rulers
Colours were applied in a flat manner
Dress and human outlines in black
Traditional styles of painting survived in Western India
Vijaynagara style was close to the Deccan style

Delhi
Sultanate 14th century onwards
Persian + Indian traditional elements
Illustrated manuscripts
Nimatnama (book on cookery) during the reign of Nasir Shah
(Malwa Sultanate)
Lodi Khuladar - followed in Sultanate dominated regions
between Delhi and Jaunpur
Mughal, Rajput and Deccan styles developed from Sultanate
style

Mughal Era
Focus shifted from God to glorifying the ruler
Themes - Hunting, Historical events, court related paintings
Persian naturalistic style + opulence of a great dynasty
Use of brilliant colours, emphasis on accuracy of line drawings
Introduced technique of foreshortening
Babur

Patronised Persian artist Bizhad

Humayun

Brought Abdus Sammad and Mir Sayyid Ali with him from court
of Shah Abbas
Introduced Persian influence in Indian paintings

Akbar

Illustrated manuscript of Tutinama (book of parrot) by Abdus

Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali
Established a department for paintings and scribing of
documents
Tasvir Khana - formal artistic studio
Invited Indian artists to Tasvir Khana - led to Indian influence
3D figures, continued use of foreshortening, Calligraphy
Court art (scenes of court) was more popular than life of
masses
Painters - Daswant, Basawan, Kesu
Manuscripts - Tutinama, Hamzanama, Anwar-i-Suhaili,
Gulistan of Sadi

Jahangir

Zenith of Mughal paintings

Paintings of flora and fauna - zebra, turkey, cock
Naturalism to portrait painting
Decorated margins around paintings
Painter - Ustad Mansoor, Abul Hasan (Jahangir shooting figure
of poverty)
Ayar-i-Danish - Animal Fable

Shah Jahan

Artificial elements in paintings

Reduce liveliness of paintings and bring in unnatural stillness
Inspired by European styles
Discouraged use of Charcoal and encouraged use of pencil
Increased use of gold and silver in paintings
Painting workshop was enlarged but changed a lot in style and
technique
 Aurangzeb

Did not encourage painting

Mughal court painters started migrating to provincial courts

Regional Developed during the Mughal period and gained importance after
Schools decline of Mughal paintings during Aurangzeb’s rule
Colourful paintings, rather than the naturalistic Mughal style

Rajasthani/Rajput School

Rajpur courts patronised paintings

Artists from Mughal court migrated to Bikaner, Jodhpur,
Kishangarh
Artists from Deccan sultanates
Local and indigenous traditions pre-dated the arrival of Mughal
influence

Mewar School

Art was patronised even in the years when they fought against
Mughals (finally acceded during the reign of Shah Jahan)
Sahibdin - Rasikapriya, Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana
Most paintings depict life in the court of Mewar
Tamasha paintings - show court ceremonial and city views in
detail

Kishangarh School

Romantic legends of Sawant Singh and Bani Thani

Bani Thani is said to be similar to Radha
Sawant Singh, Nagari Das, Nihal Chand - created some of the
most legendary paintings
Devotional and Radha-Krishna love

Bundi School

Bundi + Kota form the kingdom of Hadoti

Krishna-bhakti (kings were Krishna devotees)
Patron rulers - Rao Ram Singh
Paintings of local vegetation in detail
Sky is painted in different colours, Red ribbon is visible in the
sky
 Kota School - miniature, jungles and hunting

Amber-Jaipur School

Most of the work is in private hands and is unpublished

Also called Dhundar school
Earliest evidence - wall paintings at Bairat
Can be seen in Palace walls and mausoleum of Amer Fort
Folk styled themes
Surat Khana - Department of Painting established by Sawai
Pratap Singh
Miniatures illustrated Bhagwata Purana, Ramayana, Ragamala

Marwar School

Includes Jodhpur, Bikaner (Rathods) and Jaisalmer (Bhatis) -

Bikaner and Jodhpur prospered through close links with British
15th and 16th century - followed Mughal pattern
18th century onwards, the Rajput element became prominent
Men and women both wore colourful clothing
Man Singh commissioned Shiva Purana, Natacharitra,
Durgacharitra, Panchtantra

Rajput vs Mughal Paintings

Initially based on fresco/mural and later adopted miniatures //

entirely based on Persian miniature style
Devotional and religious // Mughal emperor, court scenes,
battle and hunting
Extensive use of Hindu symbols like lotus, peacock, swan //
Focus is on persons, flora and fauna

Pahari Styles

Developed in Sub-Himalayan states which were under Mughal

overlordship (Jammu to Almora)
After Nadir Shah invaded Delhi in 1739, many Mughal artists
migrated to hills and foothills of Himalayas
Jammu or Dogra school - Northern Series
Basholi and Kangra School - Southern Series
Themed around several figures who were all moving
Painters - Nainsukh, Manaku
Basholi School

17th century - early phase of Pahari paintings

Use a lot of primary colours - red, yellow, green
Used Mughal technique of painting on clothing
Contrast of colours borrowed from Malwa school
Raja Kirpal Singh - ordered illustration of Bhanudatta’s
Rasamajari, Gita Govinda, Ramayana
Famous painter - Devi Das (Radha Krishna depictions)

Kangra School

Raja Govardhan Singh patronised many Mughal artists who

fled to Kangra
First evolved in Guler and then came to Kangra
Reached zenith under the patronage of Sansar Chand
Themes - Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal,
Nal Damyanti
'Twelve Months' - effects of twelve months on emotions of
human beings
Parent school to art traditions in Kullu, Chamba, Mandi

South India

Heavy use of gold in paintings

Focus was almost entirely on painting divine creatures

Tanjore Paintings

Created on glass and board instead of cloth

Brilliant colour patterns and gold leaves
Gemstones and cut glasses for embellishment
Smiling Krishna in different poses and different events from his
life
Zenith under Sarfoji Maharaj
Conical crown in the miniature
Patronised by Maratha rulers in the 18th century (origins in 9th
century)
Presently, the school has diversified its themes to animals and
buildings
Granted GI tag

Mysore Paintings
 Patronised by rulers of Mysore
Continued in the British era as well
Major theme - Hindu Gods and Goddesses, Two or more
figures in each painting and one figures dominates over all
others in size and colour
Used gesso paste - mixture of zinc oxide and Arabic gum
(develops a sheen in the background)
Muted colours that are not too bright

Ragamala
Paintings Depict various Indian musical ragas
Created in most Indian schools of painting in the 16th and 17th
centuries (Pahari, Deccan, Mughal, Rajasthani)
Demarcate specific Hindu deities attached with a raga
Each raga is personified by a mood
Six principal Raga - Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush, Megha,
Hindola

Modern Company Paintings

Paintings

Developed when British company officials employed Indian

painters (prevalent till 20th century)
European style + Rajput/Mughal/other Indian styles
Use of water colour
Linear perspective and shading
Centres - Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna
Lord Impey and Wellesley patronised painters
Painted 'exotic' flora and fauna of India
Painters - Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad, Ghulam Ali Khan

Bazaar Paintings

Greek and Roman influence (No Indian influence)

Prevalent in Bengal and Bihar
Indian bazaars with European background
Religious themes were painted but Indian gods and goddesses
with more than two arms were prohibited as European notion
of the natural human figurine must be adhered to
Indian courtesans dancing before British officials

Raja Ravi Varma

 Considered the originator of the school of modern painting
Heavy influence of western techniques and themes (mixed it
with South Indian style)
Nicknamed 'Raphael of the East'
Lady in Moonlight, Mother India, Ravana kidnapping Sita
Rang Rasiya movie is based on his life

Bengal School

Pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore in early 20th century

(Indian Society of Oriental Art)
Reactionary approach to existing painting styles
Rejected Raja Ravi Varma as imitative of West and tried to
introduce Swadeshi elements
Emphasised that genuine nationalist art must derive inspiration
from Indian forms such as Murals and Miniatures
Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore, Sketch of Gandhi by
Nandlal Bose (also illustrated the original Constitution)
Rabindranath Tagore used dominant black lines that made the
subject look prominent
Tagore’s spiritual bent of mind was reflected in his paintings
Jamini Roy was a student of Abanindranath Tagore (combined
elements of modern art with tribal and folk art of Bengal,
popularised Kalighat paintings)

Cubist Style

Inspired by Cubist movement in Europe

Abstract art that tried to balance line and colour
Painters - MF Hussain (used motif of a horse), Tyeb Mehta
(Bombay Progressive Artist Group)

Progressive Style

Inspired by European modernism

Founded by Francis Newton Souza - other members were SH
Raza, MF Hussain
Patronised by Mulk Raj Anand
Amrita Shergill (became part of Calcutta school of Artists)

FOLK PAINTINGS
 Effect of local culture and religious identity and the raw materials available
The technique of painting on cotton cloth using a fixing agent is called mordant

Madhubani Bihar Wall

Also called Mithila paintings
Spread to Now on cloth Said to have originated in the
Nepal terai and paper Ramayana
Mostly done by women
Natural Religious motifs of Hindus
Colours and symbolism (e.g. fish
represents fertility)
Auspicious occasions like
birth, marriage, festivals
2D paintings, no shading
Natural colours are used
Double line border, bold
colours, ornate floral patterns
Painters - Jagdamba Devi,
Bua Devi, Bhati Dayal, Ganga
Devi, Sita Devi
GI tag

Pattachitra Odisha Cloth/Canvas

Classical + Folk
Natural Natural colours - Hingula,
Colours Ramaraja, lamp black
No pencil or charcoal is used
Coating of lacquer for glossy
finish
Intricately decorated frame
Themes - mostly Jagannath
and Vaishnava cults, also
Shakti and Shaiva cults
Raghurajpur in Odisha
Similar to murals in Konark
and Puri

Jharna Bengal Scroll Similar to Patua?

Patachitra

Patua Bengal Scroll

Started out as a village
tradition by painters telling
Mangal kavyas (auspicious
 stories of Gods and
Goddesses)
Traditionally painted on cloth
and depicted religious stories
Patuas mostly come from
Midnapore

Kalighat Calcutta Mill paper

Water Product of changing urban
Colours society of Calcutta in 19th
century
Done by rural migrants who
settled around the Kalighat
temple
Water colours were used on
mill paper
Initially painted religious
themes (Hindu Gods and
Goddesses)
Later expressed social
sentiments
Considered the first Indian
paintings to express subaltern
sentiment and address
customers directly

Paitkar Jharkhand Scroll

Cultural association with Ma
Mansa goddess
Social and religious customs
(giving alms, holding Yajnas,
etc.)
“What happens to human life
after death"

Kalamkari Andhra Cotton Fabric

Vegetable Pen is made up of sharp
Srikalahasti Dye pointed Bamboo
Machilipatnam Srikalahasti - create wall
hangings of narratives
Themes - Hindu mythology
Textiles with handwork are
also produced

Warli Maharashtra - Walls

Gujarat border Warli tribe inhabit Gujarat-
 White Maharashtra border
pigment (rice Dates back to 3000 BC
+ gum) Mostly for harvests and
weddings
Resemblance to mural
paintings of Bhimbetka
Goddess Palaghata (fertility)
Uses basic geometrical
shapes - circles, triangles,
motifs

Thangka Sikkim Cotton Traditionally made by Buddhist

Ladakh canvas monks
Himachal Vegetable Colours have significance - red
Arunachal and mineral (passion), golden (life), white
dyes (serenity), black (anger), green
(consciousness), yellow
(compassion)
Life of Buddha from birth to
enlightenment
Buddhist beliefs on life and death,
including 'wheel of life'
Paintings used as offerings to deity

Manjusha Bhagalpur Boxes of Also called Angika art (After Anga

jute/paper mahajanapada)
Scroll Snake motifs
Based on folk lore of Bihula Bishari

Phad Rajasthan Scroll Drawings of local deities - Pabuji and

Vegetable Devnarayan
colours Phad is the name of the scroll on
which vegetable colours are used to
paint

Cheriyal Telengana Scroll Type of Nakashi art

Depicted as a continuous story like
comics or ballad
Balladeer community
Themes - Hindu and Puranic stories
GI Tag

Pithora Gujarat, MP, Walls Drawn on special family occasions

Rajasthan as a ritual
Depict animals, mostly horses

Saura Odisha Wall Saura tribe of Odisha, similar to Warli

paintings
 Mineral and Ritualistic murals painted on walls
plant colours Human shapes are geometric stick
like
Dedicated to Idital, the main deity

Gond Madhya Gond tribe (Maharashtra,

Pradesh Chhattisgarh, Andhra, Odisha apart
from MP)
Themes from nature using dots
(similar to Aboriginal art from
Australia)

Kavad Rajasthan Wooden temples with doors that can

(Chittoorgarh) be opened up to reveal elaborately
painted stories of historical and
religious importance

Challenges faced by traditional art forms

Time consuming and expensive compared to machine made prints

New styles of construction means the earthen walls on which many art forms were
practised are not available (Skill and practise declined)
Themes are less diverse compared to urban art forms (restricted to seasons,
celebrations, mythologies)
Lack of awareness regarding the art heritage and appreciation for traditions
Lack of patronage

HANDICRAFTS

GLASS WARE

First reference to glass making is in Mahabharata

No material evidence of glass beads in Harappan Civilisation
Earliest material evidence from Painted Great Ware culture of Ganges Valley (1000
BC)
Satapatha Brahmana - term for glass was kanch
Glass industry in Brahmapuri and Kolhapur (2 BC to 2 AD) - lenticular beads
References of spectacles in Vyasayogacharita
Maski, Ahar, Hastinapur, Ahichhatra, Eran, Ujjain
Mughals patronised glass work - decoration of monuments (Sheesh Mahal)

Present day glass industries

Hyderabad - glass bangles

Firozabad - glass chandeliers
 Saharanpur - 'panchkora' or glass toys
Patna - glass beads called 'tikuli'

CLOTH HANDICRAFTS

Vishnudharmottara - speaks of five white tones

Indian muslins were used as shrouds for Egyptian mummies
Names given to Indian fine cloth - Abrawan (flowing water), Shabnam (evening dew),
Bafthava (woven air)
Silk traditions came to India from China through Buddhist monks

Weaver Communities - Vankar (Gujarat), Ansari (UP), Meher (Odisha)

Dyeing Communities - Khatris of Kutch
Tussar silk is sourced only from India (Assam) - coarse, uneven texture
Angora rabbits in North India are bred for wool
Post loom techniques - Dye and Tie, Embroidery, Hand printing, Applique (patch work)

Pochampalli Andhra Geometrical Ikat style of dyeing

Pradesh Air India crew

Bandhani Rajasthan, Tie and Dye - Portions that are tied do not take on
Gujarat, the colour
Andhra, Tamil
Nadu

Tanchoi Banaras Chinese influence on Gujarat weavers through

Surat port
Shifted to Banaras when the weavers migrated in
1600s during the famine

Laharia Jaipur, Jodhpur Tie and Dye - ripples or wave like patterns in fabric

Ikat Telengana, Tie and Dye - Resist dying on yarn is repeatedly

Gujarat, applied before cloth is woven
Odisha,
Andhra
Pradesh

Batik MP, Bengal One end of fabric is permeated in molten wax and
then dyed in cold

Patola Patan, Gujarat

Gharchola Gujarat

Baluchari Murshidabad Ancient stories on borders and pallu

Silk threads are extensively used
Jamdani West Bengal Finest muslin with opaque patterns woven on a
transparent background

Tanchoi Varanasi Weaving technique involves a single or double

Brocades warp

Chanderi Madhya Silk, cotton, zari woven together, lighter than

Pradesh feather, see-through

Ilkal Karnataka Kasuti embroidery, chariot and elephant as

common motifs

Tant West Bengal Crisp cotton, printed saree

Nauvari Maharashtra 9 yards (Kasta saree)

Bomkai Odisha Silk and cotton saree with ikat, embroidery, intricate
thread work

Konrad Tamil Nadu Fabric has stripes or checks, motifs of animals and
natural elements
Also called Temple Saree

Kosa Chhattisgarh Silk Saree

Paithani Maharashtra Silk saree embroidered with gold coloured thread,

use of parrot motif

Kalamkari Andhra Use of pens to make painting designs

Pradesh

Kasavu Kerala Thick golden border

Dabu Chittorgarh Mud resist hand block printing technique on cotton

Mashru Gujarat Silk + Cotton

Himru Gujarat Silk + Cotton

Mekla Chador Assam Golden Muga and Eri silk

Jamawar Kashmir Shawl weaving in Kashmir was introduced by Zain-

Shawl ul-Abedin by bringing weavers from Turkestan

Shahtoosh Kashmir “Ring Shawl” - made from fleece of Himalayan Ibex

Dhabla Kutch, Thar Shawls made up of coarse Goat wool

Do Rukha Kashmir Shawls with same design embroidered in different

colours on both sides
Post Loom Techniques

Chikan Lucknow Block printing patterns on the fabric

which are then stitched over in white
thread
Nur Jahan apparently invented Chikan
Traditionally done by males

Kantha Bengal, Odisha Layers of old pieces of cloth are stitched

together and embroidered

Zari Rajasthan

Brocade Banaras Silver and golden sari

Phulkari Punjab, Bright flower motifs on light coloured

Haryana, Delhi fabric

Himroo Aurangabad Used to make royal dresses and shawls

in the medieval period for Muslim rulers

Bagh Punjab Similar to Phulkari but has embroidery

throughout the whole surface

Bagh Madhya Pradesh Red and black block prints

Buti Rajasthan Floral prints in a range of colours

(Sanganer)

Dhamadka Kutch Interlocked hexagonal motifs in red,

black, indigo

Farrukhabad UP Paisley jaals

Zardozi UP Golden, silver or copper wire with

silver/golden polish and silk threads

Kashidkari Kashmir Simple chain stitches of flora patters

(human and animals are generally
absent)
Seen on Cashmere shawls

Aari Gujarat, Kashmir Floral motifs

Created in fine concentric rings of chain
stitch

Mirror Work Rajasthan, Small pieces of mirror stitched between

Gujarat colourful embroidery
Dharaniya Gujarat Embroidered wall hangings used at
homes

Heer Gujarat Bold geometric patterns worked in silk

Gota Rajasthan Small pieces of gold ribbon are applied to

the fabric

Gota Lucknow, Small geometric patchwork

Rampur

Akshida Bihar Similar to Bagh

Kasuti Karnataka Done with a single thread, patterns are

stitched without knots so that both sides
look alike
Possibly date to Chalukyan era
Chandrakala Sarees

Rabari Gujarat Embroidered animal decorations by the

Rabari tribe

Pichwai Gujarat, Colourful hangings used as a backdrop

Rajasthan to religious idols

Shami Lami Manipur Weaving + Embroidery

Phool Patti Aligarh Flower petals + leaves as motifs

Toda Tamil Nadu Toda tribes, similar to Kantha

Banni Gujarat Lohana community, silk floss for

embroidery of geometrical motifs + glass
works

Banjara Lambada tribe - Applique + mirrors + beads

Andhra Lambani, Lambada and Banjara tribes
Banjara tribe -
MP

Mukesh/Kamdani/Badla UP Twisting thin metallic threads to create

patterns over the fabric

Karchobi Rajasthan Zari metallic thread embroidery - flat

stitches on cotton padding

Pipli Odisha Brightly coloured and patterned fabric

pieces are sewn together

Maheshwari Madhya Pradesh Mixture of cotton and silk yarns

 embellished with golden zari

Chamba Rumal Himachal Influence of Chamba Pahari painting,

embroidered themes of Krishna’s tales

Phanek Manipur Delicate muga silk thread embroidery in

dark colours

Sujni Bihar Quilted embroidery with narrative themes

Crewel Embroidery using wool

Sozni Kashmir Flora and fauna embroidery

Tilla Gold wire work, introduced in Mughal

court from Middle East and Byzantium

IVORY

Prevalent in India since Vedic times

Harappan people exported ivory items to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Persian Gulf
Sanchi inscription (2 BC) - ivory workers from Vidisha carved ivory sculptures
Ivory comb from Taxila
Kerala - painting on ivory
Jodhpur - Ivory bangles
Jaipur - Ivory jail work

JEWELLERY

Timeline

3000 to 1500 BC - Beads and shell bangles in Harappan excavations, gold sheets
shaped into head bands
300 BC to 300 AD - Greek influence, filigree and granulation. Indian jewellery bore
resemblance to Greek and Egyptian jewellery (armlet with snakehead)
400 AD - Coin necklaces (Nishka gold coin necklaces mentioned in Ramayana and
Jataka stories), Similarities with present day ornaments (Chudamani, Phalakhara,
Kanthi)
900 AD - Nose jewellery was introduced, possibly with coming of Arabs (early
sculptures and murals do not show nose ornaments)

Regional specialisations

Tamil Nadu - Mangai Mala (necklace), Silver Filigree armlets worn by Vellalars,
Chettinad jewellery (uncut rubies), Addigai (uncut rubies in gold), tribal jewellery of
 Todas and Kotas
Punjab - Chonk
Kashmir - Kan-balle
Himachal Pradesh - Pipal Patra, Nath and Boulak (nose)
West Bengal - Filigree in gold and silver, Tara Kanta and Paan Kanta (hairpins)
Kerala - Garuda necklace
Assam - Silver among tribes and Gold among plains dwellers, Thuria (lotus shaped
earring)
Odisha - Filigree in Cuttack, brass ornaments in Sambalpur, maurpankhi (nose)
Jaipur - Meenkari, Kundan

Guluband - Neck ornament strung with beads or pieces of metal

Meenkari + Kundan

TERRACOTTA CRAFTS

Terracotta = baked earth = ceramic clay that has been semi-fired (waterproof and
hard)
Bengal - Bankura Horse, Panchmura Horse
Buddhist Viharas of Pala period

SILVER

Filigree - Odisha (Paijam, Gunchi - knitted ornaments made up of silver)

Bidri - Karnataka - Silver to create inlay work against zinc/copper or lead, which are
then stained to create dark backgrounds

POTTERY

Earliest evidence in Mehrgarh (Neolithic site)

Harappan Time - Plain Grey Ware, Red and Black Pottery

Vedic Period - Painted grey ware (1500-600 BC)
Mahajanapadas and Mauryan phases - Northern Black Polished Ware (700-100
BC)
South India - Roulette Pottery (200-100 BC) - found near Arikamedu
Gupta period - embellishments, painting, molding (300-600 AD)
Islamic Period - Glazed Pottery

Types of Pottery
Khurja UP Sturdy, Used to make household items

Black Pottery Azamgarh (UP) Special dark tint (both types are distinct)
Ukhrul
(Manipur)

Glazed Tiles Chunar,

Chinhat

Blue Pottery Jaipur Made up of Multani Mitti

Kagzi Pottery Alwar Thin and delicate

Pokhran Pokhran
Pottery

Dalgate Jammu & Special glaze

Kashmir

Karigari Tamil Nadu

Surai West Bengal Common jug ware

Gopichandan Saurashtra

BRONZE

Mohenjo Daro - Dancing Girl (3500-3000 BC)

Matsya Purana - earliest literary evidence about different methods of casting bronze
Rasa Ratnakar (Nagarjuna) - metal purity and distillation of zinc
Ritual objects made from Bronze - Tamrapatra, Kanchantal, Panchpatra
South India - statues resembling art forms of Cholas, Pallavas, Pandyas and
Nayakas (Most famous is the Chola Nataraja bronze figure)

Gaja Kerala Shiva dancing in Tandava position

Tandava

Dokra Odisha, West Used for ornaments

Casting Bengal

Pahaldar Jaipur, parts of Copper and Brass lamps in different styles and
lamps UP shapes

Pembarthi Warangal Brass sheet work to decorate chariots and temple

craft
METAL CRAFT

5000 BC - copper was used to make beads and pins

3000 BC - Tin was added to Copper to make Bronze, Gold extraction was known in
Egypt
500 BC - Iron
Technology to master various metals originated independently in different parts of
India
Bell metal = Copper + Tin
Precious metals were always the chief import for India

Marori Rajasthan Metal to create etchings on base metal, gaps are

filled with resin

Badla Rajasthan Semi circular or rounded pots in Marwar region,

Use Zinc

Baarik Kaam Moradabad Nakasshi style to create pots

Koftagiri Rajasthan (Jaipur, Inlaying a light metal on a dark side

Alwar), Kerala, Mostly on sword blades
Andhra, Punjab

Tarkashi Rajasthan Copper or brass wires to create patterns in finely

chiseled grooves in the metallic base

Mohra Himachal Pradesh Metal plaques of Durga

Made of Ashtadhatu - Gold, Silver, Copper, Zinc,
Brass, Iron, Tin, Mercury

Himachal Pradesh - Vajra motif on kettles and jars, Repousse

Gujarat - Large temple bells (240kg bell in Girnar Hill temple)
Kerala - Lost wax technique is used to make wide mouthed utensils
Nachairkoil (Tamil Nadu) - Vandal (light brown sand) used to make moulds for bell metal
craft

LEATHER

Art of leather tanning exists since 3000 BC

Degenerative nature of leather makes it difficult to find material evidence

Mojadi - Jaipur and Jodhpur

 Kanpur - all types of leather products (economy is largely sustained by leather and
tanning)
Kolhapuri Chappal - Maharashtra
Juttis - Punjab (leather shoes with appliqué work)
Manoti Art - Bikaner (decorating articles with camel skin)

WOOD

Karnataka Sandalwood

Kashmir Walnut, Deodar Lattice Work - Acche Dar, Khatam band,

Azlipinjra

Kerala Teak Tharavad houses

Nagaland Kumisyng Found in NE states, noteworthy for huge go

drums

Rajasthan Rohilda Sindoor boxes, turned bowls

Maharashtra Hale, Pangora Lacquered imitation fruits

Bengal Sholapith

TOYS

First evidence found in Harappan civilisation (Alamgirpur, Ambkheri, Kalibangan, Lothal)

Evidence in ancient sites like Atranjikhera (bank of Kali Nadi), Nagarjunakonda, Sambhar,
Sonapur, Ujjain

Tirupati Dolls (Andhra Pradesh) - made of Red Wood

Pith dolls (Assam) - made of cork
Ambari Hathi (Kondapalli, Andhra Pradesh) - toys using local soft wood called Ponki

STONE WARE

Stone flints have been found in Bhimbetka caves

Masrur temple, Kangra (Himachal) - Monolithic carving of Hindu themes
Buddhist carvings in Sanchi and Bharhut (Relief of Mahakapi Jataka)
Erotic sculptures of Khajuraho
Rock cut caves of Ajanta and Ellora
Torso of Vishnu in red sandstone - Mathura
Mughal period

Shift from stone to marble in Mughal period - Pietra Dura inlay work
White marble monuments and intricate carvings in marble panels - tomb of Itmad-
ud-Daulah, Taj Mahal
Sandstone monuments - Humayun’s tomb, Jama Masjid
Makrana marble (sang-e-marmar) from Rajasthan
Brown stone (sang-e-rathak) from Jhansi
Jali work in Siddi Sayyid Mosque, Ahmedabad

Regional Styles

Rajasthan - Jali work in domestic architecture in yellow and pink sandstone and
white marble, Figurines in Jaipur
Karnataka - Ornaments, Panels of deities
Madhya Pradesh - Carved panels, figurines and boxes using soft marble rocks of
Bhedaghat
Uttar Pradesh - Soft marble and soft streaked Gorahari stone are inlaid with
precious stones, Inlaid table tops and plates in Agra
Odisha - Soapstone cutting in Puri, Semi-hard grey stone in Mangalpur
Tamil Nadu - Stone carving panels in Mammallapuram (stone work in South was
mostly in granite)

FLOOR DESIGNS

Chowkpurna - Punjab and UP

Aipan - Himachal Pradesh
Mandana - Rajasthan, MP
Santhia - Gujarat
Rangoli - Maharashtra
Hase - Karnataka
Muggulu - Andhra Pradesh
Kolam - Kerala/Tamil Nadu
Jhonti - Odisha
Aripana - West Bengal

PAPER CRAFTS

Paper came to India with Muslim traders (Arabs learnt from Chinese)
Zain-ul-Abidin encouraged Papier Mache work in Kashmir
In Mughal period, use of Papier Mache was extended to windows, wall panels etc.
Papier Mache production boomed during 17th century due to popularity among Europeans
Paper cut art was popular in Vasihnava tradition
Paper cutting craft

Sanjhi - Mathura - depicts Krishna Lila scenes

Hazara (1000 flowers) and Gulandar Gul - Floral patterns in Kashmir

CLAY

Harappa Small figures of animals (bull, ram)

Toys

Maurya, Clay figurines in excavations at Pataliputra, Kosambi, Gaya

Sunga

Kushan Graeco Buddhist stupas were decorated with stucco designs and
motifs

Gupta Life size terracotta in temples and secular buildings

17th-19th Local rulers in Bengal decorated temples with terracotta plaques and
century stucco patterns

Ayyanar Horses - Clay horses, Ayannar is a pre Vedic Tamil deity

PATRONS

Village Artisans Itinerant Artisans Town Artisans Court Artisans

Lived and Moved from Formed Patronised by

worked in village to guilds to the ruling
the village village protect their class
in serving interests Jetavanarama
designated different Functions of Sanskrit
parts communities guild - inscription
Patronised Did not protect (9th century)
by the cultivate occupational in a Buddhist
landed land interests, monastery
classes punish records grants
Jajmani wrong given to
system doers, artisans
bound negotiate Akbar’s court
artisans to prices, records
the village enforce
standards of
 economy work
Sometimes
engaged in
agriculture
in the
village
Unit of
production
was the
family

Indian artists rarely invented or experimented with tool making to improve their work or
develop labour saving devices

PUPPETRY

Puppets have been discovered in excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro

Silappadikaram - Oldest written reference to puppetry (1st-2nd century AD)
Mentioned in Mahabharata

String Puppetry Shadow Glove Puppetry Rod Puppetry

Puppetry

Kathputli - Togalu Pavakoothu - Yampuri - Bihar

Rajasthan Gombeyatta - Kerala Putul Natch -
Kundhei - Odisha Karnataka Odisha/Bengal/Bihar
Gombeyatta - Tholu
Karnataka Bommalatta -
Bommalatta - Andhra
Tamil Nadu Ravan Chhaya -
Odisha

String Puppetry

Kathputli Rajasthan Absence of legs

Traditional bright Rajasthani dress + Folk music

Kundhei Odisha Influenced by Odissi dance

More joints giving the puppeteer more flexibility
 Gombeyatta Karnataka Designed after Yakshagana theatre
More than one puppeteer is used to manipulate the
puppets

Bommalattam Tamil Nadu Rod + String

Largest and heaviest marionettes
4 distinct stages - Vinayak Puja, Komali,
Amanattam, Pusenkanattam
Tied to a ring worn around the head

Shadow Puppetry

Togalu Karnataka Variation of puppet size based on social status

Gombeyatta

Ravan Chhaya Odisha No joints attached to them

Use of non-human puppets like trees and animals

Tholu Andhra Theme around Puranas

Bommalata Pradesh Large puppets coloured on both sides

Glove Puppetry

Pavakoothu Kerala Originated around 18th century AD

Influence of Kathakali - colourful faces, heavy
headgear
Themed around Ramayana and Mahabharata

Rod Puppets

Yampuri Bihar Carved out of a single piece of wood without any

joints

Putul Natch Bengal- Dressed like characters of Jatra

Odisha- Each puppeteer controls a single puppet by a rod
Assam attached to waist
Three joints
 MUSIC

Ancient India

Naada Brahma - Sound that pervades the whole universe

Indus Valley sites - Seven holed flute and Ravanahatha
Gandharva Veda (Upa veda of Sam Veda) contains science of music
Jaimini Brahmana - speaks of dance and music
Kausitaki Brahmana - dance, vocal and instrumental music together
Aitareya Aranyaka - parts of Veena
Panini in 500 BC - first reference to art of music
Natyashastra - Written and compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD (Divided SWARA
into 22 notes scale)
Dathilam - existence of 22 Shrutis per octave
Jatigan - Epics set to narrative type of Music
Brihhadesi - Matanga (9th century) - focused on definition of word Raga
Sangeeta Makaranda - Nanda (11th century) - classified ragas into feminine and
masculine forms
Sangeeta Ratnakara - Sarangadeva (13th century)
Defined 264 ragas including some from North Indian and Dravidian repertoires
Identified and described various microtones
Swaramela-Kalanidhi - Ramamatya (16th century)
Chaturdandi-Prakasika - Venkatamakhin (17th century)
Gurukul System

Introduction of Islamic elements

15th century - Dhruvapad (devotional style of singing) evolved into Dhrupad

17th century - Khayal form of Hindustani music

Anatomy of Indian Music

Pillars of Indian Music - Swara, Raga, Tala

Swara “Note” of a composition // Recitation

Natyashastra divides Swaras into 22 notes scale
Shruti - smallest gradation of pitch representing quality of frequency
(22 shrutis out of which 12 are audible)

Raga Basis of melody

Contains a number of notes, atleast 5 notes (8 notes = octave)

Odava Raga = 5 notes

Shadava Raga = 6 notes
 Sampurna Raga = 7 notes

Melodic structure - distinct personality and mood

Aaroha - Ascent of notes, Avaroha - Descent of notes

Shhudha Raga = If any note is absent from composition, the nature

and form does not change
Chhayalag Raga = If any note is absent from composition, the nature
and form changes
Sankeerna Raga = combination of 2 or more Raga

Six main Raga in Hindustani Music - Bhairav, Hindol, Deepak, Megh,

Shree, Malkaush

Taala Basis of rhythm

3 to 108 beats
Tala is different between Hindustani and Carnatic music (Carnatic
music is more rigid)

Rasa Evoke emotional responses (9 rasa similar to dance) - Shringaar,

Hasya, Adbhuta, Bhayanak, Shaant, Karuna, Veera, Roudra, Bibhatsa)

Thaat Classification of Ragas

10 that classification in Hindustani Classical Music
Thaat should have 7 out of 12 notes, necessarily placed in ascending
order (Aaroha) // Raga has atleast 5 notes, could be in Aaroha or
Avaroha
Thaat are named after popular Ragas // Ragas are named after the
emotion they evoke

Samay Time at which a Raga is performed

Aalap Gradual exposition of Raga in slow tempo

Sung at the beginning, mostly in North Indian classical music

Taan Basic notes sung in a fast tempo

Murki - Short taan of 3-4 notes

Alankara Specific melodic presentation in succession, following a pattern

CLASSICAL MUSIC

Origins in Natyashastra but diverged in the 14th century

Guru-Shishya Tradition
Based on Raga system
Influenced by Vedas and Persian/Islamic traditions (origins in Sam Veda)

Gharana
 Social organisation that links musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship
Indicates comprehensive musical ideology and differentiates it from other gharana

Hindustani Music

Focuses more on musical structure and possibilities of improvisation

Octave of Natural Notes - Shudhha Swara Saptaka
Ten main styles - Dhrupad, Khayal, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri, Tappa, Chaturang,
Dhamar, Hori, Ragasagar

Classical Styles - Dhrupad, Khayal, Tarana

Dhrupad
Mentioned in Natyashastra
Pure music without distraction of words
Owes its roots to Dhruvapada and Prabandha
Precise and overt elaboration of a raga
Zenith under Akbar - Gopal Das, Hari Das, Tansen, Baiju Bawra
Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior - major form of singing in
medieval period
Declined during 18th century
Instruments - Tanpura and Pakhawaj
Pure music without distraction of words
Dhrupad starts with Alap

Gharanas

Dagari - Dagar Vani - Dagars are Muslims but usually sing Hindu
texts, great emphasis on Alap
Darbhanga - Khandar Vani, Gauhar Vani - Emphasise on Raga
Alap and incorporate Layakari
Bettiah - Nauhar Vani, Khandar Vani
Talwandi - Khandar Vani - Based in Pakistan

Haveli style —> Bettiah and Darbhanga gharana

Khayal
Persian word for thought
Origin attributed to Amir Khusro
Khayal composition is called Bandish
Mostly short songs
Importance of taan more than alaap (In Dhrupad, Aalap is most
important)
 Patronised by Sultan Mohammed Sharqi in 15th century
Some compositions are in praise of Krishna

Gharanas

Gwalior

Oldest and most elaborate

Equal emphasis on melody and rhythm
Singing is complex but ragas performed are simple
Nathu Khan, Vishnu Palushkar

Kirana (UP)

Precise tuning and expression of notes

Mastery over slow tempo raga
Established by Nayak Gopal, made popular by Abdul Karim
Khan and Abdul Wahid Khan
Carnatic musicians from Maharashtra and Karnataka are
associated
Bhimsen Joshi (new ragas like Kalashri and Lalit Bhatiyar, songs
like Mile Sur Mera Tumhara), Gangubai Hangal

Agra

Khuda Baksh founded in 19th century, revived by Fayaz Khan

(renamed as Rangeela gharana)
Composition is a blend of Khayal and Dhrupad
Special composition to Bandish

Patiala

Initially patronised by Maharaja of Patiala

Ghazal, Thumri and Khayal
Compositions stress on emotions - use ornamentations or
alankaras in their music
Uses taan, gamak and gayaki of Tarana style
Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (Rang Darbari) - famous for thumri and
khayal, Sabrang festival in his memory

Bhendibazaar

Control breath for long periods

Used Carnatic ragas
 Tarana
Rhythm is the most important
Many words used at a fast tempo

Semi-Classical Styles

Lighter version of ragas like Bhoopali and Malkaush are used

Faster in tempo
More emphasis on lyrics and bhava than alaap

Thumri
Based on mixed ragas
Romantic or devotional (love for Krishna)
Influenced by Bhakti movement - Hindi/Awadhi/Braj Bhasha
Generally sung by females (inherent sensuality is important)
Purbi Thumri is sung in slower tempo, Punjabi thumri is sung in fast
tempo
Begum Akhtar

Tappa
Originated from folk songs of Camel Riders of NW India
Gained importance as semi-classical vocals in the court of
Muhammad Shah
Baithaki style evolved under patronage of landed classes
Popular among both the elite and the lower classes

Ghazal
Origins in Iran in 10th century AD
Spread to South Asia in 12th century with Sufi mystics and
Sultanate
Zenith under Mughal rule
Rhyming couplets
Amir Khusro was among the earliest exponents of Ghazal
Traditionally deals with only the subject of Love
Initially used traditional classical ragas which were difficult to
understand
Mirza Ghalib, Rumi, Muhammad Iqbal
Carnatic Music

Pallavi - 1st/2nd thematic lines of the composition, artist has scope for
improvisation, repeated after every stanza
Anu Pallavi - Follow the Pallavi, not necessary to repeat it after every stanza
Varnam - Composition sung at the beginning of a recital, made up of Purvanga and
Uttaranga
Ragamalika - Concluding part of performance, artist is allowed improvisation
Thanam - Pieces with Mridangam, Ragam - pieces without Mridangam

Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

Arab, Persian and Afghan influence Indigenous - developed mostly during Bhakti
movement

Scope for improvisation and variation No freedom to improvise

Several sub styles lead to emergence of Only one particular prescribed style of
Gharanas singing

Instruments as important as vocals Vocals are more important

6 major ragas 72 ragas

Adheres to time Does not adhere to time

Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor Veena, Mridangam, Mandolin

Flute and Violin Flute and Violin

North India South India

FOLK MUSIC

Baul West Bengal Influence of Bhakti and Sufi movements

Represent tradition of Mysticism through music
in Bengal - Sahebdhani and Bolahadi sects

Wanawan J&K Mostly sung during wedding ceremonies

Pandavani Chhattisgarh Based on Mahabharata with Bhima as the hero

Tambura is the important instrument
Exponent - Tijanbai (Padmashri and
Padmabhushan)
Alha Madhya Pradesh Heroic ballad song written in
Braj/Awadhi/Bhojpuri
Related to Mahabharata - heroes seen as
reincarnations of Pandavas

Panihari Rajasthani Thematically related to water

Women fetching water, scarcity of water and
long distance between well and village, chance
encounters, relationship between mother in law
and daughter in law

Ovi Maharashtra, Songs of women

Goa

Pai Madhya Pradesh Plead for good monsoon or good harvest

Saira dance is performed on Pai music

Lavani Maharashtra Traditional dance and song

Instrument use is Dholki

Maand Rajasthan Developed in royal courts and therefore, also

recognised in classical circles
Usually songs of bards singing glories of Rajput
rulers
Close to Thumri and Ghazal
"Kesariya Balam” is in Maand style

Dandiya Gujarat Associated with Holi and Krishna-Radha stories

Dandiya Raas - During Navaratri
Dang Lila - Rajasthan - only one large stick is
used

Powada Maharashtra Usually ballads sung for heroes of the past

(Shivaji)

Khongjom Manipur Musical narration of Battle of Khongjom between

Parva British and Manipuri resistance (1891)

Bhavageete Karnataka, Close to ghazals and sung on a slower pitch

Maharashtra Composed on themes of nature, love,
philosophy

Mando Goa Blend of Indian and Western traditions

Guitars, Violins and Drums

Kolannalu/ Andhra Pradesh, Similar to Dandiya

Kolattam Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu

Sohar Bihar Sung during childbirth

Tikir Assam Embodies teachings of Islam

Ja-Jin-Ja Arunachal Sung during marriages

Pradesh

Nyioga Arunachal Sung at the end of marriage ceremonies

Pradesh

Heliamleu Nagaland Dancing songs

Neuleu Nagaland Legends and Myths

Hereileu Nagaland War songs

Hekaileu Nagaland Songs about oneself

Dollu Kunita Karnataka Dollu is a percussion instrument

Performed by men of Kuruba community

Naatupura Tamil Nadu Village folk music and city folk music
Paatu

Veeragase Karnataka Hindu mythology

Pala/Daskathia Odisha Ballads of religious nature

Manganiars NW India Songs about Alexander, local kings and battles

Dhadi Punjab Ballads of bravery

Basant Geet Garhwal During Basant Panchami

Villu Pattu Tamil Nadu Conquest of good over evil

Sukar ke Biah Bihar Love between cosmological deities Shukra and

Brihaspati

Saikuti Zai Mizoram Praise of hunters and brave men

Lai Haroba Manipur For the forest deity Umang Lai

Origins of Manipuri dance can be traced to Lai
Haroba festival

Chhakri Kashmir Fairy tales and love stories

Bhuta Kerala Against evils and ghosts

Khubakeshei Manipur Song accompanied entirely by clapping

 Gulraj Kashmir

FUSION MUSIC

Sugam Sangeet

Devotional Music that brings together folk and classical traditions

Influenced by Prabandha Sangeet and Dhruvapada

Bhajan Hindu // Bhakti Owes its origin to Bhakti movement - saints would take
the message of God to people by singing
Themes - stories of gods and goddesses, Ramayana
and Mahabharata
Instruments - chimta, dholak, manjira
Exponents - Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas

Shabad Skihism Devotional songs in Sikhism sung in Gurudwaras

Raga based Shabad, traditional Shaped mentioned in
Adi Granth

Qawwali Islam // Sufi Devotional music in praise of Muhammad or Sufi saints

at Sufi shrines
Written in a single raga in Urdu/Punjabi/Hindi
(sometimes Brajbhasha and Awadhi)
Tempo usually builds up
Instruments - Tabla, Dholak, Harmonium
Amir Khusrau is credited with its origin (apart from
Ghazal and Khayal)

Abhanga Maharashtra Praise of Vithoba God

Composed and sung by Tukaram, Namdev etc

Bhatiali Bengal Nature, daily life, sung by boat drivers

Tevaram Tamil Nadu Sung by Shaivite community like Oduyars

Kirtan Bengal Involves singing and dancing and takes inspiration from
Gita Govinda

Rabindra Sangeet

Recreates music produced by Nobel Laureate by Rabindranath Tagore (Bengal)

Classical + Bengali folk strains
Patriotism, worship of one true god, devotion to nature, celebration of life
Gana Sangeet

Sung in chorus/groups in large numbers

Patriotic feelings, social messages
Bande Mataram

Haveli Sangeet

Developed in Rajasthan and Gujarat

Originally meant to be performed in Temple premises
Currently practised by Pushtimarg Sampradaya

MODERN MUSIC

Pop
Monsoon band used the term 'Indipop'

Rock
Usha Uthup
Raga Rock = Western Rock + Indian Classical (George Harrison’s
Norwegian Rock, Beatles + Maharshi Mahesh Yogi)

Jazz
Influence of African-Americans in jazz musicians
1930-50 - Golden age of Jazz
Encouraged in Taj Mahal Hotel Ballroom
Ravi Shankar + Coltrane

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Awanad Membranophone/Percussion Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam,

Vadya instruments Chhenda (South Indian equivalent of
Nagada)
One or two faces covered with hide/skin

Folk instruments
 Gumot - Goa (like a drum)
Idakka - Kerala (similar to Damru)
Udukkai - Tamil Nadu (hour glass
shaped Damru)
Sambal - Konkan (drum)
Tamak - Santhals (2 headed drum)
Diggi - UP
Chikka - Punjab

Sushira Aerophone Flute has been used since Vedic times

Vadya Wind instruments Bansuri, Shehnai, Pungi, Flute

Folk instruments

Gogona - Assam (made up of

bamboo, used in Bihu)
Pungi - used by snake charmers
Tangmuri - Khasis
Titti - Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
(bagpipe made up of goat skin)
Mashak - Garhwal, Rajasthan, UP
(Bagpipe)
Algoza - Punjab (double flute)

Ghana Idiophone Cymbals have been found in IVC

Vadya Solid instruments excavations
Manjira, Jaltarang, Khartal, Cymbals

Folk instruments

Chimpta - Punjab (evolved from fire

tongs)
Gharha - Punjab
Andelu - Andhra (hollow metal rings
used in Burra Katha)
Khadtaal - seen with Bhakti saints

In Terah Tali dance, manjiras are worn all

over the body

Tanta Chordophone Bowed - Sarangi, Esraj, Violin (Bow across

Vadya String instruments strings)
Plectral - Sitar, Veena, Tamboora (Plucked
by fingers)
Gotuvadyam, Swaramandal - struck by
small hammer or sticks
 Bangash family - Sarod

Folk instruments

Tumbi - Punjab (bhangra)

Ektara - one stringed instrument
played by wandering monks
Dotara - Bengal (2 stringed
instrument used in Bauls)
Chikara - Rajasthan, UP, MP
Dilruba/Esraj - Punjab, Eastern
India (Rabindra Sangeet)
Onavillu - Kerala (Bamboo)
Sarinda - used by Santhals in
Eastern India, also in Rajasthan
and Assam
Kirla

MUSICAL COMMUNITIES

Langha Gujarat, Entertained Muslim Rajputs by praising them

Rajasthan through songs

Manganiar/Merasi Rajasthan Kamaicha instrument to sing folk music

Karta Bhaja West Bengal

Baul West Bengal One of the classes of Kartabhaja

Jogim Bhopa Rajasthan

Barot, Charan, Gujarat

Gadhvi

Muria Madhya Songs called Relo

Pradesh

Kamar Chhattisgarh Marriage Song

Baghela Madhya Semi-historical songs dedicated to hardaul

Pradesh deity

Pulayar Tamil Nadu Perform melodies called Talam

Idu Mishmi Arunachal

 Pradesh

Moken Andaman No religion and perform only ancestor

worship

Bazigar Punjab

INSTITUTES

Gandharva VD Palushkar VD Palushkar et up in 1901 to impart

Mahavidyalaya teaching in classical music and dance
(1901) (Hindustani + Carnatic)
Opened in Lahore, but shifted to Mumbai
in 1915
Opened Prayag Samiti in Allahabad

Sangeet Natak GoI First national academy set up for arts by

Academy government
(1952) Showcase music, drama, dance,
intangible heritage
Administer the National School of Drama
Created by a resolution
Ustad Bismillah Khan award to young
artistes

Marris College Vishnu Narayan Founded in Lucknow (1926)

(1926) Bhatkhande

Spic Macay (1977) Kiran Seth Began as a voluntary youth movement

CIRCUS

First Indian circus was born around 1880

Great Indian Circus - Founded by Vishnupant Chatre, under patronage of Raja of
Kurduwadi
Great Malabar Circus - Pariyali Kannan
Father of Indian circus - Keeleri Kunhikannan
Kerala came to be known as cradle of Indian circus
Gemini Circus - First Indian circus to attend International Circus Festival in USSR
Indian Circus Academy - Thalassery
Currently, circus is under Ministry of Sports and Youth Affairs

Why circus declined?

Circus companies keep their trade a guarded secret

Child labour laws - children cannot train from an early age
Ban on use of wild animals for entertainment
Safety issues
Other forms of entertainment have become more popular

UNESCO HERITAGE SITES

TANGIBLE HERITAGE

Criteria for Cultural Sites

Masterpiece of human creative genius

Interchange of human values, developments in architecture, technology,
monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design
Testimony to a cultural tradition or civilisation (living or extinct)
Type of building, architectural, or technological ensemble which illustrates a
significant stage in human history.
Traditional human settlement, land-use or sea-use which is representative of a
culture or human-interaction with the environment
Events, living traditions, ideas, beliefs, artistic and literary works of outstanding
universal significance

Criteria for Natural Sites

Contains natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic

importance.
Earth’s history - record of life, significant ongoing geological processes
(development of landforms, geomorphic & physiographic features)
Ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of
ecosystems and communities
Natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity

Legal Status

Geneva Protection of cultural objects and places of worship (categorised as

 Convention civilian property)
UNESCO Heritage sites are protected under Geneva Convention

Hague Protection of Cultural Property in event of armed combat

Convention

Cultural Sites

Highest number of UNESCO Heritage Sites

State - Maharashtra (five)

Country - Italy (54) > China > Spain > Germany > France > India (37)
Cultural Sites - Italy > Spain > Germany > France > China > India
Natural Sites - China (13) > USA = Australia (12) > Russia > Canada
Mixed Sites - China = Australia (4) > Mexico > Spain

1983
Ajanta (Maharashtra)
Ellora (Maharashtra)
Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh)
Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) - Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Sheesh Mahal,
Moti Masjid, Jahangiri Palace)

1984
Sun Temple (Odisha)
Monuments at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) - Pancha Ratha, Shore
Temple, Arjuna’s Penance, Descent Ganges, Caves Temple

1986
Churches and Convents (Goa)
Khajuraho Group of Monuments (Madhya Pradesh)
Hindu - Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Vishwanatha Temple,
Lakshmana Temple, Chausath Yogini
Jain - Adinath, Parshvanatha, Shantinatha
Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh) - Panch Mahal, Bland Darwaza, Jodha
Bay Palace, Hiran Minar, Pachisi Hall, Chisti tomb, Ibadat Khana
Hampi (Karnataka) - Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa,
Hemakuta, Achyutaraya, Vitthala, Pattabhirama, Lotus Mahal

1987
Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra)
Pattadakal (Karnataka) - Virupaksha Temple, Papanatha Temple,
Sangameshwara Temple
Great Chola Temples (Tamil Nadu) - Brihadeshwara, Airavateshwara
1989
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) - Great Stupa, Ashokan Pillar, Shunga Pillar,
Sri Satakarni inscriptions

1993
Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi)
Qutub Minar (Delhi) - Alai Darwaza is the gateway to Qutub Minar
(constructed by Alauddin Khilji)
Qutub Minar is based on Minaret of Jam in Western Afghanistan

1999
Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (West Bengal)

2002
Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bodh Gaya
First shrine at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably constructed by
Ashoka -2nd century BC
Vedika in post Mauryan period - 1st century BC
Sculptures in the niches during the Pala period
The temple as it stands to day is a colonial period reconstruction of the
7th century monument
Narrow like a Nagara temple, but rises without curving like a Dravida
temple

2003
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

2004
Victoria Terminus
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (Gujarat)

Champaner

Earliest settlement dates to Chalcolithic

Step wells and tanks dated between 8th to 14th century
Capital of Solanki kings
Kalika Mata Temple
Sultan Muhammad Begada captured the city later
He built Nagina Masjid
Only complete and unchanged pre-Mughal Islamic city in India

2005
 Nilgiri Mountain Railways

2007
Red Fort Complex (Delhi) - Lahori Gate (main entrance), Delhi Gate,
Mumtaz Mahal, Rang Mahal, Hammam, Moti Masjid, Hira Mahal

2008
Kalka-Shimla Railway (Himachal Pradesh)

2010
Jantar Mantar (Rajasthan)

2013 Hill Forts of Rajasthan

Chittorgarh - Chitrangada Maurya (Largest fort of Asia)

Ranthambore - Chauhans
Jaisalmer - Raval Jaisal
Kumbhalgarh - Rana Kumbha
Amer - Raja Man Singh
Gagron - Bijaldev of Parmara empire

2014
Rani ki Vav (Gujarat) - built as a memorial to Bhima I by his wife
Udayamati
Cleanest Iconic Place at Indian Sanitation Conference, 2016

2016
Architecture of Le Corbusier (Chandigarh)
Nalanda

2017
Historic City of Ahmedabad

2018
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai

19th century Victorian Gothic and early 20th century Art Deco style of
architecture
Pointed arches, Heavy stone and brick work, Polychromes (contrasting
colours), Towers, Gabled roofs
3rd site from Mumbai after CST and Elephanta Caves
 5th from Maharashtra - state with most number of UNESCO World Heritage
Sites

Natural Heritage Sites

1985 Manas Assam

1985 Kaziranga Assam

1985 Keoladeo Rajasthan

1987 Sundarban West Bengal

2005 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand

Valley of
Flowers

2012 Western Ghats Gujarat, MH, Goa, Subclusters - Agasthyamalai, Periyar,

Karnataka, Kerala, Anamalai, Nilgiri, Talakaveri,
Tamil Nadu Kudremukh, Sahyadri

2014 GHNP Himachal Pradesh

2016 Kanchenjunga Sikkim

Benefits of UNESCO Heritage Site status

International attention towards the need for preservation and conservation

Tourism
Funds from UNESCO for restoration, preservation, training
Closer ties with UN
Access to global management resources and best practices sharing
Facilitates partnerships of Government with international agencies and NGOs
Protected under Geneva Convention

INTANGIBLE HERITAGE

2017 Kumbh Mela

Largest public gathering and collective act of faith, anywhere in the

world
Celebrated four times over a course of 12 years
Haridwar - Ganges - Uttarakhand.
Ujjain - Shipra - Madhya Pradesh.
 Nashik - Godavari - Maharashtra.
Prayagraj - confluence of Ganga/Yamuna/Saraswati - Uttar Pradesh
Each site’s celebration is based on a distinct set of astrological positions
of Sun, Moon, Jupiter
Celebrations occur at the exact moment when these positions are fully
occupied - holiest time in Hinduism

Prayagraj Kumbh Mela 2019 has been placed in the Guinness World Records
in three sectors

Largest traffic and crowd management plan

The biggest painting exercise of public sites under Paint My City scheme
Biggest sanitation and waste disposal mechanism

2016 Navroz

New Year for Parsis, Spring festival for Kashmiri community

Denotes Zoroastrian respect for the environment

Yoga

Poses, meditation, controlled breathing

Transmitted through Guru-Shishya parampara

2014 Thatheras - Punjab

Art of utensil making from copper, brass, Kansa (zinc, tin, copper)
Patronised and encouraged by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 19th century
Recommended for medical purposes in Ayurveda texts
Functional and ritualistic purpose

2013 Sankirtana - Manipur

Narrates the life of Lord Krishna

Cymbals and drums are used

2012 Buddhist Chanting - Jammu & Kashmir

2010 Chhau

Mainly performed during spring

Performed by male dancers in the night
Origin in Pari-Khanda martial art form (dance + martial arts)
 Types of Chhau
Purulia Chhau - Bengal - Use mask
Seraikella Chhau - Jharkhand - Use mask
Mayurbhanj Chhau - Odisha - no mask

Kalbelia - Rajasthan

Dance movement resemble that of a serpent

Kalbelia was a nomadic tribe that traded snake venom
Lyrics to sings are composed spontaneously

Mudiyettu - Kerala

Ritual theatre
Battle of Goddess Kali and demon Darika performed in village temples
(Bhagvati Kavus)
Collective participation of each caste in the ritual
Face paints and elaborate head gear

2009 Ramman

Ritual theatre of Garhwal region

Worship of Bhumiyal Devata
Singing of Jagar - musical rendition of local legends
Each caste has a specific function

2008 Kutiyattam - Kerala

Male roles by Chakyar castes, Female roles by Nambiar castes

Sanskrit theatre
Enacted inside Hindu temples
Based on Hindu mythology
Vidushaka explains the story in simple Malayalam, other characters
perform in Sanskrit
Major musical instrument - Mizhavu

Vedic Chanting

Oldest unbroken oral tradition

UNESCO declared it a Masterpiece or Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity

Ramlila - Uttar Pradesh

 Enactment of Ramayana using song, dance and dialogue
Male actors perform the role of Sita as well
Bakshi ka Talab - Ramlila in which lead characters are played by Muslim
youth

LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE GROUPS OF INDIA

Indo Aryan Came to India with advent of Aryans

3/4 Indians speak languages belonging to Indo-Aryan family

Old Indo Aryan Group (1500 BC)

Sanskrit was born out of this group - language of the Vedas,

Upanishads, Puranas, Dharmasutras
Panini - Ashtadhyayi - oldest book in Sanskrit grammar
Mahavastu (Hinayana), Lalitavistara (Mahayana),
Buddhacharita
No part of India has not contributed to or not been affected by
Sanskrit
Chaste form of Sanskrit developed around - 300 BC to 200 BC
First evidence of use of Sanskrit - Inscriptions of Rudradaman at
Junagarh
Greatest development of Sanskrit during Gupta period - plays,
Mahakavyas, Khandakavyas
Gupta period plays - Higher Varnas speak in Sanskrit, lower
Varnas and women speak in Prakrit

Middle Indo Aryan Group (600 BC to 1000 AD)

Development of Prakrit - common tongue, no strict rules of

usage
Prakrit includes languages like Ardhamagadhi, Pali (Theravada
Buddhism), Apabhramsa
Prakrit was less orthodox compared to Sanskrit, hence appealed
to masses (whereas Sanskrit was confined to Brahmins)
Prakrit and Ardhamagadhi were used in Jain agamas
Pali (500 to100 BC)

Generally written in Brahmi script

Tripitakas of Buddhism
Main language of Theravada Buddhism
Buddha himself did not teach in Pali but in Ardhamagadhi

Ardha-Magadhi

Spoken by Buddha and Mahavira

Literary use increased after decline of Pali and Sanskrit
Court language of few Mahajanapadas and Mauryan court
Many jain texts and rock edicts of Ashoka
Later evolved into languages of Eastern India - Bengali,
Assamese, Odia, Maithili, Bhojpuri

Shauraseni

Widely used to write dramas in medieval period

Predecessor to North Indian languages
Widely used by Jain monks
Shatkhandgama - Digambara text

Maharashtra Prakrit (spoken till 9th century)

Official language of Satavahana Dynasty

Predecessor to Marathi and Konkani
Used widely in western and southern India
Gaha Kosha - King Hala, Gaudavaho - Vakpati

Elu

Precursor of Sinhala language of Sri Lanka

Similar to Pali

Paisachi

“Bhuta Bhasha”
Brihat Katha - Gundhya

Apabhramsa (6th-7th century)

 Umbrella term - included dialects other than Sanskrit or Prakrit
Represents transition from Middle to modern indo-Aryan
languages
Developed an identity of its own around 7th century
Bhamaha - divided poetry into Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa
Pushpadanta - Mahapurana (Digamabara text), Bhavisaytakaha
- Dhanapala

Modern Indo-Aryan group (after 10th century)

Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani,

Sindhi, Odia, Urdu

Dravidian Spoken in South India

1/4 of Indian population

Major languages
Tamil - Oldest
Telugu - numerically largest
Kannda
Malayalam - smallest and youngest

Northern Group

Brahui - Baluchistan
Malto - Tribal areas of Bengal and Odisha
Kurukh - Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, MP

Central Group

Gondi, Khond, Kui, Manda, Kuvi, Telugu

Only Telugu became a civilised language

Southern Group

Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu, Kota, Kodagu, Toda (Telugu is

not in Southern group)

Dravidian adivasi languages - Gondi, Oraon, Praji

Sino Tibetan Mongoloid family

Himalayas, North Bihar/Bengal, NE
Older than Indo-Aryan languages
Referred to in Sanskrit literature as Kiratas
 Tibeto Burman

Tibetan - Sikkimese, Bhutia, Sherpa, Ladakhi, Lahuli

Himalayan - Kinnauri, Limbu
North Assam - Abor, Miri, Aka, Dafla, Mishmi
Assamese-Burmese - Kuki Chin (Manipuri/Meithi), Mikir, Bodo,
Naga

Siamese Chinese

Ahom
Extinct from Indian subcontinent

Austric
Referred to in ancient literature as Nisadas
Munda or Kol group - central, eastern, north-eastern India
Mon-Khmer group - Khasi, Nicobarese
Santhali - Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal
Except Khasi and Santhali, all Austro-Asiatic languages in Indian
territory are endangered

Indo-Aryan group vs Dravidian group

Root words in the two language families are different

Grammatical structure of Indo-Aryan group is inflected - words ending/spelling
changes with grammatical function
Grammatical structure of Dravidian group is agglutinative - root words are united
with little or no change of form or loss of words

SCRIPTS

Most of the ancient and modern scripts in India are developed from Brahmi (Devanagari,
Tamil, Telugu, Odia, Kannada, Assamese)
Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic
Minor languages like Santhali have their independent scripts

Indus Valley
Extremely short
Pictographic - not clear if it was used to record a language

Brahmi
Probably originated from Semitic script (or even Indus script)
 Oldest writing system in Indian subcontinent - all surviving Indic
scripts in SE Asia are descendants of Brahmi
Rock cut edicts of Ashoka (north-central India) - deciphered by
James Prinsep
Abugida - each letter represents a consonant, vowels are
written as 'matra' except when they are at the beginning

Gupta
Descended from Brahmi
Brahmi —> Gupta —> Nagari, Sharada, Siddham —>
Devanagari, Gurumukhi, Assamese, Bengali, Tibetan

Kharshothi
Sister script of Brahmi used in Gandhara (Sanskrit and Prakrit)
Deciphered by James Prinsep
Abugida like Brahmi
Numerals are similar to Roman numerals
Mostly written right to left, but left to right inscriptions have also
been found

Vatteluttu
Abugida
One of the three main alphabet systems developed by Tamils
to write the Granthi (Pallava alphabet) and Tamil script

Kadamba
Developed during the reign of Kadamba dynasty (4th-6th
century)
 Kannada-Telugu script

Grantha
Used by Tamil speakers in South India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala)
Script for Sanskrit and Manipravalam (classical language, also
used in Kathakali)
Still in restricted use in traditional Vedic schools
Descendants - Malayalam script, Tigalari and Sinhala
alphabets
Can be seen in South Indian temples like Brihaddeshwara

Sarada
Abugida
Developed around 8th century AD
Used for writing Sanskrit and Kashmiri
Rarely used now except by the Kashmiri pandit community on
ceremonies

Gurumukhi
Developed from Sarada script, used to write Punjabi language
Standardised in 16th century by Guru Angad
Script used to write Guru Granth Sahib

Devanagari
Abugida
Used for over 120 languages - Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Konkani
etc
Also used for classical Sanskrit texts

Modi
Was used to write Marathi language till 20th century when
Balbodh style Devanagari script was promoted as the standard
writing system for Marathi

Urdu
Right to Left alphabet
Originated in 13th century, Modification of Persian (which
instead originated from Arabic)
Related to development of Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script
Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi script
(used for other North Indian languages like Punjabi and
Saraiki)
Classical Language

High antiquity of early texts/recorded history over 1500-2000 years

Ancient literature/texts considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers
Literary tradition is original and not borrowed from another speech community
Classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may be a
discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms

Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada & Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014)

Benefits

2 major international awards for scholars in Classical languages annually

Centre of excellence for studies in Classical Languages
UGC will be requested to create and start professional chairs in Central Universities
for Classical Languages

National Translation Mission

Disseminate knowledge in 22 languages of Schedule VIII

Knowledge text translation is the first step towards establishing translation as a
industry
Certification and training of translators
Machine aided translation between English and Indian languages

Linguistic Diversity Index

Probability that 2 persons picked at random will have different mother tongues
0 (everyone has same mother tongue) to 1 (no two people have the same mother
tongue)
Drawbacks - Counts only mother tongue, does not take into account
similarity/dissimilarity between languages

DANCE FORMS

Natya Veda —> Words from Rig Veda + Gestures from Yajur Veda + Music from Sam Veda
+ Emotions from Atharva Veda

Community dancing at Bhimbetka

Sculpture of Bronze dancing girl at Harappa
Shiva’s tandava dance posture in Nataraja
Natya Shastra by Bharata - compiled between 200 BC to 200 AD

Lasya - Feminine features of dance - Bhava, Rasa, Abhinaya

Tandava - Male aspects of dance, more emphasis on rhythm and movement

Abhinaya Darpan - Nandikeshwara

Nritta - basic dance steps without any expressions

Natya - Dramatic representations and refers to the story elaborated through the
ritual
Nritya - Sentiment and emotions evoked through dance (included Mudras)
Nine rasas expressed through the dance - Shringaara, Roudra, Bibhatsa, Veera,
Shaant, Haasya, Karuna, Bhayanak, Adbhuta

CLASSICAL DANCE

Governed by basic rules and guidelines laid down in Natya Shastra

Sangeet Natak Akademi - 8 classical dances
Ministry of Culture - 9 classical dances (8 + Chhau)
Classical status at time of Independence - Kathak, Kathakali, Manipuri, Bharatnatyam

Bharat Natyam
Oldest among all classical dance forms
Tamil Nadu Origins in 'Sadir' - solo dance performance of the temple
Element - Fire dancers (devadasis)
Also called Dashiattam
Revived by E Krishna Iyer
Initially performed by solo female dancers
Fire dance - manifestation of fire in the body, movements
resemble a dancing flame
Equal emphasis on both Tandava and Lasya
Kataka Mukha Hasta - three fingers joined to form 'OM'
Ekacharya Lasyam - One dancer plays many different roles
Knees are bent and weight id distributed across both feet

Components

Alarippu - Invocatory piece

Jatiswaram - Nritta component devoid of expressions
Shabdam - Dramatic element with expressed words
Varnam - Nritya component (most important part)
Padam - mastery over Abhinaya
Jawali - short love lyrics performed at a faster tempo
Thillana - Concluding stage, Nritta (pure dance) with
 exuberant movement

Kuchipudi
Derives name from Kuchelapuram village of Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Siddhendra Yogi formalised and systemised the tradition
Pradesh With advent of Vaishnavism, it became a monopoly of male
Element - Earth Brahmins and was themed around Bhagavat Purana
Patronised by Vijaynagar and Golconda rulers
Shringaar Ras (themes of Bhagvata Purana but have a
secular theme)
Daaru - small composition of dance and music with which
each principal character introduce themselves
Both Lasya and Tandava elements are important
Involves all of Nritta, Natya, Nritya
Dancer may combine the role of singer as well
Manifestation of earthly elements
Jala Chitra Nrityam - Dancer draws pictures on the floor with
toes while dancing
Manduka Shabdam - story of frog
Tarangam - Dancer performs with feet on edges of brass
plate
Generally accompanied by Carnatic music, violin and
mridangam

Components

Sollakath/Patakshara - Nritta part

Kavutvams - Nritya part which involves extensive acrobatics

Kathakali
Originated as Ramanattam and Krishnattam (dances narrating
Kerala stories of Mahabharata and Ramayana) under feudal lords
Element - Closely related to Koodiyattam and martial arts
Sky/Ether Declined when feudal system broke down, revived by VN
Menon under patronage of Mukunda Raja
Essentially an all male performance
Elaborate head gear and facial paint
Green for nobility, red patches near nose for royalty, black for
evil and wickedness, yellow for saints and women, completely
red painted face indicates evil, white beard indicates higher
consciousness
Characters divided into Satvika, Rajasika and Tamasika
Involves both dance and drama
Musical instrument - Chhenda (South Indian counterpart of
 Nagadda)
Themes are based on stories of epics and Puranas
Language used is Manipravalam (Sanskrit + Malayalam)
Known as Ballet of the East
Navarasa - 9 important facial expression to convey emotions
Element of sky or ether

Mohiniattam
Solo dance performance by women (Lasya aspect is
Kerala dominant)
Element - Air Developed by Vadivelu in 19th century and gained
prominence under rulers of Travancore
Later revived by VN Menon
Narrates the story of feminine dance of Vishnu
Combines grace and elegance of Bharat Natyam and the
vigour of Kathakali
White or off-white costume with no facial make up
Atavakul - collection of forty basic dance steps
Instruments used - Cymbals, Veena, Drums, Flute
Element of Air

Odissi
“Odra Nritya” mentioned in Natya Shastra
Odisha Initially performed by Maharis and patronised by Jain King
Element - Kharavela
Water Maharis decline with advent of Vaishnavism
Gotipua - boys dressed as females
Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are
important
Nartala - Variant of Odissi performed in courts
Tribhanga posture - 3 bend form of body
Chowk Posture - hands spread out to depict masculinity
Mobile sculpture - Dancers create geometrical shapes and
patterns with their body
Accompanied by Hindustani Classical Music, instruments -
Manjira, Pakhawaj, Sitar, Flute
Themes - Gita Govinda and local compositions
Elaborate hairstyle, silver jewellery, long necklace

Components

Mangalacharan - beginning where flower is offered to earth

Batu Nritya - Tribhanga and Chowk postures
Pallavi - Facial expressions and representation of the song
Tharijham - pure dance before the conclusion
Manipuri
Mythological origin - Celestial dance of Shiva and Parvati in
valleys of Manipur with local Gandharvas
Origin in festival of Lai Haroba
Became prominent with advent of Vaishnavism in 15th century
- Krishna became central theme
Raja Bhag Chandra revived it in 18th century, Rabindranath
Tagore introduced it in Shanti Niketan
Mostly performed by women
Emphasis on devotion and not sensuality
Movements of hand and feet are more important than facial
expressions
Lasya more important than Tandava
Naga Bandha Mudra - body is connected through curves in
shape of 8
Ras Leela is an important theme
Pung - drum used in Manipuri recitals
Compositions of Jayadeva and Chandi Das are used
Thang Ta and Sankirtana are influenced by Manipuri

Kathak
Origin is Ras Leela of Braj Bhumi
Uttar Pradesh During Mughal period, it assumed a lascivious style and
branched off into court dance
Influenced by Persian costumes and styles of dancing
Classical style of Kathak was revived by Lady Leela Sokhey
Intricate footwork and pirouettes
Accompanied by Dhrupad music

Components

Ananda - Introduction through which the dancer enters the

stage
Thaat - Soft and varied movements
Todas and Tukdas - small pieces of fast rhythm
Jugalbandi - Competitive play between dancer and tabla
player
Padhant - Dancer recites complicated bols and demonstrates
them
Kramalaya - Concluding piece with intricate and fast footwork
Gat Bhaav - Dance without any music or chanting

Gharanas (corresponding to Hindustani music)

 Lucknow - Expression and grace, thrived under Nawab Wajid
Ali Khan
Jaipur - Fluency, speed and rhythmic patterns, initiated by
Bhanuji
Raigarh - Percussion music, developed under Raja
Chakradhar Singh
Banaras - Use of floor work and emphasis on symmetry,
developed under Janaki Prasad

Sattriya
Introduced by Vaishnava saint Shankaradeva in 15th century
Assam (inspired by Bhakti movement)
Derives its name from Vaishnava monasteries called Sattra
Mentioned in Natya Shastra
Amalgamation of dance forms of Assam like Oja Pali and
Deva Dasi
Emphasis on devotional aspect, rhythmic syllables, hand
gestures and footwork
Theme - mythological stories of Vishnu
Includes Nritta, Natya and Nritya
Generally performed by a group of male monks
Combination of Lasya and Tandava
Waist cloth worn by both men and women
Two streams in modern times - Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and
Kharmanar Nach
Ankia Naat - type of Sattriya based on play and musical
drama on Krishan stories, originally written in Brajavali
(Assamese + Maithili)

FOLK DANCE FORMS

Chhau West Bengal

Jharkhand Martial movements to narrate
Odisha mythological stories
Natural themes like Serpent dance and
Peacock dance
Included in UNESCO List of Intangible
heritage
Saraikella Chhau (Jharkhand), Purulia
Chhau (West Bengal), Mayurbhanj
Chhau (Odisha) - no masks

Chajja Himachal,
 Kashmir Peacock dance or ‘Dandaras’
Performed on the occasion of Lohri
‘Chajjas’, a huge model of peacock
elaborately decorated with colored
paper and flowers, in a dancing
procession along the street

Garba Gujarat
Held at time of Navaratra

Dandiya Raas Gujarat

Mock dance between Durga and
Mahishasura

Tarangamel Goa
Performed during Dussehra and Holi
Rainbow like costumes with multi-
coloured flags

Maniyaro Gujarat
Sentiments of heroism in the Dandiya
Raas of Maher community in Gujarat.
Ancient instruments like Drum, Flute,
and Ravan Hattho etc.
Themes - flowing enjoyment, feeling of
separation and heroism

Ghoomar Rajasthan (Bhil)

Pirouetting movement which displays
the colourful Ghaghara

Kalbelia Rajasthan
Women of Kalbelia community
Instrument - 'Been' (also called Snake
Dance)
UNESCO List of Intangible Heritage

Charba Himachal
Pradesh During Dussehra

Bhangra/Giddha Punjab
Highly energetic folk dance (Giddha is
 the female counterpart of Bhangra)

Ras Lila UP
Love stories of Radha-Krishna

Dadra UP
Semi-classical
Extremely popular among courtesans
of Lucknow

Jawara Madhya Pradesh

(Bundelkhand) Balancing a basket full of Jawar on
head
Heavy instrumental music

Matki Madhya Pradesh

(Malwa) Women of Malwa region on occasion
of wedding and other festivities
Variants - Aada and Khada Naach
Mainly performed solo, balancing a
number of earthen pots on head

Gaur Maria Chhattisgarh

Bison Horn Maria tribe of Bastar region
Imitates movements of a Bison
Performed in a group by both men and
women

Alkap Rajmahal Hills

(Jharkhand, WB) Associated with Gajan festival of Shiva
Performed by troops of 10-12 dancers,
accompanied by singers
Folklore or mythological stories
Dance is interspersed with comical
sketches called Kap

Biraha Bihar
Potrayal of pain of women whose
partners are away from home
Solely by men who play roles of
women as well
Bidesia is a variant of Biraha
Paika Odisha
Martial folk dance (Paika = long spear)

Jat Jatin Bihar (Mithila)

Tender love and quarrel of a married
couple

Jhumar Jharkhand,
Odisha Harvest dance
Janani Jhumar performed by women
and Mardana Jhumar by men

Danda Jatra Odisha

Stories and folklore about Shiva,
theme of social harmony and
brotherhood

Bihu Assam
Groups of both men and women

Thang Ta Manipur
Martial dance form (mock fight
sequence)

Rangma Nagaland
War dance
Colourful

Singhi Chham Sikkim

Mask dance with furry costumes
symbolising the snow lion
Pay tributes to Kanchenjunga

Kummi Tamil Nadu,

Kerala Absence of any accompanying music
Beats are generated by rhythmic
clapping
Performed by women standing in a
circular formation
Kolattam is a close variant
Generally performed during Pongal
Mayilattam Tamil Nadu,
Kerala Mayil attam - Peacock dance
Kaalai attam - Bull dance
Karadi attam - Bear dance
Aali attam - Demon dance
Pampu attam - Snake dance

Burra Katha Andhra Pradesh

Dance narration - single performer
narrates stories from Puranas

Butta Bommalu Andhra Pradesh

(West Godavari) Dancers wear masks of different
characters
Non-verbal music

Kaikottikali Kerala
Temple Dance
Performed by both men and women
during Onam
Variants - Airukali, Tatta makali

Padayani Kerala
Martial dance in temples of Southern
Kerala (mostly central Travancore)
Wear huge masks called Kolam
Padayani means “rows of infantry"
Symbolic act for pleasing the Goddess
Bhadrakali
Popular characters - Bhairavi, Kalan,
Yakshi, Pakshi

Kolkali-Parichakali Kerala,
Lakshadweep Martial dance (Kol=Stick,
Paricha=Shield)

Bhootha Karnataka
Aradhane Dance around idols depicting devils

Pata Kunitha Mysore

Religious performance by men who
 use long bamboo poles with colourful
ribbons
Variant - Puna Kunitha (Bengaluru,
Mandya)

Chakyar Koothu Kerala

Performer dresses himself as a snake
Traditionally performed by Chakyar
community

Jhoomar Punjab (tribal

Sikhs) Harvest Season
Costumes same as in Bhangra
Carried to India by traders from
Baluchistan

Karma Naach Chhotanagpur

Plateau During tribal festival of 'Karma' by
many tribes of Eastern India

Raut Naach Chhattisgarh

Performed by the Yadava community,
mostly during Diwali

Dumhal JK (Wattal tribe)

Fugdi Goa (Konkan)

Performed by women

Cheraw Mizoram
Performed using Bamboo sticks
Men beat sticks, women dance

Dalkhai Odisha
During Dussehra by many tribes
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Krishna

Bagurumba Assam
Bodo tribe’s traditional dance
Postures of dance are imitated from
elements of nature (animals, birds,
river flow)
 Ancient Chinese influence on music

Perini Shiva Andhra Pradesh

Tandavam Originated and prospered under
Kakatiya dynasty
Performed by males before going to
war
Evidence in sculptures of Ramappa
temple of Warangal

Suisini Rajasthan

Mauni Maharashtra

Kathakeertan Maharashtra
Harikatha and Kathakata
 THEATRE

Natya Shastra - Bharat Muni

 Brahma created the Natya Veda for pastime of Gods, combining elements from four
Vedas
Written between 200 BC to 200 AD
Ten different types of play - one-act to ten-act play
Covers all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature
Mentions masks and their use in theatre

Excavated ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara (Chhattisgarh) represent the world’s oldest
amphitheatres
Masks have been found in IVC

CLASSICAL SANSKRIT THEATRE

Lokadharmi - Realistic depictions of daily life

Natyadharmi - Conventional plays with a more stylised narration and overt symbolism

Ashvaghosha - Sariputraprakarana - Considered the first example of classical

Sanskrit drama (9 act play)
Bhasa - composed 13 plays in the period between 400-500 BC
Sudraka - introduced an essence of conflict with Mricchakatika (features an
antagonist for the first time)
Kalidasa - Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi, Shakuntalam
Bhavabhuti - Uttaramacharitra, Mahaviracharitra
Vishakhadatta - Mudrarakshasa
Harshavardhan - Ratnavali

Classical Sanskrit tradition divides plays into 10 types. Natya Shastra describes only 2 of
them - Nataka, Prakarna

Features of classical Sanskrit plays

4 to 7 act plays
Always had happy endings (unlike Greek tragedies)
Protagonist was male
Plays had well defined opening, progression, development, pause and conclusion
Masks were not used
Curtains were used
Vidushaka (clown) typically spoke in Prakrit and others spoke in Sanskrit
Nayaka - Hero or anti-hero

Why did Sanskrit theatre decline?

Sanskrit dramatists diverged towards poetry

 Rigid orthodoxy restricted creative space
As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost popularity among masses
and was restricted to religious sphere and Brahmins
Advent of Muslim rule - Sanskrit theatre took a backseat, while music and dance
gains patronage

Koothiyattam

India’s oldest continuing form of theatre

Survived since 10th century AD in Kerala
Completely adheres to rules laid down in Natya Shastra
Chakyar and Nambiar castes
Play is performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayalam

FOLK THEATRE

Rural roots and rustic themes (Sanskrit theatre was urban oriented and sophisticated)
Mostly emerged around 15th-16th century AD, around devotional themes (later secular
topics)
Post independence, folk theatre became a medium to disseminate social wisdom, rather
than just entertainment

Ritual Theatre

Ankia Nat Assam

Started by Shankaradeva and his disciple
Mahadeva in 16th century
Performed like an opera and depicts life of Krishna
Gayan-Bayan Mandali - musicians who play the
'khol' and cymbals
Use masks to depict special expressions

Kala
Vaishnavite tradition
Life and incarnations of Vishnu
Dashavatar Kala, Gopal Kala, Gaulan Kala

Ramlila UP
Enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances and
dialogues
Mainly during the period before Dussehra
Mostly performed by male actors, who play the role
of Sita as well
 Raslila Gujarat
Stories of Krishna and Radha

Bhuta Karnataka
Worshipping dead ancestors

Ramman Garhwal
Dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta
Listed in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
People of Bhandari Caste wear the sacred mask
symbolising Narasimha

Entertainment Theatre

Bhavai Gujarat Mostly in Kutch and Kathiawar regions

Rajasthan Use of dance to narrate a series of small plays -
Vesha or Swang
Semi classical music - instruments like Bhungala,
Jhanjha, Tabla

Daskathia Odisha Music is composed using a wooden musical

instrument called Kathia
Narrators are 'Gayaka' (chief singer) and 'Palia'
Chhaiti Ghoda - Close variant (uses Dhol and Mohuri)

Garodas Gujarat 'Garodas' community of Gujarat - uses painted

pictures to narrate stories

Jatra Eastern Open air performance

India Initiated by Sri Chiatanya - used the medium of Jatra
to spread the teachings of Krishna in rural Bengal
Rama Jatra, Shiva Jatra, Chandi Jatra - narrated
stories of Puranic legends
Modern day Jatra - secular, historical, patriotic
themes
Sahi Jatra - Odisha (street theatre)

Kariyila Himachal Open air theatre, generally during village fairs and
festivals

Maach Malwa, MP Originated in Ujjain and was based on mythological

themes (later romantic themes)
 Dialogues are in form of couplets called Rangat Dohas

Nautanki Offshoot of Swang - most popular form of theatre in

North India
Finds mention in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari
Theme - historical, social, folk tales - delivered through
dance and music
Dialogues in lyrical manner with Nagara instrument

Oja-Pali Assam Associated with festival Manasa or the serpent

goddess
Oja is the main narrator, Palis are members of chorus
Parts of narration - Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda,
Deva Khanda

Powada Maharashtra Heroic deeds of Shivaji after he killed Afzal Khan

Sung by folk musicians called Gondhalis and Shahirs

Swang Punjab Musical Dramas

Haryana

Tamasha Maharashtra Humour and erotic content

Accompanied by Lavani songs
Female actors play the male roles as well

Villu Pattu Deccan Stories of Ramayana using bow-shaped instruments

Bhand Pather Kashmir Social satire or mythical stories

Secular in outlook, though it is performed by Muslims

Bhaona Assam Popular in Majuli island

Representation of Ankia Nat and Vaishnavite themes

Dashavatar Konkan Mostly by farmers

Honours the ten incarnations of Vishnu
Two parts - Poorva raga and Uttara raga (second
session is the main act and based on mythological
stories)
Performers wear wooden masks

Naqal/Bhand Punjab Mimicry based performance

South Indian Theatre

Sanskrit theatre declined in North India around 8th century AD, it gained popularity in
South India
Emphasis on dance (compared to emphasis on music in North India)
 Yakshagana Andhra Originated in royal courts of the Vijaynagar empire
Karnataka Performed by Jakkula Varu community
Initially it was a descriptive dance drama enacted by a
single artist
Variants —> Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat,
Gandharva Gana in Nepal

Burra Katha Andhra Derives name from Burra (Percussion instrument)

Pagati Telengana Role playing act, revolving around a principal character

Veshaalu Andhra known as Vesham

Bayalata Karnataka Open air theatre tradition of Karnataka performed during

worship of local deity
5 types of Bayalata - Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata,
Parijata, Yakshagana
Parijata, Yakshagana - Single Sutradhar
Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata - Chorus aided by
Vidushaka
Stories are themed around 'Radha-Krishna'

Taal Maddale Karnataka Taal - Cymbal, Maddale - Drums

Predecessor of Yakshagana
Performed while sitting, without any costumes, dance or
acting

Theyyam Kerala Open theatre, in front of temples - honour spirit of

ancestors besides Gods
Similar to Bhuta Kola in Karnataka
Elaborate headgear and colourful costumes
Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Shaivism
Mentioned in Sangam

Krishna Kerala Originated in mid 17th century

Attam Based on works of Krishna Geethi (life of Krishna) -
carnival lasts 8 days

Kuruvanji Tamil Nadu 'Kuruvanji' means fortune teller who predicts the fate of
the Heroine
Centred around a love-struck heroine
Performed in a dance ballet form with Bharat Natyam as
the principal dance form

MODERN INDIAN THEATRE

Translations of ancient Sanskrit texts and Western Classics

Rise of cities like Calcutta and Bombay created the need for new forms of
entertainment
Western Proscenium style of Theatre - 18th and 19th century
 Calcutta in 19th century - Belgachia Natyashala, Shobhabazar Natyashala
Indian theatre adapted elements of Western drama
Theatres became commercialised
Themes - religious hypocrisy, dowry, caste system, political agenda
Dramatic Performances Act, 1876 - British govt imposed to counter growing political
awareness through theatres

Important theatres and playwrights

Parsi Theatres - 1850s to 1920s - plays were written in regional languages like
Marathi and Gujarati (1930s onwards many Parsis went into cinema) - mixture of
European techniques and local forms
Rabindranath Tagore - Valmiki Pratibha, Roktokoribi, Chitrangada, Post Office
(Nationalism, Spirituality, Socio-political situation)
Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Girish Chandra Ghosh, Deenbandhu Mitra (Nildarpan)
Prithvi Theatre - Prithviraj Kapoor in 1942
Indian People’s Theatre Association - 1943 - as a cultural wing of Communist Party
(Ritwik Ghatak, Balraj Sahni, Prithviraj Kapoor)
Kalakshetra Manipur - Heisnam Kanhailal
Sangeet Natak Akademi in 1952
Kuvempu, S Bharathiar, Veersalingam Pantulu, Bharatendu Harsichandra
Vijay Tendulkar - Ghasiram Kotwal
KV Subanna - Nilakanteshwara Natyaseva Sangha

LITERATURE

ANCIENT INDIA
Shruti Literature - Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads

Vedic Literature

Vedas
Knowledge to conduct life, highly stylised poetry,
extensive use of symbolism
Initially handed down orally, compiled around 1500-
1000 BC
Treat the universe and its inhabitants as one big
family - Vasudaiva Kutumbakam
Emphasise rituals and sacrifices
Brahmanas, Upanishads, Aranyakas

Rig Veda (Hymn)

 Oldest existing Veda (compiled around 1200-900 BC)
1028 individual Sanskrit hymns
Organised in 10 mandalas (books) of varying age and
length
Each mandala comprises of suktas or hymns
Themes of life & death, creation, sacrifice, godly
pleasure (soma)
Most important Deity - Indra
Female deities - Usha, Prithvi, Vak

Sam Veda (Music)

Few hymns are original and rest are taken from

Sakala branch of the Rig Veda
Origins of Indian music
Also called 'Book of Chants'

Yajur Veda (Sacrifices and rituals)

Guide book for rituals

Samhitas - Shukla and Krishna (also called
Vajasaneyi and Taittiriya Samhita)

Atharva Veda

Also called Brahma Veda

Attributed to Atharva and Angirah (Atharvangirasa)
Black and white magic
Treatment of several ailments
2 major branches - Paippalada, Saunakiya
Touches upon issues of everyday problems

Vedanga
“Branches/limbs” of Vedas - supplement to the Veda
Focus on topics - Shiksha, Nirukta, Chhanda,
Jyotisha, Vyakarana, Kalpa
Sutra - treatises on topics of Vedanga e.g -
Ashtadhyayi by Panini on Sanskrit grammar

Brahmanas
 Attached to a Veda and is a collection of
commentaries on that Veda (legends, facts,
philosophy, explanations)
Symbolic significance of sacred words
Composed and compiled between 900-700 BC

Rig Veda - Aitreya Brahmana, Kaushitaki Brahmana

Sama Veda - Tandya Mahabrahmana, Sadvimsha
Brahmana
Yajur Veda - Taittriya Brahmana, Shatpatha
Brahmana
Atharva Veda - Gopatha Brahmana, Jaimaniya
Brahmana, Panchvish Brahmana

Aranyakas
(Ritual/Sacrifice) Describe rituals and sacrifices from various
perspectives
Ritualistic information on birth and death cycles and
the complexity of the soul
Taught by Munis who lived in forests

Upanishad
(Knowledge/Spirituality) Passed by teacher to pupil - Guru Shishya
Parampara
Account of Vedas in monastic and mystical forms -
mostly abstract and philosophical topics
Muktika Canon - set of 108 Upanishads

Purana
Narrative stories - Gods, kings, demigods, sages
18 mahapuranas, each with emphasis on on deity
and the religious/philosophical concepts attributed to
them
Source of information about post Vedic India -
geography, history, genealogy
Written as stories, incorporating myths and anecdotes
- more popular among masses than vedas (translated
and distributed in various vernacular languages)
Grew in popularity during the Gupta period (also
Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma and Hiotpadesha by
Narayan Pandit were written during this period)

Upa Purana Offshoot from popularity of Puranas

 Amarakosa (Gupta period) mentions Upa-Puranas
are based on 5 topics
Sarga - Creation of Universe
Pratisarga - Periodic cycle of destruction and
recreation
Manvantara - Periods of Manu’s lifetime
Vamsa - Genealogies of solar and lunar dynasties
Vamshanucharita - Dyanstic histories of kings

Classical Sanskrit Literature

Mahakavyas Mahakavya = Ramayana and Mahabharata

Precursors of other forms of Classical Sanskrit Literature

Mahabharata (Ved Vyas)

Jaya (8800 verses) —> Bharata (24000 verses) —>

Mahabharata (100000 verses)
Divided into 10 chapters (parva)
Itihas Purana - insets in the text of Mahabharata
Bhagvata Gita - concise guide to philosophical dilemmas in
Hindu religion
Concept of Nishkama Karma

Ramayana (Valmiki)

Ramayana is called Adikavya (first among poems)

Compiled around 1500 BC
Purushartha - Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha
24000 verses divided into 7 books (khanda)

Sanskrit Drama Kalidasa

(Governed by Malavikagnimitra - Agnimitra (son of Pushyamitra Sunga)

Natyashastra by and Malavika
Bharata) Vikramorvashi - Vikram and Urvashi
Abhigyana Shakuntala - Recognition of Shakuntala

Sudraka

Mrichhakatika - Love story of a young Brahmin Charudatta

 with a wealthy courtesan

Vishakhadutta

Mudrarakshahsa - Ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to

power
Devi Chandraguptam

Bhavabhuti

Uttara Ramacharitam - later life of Rama (700 AD)

Bhasa

Swapnavasavadatta
Pancharatra
Urubhanga - Story of Duryodhana during and after his fight
with Bhima

Harshavardhana

Ratnavali - King Udayana and Ratnavali (mention of

celebration of Holi for the first time)
Nagananda - Jimutvahana gives up his own body to stop a
sacrifice of serpents to Garuda (invocation to Lord Buddha
in Nandi verse)
Priyadarsika - Union of Udayana and Priyadarshika

Sanskrit Poetry
Kalidasa - Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta,
Ritusamhara
Harisena - Allahbad inscription in praise of Samudragupta
Jayadeva - Gita Govinda
Bharavi - Kiratarjuniya
Shishupalavadha - Magha

Other texts Dharmasutras

Books on law compiled between 500 to 200 BC

Compiled alongside Smritis
Formed the basis of governance in most Hindu kingdoms
Rules according to which property could be held, sold or
transferred
 Punishments for offences

Manusmriti

Defines the role of man and woman in a society

Written as a discourse given by Manu
Written and compiled between 200 BC to 200 AD

Arthashastra

Written by Chanakya
Economic and social conditions during Mauryan empire
Military strategies, economic policies and administration

Kushana Period

Ashvaghosha - Buddhacharita, Saundarananda, Sariputra

Prakarana
Charaka - Charak Samhita (medicine)
Sushruta - Sushruta Samhita (surgery)
Madhava - Madhava Nidhana (pathology)
Varahamihira - Pancha Siddhantika (astrology), Brihat
Samhita (astronomy, geology, architecture)
Bhaskara - Siddhanta Shiromani
Aryabhatta - Aryabhatiya
Lagdhacharya - Book on astrology
Pingala - Book on mathematics

Medieval Period

Rajtarangini - Kalhana - detailed account of Kings of

Kashmir
Katha Sarit Sagar - Somadeva
Naishadhiyacharitram - Shriharsha

Buddhist Literature

Canonical Literature Tripitakas

Vinaya Pitaka - Upali - Rules

Sutta Pitaka - Ananda - Teachings
 Abhidhamma Pitaka - Mahakashyapa - Philosophy

Non Canonical
Literature = Jatakas Previous births of Buddha
Boddhisatvas
Combine popular tales, ancient mythology, socio-political
conditions between 600 to 200 BC
Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpandita Jataka, Ruru Jataka,
Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, Shama Jataka

Dipavamsa
Written in 3rd to 4th century BC during reign of king
Dhatusena
“Chronicle of the island”
Mentions about visit of Buddha to Sri Lanka

Milinda Panha
Dialogue between Meander and Nagasena

Mahavamsa
Written in 3rd to 4th century BC (Pali language)
During the reign of King Vijaya
Historical account of various kingdoms of South Asia

Mahavastu
Jataka and Avadana tales
Written in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali
Compiled between 2nd century BC and 4th century AD
Hinayana text

Lalitavistara
Mahayana text
Stories associated with life of Buddha till his first Sermon
at Sarnath

Udana
Theravada Buddhist text
Contains the “blind men and the elephant” story

Bodhi Vamsa
Written in 10th century in Sri Lanka
 Translated from a Sinhalese version by Upatissa into Pali

Udana varga
Utterances of Buddha and his disciples
Written in Sanskrit

Mahavibhasa
Shastra Mahayana Text
Contains discussions on non Buddhist philosophies as
well

Abhidharma Moksha
Written by Vasubandhu in Sanskrit
Discussion on Abhidamma

Vishuddhimagga
Written by Buddhaghosha in 5th century
Theravada text

Buddhacharita
Ashvaghosha (78 AD)

Jain Literature

Jain literature was mainly in Prakrit

Also in Ardha Magadhi, Tamil (Sangam age), Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati,
Marathi
Valabhi and Kalinga were important centres for Jain learning

Canonical Teachings of Tirthankars

Literature = Said to be originally compiled by Gandharas
Agamas Written in Ardha Magadhi Prakrit language
Important texts for Shwetambaras

Agamas = Anga, Upanga, Parikramas, Chheda Sutra, Mula Sutra,

Chulika Sutra
Angas were re compiled in the Shvetambara council in Valabhi (mid
5th century AD)
Digambars do not follow them (believe that original teachings were
lost long ago)
 Acharanga Sutra - Oldest Sutra
Sutra Kritanga - Code of conduct for Jain monks

Sanskrit Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha by Siddharasi

Kannada
Between 9th to 12th century
Pampa, Ponna, Ranna (3 gems of Kanna literature) are
related to Jainism
Revival of Hinduism and emergence of Lingayats led to their
decline

Other Jain
writings Digambara texts - Karmaprabhrita (Shatkhandgama) and
Kashayaprabhrita
Bhadrabahu - Uvasaggaharam Stotra, Kalpasutra
(biographies of Tirthankaras)
Bhadrabahu was the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya
Hemachandra - lexicography and grammar of Sanskrit and
Prakrit
Hala - Gathasaptasati (300 AD) - a large number of female
poetesses like Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha and Reva also
contributed to this work
Acharya Kundkund - Samayasara, Niyamasara
Samanta Bhadra - Ratna Karanda Sravakachara
Illango Adigal - Silappadikaram (2nd century AD)
Tirutakkatevar - Chivaka Chintamani
Nalatiyar - Tamil text written by Jain monks
Umasvati - Tattvartha-Sutra (1st to 2nd century AD) - logic,
epistemology, ethics, astronomy
Jinasena (Digambara monk) - Mahapurana,
Harivamsapurana

Zoroastrian Literature

First religion to believe in angels, judgement day, demons, battle between forces of good
and evil
Texts were written during the reign of Sassanid empire

Avesta

Religious beliefs, practices and instruction

Written in Avestan language which is now extinct (similar to Sanskrit)
Compiled in its final form during 4th century AD
 Yasna - collection of 72 chapters within the Avesta
Gathas - Most important chapters supposed to have been written by Zoroaster
himself

Other texts

Denkard - Encyclopaedia of Zoroastrianism (does not have a divine status) - 10th

century
Bundahishn - Details about Theory of creation in the religion (battle of Ahura Mazda
and Angra Mainyu) - 8th to 9th century
Arda Viraf - Story of a devotee written during Sassanian era

Dravidian Literature

Sangam gatherings

1st Madurai Agastya No book as survived, Used

Agattiyam as grammar

2nd Kapatapuram Initially Agastya, then Tolkappiyam - textbook of Tamil

Tolkappiyar grammar

3rd Madurai Nakkirar Most of the existing corpus of

Sangam literature

Tamil Sangam Literature (300 BC to 300 AD)

Poets were men and women from different classes of the society
(Avvaiyar was a female poet)
Sangam assemblies were organised by Pandyas
Main themes are love and war
Suggest that those who controlled resources were expected to
share them
Silent on religious practices
Two major schools
Agam or inner field - love and relationships
Puram or outer field - Human experiences like social life, ethics,
valour, customs

Extant Sangam works

 Ettuttokoi - Poems compiled in the form of 8 anthologies
Patinenkil Kanakku - 18 works on ethics
Pattupattu - 10 volumes
Thirukkural - Thiruvallular (3 volumes - epics, governance, love)

Tamil literature outside Sangam

Tamil Epics - Silappadikaram (Illango Adigal) and Manimekalai

(Sattanar) - society, economy and polity of Tamil society
Alvars and Nayanars
Secular Tamil poets - Periya Puranam and Kambaramayanam

MEDIEVAL INDIA

North Indian Literature

Emergence of Persian in courts of Delhi Sultanate and Mughals

Development of Hindi from Apabhramsa
Development of regional languages and Hindi due to Bhakti movement

Persian Sultanate

Amir Khusro - Diwan (collection of poetry in Persian), Nur Sipihr,

Rani Khizr Khan, Khajain-ul-Futuh (Alauddin Khilji’s conquests),
Tughlaq Nama (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq)
Zaiuddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firozshahi
Minhaj-us-Siraj - Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (History of Muslim dynasties upto
1260)
Ibn Batuta - Rihla
Yahya Sirhindi - Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (History of Sayyid dynasty)

Mughals

Tuzuk-i-Baburi - Babur
Humayun Nama - Gulbadan Begum
Ain-e-Akbari - Abul Fazl
Padmavat - Malik Muhammad Jayasi
 Shah Jahan Nama - Inayat Khan
Padshah Nama - Abdul Hamid Lahori (Shah Jahan)
Abdul Qadir Badauni - Mahabharata and Ramayana to Persian
Mir Jafar Zatalli - Kulliyat (satiric prose during reign of Aurangzeb)

Urdu
Follows the grammar of Hindi, form and style of Persian
Dakkani - Urdu used by Bahamani states

Hindi
Developed between 7th and 14th century from Apabhramsa
Boost by Bhakti movement - shunned use of Sanskrit as it was the
language of Brahmins
Chand Bardai - Prithviraj Raso
Kabir - Dohas
Tulsidas - Ramcharitmanas and couplets in Braj Bhasa
Sursagar - Surdas (about life of Krishna)
Bihari - Satsai

South Indian Literature

Tamil Boost due to Bhakti movement - Alvars and Nayanaras

Alvars - Divyaprabandham
Nayanars - Tevaram

Perundevanar (patronised by Nandivarman II) translated

Mahabharata to Tamil

Malayalam
Kokasandisan
Bhasa Kautilya - commentary on Arthasashtra
Ramacharitam - Cheeraman (13th century)
Ezhuthachan - Father of Malayalam literature

Telugu
Vijaynagara period - Golden age of Telugu literature
First Telugu poet - Nannaya (11th century)
Uttaraharivamsam - Nachan Somanatha (court poet of Bukka I)
 Amuktamalyada - Krishnadeva Raya (Lord Vishnu in his dream
during Kalinga campaign)
Manucharita - Allasani Peddana (Andhra Kavi Pitamaha)
Panduranga, Mahatmayam - Tenali Ramakrishna

Krishna Deva Raya

Patronised scholars in Tamil (Haridas), Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit

Treatise in Sanskrit which includes - Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu
Parinaya, Rasamanjari, Jambavati Kalyana
Krishna Deva Rayana Dinachari is based on him

Kannada
First foray into Kannada literature was made by Jain scholars
Dharmanathapurana - Madhava (biography of 15th Tirthankara)
Dharma Parikshe - Uritta Vilasa
Kavirajamarga - Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta)
Madana Vijaya - Andayya (first pure Kannada text without any
Sanskrit word
Tarave Ramayana - Narahari (first story on Rama inspired by
Valmiki Ramayana and written entirely in Kannada)
People’s poet - Sarvajna, who composed Tripadis (3 lined poems)
First female poet - Honnamma - Hadibadeya Dharma

Three gems of Kannada literature - Pampa, Ponna, Ranna

Pampa - Adipurana, Vikramarjuna Vijaya

Father of Kannada Literature
Court of Chalukya Arikesari
Ponna - Shanti Purana
Court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
Ranna - Ajitnatha Purana
Court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III

Sikh Literature

Adi Granth (1604)

Compiled by Bhai Gurdas under the aegis of 5th guru Guru
Arjan Dev
Written in Gurumukhi script
Predecessor to Guru Granth Sahib
Contains teachings of Sikh gurus and Bhakti and Sufi
traditions
 Guru Granth
Sahib (1678) Regarded as 11th and final spiritual authority of the Sikhs
Compiled by Guru Gobind Singh
Written in Gurumukhi in a language called Sant Bhasha
(has words from Punjabi, Hindi, Braj, Sanskrit, Persian,
Apabhramsa)
Contains teachings of 13 Bhakti saints - Ramdev, Namdev,
Ravi Das, Paramanand, Sain, Surdas and 2 Sufi saints -
Kabir and Baba Farid

Dasam Granth Hymns written by Guru Gobind Singh

Savaiyyas Poems by Guru Gobind Singh

Gurbani Composition of hymns from Guru Granth Sahib and different gurus
Some hymns are offered in daily prayers - Nit Nem

Janamsakhis Mythological and Exaggerated stories of Guru Nanak

Regional Developments

Maharashtra
Jnaneshwar pioneered literature in Marathi (13th century) -
Kirtan, detailed commentary on Bhagvat Gita
Eknath - commentaries on Bhagwat Purana and Ramayana
Other Bhakti saints - Tukaram, Ramdas

Assam
Buranjis (court chronicles) - first in Ahom language, later in
Assamese
Shankardeva - Devotional Poetry

Oriya
Upendra Bhanja, Sarala Das (Oriya Mahabharata)

Kashmir
Kalhana - Rajtarangini (Sanskrit)
Lal Ded - Shaivite poetess who composed in Kashmiri
Nur Din (Nand Rishi) - Sufi poet who started the Rishi order
Kashmiri was eclipsed by Dogri when the Dogra family
came to political power in Jammu
MODERN INDIA

Hindi
Bhartendu Harischandra - Andher Nagari
Dayanand Saraswati - movement to make Hindi the national
language
Munshi Prem Chand - Godan
Mahadevi Varma
Influenced by Sanskrit during the revivalist phase of National
Movement

Bengali
William Carey - Establishment of Baptist Mission Press at
Serampore, Bengali grammar, English-Bengali dictionary
Boost during National movement
SN Banerjee - Bengalee
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar wrote
for social change
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee - Anand Math (Sanyasi Rebellion)
Rabindranath Tagore - Geetanjali
SC Chatterjee, Qazi Nazrul Islam, RC Dutta

Oriya
Radhanath Ray, Fakir Mohan Senapati

Assamese
Padmanabha Gohain Barua, Lakshmi Nath Bezbarua

Gujarati
Narsinh Mehta - combined devotional songs for Lord Krishna
with local folk traditions
Govardhan Ram - Saraswati Chandra
KM Munshi - Prithvi Vallabha

Rajasthani
Stories were usually oral and spread by bards
 Sindhi
Influenced by both Hindu and Islamic elements

Punjabi
Waris Shah (Heer Ranjha)
Sufi poetry by Baba Farid and Bulley Shah
Punjabi literature was influenced by nationalist trends (Lala
Lajpat Rai - Punjabee, Bhagat Singh - Rang de Basanti)

Marathi
Nationalist writing - Tilak (Keshari)
Commentaries on society - Jyotiba Phule (Gulamgiri)

RELIGION

HINDUISM

Basic principles from pre-Vedic and Vedic philosophies

Rig Veda (Hymns), Sam Veda (Music), Yajur Veda (sacrificial hymns), Atharva Veda
(magic and medicine)
Aranyakas - Mystical teachings, Upanishads - speculations on human being
Temple making and worship of image of divine power started much later
Upanishads specify 4 stages in life - Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprashta,
Sanyasa

Major Sects of Hinduism

Vaishnavism
Bhagavatism or Krishna-cult
Traces origins to 1st millennium BC

Different sects divided during the Bhakti movement

Varkari Panth

Centred around Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur (Maharashtra)

Annual pilgrimage - Vari Varkari
 Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram

Ramanandi Sect

Adhere to teachings of Advaita scholar

Mainly settled around Gangetic plains
Two sub-groups - Tyagi and Naga

Brahma Sampradaya

Devotion to Vishnu (not Brahma)

Founded by Madhavacharya
Gaudiya Vaishnavism propagated by Chaitanya
ISKCON

Pushti Marg Sampradaya

Founded by Vallabhacharya around 1500 AD

Devotion based on pure love for Lord Krishna
One and only Brahma (Suddha Advaita)

Nimbarka Sampradaya

Hamsa Sampradaya and Kumara Sampradaya

Worship of Radha and Krishna

Shaivism
Shiva as Supreme
Older than Vaishnavism (2nd millennium BC)

Nathpanthi

Teachings of Gorakhnath and Matsyendra Nath

Worship Adinath form of Shiva
Use technique of Hatha Yoga
Siddhas, Naths, Yogi, Ascetics all practice Sadhana to attain
physical immortality through spiritual perfection

Lingayatism

Established in 12th century by Basavanna

Monotheism - worship of Shiva in the Linga form
 Rejected Vedas and Caste system

Dashanami Sanyasis

Disciples of Shankaracharya and Advaita

Divided into ten groups

Aghoris

Devotees of Bhairava form of Shiva

Seek salvation from the cycle of reincarnation through Sadhana
Indulge in extreme rituals

Siddhas

Founders of Varmam - martial art for self defence

Rasayanas to perfect their bodies to sustain prolonged
meditation
Saints/Doctors/Alchemists/Mystics from Tamil Nadu
'God like' state through secret practices

Shaktism
Feminine Goddess as supreme
Tantric sub traditions

Smartism
Based on teachings of Puranas
Domestic worship of five shrines with five deities - Shiva,
Shakti, Vishnu, Ganesh, Surya
Accepts both Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman

Shrautism
Ultra Orthodox Namboodri Brahmins of Kerala
Follow the Purva Mimamsa school of philosophy (contrast to
Vedanta followed by other Brahmins)
Importance on performance of Vedic sacrifice - Somayaagam
and Agnichayana rituals

Shramana Schools
 Indian religious movements parallel to the Vedic religions
Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikas, Ajnana, Charvakas
Nastika or Heterodox school of Philosophy

Ajivikas
Founded by Makkhali Gosala in 5th century BC

Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism

There is no free will and whatever is happening is pre-ordained
based on cosmic principles
Belief in theory of atoms and pre-determined qualities emerge
from aggregation of atoms
Simple ascetic life without any material possessions
Opposed Buddhism and Jainism and were atheists
Rejected authority of Vedas (similar to Jainism and Buddhism)
No use of Karma (Jainism and Buddhism believed in Karma)
Believed in soul (like Jainism) but the soul was material
(opposed to formless soul of Jainism)

Bindusara was one of the followers

Shravasthi was the most important centre for Ajivikas
Ashoka’s 7th pillar edict mentions Ajivikas

Ajnanas
Believed in radical skepticism
Impossible to attain knowledge about nature (which isn’t anyway
useful to attain salvation)
Rival of Jainism and Buddhism
Considered ignorance a virtue

BUDDHISM

After passing of Buddha, Sangha split into two early schools

Sthavira Nikaya - Mahisasaka, Sravastivada, Sankrantika, Sautrantika,

Dharmaguptaka, Vatsiputriya, Dharmottariya, Bhadrayaniya, Sannagarika,
Sammitiya
 Dharmaguptaka sect anticipating Maitreya
Mahasamghika - Gokulika, Prajnaptivada, Bahusrutiya, Ekavyaharika, Chaitika
Other subjects - Hemavatika, Rajagiriya, Siddhanthaka, Pubbaseliya,
Apararajagirika, Aparaseliya

Later schools - Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana

Four noble truths

Dukkha - Suffering
Samudaya - Origin of Suffering
Nirodha - Cessation of Suffering
Magga - Path to cessation of suffering

Madhyamik Marg describes the nature of the Eight fold path

Rejects the authenticity of Vedas and the existence of soul
After the death of Buddha, Buddhist Councils were held to organise his teachings —
> Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitaka (Pali language)

Hinayana
Orthodox school - original teachings of Buddha
No idol or image worship of Buddha
Ultimate aim is Nirvana (individual salvation through meditation
and self discipline)
Sthaviravada/Theravada is a subject of Hinayana
Hinayana followers used Pali
Ashoka patronised Hinayana
Presently, Hinayana form is almost non-existent

Mahayana
Boddhisatvas embodying Buddha nature
Idol and image worship
Ultimate goal is spiritual upliftment
Universal liberation from suffering for all beings
Texts - Lotus Sutra, Mahavamsa
Lotus Sutra mentions six perfections to be followed by an
individual - Dana, Shila, Ksanti, Virya, Dhyana, Prajna
Vajrayana is a sub-sect of Hinayana
Mahayana followers used Sanskrit
Presently, majority of Buddhists follow Mahayana (>50%) -
 Nepal, Bangladesh, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Bhutan, Tibet, China

Boddhisatva

Boddhisatva is one who has generated a wish to attain

Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings
Believes in universal liberation
Jataka Tales contemplate that Buddha in his previous births
was Boddhisatva

Three deities around Buddha - Padmapani (Avalokiteshwara),

Vajrapani, Manjushri

Avalokiteshwara

One of the three protective deities around Buddha

Also called Padmapani (painting in Ajanta)
Boddhisatva of compassion
Appears in Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia as Lokeshwara
Also depicted as female
Said to incarnate in Dalai Lama

Vajrapani

One of the three protective deities around Buddha

One of the earliest Boddhisatva
Depicted in Ajanta
Manifests all powers of the Buddha and the power of all five
Tathagatas - Vairocana, Akshobhya, Amitabha,
Ratnasambhava, Amoghasiddhi

Manjushri

One of the three protective deities around Buddha

Associated with wisdom of Buddha
Male Boddhisatva wielding a sword

Samantabhadra

Associated with practice and meditation

Buddha + Manjushri + Samantabhadra = Sakyamuni trinity
 Other Boddhisatvas

Ksitigarbha - depicted as a Buddhist monk and vowed not to

achieve Buddhahood till the hell is completely emptied
Maitreya - Future Buddha (Laughing Buddha is said to be an
incarnation of Maitreya)
Kassapa Buddha - Predecessor of Buddha
Akasagarbha - associated with element of space
Tara - associated only with Vajrayana Buddhism, represents
virtues of success in work
Vasudhara - Popular in Nepal, associated with wealth,
prosperity and abundance
Skanda - guardian of Viharas and Buddhist teachings
Sitatapatra - protector against supernatural danger, worshipped
in both Vajrayana and Mahayana

Theravada
Buddha’s teachings in Pali
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are Theravada
Ultimate goal is cessation of pain and attainment of Nirvana by
practising the eight-fold path
Samatha and Vipassana form an integral part of the Eightfold
path
Samatha = calming the mind
Vipassana = insight into 3 marks of existence i.e.
Impermanence, Suffering, Realisation of non-self
Visuddhimagga is the treatise on Theravada School -
Buddhaghosha in 5th century AD in Sri Lanka
Pali is the sacred language
Successor of Hinayana
1/3 of Buddhists follow Theravada - Sri Lanka, Laos, Cambodia,
Thailand, Myanmar

Vajrayana
Developed under influence of Hinduism when royal courts
sponsored both Buddhism and Shaivism
Main deity is Tara
Appeared in Eastern India in 8th century, grew in Bengal and
Bihar
Vikramshila University was an important centre
Brahmanical rituals + Buddhist philosophy
Based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy
Tantras, Mantras and Yantras as tools for liberation
About 5% of Buddhists follow Vajrayana - Tibet, Bhutan,
Mongolia
 Navayana
Propounded by BR Ambedkar
Rejects Mahayana, Hinayana, Theravada
Does not accept rebirth, meditation, noble truths and other
basic tenets of Buddhism
Reinterprets Buddhism as struggle against inequality and class
discrimination

Places visited by Buddha (Kosala and Magadha) - Kapilavastu, Rajagriha, Vaishali, Gaya,
Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kausambi, Shravasti, Kushinagar, Nalanda, Mathura, Varanasi,
Saket, Champapuri

Disciples of Buddha - Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Ananda, Mahakashyapa, Maitrayani

putra, Anuruddha, Rahul, Katyayana, Upali, Ananthapindaka, Subhuti, Jivaka

Personalities associated with Buddhism

Nagasena Conversations between Nagasena and Meander (Indo-Greek

ruler) in Milindapnaho (150 BC)

Nagarjuna Founder of Madhyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism (150-

250 AD) - Mulamadhyamakakarika text
Nagarjunakonda named after him

Vasubandhu Wrote from perspective of Sravastivada and Sautrantika

schools
Proponent of Mahayana Buddhism (4th-5th century)

Bodhidharma Transmitted Buddhism to China (5th to 6th century AD)

Buddhaghosha Vishudhimagga text of Theravada Buddhism (5th century AD)

Padmasambhava Considered 2nd Buddha in Himalayan regions, Tibet, Nepal,

Bhutan (8th century AD)

Atisa Bengali religious leader, head of Vikramshila University

Contributed to spread of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in
Asia (Tibet to Sumatra)

Dalai Lama Yellow Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism

JAINISM

Jaina - One who has controlled and conquered their desires

Rejects authority of Vedas (like Buddhism)
 Believes in soul which is the core of Jain philosophy (unlike Buddhism)
Anekantavada (Non-absolutism) - Ultimate truth and reality is complex and has
multiple aspects, so single specific statement can describe the nature of existence
and absolute truth

24 Tirthankaras

Rishabnath/Adinath Ajita Sambhava Abhinandana Sumati Padmaprabha

Suparshva Chandraprabha Suvidhi Shital Shreyansha Vasupujya

Vimala Ananta Dharma Shanti Kunthu

Malli (woman?) Muni Suvrata Nami Nemi Parshvanatha

Important symbols under Jainism

Swastika - symbol of peace and well being of humans

Nandyavartya - Large swastika with 9 end points
Bhadrasana - throne sanctified by Jaina’s feet
Shrivasta - ark on Jaina’s chest and signified pure soul
Darpana - Mirror which reflects inner self
Minayugala - pair of fish which signifies conquest over sexual urges
Vardhamanaka - Shallow dish used as a lamp which shows increase in wealth, due
and merit
Kalasha - Signifies pure water
Hand with a wheel on palm signifies Ahimsa

Digambara
Follow all five constraints - No violence, no lies, no property,
no stealing, Brahmacharya - to attain Kaivalya
Founded by Bhadrabahu who had moved south to Karnataka
during the famine
Earliest record - Suttapahuda of Kundakunda (Prakrit)
Monastic rules are more rigid than Shvetambara school
Women cannot be Tirthankaras

Subsects

Mula Sangh - Original community

 Bispanthi, Terapanthi, Taranpanthi - modern community

Terapanthis

Worship idols using 'ashta dravya' but replace flowers and

fruits with dry substitutes
Worship only Tirthankars
Oppose Bhattarakas

Bispanthis

Worship idols using 'ashta dravya' including flowers and fruits

Worship Tirthankars, Yaksha and Yakshini (Bhairava,
Kshetrapala)
Consider Bhattarakas their dharma guru (head of a
Digambara Jain institution)

Shvetambara
Follow preachings of Parshvanatha - don’t follow
Brahmacharya introduced by Mahavira
Founded by Sthulabhadra who had stayed in Magadha during
the famine
Trithankaras can be men or women

Sthanakvasi - Praying to saints rather than an idol in a temple

Deravasi - Worship idols of Tirthankars (Murthi pujaka)
Terapanthi

Sallekhana

Religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death

Not considered as a suicide by Jain scholars
Can be performed by both ascetics and householders
Rajasthan HC banned the practice in 2015 considering it suicide, but SC withheld
this decision

Pratikraman - Process of repenting for sins in daily life

ISLAM
 Christians and Muslims share Abraham as a common ancestor
Hajj - journey of Muhammad from Medina to Mecca after the coup
Quran was compiled before his death
Qibla Liwan - Wall of Mosque in direction of Mecca
Mihrab - Prayer niche indicating direction of Mecca
Hadith - day to day teachings of Muhammad compiled by his followers after his
death
Quran and Sunnah form the basis of Sharia (Islamic law)
4 major schools of Islam in India - Hanafi, Shafei, Maliki, Hambali
Zakat - portion of earnings given to charity

Shia - Prophet’s successor should be his son-in-law Ali (death of Ali is enacted on
Muharram)
Sunni - Prophet’s successor should be his close disciple Abu Bakr (majority in India)

Ahmadiya Movement Mirza Ghulam Revivalist movement in Punjab

Ahmad

Faraizi Movement Haji Shariatullah Eradication of un-Islamic practices

Wahabi / Tariqh-i- Sayyid Ahmad Armed movement to establish Dar-ul-

Muhammadiya Barelvi Islam

Aligarh Sayyid Ahmad Interpretation of Koran in light of modern

Khan education

CHRISTIANITY

Bible = Old Testament (Jews) + New Testament (by Roman Catholic Church headed by the
Pope)

Spread in India

St. Thomas came to India during Parthian rule (Gondophernes) in 52 AD

Medieval Period - Portuguese and English missionaries during Mughal period
18th century missionary work under the British - provided modern education and
health facilities to those who converted

SIKHISM

Guru Nanak Guru ka langar

1469-1539 Equality of women
Rejected authority of Vedas
 Did not advocate renunciation
Contemporary of Babur

Guru Angad Gurumukhi - script in which Guru Granth Sahib is written

1539-1552

Guru Amar Contemporary of Akbar

Das Made langar an integral part of Sikhism
1552-1574

Guru Ram Founded the city of Amritsar

Das Mian Mir laid the foundation of Golden Temple
1574-1581

Guru Arjun Compiled Adi Granth

Dev Ramdaspur developed around Harmandar Sahib - virtually self
1581-1606 governing - state within a state - Seeing this as a threat Jahangir
ordered his execution // executed because he supported rebellion of
Prince Khurram
This event politicised the Sikh faction

Guru Constituted Akal Takht

Hargobind Swords - Miri and Piri
1606-1644

Guru Har Rai

1644-1661

Guru Har Youngest of the gurus

Krishnan
1656-1664

Guru Tegh Founded the town of Anandpur

Bahadur Opposed forced conversion of Kashmiri brahmins
1664-1675 Executed by Aurangzeb

Guru Gobind Created Khalsa (1699), 5K symbols - Kesh, Kara, Kanga, Kaccha,
Singh Kirpan
1675-1708 Compiled Guru Granth Sahib
Built the Lohagarh fort

Sahajdhari Sikhs - non Khalsa Sikhs (Nanak Panthis, Bhallas, Udasis)

Khalsa Sikhs - 5Ks

ZOROASTRIANISM

Origin in Persia - Zarathustra (6-7 BC)

Believe in one eternal god Ahura Mazda, evil is Angra Mainyu
Fire is the symbol of Ahura Mazda (destroys evils by consuming)
Fire Temples - Atash Behram, Sacred text - Zend Avesta
Athuna Vairyo - Sacred chant supposedly written by Zarathustra himself
Open cremation of dead bodies (left to be eaten by vultures)
Sub-sects: Shahensai, Kadmi, Fasli
Spread to India in 936 AD when they fled from Iran due to Islamic invasions

JUDAISM

Predates Islam and Christianity

Believe in Yahweh (one true God instituted by Abraham)
Religious book - Torah (first 5 books of Old Testament)
Talmud - compilation of legal and ethical writing and brief history writing
Place of worship - Synagogue
God sent Moses to earth and gave him the Ten Commandments (Sefer Torah) at Mt. Sinai
Bene Israel - tribes whose ancestors were the 12 sons of Israel (Jacob - son of Isaac,
grandson of Abraham)

Jews in India

Cochinis - Malayalam speaking

Bene Israel - Marathi speaking
Baghdadi - Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata
Bnei Menashe - Manipuri Jews
Bene Ephraim - Telugu speaking

FAIRS AND FESTIVALS

HINDU FESTIVALS

Diwali
Naraka Chaturdashi - day before Diwali (win of Krishna
over Naraka)
Chopad Puja - Krishna preached Karma Yoga to Arjuna
According to Jain philosophy, Mahavira attained Nirvana on
the same day

Sharad Purnima
15 days before Diwali (full moon night called Navanna
Purnima)
Related to harvest season
Kojagiri - people drink saffron milk during the moonlit night
Chhabina - idol of Durga is take around the temple
premises
Holi Chhoti Holi - Holika Dahan
Colours and festivities are symbolic of Kama 'god of love' -
represents eternal love of Radha and Krishna
Variants - Lathmar Holi (Vrindavan and Mathura),
Rangpanchami (Maharashtra), BasantUutsav/Dola Jatra
(Assam, Bengal)

Makar Sankranti
Movement of Sun into northern hemisphere (end of winter
as days become longer than nights)
Pongal - South India and particularly Tamil Nadu
Magha Bihu - Assam and NE
Uttarayan - Gujarat (kite festival)
Maghi - Punjab
Saaji - Shimla
Kicheri - UP
Shakrain - Bangladesh
Maghe Sankranti - Nepal (observed on the first of Magh in
the Bikram Samwat)

Janmashtami
Birth of Krishna
Dahi Handi in Maharashtra

Dussehra
Vijaydashami - Rama’s victory over Ravana (Preceded by
Navratri)
Natti dance - Himachal Pradesh

Durga Puja
Durga’s victory over Mahisasura
Sashthi to Dashami (6th to 10th day)
Accompanied by Garba and Dandia in Gujarat (called
Navratri)

Ram Navami
Main centres are Ayodhya (Ram Janmabhoomi) and
Pondicherry (Kanak Bhawan temple)

Ganesh Chaturthi
Most popular in Maharashtra
Ganesha is the first God to be worshipped in the Hindu
pantheon
 Initiated by Shivaji to promote Hinduism in his domain
(opposed to Mughals)
Revived by Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Karva Chauth
Women invoke Goddess Gaur Mata in the rituals before
breaking their fast

Rath Yatra
Probably predates the construction of the temple at Puri

Shiv Ratri
On this day Shiva manifested himself as a huge flaming
lingam (Jyotirlinga)
Shiva performed Tandava which signifies creation,
preservation and destruction of earth

Chhath
Since Vedic times
Dedicated to Surya
State festival of Bihar (also celebrated in Bihar)

ISLAM FESTIVALS

Eid-ul-Fitr
Last day of the holy month of Ramadan
Quran was revealed during one of the odd nights during the
last days of Ramadan
Prophet Muhammad achieved victory in the Battle of Badr
for the city of Mecca
Martyrdom of the Prophet’s son-in-law Ali on 27th day of
Ramadan

Id-ul-Zuha
Bakr Eid
Prophet Ibrahim’s devotion to Allah
Marks the beginning of the holy period during which many
undertake the pilgrimage to Hajj
 Milad-un-Nabi Birth anniversary of Prophet Muhammad and also the day
he departed
Qasida-al-burda-Sharif - sacred poem by Arabic Sufi Busiri
written in 13th century
Nat - traditional poem written in honour of the Prophet
illustrating his good deeds
Hazratbal Shrine in Kashmir has relicts of Prophet

Muharram
Death of Hussain (son of Ali) in war at Karbala - mostly by
Shia community

Shab-e-Barat
Destiny of every person is determined on this night

Shah-e-Miraj
Night of ascent (during this journey the five daily prayers
were made obligatory on Muslims)

CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS

Christmas
Brith of Christ

Good Friday
Crucification of Christ

Easter
Ressurection of Christ

SIKH FESTIVALS

Guruparab
Celebrated for birth anniversaries of all 10 Sikh gurus
Prabhat Pheris, Congregational singing of Shabads,
 Prakash Utsav Birth of Guru Gobind Singh

Maghi
Celebrated in Muktsar in memory of Sikh martyrs who fought
Mughals
Procession to site of the Sikh-Muslim war and take a bath in
sacred water of Muktsar
Guru Gobind Singh died while fighting Mughal governor
Wazir Khan

Hola Mohalla
Beginning of Sikh New Year
Started by Guru Gobind Singh for mock battles and military
exercises - also called “Sikh Olympics"

Vaisakhi
Birth of Khalsa Panth
Spring Harvest Festival

Lohri
Day before Makar Sankranti

Sodal Mela
Pay homage to Baba Sodal
Organised in Jalandhar

JAIN FESTIVALS

Mahavir Jayanti
Birth of Mahavira
Jain temples are decorated with Saffron flag
Main centres - Parshvanath Temple (Kolkata),
Pawapuri (Bihar)

Paryushana
8 days by Shvetambara sect, 10 days by Digambara
sect
Marks the day when monks retreat from forests due to
monsoons
Ends with Kshamavani
 Mahamastakabhisekha
Once in 12 years in Shravanabelgola
Holy bathing of Lord Bahubali (son of Rishabnatha)

Gyana Panchami

Varshi Tapa
Fasting of Rishabhdeva

Maun Agiyara
Complete silence and fasting

Navapad Oli
Semi fasting, Comes twice a year

BUDDHIST FESTIVALS

Buddha Purnima
Saga Dawa in Sikkim, Vishakha Puja in Theravada tradition
Main centres of celebration - Sarnath and Bodh Gaya
Mahayana Buddhists read Kangyur texts

Songkran
“Spring cleaning"

Ploughing
Festival Buddha’s first moment of enlightenment when he went with
his father to watch ploughing

Ulambana
Period during which gates of hell are supposedly open and
ghosts may visit the world
On the 15th day (Ulambana) people visit cemeteries

Hemis Gompa
Birth of Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche)
Mask dance performed by Lamas
 Losar
Tibetan New Year in Arunachal Pradesh
Usually by tribes who follow Mahayana - Monpa,
Sherdukpen

SINDHI FESTIVALS

Chaliho Sahib
Forty day fast - pray to Lord Jhulelal

Cheti Chand
Sindhi New Year - birth of Jhule Lal

PARSI FESTIVALS

Jamshedi
Navroz Parsi New Year (1st day of 1st month of Shehansahi
calendar)
Pay respect to Khorshed and Meheryazads

Zarathost No
Deeso Death of Zoroaster

Khordad Sal
Birth of Zoroaster

Pateti
Last gather day of Parsi calendar
Repentance for crimes committed during the year

SECULAR FESTIVALS
Gangaur Rajasthan Roots in medieval Rajput times
Celebrates spring and harvest

Khajuraho Madhya
Pradesh Instituted in 1975 by GoI + MP govt.

Ugadi Andhra,
Karnataka New Year

Gudi Padva Maharashtra

New Year

Samvatsar Goa
Padva New Year

Puthandu Tamil Nadu

New Year

Vishu Kerala
New Year

Teej Rajasthan,
Bihar, UP Celebrated for women of the household
Hariyali Teej, Kajari Teej, Hartalika Teej

Sair-e- Old Delhi

Gulfaroshan Annual festival of flowers
Communal Harmony - Procession from
tomb of Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli
to the Jog Maya Temple
Origin - Mumtaz (wife of Akbar II) in 19th
century
Banned by British but reinstated in 1962

Thyagaraja Thanjavur
Aradhana Commemorate the Samadhi day of Tamil
saint and composer Thyagaraja
Held on the banks of river Kaveri
Trinity of Carnatic music = Thyagaraja +
Shyama Sastri + Muthuswami Dikshitar
 Onam Kerala
Harvest festival
Also celebrates homecoming of asura king
Mahabali
Vallamkali (snake boat race) in Punnamada
Lake - Nehru Boat Race Trophy

Pongal Tamil Nadu

'Boiling of first rice' - harvest festival

Sarhul Jharkhand
New Year - Celebrated by Munda, Oraon
and Ho tribes
Sarhul means worship of Sal

NORTH EAST FESTIVALS

Saga Dawa Sikkim

Celebrated by Buddhist communities
Commemorates Birth, enlightenment and
death of Buddha
All through the month of Saga Dawa, they
follow generosity, morality and meditation

Losoong Sikkim
Sikkimese New Year
Originally of Bhutias, but Lepchas also
celebrate
Chaang and Black Hat dance

Bihu Assam
Assamese New Year
Rongali Bihu, Kongali Bihu, Bhogali Bihu
Exchange Gamosa (hand woven cotton
towel) with relatives
Gora Bihu - first day when cattle are bathed
and fed

Hornbill Nagaland
Festival Naga tribes congregate at Kisama Heritage
 Village

Pakke Hornbill Arunachal

Festival Pradesh Only conservation festival in the state
State festival status

Kharchi Puja Tripura

Began as a festival of the royal family of
Tripura
Worship of 14 deities housed in Puran
Haveli of Old Agartala

Cheiraoba Manipur
Manipuri New Year
Related to domestic deity Sanamahi
Select a person to be Chahitaba who is
responsible for all the good and ill luck that
comes to the community in the year
People climb on the nearest hill on this day

Wangala Meghalaya
Garo tribe - wear feathered head gear
reflecting clan colours
Honour of Misi Saljong - local deity
Also called 100 drum Wangala festival

Kang Chingba Manipur

Similar to Ratha Yatra - King is the Ratha
Begins from Sri Govindajee Temple in
Imphal

Ambubachi Assam
Kamakhya Temple - associated with fertility
rituals, tantric activities
“Mahakumbh of the East”

Sekrenyi Nagaland
Angami Tribe
Dzuseva - all men of the village bathe in the
village well which is cleaned a day before
Cock is strangled to death with bare hands -
ward off evil spirits
 Majuli Festival Assam
Sponsored by Department for Culture under
State Ministry of Assam

Lui-Ngai-Ni Nagaland
Also celebrated in Naga inhabited parts of
Manipur

Dree Festival Arunachal

Pradesh Apatani Tribe - held in Ziro valley
Cucumber is distributed to all the attendees
as a symbol of good harvest

Khan Arunachal
Miji tribe

Losar Arunachal
Tibetan Buddhism, New Year

Moatsu Nagaland
Ao tribe

Yemshe Nagaland
Pochuri tribe

New Year - Bihu, Baisakhi, Sarhul, Losoong, Gudi Padva, Vishu, Puthanda, Ugadi,
samvatsar Padva, Cheiraoba, Losar

FAIRS

Kumbh Mela Haridwar,

Nasik, Ujjain, Largest religious gathering in the world
Allahbad The 4 places are the ones where drops of
Amrit fell from the Kumbh being carried by
Vishnu
Once in three years at different places, and
at a given place once in 12 years
Haridwar and Allahabad - Ardh Kumbh held
every 6th year and Maha Kumbh once in
 every 144 years

Sonepur Mela Bihar

Held at the confluence of Ganga and
Gandak
One of the largest cattle fairs in Asia
Chandragupta Maurya used to buy
elephants and horse during this fair

Chitra Vichitra Gujarat

Fair Gharasia and Bhil tribes

Shamlaji Fair Gujarat

Tribal communities revere Lord Shamlaji
(incarnate of Krishna) - Bhils refer as 'Kaliyo
Dev'
Holy bath in Meshno river

Pushkar Fair Rajasthan

One of the largest cattle/camel fairs in the
world
Camel races, moustache, turban tying
competitions

Desert Festival Jaisalmer

Showcases vibrant culture

Kolayat Fair Bikaner

Dip in Kolayat Lake
Named as Kapil Muni Fair

Surajkund Fair Haryana

International Crafts Fair

Gangasagar West Bengal

Mela Mouth of river Hooghly
Visited by Naga Sadhus

Goa Carnival Goa

Introduced by Portuguese
40 days before Lent (period of abstinence
 and spirituality)

PHILOSOPHY

Difference in Philosophies crystallised once the state and varna-divided social order
became the mainstay of the Indian subcontinent

Four goals to attain

Artha - Economic means - Arthashastra
Dharma - Regulation of social order - Dharmashastra
Kama - Physical pleasures/Love - Kamasutra
Moksha - Salvation - Several texts on 'Darshana'

Main aim of life was to achieve deliverance from the circle of life and death

Orthodox schools older than Heterodox schools?

ORTHODOX SCHOOLS

Vedas were the supreme scriptures

Did not question authenticity of Vedas
Sub-schools were called Shada Darshana

Chronology - Samkhya Sutra, Mimamsa Sutra (300-200 BC), Nyaya Sutra (200 AD),
Vaiseshika Sutra (200 AD), Yoga Sutra (100 - 500 AD)

Samkhya Kapila Samkhya

1st century Sutra Oldest school of philosophy
AD (?) Salvation through knowledge
Lack of knowledge is the source
of misery
Rebirth and transmigration of
soul
Does not recognise God
Believed in Dualism (Dvaita) -
Soul and matter are separate
entities
Knowledge can be acquired by -
Pratakshya, Anumana, Shabda
(Perception, Inference, Hearing)
Prakriti (F) and Purusha (M) are
the basis of reality - absolute
 and independent

Original Samkhya view

1st century AD
Presence of divine agency not
necessary for creation of
universe
Rational and scientific view of
creation of universe
World owed its existence to
nature/Prakriti
Materialistic school

New Samkhya view

4th century AD
Nature + Purusha/Spirit =
creation of universe
Spiritual view for creation of
universe (nature + spiritual
elements)
Spiritual school

Yoga Patanjali Yoga Sutra

2nd century Salvation through meditation +
BC physical application of yogic
techniques
Belief in God

Techniques to control mind. Body,

sense organs

Asanas - Exercises in different

postures
Pranayam - Breathing exercises
Yama - Self control
Niyama - Observing rules
governing one’s life
Pratyahara - choosing an object
Dharna - fixing mind over
chosen object
Dhyana - Concentrating on the
chosen object
Samadhi - Merging of mind and
 object that leads to salvation

Nyaya Gautama Nyaya Sutra

Logical thinking to achieve
salvation
Life, death and salvation are
mysteries - solved by
logical/analytical thought
Only real knowledge can help
achieve salvation - inference,
hearing, analogy to verify the
truth of a proposition
God created the universe,
sustained and destroyed it

Vaisheshika Kanada
Everything on earth was created
by five main elements - fire, air,
water, earth, ether
Origin of atomic theory
(Beginning of physics in Indian
subcontinent)
Realistic and objective
philosophy that governs the
universe
Propounded the mechanical
process for formation of
Universe
Argue for scientific thinking but
believe in God
Laws of Karma guide the
Universe
Believe in salvation but it is
parallel to creation and
destruction of universe

Mimamsa Jaimini
3rd century Sabar Reasoning, Interpretation and
BC Swami application
Kumarila Vedas contain eternal truth
Bhatta Analysis of Samhita and
Brahmanas
Vedic rituals to achieve salvation
—> inherently legitimised the
social distance between classes
and social clout of Brahmans
 Important to understand the
justification and reasoning
behind Vedic rituals

Vedanta Badrayana Brahmasutra

2nd century Justifies the philosophies of
BC Upanishads
Brahma is the reality of life and
everything else is Maya
Equalises Atma and Brahma - if
a person acquires knowledge of
self, he would automatically
understand Brahma and achieve
salvation
Theory of Karma
Rebirth

Shankaracharya - Advaita Vedanta

Wrote commentaries on
Upanishads and Gita in 9th
century AD
Brahma to be without any
attributes - Nirguna Brahma
Knowledge is the main means of
attaining salvation

Ramanuja - Vishistadvaita

Brahma to be with attributes -

Saguna Brahma
Loving the faith and practising
devotion as the path to attain
salvation

HETERODOX SCHOOLS

Do not believe in originality of the Vedas

Questioned the existence of God

Buddhism
Teachings in Vedas may not be useful to achieve salvation
World is full of misery
 Liberation through realisation of 4 noble truths - there is
suffering, desire is the cause of suffering, cessation of suffering
by controlling desires, there is a path to cessation of suffering
Eight fold path - Vision, Resolve, Speech, Conduct, Livelihood,
Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration

Buddhist Texts

Upali - Vinaya Pitaka - Rules of order

Ananda - Sutta Pitaka - Buddha’s sermons and doctrines
Mahakashyapa - Abhidhamma Pitaka - Philosophy

Jainism
Oppose primacy of Vedas
Man is surrounded by pain
Controlling one’s mind can stop the suffering
How to control the mind? - Right Knowledge, Right Faith, Right
Conduct
All natural and supernatural elements are controlled by seven
fundamental elements - jiva, ajivaa, asrava, bandha, samvara,
nirjara, moksha
'Astikaya' has physical shape, 'Anastikaya' has no physical
shape
Substances are constant (e.g. consciousness) but its attributes
(happy or sad) keep changing

Charvaka Brihaspati
Finds mention in Vedas and Brihadarankya Upanishad
Materialistic view to achieve salvation
Lokayata - Derived from the common people
Complete disregard for any world beyond this world
Denied existence of supernatural or divine agent (Brahma or God)
Believed only in those that could be experienced by human senses
Against Priestly Class
Universe consists of 4 elements - Fire, Earth, Air, Water (No Ether as it
cannot be experienced)
No world after this one - Death is an end, Pleasure is the main
objective

Kapalika

Non-Puranic/Tantric form of Shaivism in India

Against Vedic traditions

Influenced Yoga traditions in the form of Hathayoga
 CALENDARS

Why calendars? - Organise days for social, religious, commercial or administrative

functions

Solar Year Time taken by earth to complete a revolution (Equinox to

Equinox/Solstice to Solstice)
Closest correspondence between year and seasons
12 months in total

Lunar Year 12 months or lunations

1 lunation = period between successive full moons or new moons = 29
days
11 days short of a solar year - to adjust to solar year, an intercalary
month is introduced every 2.5 years - ADHIK MASA
Lunar Month is followed in greater part of the country

Luni-Solar Year by Solar calendar, Months by Lunar calendar

Year Lunar Month commences either from the day following Amavasya or
Purnima

Sankranti - Entry of Sun into a zodiac sign (occurs every month)

Shukla Paksha - Starts with day after new moon
Krishna Paksha - Starts with day after full moon
Lunar Day (Tithi) is shorter than Solar Day (Divasa)

1 day = 60 ghatikas
1 ghatika = 60 Pala
2 ghatikas = 1 Muhurta
1 Pala = 60 Vipala

Hindu Calendar

Panchanga - takes into account Year, Month, Paksha, Tithi, Ghatika (Tithi, Vaara,
Nakshatra, Yoga, Karana)
28 nakshatras, each rashi has 2 or 3 nakshatras
Solar year is divided into Uttarayana and Dakshinayana

Yugas

Four Yugas - Krita —> Treta —> Dvapara —> Kali (Average lifespan of human has
decreased in each successive Yuga)
4 Yugas = 1 Mahayuga (4.32 million human years)
1 day of Brahma = 1000 Mahayugas
1 Mahakalpa = 1000 years of Brahma

Krita Yuga - Age of truth and perfection (one religion, no requirement of religious
ceremonies, no agriculture or mining, no disease)
Treta Yuga - Virtue diminished, Kings and Wars, Agriculture and Mining, Extreme weather
Dvapara Yuga - Diseases and Wars
Kali Yuga - Darkness and Ignorance

Indian Calendar Forms

Vikram 56 BC
Samvat Lunar Calendar
56 BC Vikram era started in 56 BC (era started by King
Vikramaditya of Ujjain to commemorate victory over
Saka rulers)
56 years ahead of Solar Gregorian calendar
Year begins with first day after New Moon of Chaitra
(March-April in Gregorian calendar)
354 days in a year

Saka Samvat 78 AD
78 AD Initiated by King Shalivahan
Lunar Month and Solar Year
Same number of months as Vikram era, months
commence in different periods
Fixed number of days in each month
Names of months in Vikram and Saka Samvat are
same
365 days in a year

National Calendar of India

Saka Calendar was adopted as National Calendar of

India
Notification in Official Gazette by GoI
1957 by Calendar Committee of India (headed by
Meghnad Saha)
Come into use from March 22, 1957 (Chaitra 1,
1879 by Saka Samvat

Hijri Calendar 622 AD

Arabic Origin
Commemorates Hijrat of Prophet Muhammad from
Mecca to Medina
 Lunar Calendar - 354 days, 12 months
Difference between solar and lunar cycles is not
adjusted
Adopted in India during rule of Muslim empires
Day starts with sunset

Gregorian 00 AD
Calendar Birthdate of Jesus Christ
Year starts from Jan 1

Zoroastrian 632 AD Parsis have 2 New Years

Calendar
Jamshedi Nauroz (March 21 - Equinox)
Kadmi or Pateti (Aug 31st)

MARTIAL ARTS

Kalaripayattu Kerala
Originated in Kerala in 4th century AD
Practised in Kalari - Malayalam word that refers to specific
other Southern type of school/gymnasium/training hall
States as well Started by Parashurama according to legends
Not accompanied by Drumming or Song
Practised by Women (Unnicharya won many
battles using this art)
Banned during British Rule
Uzhichil - Massage with Gingli Oil, Maipayattu
- Body exercises, Puliyankam - Sword Fight,
Verumkai - Bare handed fight, Anga Thari -
use of metal weapons

Silamban Tamil Nadu

Promoted during the reign of Pandya, Chola
and Chera
Created by Lord Murugan and Sage Agastya
Silappadikaram - 2nd century - Sale of
Silamban staves, swords and armour to
foreigners
 Spread to Malaysia
Four different kinds of staves
Banned during British rule

Thang Ta Manipur
Sarit Sarak Created by Meitei people of Manipur
Thang Ta - Armed martial art (Sword and
Shield)
Sarit Sarak - Unarmed art
Originated in 17th century - used by Manipuri
kings to fight the British for sometime
British banned when they occupied Manipur
Thang Ta + Sarit Sarak —> Together called
Huyen Langlon (Axes are also used)

Practised in three ways

Completely ritualistic, linked with tantric

practices
Spear and sword dances
Actual techniques of fighting

Cheibi Gad- Manipur

ga Fighting using sword and shield

Pari Khanda Bihar

Created by Rajputs
Fighting using sword and shield
Forms the basis of Chhau Dance

Thoda Himachal
Pradesh Mixture of martial arts, sports and culture
Takes place during Baisakhi every year (13th-
14th April)
Dates back to Mahabharata when bows and
arrows were used in the battle
Currently happens between two groups called
Pashis and Saathis (believed to be
descendants of Pandavas and Kauravas
respectively)
Thoda refers to the wooden tip on arrows
Gatka Punjab (Sikhs) Weapons - Kirpaan, Talwar, Kataar

Mardani Khel Kolhapur (MH) Originated in the hills, low stances are used
Use of Pata (Indian Sword) and Vita (Corded Lance)

Lathis Mostly Punjab Popular all over India

and Bengal

Inbuan Mizoram Originated in 18th century in Dungtlang Village

Wrestling form - only way to win is to lift the
opponent off their feet
Considered a sport only after the people of Mizoram
migrated from Burma to Lushai hills

Kuttu Varisai Tamil Nadu Also popular in Malaysia and NE Sri Lanka
Mentioned in Sangam literature (1st to 2nd century
BC)
Name means empty handed combat - unarmed
Dravidian martial art
Animal based sets like Snake, Eagle, Tiger, Monkey,
Elephant
Considered the unarmed component of silamban

Musti Yuddha Varanasi Unarmed martial art resembling boxing

Physical, mental and spiritual development
Jambuvanti - forcing into submission through locking
and holding
Hanumanti - Technical superiority
Bhimaseni - Sheer strength
Jarasandhi - Limb and joint breaking

Paika Akhada Odisha Dance + Combat (Earlier used as combat, now a

performing art)

Sqay Kashmir Swords and Shields

Kathi Samu Andhra Used by royal armies of the state

Pradesh

Bandesh
Unarmed martial form that uses lock holds
against an armed opponent (without killing)
Branched out of Malla Yudha
In ancient times, law enforcers used Bandesh
to suppress and control offenders with
minimal injury

Malla Yudha South India

Traditional combat wrestling related to SE
 Asian wrestling styles
Practised by Siddhartha Gautam and Krishna
Deva Raya

Malla Khamb Maharashtra 12th century in Maharashtra

Uses Pole and Rope

Velakali Kerala Blends Kathakali and Kalaripayattu

Originated in Ambalapuzzha

Insu Knawr Mizoram

Kirip, Saldu Nicobar

Varma Ati Tamil Nadu

Khomlainai Assam

Malkhamb Maharashtra

Mukna Manipur

Archery Jharkhand

Kabaddi Telengana

COINS

First recorded use of coins in China and Greece - 700 BC

Earliest reference of coins in India - Vedas
Nishka - Coins made up of metals
Cowrie Shells - Medium of exchange in early Indian market by the masses for small
transactions

Punch Marked Early coins were die struck only on one side
Coins Panini’s Ashtadyayi - Metallic pieces were stamped with symbols

Mahajanapadas - 6th century BC

Puranas, Karshapanas, Pala

Irregular shapes, standard weight, Made up of silver
Humped bull in Saurashtra, Swastika in Dakshin Panchala
Magadhan punch marked coins were the most widely
 circulated coins in South Asia
Mentioned in Manusmriti and Jataka stories

Maurya Period (300-150 BC)

Arthashastra mentions coins of silver, gold, copper, lead

Symbols - Sun, Six armed wheel

Indo Greek
Coins Introduced depiction of bust of ruler on coins
180 BC - 10 Greek on one side, Pali (Kharosthi script) on the other side
AD Greek gods and goddesses - Zeus, Hercules, Apollo
Later coins had images of Indian deities as well
Carried information on date and monarch who issued them

Kushanas

Introduced Greek custom of engraving portrait heads on the

coins
Helmeted bust of the king on one side and king’s favourite
deity on the other side
Coins issued by Kanishka employed only Greek characters
Influenced tribes and local dynasties who issued their own
coins

Satavahanas
200 BC - 200 Lead was most prevalent material used to make coins
AD Used an alloy of silver and copper called Potin
Copper coins are also found
Not much beauty or artistic merit
Elephant/Horse/Lion/Chaitya on one side, Ujjain symbol (cross
with four circles at the end of two crossing lines) on the other
side
Prakrit dialect

Indo-
Scythians Saka origin - Malwa, Gujarat, Kathiawar
Dates in Saka samvat
Head of the king on one side and head of the Buddhist
chaitya/stupa on the other side
Prakrit Language
Gupta Age
300 - 550 AD Coins were mainly gold
Copper and Silver coins also found
Silver coins were issued after Chandragupta II overthrew the
Western Satraps
Sanskrit (Brahmi script) inscriptions on coins for the first time
On one side - King making oblations at an altar, playing Veena,
Ashvamedha, Other side - Lakshmi or figure of Queen, Ganga,
Garuda, Kartikeya
Depicted emperors in both martial as well as leisure activities
Stamped their given names on the front and assumed names
ending with '-aditya' at the back

After Hun Invasions

After the decline of Gupta empire in 6th century, local

kingdoms rose in different regions issuing their own coins
Poor in metal content and artistic value
Till 13th century, coin designs were borrowed from Kushana-
Gupta and foreign designs
South Indian coins were in gold, inspired by Roman Gold
Coins which arrived between 100 BC - 300 AD

Vardhans
6th century Silver coins
Head of king on one side and a peacock on the other side
Harsha’s coins are in a new era (probably starting from 606
AD, the year of his coronation)

Chalukyas
6th century Western Chalukyas - Temple/Lion/Legends on one side and
the other side was blank
Eastern Chalukyas - Symbol of boar and king’s name and the
other side was blank

Rajputs
11th-12th Gold, Copper, Billon (silver and copper)
century Very rarely silver

Two types of coins

Name of king in Sanskrit on one side, goddess on the other

side - Kalachuris, Chandelas, Tomars, Rathores
Seated bull on one side, horseman on the other - Gandhara
 and Sindh

Pandyas
Early coins - Square shaped with image of elephant in early
period
Later coins - Fish was the most important symbol
Gold and Silver coins had inscriptions in Sanskrit
Copper coins had inscriptions in Tamil

Cholas
Rajaraja Chola - Standing king on one side and seating
Goddess on other side, Inscriptions in Sanskrit
Rajendra Chola - Inscription of Sri Rajendra or Gangaikonda
Chola, Emblems of Tiger and Fish

Pallavas
Figure of a lion

Delhi
Sultanate King’s name, title and date as per Hijri calendar
No image of issuing monarch - Islam prohibits idolatry
Name of the mint was inscribed on the coins
Illtutmish - Silver Tanka and Copper Jital
Alauddin Khilji - Dropped name of Khalif and replaced it with
self-praising titles
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq - Bronze and Copper coins, Token
paper currency

Vijaynagar
Empire Large numbers of gold coins (other coins were made up of
14th-17th pure silver and copper)
century Pagodas - high denomination coins, figure of running warrior
with dagger
Gold fanam
Silver Taras
Copper coins - day to day transactions
Inscriptions in Kannada or Sanskrit
Images - 2 headed Eagle with an elephant in each beak and
claw, bull, elephant, Hindu deities
Early Vijaynagar coinage produced in different mints - called
by names like Barkur Gadyanas, Bhatkal Gadyanas
Gold Varahan coin issued by Krishna Deva Raya - seated
 Vishnu on one side, three-line legend 'Shri Pratap Krishna
Raya' on the other side

Mughals Mohur - Gold coins

Ain-i-Akbari mentions that a Mohur was equivalent of nine rupees (1/2
and 1/4 mohurs are also known)
Sher Shah Suri - Silver and Copper coins which form the basis of
Rupee (modern Indian currency) and Dam
Mughal copper coin was adopted from Sher Shah’s Dam

Akbar

Round and square coins

Illahi coins in 1579 to propagate Din-e-Illahi
Sahansah - Largest gold coin
Coins bore the names of Persian solar months

Jahangir

Legend in a couplet
Name of Noor Jahan in a few coins
Images of Zodiac signs

Shivaji Gold Coins - Huns

Copper coins - Shivarais
Titles in Nagari script

Wodeyars Kanthiraya Narasa - Bore image of Narasimha Avatar of Vishnu

1400-1900s

Mysore Haidar Ali - continued coinage of Wodeyars with images of Shiva and
Parvati on gold pagodas
Tipu Sultan - used two eras in his coins

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MATHEMATICS

Arithmetic - Anka Ganita

Algebra - Bija Ganita
Geometry - Rekha Ganita
Astronomy - Khagolshastra
Astrology - Jyotisa
 Algebra and concept of zero originated in India
Town planning in Harappa and geometrical motifs in architecture indicates
knowledge of geometry
Sulvasutra by Baudhayana (6th c BC) - concept of Pi, concepts similar to
Pythagoras Theorem (oldest book on mathematics)
Apastamba (2nd c BC) - practical geometry (acute, obtuse and right triangles for
construction of fire altars)

Aryabhata Aryabhatiya (500 Aryabhatiya had 4 sections

AD)
First - Denoting big decimals by
alphabets
Second - Number theory, Geometry,
Trigonometry, BIjaganita
Third and Fourth - Astronomy

Khagol was the famous astronomical

laboratory in Nalanda where Aryabhata
studied

Applications of astronomy

Accuracy of calendars
Climate and rainfall patterns
Navigation
Horoscopes
Knowledge about tides and stars

Contributions of Aryabhata

Earth is round and rotates on its own

axis
Area of triangle
Algebra
Value of Pi given by Aryabhata is more
accurate than the Greeks
True position of planets and
movements of sun and moon
Eclipses
 Brahmagupta Brahmasputa Mentioned 'ZERO' for the first time as a
Siddhantika number
(7th century AD) Introduced negative numbers

Mahaviracharya Ganit Sara First textbook of arithmetic in present day form

Sangraha Described the present day form of finding LCM
(attributed to John Napier)

Bhaskaracharya Siddhanta Divisions of Siddhanta Siromani

Siromani
Lilavati - Arithmetic (Faizi translated
into Persian)
Beejganita - Algebra (Faizi translated
into Persian)
Goladhyaya - Spheres
Grahaganita - Planets

Contributions

Cyclic method to solve algebraic

equations in Lilavati
Lilavati was translated by James Taylor
in 19th century

Mathematics in Medieval Period

Narayan Pandit - Ganitakaumudi, BIjaganitavatamsa

Nilakantha Somasutvan - Tantrasamgraha (trigonometric functions)
Nilakantha Jyotirvida - Tajik (dealt with Persian terms)
Akbar promoted Mathematics (Faizi translated Lilavati and Beejganita into Persian)

Astronomy in Medieval Period

Feroz Shah Tughlaq set up observatory at Delhi

Feroz Shah Bahamani set up observatory in Daultabad
His court astronomer Mahendra Suri invented an astronomical instrument called
Yantaraja
Sawai Jai Singh - 5 astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Jaipur, Mathura,
Varanasi

MEDICINE

Vedic times

Ashwini Kumars were practitioners of medicine

 Dhanvantari was the God of medicine
Atharva Veda is the first text to mention diseases and their cure through magical
charms and spells

800 BC - Atreya and Agnivesa dealt with Ayurveda

600 BC - Takshila and Varanasi emerged as centres for medical learning

Spread of Indian medicine

Buddhist monks from India took Ayurveda to Tibet and China

Spread to Greece during the Indo-Greek rule (100 BC to 100 AD)
Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were translated to Arabic

Charak
Samhita Use of plants and herbs for medicinal purposes
Discussions on digestion, metabolism and immune system
Diseases are due to imbalance of three doshas - Wind, Phlegm,
Bile
Prevention rather than cure
Primitive references to genetics

8 components of Ayurveda

Kaya Chikitsha - General Medicine

Kaumara Bhrtya - Paediatrics
Shalya Chikitsa - Surgery
Salakya Tantra - Opthamology
Buta Vidya - Psychiatry
Agada Tantra - Toxicology
Rasayana Tantra - Elixirs
Vajikarana Tantra - Aphrodisiacs

Sushruta
Samhita Surgery (sastrakarma) and Obstetrics
Plastic surgery and cataract operations

Medieval Period

Sarangdhara Samhita (13th century AD) - use of opium in medicines, urine

examination in laboratories
Rasachikitsha system - treatment of diseases using mineral medicines
 Firdausu Hikmat by Ali-bin-Rabban - introduced Unani system of medicine in India

PHYSICS

Vedic times - materials were classified into Panch bhoota which were identified with
human senses of perception - Earth (smell), Fire (Vision), Air (feeling), Water (taste)
, Ether(sound)
Buddhist philosophy rejected ether as one of the 5 elements (as it was not
physically palpable)
Parmanu - smallest indivisible unit (each element has its own type of parmanu)
Kanad and Katyayana conceived the idea of indivisibility of atom (6th century BC)

CHEMISTRY

Rasyana Shastra - science of liquids

Metallurgy - known since Bronze Age

Indians probably learnt extraction of metal from ore from Mesopotamia
Iron Pillar at Mehrauli and Buddha statue in Sultanganj
Distillation of perfumes
Dyes and pigments
Extraction of sugar
Paper (medieval period)
Gunpowder (medieval period)
Casting of canons (medieval period)

Rasaratnakara Nagarjuna
(931 AD) Changing base metals to gold
Written as a dialogue between him and
Gods
His methods of transmutation of gold are
used to make imitation jewellery
Idea of transformation of metals is taken by
Arabs from Indian books

Uttaratantra Nagarjuna
Supplement to Sushruta Samhita
Deals with preparation of medicinal drugs

Rasarnava
(12th century Deals with Tantrism
 AD) Metallic preparations and alchemy

Brihat Samhita Varahamihira

Earth cloud theory
List of animals and plants that could indicate
presence of water
Earthquakes and Undersea events

Medieval Period

Use of paper - process of paper making was the same throughout the nation
Manufacture of gunpowder with the coming of Mughals
Saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal were varied in proportions to produce varieties of
gun powder
Casting of cannons is mentioned in Tujuk-i-Baburi
Ain-i-Akbari mentions 'perfume office'

SHIP BUILDING

Yukti Kalpa Taru

Sanskrit text that deals with ship building in ancient times

Sizes and types of materials used to build ships
Samanya and VIshesha classes of ships
Dirgha - long and narrow hull, Unnata - higher hull
Agramandira - vessels used for warfare
Sarvamandira - cabins across the whole deck - royal voyage and horses
Madhyamandira - cabins in the middle for pleasure trips
Machayantra - compass of the ship

SPORTS

Kalaripayat
Martial art from Kerala
Bodhidharma transmitted to China in 5th century BC
Present day Judo and Karate originated from Kalaripayat

Chess
Chaturanga or Ashtapada
Mentioned in Mahabharata
 DELHI

Purna Qila - considered to be built over ancient site of Indraprastha (NBP and PGW found -
suggesting settlements go back to 1000BC)

Qila Rai Pithora Prithviraj

Chauhan Ancestors of Prithiviraj Chauhan
captured Delhi from Tomaras
Anangpal (Tomar ruler) created the first
known regular defence - Lal Kot

Siri Alauddin Khilji

Beginning of 14th century
Seljuk architecture - craftsmen from West
Asia took refuge in Delhi due to Mongol
invasions
Siri Fort houses the Hauz Khas

Tughluqabad Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq 2nd decade of 14th century

Jahanpanah Muhammad Bin

Tughlaq First half of 14th century
Walled enclosure between Qila Rai
Pithora and Siri

Firozabad Firoz Shah

Tughlaq Second half of 14th century, next to river
Yamuna
Ashokan pillar on top of the palace
Restoration of Qutb Minar, Sultan-e-garhi
Tomb of Nasiruddin Mahmood
(predecessor of Balban), Hauz Khas

Shergarh Sher Shah Suri

Created by Sher Shah when he captured
Delhi from Humayun in 1540
Humayun had built the city by the name
 Dinpanah

Shahjahanabad Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan brought back the capital to
Delhi from Agra
Inaugurated on Navroz in 1642
Currently known as Old Delhi - houses
Red Fort, Jama Masjid

CINEMA

Indian film industry produces largest number of films

Full FDI in Cinema

Importance

Shaped national identity in the post-Independence era

Potray and understand socio-economic and political aspects (V Shantaram - Amar
Jyoti - Female emancipation)
Percolates to lower strata of the society

TIMELINE

1896 - Lumiere Brothers - Inventors of Cinematograph - brought the concept of

motion pictures to India
1899 - First motion picture by an Indian - Harischandra Bhatvadekar
1900 - First cinema house in Madras by Major Warwick
1907 - Elphinstone Picture House in Calcutta - Jamshedjee Madan
1916 - Universal Studios established the first Hollywood based agency in India
1910-20 - Silent Films
1912 - PUNDALIK - First Indo-British collaboration for making a silent movie
1913 - Raja Harishchandra by Dadasaheb Phalke - first indigenous silent movie
1917 - Lanka Dahan by Dadasaheb Phalke - first box-office hit
 1922 - Entertainment tax in Kolkata
1931 - Alam Ara - directed by Ardeshir Irani - first talking film (Has first recorded
song in Indian cinema by W M Khan)
1933 - Sairandhri - first colour film (processed and printed in Germany)
1935 - Devdas - first film to use the Studio System
1937 - Kisan Kanya - Ardeshir Irani - First indigenous colour film
1939 - Premsagar - K Subramaniam - First South Indian Film
1952 - First International Film Festival of India in Bombay
1953 - Jhansi Ki Rani - Sohrab Modi - First technicolor movie
2019 - National Museum of Indian Cinema in Mumbai

Do Bigha Zameen (Bimal Roy) - First Indian Film to win an award at Cannes
Mirza Ghalib (Sohrab Modi) - First film to win President’s gold medal
Kaifi Azmi - Heer Ranjha - entire film in rhyming lyrics
Sholay was the first movie made on 70mm

Rise of parallel cinema in 1940s

Global trend after WWII shifted to Neo-realism

Institutions were set up to study films - National Film Archive of India, FTII (Pune,
Kolkata, Arunachal Pradesh)
International Film Festivals exposed Indian directors to global cinematic trends
Satyajit Ray - Appu Trilogy - Pather Panchali, Apur Sansar, Aparajito
Ritwik Ghatak - problems of lower middle class - Nagarik, Meghe Dhaka Tara

Women in Indian Cinema

1920-40 - Directors like V Shantaram made movies on women emancipation issues

like child marriages and abolition of sati
1960-80 - Heroine was the ideal woman (motherhood, fidelity, sacrifices)
Stereotypical Anti-Heroine
Parallel cinema - realistic portrayal of women and their issues

Central Board of Film Certification

Named as CBFC under Indian Cinematograph Act, 1952 (earlier called Central
Board of Film Censors)
Chairman and 12-25 members appointed by Central Government through Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting
Certification of films is under Central Govt
Enforcement of censorship is under State Government
Film Certification Appellate Tribunal - under the Indian Cinematograph Act to hear
appeals against decisions of CBFC
Foreign films also have to get a CBFC certification
Films dubbed from one language to another have to get a fresh certificate to ensure
language change is not offensive
 CBFC certification is not needed for films meant for Doordarshan and for TV
programs
Shyam Benegal Committee (2016) - Lay down norms for film certification
U (Universal), A (Adult), UA (parental guidance under 12), S (Specialised)

Does India need a National Film Policy?

World’s largest film industry - contribute substantially to GDP

Limits to government intervention in expression through films
Censorship must follow changing socio-cultural norms
Bring regional cinema at par with mainstream Hindi cinema
Film schools on the line of FTII to teach the art of filmmaking
Guide global promotion of Indian cinema in the right direction
Amendments to prohibit piracy

CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

Archaeological
Survey of India Ministry of Culture
Guided by Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites
and Remains Act (1958), Antiquity and Art Treasure Act
(1972)
Degrees and diplomas from Institute of Archaeology,
New Delhi

Crafts Council of
India Established by Kamala Devi Chhatopadhyay in 1976
“Kamala” shop where art and crafts patronised by CCI
are displayed
Organises the All India Craft Fair

IGNCA (1985) Visual and performing arts, apart from critical and creative
literature

Kala Nidhi - Multiform library

Kala Kosa - Study and publication of fundamental texts
in Indian languages
Janapada Sampada - Lifestyle studies
Cultural informatics - technology to preserve and
propagate culture
Sutradhara - Administrative section
Kala Darsana - research and studies of IGNCA into
 exhibitions

All India Radio

Ministry of information and broadcasting
“Bahujan Hitaya, Bahujan Sukhaya”
Content, aims and objectives of AIR are governed by
Prasar Bharati Act
Sarva Bhasha Kavi Sammelan

Nehru Memorial
museum and Library Part of Lutyens design for the capital

CCRT
Ministry of Culture
Established through efforts of Kapila Vatsayan and
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya
HQ in Delhi, regional centres in Udaipur, Hyderabad and
Guwahati
Objective - Link education with culture
Workshops, teachers training programs, libraries

National Archives of
India Created by British to keep administrative records of India
(Idea of British Civi Auditor Sandeman)
Established as Imperial Records Department in Calcutta,
shifted to Delhi in 1911
Renamed as National Archives of India after
Independence
Conservation Research Laboratory added in 1940
Regional centres at Jaipur, Bhubaneshwar, Puducherry

Indian Council for

Cultural Relations Ministry of Culture
Established by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in 1950 -
promote Indian culture on an international platform
Support programs of international appeal like Jazz
Festival in New Delhi and NE Music Festival in Guwahati

Directorate of Film
Festivals Cultural exchange between nations and cultures by the
medium of film
National Film Awards
Dadasaheb Phalke awards
Indian Council of
Historical Research Established under Societies Registration Act in 1972
Funds from UGC
Unbiased and rational interpretation of history
Emphasis on neglected histories - NE, women, border
areas
Indian Historical Review in English, Itihas in Hindi

National Mission for

Manuscripts Established on recommendation of NAI and ASI
Largest database of Indian manuscripts

INTACH
Non-profit NGO founded in 1984 in New Delhi
Special focus on monuments that do not fall under
purview of ASI
Create and support heritage walks

Sahitya Academy
(1954) National Academy of Letters
In recent times focus has shifted to oral and tribal
literature
Sahitya Akademi Award/Fellowship - 22 + English,
Rajasthani
Bhasha Samman - Languages other than the 24
recognised
Translation Award - Any other language into the 24
scheduled languages
Premchand Fellowship - Those who have contributed to
literature in Hindi
Dr. Anand Coomaraswamy Fellowship - field of art,
especially Ancient India
Literary gatherings - Samvad, Meet the Author,
Kathasandi, Mulakat, Asmita

Sangeet Natak
Academy (1952) First national academy set up for the arts by GoI
Create a framework for Music, Dance and Drama of
India - primary body for showcasing performing arts and
intangible heritage
Administer the National School of Drama (1959)
Decade long project to work on Koodhiyattam
 'SANJHI-MUJH MEIN KALAKAR' - initiative to document and
promote the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) and diverse
cultural traditions of the country by direct public-participation

Lalit Kala Academy

(1954) National academy of Art - promote fine arts
Autonomous body under Ministry of Culture
HQ - Delhi, Regional centres - Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow, Shimla, Shillong, Bhubaneshwar
National Exhibition of Art, International Triennale India

AWARDS

Bharat Ratna 1954 GoI

Highest civilian award
First given in 1954, originally in art,
science, literature and public service
2011 - expanded to include any field
of human endeavour
PM makes recommendations to
President
Not more than 3 in a year
No money is given in the award
Award cannot be used as prefix or
suffix
First Awardees - C Rajagopalachari,
CV Raman, S Radhakrishnan
Madan Mohan Malviya was awarded
posthumously (first to get
posthumously was Lal Bahadur
Shastri)

Padma 1954 GoI

Awards Given since 1954 (announced on
Republic Day)
Have been given every year except -
1977, 1980, 1993-1997
Government servants excluding
doctors and scientists are not eligible
Achievements must have an element
of public service
 Padma Vibhusan - 2nd highest
civilian award, 'Dest Seva' written on
the medal
Padma Bhushan - Contribution to
India’s reputation in the global
scenario
Padma Shri - No cash

National Film 1954 GoI

Awards Started in 1954
1973 - Directorate of Film Festivals
was made responsible for organising
these awards

Swarna Kamal
Rajat Kamal
Best Feature Film in Schedule VIII
languages
Best Feature Film in non-Schedule
VIII languages (includes English,
Bhojpuri, Kokborok, Monpa, Tulu)
Dadasaheb Phalke Lifetime
Achievement Award

Sahitya Sahitya
Akademi Akademi Instituted in 1954
Award Sahitya Akademi - National Academy
of Letters
Awarded in 24 languages = 22
Schedule VIII languages +
Rajasthani, English
Plaque awarded as part of the award
is designed by Satyajit Ray

Sahitya Sahitya
Akademi Akademi Highest honour conferred by Sahitya
Fellowship Akademi

Bhasha Sahitya
Samman Akademi Contribution to languages other than
the 24 languages covered by Sahitya
Akademi Award
Also for contribution to classical and
medieval literature
Translation Sahitya
Awards Akademi Translation of major works from other
languages into the 24 languages
Special emphasis on translation of
medieval and ancient literature

Gyanpeeth 1961 Bhartiya

Awards Jnanpith (also 22 Schedule VIII languages +
founded Times English
of India) Not awarded posthumously
Winner also gets a bronze statue of
Goddess Saraswati
Highest number of awards to Hindi
works

Saraswati 1991 KK Birla

Samman Foundation Awarded in 22 Schedule VIII
languages
Candidates are selected from literary
works published in the previous 10
years

Vyas Samman 1991 KK Birla

Foundation Literary work in Hindi
Published within the last 10 years

Dada Saheb 1969 Directorate of

Phalke Award Film Festivals Dadasaheb Phalke made India’s first
(Ministry of full length feature film - Raja
Information Harishchandra (1913)
and Other film - Mohini Bhasmasur,
Broadcasting) Satyavan Savitri, Lanka Dahan

Fukuoka Prize Fukuoka

Preserving or creating Asian Culture
Grand Prize, Academic Prize, Arts
and Culture Prize
Indian Winners - AR Rahman,
Ramchandra Guha, Romila Thapar
LEGAL PROVISIONS

Constitution

Article 29 - Protection of interests of minorities ( + their right to receive grants from state to
conserve their heritage)
Article 49 - Protection of Monuments and places and objects of national value (obligation of
state)
Article 51A (f) - Value and preserve the rich heritage of Indian culture

Legislations

Indian Treasure Trove

Act, 1878 Passed by British to acquire any article of historical
and archaeological value found in India

Ancient Monuments
Preservation Act, 1904 Primarily concerned with monuments in custody of
individual or under private ownership
Central government and owner sign a contract which
prohibits the owner from modifying the monument
and gives the government the first rights to purchase
the land should it be put up for sale

Antiquities Export
Control Act, 1947 Enacted after Independence to regulate what can or
cannot be shipped outside India
DG has to issue a license for any object being
exported from India
DG decides if an article is an antiquity (binding)

Ancient and Historical

Monuments and Broaden the kind of sites in rural and urban
Archaeological Sites and settlements which can be covered under this law
Remains (Declaration of Monuments of historical importance and
National Importance) archeological sites under the ‘Ancient Monument
Act, 1951 Preservation Act’ were re-declared as objects of
national importance
1951 - around 450 monuments and archeological
sites were added to the original list of 1904
Amended in 1958 to preserve the physical artifacts
like sculptures and carvings
Central Government has the power to declare any
monument or archeological site of ancient and
medieval times as a repository of national
 importance
DG will have the authority from the Central
government to presume the guardianship of any
such site or monument and ensure its preservation
and maintenance
Provides the Government and Director General the
power to acquire antiquities for their preservation

Delivery of Books (Public

Libraries) Act of 1954 Applies to whole of India except J&K
Defines a 'book' and 'newspaper'
Responsibility of the publisher to ensure that a
complete copy of every book and newspaper should
be submitted to the four National Libraries

Antiquities and Art

Treasures Act, 1972 Control over the movable cultural property
Control the export trade in Indian antiquities and to
prevent smuggling and fraudulent dealings
Any object produced before 100 years or more, are
considered to be ‘Antiquities’
Any person, other than an emissary of the Central
Government or someone with the authority from the
Central Government, cannot export antiquity
Those who want to sell, purchase or rent antiquities
have to obtain a license from the Central
Government

Public Records Act, 1993

Empowers the government to permanently preserve
records in public domain.
Regulate the preservation and management of
public records and decisions taken by the
government and its various statutory bodies
Documents in relation to the Central Government,
any Ministry or Department related to the
government is under the purview of the Public
Records Act
Every agency will create its own records
Records Officer will be responsible for the
maintenance of the records
Every twenty-five years, there shall be an appraisal
in consultation with the National Archives of India
and those documents that have some value shall be
preserved
 CULTURAL PLACES

Agra
Founded by Sikandar Lodhi
Mehtab Bagh - near Taj Mahal
Chini Ka Rauza - built during Shah Jahan’s reign
Agra Fort - Akbar (most buildings inside were by Shah
Jahan) - Moti Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, Jahangiri Mahal,
Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas
Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah - first Mughal architecture
entirely in white marble
Golden Triangle - Delhi/Agra/Jaipur
Taj Mahal

Agartala
Ujjayanta Palace - houses the Lakshmi Narayan Temple
Tribal festivals - Kharchi (related to menstruation of earth
goddess) and Gharia Puja
Kokborok language

Ahmedabad
UNESCO Tangible Heritage (first historical city of India)
Festivals - Navaratri and Uttarayan

Ajanta Caves
(Aurangabad) 29 Buddhist Caves - 25 Viharas + 4 Chaityas
Waghur river
Built during Maurya, Satavahana, Shunga, Gupta and
Vakatakas periods

Amritsar
Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib)
Seat of Akal Takht - highest seat of authority of the
Khalsa community
Foundation laid by Mian Mir (during period of Guru Ram
Das)
Seat of last great Sikh ruler - Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Gobindgarh Fort (built by Gujjar Bhangi, named after
Guru Gobind Singh by Maharaja Ranjit Singh)
Bodh Gaya
Mahabodhi Temple
Monastery - Bodhimanda-Vihara
Place is also called Uruvela, Vajrasena

Bhimbetka
Rock art from Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic
Homo Erectus might have inhabited these rock shelters
Upper Paleolithic paintings depict large mammals,
second phase shows small, stylised figurines
“Zoo Rock"

Chandigarh
First planned city of India (Le Corbusier)
Rock Garden - New Chand
Sukhna Lake
Dr. Zakir Hussain Rose Garden

Delhi
Humayun Tomb
Red Fort Complex (contains Purana Qila)
Qutb Minar Complex
Jama Masjid
Tomb of Safdar Jung (sandstone and marble) in 1754 -
Safdar Jung was Nawab of Oudh
India Gate - dedicated to Indian soldiers who lost their
lives in WWI (designed by Edwin Lutyens)

Dholavira
“Kodata Timba” in local language
Khadir Bet archaeological site
Early, Mature and post-Urban phases of Harappan
civilisation

Darjeeling Rail
Runs to Ghum (highest railway station in India)
Run between Kurseong and Darjeeling

Ellora
Hindu caves mostly during Kalachuris and Chalukyas
Brahmanical and Buddhist caves built mostly by the
 Rashtrakuta dynasty
Jain caves by Yadava dynasty
17 Hindu Caves, 15 Buddhist Caves, 5 Jain Caves

Elephanta
Built by Rashtrakutas
5 Hindu caves (mostly Shaivism), 2 Buddhist caves
Damaged due to Portuguese activities in 14th-17th
century
Caves made up of solid basalt rock

Golconda Fort
Capital of Qutb Shahi dynasty
Produced Kohinoor, Hope, Nassak, Noor-ul-Ain
First built by Kakatiya dynasty (12th century), but fell to
marauders - revived by Qutb Shah (1507)
Fateh Darwaza - erected when Aurangzeb’s forces
marched into the fort
Taramati Mosque

Guwahati Temple
Kamakhya Temple - Ambubachi Mela
Peacock Island - smallest river island in the world

Hampi
Name derived from Pampa (name of Tungabhadra)
Ashokan minor rock edicts
Zenith under patronage of Vijaynagar kingdom (14th-16th
century)
Badavi Linga Temple
Chandramauleshwara Temple

UNESCO Heritage Site

Virupaksha temple
Krishna temple
Achyutaraya temple
Vitthala temple - iconic stone chariot
Hemakuta
Hazara Rama temple
Kodandarama temple
Pattabhirama temple
Mahanavami platform
 Elephant stables and Zenana enclosure
Ganagitti temple (Jain)
Ahmad Khan mosque and tomb

Hyderabad
Banks of Musi
Hussain Sagar Lake
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah established in 1591
Asaf Jah dynasty took over in 1724
Char Minar
Golconda Fort
City of Pearls
One of the few cities in India where Urdu is still being
spoken
“Genome Valley” - large number of Pharma companies

Jogeshwari Caves
Second largest cave after Kailash cave of Ellora
Possibly a transition between Ajanta and Elephanta

Kanheri Caves
Inside Sanjay Gandhi National Park
Have caves belonging to both Hinayana and Mahayana
sects

Jaipur
Old Rajput capital of Amber + New city of Maharaja Jai
Singh II (1727)
Jantar Mantar - Sawai Jai Singh II
Nahargarh Fort
Hawa Mahal
Amer Palace - was the seat of Kachchwaha Rajputs
Jal Mahal
Kanak Vrindavan

Khajuraho
Built by Chandela kings in Nagara style
Lakshmana Temple - Dhanga // Yashovarman
Vishwanath Temple - Dhanga
Kandariya Mahadev Temple
Chausath Yogini Temple
Al Biruni mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti
6 are dedicated to Shiva, 1 to Sun God, 8 to Vishnu, 3 to
 Jain Tirthankaras

Lepakshi Veerbhadra Temple - built during Vijaynagar period

Lepakshi paintings are representative of Vijaynagar Art
“Dakshinamurty”, “Ladies attending Parvati”, “Shiva chasing
boar”
No blue colour, outlines in black

Konark
Built under Narasimhadeva I
Nagara (Kalinga) style of temple architecture

Leh
Alchi Choskor - Buddhist monastery
Leh Palace
Namgyal monastery (Red Gompa) - Kalachakra ritual
dance
Shanti Stupa at lee constructed by Japanese in 1983

Mandu
Fort built by Parmar rulers on top of Vindhyas (overlooks
Narmada Valley on one side and Malwa plateau on the
other), also inhabited by Afghans and Mughals
Alauddin Khilji captured in 13th century and renamed it
as Shadibad
Malwa architecture
Jahaz Mahal - built by Ghiyasuddin Khilji between two
artificial lakes
Hindola Mahal
Hoshang Shah tomb - first marble structure in India
(Afghan architecture)
Roopmati Pavillion and Bay Bahadur Palace

Mumbai
Victoria Terminus (Gothic colonial architecture) +
Churchgate
Prince of Wales museum (now Chhatrapati Shivaji
Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya)

Nagarjunakonda
Named after Buddhist monk/philosopher Nagarjuna (who
established Madhyamika school)
Excavation - Stupa, Vihara, Pottery, Buddhist sculptures,
Ikshvaku amphitheater
 Inhabited in early Stone Age as well

Nagaland
Tribes - Ao, Sangtham, Lothas, Angami, Yimchunger

Ranchi
Rock gardens in Gonda hills
Hundru Falls (Subarnarekha rivers)
Jagannathpur Temple built in 1691 on similar lines as the
Puri temple

Rameshwaram
1/4 of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwarka, Rameshwaram,
Puri)
Located in an island in Gulf of Mannar
Ramanathaswamy Temple - Started by Chola rulers, but
major part of the temple was built by Nayaka rulers in the
16th-17th century AD (mouth of Vaigai river)
Rama offered prayers to Shiva after defeating Ravana

Rakhigarhi (Hisar)
Largest settlement of IVC
Possibly pre dates Mohenjo Daro and Harappa
May have declined due to drying up of Saraswati river
Hakra ware - special type of pottery found only in early
Indus Valley sites
Paved roads, rain water collection structures, drainage
system

Shravanabelgola
Bahubali statue (Mahamastakabhisekha) - world’s tallest
monolithic statue
Chandragupta Maurya performed Santhara here
Jain monks led by Bhadrabahu (Digambara) had sought
refuge here

Thanjavur
Rajarajeshwara Temple - Rajaraja Chola
Tanjore style of painting
Most of the city was constructed by Chola rulers in 11th
century
Bhonsle family of Marathas took over Thanjavur between
1650s to 1850s
Varanasi
'Spiritual capital' of India
Adi Shankara established Shaivism as the official sect of
Varanasi
Kashi Vishwanath temple
Manikarnika Ghat, Dashashwamedha Ghat

Ujjain
Banks of Kshipra river
Capital of Avanti kingdom (residence of Ashoka)
Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga (destroyed by Illtutmish and
reconstructed by Scindias)
Jantar Mantar by Sawai Man Singh
Kumbh Mela

Puri
Between 4th and 19th century, the temple was invaded
18 times

Amravati
Banks of Krishna river
Capital of Satavahanas
Amaralingeshwara Temple
Dhyana Buddha
Kondaveedu Fort
Undavalli Caves - sandstone rock cut caves

Gwalior
Ruled by Tomars (13th century), Mughals, Marathas and
Scindia (1750s)
Gwalior fort - Tomara dynasty (Gibraltar of India
Jai Vilas Palace - was the residential palace of Maratha
rulers, has the world’s largest chandelier
Seas Bahu temple

Allahabad
Capital of Kuru rulers of Hastinapur - Kausambi
Named Illahabad by Akbar
Allahabad pillar (Ashoka, Samudragupta)
Prayag - Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati
Ustad Amjad Ali Khan - Sarod - Senia Bangash lineage (Tansen’s descendants who
evolved the Rabab into Sarod)
Bismillah Khan - Shehnai (Performed at the Red Fort on India’s first Independence Day,
from lineage who were at court of Dumraon in Bihar)
MS Subbulakshmi - First musician to win the Bharat Ratna
Hariprasad Chaurasia - Flute
Zakir Hussain - Tabla (Tried to bridge Carnatic and Hindustani music)
Ustad Vilayat Khan - Sitar (Vilayatkhanibaaj style of Sitar), Etawah Gharana

Birju Maharaj - Kathak (Lucknow Gharana)

Mrinalini Sarabhai - Bharatnatyam and Kathakali , founded Darpana Academy of
Performing Arts in Ahmedabad
Bimbavati Devi - Manipuri, Pung (Manipuri mridangam), Thang Ta
Sonal Mansingh - Bharat Natyam, Odissi, Chhau
Shashadhar Acharya - Chhau

Abanindranath Tagore - Bharat Mata, Ganesh Janani, Veena Player

Amrita Shergill - Young Women
Jamini Roy - Mother and Child, Makara
Satish Gujral - Meerabai, Raising of Lazarus
SH Raza - Bindu
Nandlal Bose - Pioneer of contextual modernism movement

Prithviraj Kapoor - Indian People’s Theatre Association, Prithvi Theatre

Habib Tanvir - Naya theatre that focussed on working with tribes of Chhattisgarh
Alyque Padamsee - Pioneer of advertising

Static nature of Hindu caste system has kept many craft forms alive because the artisan
had no opportunity to move away to other professions, as social boundaries were rigid
Practice of craft often had a devotional aspect to it (dedication of skill to gods)
Kammalars - artisans who claimed descent from the 5 sons of Vishwakarma, followed the
Shilpa Sastras