Class 12 Physical Education Notes

Chapter 2
Children and Women in Sports

Motor Development
Motor development only happens when the child is biologically and mentally ready for it. Motor development refers
to the development of movement and various motor abilities from birth till death. It is the ability to move around and
manipulate his/her environment. There are four stages of motor development in children
Infanthood (0-2 years)
Early childhood (2-6 years)
Middle childhood (7-12 years)
Later childhood (12 years and later)
The first stage is marked by extremely rapid growth and development, as is the second stage. By the age of 2 years,
this development has begun to level out somewhat. The final stage does not have any marked new development; rather
it is characterised by the mastering and development of the skills achieved in the first two stages. Before the stages of
childhood, there is the age of infancy that is from 0-2 years.
Types of Motor Development
There are two types of motor development/skills
Gross Motor Development This development uses the larger muscles of the skeleton or groups of larger muscles to
maintain posture and balance for activities such as throwing a ball, walking, running and hopping.
Fine Motor Development This development uses the smaller muscles of the hand, feet and face for more precise
activities such as eating, speaking, playing with toys and eventually writing.
Factors that Influence Motor Development
The development and quality of a child’s motor skills are influenced by many factors. These include
Tone It refers to the ongoing contraction and state of the muscle at rest. Tone can be normal, hypotonic or hypertonic.
Strength It refers to the force of a muscle contraction purposefully exerted against resistance to carry out an activity.
Endurance This is the ability to maintain the exertion required for an activity.
Motor Planning It is the complex and often intuitive ability to know how to carry out the steps needed to complete a
physical, activity.
Sensory Integration It is the ability to accurately interpret sensory input from the environment and to produce an
appropriate motor response.
Exercise Guidelines at Different Stages of Growth and Development
The motor development in children takes place in various stages of growth. The infanthood or infancy is followed by
the childhood, stage that is divided into three stages : the early, middle and later childhood.
Infanthood (0-12 Months)
Turns head.
Moves arms and legs.
Reaches and grasps objects.
Rolls back from side to side.
Crawls, stands and walks.
Childhood (2-12 Years)
2-5 Years (Early Childhood)
Basic locomotor.
Ball-handling.
Eye-hand coordination.
Running, jumping, hopping, skipping grasping.
Games with-simple rules.
6-10 Years (Middle Childhood)
Fine motor skills.
Fine eye-hand coordination.
Growth is relatively slow.
Cognitive activities.
Movement precision.
Balancing and coordination.
Catching, throwing; kicking.
Planned activities games.
11-12 Years (Late Childhood)
Motor skills perfected.
Onset of puberty.
Beginning of sexual maturation.
Competition.
Planned activities, that involve a .lot of movements.
Weight Trainin
Weight training refers to the physical exercise which involves lifting weights to improve the” performance of the
muscles. Weight training-for children carries with it a variety of advantages.
It builds muscle strength and strong bones.
It reduces excess, body weight.
It boosts confidence.
It makes a child more competitive.
Disadvantages of weight training are as follows
Serious injuries have come from situations with home gym equipment when there was no supervision.
Another disadvantage is the risk of non-flexibility. This happens when proper exercise to. increase flexibility is not
done along with weight training. If weight training is combined with flexibility exercises then this problem will not
occur.
Concept of Correct Posture
Correct posture is one in which the body is so balanced as to produce least fatigue. It means that correct posture is the
position of the body held without any sense of effort. The body weight should be equally distributed over both the legs
and feet so as to produce least fatigue. Correct posture may also be defined as that assumed position which enables the
body to perform or function effectively.
These are stated below
1. Correct Posture of Standing In standing position, both the heels of the feet should meet each other. The whole body
should be erect, knees straight, chin inside, chest forward, belly backward and pressed inside with equal body weight
on both feet. In this position, the complete body should be balanced.
2. Correct Posture of Sitting When we sit in a chair, our hips should be in a straight line and erect. Legs should touch
the ground and should not be in hanging position. Thighs should be in horizontal position. The backbone should be
erect with the upper region of the backbone straight against the back of the chair. While we read, the book should be
on the table but the book should not be too away or too near the eyes. The approximate distance between book and
eyes should be at least 30 cms. For writing, a table with slight inclination towards the outside is appropriate.
Advantages of Correct Posture
Advantages of correct posture are as follows
Improves Physical Appearance A good posture helps in creating a good impression and improves the physical
appearance. This in turn helps in building an impressive personality.
Have more Energy Good posture ensures greater energy as the mind and body work in coordination with each other.
More energy means more capacity to work and perform tasks.
Increases Flexibility Good posture ensures proper alignment of the body as well as balanced approach. This increases
the flexibility of the body as bones and muscles remain well toned.
Reduces Muscle Tension Good posture does not put excess pressure on a particular muscle. Therefore the muscles
remain in their normal position. Neither it brings stiffness to any part of the body so there is no tightening of the
muscles.
Increases Confidence An upright and relaxed posture increases strength and power of a person. This helps the
individual to sit or stand upright which brings in confidence.
Causes of Bad Posture
Poor posture is the posture that results from certain muscles tightening up or shortening. There are different factors
which can impact on posture. Some common causes for bad posture are given below
Pain or Past Injuries In order to avoid the pain in the body such as back pain or simply to avoid pain from past
injuries, people try to overcome the pain by holding the body in a different position. When this posture is continued
for a long time, it can become a daily habit. Hence holding yourself differently can be due to some pain or muscle
injury in any part of your body.
Low Nutrition Low nutrition and lack of vitamins and calcium in the diet can affect the bones and muscles by not
providing adequate strength and flexibility to hold your body in a correct posture.
Hereditary Reasons Having a family history of bent back or flat foot, may cause bad posture. The genes may be
responsible for poor posture.
Overweight and Obesity Extra body weight can also be the reason for poor posture. Obese and overweight people tend
to collect excess fat around their stomach and hips. This puts strain on the skeletal system as well as muscles thereby
resulting in poor posture.
Habit Sometimes, the way you walk or . the way you hold things can be the reason of bad posture. For instance, if you
always walk with your head down or slump your shoulders, this can cause your posture to pull out from proper
alignment. Sometimes, carrying weight on only one side of the body can contribute to imbalanced or poor posture.
This is especially true for children who carry heavy bags to school on one side of their body, as the bones are soft at
this age. .
Type of Job People who have desk jobs often push their neck and head forward and hunch their shoulders. All these
factors contribute to our inability to keep our spines straight and results in – poor posture.
Lifestyle and Fashion Clothing and shoes especially affect posture. Women who walk in pencil heels are more prone
to cause problems to their posture. Besides high heeled shoes, wearing boots, tight fitting clothes, low waist jeans and
wide belts can cause bad posture. This changes your centre of gravity, which ultimately causes your posture to suffer.
Common Postural Deformities
This refers to the deformation in the skeletal structure or where the body parts are not aligned that results in some kind
of postural deformities. People having postural deformities cannot perform their work efficiently. Some common
postural deformities are Knock Knee, Flat Foot, Round Shoulders, Lordosis, Kyphosis, Bow Legs and Scoliosis.
1. Knock Knee
Knock knee is a postural deformity in which both the knees touch or overlap’each other in the normal standing
position. Due to this deformity, an individual usually faces difficulty during walking.
Causes
Weakness of muscles and ligaments.
Overweight body.
Lack of balanced diet.
Lack of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.
Precautions
Balanced diet should be taken.
Do not force the babies to walk at early age.
Corrective Measures
Horse riding is to be done regularly, as it is one of the best exercise’s for correcting this problem.
Keep a pillow between your knees whenever possible.
Perform Padmasana and Gomukhasana.
Take nutritious meals.
2. Flat Foot
It is a deformity of the feet. In this deformity, there is no arch in the foot and the foot is completely flat. The individual
faces problems in standings walking, jumping and running; –
Causes
Heaviness of the body.
Standing for a long time,
Use of poor quality footwear not having an arch.
Faulty posture.
Precautions
Wear shoes of proper shape and size.
High heeled shoes or walking barefoot for long durations should be avoided.
Corrective Measures
Walk on heels and toes.
Pick up marbles with toes.
Perform Vajrasana.
Walk on wooden staircase.
3. Round Shoulders
It is a postural deformity in which the shoulders become round as they are drawn forward, the head is extended and
the chin points forward.
Causes
Poor posture in work, particularly in a desk job.
Faulty furniture.
Wrong habit of standing and sitting.
Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
Precautions
Do not sit, stand or walk in bent position.
Avoid tight fitting clothes.
Corrective Measures
Stand in correct posture.
Keep the finger tips on your shoulders and encircle your elbows in clockwise and anti-clockwise direction.
Perform Chakrasana and Dhanurasana for some time.
Hold the horizontal bar for some time.
4. Lordosis
It is the inward curvature of the spine or a deformity of spinal curvature. It is an increased forward curve in the lumbar
region. It creates problems in standing and walking.
Causes
Habitual over-eating.
Improper environment.
Diseases affecting vertebrae.
Improper development of muscles.
Lack of exercise.
Precautions
Take a balanced diet.
Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.
Corrective Measures
Perform Halasana and Paschimottasana.
Do sit-ups slowly.
Stand to attention and touch the feet with the hands repeatedly.
Lie on your back and lift feet vertically.
5. Kyphosis
It is a deformity of the spinal curvature in which there is an increase of exaggeration of a backward curve or a
decrease of a forward curve. It is also called as round upper back.
Causes
Malnutrition, illness.
Carrying heavy load on shoulders.
Habit of bending while walking.
Wearing light and shapeless clothes.
Precautions
Take a balanced diet.
Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.
Corrective Measures
Bend head backwards in standing position.
Perform Chakrasana and Bhujangasana.
Hold arms at shoulder level and bending elbows.
6. Bow Legs
It is a deformity just the reverse of the knock knee position. In fact, if there is a wide gap between the knees, the
deformity can be observed easily when an individual walks or runs.
Causes
Putting extra weight on leg muscles.
Lack of balanced diet and deficiency of calcium and phosphorus.
Improper way of walking.
Forcing babies to walk at a very early age.
Precautions
Balanced diet should be taken.
Do not force the babies to walk at early age.
Corrective Measures
Never stand for a long time.
Use vitamin D supplement and a proper balanced diet.
Walk by bending the toes inward or on the inner edge of the feet.
Proper massage should be given to the child if this problem is observed early in life.
7. Scoliosis
It is a postural deformity of spinal curvature in which there is one ldrge lateral curve extending through the whole
length of the spine, or there may be two curves. This type of deformity is also called curve.
Causes
Short leg of one side.
One side flat foot.
Carrying heavy loads on one shoulder.
Heredity defects.
One side paralysis of spinal muscles.
Precautions
Take a balanced diet.
Keep the body straight while carrying weights.
Avoid walking too long with weight on one hand.
Don’t walk, sit or stand in bent position.
Corrective Measures
Perform Trikonasana with proper technique.
Avoid walking with a heavy weight.
Lie down in prone position, i.e. on the chest. Right arm should be upward and left atm at side. After that move right
arm towards,the left overhead. Press down with left hand and then slide the left hip up.
Stand erect, lift left heel and left hip, extend right arm in an arch and press left hand against the ribs.
Note This problem can be controlled by an expert doctor.
Special consideration (Menarche & Menstrual Dysfunction) :Menarcheis one of the most significant milestones in a
woman's life. The first cycles tend to be anovulatory and vary widely in length. They are usually painless and occur
without warning. Menarche occurs between the ages of 10 and 16 years in most girls in developed countries.
Menstrual Dysfunction: Menstrual dysfunction is defined in terms of bleeding patterns, for example, amenorrhea (lack
of menstruations), menorrhagia (excessive bleeding during menstruation), or polymenorrhea (frequent menstruation);
ovarian dysfunction for example, anovulation and luteal deficiency; pain (dysmenorrhea); and premenstrual
Female Athletes Triad (Osteoporosis, Amenorrhea, Eating Disorders) :The female athlete triad is defined as the
combination of disordered eating, amenorrhea and osteoporosis. This disorder often goes unrecognized. The
consequences of lost bone mineral density can be devastating for the female athlete.
Women and Sports
Sports Participation of Women in India
The participation of women in sports in India is very small. Gender inequality is strongly evident in every field of life
including sports. The problem is more socio-psychological than anything else. The Government of India instituted the
National Sports Festival for Women with the objective to promote women’s sports. However, this programme could
not bring any noticeable improvement in women’s participation in sports. Surveys have shown that women don’t
participate in sports due to
Time Constraints Women find less time for sports due to their domestic duties.
Social Constraints The attitude of society towards participation of women in sports is negative.
Lack of Sports Infrastructure Specialised coaching centers, training programmes, equipment that are suitable for
women athletes are not present adequately.
Absence of Skill There are very few female coaches available to develop the skills of women. Sociological constraints
limit the success of male coaches with female athletes.
Concerns for Personal Safety Women are more afraid to venture in a ‘male’ field (perceived) as they are concerned
more about safety from harassment or exploitation.
Methods to Increase Women’s Participation in Sports
There are various ways in which women’s participation can be increased
Coaching Programmes
Women should be encouraged and provided with the opportunity to undertake leadership positions within
organisations. They should be provided with good technical instruction. They must be given positive, encouraging,
and instructive feedback. They should have a strong voice in programmes and all concerned should maintain a flexible
approach to participation to ensure their needs are heard and met.
Safety
Exercising in groups can make physical activity safer for women and girls. Community sports facilities should be
provided with separate location for women.
Facilities
Changing facilities must he provided that take, into account women’s and girl’s hygiene needs. Adequate provision
for childcare should be made so that women without any hesitation can bring their children to the participation and
training venues. We must ensure that all areas are easily accessible to girls and their parents.
Price/Affordability
Participation fee in sports should be reduced or abolished for women. Concessions for travelling and boarding should
be provided to women.
Special Considerations Associated with Physiology
Special care should be taken by sportswomen because of the problems associated with their physiology. Problems
faced by women during their life are

Menarche
Menarche is a girl’s first menstrual period. It can happen as early as age 9 or up to age 15. During this time, girls feel
tense and emotional. So special attention should be given to them at this time. As a sportsperson, a young woman has
to take special care of herself at that time.
Menstrual Dysfunction
Due to participation of women in physical fitness and competitive endurance sports, the incidence of menstrual
dysfunction has increased. Long distance . running and other sports may lead to alterations in androgen, estrogen and
progesterone hormones, which in some women may directly or indirectly result in amenorrhea (absence of menstrual
periods) or infertility.
Female Athlete Triad
The ‘female athlete triad’ is a syndrome of three related conditions generally seen in teenage or adult female athletes
who aren’t meeting their energy requirements, which ultimately leaves them undernourished. This also affects their
performance severely.
The three components of the female athlete triad include
Osteoporosis It is a condition in which bones become weak and brittle. It occurs when the body loses too much bone,
makes too little bones or both.
Amenorrhiea It is the absence of menstruation periods’that can-happen for many reasons. Main causes are
genetic abnormalities, excessive exercise and extreme physical or psychological stress.
Eating Disorders It refers to either eating in excessive amounts or eating in very little amounts. This disorder is related
to mental illness and affects a – person’s physical and. mental health. A female athlete can have one, two, or all three
parts of the triad.
Psychological Aspects of Women Athletes
Psychological aspects of Women athletes are discussed below
Stress All women athletes undergo various degrees of stress-due to increased competition and. male domination. But
women are able-to handle stress in a better way as they are more open and have a large social circle.
Aggression Women may experience aggression that may reduce then- performance in sports. But they are able to
mange the aggression and also are less aggressive in nature.
Sensitive Women are more sensitive to the reaction of the people towards them. Therefore positive reinforcements by
parents, coach, friends can enhance their performance.
Eager to Learn Women are more eager to learn the new skills and techniques. Therefore coaching is easier in case of
women athletes.
Coping Women are able to handle and manage their emotional and interpersonal problems in a more efficient way.
This helps women athletes to make strategies for better performance.
Sociological Aspects of Sports Participation
The sociological aspects that prevent women athletes in sports participation are as follows
Social Stigma The social outlook is that girls are feeble, weak as compared to men and therefore they should not
participate in sports.
Safety Issues Girls have to face certain safety issues such as late night training, going to and coming from sports
venues, coaching centers etc. Due to this, they find it difficult to pursue sports.
Lack of Proper Facilities Women have to face lack of specific facilities such as separate changing rooms, rest rooms
etc. This leaves very few opportunities for women.
Lack of Role Models In the absence of women’s greater participation in sports, there are no role models. Due to this,
girls do not get encouragement from parents or coaches.
Less Media Coverage Women sports tournaments do not get wide coverage as men’s sports. Electronic and print
media do not give proper attention on women tournaments. Therefore women do not get encouragement to participate
in sports.