EC- 515 Die Cast ing

Defect s
Dr. St eve Midson
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• You can’t correct and cont rol defect s

wit hout first m easuring and report ing
t hem .

• The scrap report ing syst em m ust be set

up for t hose who have t o m ake
im provem ent s, not j ust for t he front
office.

• The scrap report should be available t o

everyone in t he plant . I n fact , it should
be post ed on t he bullet in board so
everyone can see it .
 BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

The daily scrap report m ust have t he following

feat ures as a m inim um :
1. I t m ust be available first t hing in t he
m orning for t he previous day
2. I t m ust cat egorize scrap ( as a m inim um ) :
By defect t ype,
By part num ber,
By die,
By shift ,
By operat or,
By m achine.
 BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• The scrap report ing syst em should show long

t erm t rends and be able t o predict t he cust om er
rej ect s based on t he current scrap act ivit y -
Paret o chart s are good ways t o show t he
problem s
• The report should include defect s t hat are not
det ect ed unt il t he part s are downst ream - and a
syst em developed so t hese defect s can be
t racked t o t he shift and m achine t hat produced
t hem
• All shot s should be report ed, even warm - up and
scrap t hat is ret urned t o t he furnace at t he
m achine ( t hey cost in die life)
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• The process is com plex, and a cont inuous

report ing syst em m ust be set up t o provide real
t im e feedback and effect ive process cont rol if
defect s are t o be cont rolled.
•
• The t wo m aj or defect s in die cast ing are surface
qualit y and porosit y. Bot h of t hese require
j udgm ent decisions about severit y.
•
• This m eans a m et hod of m easuring t he severit y
of defect s is a requirem ent and m ust be
devised for m any sit uat ions.
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS
• A rat ing syst em is int ended t o t ell you if t he defect
problem s are get t ing bet t er or worse, or whet her
changes m ade in t he process are m aking a
difference.

• What you are looking for is t he abilit y t o t rack any

changes or t rends, and t o know when correct ions
are needed. This syst em also allows correct ions t o
be m ade before t he defect level becom es a crisis.

• The st andards used for t he rat ing syst em m ay not

coincide wit h t he cust om er st andards or t he qualit y
dept . Rat ings; t hey are for a different purpose and
do not need t o coincide.
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• For exam ple, you m ay rank a porosit y defect

from t he worst t o t he best wit h rankings from 1
t o 5.
•
• A capabilit y st udy could be done as follows:
• Take 6 set s of sam ples of 5 sequent ial cast ings
at int ervals of 1/ 2 hr t o 2 hr.

• Rat e each cast ing and average t he t ot al. This

gives t he average qualit y level; t his should be
checked against sim ilar st udies t o det erm ine if
t he process is im proving or degenerat ing
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• One of t he m ost difficult problem s in

developing a rat ing syst em is finding a m et hod
of report ing and rat ing porosit y
• The m ost t ypical m et hods are x- ray, m achining,
or sawing.
• A cheap and effect ive m et hod is t o use an old
lat he t o approxim at ely duplicat e t he cust om er ’s
m achining.
• Always select exam ples for t he rat ing syst em
and save t hem . They m ust not be used for
any ot her purpose.
BASI CS FOR CONTROLLI NG DEFECTS

• Thus defect correct ions m u st st art wit h a good

scrap report ing syst em

• Developing t his syst em m ay st art wit h defining

t he nam es of defect s, which m eans a
docum ent or board wit h sam ples and nam es of
defect s

• Bot t om line: YOU CAN’T I MPROVE I T I F YOU

CAN’T MEASURE I T!
 Die Cast ing Defect s
1. Surface defect s 11.Carbon
2. Lam inat ions 12.Erosion/ cavit at ion
3. Gas porosit y 13.Out gassing
4. Blist ers 14.Bending/ warping
5. Shrink porosit y 15.Flash
6. Sinks 16.St ained cast ings
7. Leakers 17.Waves/ lakes
8. Cracks 18.Drags
9. I nclusions 19.Ej ect or pin defect s
10.Solder 20.Cold flake
21.Excessive flux
Surface Defect s
 Causes Of Surface Defect s
• This part of t he class is about t hose t ypes of
defect s t hat appear on t he surface of a die
cast ing
• These defect s are called by one of t he following
nam es:
• Cold Flow Cold Shut
• Flow Lines Cold
• Chill Non- fill
• No- fill Poor- fill
• Laps Lines
• Run Marks Misruns
• Ot hers:
Pict ures - Surface Defect s
 Fact ors Cont rolling Surface Defect s
• A general list of t he fact ors t hat cont rol t his
kind of defect is shown below. These are
cont rolled by different people, m aybe even
different com panies
– The wall t hickness
– The cast ing shape
– The fill t im e
– The flow pat t ern ( gat e design)
– The die t em perat ure
– The m et al t em perat ure
– The t ype of alloy
 Who Cont rols Surface Defect s?

• The first 2 fact ors on t he list are cont rolled by

t he part design
– Wall t hickness and cast ing shape
– Very im port ant Regarding surface defect problem s
• The wall t hickness is t he m ost crit ical,
– Cont rols m any cast ing param et ers
• Required fill t im e
• Required die t em perat ure
• Dist ance t he m et al will flow
• Lengt h of defect free surface t hat can be m ade
• Good surface qualit y requires consist ent wall
t hickness,
– The designer and t he die cast er should focus on
reducing heavy sect ions
– Try t o m ake t he wall t hickness const ant
 Wall Thickness And Surface Defect s
• The operat ing param et ers for t hin walls are
very different t han for t hick walls
• A t hin wall causes t he flow t o freeze and
develop cold flow quickly,
• For alum inum and m agnesium , a t ypical
m inim um wall t hickness will be about 1.5m m
– For a flow dist ance of about 150 m m or m ore
• For zinc, t he m inim um wall t hickness would be
about 1.0 m m
 Wall Thickness And Surface Defect s
• For exam ple, see t he change in fill t im e
required by change in wall t hickness:
Ch a n ge in W a ll
Fill Tim e Ch a n ge Re qu ir e d
Th ick n e ss
2 m m t o 1.5 m m 25% reduct ion in fill t im e
3.5 t o 3.0 m m 12% reduct ion in fill t im 2

• Thus a sm all variat ion in plunger speed ( fill

t im e) on a t hin wall ( say 2.0 m m ) cast ing is
very not iceable for surface defect s, while t here
would not be m uch not iceable for t he sam e fill
t im e variat ion in a t hicker wall ( i.e. 5.0 m m )
alum inum cast ing

17
 Wall Thickness And Surface Defect s
• The die t em perat ure will also becom e m uch
m ore crit ical and, in addit ion t o becom ing
m uch m ore sensit ive, t he reduced m ass of
t he part will not provide enough heat for t he
die
• The basic requirem ent for m aking a t hin wall
cast ing is a very fast fill t im e in a hot die
wit h a high gat e velocit y
 Wall Thickness And Surface Defect s

• Sum m ary of wall t hickness issues for t hin wall

part s:
– Talk t o designer early
– Get wall t hickness t he sam e ( consist ent )
– Keep wall t hickness variat ion down wit h narrow
range t o t oolm aker
– Expect m uch a sm aller process window, and set up
m uch t ight er process cont rols
– Use low or very low fill t im es
– Use direct feed from gat e
– Use high gat e velocit ies ( but wit hin norm al range)
– Use high die t em perat ures
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s
• Fill t im e has a m aj or im pact on surface qualit y
• The fill t im e is defined as t he t im e beginning
when t he m et al first arrives at t he gat e and
ending when t he cavit y is full of m et al ( including
t he overflows and vacuum runners)

20
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

The fill t im e can be calculat ed from t he form ula

given in t he NADCA gat ing course, which is:

 ti  tf  ( S * Z ) 
Max fill t im e = K * T
 t f  td


Where:
K= A const ant
T= Average cast ing wall t hickness
ti = Met al inj ect ion t em perat ure
tf = Met al flow t em p ( solidus)
td = Die t em perat ure
S= Percent solids at cavit y full
Z = Conversion for lat ent heat
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

For som e rough guidelines, t he following are

m axim um fill t im es based on calculat ions and
experience and will be reasonable for m ost
cast ings:
Thin wall Average wall
< 2 mm > 2 mm
Al, approx. 2 kg .09 sec .1 sec
Zn, approx. 1.4 kg .03 sec .05 sec
Mg, approx. 1 kg .02 sec .03 sec

Not e: for high qualit y surface finish, reduce t he

fill t im es shown by about 50%
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

• Predict ing t he fill t im e is best done wit h

t he PQ2 calculat ion
• The PQ2 calculat ion predict s t he change in
fill t im e and gat e velocit y from changing
any of t he following:
– The gat e area
– The plunger size
– The m achine hydraulic pressure
– The plunger speed set t ing
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

• The PQ2 calculat ion provides t he only way t hat

t he fill t im e can be predict ed accurat ely
– Wit hout it you m ust guess, and t his is expensive
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

• This list shows som e of t he t hings t hat can

affect t he plunger speed, which in t urn changes
t he fill t im e and t he cast ing surface finish.
Som e of t hese are:
– Dragging t ip
– Plunger lubricat ion
– Poor sleeve condit ion
– Poor plunger condit ion
– Poor cooling wat er flow t o t he plunger
– Sleeve deflect ion
– Gooseneck and plunger ring condit ions
– Hydraulic pressure
– Low ( or high) nit rogen charge
– Gat e size
 Fill Tim e And Surface Defect s

• Sum m ary of fill t im e adj ust m ent s:

– Set fill t im e m axim um values wit h
calculat ions and experience, t hen use a
disciplined process
– Use PQ2 t o predict adj ust m ent s t o get t he
right values and elim inat e cost ly t rial and
error
– Measure and cont rol process variables wit h a
m onit or syst em
– Maint ain cont rol of sleeve and gooseneck
condit ions t o keep t he fill t im e wit hin lim it s
 Flow Pat t ern And Surface Defect s
• The m et al flow pat t ern is t he crit eria in gat e
design
• The gat e design is a funct ion of design rules as
t aught in t he NADCA gat ing classes
– Flow t he short way across t he cast ing
– Avoid m ixing flows if possible
• Flow pat t ern can be sim ulat ed wit h com put er
program s and reviewed wit h short shot s

27
 Flow Pat t erns And Surface Defect s

• These rules include:

– Use PQ2 t o size t he gat e and t he plunger, using t he
appropriat e gat e velocit y, fill t im e, and cavit y
pressure crit eria
– Divide t he cast ing int o zones
– Proport ion gat es so as t o fill each zone at t he sam e
t im e
– Flow t he short way across t he cast ing
– Avoid m ixing flows if possible ( unless close t o gat e)
– Gat e int o heavy sect ion porosit y and/ or im port ant
surface finish areas
 Flow Pat t erns And Surface Defect s

• Flow pat t ern rules ( cont inued) :

– Avoid j et flows at all t im es and dist ribut e flow as
m uch as possible
– I f possible, set gat e locat ion so vent ing can be used
opposit e t he gat e
– Avoid flow direct ly on cores if possible ( but do it if
needed for best flow pat t ern
– Keep runner lengt hs equal ( avoid “ t ree” t ype
runners)
– Eddies in t he flow pat h ( from cores or openings) will
cause swirls, gat e t o avoid t his
– Gat e t o allow for high m om ent um ( cores can be
bypassed)
 Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• The die t em perat ure’s effect on surface defect s
and t he die t em perat ure operat ing window will
be discussed next
• A low die t em perat ure affect s surface defect s by
cooling t he fluid m et al st ream and increasing t he
percent of solidified m et al in t he m et al st ream
• I f t he percent of solidified m et al is high, t hen it
becom es st iff and solid and does not knit
t oget her well; And t he flow form s " wrinkles" , or
cold flow
• A cold die can be com pensat ed for by having a
short er fill t im e - t his m eans a higher plunger
speed
• I n ot her words, we can exchange plunger speed
for die t em perat ure.
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Measuring die t em perat ure should be done on

every j ob - m ost don’t do it enough, but it is
required t o really m inim ize surface defect s
• I n general, m easuring can be done t hree ways:
– Hand held probe
– Therm ocouple in t he die
– I nfra red device
• Each has advant ages and disadvant ages:
– Hand held probe: accurat e, but m ust st op t he
m achine
– Therm ocouple in die: cont inuous, but does not
m easure surface t em perat ure
– I nfra red: easy, but not as accurat e
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Tem perat ure ranges for good surface finish:

( Measured wit h a hand held surface probe
j ust aft er t he cast ing ej ect s)

Metal Good Fin ish Ave r a ge Fin ish

Al 250 – 315 o C 190 - 315 o C

Zn 230 - 290 o C 190 - 290 o C

Mg 220 - 290 o C 200 - 290 o C

Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• The operat or can cont rol die t em perat ure wit h
t he following cont rols:
– Die spray
– Wat er/ oil flow rat es
– Cycle t im e
• The engineer can change t he design and affect
how m uch difference som e of t hese m ake, but
t he operat or oft en cont rols t he act ual use of all
of t hem . Thus t he operat ing t em perat ure of t he
die is oft en cont rolled direct ly by t he operat or
and t his die t em perat ure cont rol is probably t he
m ost im port ant act ivit y of t he operat or on t he
floor. We will review t hese in sequence
Die Tem perat ure and Surface Defect s
• Die spray is lubricant m ixed wit h wat er
• I t is m ost ly wat er
• The wat er cont rols t he t em perat ure, not t he die
spray it self
• The spray cools t he die quickly because of t he
large am ount of heat quickly pulled out of t he
die as t he wat er in t he spray boils away

34
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Som e t echniques include: spray in 2- 3 second

increm ent s wit h careful adj ust m ent of t he
spray pat t ern - spray t he areas t hat need
cooling, not j ust where t he cast ing m ight st ick
- aut om at ic sprayers wit h a set m anifold for
each j ob are a good way t o keep spray t o a
m inim um
• Keep spray equipm ent in good shape, t he m ost
im port ant fact or is consist ency
• Docum ent pressures, nozzles sizes, flow
adj ust m ent s, and spray t im es in det ail -
undocum ent ed changes should not be allowed
( changes should not be st opped, j ust
docum ent ed)
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Fact ors in t he spray act ions t hat are very

im port ant in cont rolling die t em perat ure:
– Lengt h of t im e of spray
– Spray nozzle adj ust m ent , or spray pat t ern
– Dist ance from nozzle t o t he die
– Balance bet ween air pressure and lube pressure
( drop size and velocit y)
– Minim ize over spraying
– Docum ent everyt hing - spray t im e, pressures, spray
locat ion, m ixt ures, et c...
– Be consist ent
Die Tem perat ure and Surface Defect s
• The second die t em perat ure cont rol fact or is t he
adj ust m ent s m ade t o t he wat er or t he hot oil
syst em s for int ernal die cooling- t his can be
done by t he operat or or t echnician

37
 Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Wit h wat er, flow rat e is usually m ore im port ant t han
t he t em perat ure of t he fluid. A sm all difference in
flow rat e will do m ore t han a large difference in
t em perat ure

• Measuring flow rat e is a very desirable way t o

im prove process cont rol –
– Using flow m et ers is m ore and m ore com m on
– Keeping t he pressure const ant is anot her way

• A const ant flow rat e can help t o elim inat e t he cold

flow t hat seem s t o com e and go wit hout explanat ion
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• The flow rat e is det erm ined by t he sm allest

opening in t he supply line - t his is usually t he
quick connect fit t ing
• Wat er ( or oil) m anifolds affect t he flow rat e if
t hey are not carefully designed - t here oft en is
m ore out put area t han input area
– Then which line get s t he m ost flow?
• Adj ust m ent valves should be easy t o see, easy
t o use, and have large openings for good flow
• The wat er pressure at each m achine should be
consist ent , and not vary
– Many plant s should have new piping inst alled
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• Hot oil syst em s will oft en m ake a significant
difference in t he surface defect rat e for t wo
reasons:
– I t keeps t he die hot during st oppages - t he
st art up scrap is oft en a high percent age of
t he t ot al scrap, ( t his is where hot oil can
easily pay for it self )
– I t can add heat t o t he die as needed t o get
bet t er surface condit ions
• Hot oil unit s cool about half as effect ively as
wat er, so t he t herm al design m ust account
for t his t o get t he cycle t im es desired
– Use higher flow rat es, m ove lines closer, m ake
larger, et c..
Die Tem perat ure and Surface Defect s
• Adding overflows are anot her m et hod of
increasing die heat

41
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Som e t hings t o consider:

– Do not place wat er lines around t he out side edge of
t he cavit ies ( cool t he cold areas)
– Give priorit y t o cooling/ heat ing lines, even if t his
m eans m oving ej ect or pins or ot her changes
– Do not use t he sam e line t o cont rol t em perat ures in
bot h a hot area and a cold area
– Dept h of t he line is crit ical, set dept hs carefully
– Size of line m ust m at ch t he flow rat e
– Treat wat er because deposit s of only .005 cut heat
t ransfer by about 40%
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Anot her im port ant cont rol for t he die

t em perat ure is t he cycle t im e.
• The die t em perat ure at any given t im e is
t he direct result of t he num ber of pounds of
m et al t hat went t hrough t he die in t he last
one t o t wo hours.
• A consist ent cycle t im e is one of t he m ost
im port ant fact ors in good defect cont rol
• The cycle t im e should be m easured and
displayed t o t he operat or or t echnician in
som e way t o get good cont rol
Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• Die t em perat ure changes slowly, which can cause
som e delayed effect s, and perhaps som e confusion
• Exam ple: A change t hat adds nozzles t o t he spray
m anifold, and short ens t he spray t im e wit h even
m ore cooling t han before, and also short ens t he
cycle t im e
• There will be t wo effect s, short and long t erm . The
short t erm from t he increase in spray cooling, t he
long t erm from t he change in cycle t im e
• I ncreasing t he cooling from spray will reduce t he
die t em perat ure quickly ( short t erm )
• Reducing t he cycle t im e will increase t he die
t em perat ure ( long t erm )
 Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s

• Sum m ary of correct ing surface defect s wit h die

t em perat ure:
– Measure die t em perat ure t o know where t o
change and how m uch
– Est ablish t em perat ure goals for m inim um defect s
– I ncrease die t em perat ure in t he defect area by:
• Reducing spray
• Reducing wat er flow rat e
• Adding overflows
– I ncrease overall die t em perat ure by:
• Reducing cycle t im e
• I ncreasing hot oil t em perat ure and flow rat e
 Die Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• Sum m ary ( cont .) :
– Use good spray pract ices and keep consist ent
– Use good com put er aided t herm al analysis for
cooling/ heat ing line design
– Measure flow rat es and cont rol
– Use good engineering t o develop good qualit y
wat er at consist ent pressures
– Minim ize st art up scrap and m arginal product ion
sit uat ions wit h die pre- heat ing; Keep die hot
during short st ops
Met al Tem perat ure And Surface Defect s
• The m et al t em perat ure can m ake a significant difference
in t he surface finish
• I n general, t he m ost desirable sit uat ion is t o keep t he
m et al t em perat ure at a high range, but not high enough
t o cause a lot of ot her problem s
– Keeping t he zinc at 430 o C m ax,
– and t he alum inum at about 690 o C
– m agnesium should be kept at about 677 o C
• Cont rol m et al t em perat ure on furnaces t o wit hin + / - 5 o C
– Use consist ent t im es bet ween ladling and shot
– I f possible, cont rol t em perat ures in shot sleeve
– Use consist ent set point , do not use m et al t em perat ure as a
variable unless absolut ely necessary
Lam inat ions
 Lam inat ions
• Lam inat ions have several sources
• Usually t hey are t he result of m et al flow
condit ions where one flow lays on t he t op of
anot her, and t he flows were t oo cold t o m ix as
t hey cam e t o rest
• This is shown in t he next overhead
 Lam inat ions
• Flow pat hs 1 and 2 m eet , and are relat ively
t hin layers at t his point - t hey can be peeled
away from t he layer underneat h ( flow 3) by
grit blast ing, m achining or sim ilar act ivit y

COLD FLOW LINE

DIE SURFACE

FLOW 1
FLOW 2

FLOW 3
 Lam inat ions
• The correct ion of t hese kinds of
lam inat ions is t o correct t he process
condit ions, which include:
– Flow pat t ern ( gat ing design)
– Gat e locat ion
– Gat e velocit y
– Fill t im e
– Die t em perat ure
– Met al t em perat ure
 Lam inat ions
• These layers can com e from t he way t he m et al
flows inside t he cast ing, which m ay be due t o
t he geom et ry of t he cast ing
• I n t his case, t he flow pat t ern can be difficult t o
change wit h gat e m odificat ions, so t he
im port ant correct ions would be:
– Decrease fill t im e
– I ncrease die t em perat ure
– I ncrease m et al t em perat ure if possible
– Changing gat e velocit y ( eit her up or down) m ay also
affect t hese kinds of lam inat ions
 Lam inat ions
• Generally changing fill t im e is t he best
• I t is very com m on t hat lam inat ions are due
t o som e m et al being splashed int o t he cavit y
while t he plunger is at slow speed; I n t his
case t he correct ion would be increase t he
lengt h of fast shot ( m ove t he swit ch t owards
t he pour hole)
• Lam inat ions are also possible from a flexing
die - when t he int ensifier com es in, t he die
m ay flex and anot her layer of m et al could be
added out side t he init ial cast ing skin - t he
correct ion is add support t o t he die
 Lam inat ions
• Lam inat ions can also com e from oxide skins.
These skins com e from t he holding furnace, or
m ay be form ed in t he cold cham ber during
inj ect ion
• These will be random in locat ion, and usually
are fairly sm all, perhaps .08 ( 2m m ) in size.
When dislodged by m achining or sanding, t hey
can be m ist aken for porosit y
• The correct ions are good m et al handling,
including:
– Skim m ing t he holding pot properly
– Keep t he t im e in t he cold cham ber t o a m inim um
– Filt ering
– Fluxing and degassing properly
 Lam inat ions
• Anot her cause of lam inat ions is flash capt ured
in t he cast ing
• This happens when t he die is not cleaned
properly, and t he flash left on t he die drops int o
t he cavit y as t he die closes
• The incom ing m et al will not rem elt t he flash
and cause it t o m ix wit h t he rest of t he cast ing;
I n fact , t he m olt en m et al m ay barely adhere t o
t he flash
• This flash can m ake a very weak spot in t he
cast ing, causing cracks in addit ion t o layers on
or near t he surface ( lam inat ions)
 Lam inat ions
• The correct ions include t hose act ivit ies
t hat reduce flash, such as:
– Cleaning t he die bet ween shot s
– Not post poning die repairs
– Using good process design t o select
appropriat e m et al pressures
– Proper adj ust m ent of int ensifier set t ings
– Engineering t he die cooling t o keep die
expansion as even as possible
Porosit y
 Porosit y
• Porosit y is t he biggest
problem in die cast ing.
• The t wo basic t ypes of
porosit y in die cast ings
are:
– Shrinkage
– Gas

• I t is crit ical t hat t hose who are responsible for

solving defect s det erm ine t he kind of porosit y
before t rying t o correct it
• Each kind t akes a com plet ely different
correct ive act ion, but t hey can look alike

58
 Porosit y
• I t is im port ant t hat som e t im e be t aken t o
review porosit y before st art ing t o m ake
correct ions
• A quick exam inat ion can be m isleading
• Generally, a porosit y defect should be
exam ined under 5 t o 10 power
m agnificat ion

59
Gas Porosit y
 Gas Porosit y
• Gas porosit y is t he biggest single
problem in die cast ing
• The high gas cont ent prevent s heat
t reat ing or welding and m akes t he
st rengt h unpredict able

61
 Gas Porosit y
• There are t hree m aj or sources of gas
porosit y for die cast ings:
– Trapped air
– St eam
– Gas from lubricant
• Gas porosit y is round and generally sm oot h,
alt hough it can be flat t ened t o som e ext ent
by pressure
• The act ions t o reduce gas porosit y, in
general, are not t he sam e as t he act ions for
reducing shrink porosit y

62
Gas Porosit y
 Gas Porosit y – Trapped Air
• Any t urbulence in t he m et al m ovem ent t hat
allows som e air bubbles t o be t rapped in t he
m et al
– These bubbles will rem ain t rapped when t he cast ing
solidifies

• Air can be t rapped in:

– Shot sleeve
– Gat ing syst em
– Die cavit y

• St art ing wit h t he shot sleeve, we will review

pot ent ial sources of t rapped air and possible
correct ions

64
 Gas Porosit y
• The first st ep is t o m aint ain t he sam e pour rat e
and shot delay t im e
– Especially im port ant if t he fill % is below about 50% .
• When t he fill is less t han 50% , a wave is
generat ed by t he pouring act ion
– This wave t ravels back and fort h from t he part ing
line t o t he shot t ip
• The t im e at which t he plunger t ip st art s t o
m ove and it s speed and accelerat ion are
designed so air is not t rapped
• A surfing wave t raps air

65
 Gas Porosit y
• I f t he wave is m et by t he t ip as it m oves
forward, t hen ext ra splashing and sloshing is
generat ed, and t his capt ures som e bubbles.
However, if t he t ip is st art ed forward j ust
aft er t he wave has been reflect ed from it ,
t hen t he t ip “ chases” t he wave, and t his will
give t he best chance for m inim izing air
ent rapm ent
• The t im er t hat set s t he t im e delay bet ween
t he end of pour and t he st art of shot will
det erm ine when t he t ip st art s forward in
relat ionship t o t his wave
 Gas Porosit y
• The next part of t he sequence t hat can add
t rapped air ( bubbles) and porosit y is t he
accelerat ion of t he plunger t o t he slow shot
speed
• This accelerat ion rat e should be slow enough
t o keep t he m et al from t um bling over
( surfing) , and fast enough t o prevent
t rapped air bet ween t he generat ed wave and
waves reflect ed from t he die
• This accelerat ion rat e will vary wit h t he
percent fill and t he lengt h of t he sleeve, but
t he usual range will be bet ween 2 and 2.8
inches per second per inch of t ravel
 Gas Porosit y
• The opt im um accelerat ion profile can be closely
approxim at ed by a st raight line ( linear
accelerat ion) when t he sleeve fill is below about
50% ( which is where m ost of t he problem s occur)
• Above about 50% fill, t he opt im um accelerat ion
t race will be m ore of a curve
• Using t hese m et hods, t he accelerat ion will
norm ally cause t he plunger t o reach t he crit ical
slow shot speed 1 or 2 inches before sleeve full
• This is very close t o t he st art of fast shot , so
t here is lit t le t im e t o spend at t he slow shot
speed
• The t race shown on t he next page is for a fill
percent age less t han 50%
 Gas Porosit y

30

25
Plunger Velocity (in/sec)

20

15
OPTIMUM
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 P l u6n g e r P 7o s i t i o n 8( i n ) 9 10 11 12 13 14

Optimum acceleration profile with a 32% full sleeve, (3 in.

sleeve, 20 in. length, 400 ton cold chamber machine)
Note that the straight line closely approximates the
optimum profile
 Gas Porosit y

Typical overall shot profile at 32% fill, using linear

acceleration. 400 ton cold chamber machine
 Gas Porosit y
• The next phase of t he shot profile will be t he
crit ical slow shot speed - t his will be t he speed
t hat m inim izes t he t rapped air during t he slow
shot phase. This speed is calculat ed from t he
form ula:
– Css = k x [ ( 100 - % fill) / 100 ] x t ip dia

• Where k = 22.8 for ips ( inch syst em )

• This speed will m inim ize t he air t rapped in t his

port ion of t he shot
 Wave Form at ion in Sleeve
Slow shot velocity too slow Slow shot velocity too fast

Ideal slow shot velocity

 Gas Porosit y
• The following set t ings should be considered
im port ant when t rying t o reduce air t rapped in
t he shot sleeve. While one of t hese set t ings m ay
not seem t o be im port ant by it self, t here are
int eract ions and it ’s recom m ended t hey be
repeat ed as close as possible once a good set t ing
is found
– Pour rat e
– Delay t im e before shot
– Pour hole speed
– Change over point from pour hole speed t o
slow shot speed
– Slow shot accelerat ion
– Slow shot speed
– Fast shot st art point
73
 Gas Porosit y
• The next locat ion of t rapped air is likely t o be in
t he runners. Any sharp corners or sm all t o large
area changes in t he m et al flow pat h in t he
runner syst em will cause air ent rapm ent
• The m ain rule is t hat t he runner has sm oot h,
rounded corners, t hat it has ever decreasing
area from t he plunger t o t he gat e
CASTING

VERY POOR RUNNER

DESIGN, SWIRLS TRAP
AIR AND GENERATE
GAS POROSITY

74
 Gas Porosit y
• Effect of short ej ect or pins

RUNNER

TRAPPED
AIR SHORT EJECTOR PIN
BUBBLES
(POROSITY)

75
 Gas Porosit y
• Once t he m et al st art s t o ent er t he cavit y, it will
norm ally flow at a high velocit y, very t urbulent
flow condit ion, and will t rap som e of t he air
present as gas porosit y
• The flow pat t ern design should be such t hat t he
m et al t ends t o push t he air t hrough t he cavit y
t o t he vent s
• Much of t he air in t he shot sleeve and t he cavit y
can be pushed out t he vent s or t he vacuum
syst em
• Vent s m ust be sized correct ly and go t o t he
edge of t he die if t hey are t o be effect ive
• Vent s m ust be kept clean of flash & lubricant
buildup
76
 Gas Porosit y
• To sum m arize, t he cont rol of t rapped air porosit y
will involve a check list like t he following:
– Plunger cont rol set t ings
• Pour rat e
• Delay before shoot ing
• Pour hole speed
• St art slow shot point
• Slow shot speed
• Fast shot st art point
– Runner area
• No square corners
• No low or high ej ect or pins
• Decreasing runner area in t he m et al flow pat h
– Cavit y
• Vent locat ion at last place t o fill
• Vent s sized right and go t o edge of die
• Vent s t o be kept clean
77
 Gas Porosit y
• St eam is t he second source of gas porosit y
• St eam com es from wat er on t he cavit y surface
when t he m et al arrives
• This gas is m ost ly t rapped in t he m et al
because t here is lit t le chance t o push t he gas
out t he vent s - t he gas is not present unt il t he
m et al arrives, and so is m ixed wit h t he
t urbulent m et al flow as soon as it is generat ed

78
 Gas Porosit y
• The wat er is m ost ly from t he die spray but it
can also be from ot her sources
• Som e of t he wat er will evaporat e from a hot
die, but you cannot count on t his happening
• Therefore, it is crit ical t hat t he die be dry
when it is closed
• Ot her sources of wat er on t he die:
– Leaking wat er lines
– Dripping overhead sprayers
– Leaking hydraulic cylinders

79
 Gas Porosit y
• St eam porosit y t ends t o be eit her a few large
large bubbles or a group of sm aller bubbles
• I f it is from a wat er line leak, t he bubbles m ay
always congregat e in about t he sam e locat ion

80
 Gas Porosit y
• Checklist t o reduce gas porosit y from
st eam :
– To m uch wat er based die lubricant s on t he die
( t he die m ust be dry as it closes)
– Leaking wat er lines
– Leaking wat er pipe connect ions
– Crack in t he die int o a wat er line
– Sprayer dripping on t he die as it closes
– Wat er glycol hydraulic fluid get t ing on t he die

81
 Gas Porosit y
• The t hird source of gas porosit y is lubricant
• The lubricant used on t he dies or on t he
plunger can generat e gas when heat ed by t he
incom ing m et al
• This gas ( like t he st eam ) is only form ed when
t he m et al arrives, and so it is not possible t o
force m ost of t he gas out t he vent s ahead of t he
m et al flow
• All lubricant s give off som e gas when heat ed t o
t he t em perat ure of t he m olt en m et al - t he
am ount and t ype of gas will vary from lubricant
t o lubricant

82
 Gas Porosit y
• The biggest single lubricant source of gas
porosit y is t he plunger lubricant
• The usual problem is t hat t he lubricant is
applied ahead of t he plunger m uch heavier
t han is needed
• This is especially t rue when a dragging or
worn t ip is nursed along wit h ext ra lubricant

83
 Gas Porosit y
• Check list of act ions for gas porosit y from
lubricant s:
– Check t he am ount of plunger lubricant
– Reduce t he die spray lubricant
– Look for pocket s where t he lubricant can
accum ulat e on a cold die

84
Blist ers
 Blist ers
• Blist ers are anot her version of gas porosit y, t he
gas j ust happens t o be near t he surface of t he
cast ing.
• The t rapped gas is under high pressure at t he
end of fill and t he m et al m ay shrink and
squeeze it m ore.
• When t he cast ing is t aken out of t he die, and
t he die surface is no longer t here t o hold t he
cast ing shape, pressure from t he t rapped gas is
able t o push up a blist er.

86
 Blist ers
• The sam e correct ions used for gas porosit y
apply t o blist ers:
– Reduce t rapped air
– Reduce spray and plunger lubricant
– Elim inat e wat er on t he die
– Correct vent ing and vacuum problem s

87
 Blist ers
• Blist ers should be elim inat ed by correct ing
t he gas porosit y problem . However, you
can:
– Cool t he die in t he im m ediat e area where
t he blist ers occur
• Cool t he blist er area wit h die spray
• Cool t he blist er area by adj ust ing wat er lines
• Cool t he whole die by slowing t he cycle t im e
– Cool t he cast ing im m ediat ely aft er ej ect ion
by quenching in wat er ( t his will keep t he
skin st rong and resist blist er form at ion)
– Reduce m et al t em perat ure ( but wat ch
for ot her problem s)
88
Shrinkage Porosit y
 Shrink Porosit y
• Shrinkage develops because t he m et al
occupies less space when solid t han it did
when it was liquid.
• For die cast ing alloys, t he difference in
volum e will be about 6% t o 8%
• This ext ra space will be concent rat ed at
t he last point t o solidify, which is t he
hot t est spot in t hat sect ion of t he cast ing

90
 Shrink Porosit y
• Since t he locat ion of shrink porosit y is
also t he hot t est spot in t hat sect ion of
t he cast ing, it is usually in t he cent er of a
heavy sect ion
• This hot spot locat ion can be cont rolled t o
som e ext ent by die t em perat ure
• The hot spot can oft en be m oved by
changing t he die t em perat ure, t herefore
t he shrinkage porosit y can be m oved

91
 Shrink Porosit y
• An even cast ing t em perat ure will cause t he
porosit y t o spread out , and t o be roughly on
t he cent er line ( t he last point t o solidify)

WARM WARM
centerline
porosity

92
 Shrink Porosit y
• I f t here is a large t em perat ure difference,
t hen t here will be large porosit y at t he last
point t o solidify

COLD
HOT

• The spray and t he wat er line keep one end

of t he cast ing cold, t he gat e keeps t he ot her
end hot , and t he shrink porosit y will t end t o
be at t he hot end

93
 Shrink Porosit y
• I f t he hot and cold spot can be reversed, t hen
t he shrink porosit y will follow t he hot spot .
• Shrink porosit y will always be in a hot spot in
t he cast ing

COLD HOT

94
 Shrink Porosit y
• Not e t hat t he t em perat ures t hat effect t he
locat ion of shrink porosit y are inside t he cast ing
it self
• The die t em perat ures will influence t he int ernal
cast ing t em perat ure, but t hey are not always
effect ive in cont rolling it com plet ely
• Shrink porosit y in a heavy sect ion will be harder
t o m ove, shrink porosit y in a t hin sect ion will be
relat ively easy t o m ove

95
 Shrink Porosit y
• Shrink porosit y is rough and irregular in shape
and t his charact erist ic is t he quickest and
easiest way t o ident ify shrink porosit y
• The shape and appearance of t he porosit y
com es from t he way t he cast ing solidifies

96
 Shrink Porosit y
• The first m et al t o cont act t he die surface freezes
quickly and form s t he skin
• The skin is a very st rong, dense, and fine grained
surface wit h very low porosit y, due t o t he rapid
solidificat ion/ freeze rat e
• Once t he skin has form ed, t he rat e slows down
and a dendrit ic st ruct ure st art s t o appear

SKIN FORMS

97
 Shrink Porosit y
• Dendrit es are t ree like st ruct ures t hat form in
t he solidifying liquid
• The dendrit es grow slowly, and by t he t im e t he
last m et al solidifies, t here will be a lot of
dendrit es in t his area

98
 Shrink Porosit y
• I t will be difficult t o ident ify shrink porosit y in
som e cast ings, and wit hout ident ifying it you
m ay very well t ake t he wrong act ion for
correct ion t hus t he ident ificat ion is a key fact or.
You should know t hat t he walls of shrink
porosit y have a charact erist ically rough
st ruct ure
• The shrink porosit y is usually crack like in
appearance, and is j agged, rough and irregular
in general
• Occasionally it can have a rounded and sm oot h
appearance, when t his happens it is som et im es
called “ worm holes”

99
Shrink Porosit y
 Shrink Porosit y
• To sum m arize on t he effect of t em perat ure - it
will m ove t he porosit y or spread it out - not
necessarily reduce it - cont rolling porosit y wit h
die t em perat ure is possible only on som e
cast ings
• The shrink porosit y locat ion is det erm ined by t he
t em perat ure difference bet ween areas in t he
cast ing - t he hot and t he cold spot s det erm ine
t he locat ion of t he porosit y
• Wat ch t em perat ure difference bet ween die
halves
• Rem em ber, you can heat up t he cold spot as well
as cool t he hot spot

101
 Shrink Porosit y
• Shrink porosit y can be reduced wit h m et al
pressure
• Die cast ing is a high pressure process and t he
only reason die cast ing m achines use high
pressure is t o reduce shrink porosit y
• The pressure can fill som e of t he voids as t hey
develop, but t im ing and t em perat ure are
crit ical and very hard t o cont rol

102
 Shrink Porosit y
• The int ensifier syst em s used wit h die cast ing
m achines are t here only t o add pressure during
solidificat ion and t hus t o reduce shrink porosit y
• Tim ing is crit ical because: t he porosit y is not
t here when t he m et al is liquid, so pressure at
t hat t im e doesn’t help ( it will only add t o
flashing)
• Aft er t he cast ing is solid, t he pressure
obviously will not help
• Therefore, t he only t im e pressure can be used
t o feed m ore m et al int o t he developing porosit y
holes is during solidificat ion

103
 Shrink Porosit y
• The m ost com m on die cast ing alloys have a
freezing range - which m eans t hey go t hrough
a “ m ushy” st age as t hey solidify
• I t is during t his m ushy st age t hat we can add
pressure and reduce shrinkage porosit y by
filling som e voids as t hey are form ing
• Som e t ypical freezing ranges for t he m ost
com m on die cast ing alloys would be as follows:
– 380 alum inum 45 o C
– 384 alum inum 65 o C
– 413 alum inum 8 oC

104
 Shrink Porosit y
• Using pressure t o fill t he em erging shrinkage
voids during t his m ushy st age is a key fact or in
cont rolling shrinkage porosit y. Several key
cont rol elem ent s im port ant in t he use of
pressure are:
– The cast ing configurat ion, especially bet ween t he gat e
and t he point of int erest ( m ost im port ant fact or)
– The am ount of m et al pressure available at t he end of
t he plunger st roke - t he packing pressure
– The int ensified m et al pressure Solid
– The die t em perat ure Mushy Zone
– The gat e freeze t im e
– The inj ect ion t em perat ure Liquid

105
 Shrink Porosit y
Typical values for m inim um pressures would be:
St at ic I nt ensified
ALUMI NUM 3,000 psi 8,000 psi
20 MPa 55 MPa

These should be regarded as m inim um for good

cast ing qualit y int ernally - lower pressures are
som et im es used when t he int ernal qualit y is not
t hat crit ical

For heavier sect ion cast ings, som e die cast ers use
10,000 psi ( 70 MPa) as t he m inim um int ensifier
pressure

106
 Shrink Porosit y
• Anot her operat ional fact or is biscuit size
• Cavit y pressure decreases very rapidly once t he
biscuit reaches a cert ain m inim um size
• This m inim um varies wit h t he size of t he shot
sleeve, t he m et al t em perat ure, t he fill t im e and
ot her fact ors
• Below t his m inim um , t he int ernal soundness of
t he cast ing will det eriorat e very rapidly

107
 Shrink Porosit y

D EN S IT Y V S B IS C U IT T H IC K N ES S

1
APPROXIMATE

0 .8
DENSITY

0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
A P P R O X IM A T E
0 D E N S IT Y ,
0.1

0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

1.3
PER C EN T
B IS C U IT T H IC K N ES S
 Shrink Porosit y
• Correct ive act ions for shrink porosit y
– Check t he process design for appropriat e
m et al pressure, bot h st at ic pressure and
int ensified pressure ( plunger size, pressure
set t ings)
– Check plunger t ip and sleeve condit ion
– Check biscuit t hickness for consist ency and
t he appropriat e value

109
 Shrink Porosit y
• Ot her considerat ions
– I f possible, m ove t he gat e close t o t he
problem area t o feed m et al during
solidificat ion phase
– Use squeeze pins t o add pressure on t he
cast ing aft er t he gat e is frozen
• These pins are usually act ivat ed from 2 t o 12
seconds aft er t he end of fill - t he cast ing
condit ions m ust be t he sam e from shot t o shot t o
m ake t hem effect ive, ( som et hing m any die
cast ers cannot do because t hey don’t cont rol t he
process adequat ely)
• The squeeze pins are also effect ive on leaker
problem s, ( leakers will be discussed lat er)
110
 Shrink Porosit y
• Hot cham ber m achines have sim ilar
problem s, m ost ly t hey have m et al leaking by
t he plunger - t his causes low pressure at t he
end of t he shot and lack of pressure j ust
when you need it
• Trying t o run t oo close t o m achine capacit y
in hot cham ber m achines can cause low
pressure at t he end of t he st roke
• Shrink porosit y can occur at t he gat e
because t his t ends t o be a local hot spot -
porosit y in t his locat ion should respond t o
bet t er pressure m anagem ent ( t em perat ure
cont rol also)
Sinks
 Sinks
• Sinks ( surface depressions) are a form of
shrink porosit y
• A sink form s when t he shrink porosit y is
close t o t he surface, and as it cools it pulls
t he t hin skin on t he die surface in t owards
it self
• The shrink porosit y is close t o t he surface
because t he surface of t he cast ing is t he
hot t est point in t hat area of t he cast ing

113
 Sinks

114
 Sinks
• The shrink porosit y is form ed in t he locat ion
shown when t he cast ing is first m ade. As t he
cast ing is run longer and longer, t he die
t em perat ure get s hot t er and hot t er in t he areas
m arked hot
COLD

POROSITY

HOT

115
 Sinks
• I t is t ypical t o have a sect ion t hat is heavy
enough so t he gat e is frozen before t he area
wit h t he shrink porosit y has solidified ( so t he
shrink porosit y cannot be fed from t he gat e as
it solidifies)
• The t hree hot areas shown in t he last diagram
cause t he shrink porosit y t o gradually m ove
down t owards t he flat surface - t he flat surface
will likely get hot t er t han any ot her area
TH E H EAT FLO W FLU X
ARROW S HAVE LOTS
OF ROOM , AND M OVE
H EA T O UT FAST, SO
TH E CO RN ER STAY S
VERY COLD

TH E H EA T FLUX
ARROW S CROW D
TOGETHER HERE AND
THE HEAT CANNOT
ESC APE FAST, SO TH E
CORNER GETS VERY
HOT

116
 Sinks
• The flat surface get s very hot also, t hen t he hot
spot gradually m oves very close t o t he surface
• As t he shrinkage porosit y st art s t o cont ract , it
pulls t he skin away from t he surface
• As soon as t he skin is pulled away from t he
surface, heat flow is blocked t o t he die which
m akes t he condit ions worse
SHRINK POROSITY
CASTING SKIN

DIE SURFACE

SINK FORMING

117
 Sinks
• Event ually, t he cast ing solidifies wit h t he sink in
t he surface
• The clue t hat t he spot is get t ing hot and t hat a
sink m ight form is when t he surface of t he
cast ing st art s t o get rough ( or frost y in
appearance)
• The operat or should not ice t his condit ion, and
st art t o spray and/ or adj ust cooling line flow
• What is needed is a change in t em perat ure
balance bet ween t he hot and cold areas

118
Leakers
 Leakers
• Leakers are anot her form of shrinkage problem s
• There m ay not be any large voids, in fact t here
m ay not be any visible porosit y
• All t hat is needed is a cont inuous pat h and
enough space for gas or liquid t o get t hrough

120
 Leakers
• This size of t he space bet ween dendrit es
depends on t he t em perat ure differences t hat
exist ed at t he t im e of freezing and t he abilit y t o
feed new m et al in during freezing
• The cent er of t he cast ing, or t he last point t o
solidify will have a loose dendrit ic st ruct ure t hat
is porous
• The skin, however, is not porous - t hus m ost
cast ing would allow at least a lit t le gas t o pass
t hrough if it were not for t he dense non- porous
skin

121
 Leakers
• I t t akes a break in t he skin ( usually on bot h
sides of t he cast ing) t o generat e a leak t hrough
t he wall
• A t ypical sit uat ion is shown below

122
 Leakers
• One way t hat a break occurs is when t he last
point t o solidify is on t he surface. When t his
happens, t he surface generally has t he rougher
or frost y appearance, and t he dendrit ic
st ruct ure is close t o t he surface
• Anot her way is t o expose a break by m achining
off som e of t he surface

123
 Leakers
• The break in t he surface oft en is from a
m achining act ion on one side and a shape
condit ion on t he ot her so t hat a hot spot is
generat ed on t he surface
HOT SPOTS DUE TO
SHAPE OF THE
CASTING

LEAK PATH

GROOVE
124 MACHINED HERE
 Leakers
• The first correct ion should be t o t ry t o m inim ize
t he t em perat ure problem on t he surface
• This can be done ( som et im es) by running t his
area cooler in t he die; changing spray pat t erns,
changing or adding a wat er line; changing t o
one of t he high heat t ransfer die m at erials
• The t em perat ure difference bet ween die halves
is som et hing t o look out for ( not over 100 deg f
m ax)
• Rem em ber t hat heat ing up a cold sect ion can
also help rest ore t herm al balance

125
 Leakers
• Adding radius where possible around t he leaker
area is a good idea, but can only help so m uch
- adding m ore t han about a .18 t o .32 inch ( 4
t o 8 m m ) radius does not help m uch
• Adding pressure in t hat area can help -
squeeze pins can work well; Moving a feeder
gat e near t he leaker area can help if t he
pressure is m anaged correct ly

126
 Leakers
• Also check t he m et al t em perat ure - a lower
inj ect ion t em perat ure m ay m ake a lit t le
difference, but it m ay also cause ot her
problem s
• I t is best t o give every opport unit y for a good
skin t o develop in t he area where t he leaker
appears, be sure t he die surface in t his area
is very sm oot h and clean.

127
Cracks
 Cracks
• Cracks, or t ears, or hot cracks have m any
causes, but usually are at least part ially caused
by shrinkage cracks on t he surface
• Most oft en, t he cast ing is st ret ched in t he die as
it cools because t he die doesn’t change
dim ensions while t he cast ing is cooling and
cont ract ing. The st ret ching causes cracks at t he
weak point ( t he last point t o solidify)

129
 Cracks
• Shrinkage cracks on t he surface occur during
solidificat ion, and have a dark surface - cool t he
corners or heat up t he adj acent areas, add radii
t o t he corners for t his t ype of crack
• For cast ings t hat crack while cooling in t he die,
t he crack will also be at a hot spot – increase
radii

130
 Cracks
• Mechanical st ress can cause cracks when t he
die opens or t he cast ing ej ect s ( or during slide
operat ions)
• Cracks at t he base of long cores or fins,
dragging or st icking of proj ect ions int o one die
half m ay indicat e die shift when t he dies
separat e
• The fact ors in die alignm ent should be checked,
such as: die “ droop” ( no die carrier) , worn
guide pins, worn linkage, worn t ie bar bushings,
worn shoes under t he m oving plat en, uneven
t ie bar st ress, et c.

131
 Cracks
• The cracks at ej ect ion are usually
accom panied by drag m arks of som e sort .
• Check t he ej ect or plat e for worn bushings, be
sure t he ej ect or plat e operat es st raight . Look
for undercut s from erosion in t he die t hat
cause t he cast ing t o hang up

132
I nclusions
 I nclusions
• What are I nclusions/ Nonm et allic I nclusions –
a) Part icles of foreign m at erial in a m et al
m at rix; b) any nonm et al m at erial in t he die
cast ing alloy.
• Usually oxides, refract ory part icles, and
sludge, but can be any m at erial foreign t o,
and essent ially insoluble in, t he m et al
m at rix.

134
 I nclusions
• I nclusions are m ost ly a problem in
alum inum die cast ing, but t here are issues
in zinc and m agnesium also
• Can cause qualit y issues
– St rengt h
– Hard spot s
– Flow issues
• The m ost prevalent t ype of
inclusions are oxides

135
 Oxide I nclusions
• The cast alloy is shiny, as evidenced by a
cast ing t hat has been m achined or a furnace
t hat has been j ust skim m ed
• The gray surface on cast ings or on t he surface
of t he liquid m et al is oxide.
• This oxide layer on a cast ing can be very t hin -
from a few m icrons t hick t o a few t housands

136
 Oxide I nclusions
• Oxides in t he furnace can not be t ot ally
elim inat ed
• Alum inum we use is recycled, has had a lot of
exposure t o air and has generat ed oxide
• Oxygen is picked- up during m et al m elt ing and
handling
• Once form ed in t he furnace, t he oxide
part icles or skins rem ain

137
 Oxide I nclusions
• Alum inum , zinc, and m agnesium oxidize t o
form dross
• When alum inum oxide is first form ed
– Fairly soft
– Less dense t han t he m olt en m et al
– Gam m a Al 2 O3 , dross

138
 Oxide I nclusions
• Exposed t o 1800 o F ( 1000 o C) or higher in t he
presence of m ore oxygen gam m a alum inum
oxide t ransform s t o very hard m ore dense phase
– Alpha Al 2 O3 , corundum
– Next t o diam ond on t he Mohs scale
– Grinding wheel m at erial

139
 Oxide I nclusions
• Corundum can form in t he m elt ing or holding
furnaces in m ost plant s
• The oxides st ick t o t he wall and are scraped off
in t he cleaning procedures

1800 TO 2000 DEG

•

ALLOY • Oxides form at hot corners

HOT CORNER
LEVEL
GOES UP
AND DOWN
AL ALLOY - 1350

140
 Oxide I nclusions

Cast ing which cont ained dross from dip- out well

141
 Oxide I nclusions

Cross- sect ion of a cast ing cont aining dross

 Oxide I nclusions

Residual corundum part icle from im proper furnace cleaning

143
 Oxide I nclusions

Dispersion of corundum part icles t hat can look like porosit y

144
 Refract ory Part icles
• Furnace refract ory part icles com e off
t he wall during furnace cleaning

145
 Refract ory Part icles
• Typical form s: brick, m ort ar,
cast able, crucible
• Som e com m on refract ory m at erials
› alum ina
› alum ino- silicat es
› zircon
› graphit e
› clay- graphit e
› silica
› silicon carbide

146
 Refract ory Part icles

Refract ory part icles, corundum , and flux

147
 Sludge
• I nt erm et allic com pounds whose form at ion
is com posit ion and t em perat ure dependent
• Fact ors cont ribut ing t o sludging
– Met allic im purit ies
– Som e alloying elem ent s
– Low holding t em perat ures
– Swings in t em perat ure
• Once form ed alm ost im possible t o dissolve

148
 Sludge
• Fe ( iron) , Mn ( m anganese) and Cr ( chrom ium )
can form sludge in alum inum alloys if t he
concent rat ion is high enough

149
 Sludge
• Alum inum sludge fact or
Fe + 2 M n + 3 Cr
3Fe + 2Cr + 3Mn
• Hold t o < / = 1.8

Not e: Drop in Fe can

Cause t endency t o solder

150
 Sludge

Sludge part icles in alum inum alloy

151
 Sludge

X- ray of a hard spot ( m ore dense inclusion)

152
 Excess Flux
• Fluxes are used for various funct ions
– Cover fluxes prot ect t he m elt from oxidat ion
– Wall- cleaning fluxes react wit h wall build- up
– Degassing fluxes rem ove hydrogen
– Drossing or cleaning fluxes assist in part ial
rem oval of oxides and reduct ion/ recovery of
m et al from dross
– Refining fluxes m ay m odify, grain refine, or
rem ove specific m et allic im purit ies
• Too m uch flux get s ent rained in t he m et al

153
 Excess Flux

Flux inclusion

154
 Excess Flux

Mixt ure of flux and oxide

155
 Cont rol of I nclusions
• What we don’t want !

156
 I nclusions
• To cont rol dross
– Minim ize exposure t o air and m et al t em p
– Use proper drossing procedures
– Allow enough t im e aft er dist urbing m olt en
m et al bat h

157
 I nclusions
• To cont rol corundum
– Minim ize form at ion of Al dross
– Don’t use higher t han necessary m et al
t em perat ure
– Allow at least 30 m inut es aft er furnace
cleaning for set t ling of part icles

158
 I nclusions
• To cont rol refract ory part icles and sludge
– Use proper furnace cleaning procedures
– Cont rol furnace t em perat ure
– St ay below sludge fact or of 1.8
– Allow at least 30 m inut es aft er furnace
cleaning for set t ling of part icles

159
 I nclusions
• Oxides can be rem oved by filt ering, fluxing, or
by de- gassing t he liquid m et al
• Refract ory part icles, sludge, int erm et allics can
be rem oved by filt ering

160
Solder
 Soldering
• Soldering phenom enon occurs when t he m olt en
alum inum ent ers t he die and cont act s direct ly on
st eel die cavit y
• The m olt en alum inum st ream rem oves t he
applied surface lubricant film and t he iron oxide
layer or ot her coat ings t hen erodes grain
boundaries and pit s t he die surface
• At a high enough t em perat ure and pressure a
react ion t akes place t hat causes t he form at ion of
an alum inum - iron int erm et allic and a direct
fusion bet ween t he die and t he cast ing

162
 Soldering
• Keep t he gat e velocit y t o a m inim um , calculat e
t he gat e velocit y t o st ay below about 1600 ips
( 40 m / s) in alum inum , 2500 ips in zinc ( 60
m / s) , and about 3000 ips ( 75 m / s) in
m agnesium - t his is t o avoid washing t he
coat ing off t he st eel
• Zinc alloys t end t o solder in areas away from
t he m ain m et al flow
• The zinc alloys do not form a com pound wit h
t he die st eel on t he surface of t he die ( see
build up) , but build a layer on t op of t he st eel
• Die t em perat ure is m ost im port ant t o keep
t his t ype of zinc solder from form ing
 Soldering
• Surface roughness is also im port ant ,
a polished die surface will reduce t he
t endency t o form t he die solder in
zinc ( it is probably bet t er called a
build up)
• Keeping t he die t em perat ure is m ost
im port ant t o keep t his t ype of zinc
solder from form ing
• Draft angle is also im port ant ,
especially if t he die t em perat ure
cannot be cont rolled
 Soldering

165
 Soldering
• The best solut ion is keeping t he die st eel cool -
solder will not st art t hen
• Cooling m et hods include die spray, adding
wat er channels, slowing t he cycle speed, and
reducing m et al t em perat ure.
• Also consider ot her die m at erials
– Anvilloy
– Bi- m et allic cores
– Niobium
• Ot her solut ions
– Draft angle – add t o die
– Gat e velocit y – keep low
– Die surface roughness – keep sm oot h

166
 Build Up
• A die build up usually com es from lubricant t hat
was not evaporat ed from t he die
• I f it is darker in color, it is oft en referred t o as
carbon
• Review t he die t em perat ures wit h t he die spray
supplier t o get t he proper lubricant - keep rat io
under cont rol
• Use of hard wat er in t he die lubricant can
som et im es cause build up

167
 Build Up
• Review t he die t em perat ures wit h t he die spray
supplier t o get t he proper lubricant
• Keep die spray dilut ion rat io under cont rol
• Don’t spray t oo long
• Be consist ent

168
Erosion
 Erosion - Burn Out
• Erosion and burn out refer t o defect s in t he
cast ing t hat com e from t he effect s of having
som e die st eel eroded away
• Erosion generally occurs in alum inum die
cast ing, usually where t here are high m et al
velocit y and high st eel t em perat ures
• The biggest fact or in erosion is usually
uncont rolled and poorly m anaged gat e velocit ies

170
 Erosion - Burn Out
• The gat e velocit y should be kept about in t he
following ranges:
– Alum inum , 1000 t o 1600 ips ( 25- 40 m / s)
– Zinc, 1200 t o 2000 ips ( 30- 50 m / s)
– Magnesium , 1200 t o 3000 ips ( 30- 75 m / s)
• Die t em perat ure is next m ost im port ant , and
should be kept as low as possible
• Addit ional fact ors include t he m et al
t em perat ure, t he inclusions in t he m et al, t he
t ype of alloy, proper gat e design and flow
pat t ern

171
 Erosion - Burn Out
• Burn out is a t erm usually applied t o zinc
dies, and is m ost ly t he result of cavit at ion
• Cavit at ion com es from gas bubbles in t he
m et al im ploding when t he go from a high
pressure area in t he runner t o a low
pressure area in t he cavit y - if t hey
happen t o be in cont act wit h t he die st eel
when t his happens, t hen cavit at ion occurs
• Som et im es t he gat e locat ion can be
changed so t he m et al doesn’t im pact on
t he die st eel j ust past t he gat e opening
 Erosion - Burn Out
• The best correct ion for t his is t o m inim ize
t he air bubbles - t his includes fact ors such
as t he following:
– Using t wo speed plungers
– Using runner sprue designs
– Using proper and carefully designed
runners and gat es
Out gassing
 Gat e Porosit y - Out gassing
• This defect occurs when t he cast ing is heat ed,
usually for a secondary operat ion like paint ing,
and gas com es out of t he cast ing
• This is due t o t he expansion of t he t rapped gas
in t he cast ing t hat escapes t hrough a porous
sect ion of t he cast ing
• I t is not be possible t o elim inat e all t he t rapped
gas, so m ost of t he work should be focused on
reducing t he porous- ness of t his sect ion of t he
cast ing

175
 Gat e Porosit y - Out gassing
• To reduce t he problem in t he overflows,
m inim ize t he num ber of overflows used and
keep t he gat e t o t he overflow as t hin as
possible
• For out gassing at t he gat e, keep t he gat e as
t hin as possible, keep t he gat e area cool as
m uch as possible, and increase m et al pressure
• Ensure t here is enough pressure t o feed t he
shrinkage
• For all t ypes of gat e ent rances t o t he cast ing,
do not have t hin die sect ions t hat can build- up
heat .

176
Gat e Porosit y - Out gassing

GATE
CASTING

HOT SPOT,
POROUS AREA

HOT SPOT IN
STEEL

This hot spot increases t he am ount of shrink

porosit y form ed at t he gat e which cont ribut es
t o out gassing problem s
Bending, Warping
 Bending - Warping
• Bent and warped cast ings have m any different
causes, st art ing wit h design, die build, m achine
condit ions, and operat ing condit ions
• Once t he design is set , t he m aj or operat ing
fact or is t hat t he cast ing and t he die always be
at t he sam e t em perat ure when t he cast ing is
ej ect ed
• The use of a t herm ocouple t o ej ect t he cast ing
at t he sam e t em perat ure every t im e is a
valuable aid t o precise dim ensional cont rol

179
 Bending - Warping
• The die and t he m achine m ust be m aint ained in
good condit ion t o m inim ize bending and warping

180
Flash
 Flash
• Flash occurs when liquid m et al flows int o an area
of t he die where it is not expect ed, such as t he
part ing line, under a slide, or along side an
ej ect or pin

182
 Flash
• Flash can be alm ost elim inat ed if proper at t ent ion
is applied t o t ool design and operat ional fact ors
• A robust die is required, t here can be no die
deflect ion
• Good t herm al balance is required so t he die fit s
well at operat ing t em perat ure
• The m achine locking condit ions m ust be proper;
such as equal load on t he t ie bars, proper die set
up, linkage not worn, plat ens flat , et c
• Met al pressures and im pact force should be no
m ore t han necessary

183
 Flash
• Flashing can occur for one of t hree
reasons:
1. The die seal- off is poor.
2. The die and m achine do not work t oget her
t o seal off t he m old cavit y.
3. The im pact force at t he end of t he cavit y
fill exceeds t he clam ping force of t he
m achine.
• To underst and t he reason why flashing
occurs, you m ust underst and t he
condit ion of t he m achine, t he t ool, and
t he forces occurring wit hin t he m achine
at t he end of cavit y fill.
184
 Flash
• Det erm ining t he root cause of a flashing
problem is som et im es quit e com plex.
• As an operat or, you need t o observe t he die:
– I f t he cast ing flashes in exact ly t he sam e way
every shot , t hen t he t ool or m achine is likely
t he problem .
– I f t he flash pat t ern around t he cavit y changes
drast ically, especially as a die heat s up during
st art up, t hen it indicat es t wo possible causes:
• The im pact force is exceeding t he clam ping
force of t he m achine.
• Therm al expansion wit hin t he t ool is allowing
m et al t o escape t he die cavit y.
185
 Flash Sum m ary
• The t wo keys t o m inim izing flashing
are:
– Die design.
– Machine m aint enance.
• Die design.
– Die squareness.
– Therm al design.
– Die seal- off.
– Cent ering t he part wit hin t he die.
– Wear plat e and lock design.
186
St ained Cast ings
 St ained Cast ings
• Dark gray or black discolorat ion
• Alm ost always involves die or plunger lube
• Typically, t oo m uch lube has been applied
• Check:
– Am ount of lube being applied
– Dilut ion rat io
– Applicat ion procedure
– Ot her sources – dirt scrap

188
Waves and Lakes
 Waves & Lakes
• Typically in zinc
• Caused by m et al flow problem s
• Two flow front s m eet , one cooler t han t he
ot her, however, enough heat for re- m elt ing
for t he t wo front s t o at t ach – t his is t he
difference bet ween lam inat ions and waves &
lakes.
 Waves & Lakes
• Check:
– Plunger accelerat ion – needs t o be
accelerat ed before m et al hit s t he gat e
– Fast shot t ransit ion – early enough
– Gat e design
– Flow pat t ern
– Die t em perat ure
– Met al t em perat ure
Drags
 Drags
• Looks sim ilar t o solder, but is caused by t he die
dragging on t he part during ej ect ion
• Check:
– Draft angles
– Ej ect ion problem , such as bending
– Erosion t hat m ay have caused an undercut
– Dist ort ed, m ushroom ed cores
– Flash on slides
– Die t em perat ure

193
Cold Flakes
 Cold Flakes – PSP - ESP
• Occurs in only cold cham ber m achines
• Causes irregular breakout at t he gat e
• Most collect s at t he gat e
• Can cause flow problem s
• May be difficult t o see wit hout m icrost ruct ural
exam inat ion

195
 Cold Flakes – PSP - ESP
• Correct ions
– Minim ize shot delay t im e
– Keep fill % in sleeve as high as possible
– Keep sleeve t em perat ure as high as
possible
– Keep m et al t em perat ure high

196
197