Chapter (5)

The Source of Hydraulic Power: Pumps

5.1 Introduction
A pump, which is the heart of a hydraulic system, converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the pump via a prime mover such
as an electric motor. Due to mechanical action, the pump creates a partial vacuum at its
inlet. This permits atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into
the pump. The pump then pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.
5.2 Classifications of pumps as identified by the fluid power
1. Hydrodynamic or nonpositive displacement pumps
2. Hydrostatic or positive displacement pumps
 Hydrodynamic or nonpositive displacement pumps
This type is generally used for low-pressure, high-volume flow applications. Because they
are not capable of withstanding high pressures, they are of little use in the fluid power field.
This type of pump is primarily used for transporting fluids from one location to another.
Examples of this type are centrifugal (impeller) and axial (propeller) pumps as shown in
Fig. (5.1). Although these pumps provide smooth continuous flow, their flow output is
reduced as circuit resistance is increased. In fact, it is possible to completely block off the
outlet to stop all flow, even while the pump is running at design speed. These pumps are
typically used for low-pressure, high-volume flow applications.
Since there is a great deal of clearance between the rotating and stationary elements, these
pumps are not self-priming. This is because there is too much clearance space to seal
against atmospheric pressure, and thus the displacement between the inlet and outlet is not
a positive one. Thus the pump flow rate depends not only on the rotational speed (rpm) at
which it is driven but also on the resistance of the external system. When the resistance of
the external system becomes infinitely large (for example, a closed valve blocks the outlet

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line), the pump will produce no flow and thus its volumetric efficiency becomes zero. One
of the interesting characteristics of a centrifugal pump is its behavior when there is no
demand for fluid. In such a case, no harm occurs to the pump, and thus there is no need for
safety devices to prevent pump damage.
As the external resistance decreases, the flow increases at the expense of reduced pressure.
Because the output flow changes significantly with external circuit resistance, nonpositive
displacement pumps are rarely used in hydraulic systems.

Figure (5.1): Nonpositive displacement pumps

 Positive displacement pumps
This type is universally used for fluid power systems. As the name implies, a positive
displacement pump ejects a fixed amount of fluid into the hydraulic system per revolution
of pump shaft rotation. Such a pump is capable of overcoming the pressure resulting from
the mechanical loads on the system as well as the resistance to flow due to friction.
These pumps have the following advantages over nonpositive displacement pumps:
a. High-pressure capability (up to 70,000 kpa or higher)
b. Small, compact size
c. High volumetric efficiency
d. Small changes in efficiency throughout the design pressure range

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 e. Great flexibility of performance (can operate over a wide range of pressure
requirements and speed ranges).
There are three main types of positive displacement pumps: gear, vane, and piston.
5.3 Pumping theory
All pumps operate on the principle whereby a partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet
due to the internal operation of the pump. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the
fluid out of the oil tank (reservoir) and into the pump intake.
The pump then mechanically pushes the fluid out the discharge line. This type of operation
can be visualized by referring to the simple piston pump of Fig. (5.2). Notice that this pump
contains two ball check valves, which are described as follows:
 Check valve 1 is connected to the pump inlet line and allows fluid to enter the pump
only at this location.
 Check valve 2 is connected to the pump discharge line and allows fluid to leave the
pump only at this location.
As the piston is pulled to the left, a partial vacuum is generated in pump cavity 3, because
the close tolerance between the piston and cylinder (or the use of piston ring seals) prevents
air inside cavity 4 from traveling into cavity 3. This flow of air, if allowed to occur, would
destroy the vacuum. This vacuum holds cheek valve 2 against its seat (lower position) and
allows atmospheric pressure to push fluid from the reservoir into the pump via check valve
1. This inlet flow occurs because the force of the fluid pushes the ball of cheek valve 1 off
its seat.
When the piston is pushed to the right, the fluid movement closes inlet valve1 and opens
outlet valve 2. The quantity of fluid, displaced by the piston, is forcibly ejected out the
discharge line leading to the hydraulic system. The volume of oil displaced by the piston
during the discharge stroke is called the displacement volume of the pump.

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From the operation of the simple piston pump, it can be seen why a pump does not pump
pressure. Pumps produce flow. The pressure developed is due to the resistance of the load,
which is being driven by the system hydraulic actuators.

Figure (5.2): Pumping action of a simple piston pump

5.4 Types of positive displacement pumps
1. Gear pumps (fixed displacement only by geometrical necessity)
a. External gear pumps
b. Internal gear pumps
c. Lobe pumps
d. Screw pumps
2. Vane pumps
a. Unbalanced vane pumps (fixed or variable displacement)
b. Balanced vane pumps (fixed displacement)
3. Piston pumps (fixed or variable displacement )
a. Axial design
b. Radial design

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1) Gear pumps
a) External gear pump
Figure (5.3) illustrates the operation of an external gear pump, which develops flow by
carrying fluid between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a
drive shaft connected to the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes with the
driver gear. Oil chambers are formed between the gear teeth, the pump housing, and the
side wear plates. The suction side is where teeth come out of mesh, and it is here where the
volume expands, bringing about a reduction in pressure to below atmospheric pressure.
Fluid is pushed into this void by atmospheric pressure because the oil supply tank is vented
to the atmosphere. The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh, and it is here where the
volume decreases between mating teeth. Since the pump has a positive internal seal against
leakage, the oil is positively ejected into the outlet port.

Figure (5.3): External gear pump operation

 Volumetric displacement, volumetric efficiency and theoretical flow rate
From gear geometry, the volumetric displacement is found:

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The following analysis permits us to evaluate the theoretical flow rate of a gear pump using
specified nomenclature:
Do = outside diameter of gear teeth (m)
Di = inside diameter of gear teeth (m)
L = width of gear teeth (m)
VD = displacement volume of pump (m3/rev)
N = rpm of pump
QT = theoretical pump flow rate
There must be a small clearance (less than 0.0254 mm) between the teeth tip and pump
housing. As a result, some of the oil at the discharge port can leak directly back toward the
suction. This means that the actual flow rate QA is less than the theoretical flow rate QT,
which is based on volumetric displacement and pump speed. This internal leakage, which
is called “pump slippage”, is identified by the term volumetric efficiency ƞv which is
usually greater than 90% for positive displacement pumps, operating at design pressure:

Figure (5.4): Positive displacement pump Q versus N and P versus curves. (a) Flow versus speed
curve. (b) Flow versus pressure curve at constant pump speed.

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b) Internal gear pump
Figure (5.5) illustrates the configuration and operation of the internal gear pump. This
design consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent- shaped seal, and an
external housing. As power is applied to either gear, the motion of the gears draws fluid
from the reservoir and forces it around both sides of the crescent seal, which acts as a seal
between the suction and discharge ports. When the teeth mesh on the side opposite to the
crescent seal, the fluid is forced to enter the discharge port of the pump.

Figure (5.5): Operation of an internal gear pump

c) Lobe pump
In the general family of gear pumps is the lobe pump, which is illustrated in Fig. (5.6). This
pump operates in a fashion similar to the external gear pump. But unlike the external gear
pump, both lobes are driven externally so that they do not actually contact each other. Thus,
they are quieter than other types of gear pumps. Due to the smaller number of mating
elements, the lobe pump output will have a somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although
its volumetric displacement is generally greater than that for other types of gear pumps.

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 Figure (5.6): Operation of the lobe pump
d) Gerotor pump
The Gerotor pump, shown in Fig. (5.7), operates very much like the internal gear pump.
The inner gear rotor (Gerotor element) is power-driven and draws the outer gear rotor
around as they mesh together. This forms inlet and discharge pumping chambers between
the rotor lobes.
The tips of the inner and outer rotors make contact to seal the pumping chambers from each
other. The inner gear has one tooth less than the outer gear, and the volumetric
displacement is determined by the space formed by the extra tooth in the outer rotor.

Figure (5.7): Operation of the gerotor pump

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e) Screw pump
The screw pump (see Fig. 5.8) is an axial flow positive displacement unit. Three precision
ground screws, meshing within a close-fitting housing, deliver nonpulsating flow quietly
and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed idler rotors act as rotating seals, confining
the fluid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler rotors are in rolling contact with
the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective housing bores on a
hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forces on the
rotor set are balanced, eliminating any need for thrust bearings.

Figure (5.8): Nomenclature of a screw pump

2) Vane pumps
Figure (5.9) illustrates the operation of a vane pump. The rotor, which contains radial slots,
is splined to the drive shaft and rotates inside a cam ring. Each slot contains a vane designed
to mate with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns.
Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring. During one-half
revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases between the rotor and cam ring. The
resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure. This is the suction process,
which causes fluid to flow through the inlet port and fill the void. As the rotor rotates
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through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back into
their slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid
through the discharge port.
Careful observation of Fig. (5.9) will reveal that there is an eccentricity between the
centerline of the rotor and the centerline of the cam ring. If the eccentricity is zero, there
will be no flow.

Figure (5.9): Vane pump operation

 Analysis of volumetric displacement
From geometry, we can find the maximum possible eccentricity:

This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum volumetric displacement:

The actual volumetric displacement occurs when emax = e:

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The following analysis and nomenclature is applicable to the vane pump:
Dc = diameter of cam ring (m)
DR = diameter of rotor (m)
L = width of rotor (m)
N = rotor rpm
VD = pump volumetric displacement (m3)
e = eccentricity (m)
emax = maximum possible eccentricity (m)
VDmax= maximum possible volumetric displacement (m3)
 Pressure-compensated vane pump
The design we see in Fig. (5.10) is a pressure-compensated one in which system pressure
acts directly on the cam ring via a hydraulic piston on the right side (not shown). This
forces the cam ring against the compensator spring-loaded piston on the left side of the
cam ring.
If the discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes the compensator spring force and
shifts the cam ring to the left. This reduces the eccentricity, which is maximum when
discharge pressure is zero. As the discharge pressure continues to increase, zero
eccentricity is finally achieved, and the pump flow becomes zero. Such a pump basically
has its own protection against excessive pressure buildup, as shown in Fig. (5.11). When
the pressure reaches a value called Pcutoff, the compensator spring force equals the hydraulic
piston force. As the pressure continues to increase, the compensator spring is compressed
until zero eccentricity is achieved. The maximum pressure achieved is called P deadhead, at
which point the pump is protected because it attempts to produce no more flow. As a result
there is no horsepower wasted and fluid heating is reduced.

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 Figure (5.10): Variable displacement, pressure compensated vane pump.

Figure (5.11): Pressure versus flow for pressure-compensated vane pump

 Balanced vane pump
A balanced vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports diametrically
opposite each other. Thus, pressure ports are opposite each other, and a complete hydraulic
balance is achieved. One disadvantage of a balanced vane pump is that it cannot be
designed as a variable displacement unit. Instead of having a circular cam ring, a balanced
design vane pump has an elliptical housing. Which forms two separate pumping chambers
on opposite sides of the rotor. This eliminates the bearing side loads and thus permits higher
operating pressures. Figure (5.12) shows the balanced vane pump principle of operation.

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 Figure (5.12): Balanced vane pump principles
3) Piston pump
Piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in fluid, when it
retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge it when it extends. The basic question is how to
mechanize a series of reciprocating pistons. There are two basic types of piston pumps.
One is the axial design, having pistons that are parallel to the axis of the cylinder block.
Axial piston pumps can be either of the bent axis configuration or of the swash plate design.
The second type of piston pump is the radial design, which has pistons arranged radially in
a cylinder block.
a) Axial piston pump (Bent-axis design)
Figure (5.13) shows an axial piston pump (bent-axis type) that contains a Cylinder block
rotating with the drive shaft. However, the centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset
angle relative to the centerline of the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of
pistons arranged along a circle. The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft flange by
ball and socket joints. The pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance
between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the
block to the drive shaft to provide alignment and positive drive.

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The volumetric displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle 0 as shown in Fig.
(5.14). No flow is produced when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive shaft
centerline. 0 can vary from 0° to a maximum of about 30°. Fixed displacement units are
usually provided with 23° or 30° offset angles.

Figure (5.13): Axial piston pump (bent-axis type)

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 Figure (5.14): Volumetric displacement changes with offset angle
 Volumetric displacement and theoretical flow rate
The total displacement volume equals the number of pistons multiplied by the
displacement volume per piston.

We obtain a relationship for the theoretical flow rate in metric units:

The following nomenclature and analysis arc applicable to an axial piston pump:
Ɵ = offset angle (°)
S = piston stroke (m)
D = piston circle diameter (m)

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Y = number of pistons
A = piston area (m2)
From trigonometry we have

b) In-line piston pump (Swash plate design)

Figure (5.15) provides a photograph and sketch illustrating the swash plate design in-line
piston pump. In this type, the cylinder block and drive shaft are located on the same
centerline. The pistons are connected to a shoe plate, which bears against an angled swash
plate. The pistons reciprocate because the piston shoes follow the angled surface of the
swash plate. The outlet and inlet ports are located in the valve plate so that the pistons pass
the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are being forced back in.
This type of pump can also be designed to have variable displacement capability.

Figure (5.15): In-line design piston pump

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c) Radial piston pump
The operation and construction of a radial piston pump is illustrated in Fig. (5.16). This
design consists of a pintle to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders. A cylinder barrel with
pistons, and a rotor containing a reaction ring. The pistons remain in constant contact with
the reaction ring due to centrifugal force and back pressure on the pistons. For pumping
action, the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis. As
the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws in fluid as
each cylinder passes the suction ports of the pintle. When a piston passes the point of
maximum eccentricity, it is forced inward by the reaction ring. This forces the fluid to enter
the discharge port of the pintle. In some models, the displacement can be varied by moving
the reaction ring to change the piston stroke.

Figure (5.16): Operation of a radial piston pump

5.5 Pump Performance
The performance delivered by a pump is primarily a function of the precision of its
manufacture. Components must be made to close tolerances, which must be maintained

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while the pump is operating under design conditions. The maintenance of close tolerances
is accomplished by designs that have mechanical integrity and balanced pressures.
Theoretically the ideal pump would be one having zero clearance between all mating parts.
Although this is not feasible, working clearances should be as small as possible while
maintaining proper oil films for lubrication between rubbing parts. Pump manufacturers
run tests to determine performance data for their various types of pumps. The overall
efficiency of a pump can be computed by comparing the power available at the output of
the pump to the power supplied at the input. Overall efficiency can be broken into two
distinct components called volumetric and mechanical efficiency.
1) Volumetric efficiency (ƞv): Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of leakage that
takes place within the pump. This involves considerations such as manufacturing
tolerances and flexing of the pump casing under design pressure operating conditions:

Volumetric efficiencies typically run from 80% to 90% for gear pumps, 82% to 92%
for vane pumps, and 90% to 98% for piston pumps.
2) Mechanical efficiency (ƞm): Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of energy
losses that occur due to reasons other than leakage. This includes friction in bearings
and between other mating parts. It also includes energy losses due to fluid turbulence.
Mechanical efficiencies typically run from 90% to 95%:

P = measured pump discharge pressure (Pa)

QT = calculated theoretical pump flow rate (m3/s)
T = measured input torque in prime mover shaft of pump (N-m)
N = measured pump speed (rad/s)

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Theoretical torque

Actual torque

3) Overall efficiency (ƞo):

5.6 Pump performance comparison factors

Figure (5.17) compares various performance factors for hydraulic pumps. In general, gear
pumps are the least expensive but also provide the lowest level of performance. In addition,
gear pump efficiency is rapidly reduced by wear, which contributes to high maintenance
costs. The volumetric efficiency is greatly affected by the following leakage losses,
which can rapidly accelerate due to wear:
1. Leakage around the outer periphery of the gears
2. Leakage across the faces of the gears
3. Leakage at the points where the gear teeth make contact
Gear pumps are simple in design and compact in size. Therefore, they are the most common
type of pump used in fluid power systems. The greatest number of applications of gear
pumps are in the mobile equipment and machine tool fields. Vane pump efficiencies and
costs fall between those of gear and piston pumps. Vane pumps have good efficiencies and
last for a reasonably long period of time. However, continued satisfactory performance
necessitates clean oil with good lubricity. Excessive shaft speeds can cause operating
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problems. Leakage losses in vane pumps occur across the faces of the rotor and between
the bronze wear plates and the pressure ring.
Piston pumps are the most expensive and provide the highest level of overall performance.
They can be driven at high speeds (up to 5000 rpm) to provide a high horsepower-to weight
ratio. They produce essentially a nonpulsating flow and can operate at the highest pressure
levels. Due to very close-fitting pistons, they have the highest efficiencies. Since no side
loads occur to the pistons, the pump life expectancy is at least several years.
However, because of their complex design, piston pumps cannot normally be repaired in
the field.

Figure (5.17): Comparison of various performance factors for pumps

5.7 Pump cavitation
Cavitation, can occur due to entrained air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid or vaporization of
the hydraulic fluid. This occurs when suction lift is excessive and the inlet pressure falls
below the vapor pressure of the fluid (usually about 35-kPa suction). As a result, air or
vapor bubbles, which form in the low-pressure inlet region of the pump, are collapsed when
they reach the high-pressure discharge region. This produces high fluid velocity and impact
forces, which can erode the metallic components and shorten pump life.

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The following rules will control or eliminate cavitation of a pump by keeping the
suction pressure above the saturation pressure of the fluid:
 Keep suction line velocities below 1.5 m/s.
 Keep pump inlet lines as short as possible.
 Minimize the number of fittings in the inlet line.
 Mount the pump as close as possible to the reservoir.
 Use low-pressure drop inlet filters or strainers.
 Use the proper oil as recommended by the pump manufacturer.
The importance of temperature control lies in the fact that increased temperatures tend to
accelerate the liberation of air or vapor bubbles. Therefore, oil temperatures should be kept
in the range of l20°F to l50°F to provide an optimum viscosity range and maximum
resistance to liberation of air or vapor bubbles to reduce the possibility of cavitation.
5.8 Pump selection
Pumps are selected by taking into account a number of considerations for a complete
hydraulic system involving a particular application. Among these considerations are
flowrate requirements, operating speed, pressure rating, performance, reliability,
maintenance, cost, and noise. The selection of a pump typically entails the following
sequence of operations:
1. Select the actuator (hydraulic cylinder or motor) that is appropriate based on the
loads encountered.
2. Determine the flow-rate requirements. This involves the calculation of the flow rate
necessary to drive the actuator to move the load through a specified distance within
a given time limit.
3. Determine the pump speed and select the prime mover. This, together with the flow-
rate calculation, determines the pump size (volumetric displacement).

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 4. Select the pump type based on the application (gear. vane. or piston pump and fixed
or variable displacement).
5. Select the system pressure. This tics in with the actuator size and the magnitude of
the resistive force produced by the external load on the system. Also involved here
is the total amount of power to be delivered by the pump.
6. Select the reservoir and associated plumbing, including piping, valving, hydraulic
cylinders, and motors and other miscellaneous components.
7. Calculate the overall cost of the system.
8. Consider factors such as noise levels, horsepower loss, need for a heat exchanger
due to generated heat, pump wear, and scheduled maintenance service to provide a
desired life of the total system.
Normally the sequence of operations is repeated several times with different sizes and types
of components. After the procedure is repeated for several alternative systems, the best
overall system is selected for the given application. This process is called optimization.
5.9 Pressure intensifiers
Although a pump is the primary power source for a hydraulic system, auxiliary units are
frequently employed for special purposes. One such auxiliary unit is the pressure intensifier
or booster.
A pressure intensifier is used to increase the pressure in a hydraulic system to a value above
the pump discharge pressure. It accepts a high-volume flow at relatively low pump pressure
and converts a portion of this flow to high pressure.
The internal construction consists of an automatically reciprocating large piston that has
two small rod. This piston has its large area (total area of piston) exposed to pressure from
a low-pressure pump. The force of the low pressure oil moves the piston and causes the
small area of the piston rod to force the oil out at intensified high pressure. This device is
symmetrical about a vertical centerline. Thus, as the large piston reciproeates, the left- and
right-hand halves of the unit duplicate each other during each stroke of the large piston.
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The increase in pressure is in direct proportion to the ratio of the large piston area and the
rod area. The volume output is inversely proportional to this same ratio.

Figure (5.18): Sketch showing oil flow paths of pressure intensifier

There are many applications for pressure intensifiers such as the elimination of a high
pressure/ low-flow pump used in conjunction with a low-pressure/high-flow pump. In an
application such as a punch press, it is necessary to extend a hydraulic cylinder rapidly
using little pressure to get the ram near the sheet metal strip as quickly as possible. Then
the cylinder must exert a large force using only a small flow rate. The large force is needed
to punch the work piece from the sheet metal strip. Since the strip is thin, only a small flow
rate is required to perform the punching operation in a small period of time. The use of the
pressure intensifier results in a significant cost savings in this application, because it
replaces the expensive high-pressure pump that would normally be required.

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5.10 Pump noise

Figure (5.19): Noise levels for various pump design

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