Unit 1

Functional Units of Digital System
o A computer organization describes the functions and design of the various

units of a digital system.
o computer system is the best-known example of a digital system.
o Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and
calculations called for by the computer program.
o Functional units of a computer system are parts of the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) that performs the operations and calculations called for by
the computer program. A computer consists of five main components namely,
Input unit, Central Processing Unit, Memory unit Arithmetic & logical unit,
Control unit and an Output unit.
o
Input unit
o Input units are used by the computer to read the data. The most commonly used
input devices are keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones, etc.
o However, the most well-known input device is a keyboard. Whenever a key is
pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code and transmitted over a cable to either the memory or the
processor.
Central processing unit

o Central processing unit commonly known as CPU can be referred as an electronic
circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions given by a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O)
operations specified by the instructions.
Memory unit
o The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which programs are kept
which are running, and that contains data needed by the running programs.
o The Memory unit can be categorized in two ways namely, primary memory and
secondary memory.
o It enables a processor to access running execution applications and services that are
temporarily stored in a specific memory location.
o Primary storage is the fastest memory that operates at electronic speeds. Primary
memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage cells, capable of storing a
bit of information. The word length of a computer is between 16-64 bits.
o It is also known as the volatile form of memory, means when the computer is shut
down, anything contained in RAM is lost.
o Cache memory is also a kind of memory which is used to fetch the data very soon.
They are highly coupled with the processor.
o The most common examples of primary memory are RAM and ROM.
o Secondary memory is used when a large amount of data and programs have to be
stored for a long-term basis.
o It is also known as the Non-volatile memory form of memory, means the data is
stored permanently irrespective of shut down.
o The most common examples of secondary memory are magnetic disks, magnetic
tapes, and optical disks.
Arithmetic & logical unit

o Most of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are executed in the
ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor. It performs arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also the logical operations like
AND, OR, NOT operations.
Control unit
o The control unit is a component of a computer's central processing unit that
coordinates the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program's
instructions.
o The control unit is also known as the nerve center of a computer system.
o Let's us consider an example of addition of two operands by the instruction given as
Add LOCA, RO. This instruction adds the memory location LOCA to the operand in
the register RO and places the sum in the register RO. This instruction internally
performs several steps.
Output Unit
o The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results to the user.
Output devices display information in a way that the user can understand.
o Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to generate information or any
other response processed by the computer. These devices display information that
has been held or generated within a computer.
o The most common example of an output device is a monitor.
What is a computer bus?

A bus is a communication system in computer architecture that transfers data
between components inside a computer, or between computers.
The term encompasses all the components related to hardware (wire, optical
fiber, etc.) and software, including communication protocol.
The following are a few points to describe a computer bus:-
 A bus is a group of lines/wires which carry computer signals.

 A bus is the means of shared transmission.
 Lines are assigned to providing descriptive names. — carries a single
electrical signal, e.g. 1-bit memory address, data bits series, or timing
control that turns the device on or off.
 Data can be transferred from one computer system location to another
(between different I / O modules, memory, and CPU).
 The bus is not only cable but also hardware (bus architecture), protocol,
program, and bus controller.
Functions of a computer bus
Below are a few of the functions of a computer bus:-
 Data sharing – All types of buses used in the network transfer data
between the connected computer peripherals. The buses either transfer
or send data in serial or parallel transfer methods. This allows 1, 2, 4, or
even 8 bytes of data to be exchanged at a time. (A Byte is an 8-bit
group). Buses are classified according to how many bits they can move
simultaneously, meaning we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or even 64-bit
buses.
 Addressing – A bus has address lines that suit the processors. This
allows us to transfer data to or from different locations in the memory.
 Power – A bus supplies the power to various connected peripherals.
 Address bus –
It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only.Address
bus is unidirectional because data flow in one direction, from
microprocessor to memory or from microprocessor to Input/output
devices (That is, Out of Microprocessor).
 The Length of the address bus determines the amount of memory a

system can address.Such as a system with a 32-bit address bus can
address 2^32 memory locations.If each memory location holds one
byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB.However, the actual
amount of memory that can be accessed is usually much less than this
theoretical limit due to chipset and motherboard limitations.
 Data bus –
It is a group of conducting wires which carries Data only.Data bus is
bidirectional because data flow in both directions, from microprocessor
to memory or Input/Output devices and from memory or Input/Output
devices to microprocessor.
Length of Data Bus of 8085 microprocessor is 8 Bit (That is, two
Hexadecimal Digits), ranging from 00 H to FF H. (H denotes
Hexadecimal).
When it is write operation, the processor will put the data (to be written)
on the data bus, when it is read operation, the memory controller will get
the data from specific memory block and put it into the data bus.
The width of the data bus is directly related to the largest number that the
bus can carry, such as an 8 bit bus can represent 2 to the power of 8
unique values, this equates to the number 0 to 255.A 16 bit bus can carry
0 to 65535.
 Control bus –
It is a group of conducting wires, which is used to generate timing and
control signals to control all the associated peripherals,
microprocessor uses control bus to process data, that is what to do
with selected memory location. Some control signals are:
 Memory read
 Memory write
 I/O read
 I/O Write
 Opcode fetch

1. Single Bus Structure: In a single bus structure, one common bus is used
to communicate between peripherals and microprocessors. It has
disadvantages due to the use of one common bus.
Advantages-
 Less expensive
 Simplicity

 Disadvantages:
 performance issue
 time taking
2. Double Bus Structure: In a double bus structure, one bus is used to fetch
instructions while other is used to fetch data, required for execution. It is to
overcome the bottleneck of a single bus structure.
Advantages-
 Better performance
 Improves Efficiency
Disadvantages:
 Its costly

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Functional Units of Digital System

o A computer organization describes the functions and design of the various

Central processing unit

Arithmetic & logical unit

What is a computer bus?

The following are a few points to describe a computer bus:-

 A bus is a group of lines/wires which carry computer signals.

 The Length of the address bus determines the amount of memory a

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