1

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Advantages and disadvantages of plane table surveying
3. Components of plane table and its accessories
4. Sources of error and precautions for accurate plane tabling work
5. Orientation of plane table
6. Methods of Plane Tabling
i. Radiation
ii. Traversing
iii. Intersection methods of plane tabling
iv. Resection methods of plane tabling
7. Auxiliary points
8. Three -point problem, Danger circle,
9. Use of plane table surveying in horizontal surveys for traversing,
triangulation and trilateration
10. Color trace and height trace
11. List of control points, name list
12. Height book
13. Contours & contouring
14. Characteristics and properties of contours
15. Direct and indirect method of contour, Trace contour method, Interpolation
of contour lines
16. Uses of contour maps
 2

1. Introduction

Plane table surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations
and plotting are done simultaneously. The plane tabling is generally adapted for surveys in
which high precision is not required. It is mainly employed for small-scale or medium size
mapping. The plan on drawing sheet drawn by surveyor in the field itself so there is chance
of occurrence of any mistake is very less.

The principle of plane tabling is parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn from
station to object on the paper are parallel to the lines from the stations to the objects on
the ground. The relative positions of the objects on the ground are represented by their
plotted positions on the paper and lie on the respective rays. The table is always placed at
each of the successive stations parallel to the position it occupied at the starting station

2. Advantages and disadvantages of plane table surveying

A. Advantages
1. It is the most rapid method of surveying.
2. There is no need for a field book as plotting is done along with the field work.
So, the problem of mistakes in booking field notes does not arise.
3. Plotting work can be compared with actual object regardless of whether or not
they are properly represented.
4. There is no possibility of overlooking any important object.
5. There is no possibility of overlooking any measurement as plotting is done in
the field.
6. Irregular objects may be represented accurately.
7. It is suitable in magnetic area.
8. The map can be prepared easily, and does not require any great still.
9. Errors in measurement and plotting can be detected by check line.
10. Inaccessible points can be easily located by intersection.
B. Disadvantages
1. The plane table is not suitable for accurate work as the fitting arrangement is
not perfect.
2. Plane table surveying is not suitable in wet climate in the rainy season, on
foggy mornings and in windy weather.
3. The number of accessories required in such survey is large, and they are likely
to be lost.
4. The instrument is very heavy and difficult to carry.
5. The map cannot be repotted to a different scale as there is no field book.
 3

3. COMPONENTS / ACCESSORIES IN PLANE TABLE WORK

(1) The plane Table:

It consists of a board made up of a well-

seasoned wood mounted a light tripod with
suitable mounting and clamping devices. The
board can rotate about a vertical axis and can be
clamped in any position. The table is to be leveled
by adjusting the tripod. The plane Table is a
drawing board of size 750mm x 600mm (2.46 x
1.97fts)

Johnson’s plane table and coast survey plane

tables are the improved versions. In Johnson’s
plane table ball and socket joint and a vertical
spindle are provided while in coast survey plane
table three-foot screws are provided for quick and accurate leveling.

(2) The alidade:

A ruler that has a sight line attached and can be used on the plane table for
bisecting a particular object. It can also be used to draw rays, direction lines, or
anything similar.

There are two types of alidade: plain and telescopic.

(a) Plain alidade:

The plane alidade consists of a metal

or wooden ruler of length about 50cm
(1.64fts). One of its edges is beveled,
and is known as the fiducial edge. It
consists of two vanes at both ends
which are hinged with the ruler. One
is known as the ‘object vane’ and
carries a horse hire, the other is called
the ‘sight vane’ and is provided with a
narrow slit.
 4

(b) Telescopic alidade:

The telescopic alidade consists of a

telescope meant for inclined sight or
sighting distant objects clearly. This
alidade has no vanes at the ends but is
provided with fiducial edge.

(3) The spirit level:

The spirit level is a small metal tube containing

a small bubble of spirit. The bubble is visible on
the top along a graduated glass tube.

(4) The compass:

There are two kinds of compass (a) The trough compass, and (b) The circular box
compass.
(a) The trough compass:
The trough compass is a rectangular
box made of non-magnetic metal
containing a magnetic needle pivoted at
the centre. This compass consists of a ‘O’
mark at both ends to locate the N-S
direction.

(b) The circular box compass:

It carries a pivoted magnetic needle at

the centre. Sometime two bubble tubes are
fixed at right angles to each other on the
base plate. The compass is meant for
marking the north direction of the map.
 5

(5) U-fork or plumbing fork with plumb bob:

The U-fork is a metal strip bent in the shape of a ‘U’ (hair

pin) having equal arm length. The top arm is painted and the
bottom arm carries a hook for suspending a plumb bob.

(6) Drawing Sheet

The drawing paper of superior quality ought to be used in a plane table survey. It
ought to be well seasoned before use by exposing it alternatively to warm and moist
atmosphere.

(7) Water Proof Cover

A waterproof cover such as plastic sheet ought to be carried from the surveyor, to
protect drawing sheet out of the rain, if required.

4. Sources of error and precautions for accurate plane tabling work

The following are the common errors in plane tabling.
A. Instrument Errors
i. The surface of the table may not be perfectly level.
ii. The fiducial edge of the alidade might not be straight.
iii. The vanes may not be vertical.
iv. The horsehair may be loose and inclined.
v. The table may be loosely joined with the tripod stand.
vi. The needle of the though compass may not be perfectly balanced. Also it may
not be able to move freely due to sluggishness of the pivot point.
The above errors are adjustable or avoidable.
B. Personal Errors
i. The leveling of the table may not be perfect.
ii. The table may not be centred properly.
iii. The orientation of the table may not be proper.
iv. The table might not be perfectly clamped.
v. The objects may not be bisected perfectly.
vi. The alidade may not be correctly centred on the station point.
vii. The rays might not be drawn accurately.
viii. The alidade may not be centred on the same side of the station point
throughout the work.
 6

C. Plotting Error
i. A good quality pencil with a very fine pointed end may not have been
used.
ii. An incorrect scale may be used by mistake.
iii. Errors may result from failure to observe the correct measurement
from the scale.
iv. Unnecessary hurry at the time of plotting may lead to plotting
errors.

5. ORIENTATION OF TABLE:
Orientation in plane table surveying is the process of putting the plane table into
some fixed direction so that line representing a certain direction on the plan is parallel to
that direction on the ground. This is an essential condition to be fulfilled when more than
one instrument station is to be used.

If the orientation is not done the table will not be parallel to itself at different
positions resulting in an overall distortion of the map. The processes of centering and
orientation are dependent on each other. For orientation, the table will have to be rotated
about its vertical axis, thus disturbing the centering.

Orientation by magnetic needle:

The method is suitable when local attraction is not suspected in the area. After
completing the temporary adjustment at the first station. Then the trough compass or
circular box compass is placed on the right hand top corner of the sheet is such a way
that the needle coincides with ‘o-o’ mark. After this, a line representing the north line is
drawn through the edge of the compass box. The table is when clamped. Now the
orientation is said to be perfect.

Orientation by back sighting:

In this method, after completing the temporary adjustment at the second station,
the alidade kept with the base line and the plane table is turned so that the back station
is completely sighted. Then the table is clamped. This is known as Orientation by back
sighting.
 7

Procedure of Setting Up Plane Table:

The following steps have to be performed in order to set up a plane table over a station.
1. Fixing the table on the tripod stand.
2. Leveling the table.
3. Centering the table.
4. Marking the north line.
5. Orientation
Fixing of Plane Table on tripod stand:
The tripod stand placed over the required station with its legs well apart. Then the
table is fixed on it by wing nut at the bottom. Arrange the drawing sheet on the plane
table using paper clips or thumb screws. The sheet should be in one position from first to
last.
Leveling of Plane Table
Plane table is levelled by placing the spirit level at different corners and various
positions on the table. The bubble is brought to the centre of its run by adjusting the legs.
Centering of Plane Table
The table should be centered by using plumbing fork. By which we can arrange the
plotted point exactly over the ground point by turning the table clockwise or anti
clockwise.
Marking the north line:
The trough compass is placed on the right-hand top corner with its north end
approximately towards the north. Then the compass is turned clockwise or anti clockwise
so that the needle exactly coincide with the 0-0 marks. Now a line representing the north
line is drawn through the edge of the compass.
Orientation:
Orientation can be done by using compass or back sighting. In this case, the plane
table is rotated such that plotted lines in the drawing sheet are parallel to corresponding
lines on the ground. The orientation mast be performed at every successive station. The
back sighting process is always preferred, because it is reliable.
 8

6. METHODS OF PLANE TABLING:

The following are the four methods of plane tabling.

i. Radiation.
ii. Intersection.
iii. Traversing and
iv. Resection.
i. The Radiation Method:
This method is suitable for locating the objects from a single station. In this
method, rays are drawn from the station to the objects and the distances from the
station to the objects are measured and plotted to any suitable scale along the
respective rays.

(i) Suppose P is the station on the ground

from where the objects A, B, C and D are
visible.
(ii) The table is set over the station P which
is then levelled, centered and oriented and
clamped. A point p is selected on the sheet
to represent the station P.
(iii) With the alidade touching a, the point p, objects A, B, C, and D are
bisected and the rays are drawn.
(iv) The distances PA, PB, PC and PD are measured and plotted to any suitable
scale to obtain the points a, b, c and d , representing the objects A,B, C and
D( in fig) on paper.
ii. The Intersection Method: This method is suitable for locating in accessible points by
the intersection of the rays drawn from the two instrument stations.

(i) Suppose A and B are two stations and

P is an object on the far bank of a river.
Now it is required to fix the position of P
on the sheet by the intersection of rays,
drawn from A and B.
(ii) The table is set over the station A,
which is then levelled, centered and
oriented and clamped. A point a is selected on the sheet to represent the
station A.
 9

(iii) With the alidade touching a, the object P is bisected and the ray is drawn.
(iv) The table is shifted over B, which is then levelled, centered and oriented
and clamped.
(v) With the alidade touching b, the object P is bisected and the ray is drawn.
(vi) Suppose this ray intersects the previous ray at point p. This point p is the
required plotted position of P. (Fig. 4.11)
iii. The traversing Method: This method is suitable for connecting the traverse station.
This is similar to compass traversing or theodolite traversing. But here fielding and
plotting are downs simultaneously with the help of the radiation and intersection
methods.

(i) Suppose A, B, C and D are the

traverse stations.
(ii) The table is set over the station A,
which is then levelled, centered and
oriented and clamped. A point a is
selected on the sheet to represent the
station A.
(iii) With the alidade touching a, the
ranging rod at B is bisected and the ray is drawn. The distance AB is
measured and plotted to any suitable scale.
(iv) The table is shifted over B, which is then levelled, centered and oriented
by back sighting and clamped.
(v) With the alidade touching b, the ranging rod at C is bisected and the ray
is drawn. The distance BC is measured and plotted to any suitable scale.
(vi) The table is shifted over C and the same procedure is repeated.
(vii) In this manner, all stations of the traverse are connected. If finishing
point may not coincide with the starting point and there may be some closing
error. This error is adjusted graphically.
 10

iv. The Resection Method: This method is suitable for establishing new stations at a
place in order to locate missing details.

(a) Suppose it is required to establishing new

station at P. let us points A and B on the
ground. The distance AB is measured
and plotted any suitable scale. This line
AB is known as base line.

(b) The table is set up at A. it is leveled,

centered and oriented by bisecting the
ranging rod at B. The table is then clamped.

(c) With the alidade touching a, the ranging rod at P is bisected and the ray
is drawn. Then a point p1 is marked on this ray by eye estimation.

(d) The table is shifted and centered in such a way that p1 is just over P. It
is then oriented by back sighing the ranging rod at A.

(e) With the alidade touching b, the ranging rod at P is bisected and the ray is
drawn. Suppose this ray intersects the previous ray at a point P. This point
represents the position of the station P on the sheet. Then the actual position
of the station P is marked on the ground by U-fork and plum bob.

7. THREE-POINT PROBLEM.

i. The two-point problem: In this problem, two well-defined points whose positions
have already been plotted on the plan are selected. Then, by perfectly bisecting
these points, a new station is established at the required position.
ii. The Three-point problem: In this problem, three well-defined points are selected
whose positions have already been plotted on the map. Then, by perfectly
bisecting these three well-defined points, a new station is established at the
required position. No auxiliary station is required in order to solve this problem.
The table is directly placed at the required position. The problem may be solved
by three methods: (a) the graphical or Bessel’s method, (b) the mechanical
method, and (c) the trial-and-error method.
 11

(a) The Graphical Method

(i) Suppose A, B and C are
three well-defined points
which have been plotted as a,
b, and c. Now it is required to
locate a station at P.
(ii) The table is placed at the
required station P and leveled.
The alidade is placed along
the line ca and the point A is bisected. The table is clamped. With the alidade
centered on C, the point B is bisected and ray is drawn.
(iii) Again the alidade is placed along the line ac and the point C is bisected
and the table is clamped. With the alidade touching a, the point B is bisected
and a ray is drawn. Suppose this ray intersects the previous ray at a point d.
(iv) The alidade is placed along db and the point B is bisected. At this position
the table is said to be perfectly oriented. Now the rays Aa, Bb and Cc are
drawn. These three rays must meet at a point p which is the required point
on the map. This point is transferred to the ground by U-fork and plumb bob.

(b) The Mechanical Method

(i) Suppose A, B and C are three
well-defined points which have
been plotted on the map as a, b,
and c. It is required to locate a
station at P.
(ii) The table is placed at P and
leveled. A tracing paper is fixed on the map and a point p is marked on it.
(iii) With the alidade centered on P the point A, B and C are bisected and rays
are drawn. These rays may not pass through the points a, b and c as the
orientation is done approximately.
(iv) Now the tracing paper is unfastened and moved over the map in such a
way that the three rays simultaneously pass through the plotted positions a,
b, and c. Then the point p is picked with a pin to give an impression p on the
map. P is the required point on the map. The tracing paper is then removed.
(v) Then the alidade is centered on p and the rays are drawn towards A, B
and C. These rays must pass through the points a, b and c.
 12

(c) The Method of Trail and Error

Procedure (a) Suppose A, B and

C are three well-defined
points which have been plotted
as a, b, and con the map. Now
it is required to establish a
station at P.
(b) The table is set up at P and leveled. Orientation is done by eye estimation.
(c) With the alidade, rays Aa, Bb and Cc are drawn. As the orientation is
approximate, the rays may not intersect at a point, but may form a small
triangle the triangle of error.
(d) To get the actual point, this triangle of error is to be eliminated. By
repeatedly turning the table clockwise or anticlockwise, the triangle is
eliminated in such a way that the rays Aa, Bb, and Cc finally meet at a point
p. This is the required point on the map. This point is transferred to the
ground by U-fork and plumb bob.

Strength of Fix:
The accuracy with which the position of point can be fixed is known as
strength of fix.
The strength of fix is good when:
i. Required station is within the Great Triangle.
ii. Middle station is much nearer than other two.
iii. One of the two angles subtended is small and other is large.
The strength of fix is bad when:
i. Both subtended angles are small.
ii. Required station is nearer the great circle.
8. DANGER CIRCLE:
The three point problem is, in fact, insoluble the table lies on the
circumference of the circle drawn through three control points. The
determination of the position of the required point becomes impossible. This
situation is termed as danger circle.
 13

9. PLANE TABLE TRAVERSE AND ITS GRAPHICAL ADJUSTMENT

A graphic adjustment of errors in plane table traverse

i. Let “e” be the starting station and “e1” the closing one. Let a, b, c, d
denote the succeeding traverse stations, which would be identical if
traverse is no error. Now “ee1” is the error to be adjusted.
ii. Layout a line on the margin and mark on it e, a, b, c, d and e1 at
their respective distances from each other.
iii. At “e1” erect a perpendicular equal to the length of error “ee1”.
iv. Join “ee1” of the traverse and at a, b, c, d draw parallels to ee1 and
on these parallel mark off a1, b1, c1, d1, so that dd1, cc1, bb1, and aa1
of the traverse may be equal to the perpendicular dd1, cc1, bb1, and aa1
on the line in the margin.
iv. Adjustment made on lines aa1, bb1, cc1 and dd1 drawn parallel
 14

10. The following precautions should be taken while using the plane table:
1. Before starting the work the equipments for survey work should be
verified. Defective accessories should be replaced by perfect equipment.
2. The centring should be perfect.
3. The leveling should be proper.
4. The orientation should be accurate.
5. The alidade should be centred on the same side of the station-pin until
the work is completed. (Note: if the work was should with the alidade
on the left of the station-pin, then the work should be completed by
maintaining this position. This is the ideal position of the alidade and
should always be preferred.)
6. While shifting the plane table from one station to on other, the tripod
stand should be kept vertical to avoid damage to the fixing
arrangement.
7. Several accessories have to be carried. So, care should be taken to
ensure that nothing is missing.
8. The pencil should have a sharp point.
9. The distances of the objects or lines should be written temporarily
along the respective rays until the plotting is completed.
10. Only the selected scale should be on the table.
11. Measurements should be taken carefully from the scale while plotting.
12. The stations on the ground are marked A, B, C, D, etc, while the station
points on the map are marked a, b, c, d etc.

11. COLOUR TRACE AND HEIGHT TRACES:

For the purpose of photography, it is desirable that plane-table sections
should be free from colour washes and from anything which would tend to confuse
the detail; consequently two traces (a colour trace and a height trace) should be
prepared on tracing cloth, covering the area of each plane-table section. These traces
should be kept up daily by the surveyors in the field.

COLOUR TRACE:

The following should be entered on field colour trace:

(a) Administrative boundaries in their appropriate symbols in black.

(b) Locality, tribal and range names, and their limits, in black, crimson and brown
respectively.
 15

(c) All cultivated areas in a dark and complete yellow wash. The limits of this wash
should be shown by cultivation dots.

(d) All blue detail in strong colour.

(e) Trees, undergrowth, grass and scrub in the appropriate symbols in black.

(f) Surveyed conspicuous trees, which are to be shown on the outline original in
black within a red circle.

(g) A short cross-line in green across railway lines marking the beginning and end
of each curve on the line, as surveyed on the ground

(h) Descriptive remarks with regard to roads, bridges, fords, ferries, etc.

(i) Abbreviations such as PO, PTO, DB, EH, PS, etc. and other important information
such as "Court", "Jail", "Power house", "Hospital" or "Dispensary", etc. pertaining
to towns and villages, should also be entered. These abbreviations should be
entered in such a way that they should show exact location.

HEIGHT TRACE:
The following, with their appropriate symbols should be entered on the height trace:

(a) The height of all trigonometrical stations, intersected points, bench-marks, and
the heights of waterfalls in black.

(b) All relative heights in red.

(c) All clinometric ground heights, of auxiliary points, at fixings or to definite objects
or intersections, with their serial numbers, in blue.

(d) All fixings, auxiliary points and intersections which have heights, by the
appropriate symbol in red.

(e) Depths to water surface and bottom of all wells in desert areas and of 3 or 4 wells
in other areas in a 5-minute square, in red.
 16

LIST OF CONTROL POINTS, AND BOX FOR INSPECTION REMARKS

Table of trigonometrical stations and points. The trigonometrical points plotted

within the area of the work should be given serial numbers, which should be entered on
the plane-table section which should contain the name, coordinates and height of each
point. The heights should be entered in the appropriate column in black, according to
whether they are top or ground heights.

Record of inspection wok. Before leaving the surveyor, the inspecting officer should
mark up his inspection fixings or partial lines on the plane-table, and write the brief report
on the result of his inspection. This report should be written neatly in ink by the inspecting
officer himself, and signed and dated by him.

Different tabular forms on the plane-table section

Other tabular forms: It is necessary to append extra tabular forms to plane-table

sections, which are usually printed on the section. Such forms are —

Administrative index.
Index to adjoining plane-table sections.
Index showing test fixings and partial.
 17

CONTOURING
DEFINITION:
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation. It is a
line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level line.
The line of intersection of a level surface with the ground surface is known as the contour
line or simply the contour. It can also be defined as a line passing through points of equal
reduced levels.

INDEX CONTOUR:
A contour line that is thicker than
the rest and usually labelled with the
elevation that it represents.
Depending on the contour interval,
every fourth or fifth contour line may
be an index contour.
SPOT HEIGHT:
A spot height is an exact point on a
map with an elevation recorded
beside it that represents its height
above a given datum.
CONTOUR INTERVAL:
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is as a contour interval.
PLANIMETRIC MAP:
A planimetric map presents only the horizontal positions of the features represented. It is
distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief, normally represented by
contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.
HYPSOMETRIC MAPS:
Hypsometric maps represent the elevation of the terrain with colours. The area between two
neighbouring contour lines receives one specific tint. Hypsometric colours are most
common in topographic maps at small scales, either applied as continuous gradients or
intervals. The succession of colours occurs according to different rules.
RELIEF:
Relief is the variations in the elevation of the ground surface, also features of height above
a plain or reference datum. On a relief map, relief is depicted by hachures or shading, or,
more accurately, by contours or by spot elevations or both.
 18

SADDLE OR PASS:
The junction of two ridges forms a saddle on which two sides the ground is slopping up and
on other two sides the ground is sloping down.
SLOPE:
The rate of rise or fall of a terrain feature is known as its slope. This slope can be determined
from the map by studying the contour lines—the closer the contour lines, the steeper the
slope; the farther apart the contour lines, the gentler the slope. Totally flat ground has no
contour lines.
TOP:
A hilltop is an area of high ground. From a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all directions.
A hill is shown on a map by contour lines forming concentric circles. The inside of the
smallest closed circle is the hilltop.
WATERSHED AND CLOSED CONTOUR
A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet
such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel.
Watersheds can be as small as a footprint or large enough to encompass all the land that
drains water into rivers.
Contour will close in case of hill or pond or valley, the only difference is that in case of hill
the higher contour will be inside and lower contour will be outside but in case of valley or
pond the higher contour will be outside and lower contour will be inside.
PROPERTIES OF CONTOUR:
A contour line is an imaginary line which connects points of equal elevation. Such lines are
drawn on the plan of an area after establishing reduced levels of several points in the area.
The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping difference in elevation of between two
consecutive lines constant.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour
map are as follows:
1. Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope
and varies inversely on the amount of slope.
3. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
4. Closely spaced contour indicates steep slope ground. Contour showing steep slope
terrain
5. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope. Contour showing uniform slope
terrain
 19

6. Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

7. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards centre
indicate a pond. Pond and its contour
8. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards centre
indicate hills. Hill and its contour convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge.

9. Contour lines with U-shape with

10. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley.
Contour showing ridge line and valley line

11. Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other. If contour lines are
meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff. Vertical cliff and its
contour
 20

12. Contours of different elevations cannot

cross each other. If contour lines cross
each other, it shows existence of
overhanging cliffs or a cave. Overhanging
cliff and its contour

13. The steepest slope of terrain at any point

on a contour is represented along the
normal of the contour at that point.
14. Contours do not pass through permanent
structures such as buildings. Contour across a
permanent structure

15. A contour line must close itself but need not be

necessarily within the limits of the map.
 21

COUTOUR INTERVAL ACCORDING TO THE SCALE OF THE MAP:

If the contour interval is smaller, the amount of field and office work is greater.
Therefor smaller the scale grater must be the contour interval and vice versa. For small
scale maps contour interval is kept 5m, 10m while for large scale maps contour interval is
kept as 0.5m.
DETERMINATION OF CONTOUR INTERVAL:
The contour interval is determined on the following bases.
1. Purpose of contour map: when the work is of fundamental importance, the contour
interval is kept small but in case of survey of rough nature, the contour interval is
increased.
2. Nature of profile of country: in case of plane country the contour interval is kept low
and for hilly country the contour interval is kept higher.
3. The scale of map: if the scale is small, greater must be the contour interval for the
large scale maps the contour interval is smaller.
4. Money available: if the money available for the work is limited then the contour
interval is greater and vice versa.
5. Time for survey: when the time for the survey is limited then the contour interval
should be taken greater and vice versa.
METHODS OF CONTOURING:
There are two methods of contouring, Direct and Indirect.
Direct method: there may be two cases.
Case I:
when the area is oblong and cannot be controlled from single station, in this method
the various points on any contour are located on the ground by taking levels. Then these
points are marked by pegs. After this, the points are plotted on the map, to any suitable
scale, by plane table. This method is very slow and tedious. But it gives accurate contour
lines.
For vertical control levelling instrument is commonly used. A level is set on a commanding
position in the area after taking fly levels from the nearby bench mark. The plane of
collimation/height of instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour line
is calculated.
The instrument man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till the required staff
reading is found. A surveyor establishes the horizontal control of that point using his
instruments.
After that instrument man directs the staff man to another point where the same staff
reading can be found. It is followed by establishing horizontal control.
 22

Thus, several points are established on a contour line on one or two contour lines and
suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for this work.
After required points are established from the instrument setting, the instrument is shifted
to another point to cover more area. The level and survey instrument need not be shifted
at the same time. It is better if both are nearby to communicate easily.
For getting speed in levelling sometimes hand level and Abney levels are also used. This
method is slow, tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.

Case II:
when the area is small and can be controlled from a single station, in this case the
method of radial lines is adopted to obtain contour map. This is also very slow and tedious,
but gives the actual contour lines.
Indirect method:
In this method, the RLs of different points (spot levels) are taken at regular intervals
along a series of lines set up on the ground. The positions of these points are plotted on a
sheet to any suitable scale. The spot levels are noted at the respective points. Then the
points of contour lines are found out by interpolation, after which they are joined to get the
required contour lines. A through very quick, this method gives only the approximate
positions of the contour lines.
i. Set up and level the plane table over a given station.
ii. Place the Clinometre on the board and make the bubble central by means of
the milled-head screw.
iii. Measure accurately the height of the eye-hole above the ground.
iv. Look through the eye-hole and slide the frame along the scale until the
horizontal wire bisects the object. Observe the graduations opposite to the
horizontal wire. The reading on the left side of the slit gives the vertical angle
(angle of elevation or depression) in degrees and that on the right side of the
slit gives the value of the tangent of the corresponding angle.
This method can be adopted in two ways.
i. USING CROSS-SECTIONS:
In this method, a base line, centre line or profile line is considered.
Cross=sections are taken perpendicular to this line at regular intervals (say 50m,
100m, etc.) After this, points are marked along the cross-sections at regular intervals
(say 5m, 10m, etc.) A temporary bench-mark is set up near the site. Staff readings
are taken along the base line and the cross-sections. The readings are entered in the
level book, the base line and the cross-sections should also be mentioned. The RL of
 23

each of the points calculated. Then the base line and cross-sections are plotted to a
suitable scale. Subsequently the RLs of the respective points are noted on the map,
after which the required contour line is drawn by interpolation.

ii. USING SQUARES:

In this method the area is divided into a number of squares. The size of these
squares depends upon the nature and extent of the ground. Generally, they have a
sides varying from 5 to 20 m. The corners of the squares are numbered serially as 1,
2, 3. A temporary bench-mark is set up near the site, and the level is set up at a
suitable position. The readings on the corners of the squares are taken and noted in
the level book maintaining the sequence of the serial numbers of the corners. The
RLs of all the corners are calculated. The skeletons of the squares are plotted to a
suitable scale. The respective RLs are noted on the corners, after which the contour
lines are drawn by interpolation.
 24

METHOD OF INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS:

The process of locating the contours proportionately between the plotted points is
termed interpolation. Interpolation may be done by:
1. Arithmetical calculation.
2. The graphical method.
BY ARITHMETICAL CALCULATION:
Let A and B be two corners of the squares. The RL of A is 98.75 m, and that of the B
100.75m. The horizontal distance between A and B is 10m.
Horizontal distance between A and B =10m
Vertical difference between A and B =100.75-98.75=2m. Let a contour of 99.00m be
required. Then, difference of level between A and B 99.00m contour=99.00-98.75=0.25m
distance of 99.00m contour line from A=10/2 * 0.25=1.25m. This calculated distance is
plotted to the same scale in which the skeleton was plotted, to obtain a point of RL of
99.00m. Similarly, the other points can be located.
BY GRAPHICAL METHOD:
On a sheet of tracing paper a line AB is drawn and divided into equal parts. AB is
bisected at C, and a perpendicular is drawn at this point. A point O is selected on this
perpendicular. Then radial lines are drawn from O to the divisions on AB. After this lines
1-1, 2-2, 3-3, are drawn parallel to AB. These lines serve as guide lines. The boundary line
and every fifth line are marked with a thick or red line. Suppose we have to interpolate a
2m contour interval between two points a and b RLs 92.5 and 100.75m. Let us consider
the lowest radial line OB to represent on RL of 90.00. So, every fifth line (which is bold or
 25

red) will represent, 95, 100, 105 etc. the tracing paper is moved over the plan until a line
at 92.5 and b at 100.25. Line AB should be parallel to AB. Now the points 94, 96, 98, are
picked through to obtain the positions of the required contour.