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Module1: Evaporation Lesson 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EVAPORATORSPage Quiz 1 Lesson 2.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF EVAPORATORSPage Quiz 2 Lesson 3. DIFFERENT TYPES OF


EVAPORATORS USED IN DAIRY INDUSTRYPage Quiz 3 Lesson 4. CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER AREA
AND WATER REQUIREMENT OF CONDENSERSPage Quiz 4 Lesson 5. BASIC CONCEPTS OF MULTIPLE
EFFECT EVAPORATORSPage Quiz 5 Lesson 6. OPERATIONS AND VARIOUS FEEDING SYSTEMSPage Quiz
6 Lesson 7. ECONOMY OF OPERATION, THERMO PROCESSOR AND MVR SYSTEMPage Quiz 7 Lesson 8.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF EVAPORATORSPage

Lesson 1

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EVAPORATORS

1.1 Introduction
1.2

Evaporation and vapouration are two processes in which simultaneous heat and mass transfer process
occurs resulting into separation of vapour from a solution. Evaporation and vapourization occur where
molecules obtain enough energy to escape as vapour from a solution. The rate of escape of the surface
molecules depends primarily upon the temperature of the liquid, the temperature of the surroundings,
the pressure above the liquid, surface area and rate of heat propagation to product.

1.3 Vapourization and Evaporation


1.4

Evaporation and vaporization are quite different from each other. The differences are shown in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Differences between evaporation and vaporization

1.1

Evaporation and vapourization occur where molecules obtain enough energy to escape as vapour from a
solution. The rate of escape of the surface molecules depends primarily upon the temperature of the
liquid, the temperature of the surroundings, the pressure above the liquid, surface area and rate of heat
propagation to product. In a closed container with air space above the liquid, evaporation will continue
until the air is saturated with water molecules. Removal of water from a liquid product by evaporation is
enhanced by adding heat and by removing the saturated air from above the liquid. This is done by
removal of vapour from the space above the liquid surface and there by creating vacuum. The boiling
point of solution due to dissolved solutes is higher than that of pure water and depends on the
molecular weight of the solute. Vacuum is utilized to remove water from liquid/solids at lower
temperatures to reduce damage to heat sensitive products which might decompose at higher
temperatures.

In the dairy industry evaporation means the concentration of liquid milk products containing dissolved,
emulsified or suspended constituents. During this process water is removed by boiling. This process is
used in the dairy industry for manufacture of evaporated milk, condensed milk and traditional Indian
Dairy products i.e. Kheer, Basundi, Khoa etc.

In milk condensing plant, milk is condensed by evaporating a part of its water content by using saturated
steam. The milk is boiled under vacuum. As the milk boils, water vapour is formed. This vapour is utilized
for heating the milk further in the next stage which is at a higher vacuum.

Modern dairy plants use evaporators to remove part of water from milk by boiling it under low pressure.
The process of evaporation takes place at a maximum temperature of about 70 0C corresponding to an
absolute pressure of 230 mm (9.0 inch) of mercury (Hg). Evaporation of milk under low pressure or
vacuum is carried out in a specially designed plant. The plant design depends much on the
characteristics of liquid milk during boiling at low pressure than any other factor. Some of the important
properties of evaporating milk are as under.

I Concentration of solids (initial and final)

Ii Foaming under vacuum

Iii Heat sensitivity

Iv Viscosity change

The engineering design of plant requires certain other factors which provide a suitable milk contact
surface, cleaning without frequent dismantling, faster heat transfer and economy of steam/power used
for operating the plant.

Following factors are important for evoparation process.


(i) Concentration: The initial and final concentration of solute in the solution should be
considered. As the concentration increases, the boiling point rises.

(ii) Foaming: Few products have tendency to foam, which reduce heat transfer and there is
difficulty in controlling level of liquid which ultimately increases product (entrainment)
losses.

(iii) Heat sensitivity: Milk, like many other food products, is sensitive to high temperatures. If
time of exposure is more, there will be severe damage to milk proteins.

(iv) Scale formation / Fouling: It is a common phenomenon of deposition of solids on the heat
exchanger surface. However, the scale forming tendency can be very much reduced by
maintaining reasonably low temperature difference and relatively clean and smooth heat
transfer surface. The flow velocity of product has also significant effect. If scale formation
starts, rate of heat transfer decreases and cleaning becoming more difficult.

(v) Materials of construction: Stainless steel is the most common metal for evaporators in the
dairy and food industry. Other metals may be used in chemical evaporators. The factors like
strength, toughness, weld-ability, non-toxicity, surface finish, cost etc. are important in the
selection of material of construction.
(vi) Specific heat: It changes with concentration of solution. More heat is required to be
supplied at high specific heat values.

(vii) Gas liberation: Few products liberate gases when heated under boiling pressures.

(viii) Toxicity: The gases liberated in few cases may be toxic and should be handle carefully.

(ix) Viscosity: There is increase in viscosity of solution during evaporation which increases time
of contact and hence chances of burning or damage the product.
(x) Capacity: It is expressed as the amount of water evaporated per hour. It depends on the
surface area of heat transfer, temperature difference and the overall heat transfer co-
efficient.

(xi) Economy: It is based on the amount of water evaporated per kg of steam used. It increases
with number of effects.

Lesson 2

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF EVAPORATORS

2.1 Introduction

A number of evaporators of different design have been developed. The need of large scale operation
and of improvement in quality has replaced the batch type evaporators. We shall discuss here the most
important types of evaporators which are of interest to the dairy industry.

2.2 Evaporators Systems

Basically an evaporator system consists of a heat exchanger, supplying the sensible heat to raise the
product to its boiling point and provide the latent heat of vaporization, a separator for the separation of
vapour and concentrate, a condenser to remove the resultant vapour as condensate and a vacuum
system as the process is carried out under reduced pressure. The heating medium is steam. For vacuum,
barometric leg condenser, vacuum pump and steam ejector are generally used. The evaporators may
employ natural or forced circulation of the product. In natural circulation units, circulation of the liquid
is brought about by convective currents arising from the heating surface. In forced circulation
evaporators, the increased velocity of the liquid over the heat transfer surface will bring about a marked
increase in the liquid heat transfer coefficients. The circulation is achieved with the aid of an external
circulating pump generally a centrifugal pump.
The simplest evaporator as shown in following figure, consists of an open pan and kettle in which liquid
is boiled. The heat is supplied by condensation of steam in one side of a metal surface and the liquid
material to be evaporated on the other side. Sometimes heating coils immersed in the liquid. In some
cases the kettle is indirect fired. These evaporators are inexpensive and simple to operate, but the heat
economy is poor. Paddles and/or scrappers are used to improve the economy and quality of the
product.

Based on the nature of the heat transfer surface, evaporators can be classified as:

(1) Tubular surface with natural or forced circulation.

a. Horizontal tube evaporator

b. Vertical short tube evaporator

c. Falling film evaporator

d. Rising /Ascending / climbing film evaporator

(2) Flat heating surface: plate evaporator

(3) Stationary cylindrical surfaces with scraped surface evaporator.

2.3 Types of Evaporators

Evaporators used in food industry may also be classified in different ways as under.
1. Operating pressure – Vacuum and Atmospheric

2. Number of effects – Single effect and multiple effect

3. Type of convection – Natural convection and forced convection

4. Continuity of operation – Batch and continuous

5. Type of heat exchanger – Tube type, plate type, scraped surface etc.

(i) Horizontal tube evaporator

A simple unit, not used to a great extent on new installations, is the horizontal tube evaporator.
Horizontal tubes from 2 to 3 cm diameter extended across the bottom of a cylindrical chamber from one
to three meters in diameter and 2.5 to 4.5 meter high. Steam enters a chest on the end of the tubes,
moves through the tubes and the condensate is removed from the chest at the opposite end. The
vapour is removed from the top of the chamber and the product circulation is by natural circulation over
the heating coil. (Fig. 2.2)
(ii) Vertical tube (short tube calandria) evaporator

Tubes carrying the steam internally are placed vertically in the bottom of the cylindrical evaporator
chamber. It is easier to clean the tubes in a vertical unit than in a horizontal tube evaporator, here also
the product circulation is by natural convection. This type of unit is known as the Roberts evaporator in
Europe and is the calandria evaporator in the United States. (Fig. 2.3)

(iii) Basket type evaporator

In a basket type evaporator the tubes may be placed in the shape of a ring or tubes. This unit provides
an open space on the periphery so that the liquid may circulate more freely through the coils, with the
liquid moving up through the coils as it is heated and the colder product moving down through the
annulus around the basket. (Fig. 2.4)

Components of evaporator system other than heat exchanger are as under

Vapour and Entrainment separators


These are used in most evaporators to obtain vapours without product particles. Entrainment results
wherever a vapour is generated from a liquid boiling vigorously. When this occurs the vapour carries
with it varying quantities and sizes of liquid droplets. Separators provide a means for separating the
vapour from the liquid with minimum liquid carry-over. Various mechanisms such as inverted U-tube,
spiral, baffle, centrifugal type are adopted for such separation. [Fig. 2.5 (a)] , [Fig. 2.5 (b)]

Fig_2.5b.SWF

Fig2.5.JPG

Fig 2.5 © Evaporator with vapour separator and entrainment separator

Vacuum producing device

In an evaporator, evaporation of milk occurs at temperature ranging from 45-75 °C and operated under
vacuum. To create vacuum, it is necessary to remove vapour and other gases and. The vapour
constitutes by far the greatest part of the total volume of the gases. As the vapour is condensed,
vacuum is maintained because the volume occupied by the liquid is considerably less than the original
vapour. To change vapour to liquid requires that the latent heat must be removed from the vapour. The
heat is extracted through an indirect or a direct heat exchanger. The vapour is removed after last
calandria by condensation either by condensing on water cooled surfaces or by condensing through
direct contact with cooling water. The condenser is therefore the main vacuum pump and additional
vacuum pumps such as steam jet air suction pumps, liquid seal pumps and others have only the purpose
of removing non-condensable gases and thus maintaining the vacuum. (Fig 2.6)

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EVAPORATORS USED IN DAIRY INDUSTRY


3.1 Introduction

The major types of evaporators used in dairy industry are

a. Vertical tube circulation evaporator

b. Batch vacuum pan evaporator

c. Long tube vertical (rising and falling film type).

d. Plate evaporators

· Film evaporators with mechanically moved parts (SSHE)

· Expanding flow evaporator

3.2 Different Types of Evaporators

Evaporators are of many different shapes, sizes and types of heating units. The major objective is to
transfer heat from heat source to the product to evaporate water or other volatile liquids from the
product. The general classification for evaporator bodies may be made based on

(i) Source of heat,

(ii) Position of tubes for heating

(iii) Method of circulation of product

(iv) Length of tube


(v) Direction of flow of film of product

(vi) Number of passes

(vii) Shape of tube assembly for heat exchanger

(viii) Location of steam

(ix) Location of tubes

The most important and widely used evaporator is the long tube vertical (calandria) type evaporator
with climbing or falling film principle. The type is of the forced circulation type with steam condensing in
the jacket surrounding a most of small diameter tubes. This type of evaporator has higher rate of heat
transfer, less contact time with hot surface, flexibility of operation, economy of evaporation and easy-in-
place cleaning. It can be operated in stages reusing vapours by Thermo-Vapour Recompression (TVR)
and Mechanical Vapour Recompression (MVR), for steam economy.

3.2.1 Long tube vertical (rising and falling film type) evaporator

In natural convection evaporators, the velocity of the fluid is usually less than one to 1.25 m/s. It is
difficult to heat viscous materials with a natural circulation unit. Therefore the use of forced circulation
to obtain a velocity of liquid up to 5 m/s, at the entrance of the tubes is desired for more rapid heat
transfer. The liquid head above the heat exchanger is usually great enough to prevent boiling in the
tubes. A centrifugal pump is normally used for circulation of milk products, but a positive pump is used
for highly viscous fluids.

Tubes of 3 to 5 cm diameter and 300 to 500 cm long are used to move the liquid on the inside. These are
placed in a steam chest. So that steam heats from the outside of the tube. The Long Tube Vertical (LTV)
evaporator is used normally with the heating element separate from the liquid-vapour separator. The
product enters at the bottom of the evaporator body and as it is heated by steam condensing on the
opposite side of the tube, the product moves rapidly to the top of the tube and then into a separation
chamber. The evaporator is thus a continuous one in operation. Within the tubes there are three distinct
regions. At the bottom, under the static head of liquid, no boiling takes place, only simple heating
occurs. In the center region the temperature rises sufficiently for boiling and vapour is produced, heat
transfer rates are still low. In the upper region the volume of vapour increase and the remaining liquid is
being wiped into a film on the tube surfaces resulting in good heat transfer conditions. The
disadvantages of this type are the relatively large hold up of liquid in the lower regions of the tube giving
long contact times (15-30 min.) Also evaporation ratio in a single pass is usually not sufficient to reach
the required concentration, so that recycling is necessary, extending residence time. In the central
portion of the tubes formation of scale, protein deposits and other fouling is often found to be most
severe.

Vapour is removed by the separation chamber and the concentrated product removed or recirculated
through the evaporation chamber again, depending on the concentration desired.

The falling film evaporator is used to reduce the amount of heat treatment and exposure of heat to the
product. The tubes are from 4 to 5 cm diameter and up to 600 cm long in the falling film evaporator. The
product is sprayed or other wise distributed over the inside of the tubes which are heated with steam.
Unless the tubes are fairly heavily loaded there is a risk that some of the tubes may not get their fair
share of feed and will overheat or over concentrate the liquid flowing down. The distributor is provided
for uniform distribution of feed to each and every tubes of calandria to form thin film over the inner
surface of tubes.

The smaller the tubes for a given output the easier it is to get even distribution, also small tubes result in
a larger pressure drop across their length. The ideal plant might well have conical tubes which would
maintain a good initial velocity, would prevent overloading with vapour at the bottom of the tubes and
might make the distribution of the feed easier.

Moisture removed moves downward along with the concentrated product and finally separated in the
vapour separator. The product may be recirculated for further concentration or removed from the
system. The Reynolds number of the falling film should exceed 2000 for good heat transfer.

The great advantage of the falling film is the short time the product remains inside the tube. This gives
better quality product with minimum changes or damage to the product. The other advantages are as
stated below.

1. The overall heat transfer coefficient is much larger than vacuum pan or other types of evaporator. The
U-value of vacuum pan is 500-700 W/m2 K, while for multi effect evaporators it is 1500-2200 W/m2 K.

2. More than one effect can be used in series with great saving in steam per kg of vapour.
3. There is no static head and hence no change in the boiling point due to hydrostatic head.

4. It can be used for concentrating most of the heat sensitive products including milk and fruit juices,
due to lower temperature gradient.

5. Evaporation is carried out at lower temperature due to higher vacuum and temperature difference
required is relatively low.

Disadvantages are as under

1. Chocking of tubes due to scale formation and difficulty in cleaning of tubes.

2. Operation is highly sensitive to fluctuation in steam pressure to plant.

3. Sudden failure of vacuum causes heavy entrainment losses and fouling of tubes.

4. Great care is needed in keeping all joints leak proof to maintain desired vacuum.

Table 3.1 Difference between rising and falling film evaporators

Rising Film Evaporators

Falling film Evaporators

More residence time

Less residence time

More temperature difference is required between heating medium and feed

Less temperature difference is required between heating medium and feed


Less overall heat transfer coefficient

More overall heat transfer coefficient

There is a static head and hence change in the boiling point due to hydrostatic head in the tube

There is no static head and hence no change in the boiling point due to hydrostatic head in the tube

Higher vacuum is not possible

Higher vacuum is possible

It is not used for heat sensitive products

Used for heat sensitive products as gentle heating

More fouling problem

Less fouling problem

Materials of construction

Evaporator bodies and tubes are fabricated from the materials mostly of stainless steel (AISI-SS-316) is
used when corrosive action is to be prevented.

Design consideration
Evaporator drums invariably operate under vacuum. These are designed for an external pressure of 0.1
N/mm2 (100 kPa). The bottom head may be conical in many cases and may be designed for similar
pressure rating. The top head may be flanged for flared and dished shape or conical. The calandria which
has the tubular heating surface is designed as a shell and tube heat exchanger. Since steam under
pressure in usually accepted as the heating medium, the design is based on the pressure of steam. The
entire evaporator body must be rigid. The conical head, the calandria and the vapour drum are
connected by flanged joints or directly welded. The vapour drum may be made up to separate cylindrical
pieces and joined by flanges. Large openings like manholes, sight glasses must be reinforced with
compensating rings. Supports may be placed below the brackets welded to the vapour drum or to the
calandria. External calandria is also designed as a shell and tube heat exchanger.

3.2.2 Plate evaporator

The plate evaporator is characterized by a large heat exchanger surface occupying a relatively small
space which need not be very high. Like the plate heat exchanger, it is constructed from profile plates,
with the condensing steam used as heating medium and the evaporating product passing between
alternate pairs.

High heat transfer coefficients are obtained and viscous materials are handled at relatively high
temperature but for shorter contact times. The plate arrangement may be such that it offers a
combination of rising and falling film principle or falling film principle alone. By varying the plate gap,
width of the plates and the relative dimensions of the various channels, the vapour velocity is controlled
for efficient heat transfer. As the diagram shows, larger cross-sectional areas are provided for the inlet
of the steam used for heating than for the discharge of condensate. Similarly, the cross-sectional areas
for discharge of vapour and of concentrate are also enlarged.

Fig_3.3.SWF

The advantages of plate evaporator are its, flexibility, low head space, sanitary construction and shorter
residence time which makes evaporation of heat sensitive products possible. It also offers possibility of
multiple effects. However, rubber gaskets for sealing are costly; Liquid having suspended matter cannot
be easily processed. For even distribution and to ensure good wetting of the surface, orifice pieces are
to be inserted at header ports. Sometimes recirculation is necessary to ensure proper wetting.
3.2.3 Film evaporators with mechanically moved parts (SSHE)

When highly viscous products (viscosity more than 1 Pa s) or fluids containing suspended matter are to
be evaporated, it may happen that the forces which normally move the liquid along with gravity and
propelling power of the vapour, are not sufficient to move the product satisfactorily. This intensifies the
problem of maintaining high rates of heat transfer and proper distribution. (Fig. 3.3)

The Figure 3.4 depicts the cross-section of an evaporator with a rotating inner section. A shaft fitted with
wiper blades, scrapers, vanes or other device rotates within a vertical tube of relatively large diameter.
This tube is surrounded by a heating jacket. The rotor may have a fixed clearance of 0.2 – 2.0 mm or
fixed blades with adjustable clearance, or blades which actually wipe the heat exchanger surface. The
purpose of the blades etc. is to produce thorough mixing of the film, to distribute it evenly and to
transport the product through the evaporator. The film thickness differs from one liquid to another
depending on its physical properties.

The advantages of this evaporator are:

1. It can handle highly viscous, pulpy and foaming materials.

2. Evaporation rates are high.

3. Fouling problem non-existent.

The disadvantages are:

1. Requires precise alignment because of small blade clearance.


2. Difficult to clean.

3. High capital and operating cost.

4. High headspace required for demounting rotor for inspection and cleaning.

3.2.4 Expanding flow evaporator

It is compact and its heating element and expansion vessel are a single unit. In put milk acts as coolant in
condenser. Steam condensate is used in milk pre heater. CIP is possible. Flexible in its capacity. One can
get concentration in one pass. It has shorter residence time of < 1 min. Hence it is giving the advantage
of gentle heating. Also because of low holding the plant has the characteristic of quick start up. It is
made up of number of inverted, S.S. cones. Gaskets maintain narrow passages between cones. The
alternative passages for feed and steam is provided. (Fig. 3.4)

Entrainment separators

The entrainment separators are basically depend on principles of impingment theory, where liquid
droplets get returned due to spiral tubes and baffles installed in the path of the vapour. The other
principle is change in direction as well as velocity. For industrial applications centrifugal type of
entrainment separators are in use.Entrainment results whenever a vapour is generated from a liquid. So
the vapour carries these liquid droplets. Separators provide a separation of liquid from vapour.

Vapour Release Chamber

A large chamber is used to reduce the velocity of vapour stream. This enables the droplets to settle out
by gravity. The vapour release drum may either be placed just above the bundle shell or it is a separate
unit placed adjoining to tube bundle shell, being connected to it by a large pipe. It may not be
economically practical to make the vapour head large enough to accomplish the entire decontamination
of the vapour. Further, increasing vapour space decreases entrainment of larger drops, but has not
effect on small drops.

The vapour disengagement rate from a boiling liquid surface should not normally be more than 30 cm
per second for normal solutions at atmospheric pressure and may be about 3 cm per second with crude
solutions. Even allowing for sufficient vapour disengagement space it is common practice to provide
spray traps. These traps are merely a series of baffles giving rapid changes of direction to the vapour
stream.

Wire Pad

Pads of finely woven wire set in the vapour release chamber at right angles to the vapour flow are used
for entrainment. As the vapour and its entrained liquid pass through the pad, the liquid particles
agglomerate, eventually falling back into the vapour release chamber. A highly purified dry vapour
leaves the top of the pad. Application of such pads may be difficult for vapours with suspended solids,
fibers or scale forming materials, which will block the wire mesh. In such cases washing facilities at
proper intervals may be provided. Wire pads are not generally used in the food industry for the
unhygienic condition it creates.

Vapour Release Drum Size

The size of drum provided above the tube bundle in most of evaporators, is decided by three important
considerations. They are: (a)the foaming of the liquid in the evaporator, (b)the vapour velocity, and
(c)entrainment separation. Foaming takes place above the liquid level and occupies a certain space of
the vapour drum. The vapour velocity sets the minimum drum diameter.

A thumb rule commonly employed in evaporator design of this kind is that the height of the vapour
space above the calandria should not be less than one vessel diameter and the bottom space below
calandria should be one-fourth of vessel diameter. In cases where the entrainment separator forms an
independent unit, the main drum can have a shorter disengaging height.

Centrifugal Separator

This is a separate drum in which the vapours are admitted tangentially and are made to flow in a helical
path by use of baffles. The vapours leave either from the top of the drum or through a central pipe. A
centrifugal type baffling system as shown in figure is fitted at the top of the drum. The vapours enter
from the central passage and are diverted by the baffles separating the liquid in the process

Lesson 4

CALCULATION OF HEAT AREA AND WATER REQUIREMENT OF CONDENSERS


4.1 Introduction

In the evaporation system, steam is used as a heating medium as well as vapour produced from the
previous effect is used as a heating medium in next effect. While the vapour from the final effect enters
in the vapour condenser where cooling water is circulated to condense the vapour and thereby
maintains the vacuum. The proper calculation of heat transfer area and the water requirement will
decide the energy requirement and the capacity of each system components.

4.2 Heat Transfer in Boiling Liquids

Heat transfer in boiling liquids and condensing vapour is accompanied by a change in the phase of liquid
or vapour, the saturation temperature of the forming vapour (ts) is determined by the ambient pressure
P. This temperature ts remains constant through out the process of boiling of any liquid at constant
pressure. Experience however shows that the boiling liquid is usually overheated. (feed temperature, tf
is greater than ts).

Experience shows that a sharp increase in the temperature is observed only in a layer 2-5mm thick over
the heated surface. Hence the temperature of the liquid on the heating surface is higher than the
saturation temperature by ∆t=tw-ts. The value of ∆t rises with an increase in the rate of heat transfer q
(W/m2.K.). The temperature profile of liquid near heating surface is shown in following curve.

4.1

Fig. 4.1 Temperature profile in heating tube

It has been established by visual observation that vapour bubbles form only on the heated surface,
where liquid superheat is maximum, and only at individual points of that surface called starting boiling.
The surface where the effect of adhesion is minimum may become evaporation starting points.
Adhesion is defined as the effort required detaching the liquid from unit area of the hard surface.
Further, experience shows that the number of starting points of bubble (Z) depends on the degree of
superheat at the heating surface, i.e. on the temperature difference, ∆t = tw – ts. A rise in ∆t entails an
increase in Z and boiling intensifies. Essentially, this dependence is traced to the phenomenon of surface
tension appearing at the liquid vapour interface.

Surface tension is defined as the stress causing the free surface of the fluid to contact; this stress is
tangential to the surface. The pressure inside a bubble p1 is greater than the surrounding liquid pressure
p owing to surface tension. According to the Laplace equation, for a bubble in equilibrium the difference
between the two pressures is determined by the equation ∆ p = p1-p = 2s/r, Where s = surface tension
kg/m, r = curvature radius of bubble, m.

After their formation, the bubble grows rapidly and detach from the surface on attaining a certain size.
The size of bubble at the moment of its separation from the surface is determined mainly by the
interaction of the weight of gravity and surface tension. Besides, the generation of bubbles and their
separation from the surface depend to a great measure on whether or not the liquid wets the surface.

The wetting capacity of a liquid is characterized by the contact angle q, formed between the wall and
the free surface of the liquids, the larger the angle q, the poorer the wetting capacity of the liquid.
Following figures illustrate the same.

Fig4.2

Fig. 4.2 Waiting capacity of the liquid based on angle

Since the temperature of the boiling liquid tf, is higher than the saturation temperature ts, intensive
heat transfer between the liquid and bubble takes place, and that causes the bubble to continue to grow
after its separation from the surface. The bubble increases in volume dozens of times, this depending on
the rise time and degree of liquid superheat.

The multiple increase in the volume of separated bubbles evidences that from the heating surface that is
transferred mainly to the liquid; it is then transported into the volume by convection and is further
utilized to evaporate the liquid into bubbles. Direct transfer of heat from the heating surface to the
vapour is possible only during the growth of bubbles prior to their detachment from the surface. But,
owing to the small bubble-to-surface contact area and the low thermal conductivity of vapour, only a
relatively small amount of heat can be transferred to the bubbles in that period.

Boiling is classified in three types:

1) Interface evaporation

2) Nucleate boiling

3) Film boiling.

In interface evaporation, regime first, liquid contacts heated surface to produce vapour which rises due
to convection forming convection currents to circulate the liquid, the phenomenon is free or natural
convection. With further rise in temp, ∆t=(tw-ts) bubbles are formed adjacent at the surface due to high
energy in liquid particles; they rise above the water surface but condense before reaching liquid surface.

The phenomenon, nucleate boiling commences in the next regime in figure. With further rise in
temperature, ∆t, liquid gets heated up, bubbles do not condense, they help evaporation, and this phase
is known as nucleate boiling as shown in the next regin in the diagram. There is limit to this
phenomenon as shown by crest of the curve in the figure. The peaking point is a critical point and heat
flux at this critical state is called critical heat flux.

Beyond the crest of the curve, bubbles cover metal surface providing an insulating effect, thereby
decreasing heat flux. The film of bubble is unstable during the next regime, it reforms and collapses. On
further increase of ∆t the stable film forms and the heat flow is low. Any further increase of ∆t involves
heat transfer by radiation also. (Fig. 4.3)

4.3 Heat Transfer During Condensation

The condensation phenomenon is very important in the evaporators for efficient heat transfer. The
condensation of steam in the calandria is of two types i.e. (i) Film condensation (ii) Drop wise
condensation. Film condensation gives steam side film co-efficient in the range of 10,000 to 12,000
W/m2K, where as drop wise condensation gives steam side film co-efficient in the range of 25,000 to
30,000 W/m2K.

a) Factors affecting the boiling point:

(1) The pressure or vacuum respectively in the evaporating space.

Vapour and liquid are in equilibrium with each other and their temperature at any time is a function of
the saturated vapour pressure. A lowering of the pressure lowers the boiling point.

(2) The concentration of the solution (as osmotic pressure)

Boiling point is influenced by the amount of dissolved matter. Dissolved substances exert osmotic forces
which lower the vapour pressure of a solution at constant temperature or raise the boiling point if the
pressure is constant.

(3) The hydrostatic pressure of a column of liquid.

Due to hydrostatic pressure boiling point increases. A column of liquid of height H produces an increase
in pressure of P=H.ρ.g

b) Factors affecting the size of heating surface:

It depends upon the amount of heat to be exchanged.

If milk enters at boiling point: Then mw.L = A.U(tH-tB), tB=Boiling point, tH=Temp. of steam

If cold milk enters: mwL + mM CM (tB – to), to=Initial temp., tB milk at boiling point.

For superheated milk: mw.L – mM CM (tV-tB), tV=High temp. than boiling point.
Surface area is also dependent on the over all heat transfer coefficient and the temperature difference.

In practice, following table gives the normal range of values of overall heat transfer coefficients (U):

Table 4.1 Normal range of values of overall heat transfer coefficients

Number of Effect

Skim milk (W/m2K)

Whole milk (W/m2K)

1st effect

2300-2600

2000-2200

2nd effect

1900-2200

1700-1900

3rd effect

1000-1200
900-1100

Note: 1 Watt=0.86 kcal/h, 1kcal/h =1.163 Watt

During continuous operation ‘U’ drops as deposition of precipitated protein or calcium phosphate on the
calendria tubes. Deposits may also form on steam side if complete separation of product from vapour is
not carried out in vapour separator and this vapour taken in steam chest of the next effect. So plant
must be cleaned at regular interval with sequence of water-caustic soda solution-water-nitric acid-
water.

c) Factors affecting the heat transfer coefficients

(i) Steam side film coefficient:

(a) It depends on the temperature drop.

(b) Condensing temperature of steam. (a) and (b) are fixed by condition of
operation.

© Amount of non condensable gas present. It depends on evaporator construction.

(ii) Boiling liquid side surface coefficient:

(a)Velocity of flow of milk

(b) Viscosity of fluid

© Cleanness of the heating surface.

4.4 Heat and Material Balance of Single of Single Effect Evaporator (Fig- 4.4)
Heat Balance

F.hf + S.Hs = L.hL+ V.H + Shc (neglecting heat losses)

Therefore , F.hF + S(Hs-Hc) = LhL + VH …………………….(1)

Where, F= Feed rate, kg/h

Hf= heat content of feed, kJ/kg

S=steam supply rate, kg/h

Hs= Enthalpy of steam, kJ/kg

L= output rate of concentrate, kg/h

hL= heat content of concentrate, kJ/kg

V= rate of vapour production, kg/h

H= Heat content of vapour, kJ/kg

Hc=heat content of condensate, kJ/kg

Material Balance

F= L+V………….(2)

Based on the total solid, we have

FxF = LxL + Vy ……………(3)

Where, xF = Feed concentration, % TS

xL= Concentration of condensed milk, % TS

y= solids in vapour (taken as zero)


Capacity

From equation (3)

FxF = LxL as Vy=0

Therefore , F= L.(xL / xf) and L= F.(xf/ xL)

Therefore , (F-V) = F. (xf/ xL), ( as L= F-V)

Therefore , V = F[ 1- (xf/ xL)] …………………………..(4)

4.5 Material and Heat Balance of Double Effect Evaporator (Fig. 4.5)

Material Balance

1st effect, F = L1 + V1 …………………………..(1)

2nd effect, L1 = L2 + V2………………………….(2)

Substituting for L1 in equation (1) from equation (2)

F = L2+ V2+V1

Therefore , F = L2+ E …………………………..(3) where, V1 + V2 = E


Based on solid,

1st effect, F.xF = L1 xL1 …………………………(4)

2nd effect, L1xL1 = L2xL2 …………………………(5)

Therefore, F.xf = L2 xL2 …………………..…….(6)

Therefore, L2 = F (xF / xL2)

Substituting the value of L2 into equation (3) we get,

F= (FxF / xL2 ) + E or F= (FxF / xL2 ) + V1 + V2 ………………..(7)

In terms of total evaporation, E kg/h

E = F – (FxF / xL2 )

Therefore , E = F [1- (xF / xL2 )] ………………..(8)

Heat balance

F.hF + SHs = L1 hL1 + V1H1 + Shc1


Therefore, FhF + S(Hs – hc1 ) = L1 HL1 + V1 H1 ……………………..…..…(i)

Therefore, FhF + S(Hs – hc1 ) = (F- V1) hL1 + V1H1 ( as L1 = F- V1)

Therefore, FhF + S(Hs – hc1 ) = F hL1 – V1hL1 + V1 H1

Therefore, F (hF – hL1 ) + S (Hs – hc1 ) = V1 (H1 – hL1) ………………………(ii)

Similarly taking heat balance on 2nd effect,

L1 hL1 + V1 H1 = L2 hL2 + V2 H2 + V1 hc2

Therefore , L1 hL1 + V1 (H1 – hc2) = L2 hL2 + V2 H2 …………………………(iii)

Therefore , L1 hL1 + V1 (H1 – hc2) = (L1 -V2 ) hL2 + V2H2 ( as L2 = L1 -V2 )

Therefore , L1 hL1 + V1 (H1 – hc2) = L1 hL2 – V2 hL2 + V2H2

Therefore , L1 (hL1 – hL2 ) + V1 (H1 – hc2) = V2 (H2 – hL2) ……………………(iv)

4.6 Heat and Material Balance of Triple Effect Evaporator (Fig. 4.6)

1st effect:
FhF + SHs = V1 H1 + S hc1 + L1 h1

Therefore , FhF + S(Hs – hc1) = V1 H1 + L1 h1

Therefore , FhF + S(Hs – hc1) = V1 H1 + (F – V1 )h1

Therefore , F(hF – h1) + S(Hs – hc1) = V1 (H1 – h1) ……………………..(i)

2nd effect:

L1h1 + V1 (H1 – hc2) = V2H2 + L2h2

= V2H2 + (F – V1 – V2)h2

= V2H2 + (L1 – V2)h2

= V2H2 + L1 h2 – V2h2

Therefore , L1( h1- h2) + V1 (H1 – hc1) = V2H2 - V2h2

= V2( H2 – h2) ………….……..(ii)


3rd effect :

V2H2 + L2h2 = V3 H3 + V2hc2 + L3h3

Therefore , V2( H2-hc2) + L2h2 = V3 H3 + (F – V1 – V2 – V3) h3

= V3 H3 + (L2 – V3 ) h3

V2( H2 – hc2) + L2( h2 – h3 ) = V3 (H3 – h3) …………………..…………(iii)

Material balance:

F = L1 + V1 , L1 = L2+ V2 , L2 = L3+ V3

Therefore , L1 = L3+ V3 + V2

Therefore , F = L3+ V1 + V2 + V3 ……………………………………….(i)

Based on solids,

Fxf = L1x1, L1x1 = L2x2, L2x2 = L3x3

Therefore , Fxf = L3x3 , Therefore , F = L3 (x3/xf)


Therefore , F = (F – V1 – V2 – V3 ) (x3/xf)

Therefore , E= F – F(xf/x3) = F [1- (xf/x3)]

Combined:

FhF + SHs = S hc1 + V1hc2 + V2hc3 + V3 H3 + L3 h3

Different Vacuum producing devices:

Production and maintenance of vacuum in the evaporator is very important for the smooth and efficient
evaporation operation. The various vacuum producing devices used in dairy industry are as follows

1) Indirect (Shell and Tube) type condenser

2) Direct type condenser

1) Indirect type
The surface condenser is an indirect type heat exchanger in which cold water on one side causes vapour
coming from the product to condense on the other side. A common indirect heat exchanger used as a
surface condenser is the tubular unit.

Fig_4.7.SWF

2) Direct type

A jet condenser is a heat exchanger in which cooling water is sprayed into the unit where vapour is to be
condensed. Jet type condenser can be further classified as parallel flow or counter flow type. The
parallel flow condenser is normally operated as a wet condenser and the counter current flow
condenser as a dry condenser. In parallel flow condenser, air and water are removed at the same
temperature whereas in counter current condenser, the non-condensable are removed at the
temperature of incoming water.

Fig_4.6.swf

In case of dry condenser, the cooling water is removed by one pump and the non-condensable including
the air removed by another pump. In a wet condenser, condensed vapour and non condensable are all
removed together.

A jet condenser will use cooling water amounting 20 to 50 times the weight of vapour. Thus, the vapour
being removed from the product and the cooling water is mixed. A jet condenser is normally used in
milk evaporating operation in preference to a surface condenser, the surface condenser being more
expensive

The quantity of water required is less for a counter flow type of condenser. Another advantage is that
the air and vapour need not enter at the top of the unit as is done with parallel flow. The quantity of air
removed from the evaporator system is about 15-25% of the volume of cooling water. Leaks in the
system can cause the quantity of air to be considerably higher and result in expensive operation.

Table 4.2 Pressure, volume and boiling point relationship


Boiling Point °C

Mm of Hg absolute pressure

Specific Volume of Vapour (m3/kg)

75

434

2.8

70

233

4.8

60

149

7.7

50

92

12.0
40

55

19.6

Barometric Leg Condenser

It is placed high enough so that water and condensate from the condenser escapes from it by a
barometric leg. In order to remove water and condensate from the plant without losing vacuum it is
necessary that a leg of liquid be maintained with a hydrostatic head Hρ, equal to the difference between
vacuum and atmospheric pressure; where H is the height and ρ is the density. In this manner the upper
surface of the liquid in the tail pipe is at a pressure corresponding to the vacuum and the liquid at the
bottom of the tail pipe is at atmospheric pressure Due to the weight of the hydrostatic head. Thus liquid
under vacuum continuously enters the tail pipe and liquid at atmospheric pressure continuously leaves
from the bottom of the tail pipe by way of the hot well at the bottom. Atmospheric pressure
corresponds to a hydrostatic head of 10.35 meters of water and complete vacuum corresponds to zero
hydrostatic head. To maintain a process at substantially complete vacuum requires a leg of 10.35 meter
of water be maintained between the barometric condenser and the hot well.

Lesson 5

BASIC CONCEPTS OF MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS

5.1 Introduction

Milk condensing in vacuum pan uses high amount of steam to evaporate water. Multiple effect
evaporator is used for steam economy.
5.2 Multiple-Effect Evaporation

In any evaporation operation, the major process cost is the steam consumed. Therefore, methods of
reducing steam consumption (or of increasing economy, defined as mass of vapour produced per unit
mass of steam consumed) are very important. The most common of the available methods is to use the
vapour generated in the first evaporator as the heating medium for a second evaporator. Ideally, this
method should produce almost 2 kg of vapour for every kg. of steam consumed. The method is feasible
if the second evaporator is operated at a lower pressure than the first, so that a positive value of ∆t is
obtained across the steam-chest surface of the second evaporator. Several evaporators can be
connected in series. In this way the amount of vapour (kg) produced per kg of steam consumed equal to
the number of evaporator bodies. The increase in latent heat with decreasing pressure and additional
radiation losses affect , the economy as the number of evaporators used is increased. This method of
evaporation in series is called multiple-effect evaporation, and each stage is called an effect. The amount
of steam consumption in multiple effect evaporators is already mentioned in Lesson 4.

Fig_5.1.SWF

5.2.1 Different level of vacuum in each effect of multiple effect evaporator

Here we assume that initially in all the calandria the level and temperature of feed is same. Now during
starting of the plant steam is introduced in first calandria. So in that calandria milk initially will be heated
and then raised to corresponding boiling point and vapour will be released. This vapour is going in the
next calandria’s heating jacket where the milk is cold and nowstart heating thereby the temperature
difference between heating vapour and milk will decrease. It gives less condensation of vapour in
second calandria. This gives rise of back pressure in first calandria tube and thereby the boiling point in
first calandria will rise. The same principle will work for subsequent calandrias and last calandria will
correspond to condenser vacuum. Once this established than all the calandrias will operate at different
vacuum levels.

By controlling the opening of orifice plates present in the airline of heating jackets is also used to control
different vacuum levels in all the calandrias.

If a pump is used to remove the tail pipe liquid instead of a total barometric height, whatever head is
supplied by the pump can be deducted from the total barometric height and the assembly is known as a
low-level condenser. (Fig. 4.9)
P=Hρ, where P=1.013x105 Pa =1.013 bar i.e. Atmospheric pressure

Specific steam consumption and water requirement:

The following table gives the idea about steam required to vapourize one kg of water and cooling water
requirement.

Table 4.3

Range

(steam in kg.)

Average

(steam in kg.)

Water required in kg. per kg vapour to condense

Single effect

1.83-1.00

1.17

20.00
Double effect

0.63-0.50

0.57

9.00

Triple effect

0.40-0.34

0.37

6.00

Quadruple effect

0.30-0.26

0.28

5.00

Quintuple effect

0.24-0.22

0.23
4.00

Water requirement in condenser:

In a condenser the circulating water extracts heat from the vapour to be condensed and the
temperature of the circulating water is raised. In direct condenser the cooling water and vapour come in
direct contact, hence the temperature of condensate is same as that of outlet temperature of circulating
water.

Heat received by circulating water from one kg. of vapour = m × S × (t2 – t1) kJ (i)

Heat given out by one kg. of vapour to circulating water = H – h1 kJ (ii)

From equation (i) and (ii), we get m × S × (t2 – t1) = H – h1

Therefore m = (H – h1) / [S × (t2 – t1)] kg.

Where, m = quantity of circulating water required to condense one kg. vapour

S = specific heat of water kJ/kg K

T1 and t2 = Inlet and outlet temperature of circulating water

H = h + x L = Heat content of one kg vapour at corresponding vacuum

H1 = S × t2 = Heat of one kg condensate of vapour

Example:
Determine the amount of cooling water required in jet condenser to condense one kg vapour, if cooling
water inlet and outlet temperature is 20 0C and 30 0C respectively. Take heat of vapour (H) as 2556
kJ/kg at 30 0C and specific heat of cooling water as 4.187 kJ/kg.

Solution:

M = (2556 – 125.6) / 41.87 = 58 kg

Working of steam jet ejector

Positive pump of reciprocating type and steam jet ejectors are commonly used to produce a vacuum.
The pump is normally used for producing 24” Hg vacuum or less. The single stage steam jet ejector may
be used for 25” Hg vacuum. The two stage steam jet ejector may be used for 28.8” Hg vacuum or three
stages to produce 29.8”Hg vacuum using steam at 7.0 bar.

High pressure is admitted to a nozzle A that sends a jet of very high velocity into throat of a venturi.-
shaped tube. The non condensable gases to be removed enter through suction chamber as shown in
figure. By proper proportioning of a throat of the venturi, volume and velocity of steam used, the steam
can be made to entrain (suck) non-condensable gases from the space under vacuum. For a very high
vacuum, the steam air mixture from these jets goes to a condenser B, where the water vapour is
condensed by a jet of cold water and the residual air passes to a second nozzle c. The discharge from
second nozzle can usually be made to reach atmospheric pressure and is discharged at D to the air.
Another important advantage of steam jet over reciprocating vacuum pump is that it has no moving
parts and repairs are reduced to a minimum.

Fig_4.8.swf

Different type of pumps may be used for evacuation such as mechanically operating pump (ring pump)
or steam ejectors which operates on similar principles to steam jet vapour compressors.

Oil lubricated vacuum pumps


The diagram shows a cross-section of a typical rotary vacuum pump. It consists of a horizontal cylindrical
casing, with a rotor mounted eccentrically so that it is virtually in contact with the casing at one point of
the circumference. The space between the rotor body and the casing is thus crescent shaped, and
communicates through the elongated inlet port with the vacuum pipeline, and through the elongated
outlet port with the exhaust pipe. The rotor has longitudinal slots, usually four, which house vanes free
to slide radially as the rotor turns. The vanes, which are usually made of asbestos fiber composition, are
kept in contact with the casing by centrifugal force. In some designs the vanes slide tangentially, the
purpose being to reduce frictional losses. As the rotor turns, pockets of air are enclosed between the
vanes and transferred from the inlet to the ooutlet

5.2.2 Multiple effect Evaporator capacity and steam economy

In addition to the economy increase in multiple-effect evaporation, a capacity variation would be


expected. Note, however, that the temperature difference from initial steam to the final condenser
which was available for a single-effect evaporator will be unchanged by inserting any additional effects
between the steam supply and the condenser. For the simplest case, where each effect has area and
coefficient equal to that of every other effect and where there are no boiling point rises qt = q1 + q2+ q3
+ …………..where qt is the total heat-transfer rate in all effects and q1, q2, q3 are the heat transfer rates
in each of the individual effects.

Qt = U1 A1 ∆t1 + U2 A2 ∆ t2 + U3 A 3 ∆ t3 + ………

Since the areas and heat transfer coefficients are equal,

Qt = U1 A1 (∆ t1 + ∆ t2 + ∆ t 3 …….) = U1 A1 ( ∆ t) total

This rate of heat transfer is the same as that obtained with a single effect operating between the same
ultimate temperature levels. Thus, multiple-effect evaporation using n effects increases the steam
economy but decreases the heat flux per effect by a factor of about 1/n relative to single-effect
operation under the same terminal conditions. Therefore, no increase in capacity is obtained and in fact,
the additional complexity of equipment usually results in increased heat losses to the surroundings and
a reduction in capacity. The increased steam economy must then, be balanced against the increased
equipment cost. The result is that the evaporation using more than five or seven effects is rarely
economical.
When the solution being evaporated has a significant boiling-point rise, the capacity obtained is very
much reduced, for the boiling-point rise reduces the ∆t in each effect.

5.2.3 Calculations for multiple- effect evaporators

For a multiple – effect evaporator system calculations, the values required to be obtained are

(i) The area of the heating surface in each effect,


(ii) The kg of steam per hour to be supplied, and
(iii) The amount of vapour leaving each effect, particularly in the last one.

The given values are usually as follows

(1) Steam pressure to the first effect,

(2) Final pressure in the vapour space of the last effect,

(3) Feed conditions and flow to the first effect,

(4) Final concentration in the liquid leaving the last effect,

(5) Physical properties such as enthalpies and / or heat capacities of the liquid
and vapours, and

(6) Overall heat – transfer coefficients in each effect.

Usually, the areas of each effect are assumed equal


The calculations are done using material balances, heat balances, and the capacity equations q = UA∆T
for each effect. A convenient way to solve these equations is by trial and error. The basic steps to follow
are given as follows for a triple – effect evaporators.

5.2.4 Triple-effect evaporators’ calculation method

1. Determine the boiling point in the last effect from the known outlet concentration and pressure in the
last effect,

2. Determine the total amount of vapor evaporated by performing an overall material balance,

3. Estimate the temperature drops ∆T1, ∆T2 and ∆T3 in the three effects. Then calculate the boiling
point in each effect,

4. Calculate the amount vaporized and the flows of liquid in each effect using heat and material balance
in each effect,

5. Calculate the value of heat transferred in each effect. Using the rate equation q=UA∆T for each effect,
calculate the areas, A1, A2 and A3. If these areas are reasonably close to each other, the calculations are
complete and a second trail is not needed. Otherwise a second trial should be performed.

Example: Evaporation of milk in a triple-effect evaporator

A triple effect forward – feed evaporator is being used to evaporate a milk containing 10 % solids to a
condensed milk of 50% T.S. The boiling point rise of the milk (independent of pressure) can be estimated
from BPR°C = 1.78x + 6.22x2, where x is weight fraction of T.S. in milk (K1). Saturated steam at 205.5 kPa
(121.1°C saturation temperature) is being used. The pressure in the vapor space of the third effect is
13.4 kPa. The feed rate is 22680 kg / h at 26.7 oC. The heat capacity of the milk is (K1) Cp = 4.19 – 2.35x
kJ/kg.K. The heat of milk is considered to be negligible. The coefficients of heat transfer have been
estimated as U1 = 3123, U2 = 1987, and U3 = 1136 W / m2 . K. If each effect has the same surface area,
calculate the area, the steam rate used, and the steam economy.
Solution : Following the above steps outlined, the calculations are as follows

Step 1. For 13.4 kPa, the saturation temperature is 51.67oC from the steam tables. Using the equation
for BPR for evaporator number 3 with x = 0.5,

BPR3 = 1.78x+6.22x2 = 1.78(0.5)+6.22(0.5)2 = 2.45 oC, so T3 = 51.67+2.45 = 54.12 oC

Step 2. Making an overall and a solids balance to calculate the total amount vaporized (V1+V2+V3) and
L3,

F = 22680= L3 + (V1+V2+V3)

FxF = 22680(0.1) = L3 (0.5) + (V1+V2+V3) (0)

L3 = 4536 Kg/h

Total vapour = (V1+V2+V3) = 18 144 kg/h

Assuming equal amount vaporized in each effect, V1 = V2 = V3 =6048 kg/h. Making a total material
balance on effects 1, 2, and 3 and solving.

(1) F = 22 680 = V1 + L1 = 6048 + L1, L1 = 16 632 kg/h

(2) L1= 16 632 = V2 + L2 = 6048 + L2, L2 = 10 584 kg/h

(3) L2= 10 584 = V3 + L3 = 6048 + L3, L3 = 4536 kg/h

Making a solids balance on effects 1, 2 and 3 and solving for x,


(1) 22 680(0.1) = L1x1 = 16 632 (x1), x1 = 0.136

(2) 16 632(0.136) = L2x2 = 10 584 (x2), x2 = 0.214

(3) 10 584(0.214) = L3x3 = 4536 (x3), x3 = 0.50

Step 3. The BPR in each effect is calculated as follows:

(1) BPR1 = 1.78 x1 + 6.22(x1)2 = 6.22(0.136)2 = 0.36oC

(2) BPR2 = 1.78(0.214) + 6.22(0.214)2 = 0.65oC

(3) BPR3 = 1.78(0.5) + 6.22(0.5)2 = 2.45oC

Σ ΔT available = Ts1 – T3 (saturation) – (BPR1 + BPR 2 + BPR 3)

= 121.1 – 51.67 – (0.36 + 0.65 + 2.45)

= 65.97oC

Now

Fig5

ΔT1 = 12.40 oC similarly ΔT2 = 19.50oC and ΔT3 = 34.07oC

However, since a cold feed enters at effect number 1, this effect requires more heat.

Increasing ΔT1 and lowering ΔT2 and ΔT3 proportionately as a first estimate,

ΔT1 = 15.56oC , ΔT2 = 18.34oC , ΔT3 = 32.07oC


To calculate the actual boiling point of the milk in each effect,

(1) T1 = Ts1 – ΔT1

= 121.1 – 15.56 = 105.54oC

Ts1= 121.1oC (Condensing temperature of saturated steam to effect 1)

(2) T2 = T1 –BPR1 – ΔT2

= 105.54 – 0.36 – 18.34 = 86.84oC

Ts2= T1 –BPR1 = 105.54 – 0.36

= 105.18oC (Condensing temperature of steam to effect2)

(3) T3 = T2 –BPR2 – ΔT3

= 86.84 – 0.65 – 32.07 = 54.12oC

Ts3= T2 –BPR2 = 86.84 – 0.65

= 86.19oC (Condensing temperature of steam to effect3)

Lesson 6

OPERATION AND VARIOUS FEEDING SYSTEMS

6.1 Introduction

The most commonly used evaporation plant in the dairy is falling film evaporating plant consists of the
following components which are assembled together in the required manner.
a) Heat transfer surface or calandria

b) Liquid/vapour separation system

c) Vapour removal system and vacuum control system

d) Ancillary equipment such as pumps for extracting and conveying milk, cooling water pumps, valves,
gauges, thermometers etc.

a) Heat transfer surface

Efficient heat transfer from steam to liquid product is vital; both to the process and to the quality of the
final product. Chemical, physical and biological changes in the product depend partly on time as well as
temperatures. In general, high temperature and short time heat treatment produce less chemical and
more biological effect than lower temperature sustained for long times. For economy it is important to
keep the temperature as high, heating time as short as possible. Heat transfer rates and flow of product
through the plant creates specific conditions within each type of equipment.

During heat transfer to milk, protein denaturation may take place on milk side if temperature of milk is
high and when steam is condensing at high temperature. The build up of scale, which is hard and
difficult to remove, reduces the rate of heat transfer at a much faster rate. Thus there is a need to wash
the calandria after a period of operation to remove scale and restore the evaporation rate.

The use of two or more evaporators in series with gradually decreasing temperatures may be used to
reduce the heat shock, especially when the more viscous product approaches final density. Thus, a triple
effect plant operating at 70 0C, 57 0C and 44 0C in the final stage will give desirable product quality,
concentration level and plant economy. This arrangement permits use of vapour from one effect to be
reused for the next effect and so on, thus achieving greater economy as well as more gentle heat
treatment.

The liquid product moves along the heating surface by convection assisted by vapour propulsion. The
liquid is fed from the top of the tubes by means of weir or other device so as to form a thin film on the
tube surface. Vapour from the evaporating liquid occupies the center of the tubes. Thus, only a thin
quickly moving film is in contact with the heating surface. The falling film evaporator tends to provide a
gentle heat treatment if properly operated.

b) Liquid/vapour separation system


The separation of vapour from boiling liquid is possible by giving centrifugal or rotary motion at the
entry to vapour separator. The adaptation of cyclone principle has removed the need for deflecting
plants, baskets and entrainment separators in the vapour space. The tendency is to reduce the vapour
system in size, because of the higher efficiency of separation.

c) Vapour removal and vacuum control system

The heart of the evaporator is the vacuum system, on which depends the successful operation, ease of
operation and final product quality. It is important to remove vapour evaporated from the product as
well as the noncondensable gases, which enter through leaks or are entrained in the product

d) Ancillary equipment

The main economy in evaporation is obtained by the continuous re-use of vapour. This vapour may be
recompressed by live steam (TVR ). The use of preheaters, interstage heaters and raw product heaters in
the final condensate stage, all provide for economical operation. The use of heaters in this way also
requires pumps to transfer the liquid product. These pumps are often operating against vacuum, and
require water seals to maintain the vacuum.

6.2 Different Feed Flow Arrangements in Multiple-Effect Evaporators

In a forward feed system, the flow of process fluids and of steam are parallel. Forward feed has the
advantage that no pumps are needed to move the solution from effect to effect (not applicable to
modern calandria type evaporator). It has the disadvantage that all the heating of cool feed is done in
the first effect, so that less vapour is generated here for each kg of steam resulting in lower economy. It
has the further disadvantage that the most concentrated solution is subjected to the coolest
temperatures. Low temperatures may be helpful in preventing decomposition of organics, but the high
viscosity that may be found sharply reduces the heat transfer coefficient in this last effect.

In a backward feed system, the feed flows counter to the steam flow. Pumps are required between the
effects. The feed solution is heated as it enters each effect, which usually results in better economy than
that obtained with forward feed. The viscosity spread is reduced since the concentrated product
evaporates at the highest temperature but heat sensitive materials may be affected. Forward feed
system is generally used for heat sensitive product , while the backward feed is used for highly viscous
product.
For best overall performance, evaporators may be operated with flow sequences that combine these
two (i.e. mixed feed), or they may be fed in parallel with fresh feed evaporating to final concentration in
each effect.

Fig_6.2.SWF

6.3 Capacity of Multiple – Effect Evaporators

Although the use of the multiple-effect principle increases the steam economy, it must not be thought
that there are no compensating disadvantages coordinate in importance with the economy of an
evaporator system is the question of its capacity. By capacity is meant the total evaporation per hour
obtained since latent heats are nearly constant over the ranges of pressure ordinarily involved, capacity
is also measured by the total heat transferred in all effects. The heat transferred in these effects can be
represented by the following equations

Q = q1 + q2 + q3 = U1A1 ∆ t1 + U2A2 ∆t2 + U3A3 ∆ t3

Assume, now that all effects have equal areas & that an average coefficient Uav can be applied to the
system. Then equation can be written as

Q = Uav A ( ∆ t1+ ∆ t2 + ∆ t3)

However, the sum of the individual temperature drops equals the total over-all temperature drop
between the temperature of the steam and the temperature in the condenser & therefore q = Uav A ∆ t.

Suppose now that a single-effect evaporator of area A be operated with the same over-all temperature
difference viz. with steam at 110o C and a vapour temp of 52oC Assume also that the over-all coefficient
of the single-effect is equal to the Uav of the triple effect. The capacity of the single effect will be q = Uav
A ∆t.

This is exactly the same equation as that for the triple effect. No matter how many effects one use,
provided the average over-all coefficients are the same exactly the same equation will be obtained for
calculating the capacity of any evaporator. It follows from this that if the number of effects of an
evaporation system is varied and if the total temperature difference is kept constant, the total capacity
of the system remains substantially unchanged.

Lesson 7

ECONOMY OF OPERATION, THERMO PROCESSOR AND MVR SYSTEM

7.1 Introduction

The economy of the evaporation system increases with number of effects, simultaneously the capital
investment is also increase with number of effects. Hence overall economy of the operation is based on
the cost benefit ratio. Further the improvement in economy Is possible by the use of vapour
recompression system.

7.2 Cost Factors in Evaporator Selection

If the cost of 1 m2 of heating surface is constant, regardless of the number of effects, the investment
required for an N-effect evaporator will be N times that of a single effect evaporator of the same
capacity. The choice of the proper number of effects will be dictated by an economic balance between
the saving in steam obtained by multiple effect operation and the added investment costs brought
about by the added effect.

7.1

Fig. 7.1 Cost factors in evaporator selection

The relations are shown in the graph. The annual fixed charges may be taken as a percentage of the first
cost of the evaporator. Since the cost per sq.mt. of heating surface increases somewhat in small sizes,
the curve for the first cost is not a straight line except in the upper part of its range. The cost of steam
and water fall off rapidly at first but soon show the effect of the law of diminishing returns. Labour costs
may be considered constant, since only one operator is needed except with a very large number of
effects. The total cost of operating the evaporator is the sum of all these curves and usually shows a
marked minimum for the optimum number of effects.
7.3 Vapour Recompression in Milk Condensing Plant

Vapour recompression is a process by which the low pressure vapour produced from the boiling milk in
the calandria is recompressed to a higher pressure. This recompressed vapour is used for heating the
milk again in either same effect or in previous effect. Because of this, the steam consumption per
kilogram of evaporated water is reduced considerably, lowering the processing cost for the condensed
milk.

There are two ways for recompressing the low pressure steam i.e. Thermal Vapour Recompression (TVR)
by steam-jet vapour compressor or thermo compressor and Mechanical Vapour Recompression (MVR).
At present in India TVR is common, while MVR is getting importance recently due to its extremely
favourable characteristics for conservation of energy.

7.3.1 Thermal vapour recompression (TVR)

In thermo compressor, the kinetic energy of a jet of steam is used to compress the vapour. It consists of
a steam nozzle, suction chamber with inlet for sucking in the vapour, mixing chamber and
recompression chamber as shown in Figure. (Fig. 7.2)

The process of thermo compression on enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram is depicted in Figure. Here, live
steam at pressure P1(state-1) is almost isentropically expanded in the nozzle to suction pressure P2
(state-2). Steam pressure usually employed in the condensing plant is about 8-12 bar and suction
pressure about 0.2-0.3 bar depending on the effect from which the vapour is drawn. The expanded
steam emerges from the nozzle as a jet of steam. The velocity of the steam is about 1000 m/sec.

In the mixing chamber the sucked-in vapour is entrained and carried away by the expanded steam. The
vapour is accelerated as the steam transfers its kinetic energy to it. The mixing occurs at constant
pressure, the enthalpy is increased and state point-3 is reached. From this point onwards, the cross-
section of the thermo compressor increases, and so the kinetic energy of mixture is converted into
potential energy. The pressure of the mixture is increased almost isentropically from state-3 to state-4.
In this way the low pressure steam taken from a lower effect is compressed to a higher pressure
corresponding to the inlet pressure of previous stage operating at higher pressure and temperature.

7.3

Fig. 7.3 Enthalpy – entropy diagram of thermal vapour recompression (TVR)


The amount of vapour, MV and amount of live steam, Ms are related as follows (Kessler, 1981).

MV/Ms= [0.8 (h1-h2) / (h4-h3)] – 1

Where h1, h2, h3, h4 is enthalpies of steam at various state points.

It can be seen from the above equation, that if the vapour to live steam ratio is higher, the factor h4-h3
decreases. This means that rise in temperature of compressed vapour is smaller. A thermo compressor
with a vapour to live steam ratio of 50 : 50, gives a temperature rise in the compressed vapour of about
15oC. But, if the proportion is 60 : 40, the temperature rise is only 11oC.

Generally, the vapour drawn from the first effect is recompressed and used for the same effect again.
However, more recently, the trend is to draw vapour from the second or third effect and use the
recompressed vapour in the first effect. This is due to the fact that the evaporating capacity of earlier
effects is increased.

With thermo compressor drawing vapour from the second effect, one must choose the right thermo
compressor to achieve a temperature which lies at least 5oC above the boiling temperature of the first
effect. The performance of thermo compressor is influenced by the heat transfer rate in calandria,
suction pressure, discharge pressure and the motive steam pressure.

7.3.2 Mechanical vapour recompression (MVR)

Here, the low pressure vapour is compressed mechanically i.e. employing single or multiple stage radial
flow compressors or by axial flow compressors. These compressors may be driven by electric motors,
I.C. engines or steam turbines. (Fig.7.4)

Layout for single effect evaporation and the process of mechanical compression is shown on enthalpy-
entropy diagram. The quantity of vapour MV drawn from the evaporator is at saturation condition with
pressure P1, temperature t1 and enthalpy h1. This condition is shown on h-s diagram as state-1. The
mechanical compressor compresses the vapour almost isentropically to a pressure P2, temperature t2
and enthalpy h2. This is superheated steam, which is not suitable for heating the milk as such, because
of its bad heat transfer properties. It is cooled down to saturated state-3 i.e. temperature t3 and
enthalpy h3 at constant pressure P2.

This is done by diverting a portion of condensate at temperature t4 and injecting it in the superheated
steam. The condensate evaporates by consuming superheat from the compressed vapour. The mixture
thus achieves final state-3 with temperature t3 enthalpy h3 and pressure P2 . The amount of steam
available is thus increased by the amount of condensate mixed.

7.5

Fig.7.5 Enthalpy – entropy diagram of mechanical vapour recompression (MVR)

At this stage is should be remembered that the energy required to drive the MVR may be costlier than
steam. Thus actual saving will be somewhat less depending on the prices of steam and other forms of
energy employed to run MVR.

With increasing energy costs, evaporators with MVR become increasingly competitive with multi effect
evaporators with TVR. Apart from being extremely economic MVR has other advantages.

1. The maximum evaporating temperature of first effect can be reduced to such as extent that
burning on of product is minimized.

2. The lowest effect of evaporating temperature i.e. of last effect can be high enough which results in
lower viscosity of the concentrate facilitating easy handling of concentrate. The pre-heating of
concentrate before drying may be avoided or may be reduced to a less drastic treatment.

3. The higher temperature in the final effect results in reduced choking of calandria. Thus the plant can
be run for a longer period before cleaning.
4. The need for cooling water is considerably reduced or totally eliminated.

A major disadvantage of MVR is the greater expenditure on equipment, maintenance cost and noise
problem, but most of the studies indicate that the payback period for MVR is about 2-2.5 years.

Lesson 8

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF EVAPORATORS

8.1 Introduction

The dairy plants mostly use tubular falling film evaporators for concentrating milk to the desired level of
total solids. Most of the equipment, fittings, gauges, valves and density measuring devices are selected
by individual plant manufacturer, but special care is needed in their selection and operation to get
satisfactory results. The flow rates and flow pattern and the temperature gradients are of vital
importance to efficient operation. Thus, loose jets, spindles and seats in steam valves can produce a
fluctuating vacuum.

8.2 Operation of the Plant

After going through general discussion on various components of the plant, we can now look into the
details of operating parameters which affect the performance of the complete plant.

The performance of the evaporating plant is generally based on economy in the use of steam and the
output capacity of the given plant. The economy is improved by either increasing the number of effects
or by utilizing the outgoing vapour separated from milk. The increase in number of effect involves
additional cost of calandria, pumps, piping system and also the operating cost. The other limitation is
due to smaller temperature difference between heating medium and product as the numbers of effect
are increased. Hence three to five effect plants are common in our country. On the other side, the
thermo-compressor system is less costly and can give economy of steam equivalent to one additional
effect, if steam pressure and other operating conditions remain steady as per the design of thermo-
compressor operation. The thermo-compressor is most suited where high pressure steam is available
and the evaporator can be operated with low pressure steam. Space limitation would favour a thermo-
compressor installation.

The following table gives steam and cooling water consumption of evaporator.
Table 8.1

Sr. No.

No. of effect

Kg of steam to Evaporate one Kg of water

Kg of water to condense one Kg of vapour

Single effect

1.17

20.00

Single effect using recompression of vapour

0.57
9.00

Double effect

0.57

9.00

Double effect using recompression of vapour

0.37

7.00

The term capacity of evaporating plant gives the output in terms of water evaporated per hour. It
depends on the surface area of heat transfer, temperature difference and the overall heat transfer
coefficient. The surface area may be used on the external or inner diameter of the tube. The number of
tubes and the length of tube will decide the area of heat transfer with fixed diameter of tubes. Thus the
capacity of plant increases in direct proportion to the number of tubes of same diameter and length.
With larger number of effects, the total surface area may be distributed among different effects keeping
in mind the product flow rate. Thus the first effect has always larger number of tubes while the
subsequent effects will have reduced number of effect.

The other important parameter is the temperature difference which is the difference in temperature of
steam condensing in the first effect jacket and the temperature of vapour condensing after the last
effect. With first effect temperature of 70 °C, the steam temperature may be assumed to be around 80
°C and the last effect vapour may be assumed to condensing at 45 °C. Thus, the available temperature
difference (80-45=35) is about 35 °C. With the increase in number of effects the available temperature
difference will decrease and hence the capacity will remain constant or may even decrease because of
increased loss of heat from surface of calandria.

The last and one of the important parameter is the overall heat transfer coefficient expressed in
W/m2.K. The U-value or the overall heat transfer coefficient is affected by number of factors, such as
flow velocity, thermal conductivity of metal and the scale and the turbulence of the liquid product
flowing down the tube. The change in specific gravity with change in concentration also affects the U-
value. Thus the U-value is much higher for the first effect but goes on decreasing with increased
concentration of liquid flowing in subsequent effects. The surface tension and viscosity indirectly affects
the flowing velocity and thickness of film causing reduced heat transfer rate. The fouling of milk contact
surface with hard scale is the main cause of reduction in U-value with time. The scale formation is
basically due to inverse solubility of calcium and phosphorus salts present in milk at the tube wall
temperature and protein denaturation at temperature above 70 °C occurring at heat transfer wall. In
addition to this low flow rate or inadequate wetting of tube wall causes burning of the thin film at the
tube wall even at slightly low temperature. Therefore, care is required in the operation of the plant to
avoid conditions for hard and tough scale formation in the evaporator calandria. Over hard scale
deposit, softer deposits are also formed causing reduction in heat transfer rate.

The other factors which affect the plant operation are live steam pressure, flow rate of product, even
distribution of feed to all tubes, maintaining constant vacuum, preventing leakage of air and operation
of condenser for rapid condensing and removal of condensate. If thermo-compressor is used, the
working of plant is affected by variation of steam pressure at inlet to thermo compressor. The provision
of separate steam main from boiler with regulating valve will solve the problem. The flow rate can be
easily controlled by feed pump of adequate size and type and needle valves for flow regulation.
Automatic flow controller and flow measuring device may be used.

The uniform distribution of product to all the tubes is another major problem in the design and
operation of falling film evaporator. The term wetting rate indicates the relationship between product
feed rate and heating surface. Every tube requires a certain minimum quantity of product to cover the
entire surface. Therefore in a single pass evaporator, the number of tubes per calandria will decrease
from effect to effect, because the milk volume is constantly reduced as the concentration is increased.
The first effect is always the largest, and in large evaporators, the calandria will be divided in two
sections in order to overcome the problem of distribution of the product over a very large number of
tubes, and to obtain the correct wetting rate. When the first effect is in two sections, the milk flow will
be in series, but the steam flow will be parallel.

8.3 Care and Maintenance


Follow the preventive maintenance norms from the manufacturer guidelines.

Check the air leaks which may develop around valves, joints, cover and observation posts, as it
fluctuates the operating vacuum and temperature.

All gaskets must be changed periodically.

Avoid the use of high pressure steam.

Economy of cooling water to the water cooled condenser should be checked.

Keep about 3 °C temperature difference between condenser discharge water and cooling water for
better economy.

Ensure heating surfaces are clean and free from deposits.

Scaling of heat transfer surfaces constitutes a problem and it should be cleaned after an optimum
operation time. Descale the plant at least once a year with a suitable acid solution.

Check water vacuum system (working of vacuum pumps).

Periodical detection of steam coil leakage by hydraulic pressure test.

Condensate must be removed properly from the heating surface.

Release vacuum immediately in case of sudden power failure. Also steam valves and cooling water
supply must be shut off at once.

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