Legal Language Exam

2017
1. Convert the following into indirect speech

(a) He said to me, "What are you doing?"

Ans: He asked me what I was doing.

(b) Anita said, "I met Subham yesterday".

Ans: Anita said that she met Subham the previous day.

(c) The teacher said, "The earth goes round the sun".
Ans: The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.

(d) He said, "I have passed the examination".

Ans: He said that he had passed the examination.

2. Convert the following into passive voice:

(a) The people will make him a King.
Ans: He will be made a King by the people.

(b) I am writing a letter.

Ans: A letter is being written by me.

(c) I killed a snake.

Ans: A snake was killed by me.

(d) Mr. Ravi teaches French.

Ans: French is taught by Mr. Ravi.

3. Correct the following sentences only in English:

(a) Rajesh is my older brother.
Ans. Rajesh is my elder brother.

(b) Here is a apple for you.

 Ans: Here is an apple for you.

(c) I have lost my furnitures.

Ans: I have lost my furniture.

(d) The property was divided between Asha, Prabha and Nidhi.
Ans The property was divided among Asha, Prabha and Nidhi.

4. What do you understand by the following:

(a) SCJ
Ans: Supreme Court Journal. A Weekly law report, giving
comprehensive reporting of reportable and non-reportable cases
of the Supreme Court of India.
2. (b) AC
Ans: Appeal Case

(c) Ibid
Ans: Ibid. is an abbreviation for the Latin word ibīdem, meaning
"in the same place", commonly used in an endnote, footnote,
bibliography citation, or scholarly reference to refer to the source
cited in the preceding note or list item.

(d) AIR
Ans: All India Reporter. All India Reporter (AIR) is India's oldest law
publisher with comprehensive coverage of all the High Courts and
the Supreme Court of India. The monthly journal covers judgments
of the High courts and bench rulings as well as judgments of the
Supreme Court of India.

7. Frame sentences on any five of the following to bring out the

meaning:

(i) Amendment
Ans: An amendment was introduced into the legislation.
(ii) Contempt
Ans: Contempt of the court is an offense.

(iii) Cruelty
Ans: Cruelty to animals is punishable under sections 428 and 429
of IPC.

(iv) Execution
Ans: Execution of the court order as directed is imperative.

(v) Hearsay
Ans: In general hearsay evidences are not admissible in a court of
law.

(vi) Heir
Ans: My son is the legal heir to all my estates.

(vii) Void
Ans: Void contracts are not enforceable in the court of law.

(viii) Oath
Ans: The incumbent Prime Minister took oath of the office in the
presence of dignitaries from different countries.

1. Res judicata (2020)

A matter that has been adjudicated by a competent court and
therefore may not be pursued further by the same parties. Applies
to both civil and criminal law.

2. Caveat Emptor (2020)

Means buyer beware. The principle that the buyer alone is
responsible for checking the quality and suitability of goods before
a purchase is made.
3. Damnum sine injuria (2020, 2019, 2018, 2017)
Damnum sine injuria means damage without infringement of any
legal rights. This maxim is used and the plaintiff has suffered
financial, physical or any other damages but has not suffered any
legal damages. These injuries are not actionable in the court of
law.

In the case of Gloucester Grammar School, 1410, a school master

setup a school just opposite of the school and kept a very low fee.
As a result the GGS had to reduce their fees from 40 pence to 12
pence per quarter. The school filed a case against the new school
pleading for the damages. It was held that since no legal rights
were infringed, no action lies against the new school.

4. Injuria sine demno

This maxim means legal injury without any physical or financial
damages. As per this if any legal rights are infringed, the plaintiff
can ask for the damages even if there is no loss in terms of money
or health.

For example, if a person is wrongfully detained, he can file for

damages even though he might have not suffered any financial
loss for the detention period.

5. Animus domini (2020)

Intention to exercise mastery or ownership.

6. Doli incapax (2020)

Doli incapax means “incapable of doing any harm” in Latin. Section
82 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) is premised on this and provides
absolute immunity from criminal legal responsibility to a child
below seven years.
7. Ab-initio (2019)
Ab initio is a Latin term which means 'from the beginning'. This
term is used to indicate the existence of certain facts from the
beginning of the case.

8. Adjudicate (2019)
To make a ruling or judgement on a case. This is a decision made
by the court or any other judging authority on any case under trial.
This is often final but in certain cases may be temporary also.

9. Alibi (2019)
The fact of having been elsewhere when a crime was committed
on a certain place. Alibi, therefore, is a defense which can be taken
by the accused in the criminal proceedings by taking the plea that
when the offense was committed, the accused was not present at
that place.

10. In pari-delicto (2019)

In pari-delicto is a Latin maxim which means "in equal fault". The
phrase is used to denote a situation where parties to a case are
equally culpable for the wrong. They shall have no action against
each other and there can not ba any relief for them from the court
of law.

11. dat quod non habet (2019)

Latin maxim meaning “no one gives what they do not have”.
Sometimes referred to as the “nemo dat” rule or principle. It
refers to the question whether someone purporting to give or sell
property has legal title or right to do so.

12. Res ipsa loquitur (2017, 2018, 2019)

Res ipsa loquitur, which translates to “the thing speaks for itself,”
utilizes circumstantial evidence to build a case by inference. This
means you can prove a fact to be true through reasonable
inference of certain events or happenings relevant to the injury.
13. Volenti non fit injuria (2019)
Latin for "to a willing person, no injury is done." This doctrine
holds that a person who knowingly and willingly puts himself in a
dangerous situation cannot sue for any resulting injuries.

14. Ubi jus ibi remedium (2019)

The well-known Latin maxim Ubi jus, ibi remedium – meaning
'where there is a right, there is a remedy', postulates that where
law has established a right there should be a corresponding
remedy for its breach.

15. Audi alteram partem (2017, 2019)

Audi alteram partem – from Latin: “Listen to the other side” or “let
the other side be heard as well”. It is fundamental legal principle in
which each party is entitled to a fair hearing and given the
opportunity to respond to evidence against them.

16. Ignorantia facti excusat (2019)

Ignorantia Facti Excusat is a Latin legal maxim that means
ignorance of a fact is an excuse. Any act done under a mistaken
impression of a material fact is excused. However ignorance of
law is not an excuse.

17. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat (2018)

The legal principle of ignorantia legis neminem excusat means
ignorance of the law excuses no one. It is derived from Roman law.
Essentially, it means that if someone breaks the law, he or she is
still liable even if they had no knowledge of the law being broken.

18. Actus reus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea (2018)
The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in
the Latin phrase actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, i.e.
"the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty". As a general
rule, someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in
criminal law.

Actus Non Facit Reum Nisi Mens Sit Rea explains that for any act
to be illegal in nature it must be done with a guilty mind. Thus to
convict the defendant, it must be proved that the criminal act was
carried out with a criminal intend.

19. Respondeat superior (2017)

Respondeat superior in Latin means "let the master answer". This
is a doctrine in tort law that makes a master liable for the wrong of
a servant or agent.

20. In pari-delicto
In pari-delicto is a Latin maxim which means "in equal fault". The
phrase is used to denote a situation where parties to a case are
equally culpable for the wrong. They shall have no action against
each other and there can not ba any relief for them from the court
of law.

21. De facto
De facto describes practices that exist in reality, even though they
are not officially recognized by laws.

22. De Jure
De Jure means 'by law' which refers to the things that happens
according to law

23. Ex post facto

Ex post facto is used to refer to a statute that provides for

retrospective actions, thereby making a conduct illegal that was
legal when originally performed.
24. Prima facie

Prima facie, in Latin, means "at first sight". Prima facie is a legal
claim having enough evidence to proceed to trial or judgment.

25. Sine die

Sine die is Latin and is defined as indefinitely, or without a future
date set.

26. Ratio Decidendi

It is a Latin term which literally means "Rational for the decision".
It is a legal phrase which refers to the legal, moral, political and
social reasons used court to frame the judgement. Unlike obiter
dicta, ratio decidendi is, as a general rule, binding on the lower
and later jurisdictions.

27. Obiter Dicta

It is a Latin phrase which means “that which is said in passing,”. It
is an incidental statement and refers to a passage in a judicial
opinion which is not necessary for the decision of the case before
the court. Such statements are not binding on the lower and later
judgements.

28.vigilantibus non dormientibus jura subveniunt (Latin: the law

will not help those who sleep on their rights).

2018

1. Convert the following into passive voice

(a) The King gave him a reward
Ans: He was rewarded by the King.
(b) Amit likes Rama.
Ans: Rama is liked by Amit.
(c) Shyam is teaching Rajesh.
Ans: Rajesh is being taught by Shyam.
(d) Help the poor.
Ans. Let the poor be helped.

2. Convert the following into indirect speech

(a) Savita said, "I am unwell".
Ans: Savita said that she was unwell.
(b) He said, "My master is writing a letter".
Ans: He said that his master was writing a letter.
(c) The teacher said, "The earth goes round the Sun".
Ans: The teacher said the earth goes round the Sun.
(d) He said to me, "I do not believe you".
Ans: He said to me that he did not believe me.

3. Correct the following sentences only in English:

(a) I have a fifty rupees note.
Ans: I have a fifty rupee note.
(b) Asha is a honest girl.
Ans: Asha is an honest girl.
(c) Jaipur is hot than Delhi.
Ans: Jaipur is hotter than Delhi.
(d) The two man hate one another.
Ans: The two man hate each other.

4. What do you understand by the following:

(a) Supra
Ans: Supra is a Latin word which means "above". The word is used
in legal citation when a writer desires to refer a reader to an
earlier-cited authority. For example, an author wanting to refer to
a source in their third footnote would cite: See supra note 3.
(b) Ibid
Ans: Ibid. is an abbreviation for the Latin word ibīdem, meaning
"in the same place", commonly used in an endnote, footnote,
bibliography citation, or scholarly reference to refer to the source
cited in the preceding note or list item.
(c) A.I.R
Ans: All India Reporter. All India Reporter (AIR) is India's oldest law
publisher with comprehensive coverage of all the High Courts and
the Supreme Court of India. The monthly journal covers judgments
of the High courts and bench rulings as well as judgments of the
Supreme Court of India.
(d) S.C.C
Ans: Supreme Court Case. Supreme Court Cases (SCC) is the most
cited law report by the Supreme Court of India.
7. Frame sentences on any five of the following to bring out the
meaning:
(i) Arbitrator
Ans: He served as an arbitrator in a series of cases.
(ii) Cruelty
Ans: Cruelty to animals is punishable under sections 428 and 429
of IPC.
(iii) De jure
Ans: He is the De Jure owner of the property.
(iv) Hearsay
Ans: In general hearsay evidences are not admissible in a court of
law.
(v) Ex Parte
Ans: The judge passed the decree ex parte as the defendant
absented himself in the court in spite of legal notice served.
(vi) Intention
Ans: Proving the criminal intention is also important in criminal
proceedings.
(vii) Immovable
Ans: House property is an example of immovable property.
(viii) Obscene
Ans: The obscene part of the film should be censored.
2019
1. Convert the following into Passive voice
(a) Someone has stolen my books
Ans: My books are stolen.

(b) The stars brighten the sky.

Ans: The sky is brightened by the stars.

(c) MC Mehta filed a PIL in the Supreme Court.

Ans. A PIL was filed by MC Mehta in the Supreme Court.

(d) The judge delivers the judgement.

Ans: The judgement was delivered by the judge.

2. Convert the following into indirect speech:

(a) The mother said, "The sun rises in the east".
Ans: The mother said the sun rises in the east.

(b) The teacher said, "You must do as you are told".

Ans: The teacher advised them strictly to do as they were told.

(c) He said, "Success of democracy depends on freedom of

press".
Ans: He said that the success of democracy depends on
freedom of press.

(d) He said to me, "Wait until I come".

Ans: He ordered me to wait until he came.

3. Correct the following sentences:

(a) What is the last news?
Ans: What was the last news?

(b) He is my oldest son.

Ans: He is my eldest son.

(c) I have no any friend.

Ans: I do not have any friends.

(d) He works hardly.

Ans: He works hard.

4. Use legal term one word for the following:

(a) An act punishable by law
Ans: Crime

(b) An offense punishable by death penalty.

Ans: Capital offense

(c) Marriage with many husbands.

Ans: Polyandry

(d) An accused tried twice for the same offence

Ans: Double jeopardy

5. Write the full form of the following abbreviation

(a) ILR - Indian Law Reporter

(b) JILI - Journal of International Law Institutes

(c) Cr. LJ - Criminal Law Journal

(d) Vol. – Volume

7. Frame sentences to bring out the meaning of any five of the

following:
 (a) Hearsay
Ans: Hearsay evidences are admissible in court.

(b) Voidable
Ans: A contract made by misrepresentation of facts is voidable.

(c) Ejectment
Ans: The new owner for the house property is filing for an
ejectment order.

(d) Discharge
Ans: He was discharged without notice.

(e) Insane
Ans: Contract made by an insane person is void.

(f) Bona fide

Ans: He is the bona fide owner of the property.

2019-may
1. Write down the one word for the following sentences:
(a) with one voice / a decision or opinion on which all are agreed
Ans: Unanimous

(b) One who is present everywhere

Ans: Omnipresent

(c) One who eats vegetables only

Ans: vegetarian

(d) The reason on which the decision of the case is based

Ans: ratio decidendi
2. What do you understand by the following:
(a) C.A.T
Ans: Central Administrative Tribunal

(b) Cr.L.J
Ans. Criminal Law Journal of India

(c) I.T.J
Ans: Income Tax Journal

(d) N.A.T.O
Ans. National Atlantic Treaty Organisation

3. Write down the opposite of the following words:

(a) able
Ans: Unable

(b) Blessing
Ans: Curse

(c) Help
Ans: Hinder

(d) Wisdom
Ans: Stupidity

4. Give a very brief explanation of the following:

(a) Ab-initio
Ans: Ab initio is a latin term which means 'from the beginning. This
term is used to indicate the existence of certain facts from the
beginning of the case.

(b) Adjudicate
Ans: To make a ruling or judgement on a case. This is a decision made
by the court or any other judging authority on any case under trial. This
is often final but in certain cases may be temporary also.

(c) Alibi
Ans: The fact of having been elsewhere when a crime was committed
on a certain place. Alibi, therefore, is a defense which can be taken by
the accused in the criminal proceedings by taking the plea that when
the offence was committed, the accused was not present at that place.

(d) In pari-delicto
Ans: In pari-delicto is a latin maxim which means "in equal fault". The
phrase is used to denote a situation where parties to a case are equally
culpable for the wrong. They shall have no action against each other
and there can not ba any relief for them from the court of law.
5. Convert the following into indirect speech:

(a) He said, "My master is writing letters".

Ans: He said that his master was writing letters.

(b) He says "I am glad to be here this evening".

Ans; He says that he is glad to be here this evening.

(c) The policeman said to us, "where are you going"?

Ans: The policeman asked us where we were going.

(d) "Don't make a noise" the teacher said to the students.

Ans: The teacher ordered the students not to make a noise.
7. Frame sentences to bring out the meaning of the following:

(a) Dispute
Ans: Dispute between the two parties was settled by the tribunal.

(b) Announce
Ans: The principal announced a cash prize of Rs. 10 thousand for the
topper.

(c) Voluntary
Ans: He was arrested under IPC Section 322 for voluntarily causing hurt
to the plaintiff.

(d) Dishonour
Ans: The cheque issued to the applicant was dishonoured by the bank
because of insufficient fund.

(e) Dismiss- the ruling by a judge that all or a portion (one or more of
the causes of action) of the plaintiff's lawsuit is terminated (thrown
out) at that point without further evidence or testimony.

Ans: The case was dismissed as there was no substantial evidence

against the defendants.

2020
1. Fill in the blanks:

(i) If Mala -------- about her fever, She would have helped him (had
known/knew)

(ii) Gopal will be ---- neighbors dog while they were on a vacation.
(looking into/ looking after)

(iii) My Grandmother made us --- our homework every afternoon.

(do/ to do)

(iv) By the time mother arrives, we ---- our homework. (finish / will
have finished)
2. Convert the following into indirect speech:
(i) He said, "The Sun arises in the east".
Ans: The Sun arises in the east.

(ii) Ram said, "Shyam is playing".

Ans: Ram said that Shyam was playing.

(iii) He said, "I was not playing with Ram".

Ans: He said that he was not playing with Ram.

(iv) Mohan says to Ram, "I will give you a book".

Ans: Mohan says to Ram that he will give Ram a book.

3. Correct the following sentences:

(i) She has no issues.

Ans: She has no issue.
(ii) These are all my offsprings.
Ans: These are all my offspring.
(iii) I have packed my luggeges.
Ans: I have packed my luggege.
(iv) He wanted to help poor."
Ans: He wanted to help the poor.
4. Convert the following sentences as directed:

(i) No wise man will tell a lie. (convert to interrogative)

Ans: Will any wise man tell a lie?
(ii) Everybody would like to be rich (interrogative)
Ans: Would everybody like to be reach?
(iii) It is not good to help him (affirmative)
Ans: It is good to hinder him.
(iv) The question is no easy (affirmative)
Ans: The question is difficult.

5. Convert the following sentences as directed:

(i) The boys made Mohan captain (Passive)

Ans: Mohan was made captain by the boys.
(ii) He ran a race (Passive)
Ans: A race was ran by him.
(iii) A pen was bought by her (Active)
Ans: She bought a pen.
(iv) The book is being read by her (Active)
Ans: She is reading the book.
8. Make sentences to bring out the meaning

(i) De facto
Ans: Ram has established himself as de facto leader of the class.
(ii) Ex post facto
Ans: A law is ex post facto only if it is explicitely mentioned in the law.
(iii) Prima facie
Ans: Prima facie it looks like a case of murder.
(iv) Sine die
Ans: The parliament is adjourned sine die.
(v) Audi alteram partem
Ans: 'Audi alteram psrtem' is a rule of natural justice, it would be unjust
to give a decision without hearing both the parties.

2021
1. Convert the following as directed
(i) I said that I would be punctual in future. (Direct)
Ans: I said, "I will be punctual in future".
(ii) You said that you helped your friend. (Direct)
Ans: You said, "I help my friend".
(iii) He said, He learnt his lesson. (Indirect)
Ans: He said that he had learnt his lesson.
(iv) He said The teacher has gone. (Indirect)
Ans: He said that the teacher had gone.
2. Convert the following sentence
(i) He is my cousin brother.
Ans: He is my cousin.
(ii) She was carrying too many luggages.
Ans: She was carrying too many luggage.
(iii) They has gat two cars.
Ans: They have two cars.
(iv) The hanesty is the best policy.
Ans: The honesty is the best policy.
3. Convert the sentences as directed
(i) Who teaches you Hindi? (Passive)
Ans: By whom are you thought Hindi?
(ii) Shall I ever forget those days? (Passive)
Ans: Shall ever been forgotten those days by me?
(iii) A lion was seen by them. (Active)
Ans: They saw a lion.
(iv) He is being taught by me. (Active)
Ans: I am teaching him.

4. Fill in the blanks

(i) You --- to be a good boy. (Appear/Appears)
Ans: Appear
(ii) Reema --- a rich girl. (seem to be/seems to be)
Ans: seems to be
(iii) This mango --- sweet. (taste/testes)
Ans: testes
(iv) The cloth --- soft. (feel / feels)
Ans: feels
7. Make sentences to bring out the meaning
(i) Cruelty
Ans: Cruelty towards animal is an offence.
(ii) Hearsay
Ans: Hearsay evidences are not take into account.
(iii) Arbitrator
Ans: Arbitrator is a person officially appointed to settle a case.
(iv) Trespass
Ans: Trespassing a private property is an offence.
(v) Abduction
 Ans: Abduction of any person is a criminal offence punishable by the
law,

2022
Q1. Convert the following into indirect speech:
(a) He said" My master is writing letters ".
(b) He says " I am glad to be here this evening".
(c) The policeman said to us " Where are you going".
(d) Don't make a noise , the teacher said to students.
Ans a) He said that his master was writing letters.
(b) He says that he is glad to be here this evening.
(c) The policeman asked us where we were going.
(d) The teacher told the students not to make a noise.
Opposite words
Able- Unable
Blessing- Disapproval
Help- Sabotage, Betrayal, Hinder
Wisdom- Ignorance, stupidity ,Folly
Full Forms
1. AIR - All India Reporter
2. CrPC- Criminal Procedure Code
3. IPC- Indian Penal Code
4. CPC- Civil Procedure Code
5. LLB- Bachelor of laws or Legum Baccalaureus. (Latin)
6. i.e. -Id Est(Latin) means “that is”
7. PIL- Public Interest Litigation
8. WWW- World Wide Web
9. ILR- Indian Law Reports
 10. JILI- Journal of Indian Law institute
11. CrLJ- Criminal Law Journal
12. Vol. – Volume ( law & Legal vol.)
13. CAT- Central Administrative Tribunal
14. ITJ- Indian Trade Journal or Income Tax Judgements
15. NATO -North Atlantic Treaty Organization
16. SUPRA - A Latin term meaning "above”
17. Ibid- Latin “ibidem,” meaning “in the same place.”
18. SCC- Supreme Court Cases
19. SCJ-Supreme Court Journal or Sealed Cover
Jurisprudence
20. AC-Assistant Commissioner or Appeal Cases
21. UNGA- United Nations General assembly
22. NHRC- National Human Rights Commission
23. NGT- National green Tribunal
24. BCI- bar Council Of India
25. EHRC- European Human rights commission
26. EctHRC- European court of Human Right Commission
27. AHRC- American Human right Commission
28. ActHRC- American court of human right Commission
29. ICJ-International court Of Justice
30. ICCPR- International Covenant on Civil and Political rights
31. ICESCR- International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
32. PC -Privy Council
33. IJIL- International Journal Of Innovation and Learning
34. OHCHR- Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

Q. Make Sentences
1. Ambiguous- having more than one possible meaning- This
agreement is very ambiguous and open to various interpretations.
2. Charge – Accusation made against person - He has been arrested
on a charge of murder.
3. Injunction – Restraining order - An industrial plant dumping waste
into a lake may be served an injunction to stop that activity.
4. Diligent- carried out with care and perseverance- Their lawyer was
extremely Diligent in preparing their case.
5. Perjury- foreswearing (the intentional act of swearing a false
oath)- she was charged with perjury and obstruction of justice.
6. Bona fide- ‘Good faith”- A bona fide purchaser who buys from a
seller with a defect of title (whether that's by fraud or mistake) is
nonetheless able to keep the property if a third-party file a claim
of ownership.
7. Decree- an official order that has the force of law - Their marriage
was annvolentiulled by judicial decree.
8. Counsel - a person who gives advice and deals with various issues,
particularly in legal matters- She is serving as counsel for the
defendant.
9. Council- an advisory, administrative body of
people formally constituted and meeting regularly – The Un
security Council may impose economic sanctions on defaulter
states.
10. Vested - Having an absolute right or title to something, to be
enjoyed either now or in the future -Banks have vested interest in
the growth of their customers.
11. Cruelty- behaviour which causes physical or mental harm to
another-We should protest against the cruelty towards animals. Or
She divorced her husband on the grounds of cruelty against her by
him.
12. Hearsay- Second hand information- In most courts, hearsay
evidence is inadmissible
13. Arbitrator- a neutral third party that oversees the alternative
dispute resolution method of arbitration.- He served as an
arbitrator in a series of commercial disputes in India.
14. Trespass- knowingly entering another owners' property or
land without permission- You could be prosecuted for trespass
15. Abduction he taking of a person against their will, generally
by means of persuasion, fraud, or force. - Armed robbery
and abduction have been on the increase countrywide
16. De-Facto - in reality or as a matter of fact - English is de
facto the common language of much of the world today.
17. De-Jure- “by law” or “by right”- “according to the law”- An
example of De Facto can be a learner's driving license. An example
of De Jure is a permanent license.
18. Ex-Post facto- “from a thing done afterward.” An ex post facto
law was brought in with great precipitation, for annulling this
dividend.
19. Prima facie- "sufficient to establish a fact - when buildings
are set on fire by sparks emitted from a train engine passing along
the road, it is prima facie evidence of negligence on the part of the
train company.
20. Sine Die- Latin for “without day” “without assigning a day for
a further meeting or hearing”. A legislative body adjourns sine die
when it adjourns without appointing a day on which to appear or
assemble again.
21. Audi Alteram partem- “hear the other side” or no man
should be unheard- The employer applied for re-consideration of
the decision, arguing that the full Board meeting was illegal
because it violated the " audi alteram partem " rule .
22. Voidable- one that can be canceled or altered for qualified
legal reasons.- I note that the original marriage is voidable, not
void: unless the parties go to court to have it annulled, the original
marriage remains valid.
23. Ejectment- civil action to recover the possession of or title to
land. - The owner, who was a new purchaser, was applying for
an ejectment order
24. Discharge- he extinguishment or release of a legal obligation
or duty- He was found guilty and given a conditional discharge- a
discharge of the payment of a debt means you are no longer
legally obligated to pay the debt
25. Insane- the person should be suffering from mental illness
and also have a loss of reasoning power- The murderer was found
to be criminally insane or An insane person is unaccountable for
his actions
26. Dispute- a disagreement, argument, or controversy- There is
a labour dispute between workers and management.
27. Announce- the declaration of something for the first time.-
The government announced a cut in taxes
28. Voluntary- willfulness or intention. He was charged with
voluntary manslaughter.
29. Dishonour- the refusal to honor and pay an instrument
(e.g. a check) that is presented for payment or settlement.--
When person Y attempts to deposit that check in their bank
account, person Y's bank returns it to person X's bank with a
notice of dishonor.
30. Dismiss- the act of voluntarily terminating a criminal
prosecution or a lawsuit or one of its causes of action by one
of the parties.- When a judge dismisses a court case, he or
she formally stops the trial, often because there is not
enough proof that someone is guilty:
31. Ex-parte- An "ex parte" decision is one decided by a
judge without requiring all of the parties to the controversy to
be present.- As a rule of procedure, if the defendant does not
appear on the day fixed for hearing, the court can order to
proceed ex parte
32. Intention - the mental objective behind an action. - "she
announced her intention to stand in the election"
33. Immovable- an asset that cannot be moved from one place to
another - An immovable property has rights of ownership
attached to it.- immovables would be such things as land or
buildings, which are thought to be stationary in space;
34. Obscene- legal concept used to characterize certain
(particularly sexual) material as offensive to the public sense of
decency. obscenity' can be defined as an indecent expression
which could be. displayed through words, actions or gestures.
35. Amendment- an addition or alteration made to a
constitution, statute, or legislative bill or resolution- correct,
emend, rectify, redress, reform, remedy, and revise. Amending the
Constitution of India is the process of making changes to the
nation's fundamental law or supreme law.
36. Contempt- Contempt of court is an act of disrespect or
disobedience toward a court or interference with its orderly
process. She was arrested for contempt of court.
37. Execution- Implementation of litigation is also known as
execution. Execution means (1) the act of carrying out,
performing, or completing, as in the execution of an order or
decree. the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an
execution
38. Heir- 1. An heir is a person who may legally receive property
or assets from a deceased person's estate when there is no will or
trust in place;2. one who inherits or is entitled to succeed to a
hereditary rank, title, or office. heir to the throne. 3. one who
receives or is entitled to receive something other than property
from a parent or predecessor. The king left no heirs when he died.
39. Void- In law, void means of no legal effect. An action,
document, or transaction which is void is of no legal effect
whatsoever. a void contract is invalid from the start of its
purported closing
40. Oath- a public pledge that a person will perform some action
or duty, generally with the promise of doing so truthfully.
The name OATH is an acronym from the phrase "open
authentication- they took an oath of allegiance to the king".
41. Ab initio - Ab initio is a Latin term that means "from the
beginning” or “from inception.” Ab initio is used to indicate that
some fact existed from the start of a relevant time period.
the contract with a minor is an void AB Initio agreement since the
minor is an incompetent party to the contract.
42. Adjudicate- An adjudication is a legal ruling or judgment,- The
school board will adjudicate claims made against teachers.
 43. Alibi- a defense to a criminal charge alleging that the accused
was somewhere other than at the scene of the crime at the time it
occurred.
she has an alibi for the whole of yesterday evening
44. in pari delicto- in equal fault- If the parties to a dispute are in
pari delicto, neither of them can obtain a positive appeal from the
court, since both are equally guilty or equally at fault.

Explain The maxims

1.Audi alteram partem- The maxim "Audi alteram partem" is a Latin

phrase that translates to "hear the other side" or "let the other side be
heard."
It is a fundamental principle of natural justice and fair procedure,
emphasizing the right to a fair hearing and the opportunity for all
parties involved in a legal or administrative process to present their
case and respond to the arguments made against them.
The principle of Audi alteram partem is an important safeguard against
injustice. It ensures that people are not punished or deprived of their
rights without a fair hearing. It also helps to ensure that decisions are
made fairly and impartially.
Here are some examples of how the principle of audi alteram partem is
applied in practice:
 In a criminal case, the defendant has the right to be present at
their trial and to present evidence in their own Défense.
 In a civil case, both sides have the right to present evidence and to
cross-examine witnesses.
 When the government is considering taking action that could
affect someone's rights, such as revoking a license or seizing
property, the government must give the person an opportunity to
be heard.
The principle of audi alteram partem is an important part of a fair and
just legal system. It ensures that people are treated fairly and that their
rights are protected.
2. Res Ipsa Locquitor- The maxim "the thing speaks for itself" (Latin: res
ipsa loquitur) is a legal doctrine that allows a plaintiff to establish
negligence on the part of the defendant without having to provide
direct evidence of the defendant's actions. This is because the
circumstances of the accident or injury itself may be enough to infer
that the defendant was negligent.
For example, if a customer is injured when a bottle of soda falls off a
shelf in a grocery store, the customer may not need to provide any
evidence of how the bottle fell off the shelf. The fact that the bottle fell
off the shelf in a grocery store is enough to infer that the grocery store
was negligent in failing to keep the shelves safe.
The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur is not always applicable. For example,
if the plaintiff's injuries are caused by a natural phenomenon, such as a
lightning strike, the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur will not apply.
The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur is a powerful tool that can help
plaintiffs recover damages for their injuries. However, it is important to
note that the doctrine is not always applicable, and plaintiffs should
always consult with an attorney to determine if they have a valid claim.
Here are some of the elements that must be met in order for the
doctrine of res ipsa loquitur to apply:
 The accident must be of a kind that would not ordinarily happen
without negligence.
 The defendant must have had exclusive control over the thing that
caused the accident.
 The plaintiff must not have been contributorily negligent.
If all of these elements are met, the plaintiff can establish negligence
on the part of the defendant without having to provide any direct
evidence of the defendant's actions.
3. Damnum Sine Injuria- The maxim "damage without legal injury"
(Latin: damnum sine injuria) is a legal principle that states that a person
cannot recover damages for harm that they have suffered if their legal
rights have not been violated. This means that even if a person has
suffered physical or emotional harm, they may not be able to sue for
damages if the harm was caused by someone else's actions, but those
actions did not violate any of the person's legal rights.
There are a few exceptions to the maxim "damage without legal
injury". For example, a person may be able to recover damages for
harm that they have suffered if the harm was caused by someone else's
intentional or reckless conduct. Additionally, a person may be able to
recover damages for harm that they have suffered if the harm was
caused by someone else's negligence, and the person was in a special
relationship with the person who caused the harm.
The maxim "damage without legal injury" is an important principle of
tort law. It helps to ensure that people are not able to sue for damages
simply because they have suffered harm. Instead, they must show that
their legal rights have been violated in order to be able to recover
damages.
Here are some examples of when the maxim "damage without legal
injury" might apply:
 A person is injured in a car accident caused by another driver. The
person may be able to sue the other driver for damages.
 A person is injured by a government official who is acting within
the scope of their authority. The person may not be able to sue
the government official for damages.
 A person is injured by a falling tree. The person may be able to sue
the owner of the land where the tree was located for damages.
It is important to note that the maxim "damage without legal injury" is
a complex legal principle. If you have been injured, it is important to
speak with an attorney to discuss your legal options.
4. Respondeat Superior
The maxim "respondeat superior," which means "let the master
answer," is a legal doctrine that holds an employer or principal liable
for the torts committed by their employees or agents while acting
within the scope of their employment or agency. This means that if an
employee or agent causes harm to someone while they are working,
the employer or principal may be held liable for the damages, even if
they were not directly involved in the incident. Damnum sine injuria
There are a few requirements that must be met in order for respondeat
superior to apply.
First, there must be an employer-employee relationship. This means
that the employer has the right to control the employee's work and to
supervise the employee's activities.
Second, the employee must be acting within the scope of their
employment when they cause the harm. This means that the employee
must be doing something that they are authorized to do and that they
are doing it in a way that is reasonably foreseeable.
Here are some examples of how respondeat superior might apply:
 A delivery driver for a grocery store is delivering groceries to a
customer's home. The driver is distracted by his cell phone and
runs a red light, causing an accident. The grocery store could be
held liable for the damages caused by the accident, even though
the driver was not acting on the grocery store's behalf at the time
of the accident.
 A nurse at a hospital is caring for a patient. The nurse makes a
mistake and gives the patient the wrong medication, causing the
patient to become seriously ill. The hospital could be held liable
for the patient's injuries, even though the nurse was not acting on
the hospital's behalf when she made the mistake.
 A construction worker is working on a construction site. The
worker is not wearing a hard hat and is injured when a piece of
equipment falls on his head. The construction company could be
 held liable for the worker's injuries, even though the worker was
not following the company's safety rules when he was injured.
Respondeat superior is a complex legal doctrine and there are many
exceptions to the rule. If you have been injured by the tort of an
employee or agent, you should consult with an attorney to discuss your
legal options.
5. ignorantia juris non excusat
The legal principle of "ignorance of the law excuses no one," or
"ignorantia juris non excusat," is a Latin maxim that means that a
person cannot escape liability for breaking the law simply by claiming
that they did not know the law existed. This is because it is assumed
that everyone is aware of the law, regardless of whether they have
actually read it or not.
There are a few exceptions to this rule. For example, if a person is
tricked into breaking the law, or if they are not mentally competent to
understand the law, they may be able to use ignorance of the law as a
defense. However, these exceptions are very narrow, and in general,
people are expected to know the law and obey it.
It is important to remember that ignorance of the law is not a valid
defense. If you are caught breaking the law, you may be held liable,
even if you did not know that what you were doing was illegal.
6. Actus reus non facit reum ,nisi mens sit rea
Actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea" is a Latin phrase that
translates to "the act is not guilty unless the mind is guilty." It is a
fundamental principle in criminal law that highlights the requirement
for both a wrongful act (actus reus) and a guilty mind (mens rea) to
establish criminal liability.
In order to be found guilty of a crime, the prosecution must prove
beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant not only committed the
act, but also had the mens rea to commit the crime. Mens rea is
typically established by proving that the defendant intended to commit
the crime, or that they knew that their actions were likely to cause
harm.
Mens rea is an important element of criminal law because it helps to
ensure that people are not punished for accidents or for actions that
they did not intend to commit. It also helps to distinguish between
crimes that are intentional and crimes that are reckless or negligent.
There are a few exceptions to the mens rea requirement. For example,
in some cases, a person can be found guilty of a crime even if they did
not intend to commit it, if they were reckless or negligent. Additionally,
some crimes, such as strict liability offenses, do not require mens rea at
all.
Overall, mens rea is an important concept in criminal law that helps to
ensure that people are only punished for crimes that they actually
committed.
7. "Nemo dat quod non habet"
"Nemo dat quod non habet" is a Latin phrase that translates to "no one
can give what they do not have." It is a legal principle that pertains to
the transfer of ownership of property and highlights the concept of
nemo dat rule in property law.
For example, if a thief sells a stolen car to a buyer, the buyer does not
acquire ownership of the car, even if they did not know that it was
stolen. The car still belongs to the rightful owner.
This principle is based on the idea that ownership is a right that is
attached to a particular person or entity. It cannot be transferred to
another person unless the original owner consents to the transfer.
There are a few exceptions to the nemo dat quod non habet rule. For
example, if a person sells something that they believe they own, but
they do not actually own it, the buyer may be able to acquire
ownership of the item if they can prove that they were not aware that
the seller did not own it.
The nemo dat quod non habet rule is an important principle of
property law that helps to protect the rights of owners and buyers. It
ensures that people cannot acquire ownership of something that they
do not have a right to.
8 Volenti non fit Injuria
"Volenti non fit injuria" is a Latin phrase that translates to "to a willing
person, no injury is done." It is a legal principle in tort law that serves
as a defense against a claim of negligence or wrongdoing..
For example, if you sign a waiver before participating in a sporting
event, you are essentially saying that you understand that there is a risk
of injury and that you are waiving your right to sue the organizer of the
event if you are injured.
The volenti non fit injuria doctrine is based on the idea that people
should be free to take risks if they want to, and that they should not be
able to sue someone else if they are injured as a result of their own
decision to take a risk.
However, there are some limitations to the volenti non fit injuria
doctrine. For example, the doctrine does not apply if the person was
forced to take the risk, or if they were not aware of the risk.
Additionally, the doctrine does not apply if the person's consent was
obtained through fraud or misrepresentation.
Overall, the volenti non fit injuria doctrine is an important principle of
tort law that helps to protect people's right to take risks. However, the
doctrine is not absolute, and there are some cases where people can
still be held liable for injuries that they cause to others, even if the
other person was willing to take the risk.
9. ubi jus ibi remedium
The maxim "ubi jus ibi remedium" is a Latin phrase that means "where
there is a right, there is a remedy." It is a principle of law that states
that every person has the right to a remedy if their rights are violated.
The remedy may be monetary damages, an injunction, or other relief.
The principle of "ubi jus ibi remedium" is based on the idea that the
law should be fair and just. If a person's rights are violated, they should
be able to get their rights restored. The remedy should be proportional
to the harm that was caused.
The principle of "ubi jus ibi remedium" is not absolute. There are some
cases where a person may not be able to get a remedy, such as if the
person's rights were violated by a government official. However, in
general, the principle of "ubi jus ibi remedium" is an important part of
the legal system. It helps to ensure that people's rights are protected
and that they can get justice if their rights are violated.
Here are some examples of remedies that may be available to a person
whose rights have been violated:
 Monetary damages: This is the most common type of remedy.
Monetary damages are awarded to compensate the person for the
harm that they have suffered.
 Injunction: An injunction is a court order that requires someone to
do something or to stop doing something. For example, a court
may issue an injunction to stop someone from infringing on
someone else's copyright.
 Declaratory relief: Declaratory relief is a court order that declares
the rights of the parties involved in a dispute. This type of relief is
often used to clarify the law or to resolve a dispute before it
escalates into a lawsuit.
The specific type of remedy that is available to a person will depend on
the specific facts of the case. However, the principle of "ubi jus ibi
remedium" ensures that people who have their rights violated will have
access to a remedy.
10. Res Judicata:
Section 11 of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908 is as follows:
- No Court shall try any suit between the same parties and on the same
cause of action in which a final decision has been given by a competent
Court.

The legal principle of "a matter already judged" is known as res

judicata. It is a Latin maxim that means "a thing has been judged." It is
a bar to relitigating a matter that has already been decided by a court
of competent jurisdiction.
The doctrine of res judicata is based on the idea that it is unfair to have
a case decided twice. It also prevents the parties from relitigating a
matter that has already been resolved, which can save time and
resources.
The doctrine of res judicata applies to both civil and criminal cases. In a
civil case, res judicata bars a party from relitigating a claim that was
already decided in a previous case. In a criminal case, res judicata bars
a person from being tried for the same crime twice.
There are a few exceptions to the doctrine of res judicata. For example,
res judicata does not apply if the previous judgment was obtained by
fraud or misrepresentation. Additionally, res judicata does not apply if
the previous judgment was overturned on appeal.
The res judicata rule is an important principle of law that helps to
promote judicial efficiency and finality. It prevents people from
relitigating the same matter over and over again, and it ensures that
the law is applied consistently.
Here are some of the benefits of res judicata:
 Efficiency: Res judicata prevents the need to relitigate the same
matter multiple times. This saves time and resources for the
courts, the parties involved, and the public.
 Finality: Res judicata ensures that legal disputes are resolved once
and for all. This provides certainty and stability for the parties
involved and for the legal system as a whole.
  Consistency: Res judicata helps to ensure that the law is applied
consistently. This is important for the fairness of the legal system
and for the rule of law.
The res judicata rule is a complex and important principle of law. It is
important to understand the rule and its exceptions in order to protect
your legal rights.
11. Caveat emptor
"Caveat emptor" is a Latin phrase that translates to "let the buyer
beware." It is a principle in contract law that places the burden of due
diligence on the buyer of a good or service. This means that the buyer
is responsible for inspecting the product before purchase and for
making sure that it meets their needs. The seller is not responsible for
any defects in the product that are not apparent on inspection.
Here are some tips for buyers to avoid being taken advantage of:
 Do your research. Before you make a purchase, be sure to do your
research and compare prices from different sellers. You can also
read reviews of products to get an idea of what other buyers have
experienced.
 Inspect the product carefully. When you receive the product, be
sure to inspect it carefully for any defects. If you find any defects,
do not hesitate to contact the seller and request a refund or
replacement.
 Ask questions. If you have any questions about the product, be
sure to ask the seller. The seller should be able to answer all of
your questions and provide you with any information you need to
make an informed decision.
 Know the seller's return policy. Before you make a purchase, be
sure to read the seller's return policy. This will tell you how long
you have to return the product if you are not satisfied.
By following these tips, you can help to protect yourself from being
taken advantage of when making purchases.
12. Animus Domini
"Animus domini" is a Latin phrase that translates to "intent of the
owner" or "intent of the possessor." It is a legal principle that refers to
the mental state or intention of a person in relation to their possession
or control over a thing or property.
For example, if a person buys a house to live in, the intent of the owner
is to use the house as a home. However, if a person rents a house to
live in, the intent of the possessor is to use the house as a home, but
the intent of the owner is to generate income from the rental.
In some cases, the intent of the owner and the intent of the possessor
may be the same. For example, if a person buys a car to drive, the
intent of the owner and the intent of the possessor are both to use the
car for transportation.
The intent of the owner or possessor can be important in legal matters,
such as when determining whether a person has a right to use the
property or when determining the value of the property.
Here are some examples of how the intent of the owner or possessor
can be used in legal matters:
 In a trespass case, the plaintiff must prove that the defendant
entered the plaintiff's property without permission. The defendant
may argue that they had permission to enter the property, such as
if they were invited by the owner or possessor.
 In a property dispute, the court may consider the intent of the
owner or possessor when determining who has the right to use
the property. For example, if two people own a piece of property
and one person has been using it for a long time, the court may
find that the first person has a better right to use the property.
 In an eminent domain case, the government must pay the owner
of the property just compensation. The amount of compensation
may be affected by the intent of the owner. For example, if the
owner bought the property with the intent to build a business, the
 government may have to pay more compensation than if the
owner bought the property as an investment.
13. Doli incapax
"Doli incapax" is a Latin phrase that translates to "incapable of
wrongdoing" or "incapable of guilt." It is a legal principle that pertains
to the criminal responsibility of minors or children who are considered
to lack the mental capacity to understand the nature and consequences
of their actions.
 Incapable of wrongdoing means that a person is unable to commit
a crime or other wrong. This could be due to a mental disability, a
young age, or some other factor.
 Incapable of guilt means that a person is not morally responsible
for their actions. This could be due to a mental illness, intoxication,
or some other factor.

A person who is incapable of wrongdoing may still be held liable for

their actions in a civil court. This is because civil liability does not
require proof of intent or guilt. However, a person who is incapable of
guilt cannot be convicted of a crime.
Here are some examples of people who may be considered incapable
of wrongdoing or guilt:
 A child under the age of criminal responsibility. In most
jurisdictions, children under a certain age are not considered to be
capable of committing crimes. This is because they are not
considered to have the mental capacity to understand the nature
and consequences of their actions.
 A person with a mental disability. People with certain mental
disabilities may be considered incapable of wrongdoing or guilt.
This is because their mental disability may prevent them from
understanding the nature and consequences of their actions, or
from controlling their behavior.
  A person who is intoxicated. A person who is intoxicated may be
considered incapable of wrongdoing or guilt. This is because
intoxication can impair a person's judgment and ability to control
their behavior.
It is important to note that these are just examples, and the law in each
jurisdiction may vary. If you are unsure whether a person is capable of
wrongdoing or guilt, you should consult with an attorney.
14. Equity Follows the Law

The maxim "equity follows the law" means that equity will not allow a
remedy that is contrary to the law. This means that the courts of equity
will not grant a remedy that would violate a legal right or that would be
inconsistent with the law.
For example, if a person has a legal right to own property, the courts of
equity will not order the property to be sold even if the person who
owns the property is in need of money. This is because the law protects
the right to own property, and the courts of equity cannot override this
right.
The maxim "equity follows the law" also means that the courts of
equity will not grant a remedy that is not available at law. For example,
if a person has been injured in a car accident, the courts of equity will
not order the person's medical bills to be paid even if the person is
unable to afford to pay them. This is because the law does not provide
for this type of remedy, and the courts of equity cannot create new
remedies.
The maxim "equity follows the law" is an important principle of equity
law. It helps to ensure that the courts of equity do not interfere with
the rights of individuals that are protected by the law.
Here are some additional points about the maxim "equity follows the
law":
  The maxim is not absolute. There are some cases where the courts
of equity will grant a remedy that is contrary to the law, but these
cases are rare.
 The maxim is based on the idea that equity is a supplement to the
law, not a replacement for it. The courts of equity are intended to
fill in the gaps in the law and to provide remedies for situations
that the law does not address.
 The maxim is still relevant today, even though the courts of equity
and the courts of law have been merged in many jurisdictions. The
maxim helps to ensure that the courts will not grant remedies that
are unfair or unjust.
15. Ex pacto illicitur non oritur action or "ex turpi causa non oritur
actio"
"Ex pacto illicitur non oritur actio" is a Latin phrase that translates to
"from an illegal agreement, no action arises." It is a legal principle that
states that a party cannot enforce or seek legal remedies based on an
illegal or illicit agreement.
The doctrine of ex turpi causa is based on the public policy principle
that the courts will not enforce contracts or other agreements that are
illegal or immoral. This is because the courts do not want to be seen as
condoning illegal or immoral behavior.
There are a number of different types of agreements that may be
considered illegal or immoral, including:
 Agreements to commit a crime
 Agreements to defraud someone
 Agreements to engage in sexual activity with a minor
 Agreements to break the law in some other way
It is important to note that the principle of "ex pacto illicitur non oritur
actio" does not apply to situations where a party is seeking to rectify an
illegal agreement or obtain remedies for an illegal act committed
against them. In such cases, courts may still provide relief if it is
necessary to prevent injustice or to protect the rights of an innocent
party.
In summary, "ex pacto illicitur non oritur actio" establishes that parties
cannot enforce or seek legal remedies based on an illegal agreement. It
reflects the principle that the law will not recognize or provide support
for agreements that violate legal norms, public policy, or involve illegal
activities.
16. Good faith
In general words, the term "Good Faith" can be stated as the genuine
and honest intentions of a person for the sake of the other person. It
traces its origin to the Latin term "Bona Fide," which means "truth." So
bona fide means "in Good Faith," which is typically used as an adjective
to mean "authentic."
"A thing is said to be done or believed in good faith when it is done or
believed honestly and with due care and attention".
Here are some examples of what good faith looks like in practice:
 A seller of real estate who knows that there is a problem with the
property, such as a leaky roof, is required to disclose the problem
to the buyer in good faith.
 A tenant who agrees to pay rent on the first of each month is
required to pay the rent on time in good faith.
 A contractor who agrees to complete a project by a certain date is
required to complete the project on time in good faith.
If a party to an agreement breaches the duty of good faith, the other
party may be able to sue for damages. The damages may include the
cost of repairing the breach, the cost of getting the agreement
performed, and any other losses that the other party has suffered as a
result of the breach.
The duty of good faith is an important concept in law that helps to
ensure that contracts are fair and that they are enforced in a way that is
consistent with the parties' intentions. It is also a standard of behavior
that should be followed in all dealings with others, whether or not
there is a formal contract in place.
17. Habeaus Corpus
"Habeas corpus" is a Latin term that translates to "you shall have the
body." It refers to a legal principle and a writ that protects an
individual's right to be free from unlawful or arbitrary detention. The
writ of habeas corpus allows a person who is detained or imprisoned to
challenge the legality of their detention and seek release if it is found to
be unlawful.
The writ of habeas corpus is a fundamental right in the United States,
guaranteed by the Constitution. It is also a common law right, meaning
that it is recognized by the courts even if it is not explicitly mentioned
in the Constitution.
Anyone can file a writ of habeas corpus, including the prisoner
themselves, their family members, or their attorney. The writ can be
filed in any court that has jurisdiction over the person's detention.
The person who is holding the prisoner in custody must respond to the
writ by filing an answer. In the answer, the person must explain why the
prisoner is being held in custody and why the detention is lawful.
The writ of habeas corpus is a powerful tool that can be used to protect
the rights of prisoners. It is a fundamental right that should be used
whenever there is a question about the legality of a person's detention.
Here are some additional things to know about the writ of habeas
corpus:
 The writ of habeas corpus can be used to challenge the legality of
any type of detention, including pre-trial detention, post-
conviction detention, and involuntary commitment to a mental
health facility.
 The writ of habeas corpus is a discretionary writ, which means
that the court is not required to grant the writ. However, the court
 will generally grant the writ if there is a reasonable probability
that the prisoner's detention is unlawful.
 The writ of habeas corpus can be filed at any time during a
person's detention. However, the writ is most likely to be
successful if it is filed shortly after the person's detention begins.
 The writ of habeas corpus can be filed in any court that has
jurisdiction over the person's detention. This may include a federal
court, a state court, or a military court.
18. Sine Die
"Sine die" is a Latin term that translates to "without a day." In legal and
parliamentary contexts, it is used to refer to the adjournment or
termination of a meeting, session, or proceeding without a specified
date for resumption.
When an event or gathering is adjourned sine die, it means that no
specific date has been set for it to reconvene or continue. It implies an
indefinite suspension or conclusion of the proceedings, without a
predetermined timeline for future actions or meetings.
The term "sine die" is also used in legal proceedings to indicate the
indefinite postponement or conclusion of a hearing, trial, or other legal
matters. It suggests that no further action or proceedings are scheduled
and that the matter is effectively closed or put on hold until further
notice.
In summary, "sine die" denotes the adjournment or termination of a
meeting, session, or legal proceedings without a specified date for
resumption. It signifies an indefinite suspension or conclusion of the
proceedings, with no immediate plans for further actions or meetings.
19. injuria sine damnum
"Injuria sine damno" is a Latin term that translates to "injury without
damage." It is a legal principle that refers to a situation where a person
suffers an infringement of their legal rights or a violation of their
personal interests, even though they may not have suffered any actual
monetary or material loss or damage.
The principle of injuria sine damno acknowledges that individuals have
a right to be free from certain wrongful acts or behaviors, irrespective
of whether they result in tangible economic harm. It reflects the
recognition of non-economic interests and the importance of
protecting personal rights and dignity.
In summary, injuria sine damno refers to situations where a person
experiences a violation of their legal rights or interests without
suffering any actual financial or material loss. It recognizes that certain
legal rights are deserving of protection, regardless of the absence of
direct economic harm, and allows individuals to seek remedies or
damages for the infringement of their non-monetary interests.
An example of injuria sine damno could be a case of defamation. Let's
say an individual spreads false and damaging information about
another person, resulting in harm to the person's reputation and
causing emotional distress. Even if the defamed person has not
suffered any direct financial loss, the act of spreading false information
and damaging their reputation constitutes injuria (injury) without any
damnum (financial loss). In this case, the defamed person may seek
legal recourse to protect their reputation and seek remedies for the
harm caused, even if there is no tangible economic impact.
20. Actus Necessitus
The doctrine of necessity states that if an act is done and it causes
harm but it is done in good faith in order to prevent harm, the person
who does such an act is not liable. This is so provided that the harm
caused due to an act done in necessity should not be intentional in
nature.
The defense of necessity may apply when an individual commits a
criminal act during an emergency situation in order to prevent a
greater harm from happening. In such circumstances, our legal system
typically excuses the individual's criminal act because it was justified, or
finds that no criminal act has occurred.
In the case of preventing a harmful situation, an individual is given two
options that result in some harm either way. In simple terms, the
individual is required to choose between two evils and they must
rightly choose the less evil option in order for the doctrine of necessity
to apply.

Q. Fill in the Blanks

1. Law is Command of Sovereign.
2. A legal right is an interest accepted and protected by law.
3. A contract is an agreement enforceable by law.
4. PIL is not a pill for every ill.
5. Muslim law does not recognise adoption.
6. An assault is an act that causes another person to fear that he or
she will be touched in an offensive, insulting, or physically
injurious manner without consent or authority to do so.
7. In a court of law, the reasonably prudent person acts as any other
person would behave in the same circumstances as judged by the
community regarding how the person should behave. This is called
a standard of conduct.
8. If a person makes disparaging remarks about a patient, the
individual could be charged with an intentional tort known as
Slander
9. If a specimen is accidently lost, thrown away, or improperly
prepared, the surgical technologist could be found guilty of
negligence
10.Directive Principles are given in part IV of the Constitution of
India.
2022 legal language
Q. Write a letter to the Municipal Commissioner to control the menace
of stray dogs in city.
To,
The Municipal Commissioner,
[City Name],
[State Name].
Subject: Menace of Stray Dogs in City.
Respected Sir/Madam,
I am writing to you on behalf of the residents of [City Name] to express
our concern about the growing menace of stray dogs in our city. The
number of stray dogs has increased significantly in recent years, and
they are now a major problem for residents.
Stray dogs pose a number of problems for residents, including:
 They are a nuisance, barking and running around at all hours of
the day and night.
 They can be aggressive, and have been known to bite people,
especially children.
 They can spread diseases, such as rabies and leptospirosis.
 They can also damage property, such as by chewing on furniture
or urinating on cars.
We are concerned about the safety of our children and the health of
our community. We urge you to take immediate action to control the
stray dog population in our city.
We suggest the following measures to control the stray dog population:
 Increased sterilization of stray dogs.
 Increased adoption of stray dogs.
 Increased education of residents about the importance of spaying
and neutering their pets.
 Increased enforcement of laws against animal cruelty.
We believe that these measures will help to reduce the number of stray
dogs in our city and make it a safer and healthier place to live.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely, [Your Name] [Resident of [City Name]]
Q. Translate into Hindi
The Supreme court held that it could not be laid down as an absolute
rule of law or even as rule of prudence, which has ripened into a rule of
law, that a dying declaration cannot form the role basis of conviction
unless it is corroborated.
सर्वोच्च न्यायालय ने माना कि इसे कानून के पूर्ण नियम के रूप
में या यहां तक कि विवेक के नियम के रूप में नहीं रखा जा सकता
है, जो कानून के एक नियम में बदल गया है, जब तक कि यह पुष्टि
नहीं हो जाती है, तब तक मरने की घोषणा सजा का आधार नहीं बन
सकती है.

It is well settled that it is a rule of caution where the court would

generally look for an independent, reliable corroboration before placing
any reliance upon such extrajudicial confessions, which by their very
nature are weak types of evidence, and it is for this reason that a duty
is cast upon the court to look for corroboration from other reliable
evidence on record. Such evidence requires appreciation with a great
deal of care and caution. If such an extrajudicial confession is
surrounded by suspicious circumstances, it is needless to say that its
credibility becomes doubtful, and consequently, it loses its importance.
यह अच्छी तरह से तय है कि यह सावधानी का एक नियम है जहां
अदालत आम तौर पर इस तरह के असाधारण बयानों पर कोई निर्भरता
सनी
रखने से पहले एक स्वतंत्र, विवसनीय यश्वपुष्टि की तलाश करेगी, जो
उनके स्वभाव से कमजोर प्रकार के साक्ष्य हैं, और यह इस कारण
सनी
से है कि रिकॉर्ड पर अन्य विवसनीययश्वसबूतों से पुष्टि के लिए
अदालत में एक कर्तव्य डाला जाता है. इस तरह के सबूतों को बहुत
सावधानी और सावधानी के साथ सराहना की आवयकता कताश्य
होती है. यदि
इस तरह के एक असाधारण बयान संदिग्ध परिस्थितियों से घिरा हुआ
है, तो यह कहना अनावयककश्य सनी यता
है कि इसकी विवसनीयता श्वसंदिग्ध हो
जाती है, और परिणामस्वरूप, यह अपना महत्व खो देता है.

Q. Discuss the importance of 'Precedent' as a source of law.

Precedent, or stare decisis, is a legal principle that obligates judges to
follow the decisions of previous courts in similar cases. It is a
fundamental principle of common law systems, and it serves several
important purposes.
First, precedent promotes consistency in the law. When judges are
required to follow precedent, it ensures that similar cases are decided
in a similar manner. This helps to ensure fairness and equality under
the law, as it prevents judges from making decisions based on their
own personal biases or preferences.
Second, precedent saves time and resources. When judges are able to
rely on precedent, they do not have to re-examine the same legal
issues in every case. This allows the courts to focus on the specific facts
of each case, and it helps to reduce the overall cost of the legal system.
Third, precedent provides guidance for lawyers and litigants. When
lawyers know how previous cases have been decided, they can better
advise their clients and prepare for trial. This helps to ensure that cases
are resolved more efficiently and fairly.
Of course, precedent is not always binding. There are a number of
exceptions to the doctrine of stare decisis, including when the previous
decision was wrongly decided, when the facts of the current case are
significantly different, or when the law has changed since the previous
decision was made.
Despite these exceptions, precedent remains an important source of
law in common law systems. It helps to promote consistency, efficiency,
and fairness in the legal system.
Here are some additional points about the importance of precedent:
 Precedent can help to ensure that the law is applied fairly and
consistently.
 Precedent can help to reduce the amount of time and money that
is spent on litigation.
 Precedent can provide guidance to lawyers and litigants about
how the law is likely to be applied in a particular case.
 Precedent can help to promote stability and predictability in the
law.
While precedent is an important source of law, it is not the only source.
Judges are also free to consider other factors, such as the legislative
intent behind a statute, the public interest, and the principles of justice
and fairness.
Q. Essay on Right To Information
Right to Information (RTI) is the fundamental right of every citizen to
access information held by the government. It is a powerful tool that
can be used to hold the government accountable, promote
transparency and good governance, and fight corruption.
The Right to Information Act, 2005 (RTI Act) is the law that gives effect
to the right to information in India. The RTI Act has been hailed as a
landmark legislation that has the potential to transform India into a
more transparent and accountable democracy.
The RTI Act gives citizens the right to request information from any
public authority. This includes information about government policies,
decisions, and actions; information about the functioning of
government departments and agencies; and information about the use
of public funds.
The RTI Act also sets out a number of safeguards to ensure that the
right to information is not abused. These safeguards include :
the requirement that public authorities respond to requests for
information within a reasonable time;
the requirement that public authorities charge a reasonable fee for
providing information;
and the requirement that public authorities cannot refuse to provide
information on the grounds of national security or privacy.
The RTI Act has been in force for over 15 years and has had a significant
impact on Indian democracy. The Act has been used by citizens to
expose corruption, hold the government accountable, and improve the
delivery of public services.
The RTI Act is a powerful tool that can be used to make India a more
transparent and accountable democracy. However, the Act is not
without its challenges. One of the biggest challenges is that many
citizens are not aware of their right to information. Another challenge is
that the government often fails to comply with the RTI Act.
Despite these challenges, the RTI Act is a valuable tool that can be used
to improve Indian democracy. The Act has the potential to make the
government more transparent, accountable, and responsive to the
needs of the people.
Here are some of the benefits of the Right to Information Act:
 Transparency: The RTI Act has helped to increase transparency in
government by making it easier for citizens to access information
about government activities. This has helped to reduce corruption
and improve accountability.
 Accountability: The RTI Act has helped to make the government
more accountable to the people by giving citizens the power to
 ask questions and demand answers. This has helped to improve
the quality of government decision-making.
 Good governance: The RTI Act has helped to improve good
governance by making it easier for citizens to participate in
decision-making and hold the government to account. This has
helped to make the government more responsive to the needs of
the people.
The Right to Information Act is a powerful tool that can be used to
make India a more transparent, accountable, and responsive
democracy. It is important for citizens to be aware of their right to
information and to use it to hold the government accountable.
2. Judicial Activism
Judicial activism is a judicial philosophy holding that the courts can
and should go beyond the applicable law to consider broader
societal implications of its decisions. It is sometimes used as an
antonym of judicial restraint. The term usually implies that judges
make rulings based on their own views rather than on precedent.
The definition of judicial activism and the specific decisions that are
activist are controversial political issues. The question of judicial
activism is closely related to judicial interpretation, statutory
interpretation, and separation of powers.
Arguments in favor of judicial activism
Proponents of judicial activism argue that it is necessary to ensure
that the law is responsive to the needs of society. They argue that
the courts should not be bound by precedent if the law is unjust or
outdated. They also argue that the courts should be willing to strike
down laws that violate the Constitution.
Arguments against judicial activism
Opponents of judicial activism argue that it undermines the
separation of powers. They argue that the courts should not be able
to make law, as this is the job of the legislature. They also argue that
judicial activism can lead to judges imposing their own personal
views on the law.
Examples of judicial activism
Some examples of judicial activism include:
 The Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education,
which struck down racial segregation in public schools.
 The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade, which legalized
abortion.
 The Supreme Court's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges, which
legalized same-sex marriage.
The debate over judicial activism is likely to continue for many years
to come. There are strong arguments on both sides of the issue, and
it is ultimately up to each individual to decide whether they believe
judicial activism is a good or bad thing.
Here are some of the pros and cons of judicial activism:
Pros
 Judicial activism can help to protect the rights of minorities and
other vulnerable groups.
 Judicial activism can help to ensure that the law is responsive to
the needs of society.
 Judicial activism can help to strike down laws that are
unconstitutional.
Cons
 Judicial activism can undermine the separation of powers.
 Judicial activism can lead to judges imposing their own personal
views on the law.
 Judicial activism can be used to advance political agendas.
Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to support judicial
activism is a complex one. There are strong arguments on both sides
of the issue, and it is important to weigh all of the factors before
making a decision.
3. Role of Education in the Empowerment of women
Education plays a critical role in the empowerment of women. It
provides women with the knowledge, skills, and confidence they
need to make informed decisions about their lives, to participate
fully in society, and to improve their economic opportunities.
 Improved health and well-being: Education has been shown to

improve the health and well-being of women and girls. For

example, educated women are more likely to have access to
health care, to practice family planning, and to give birth to
healthy babies.
 Increased economic opportunities: Education helps women to get

better jobs and earn higher incomes. This can lead to improved
standards of living for women and their families.
 Reduced gender inequality: Education can help to reduce gender

inequality by giving women the same opportunities as men to

participate in education, employment, and decision-making.
 Strengthened communities: When women are empowered, they

are better able to contribute to the development of their

communities. They are more likely to be involved in civic life, to
volunteer, and to participate in decision-making.
There are many ways to increase access to education for women
and girls. Governments can invest in education by providing free
or low-cost schooling, by building more schools, and by hiring
more teachers. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can also
play a role by providing scholarships, running literacy programs,
and advocating for policies that support girls' education.
Education is a powerful tool for empowering women. It can help
women to improve their lives, to contribute to their communities,
and to make the world a better place.
Here are some specific examples of how education has
empowered women:
 In India, a program called Pratham has helped to increase literacy
rates among girls by providing free tutoring and other educational
services. As a result, the number of girls who are able to read and
write has increased significantly.
 In Kenya, a group called One Acre Fund has helped women
farmers to increase their crop yields by providing them with access
to education, training, and financial services. As a result, women
farmers have been able to improve their incomes and their
standard of living.
 In Afghanistan, a program called Educate Girls has helped to
increase the number of girls attending school. As a result, girls are
now more likely to complete their education and to go on to
college or university.
These are just a few examples of how education can empower
women. By providing women with the knowledge, skills, and
confidence they need, education can help to improve their lives
and the lives of their families and communities.

4. Democracy is the future of mankind

Democracy is a form of government in which the people hold power.
This power is exercised through elected representatives, who are
chosen by the people to make decisions on their behalf. Democracy
is based on the principle of equality, which means that all people
have equal rights and opportunities.

There are many reasons why democracy is the future of mankind.

First, democracy is the best way to ensure that the people are
represented and that their voices are heard. In a democracy, the
people have the power to choose their leaders and to hold them
accountable. This helps to ensure that the government is responsive
to the needs of the people.
Second, democracy is the best way to protect human rights. In a
democracy, the people have the right to freedom of speech, freedom
of assembly, and freedom of religion. These rights are essential for a
free and open society.

Third, democracy is the best way to promote economic

development. In a democracy, there is more trust between
businesses and the government. This trust leads to more investment
and economic growth.

Of course, democracy is not perfect. There are many challenges that

democracies face, such as corruption, poverty, and inequality.
However, despite these challenges, democracy is still the best form
of government for mankind. It is the only form of government that
can ensure that the people are represented, that their rights are
protected, and that their economy can thrive.

Here are some of the benefits of democracy:

Increased political participation: Democracy allows people to

participate in the political process by voting, running for office, and
contacting their elected officials. This helps to ensure that the
government is responsive to the needs of the people.
Protection of human rights: Democracy protects human rights by
ensuring that the government is accountable to the people. This
means that the government cannot violate the rights of the people
without consequences.
Economic development: Democracy promotes economic
development by creating a stable and predictable environment for
businesses. This encourages investment and growth.
Democracy is not without its challenges. However, the benefits of
democracy far outweigh the challenges. Democracy is the best form
of government for mankind because it ensures that the people are
represented, their rights are protected, and their economy can
thrive.

2021
Q. Write a letter to District Magistrate regarding Street Dog biting in
your city.

[Your Name] [Your Address] [Your City, State, Zip Code] [Your Phone
Number] [Your Email]
[Date]
The Honorable District Magistrate [Name of District] [Address of
District] [City, State, Zip Code]
Dear District Magistrate,
I am writing to you today to express my concern about the increasing
number of street dog bites in our city. I am a resident of [your city]
and I have seen firsthand the dangers that these dogs pose to our
community.
Just last week, my neighbor was walking her dog when she was
attacked by a pack of stray dogs. She was bitten multiple times and
had to be taken to the hospital for treatment. This is just one
example of the many incidents of dog bites that have occurred in our
city in recent months.
The problem of stray dogs is not new to our city. However, it has
become increasingly worse in recent years. The number of stray dogs
has increased dramatically, and they are now found in every
neighborhood. These dogs are often aggressive and pose a serious
threat to public safety.
I am concerned that the situation will only get worse if something is
not done to address the problem. I urge you to take action to reduce
the number of stray dogs in our city. I believe that the following
measures should be taken:
 Increased animal control efforts: The city should increase its
efforts to capture and remove stray dogs from our streets. This
could be done by increasing the number of animal control officers,
or by contracting with a private company to provide these
services.
 Increased public education: The city should launch a public
education campaign to inform residents about the dangers of stray
dogs and how to prevent dog bites. This campaign should include
information about how to report stray dogs to animal control, and
how to protect themselves from dog bites.
 Spay and neuter programs: The city should implement a spay and
neuter program for stray dogs. This would help to reduce the
number of unwanted puppies, and it would also help to make the
dogs less aggressive.
I believe that these measures would help to reduce the number of
street dog bites in our city and make our community safer for
everyone. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely, [Your Name]

Q. What is the method of writing a case comment . Explain

A case comment is a written analysis of a legal case. It typically
includes a summary of the facts of the case, the legal arguments
presented by the parties, and the court's decision. The case
comment may also include an evaluation of the court's decision,
including whether it was consistent with previous decisions, whether
it was well-reasoned, and whether it will have a significant impact on
future cases.
Here are the steps on how to write a case comment:
1. Choose a case. The first step is to choose a case that you are
interested in and that you have access to the full text of the
decision. You can find case decisions on the websites of the courts
that decided them, or in legal databases.
2. Read the case. Once you have chosen a case, you need to read the
full text of the decision. This may seem like a daunting task, but it
is important to understand the facts of the case and the legal
arguments presented by the parties.
3. Summarize the facts. After you have read the case, you need to
summarize the facts of the case. This should be a brief overview of
the events that led to the case being filed, and the arguments that
were presented by the parties.
4. Analyze the legal arguments. Once you have summarized the facts,
you need to analyze the legal arguments presented by the parties.
This should include a discussion of the relevant law, and how the
parties interpreted it.
5. Discuss the court's decision. After you have analyzed the legal
arguments, you need to discuss the court's decision. This should
include a discussion of the court's reasoning, and how it reached
its decision.
6. Evaluate the court's decision. Finally, you need to evaluate the
court's decision. This should include a discussion of whether the
decision was consistent with previous decisions, whether it was
well-reasoned, and whether it will have a significant impact on
future cases.
Case comments can be a valuable tool for understanding the law and
its application. By writing a case comment, you can gain a deeper
understanding of a particular case, and you can also contribute to
the ongoing conversation about the law.
Here are some additional tips for writing a case comment:
 Be clear and concise. Your case comment should be easy to read
and understand.
 Be objective. Your case comment should not be biased or
opinionated.
 Use proper grammar and punctuation. Your case comment should
be well-written and free of errors.
 Cite your sources. When you use information from other sources,
be sure to cite them properly.
 Proofread your work. Before you submit your case comment, be
sure to proofread it carefully for any errors.
Q. Write an Essay on " Should death Penalty be abolished"
The death penalty is a highly controversial topic that has been
debated for centuries. There are many arguments for and against the
death penalty, and it is a complex issue with no easy answers.
Arguments in favor of the death penalty
 Deterrence: Some people believe that the death penalty deters
crime by making criminals think twice before committing serious
offenses. However, there is no clear evidence to support this
claim. In fact, some studies have shown that the death penalty
may actually increase crime rates.
 Retribution: Some people believe that the death penalty is a just
punishment for certain crimes, such as murder. They believe that
it is the only way to ensure that criminals get what they deserve.
 Closure for victims' families: Some people believe that the death
penalty can provide closure for the families of victims. They
believe that it helps them to feel like justice has been served.
Arguments against the death penalty
 Irreversibility: The death penalty is irreversible. If an innocent
person is executed, there is no way to bring them back.
 Discrimination: The death penalty is often used disproportionately
against minorities and the poor.
 Cost: The death penalty is more expensive than life in prison.
 Ineffectiveness: The death penalty does not deter crime any more
effectively than life in prison.
Conclusion
The death penalty is a complex issue with no easy answers. There are
valid arguments on both sides of the debate. Ultimately, it is up to
each individual to decide whether or not they support the death
penalty.
In my opinion, the death penalty should be abolished. I believe that
it is an ineffective, irreversible, and discriminatory form of
punishment. There is no evidence that it deters crime, and it has
been used to execute innocent people. I believe that life in prison is a
more just and effective punishment.
Q Article 370 jammu and kashmir
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution was a provision that granted
special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It was inserted into
the Constitution on 17 October 1949, and it gave the state a number
of powers that were not available to other states in India.
Some of the powers that Article 370 gave to Jammu and Kashmir
included:
 The power to have its own constitution.
 The power to have its own flag.
 The power to have its own laws regarding citizenship, ownership
of property, and fundamental rights.
 The power to restrict the entry of people from other parts of India
into the state.
Article 370 was controversial from the beginning. Some people
believed that it was necessary to give Jammu and Kashmir special
status in order to protect its unique culture and identity. Others
believed that it was discriminatory and that it gave Jammu and
Kashmir too much power.
In August 2019, the Indian government revoked Article 370. This
decision was met with protests in Jammu and Kashmir, and it has led
to a tense situation in the region.
The revocation of Article 370 has had a number of consequences. It
has led to the integration of Jammu and Kashmir into the Indian
Union, and it has made it easier for people from other parts of India
to move to the state. It has also led to the abrogation of Article 35A,
which gave special privileges to the permanent residents of Jammu
and Kashmir.
The long-term impact of the revocation of Article 370 is still unclear.
It is possible that it will lead to greater peace and stability in the
region, or it is possible that it will lead to increased tensions and
conflict. Only time will tell what the ultimate impact will be.
Q Child labour In India

Child labor in India is a serious problem. According to the

International Labour Organization (ILO), there are an estimated 10.1
million child laborers in India, aged 5 to 14 years. This represents
3.9% of the total child population in India.
Child labor is a violation of the fundamental rights of children. It
deprives children of their right to education, their right to play, and
their right to be protected from harm. Child labor can also lead to
physical and psychological problems, as well as social exclusion.
There are a number of factors that contribute to child labor in India.
Poverty is one of the main reasons why children work. Many families
cannot afford to send their children to school, so they are forced to
work to help support the family.
Another factor that contributes to child labor is the lack of access to
education. In some parts of India, there are not enough schools, or
the schools that do exist are not accessible to children who live in
rural areas.
Child labor is also a result of social discrimination. Children from
marginalized groups, such as Dalits and tribals, are more likely to
work than children from other groups.
The Indian government has taken some steps to address the problem
of child labor. In 1986, the government passed the Child Labour
(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, which prohibits the employment of
children below the age of 14 in hazardous occupations and
processes. The government has also set up a number of programs to
provide education and vocational training to child laborers.
However, despite these efforts, child labor remains a serious
problem in India. There are a number of challenges that need to be
addressed in order to effectively address the problem of child labor.
These challenges include:
 Poverty: The government needs to address the problem of poverty
in order to reduce the need for children to work.
 Lack of access to education: The government needs to ensure that
all children have access to quality education.
 Social discrimination: The government needs to take steps to
address social discrimination against marginalized groups.
 Enforcement of laws: The government needs to strengthen
enforcement of laws against child labor.
Child labor is a complex problem with no easy solutions. However, it
is a problem that needs to be addressed. The Indian government and
the international community need to work together to ensure that
all children in India have the opportunity to grow up healthy,
educated, and free from exploitation.
2020

Q. Write a note on the need and importance of legal language

Legal language is a specialized form of language that is used in legal

documents and proceedings. It is characterized by its precision,
clarity, and formality. Legal language is used to communicate legal
concepts and ideas in a way that is unambiguous and
understandable to those who are familiar with the law.
There are a number of reasons why legal language is important. First,
it helps to ensure that legal documents are accurate and reliable.
Second, it helps to ensure that legal proceedings are fair and
impartial. Third, it helps to protect the rights of individuals and
businesses.
Legal language is a complex and ever-evolving field. There are a
number of resources available to help people learn about legal
language, including dictionaries, grammar books, and legal treatises.
Here are some of the need and importance of legal language:
 Precision: Legal language is precise because it is used to define
legal concepts and ideas. This precision is important because it
helps to ensure that legal documents and proceedings are
accurate and reliable.
 Clarity: Legal language is clear because it is written in a way that is
easy to understand. This clarity is important because it helps to
ensure that everyone who is involved in a legal matter
understands their rights and responsibilities.
 Formality: Legal language is formal because it is used in legal
documents and proceedings. This formality is important because it
helps to create a sense of seriousness and respect for the law.
Legal language is a vital tool for lawyers, judges, and other legal
professionals. It is also important for anyone who may be involved in
a legal matter, such as a contract dispute or a criminal case. By
understanding legal language, people can better protect their rights
and interests.
Q. Write an esaay on Role of law in the empowerment of women
The law plays a vital role in the empowerment of women. It can help
to ensure that women have equal rights and opportunities, and that
they are protected from discrimination and violence.
There are a number of ways in which the law can empower women.
For example, the law can:
 Guarantee equal rights: The law can guarantee that women have
equal rights to men in all areas of life, including education,
employment, and property ownership.
 Prohibit discrimination: The law can prohibit discrimination
against women on the basis of their sex, race, caste, religion, or
any other ground.
 Provide for redress of grievances: The law can provide for redress
of grievances for women who have been discriminated against or
violated in their rights.
 Protect from violence: The law can protect women from violence,
including domestic violence, sexual assault, and trafficking.
The law is not a magic wand that can solve all of the problems facing
women. However, it can play a significant role in empowering
women and helping them to achieve equality.
Here are some examples of how the law has been used to empower
women:
 In India, the constitution guarantees equal rights to women. This
has helped to increase women's participation in education and
employment.
 In the United States, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits
discrimination on the basis of sex. This has helped to increase
women's opportunities in the workplace and in other areas of life.
 In South Africa, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission helped
to address the legacy of apartheid, including the violence against
women that was perpetrated during that time.
The law is a powerful tool that can be used to empower women. By
ensuring that women have equal rights and opportunities, and by
protecting them from discrimination and violence, the law can help
to create a more just and equitable society for all.
In addition to the legal framework, there are a number of other
factors that contribute to the empowerment of women. These
include:
 Education: Education is essential for empowering women. It gives
them the knowledge and skills they need to participate in all areas
of life.
 Economic opportunity: Economic opportunity is also essential for
empowering women. It gives them the financial independence
they need to make their own choices and decisions.
 Social support: Social support is also important for empowering
women. It can come from family, friends, community
organizations, and other sources.
By addressing these factors, we can create a society where women
are empowered to reach their full potential.
Q.Write a letter to an editir of newspaper commenting on the
increasing problem of Eve Teasing.
To the Editor,
I am writing to express my concern about the increasing problem of
Eve Teasing in our society. Eve Teasing is a form of sexual harassment
that involves making unwanted sexual advances or comments to a
woman. It can happen in any public place, and it can make women
feel unsafe and uncomfortable.
I am particularly concerned about the recent increase in Eve Teasing
cases in schools and colleges. In a recent survey, it was found that
70% of women have experienced some form of Eve Teasing at school
or college. This is a serious problem that needs to be addressed.
There are a number of reasons why Eve Teasing is a problem. First, it
can make women feel unsafe and uncomfortable. Second, it can lead
to more serious forms of violence, such as sexual assault. Third, it
can create a culture of misogyny and sexism.
There are a number of things that can be done to address the
problem of Eve Teasing. First, we need to educate people about what
constitutes Eve Teasing and why it is wrong. Second, we need to
provide support for victims of Eve Teasing. Third, we need to hold
perpetrators accountable for their actions.
I urge you to use your platform to raise awareness about the
problem of Eve Teasing. We need to work together to create a
society where women feel safe and respected.
Sincerely,
[Your Name]

Q. Public Interest Litigation

Public interest litigation (PIL) is a legal procedure in which a person
or group of people can file a lawsuit on behalf of the public interest.
This means that they can sue on behalf of a group of people who
have been harmed by a law or government action, even if the people
themselves are not able to file a lawsuit.
PIL was first introduced in India in the 1980s by Justice P.N. Bhagwati.
He believed that the courts should play a more active role in
protecting the rights of the poor and disadvantaged. PIL has since
become an important tool for social change in India. It has been used
to challenge a wide range of issues, including environmental
pollution, human rights violations, and corruption.
PIL has several advantages over traditional forms of litigation.
First, it allows people who have been harmed by a law or
government action to seek justice even if they do not have the
resources to hire a lawyer.
Second, it allows the courts to take action on issues that may not
otherwise be addressed, such as environmental pollution or human
rights violations.
Third, it can help to raise awareness of important issues and put
pressure on the government to take action.
However, PIL also has some disadvantages.
First, it can be difficult to ensure that the interests of the public are
truly represented in a PIL case.
Second, PIL can lead to the courts becoming overloaded with cases,
which can make it difficult for them to handle all of their cases
effectively.
Third, PIL can be used to harass or intimidate people who are in
positions of power.
Overall, PIL is a powerful tool that can be used to protect the rights
of the poor and disadvantaged. However, it is important to be aware
of its limitations and to use it carefully.
Here are some examples of successful PIL cases in India:
 In 1984, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the government
was responsible for the Bhopal gas tragedy, in which over 20,000
people were killed and hundreds of thousands were injured. The
court ordered the government to pay compensation to the victims
and to clean up the contaminated area.
 In 1993, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the government
was required to provide free education to all children up to the
 age of 14. This ruling has helped to improve the literacy rate in
India.
 In 2001, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the government
was required to provide free legal aid to the poor. This ruling has
made it easier for the poor to access justice.
PIL has had a significant impact on Indian society. It has helped to
protect the rights of the poor and disadvantaged, and it has helped
to bring about social change.
Q. Write an Essay on Independence of Judiciary
Independence of Judiciary
The independence of the judiciary is a fundamental principle of any
democracy. It means that judges should be free to decide cases
impartially, without fear or favor. This is essential to ensure that
justice is served and that the rights of all citizens are protected.
There are a number of factors that can threaten the independence of
the judiciary. These include:
 Political interference: The judiciary should be free from political
interference. Judges should not be appointed or removed for
political reasons, and they should not be pressured to rule in a
particular way by politicians or other government officials.
 Financial pressure: Judges should be able to carry out their duties
without fear of financial hardship. They should be paid a fair salary
and they should be protected from frivolous lawsuits.
 Public pressure: Judges should be free to make unpopular
decisions without fear of reprisal from the public. They should not
be subjected to threats or intimidation.
The independence of the judiciary is essential to a healthy
democracy. It is important to protect the independence of the
judiciary by ensuring that judges are appointed and removed fairly,
that they are paid a fair salary, and that they are protected from
political, financial, and public pressure.
The Importance of an Independent Judiciary
An independent judiciary is essential for a number of reasons. First, it
helps to ensure that the law is applied fairly and impartially. When
judges are free from outside influence, they are more likely to make
decisions based on the law and the facts of the case, rather than on
personal or political considerations.
Second, an independent judiciary helps to protect the rights of
individuals. When judges are free to rule against the government,
they can help to ensure that the government does not violate the
rights of its citizens. This is particularly important in countries where
there is a history of human rights abuses.
Third, an independent judiciary helps to promote democracy. When
judges are free to make decisions without fear of reprisal, they can
help to ensure that the government is accountable to the people.
This is essential for a healthy democracy.
How to Protect the Independence of the Judiciary
There are a number of things that can be done to protect the
independence of the judiciary. These include:
 Establishing clear rules and procedures for the appointment and
removal of judges: This will help to ensure that judges are
appointed on merit and that they can only be removed for good
cause.
 Providing judges with adequate financial resources: This will help
to ensure that judges are not tempted to take bribes or other
forms of corruption.
 Ensuring that judges are protected from threats and
intimidation: This will help to ensure that judges can make
decisions without fear of reprisal.
By taking these steps, we can help to ensure that the judiciary
remains independent and that justice is served for all.
Q. Write an Essay on "Dowry is a curse for our society".
Dowry is a social evil that has been plaguing Indian society for
centuries. It is a practice in which the bride's family is expected to
give gifts or money to the groom's family at the time of marriage.
The practice of dowry is deeply rooted in patriarchal values and
beliefs. It is seen as a way for the bride's family to compensate the
groom's family for taking on the responsibility of caring for their
daughter.
Dowry has a number of negative consequences for both women and
society as a whole. It can lead to financial hardship for the bride's
family, as they may be forced to take out loans or sell assets in order
to raise the dowry. It can also lead to domestic violence, as the
groom or his family may demand more money or gifts after the
wedding. In some cases, dowry demands have even led to bride
burning and other forms of violence against women.
Dowry is a major obstacle to gender equality in India. It perpetuates
the idea that women are a burden to their families and that they are
not worthy of being treated with respect. It also makes it difficult for
women to get an education or a job, as their families may be
reluctant to invest in them if they are not seen as being valuable.
The government of India has taken a number of steps to curb the
practice of dowry. In 1961, the Dowry Prohibition Act was passed,
which makes it illegal to demand or give dowry. However, the law
has been largely ineffective, as dowry continues to be a widespread
practice.
There are a number of things that can be done to address the
problem of dowry. First, it is important to raise awareness of the
issue and to challenge the social and cultural norms that support it.
Second, the government needs to enforce the Dowry Prohibition Act
more effectively. Third, there needs to be more support for women
who are victims of dowry violence.
Dowry is a serious problem that has a negative impact on women
and society as a whole. It is important to work together to raise
awareness of the issue and to take steps to address it.
Here are some additional thoughts on the dowry system:
 Dowry is a form of gender discrimination. It perpetuates the idea
that women are not equal to men and that they are not worthy of
being treated with respect.
 Dowry can lead to domestic violence. When the groom or his
family is not satisfied with the amount of dowry, they may resort
to violence to get more.
 Dowry can lead to the death of women. In some cases, the bride is
killed if her family is unable to meet the dowry demands.
 Dowry can prevent women from getting an education or a job.
Families may be reluctant to invest in their daughters if they
believe that they will be married off and will not need to work.
The dowry system is a harmful practice that has no place in a
modern society. It is important to work together to raise awareness
of the issue and to take steps to address it.
Q. Write an Essay on "Terrorism"

Terrorism is the use of violence and threats to intimidate or coerce,

especially for political purposes. It is a serious problem that has been
on the rise in recent years. Terrorism can have a devastating impact
on individuals, communities, and societies.
There are many different types of terrorism. Some of the most
common types include:
 Religious terrorism: This type of terrorism is motivated by religious
beliefs. Religious terrorists often believe that they are fighting a
holy war against their enemies.
 Political terrorism: This type of terrorism is motivated by political
goals. Political terrorists often believe that they are using violence
to achieve political change.
 Nationalistic terrorism: This type of terrorism is motivated by
nationalist goals. Nationalist terrorists often believe that they are
using violence to achieve independence for their homeland.
Terrorism can be carried out by individuals or groups. Terrorists often
use violence, such as bombings, shootings, and kidnappings, to
achieve their goals. They may also use threats of violence to
intimidate or coerce their targets.
Terrorism has a number of negative consequences. It can lead to
death, injury, and property damage. It can also create fear and
anxiety in communities. Terrorism can also damage the economy and
disrupt travel and tourism.
There are a number of things that can be done to combat terrorism.
These include:
 Intelligence gathering: Governments need to gather intelligence
on terrorist groups in order to track them down and prevent them
from carrying out attacks.
 Law enforcement: Law enforcement agencies need to be able to
respond to terrorist attacks quickly and effectively.
 Public awareness: It is important to raise public awareness of the
threat of terrorism so that people can take steps to protect
themselves.
 International cooperation: Governments need to cooperate with
each other to share intelligence and resources in order to combat
terrorism.
Terrorism is a complex problem, but it is one that can be solved. By
working together, we can make the world a safer place.
Here are some additional thoughts on terrorism:
 Terrorism is a global problem. It is not limited to any one country
or region.
 Terrorism is a growing problem. The number of terrorist attacks
has been increasing in recent years.
 Terrorism is a threat to everyone. It does not matter who you are
or where you live, you could be a victim of terrorism.
 Terrorism is a challenge to our way of life. It is an attack on our
freedom, our democracy, and our values.
We must all work together to combat terrorism. We must be vigilant
and we must be prepared. We must not let the terrorists win.
Q. Write a letter go the collector of your district against the use of
Microphones/DJ or loudspeakers during your examination days.
To, The Collector, [District Name], [State Name].
Subject: Request to ban the use of Microphones/DJ or loudspeakers
during examination days.
Respected Sir/Madam,
I am writing to you today to request that you ban the use of
Microphones/DJ or loudspeakers during examination days. I am a
student of [Class Name] in [School Name]. The final examinations are
just round the corner. I am preparing very hard day and night.
However, some people in my area are using loudspeakers to play
songs and speeches in high pitch. This is causing a lot of disturbance
to me and other students in my area.
The use of loudspeakers during examination days is a serious
problem. It is a major cause of noise pollution. Noise pollution is
known to cause headache, irritation, and other health problems. It
disturbs the students who are studying for exams.
I understand that the use of loudspeakers is allowed during certain
events and festivals. However, I believe that the use of loudspeakers
should be banned during examination days. The examination days
are a crucial time for students. They need to be able to concentrate
on their studies in order to perform well in the examinations. The
use of loudspeakers creates a lot of disturbance and makes it difficult
for students to concentrate.
I request you to kindly ban the use of Microphones/DJ or
loudspeakers during examination days. This will help the students to
focus on their studies and perform well in the examinations.
Thanking you,
Yours sincerely,
[Your Name] [Your Class] [Your School]

Q. Write an Essay on Uniform Civil Code

Uniform Civil Code
A Uniform Civil Code (UCC) is a single set of laws that governs all
personal matters, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and
adoption, regardless of religion or caste. It is a controversial topic in
India, where different religious groups have their own personal laws.
The idea of a UCC was first proposed by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the
principal architect of the Indian Constitution. He believed that a UCC
was essential for national unity and social justice. He argued that the
existing personal laws were discriminatory and unfair to women and
minorities.
The government of India has been considering the introduction of a
UCC for many years. However, there has been strong opposition from
religious groups, who argue that it would violate their religious
freedom.
In 2019, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the government has a
constitutional obligation to introduce a UCC. However, the
government has not yet taken any concrete steps to implement the
ruling.
There are a number of arguments in favor of a UCC.
 It would promote national unity and social justice.
 It would protect the rights of women and minorities.
 It would simplify the law and make it easier for people to
understand their legal rights.
 It would promote gender equality.
There are also a number of arguments against a UCC.
 It would violate religious freedom.
 It would be difficult to implement and enforce.
 It would not be in line with the Indian tradition of religious
pluralism.
The debate over a UCC is likely to continue for many years to come.
It is a complex issue with no easy answers. However, it is an
important issue that needs to be debated and discussed.
Advantages of Uniform Civil Code
There are a number of advantages to a Uniform Civil Code.
 National unity: A UCC would promote national unity by ensuring
that all citizens are subject to the same laws, regardless of their
religion or caste. This would help to reduce religious tensions and
promote a sense of shared identity among all Indians.
 Gender equality: A UCC would help to promote gender equality by
ensuring that women have the same rights and protections under
the law as men. This would include the right to marry, divorce,
inherit property, and adopt children.
 Simplicity: A UCC would simplify the law by replacing the current
patchwork of religious personal laws with a single set of laws that
would apply to all citizens. This would make the law easier to
understand and follow, and it would also reduce the cost of legal
services.
Disadvantages of Uniform Civil Code
There are also a number of disadvantages to a Uniform Civil Code.
 Religious freedom: Some people argue that a UCC would violate
religious freedom by forcing people to abandon their religious
personal laws. This could lead to resentment and social unrest.
 Implementation: Implementing a UCC would be a complex and
challenging task. It would require a great deal of public education
and consensus-building. It would also be necessary to amend the
Constitution to give the government the power to legislate on
matters of personal law.
 Cost: Implementing a UCC would be expensive. It would require
the government to hire new judges and lawyers, and it would also
require the government to provide legal aid to those who cannot
afford to pay for legal services.
Conclusion
The debate over a Uniform Civil Code is likely to continue for many
years to come. There are strong arguments on both sides of the
issue. Ultimately, it is up to the Indian people to decide whether or
not they want a UCC.
Q. What are precedents in law? How are legal rules created by
precedent? What is the difference between Ratio Decidendi and
Obitur Dictum?
In law, a precedent is a ruling by a court that is binding on other
courts in the same jurisdiction when deciding similar cases.
Precedents are created by the doctrine of stare decisis, which means
"to stand by things decided." Under this doctrine, lower courts are
bound to follow the decisions of higher courts in their jurisdiction.
Legal rules are created by precedent in a number of ways:
1. First, when a court decides a case, it will issue a written
opinion explaining its decision. This opinion will set forth the
facts of the case, the legal issues involved, and the court's
reasoning. Other courts will look to these opinions when
 deciding similar cases. If the facts of the two cases are similar,
the court will be more likely to follow the reasoning of the
earlier case.
2. Second, precedents can be created by statutes. Statutes are
laws passed by legislatures. When a legislature passes a
statute, it is creating a new legal rule. However, statutes are
often vague or ambiguous. In these cases, courts will look to
precedents to help them interpret the meaning of the
statute.
3. Third, precedents can be created by the common law. The
common law is a body of law that has developed over time
through the decisions of courts. The common law is based on
the principle of stare decisis, so lower courts are bound to
follow the decisions of higher courts.
The difference between ratio decidendi and obiter dictum is that
ratio decidendi is the legal reasoning that is necessary to the court's
decision, while obiter dictum is any other legal reasoning that is not
necessary to the court's decision. Ratio decidendi is binding on lower
courts, while obiter dictum is not.
For example, in a case where a court is deciding whether a contract
is valid, the court may rule that the contract is invalid because one of
the parties did not sign it. The court's reasoning in this case would be
that a contract must be signed by all parties in order to be valid. This
reasoning is necessary to the court's decision, so it would be binding
on lower courts.
However, the court may also make other statements in its opinion,
such as that a contract must be in writing in order to be valid. This
reasoning is not necessary to the court's decision, so it would not be
binding on lower courts.
It is important to note that precedents are not always followed.
Courts may choose to overrule precedents if they believe that the
precedent is no longer good law, or if they believe that the precedent
was wrongly decided.
Q. What is Proof reading ? What is the use of Marginal Marks and
their Explanation? Describe.

Proofreading is the final step in the writing process, in which you

carefully examine your work for errors in grammar, spelling,
punctuation, and mechanics. It is also important to proofread for
clarity, coherence, and overall effectiveness.
Marginal marks are a set of symbols that proofreaders use to
indicate changes that need to be made to a piece of text. These
marks can be used to correct errors, improve clarity, or make stylistic
changes.
Here is a list of common proofreading marks and their explanations:
 Insert: A caret (^) is used to indicate that text should be inserted at
the point where the mark appears. The text to be inserted is
written in the margin next to the caret.
 Delete: A line through text indicates that it should be deleted.
 Change: A wavy line through text indicates that it should be
changed to the text written in the margin next to the wavy line.
 Transpose: Two vertical lines (||) written above two words
indicates that the words should be switched places.
 Capitalize: A capital C written above a lowercase letter indicates
that the letter should be capitalized.
 Lowercase: A lowercase c written above an uppercase letter
indicates that the letter should be lowercased.
 Spell out: An abbreviation written in the margin next to the text to
be spelled out indicates that the text should be spelled out in full.
 Set in italics: An Italic I written above a word or phrase indicates
that the word or phrase should be set in italics.
 Set in boldface: An FB written above a word or phrase indicates
that the word or phrase should be set in boldface.
 Set in a different font: A different font name written above a word
or phrase indicates that the word or phrase should be set in a
different font.
 Move left: An arrow pointing left indicates that the text should be
moved to the left.
 Move right: An arrow pointing right indicates that the text should
be moved to the right.
 Move up: An arrow pointing up indicates that the text should be
moved up.
 Move down: An arrow pointing down indicates that the text
should be moved down.
 Center: A centered C written above a line of text indicates that the
line of text should be centered.
 Begin paragraph: A paragraph symbol (¶) written at the beginning
of a line of text indicates that the line of text should start a new
paragraph.
Proofreading marks are an essential tool for any writer who wants to
produce professional-quality work. By learning the meaning of these
marks, you can ensure that your writing is free of errors and that it
communicates your ideas clearly and effectively.
Q. Write down a complaint to SSP for non registering of FIR
To,
The Senior Superintendent of Police, [City Name], [State Name].
Subject: Complaint against non-registration of FIR.
Sir,
I am writing this letter to you to complain about the non-registration
of an FIR by the police at [Police Station Name].
On [Date], I went to the police station to file an FIR against [Name of
Accused] for [Nature of Crime]. However, the police refused to
register the FIR and told me that it was a civil matter.
I am aggrieved by the police's refusal to register the FIR. I believe
that the crime committed by [Name of Accused] is a cognizable
offence and that the police are obligated to register an FIR.
I request you to kindly intervene in this matter and direct the police
to register an FIR against [Name of Accused].
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully, [Your Name] [Your Address] [Your Phone Number]
[Your Email ID]
Here are some additional points that you may want to include in
your complaint:
 The date, time, and place of the crime.
 The names and addresses of any witnesses to the crime.
 Any physical evidence that supports your claim, such as
photographs, videos, or medical reports.
 The specific relief that you are seeking, such as the registration of
an FIR, the arrest of the accused, or the recovery of your property.
It is important to keep a copy of your complaint for your records. You
may also want to consider sending a copy of your complaint to the
local magistrate and the state human rights commission.
Q. Write an Essay on Secularism
Secularism is a concept of governance that promotes the separation
of religion from the state. It is based on the idea that the state
should not favor or promote any particular religion, and that all
citizens should be treated equally, regardless of their religious
beliefs.
Secularism has its roots in the Enlightenment, a period of intellectual
and philosophical thought that began in the 17th century.
Enlightenment thinkers believed that reason and science should be
the basis for government, rather than religion. They argued that
religion should be a private matter, and that the state should not
interfere in religious affairs.
The first secular states were established in the late 18th and early
19th centuries. The United States was founded as a secular state,
and the French Revolution led to the establishment of the secular
French Republic.
Secularism has been a controversial concept throughout its history.
Some people believe that it is a necessary condition for freedom and
democracy, while others believe that it is a threat to religion and
traditional values.
There are many different forms of secularism. Some secular states
are more restrictive than others. For example, some secular states
ban religious symbols from public places, while others allow them.
Some secular states provide funding for religious schools, while
others do not.
The form of secularism that is adopted by a particular state is often
influenced by its history, culture, and religious demographics. For
example, the United States has a strong tradition of religious
freedom, so it has a more tolerant form of secularism than France,
which has a more restrictive form of secularism.
Secularism is not without its challenges. In some cases, it can lead to
a decline in religious participation. It can also be difficult to balance
the need to protect religious freedom with the need to ensure that
all citizens are treated equally.
Despite its challenges, secularism is an important concept for a free
and democratic society. It protects the right of individuals to believe
or not believe in religion, and it ensures that the state does not favor
or promote any particular religion.
Benefits of Secularism
There are many benefits to secularism. Some of the benefits include:
 Freedom of religion: Secularism protects the right of individuals to
believe or not believe in religion. This is important because it
allows people to practice their religion freely, without fear of
persecution.
 Equality: Secularism ensures that all citizens are treated equally,
regardless of their religious beliefs. This is important because it
helps to create a more just and equitable society.
 Tolerance: Secularism promotes tolerance and understanding
between different religious groups. This is important because it
helps to reduce conflict and promote peace.
 Progress: Secularism is often associated with progress and
modernization. This is because secularism can help to create a
more open and tolerant society, which is conducive to innovation
and creativity.
Challenges of Secularism
Secularism is not without its challenges. Some of the challenges
include:
 Decline in religious participation: Secularism can lead to a decline
in religious participation. This is because secularism can make
religion seem less relevant or important.
 Conflict between religious groups: Secularism can sometimes lead
to conflict between religious groups. This is because secularism
can sometimes lead to a lack of understanding and tolerance
between different religious groups.
 Persecution of religious minorities: Secular states can sometimes
persecute religious minorities. This is because secular states can
sometimes be intolerant of religious beliefs that are different from
the majority.
Conclusion
Secularism is a complex and controversial concept. It has both
benefits and challenges. However, secularism is an important
concept for a free and democratic society. It protects the right of
individuals to believe or not believe in religion, and it ensures that
the state does not favor or promote any particular religion.
Q. Write an Essay on Lok pal
Lokpal is an independent and autonomous body that investigates
allegations of corruption against public officials in India. It was
established by the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013. The Lokpal has
jurisdiction over the central government and its agencies, while the
Lokayuktas have jurisdiction over the state governments and their
agencies.
The Lokpal is headed by a Chairperson who is appointed by a
committee consisting of the Prime Minister, the Leader of the
Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the Chief Justice of India. The
Chairperson is assisted by a number of other members, including a
Director-General of Investigation, a Director-General of Prosecution,
and a Secretary.
The Lokpal has the power to investigate allegations of corruption
against public officials, including ministers, MPs, and civil servants. It
can also recommend prosecution of corrupt officials. The Lokpal has
the power to summon witnesses, compel production of documents,
and grant bail to accused persons.
The Lokpal has been criticized for its lack of powers. For example, it
cannot suo motu initiate investigations, and it can only investigate
allegations of corruption that are referred to it by the public. The
Lokpal has also been criticized for its slow pace of work.
Despite its limitations, the Lokpal is an important institution in the
fight against corruption in India. It has the potential to bring to book
corrupt public officials and to restore public trust in the government.
Here are some of the key powers of the Lokpal:
 To investigate allegations of corruption against public officials.
 To recommend prosecution of corrupt officials.
 To summon witnesses and compel production of documents.
 To grant bail to accused persons.
The Lokpal is a powerful tool in the fight against corruption, but it is
important to note that it is not a panacea. Corruption is a complex
problem, and the Lokpal is only one part of the solution. Other
important measures include strengthening the criminal justice
system, improving transparency and accountability in government,
and promoting ethical values in society.
The Lokpal is a new institution, and it is still evolving. It is important
to give it time to develop and to work out its kinks. With time and
support, the Lokpal can play a significant role in making India a more
corruption-free country.
Translation from English to Hindi
It is now universally recognized that the difference between the
fundamental rights and the directive principles lies in the fact that
the fundamental rights are primarily aimed at assuring political
freedom to the citizens by protecting them against excessive state
action, while the directive principles are aimed at securing social and
economic freedoms by appropriate action. The fundamental rights
are indeed intended to foster the ideal of political democracy and
prevent the establishment of authoritarian rule, but they are of no
value unless they can be enforced by resorting to courts, so they are
made justiciable.
अब यह सार्वभौमिक रूप से मान्यता प्राप्त है कि मौलिक
अधिकारों और निर्देश सिद्धांतों के बीच का अंतर इस तथ्य में
निहित है कि मौलिक अधिकार मुख्य रूप से नागरिकों द्वारा
राजनीतिक स्वतंत्रता का आवासन सनश्वा
देने के उद्देय श्यसे हैं
अत्यधिक राज्य कार्रवाई के खिलाफ उनकी रक्षा करना, जबकि
निर्देश सिद्धांतों का उद्देय श्य
उचित कार्रवाई द्वारा सामाजिक
और आर्थिक स्वतंत्रता हासिल करना है. मौलिक अधिकार वास्तव
में राजनीतिक लोकतंत्र के आदर्को बढ़ावा देने और
सत्तावादी शासन की स्थापना को रोकने के लिए हैं, लेकिन उनका
कोई मूल्य नहीं है जब तक कि उन्हें अदालतों का सहारा लेकर
लागू नहीं किया जा सकता है, इसलिए उन्हें उचित बनाया जाता
है.

Q. What is Indian practice of citing documents in written work?

Explain with the help of few Examples
The Indian practice of citing documents in written work is based on
the Harvard referencing system. This system uses author-date
citations, which means that the author's last name and the year of
publication are included in the text, and the full citation is included in
a list of references at the end of the work.
Here are some examples of how to cite documents in written work
using the Harvard referencing system:
 Book:
Author, A. (Year of publication). Title of book. City of publication:
Publisher.
For example:
Gupta, V. (2019). Lokpal: The fight against corruption in India. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Journal article:
Author, A., Author, B., & Author, C. (Year of publication). Title of
article. Journal title, volume number(issue number), pages.
For example:
Singh, R., & Gupta, V. (2018). The role of Lokpal in fighting corruption
in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 53(3), 10-14.
 Website:
Author, A. (Year of publication). Title of website. Retrieved from
[website address].
For example:
Lokpal India. (2023). Retrieved from https://lokpal.gov.in/.
It is important to note that the Harvard referencing system is just one
of many different citation systems that can be used in written work.
The system that you use should be specified by your instructor or
institution.
Here are some tips for citing documents in written work:
 Be consistent. Once you choose a citation system, use it
consistently throughout your work.
 Be accurate. Make sure that all of your citations are accurate and
complete.
 Be up-to-date. If you are citing a source that has been updated,
make sure to include the updated information in your citation.
Citing documents in written work is an important way to give credit
to your sources and to avoid plagiarism. By following these tips, you
can ensure that your citations are accurate, complete, and up-to-
date.
OR
Case Citation in India
A case may be mentioned if it contains all of the necessary features
to provide reliable information about its publication in a Law
Reporting Journal. The items listed below can be used in any order to
indicate a reported case's citation.
(1) Party names - the names of the parties to a case are generally
written in italics. The 'v' between party names is in roman type and
lower case, however for the sake of typing convenience, an italicised
'v' is often considered appropriate. If there are multiple parties on
either side, only mention the first one. The use of '& Ors,' which
means 'and others,' may suggest the omission.
(2) The year is listed after the party names. It's surrounded by round
or square brackets.
(3) Volume number - If the report series title includes a volume
number, it must be given immediately after the year.
(4) Abbreviated name of the report series - most law report series
have a standard abbreviation. This criterion is frequently stated at
the start of each volume in the series.
(5) Page number - indicate the page number in the series of papers
listed where the case starts.
Example on How to Read a Case Citation
A case citation is not very complex to read and understand. It could
easily be understood by following the above mentioned
components. Let us take an example:
Maruti Suzuki Ltd v. CCE (2009) 9 SCC 193
Here, ‘Maruti Suzuki Ltd. V. CCE’ is the Party Name, ‘(2009)’ is the
year, ‘9’ is the volume number, ‘SCC’ is the abbreviation of the Law
Reporter, ‘193’ is the page number on which the case exists in the
9th volume of the SCC 2009 booklet.
OR
A citation is a simple way in academic and scholarly writing
that we use to let the readers know that the information we
have used has been picked up from somewhere else –
In the field of law, it is also known as case citation and is slightly
different from general citations.
Case Citation Explained
In the same way that citations are references to different authors in
scholarly articles and writings, case citation meaning in law is a
method of citation to refer to previous decisions made in the court
of law. When writing a law paper, scholars must insert case citations
wherever necessary to let the reader know which verdict in which
case they were referring to in their writing. These case names in case
 citations are beneficial in understanding decisions of cases for
professionals.

Structure of a Case Citation

Case citations provide the people reading legal documents

with an idea about the case name, date of the case, report,
volume and very importantly, the first page of the case. Let’s
take the example of the Kesavananda Bharati case to make
the structure of a case citation explained.

ase Name

Case name refers to the official name of the case — for

example, Kesavananda Bharati v. The State of Kerala.

Date of The Case

The date refers to the date on which the verdict of the case
was decided. For example, the verdict of the Kesavananda
Bharati case was decided on 24th April 1973.

Report

The report refers to the report series under which the specific
case is filed. When looking at how to find the citation of a case
in India, first we have to look at the reports under which we
file cases in India. The following are the three main reports in
India:
1. SCC - Supreme Court Cases
2. AIR - All India Reporter
3. SCR - Supreme Court Reports
The case citation includes the name of the report in it. In India,
cases can, and are often, cited in multiple report series. For
example, the Kesavananda Bharati case is filed under SCC as
well as AIR. Note that while SCR is the main body of reports,
presently, we use SCC and AIR more commonly.

Volume

Reports come under several different volumes, and the

number of the volume is also mentioned in the citation. This is
except for AIR, which does not follow the volume system. The
Kesavananda Bharati case comes under volume 4 of the SCC.

Page Number

This refers to the page number within the report from where
the case report in the report series begins. It is marked clearly
in the case citation. The Kesavananda Bharati starts from page
number 225 of volume 4 of the SCC; and page number 1461
of the AIR.
Maruti Suzuki Ltd v. CCE (2009) 9 SCC 193
Here, ‘Maruti Suzuki Ltd. V. CCE’ is the Party Name, ‘(2009)’ is the
year, ‘9’ is the volume number, ‘SCC’ is the abbreviation of the Law
Reporter, ‘193’ is the page number on which the case exists in the
9th volume of the SCC 2009 booklet.
Q. Write a letter to the editor of a Newspaper on the topic
"Increasing threat of Terrorism in India"
To the Editor,
I am writing to express my concern about the increasing threat of
terrorism in India. In recent years, there have been a number of high-
profile terrorist attacks in the country, including the 2008 Mumbai
attacks and the 2016 Pathankot attack. These attacks have claimed
the lives of hundreds of innocent people and have caused
widespread fear and anxiety.
The threat of terrorism is not new to India. The country has been
grappling with terrorism for decades. However, the threat has
increased in recent years due to a number of factors, including the
rise of Islamic extremism, the ongoing conflict in Kashmir, and the
porous border with Pakistan.
The government has taken some steps to address the threat of
terrorism, such as strengthening security forces and enacting new
laws. However, more needs to be done to prevent future attacks. The
government needs to work with the international community to
disrupt terrorist networks and to stop the flow of funds to terrorist
groups. It also needs to address the root causes of terrorism, such as
poverty, unemployment, and social inequality.
The people of India deserve to live in peace and security. The
government must do everything in its power to protect its citizens
from the threat of terrorism.
Sincerely, [Your Name]
Q. Write an Essay on "enviromental Laws"
Environmental law is a body of law that regulates human activity in
order to protect the environment. It is a broad and complex field,
covering a wide range of issues, including pollution, conservation,
and sustainable development.
Environmental law has its roots in the early 19th century, when the
first laws were enacted to protect wildlife and natural resources.
However, it was not until the late 20th century that environmental
law became a major force in global society. The publication of Rachel
Carson's Silent Spring in 1962, which documented the harmful
effects of pesticides, helped to raise public awareness of
environmental issues. This, in turn, led to the passage of a number of
landmark environmental laws, including the Clean Air Act of 1970
and the Clean Water Act of 1972.
Since then, environmental law has continued to evolve in response
to new challenges. In recent years, the focus of environmental law
has shifted from pollution control to sustainable development.
Sustainable development is a broad concept that encompasses
economic development, environmental protection, and social justice.
Environmental law seeks to promote sustainable development by
regulating human activity in a way that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Environmental law is a complex and evolving field. It is a vital tool for
protecting the environment and ensuring a sustainable future for our
planet.
Here are some of the key principles of environmental law:
 The polluter pays principle: The polluter should be responsible for
the costs of cleaning up pollution.
 The precautionary principle: When there is a threat of serious or
irreversible environmental harm, lack of full scientific certainty
shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.
 The principle of intergenerational equity: The present generation
should not cause harm to future generations.
 The principle of sustainable development: Development should
meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
Environmental law is enforced by a variety of government agencies,
including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United
States. These agencies have the power to issue permits, conduct
inspections, and impose fines on violators. Individuals and
organizations can also sue polluters in court.
Environmental law is an important tool for protecting the
environment. It has helped to reduce pollution, protect wildlife, and
conserve natural resources. However, there is still much work to be
done. Environmental law must continue to evolve to meet the
challenges of a changing world.
Here are some of the challenges facing environmental law:
 Climate change: Climate change is one of the most pressing
environmental challenges facing the world today. Environmental
law is playing a role in addressing climate change, but more needs
to be done.
 Deforestation: Deforestation is another major environmental
challenge. It is estimated that about 10 million hectares of forest
are lost each year. Environmental law can help to protect forests,
 but more needs to be done to raise awareness of the importance
of forests and to promote sustainable forest management.
 Pollution: Pollution is another major environmental challenge. Air
pollution, water pollution, and land pollution all pose serious
threats to human health and the environment. Environmental law
can help to reduce pollution, but more needs to be done to
enforce existing laws and to develop new regulations.
Despite the challenges, environmental law is a vital tool for
protecting the environment. It has helped to make our planet a
cleaner and healthier place to live. As the world faces new
environmental challenges, environmental law will continue to play an
important role in protecting our planet for future generations.
Q. Write an essay on "Globalisation"
Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and
interdependence between different countries and regions of the
world. It is characterized by the free movement of goods, services,
capital, and people.
Globalization has been a major force in the world for centuries.
However, it has accelerated in recent decades due to advances in
technology, transportation, and communication. These advances
have made it possible for people and businesses to connect with
each other more easily and quickly than ever before.
Globalization has had a profound impact on the world. It has led to
increased economic growth, improved standards of living, and
greater cultural understanding. However, it has also led to some
challenges, such as increased inequality, environmental degradation,
and the spread of disease.
The following are some of the positive effects of globalization:
 Increased economic growth: Globalization has led to increased
economic growth by increasing trade and investment between
countries. This has led to the creation of new jobs, higher wages,
and a wider variety of goods and services.
 Improved standards of living: Globalization has also led to
improved standards of living by increasing the flow of capital and
technology to developing countries. This has helped to improve
education, healthcare, and infrastructure in these countries.
 Greater cultural understanding: Globalization has also led to
greater cultural understanding by increasing the flow of people,
ideas, and information between countries. This has helped to
break down stereotypes and prejudices, and has led to a more
tolerant and understanding world.
The following are some of the negative effects of globalization:
 Increased inequality: Globalization has led to increased inequality
within and between countries. This is because the benefits of
globalization have not been evenly distributed. The wealthy have
benefited the most, while the poor have often been left behind.
 Environmental degradation: Globalization has also led to
environmental degradation by increasing the consumption of
resources and the production of pollution. This is because
globalization has led to increased trade and production, which has
put a strain on the environment.
 Spread of disease: Globalization has also led to the spread of
disease by increasing the movement of people and goods. This is
because diseases can spread more easily when people and goods
are transported over long distances.
Despite the challenges, globalization is a powerful force that is
shaping the world. It is important to understand the positive and
negative effects of globalization so that we can manage it in a way
that benefits everyone.
Here are some of the ways to manage globalization:
 Promote fair trade: Fair trade is a system of trade that aims to
ensure that producers in developing countries receive a fair price
for their goods. This can help to reduce inequality and improve
standards of living in developing countries.
 Protect the environment: Governments can protect the
environment by enacting laws and regulations that limit pollution
and conserve resources. They can also provide incentives for
businesses to adopt environmentally friendly practices.
 Invest in education and healthcare: Governments can invest in
education and healthcare to help people in developing countries
improve their skills and access to basic services. This can help to
reduce inequality and improve standards of living.
 Promote cultural understanding: Governments can promote
cultural understanding by funding educational and cultural
exchange programs. This can help to break down stereotypes and
prejudices, and lead to a more tolerant and understanding world.
Globalization is a complex and evolving process. It is important to
understand the positive and negative effects of globalization so that
we can manage it in a way that benefits everyone.
Q Write a letter to District Magistrate complaining about the Noise
Pollution by Loudspeakers in your locality
To, The District Magistrate, [Your city name], [Your state name].
Subject: Complaint about noise pollution by loudspeakers.
Respected Sir/Madam,
I am writing to you to complain about the noise pollution caused by
loudspeakers in my locality. I am a resident of [Your locality name],
[Your city name], [Your state name].
For the past few months, there has been a constant noise pollution
in my locality due to the use of loudspeakers. The loudspeakers are
used by various religious and political organizations, as well as by
some individuals, for various purposes, such as playing music,
making announcements, and conducting ceremonies.
The noise from the loudspeakers is extremely loud and disturbing. It
is not only a nuisance, but it is also a health hazard. The noise from
the loudspeakers can cause hearing damage, sleep deprivation, and
stress. It can also be a problem for students, who are unable to study
due to the noise.
I have tried to talk to the people who are using the loudspeakers, but
they have been uncooperative. I have also filed a complaint with the
local police, but they have not been able to do anything about it.
I am writing to you in the hope that you will take some action to stop
the noise pollution in my locality. I would be grateful if you could
issue a directive to all religious and political organizations, as well as
to all individuals, to stop using loudspeakers after 10 pm.
I would also be grateful if you could increase the number of
patrolling by the police in my locality so that they can take action
against anyone who is found using loudspeakers after 10 pm.
I hope that you will take my complaint seriously and take some
action to stop the noise pollution in my locality.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely, [Your name] [Your address] [Your phone number]

Q. State the circumstances which weakens the binding force of

Precedents.
There are several circumstances that can weaken the binding force of
precedents. These include:
 Overruling: A precedent can be overruled by a higher court. This
means that the higher court has decided that the precedent is no
longer good law.
 Distinguishing: A precedent can be distinguished by a lower court.
This means that the lower court has found that the facts of the
case before it are different enough from the facts of the precedent
that the precedent does not apply.
 Stare decisis: The doctrine of stare decisis, which means "to stand
by things decided," is the principle that courts should follow
precedents. However, courts are not required to follow
precedents, and they can choose to depart from precedents if
they believe that doing so is justified.
 Change in law: The law can change over time, and this can weaken
the binding force of precedents. For example, if a statute is passed
that changes the law on a particular issue, then precedents that
were decided before the statute was passed may no longer be
good law.
 Public policy: If a precedent is found to be contrary to public
policy, then a court may decline to follow it. Public policy is a set of
principles that are considered to be in the best interests of society.
It is important to note that the binding force of precedents is not
absolute. Courts have discretion to depart from precedents, and they
will do so if they believe that doing so is justified.

Q. Discuss the use and importance of standard marking in proof

reading.
Proofreading marks, also known as proofreading symbols, are a set
of standard abbreviations and symbols used to indicate corrections
to be made in a piece of text. They are used by editors, proofreaders,
and publishers to quickly and accurately identify and correct errors in
grammar, spelling, punctuation, and formatting.
Proofreading marks are important because they can help to ensure
that a piece of text is free of errors. This is important for a number of
reasons. First, errors can make a piece of text difficult to read and
understand. Second, errors can damage the credibility of the author
or publisher. Third, errors can lead to legal problems, such as
copyright infringement.
There are a number of different sets of proofreading marks in use,
but most of them are based on the International System of
Typographic Transcription (IST). The IST is a set of standards for the
transcription of text, including proofreading marks.
Some of the most common proofreading marks include:
 Delete: A line through a word or phrase indicates that it should be
deleted.
 Change: A caret (^) indicates that a letter or word should be
inserted above the marked text.
 Transpose: Two parallel lines above a word or phrase indicate that
the order of the words should be reversed.
 Capitalize: A capital C above a letter indicates that it should be
capitalized.
 Lowercase: A lowercase L above a letter indicates that it should be
lowercased.
 Italics: A wavy line below a word or phrase indicates that it should
be italicized.
 Bold: A double underline below a word or phrase indicates that it
should be bolded.
 Center: An equals sign (=) above a line of text indicates that it
should be centered.
 Justify: A right parenthesis () above a line of text indicates that it
should be justified.
Proofreading marks can be used in a variety of different settings,
including:
 Newspapers: Newspapers often use proofreading marks to correct
errors in articles before they are published.
 Books: Books are also often proofread before they are published.
 Websites: Websites often use proofreading marks to correct errors
in content before it is published.
 Email: Emails can also be proofread using proofreading marks.
Proofreading marks are a valuable tool for ensuring the accuracy and
professionalism of written communication. By learning how to use
proofreading marks, you can help to ensure that your work is free of
errors.
Here are some additional tips for proofreading your work:
 Read your work aloud. This can help you to catch errors that you
might not otherwise notice.
 Use a ruler to line up your text. This can help to improve the
readability of your work.
 Proofread your work multiple times. The first time, focus on the
overall content and structure. The second time, focus on grammar,
spelling, and punctuation. The third time, focus on formatting.
 Ask someone else to proofread your work. This can help you to
catch errors that you might have missed.
 decriminalization of section 377

Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) is a colonial-era law

that criminalized "carnal intercourse against the order of
nature". This law was used to prosecute and imprison people
for same-sex sexual activity.
In 2009, the Delhi High Court struck down Section 377, ruling
that it violated the fundamental rights to equality and privacy.
However, the Supreme Court overturned this decision in 2013.
In 2018, the Supreme Court once again ruled on Section 377,
this time striking it down in its entirety. The Court held that the
law violated the fundamental rights to equality, privacy, and life.
The decriminalization of Section 377 was a landmark decision
that has had a significant impact on the lives of LGBTQ+ people
in India. It has allowed them to live their lives more freely and
openly, without fear of persecution.
However, there is still work to be done. LGBTQ+ people in India
continue to face discrimination in many areas of life, including
employment, housing, and education. The decriminalization of
Section 377 is an important step forward, but it is not the end of
the journey.
Here are some of the benefits of decriminalizing Section 377:
 It allows LGBTQ+ people to live their lives more freely and openly.
 It reduces the stigma and discrimination faced by LGBTQ+ people.
 It promotes equality and human rights.
 It is in line with international human rights law.
Here are some of the challenges that remain:
 LGBTQ+ people still face discrimination in many areas of life,
including employment, housing, and education.
 There is a lack of awareness about LGBTQ+ issues among the
general public.
 There is a need for more research on the impact of decriminalizing
Section 377.
Despite the challenges, the decriminalization of Section 377 is a
significant step forward for LGBTQ+ rights in India. It is a victory
for equality and human rights.

The Gender Recognition Act (GRA)

The Gender Recognition Act (GRA) is a UK law that allows

transgender people to change their legal gender. The Act was
passed in 2004 and has been criticized for being outdated and
discriminatory.
In 2022, the government announced plans to reform the GRA.
The proposed reforms would make it easier for transgender
people to change their legal gender, including by removing the
requirement for a medical diagnosis.
The proposed reforms have been met with mixed reactions.
Some people have welcomed the reforms, arguing that they will
make it easier for transgender people to live their lives
authentically. Others have opposed the reforms, arguing that
they will undermine the importance of biological sex.
The debate on the GRA is likely to continue for some time. It is a
complex issue with no easy answers. However, it is important to
have a debate about the issue so that we can find a way to
ensure that all people, regardless of their gender identity, are
treated with respect and dignity.
Here are some of the arguments for and against reforming the
GRA:
Arguments for reform
 The current GRA is outdated and discriminatory. It requires
transgender people to undergo a medical diagnosis and two years
of living in their acquired gender before they can change their
legal gender. This is a burdensome and unnecessary requirement
that can be traumatic for transgender people.
 The proposed reforms would make it easier for transgender
people to change their legal gender. This would allow them to live
their lives more authentically and would reduce the stigma and
discrimination they face.
 The proposed reforms are in line with international human rights
law. The United Nations Human Rights Committee has called on
the UK to reform the GRA so that it is more inclusive of
transgender people.
Arguments against reform
 The proposed reforms would undermine the importance of
biological sex. Biological sex is a fundamental biological reality that
cannot be changed. The proposed reforms would allow people to
change their legal gender without changing their biological sex.
This could lead to confusion and problems in areas such as
healthcare, sports, and prisons.
 The proposed reforms are not necessary. Transgender people
already have the right to change their legal gender. The current
GRA is simply a procedural requirement that does not prevent
transgender people from living their lives authentically.
Ultimately, the decision of whether or not to reform the GRA is
a complex one. There are strong arguments on both sides of the
debate. It is important to have a full and open discussion about
the issue so that we can make a decision that is in the best
interests of all people.
write a short note on ratio decidendi
Ratio decidendi (Latin for "reason for deciding") is a legal term that
refers to the essential legal reasoning behind a court's decision in a
case. It is the part of the judgment that is necessary to the court's
conclusion and is therefore binding on lower courts when they are
deciding similar cases.
The ratio decidendi is distinguished from obiter dicta, which are
statements made by the court that are not essential to the decision and
are therefore not binding on lower courts.
To determine the ratio decidendi of a case, lawyers and judges use a
number of techniques, including:
 Identifying the material facts: The material facts are the facts that
are relevant to the legal issue in the case. The ratio decidendi will
typically address the material facts and explain how they led to
the court's decision.
 Distinguishing between obiter dicta and ratio decidendi: Obiter
dicta are statements made by the court that are not essential to
the decision. They may be interesting or informative, but they are
not binding on lower courts.
 Considering the weight of authority: The weight of authority is the
number of cases that have reached a similar conclusion. The more
cases that have reached a similar conclusion, the more likely it is
that a lower court will follow that conclusion.
The ratio decidendi is an important concept in the common law system.
It helps to ensure that the law is applied consistently and fairly. It also
helps to prevent lower courts from making decisions that are
inconsistent with the decisions of higher courts.
Here are some additional things to know about ratio decidendi:
 It is not always easy to identify the ratio decidendi of a case.
 The ratio decidendi may change over time as the law evolves.
  The ratio decidendi of a case may be overturned by a higher court.

In academic work more generally, a bibliography is typically used to show

everything you have cited and anything else you have read, even if not cited.
Recent advice from the Law School suggests that academic colleagues only wished
for cited works to appear in the bibliography and not anything else. So, if you have
read a source (book, article etc) , but not cited it in your footnotes, then don't
include it in your bibliography.
Bibliography format for law coursework:
The key points to note are that sources need to be in categories, with primary sources (cases, legislation) listed
first, followed by secondary sources (books, journals, websites) all in alphabetical and then chronological order.
Note that case names appear in plain text and not italics.
Note that authors names are inverted. Surname appears first followed by the initial of the first name and then a
comma, i.e. Choo A, or Natile S,
Electronic versions of cases and journal articles:
Many cases and journal articles can be found in legal databases such as Westlaw, Lexis+ etc. However, it is not
necessary to cite databases as the source. Almost all law reports and journals are available in printed form. The
citation itself is sufficient since it includes the law report or journal in which the case was reported or journal
article was published. There are a few journals where only an electronic version is available, usually the clue is
in the title: The Internet Journal of Criminology. For these titles it is necessary to add the URL in triangular
brackets and the date it was accessed.
Here is a sample bibliography:
Bibliography
Cases
Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593 (HL)
Mastercard Inc v Merricks [2021] Bus LR 25
R v Brockway (Andrew Robert) (2008) 2 Cr App R (S) 4
R v Edwards (John) (1991) 93 Cr App R 48

what circumstances increases the authority of precedent

There are a number of circumstances that can increase the
authority of a precedent. These include:
 The number of judges who decide the case. A
unanimous decision carries more weight than a decision
by a divided court.
  The eminence of the judges who decide the case. A
decision by a well-respected court or by judges who are
considered to be experts in the area of law involved will
carry more weight than a decision by a less prestigious
court or by judges who are not considered to be experts.
 The consistency of the decision with previous
decisions. A decision that is consistent with previous
decisions is more likely to be followed than a decision
that is inconsistent with previous decisions.
 The clarity of the decision. A decision that is clear and
well-reasoned is more likely to be followed than a
decision that is unclear or poorly reasoned.
 The importance of the issue involved. A decision on an
important issue is more likely to be followed than a
decision on a less important issue.
It is important to note that these are just some of the factors
that can increase the authority of a precedent. The weight
given to a precedent will ultimately depend on the specific
circumstances of the case.
Here are some additional things to keep in mind about
precedent:
 Precedent is not binding on all courts. Lower courts are
bound by the decisions of higher courts, but higher
courts are not bound by the decisions of lower courts.
 Precedent can be overturned. A court can overrule a
precedent if it finds that the precedent is no longer good
law.
 Precedent can be distinguished. A court can distinguish
a precedent if the facts of the case before it are different
from the facts of the case that established the
precedent.
Precedent is an important source of law, but it is not the only
source of law. Judges are free to decide cases based on
their own judgment, even if there is a precedent that would
support a different outcome.