FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

CAWANGAN PAHANG KAMPUS JENGKA

LAB REPORT PHY 636: EXPERIMENT 8
(TRANSISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY OF
METAL)
LECTURER: TS. DR. WAN AIZUDDIN W
RAZALI
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 29/11/2023
NAME STUDENT ID
NUR SYAZERA BINTI SELAMAT 2021494238
SITI AISYAH BINTI ADENAN 2021494706
WAN AHMAD AFIQ BIN WAN HUZAIRUL AZRIL 2021486084
Title: Resistivity and Conductivity of Metal

Objective: 1. To understand how the conductivity and resistivity of various metals are affected
by variations in temperature, contaminants, or sample dimensions

2.To evaluate the effect of impurities on a certain metal's resistivity or to find the link between
temperature and electrical conductivity in a particular metal alloy.

Theory:
Electrical resistivity and conductivity are an important property for materials. Different
materials have different conductivity and resistivity. Electrical conductivity is based on
electrical transport properties. These can be measured with multiple techniques by using a
variety of instruments. If electricity easily flows through a material, that material has high
conductivity. Some materials that have high conductivity include copper and nichrome.
Electrical conductivity is the measure of how easily electricity flows through a material.

The ability of a substance to conduct heat is measured by its thermal conductivity, which is
calculated by dividing the rate at which heat flows through a given area of the substance by the
area and subtracting the component of the temperature gradient that flows in that direction:
expressed in Kelvin-meter watts per meter To represent the thermal conductivity, use the
symbol K.The Fourier Law of place wall thermal conductivity states that the constant of
proportionality K is a transport feature of the wall material that is also referred to as thermal
conductivity (W/mk). It gave a clue as to how quickly energy diffuses through the environment.
It is dependent upon the atomic and molecular physical structure of matter, which is connected
to the state of matter. Heat is transmitted in the direction of decreasing temperature, which
results in the minus sign.
Resistance (R) is the opposition a material offers to the flow of electric current. It is measured
in ohms (Ω). Resistivity (ρ) is an intrinsic property of a material and is a measure of how
strongly it resists the flow of electric current. It is measured in ohmmeters (Ω· m).

The relationship between resistance, resistivity, and the dimension of a conductor is given by
the formula:

where R is resistance, ρ is resistivity, L is the length of the conductor, and A is the cross-
sectional area.

Conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of resistivity (σ = 1/ρ) and measures how easily a material
allows the flow of electric current. High conductivity corresponds to low resistivity.
Conductance (G) is the ease with which current flows and is the reciprocal of resistance (G =
1/R).

The resistivity of metals generally increases with temperature. This can be explained by an
increase in lattice vibrations and collisions that impede the flow of electrons. However,
superconductors are a special class of materials that exhibit zero resistivity at extremely low
temperatures.

The theory of resistivity and conductivity in metals is based on the behaviour of electrons
within the metal lattice. Metals are characterized by having a high density of free electrons that
are not bound to specific atoms and are able to move freely throughout the material. This
electron mobility is what gives metals their excellent conductivity.
Procedure:
1. Two wires with different diameter were selected, which is nichrome and copper wire.
2. The diameter of each of the wires were measured using a screw gauge.
3. On the resistivity apparatus, nichrome and copper wire were placed into position.

Zero error of micrometre screw gauge diameter of wire measured by screw

gauge.
Part 1
1. The wire from rheostat was connected to the nichrome wire.
2. Power supply was switched on.
3. The rheostat was adjusted, and the value was obtained by using a multimeter.
4. Value of current and voltage were recorded in a table.
5. Five readings were recorded, and the resistance and conductivity were calculated.
6. Same steps were repeated for copper wire and the result was recorded in a table.

Apparatus setup for Part 1

Part 2
1. The wires from rheostat were connected to nichrome wire.
2. Power supply was switched on.
3. The rheostat was fixed to a position.
4. The length of the nichrome wire was measured, and the value was obtained by using a
multimeter.
5. Value and current and voltage were recorded in a table.
6. Five readings were recorded, and the resistance and conductivity were calculated.
7. The same steps were repeated for copper wire and the result was recorded in a table.

Apparatus setup for Part 2

Result & Analysis:

Part 1 (Nichrome)

I (A) V (V) ∆m c

0.35 0.62 1.765224052 -0.003744925

0.54 0.95 0.006003785 0.005900167

0.76 1.33 0.999965298 0.006135622

1.04 1.83
86446.88416 3.000000000

1.66 2.93
3.254367062 0.000112938

Part I (Copper)

I (A) V (V) ∆m c

0.38 0.00 0.02991894 -0.010454534

1.01 0.02 0.000534302 0.001483413

2.03 0.05 0.999044157 0.001878896

3.27 0.09 3135.589399 3.000000000

4.75 0.13 0.011069409 1.05907E-05

Part II (Nichrome)

I (A) V (V) ∆m c

0.94 0.38 -0.444041084 0.7939915

0.65 0.5 0.009617508 0.005868729

0.52 0.56 0.998594635 0.004570897

0.42 0.61 2131.676084 3.000000000

0.33 0.65 0.044537321 6.26793E-05

Part II (Copper)

I (A) V (V) ∆m c

2.05 0.02 -0.224279835 0.481213992

2.03 0.03 0.032641986 0.065104031

2.00 0.03 0.940250079 0.003218175

1.96 0.04 47.20927152 3.000000000

1.93 0.05 0.00048893 3.10700E-05

Calculation

Calculation for part 1

Nichrome Tittle Copper

𝑉̅ Voltage 𝑉̅
(0.62 + 0.95 + 1.33 + 1.83 + 2.93) (0.00 + 0.02 + 0.05 + 0.09 + 0.13)
= =
5 5
= 0.058 V
= 1.532 V

(𝛴𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉̅ )2
𝜎=√
𝑁−1
(𝛴𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉̅ )2
𝜎=√ (0.00 − 0.058)2
𝑁−1 = √
5−1
(0.62 − 1.535)2 = 0.029
= √ ̅
∴ 𝑉 = 0.058 ± 0.029 𝑉
5−1

= 0.456 V
∴ 𝑉̅ = 1.532 ± 0.456 𝑉

𝐼̅ Current 𝐼̅
(0.35 + 0.54 + 0.76 + 1.04 + 1.06 ) (0.38 + 1.01 + 2.03 + 3.27 + 4.75 )
= =
5 5
= 2.29 A
= 0.87 A
(𝛴𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼 )̅ 2
𝜎=√
𝑁−1
 (𝛴𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼 )̅ 2 (0.38 − 2.29)2
𝜎=√ = √
𝑁−1 5−1
= 0.955 A
(0.35 − 0.87)2 ̅
∴ 𝐼 = 2.29 ± 0.955 𝐴
= √
5−1

= 0.26 A
∴ 𝐼 ̅ = 0.87 ± 0.26 𝐴
∆𝑉 Resistance ∆𝑉
𝑅= 𝑅=
∆𝐼 ∆𝐼
0.058
1.532 =
= 2.29
0.87 = 0.025 Ω
= 1.761 Ω
0.01
0.01 0.01 ∆𝑅 = [( )
∆𝑅 = [( )+( )] [1.761] 0.058
1.532 0.87 0.01
+( )] [0.025]
2.29
= 31.7 × 10−3 = 4.42 × 10−3
∴ 𝑅 = 1.761 ± 31.7 × 10−3 Ω ∴ 𝑅 = 0.025 ± 4.42 × 10−3 Ω

𝑙 Conductivity
‫=ס‬ 𝐴𝑅 𝑙
‫𝑅𝐴 =ס‬
0.315 0.315
= =
(4.91 × 10−4 )(1.761) (4.91 × 10−4 )(0.025)
= 364.31 Ω−1 𝑚−1 = 25.66× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1

1 Resistivity 1
𝜌= 𝜌=
‫ס‬ ‫ס‬
1
1 =
= 25.66 × 103
364.31 = 3.90 × 10−5 Ωm
= 2.75 × 10−3 Ωm
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 Percentage 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
|𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦| Error |𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦|
= =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
× 100% × 100%
| 25.66 × 103 − 5.8 × 107 |
| 364.31 − 1.1 × 106 | =
= 5.8 × 107
1.1 × 106 = 9.99 %
= 87.97 %
Part 2:

Nichrome Tittle Copper

Average voltage: Voltage 𝑉̅
𝑉̅ (0.02 + 0.03 + 0.03 + 0.04 + 0.05)
(0.38 + 0.50 + 0.56 + 0.61 + 0.65) =
= 5
5 = 0.034 V
= 0.54 V
(𝛴𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉̅ )2
(𝛴𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉̅ )2 𝜎=√
𝜎=√ 𝑁−1
𝑁−1
(0.02 − 0.034)2
(0.38 − 0.54)2 = √
= √ 5−1
5−1 = 0.007
= 0.08 ̅
∴ 𝑉 = 0.034 ± 0.007 𝑉
∴ 𝑉̅ = 0.54 ± 0.08 𝑉
𝐼̅ Current 𝐼̅
(0.94 + 0.65 + 0.52 + 0.42 + 0.33 ) (2.05 + 2.03 + 2.00 + 1.96 + 1.93 )
= =
5 5
= 0.572 A = 1.99 A
(𝛴𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼 )̅ 2 (𝛴𝐼𝑖 − 𝐼 )̅ 2
𝜎=√ 𝜎=√
𝑁−1 𝑁−1

(0.94 − 0.572)2 (2.05 − 1.99)2

= √ = √
5−1 5−1
= 0.184 A = 0.03 A
̅
∴ 𝐼 = 0.572 ± 0.184 𝐴 ̅
∴ 𝐼 = 1.99 ± 0.03 𝐴
∆𝑉 Resistance ∆𝑉
𝑅= 𝑅=
∆𝐼 ∆𝐼
0.54 0.034
= =
0.572 1.99
= 0.944 Ω = 0.017 Ω

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

∆𝑅 = [( )+( )] [0.944] ∆𝑅 = [( )+( )] [0.017]
0.034 1.99 0.034 1.99
= 0.282 = 5.09 × 10−3
∴ 𝑅 = 0.944 ± 0.282 Ω ∴ 𝑅 = 0.017 ± 5.09 × 10−3 Ω

Conductivity
𝑙 𝑙
‫𝑅𝐴 =ס‬ ‫𝑅𝐴 =ס‬
0.315 0.315
= =
(4.91 × 10−4 )(0.944) (4.91 × 10−4 )(0.017)
= 37.7 × 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1 = 37.7× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1

1 Resistivity 1
𝜌= 𝜌=
‫ס‬ ‫ס‬
 1 1
= =
37.7 × 103 37.7 × 103
= 2.65 × 10−5 Ωm = 2.65 × 10−5 Ωm
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 Percentage 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
|𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦| Error |𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦|
= = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
× 100% | 37.7 × 103 − 5.8 × 107 |
| 37.7 × 103 − 1.1 × 106 | =
5.8 × 107
= = 9.99 %
5.8 × 106
= 96.6 %

Discussion
We measured the voltage and current of copper and nichrome in this experiment. Next, a
voltage vs current graph was drawn. Excel might be used to determine the resistance and its
uncertainty as well as the intercept and its uncertainty. Since 𝑅 = 𝑉 𝐼, the resistance was
computed using the graph's gradient. Every metal's and method's graph displays a linear trend
that increases voltage as current is increased. Thus, by recording the current-voltage
characteristic line, the electrical conductivity of copper and nickel was ascertained from the
measured and computed value. This was because the area could be computed using the formula
A = 𝜋r 2, for which the radius of the rods and wires was also determined, and the conductivity
formula, 𝜎 = 𝑙 𝐴𝑅, provided the length for each metal rod and wire that we utilised. Therefore,
the conductivity formula may be used to determine the conductivity of the copper and nichrome
that was measured using both the conventional and current methods. The results section
displayed the computation. We were able to determine the electrical conductivity of the metals
utilised in this experiment by calculating each resistance of our data from the graph's gradient.
From the calculation, it was shown that the conductivity of copper and nichrome measured
were 364.31 Ω−1 𝑚−1and 25.66× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1.For the second experiment, it proved that the
measured conductivities of copper and nichrome were 37.7 × 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1and =
37.7× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1 for nichrome . Therefore, it is accurate to say that we were able to ascertain
the electrical conductivity of nickel and copper by looking at the current-voltage characteristics
line that was recorded. The formula | 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 | × 100 %. We
were able to determine the comparison between the experimental value obtained from the
experiment and the theoretical value by applying this formula. Using the contemporary
approach, the percentage differences for copper and nichrome measured at the side were 100%.
This indicates that there were unnoticed flaws in our experiment. As shown in the calculation
in result section, the percentage difference of nichrome was recorded as 9.99 %. Meanwhile
the percentage difference of copper equals 87.97 %. For the second experiment, the percentage
error that we get for copper equals to 96.6% and for nichrome was 9.99%.
Precaution and error:

Errors Precautions

System Errors Exact measurements of the sample's length and cross-sectional area are
necessary for the computation of resistivity and conductivity to be accurate.
The final findings may be inaccurate due to measurement mistakes in these
parameters.

Parallax Errors When reading a measuring apparatus such as a meter ruler, parallax errors
can be minimized by viewing the reading at eye-level and at the meniscus.

The voltmeter, ammeter, and conductivity meter are examples of measuring

Measurement devices with restrictions and imperfections that are the source of these
Errors mistakes. Instrumental mistakes can be reduced by calibrating and
inspecting the instruments on a regular basis.

Temperature Temperature may affect electrical conductivity and resistance. Errors may
errors arise from temperature differences if the experiment is not carried out under
controlled conditions. Temperature variations have an impact on atomic
vibrations, which in turn impacts the mobility of charge carriers inside the
metal.

Important Of Knowledge

There appears to be some terminology misunderstanding. The term "transitivity" is not

commonly used to describe a characteristic in the field of materials science or metal behaviour.
It is possible that you intended to say, "electrical resistivity." Allow me to explain electrical
resistivity and conductivity in a paragraph. One essential property of metals that results from
the special arrangement of atoms inside their crystalline formations is their electrical
conductivity. In metals, electrons create a sea of delocalized electrons that are free to travel
throughout the material instead of being firmly bonded to atoms. The remarkable electrical
conductivity of metals is explained by this unrestricted flow of electrons. Conversely, electrical
resistivity, which is commonly represented by its inverse, resistivity, quantifies the degree to
which a substance resists the passage of electrical current. In metals, high conductivity is
correlated with low resistivity because delocalized electrons have less resistance when they
move across the metal lattice. To comprehend and engineer the electrical characteristics of
metals, which impact their applicability in many technological domains, it is imperative to
consider the interplay between electrical conductivity and resistivity.
Conclusion

To sum up, we determine the resistance and its uncertainty as well as the intercept and its
uncertainty. Since 𝑅 = 𝑉 𝐼, the resistance was computed using the graph's gradient. Every
metal's and method's graph displays a linear trend that increases voltage as current is increased.
The conductivity formula, 𝜎 = 𝑙 𝐴𝑅, provided the length for each metal rod and wire that we
utilised. From the calculation, it was shown that the conductivity of copper and nichrome
measured were 364.31 Ω−1 𝑚−1and 25.66× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1.For the second experiment, it proved
that the measured conductivities of copper and nichrome were 37.7 × 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1and
=37.7× 103 Ω−1 𝑚−1 for nichrome. Using the contemporary approach, the percentage
differences for copper and nichrome measured at the side were 100%. This indicates that there
were unnoticed flaws in our experiment. As shown in the calculation in result section, the
percentage difference of nichrome was recorded as 9.99 %. Meanwhile the percentage
difference of copper equals 87.97 %. For the second experiment, the percentage error that we
get for copper equals to 96.6% and for nichrome was 9.99%.

References

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3.Ford, M., & Christman, A. (2023, August 28). 5.13a: Electrical conductivity and
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https://unacademy.com/content/nda/study-material/physics/paintings-in-the-deccan/