FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

CAWANGAN PAHANG KAMPUS JENGKA

LAB REPORT PHY 636: EXPERIMENT 7
(Measuring Velocity of Light)
LECTURER: TS. DR. WAN AIZUDDIN W
RAZALI
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 22/11/2023
NAME STUDENT ID
NUR SYAZERA BINTI SELAMAT 2021494238
SITI AISYAH BINTI ADENAN 2021494706
WAN AHMAD AFIQ BIN WAN HUZAIRUL AZRIL 2021486084
Title: Measuring Velocity of Light

Objective:

To determine the velocity of light in air.

To determine the velocity of light in water and synthetic resin and to calculate the refractive
indices.

Theory:
The electromagnetic theory developed by Maxwell provides the foundation for the theory of
measuring the speed of light. It postulated the existence of electromagnetic waves traveling in
a vacuum at a constant speed, or "c." The fundamentals of optics go into additional detail about
how light behaves in various media, with a medium's refractive index dictating how quickly
light moves through it. According to Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, regardless of
an observer's motion, the speed of light is always the same. These hypotheses were reinforced
by experimental evidence, which disproved the idea of a luminiferous ether. One such
experiment is the well-known Michelson-Morley experiment. Resonance techniques, time-of-
flight measurements, laser interferometry, and other advanced methods based on the
fundamentals of optics and electromagnetism are used to estimate the speed of light in modern
times. All these theories combined offer a thorough framework for comprehending and
calculating the basic constant, which is the speed of light. The index of refraction value,
denoted by the symbol n, indicates the optical density of a substance. Nothing can travel faster
than the speed of light, according to Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, which holds
that the speed of light remains constant for all observers. Constant "c" can be used to determine
the speed of light globally. To be more exact, its value is 299,792.458 metres per second, and
it is recognised as a fundamental physical quantity having a constant quantity. However, the
kind of medium that light travels in affects how quickly light travels. The following formula
𝑐
can be used to express a material's index of refraction value: 𝑛 = 𝑣 . where v represents the
speed of light in materials and c represents the speed of light in air. The value of 𝑛 should be
equal to or greater than 1 since it is a commonly accepted fact that the speed of light will, at its
maximum, be equal to 𝑐 (only in vacuum) and continuously less than 𝑐. Therefore, 𝑛 > 1.
Refractive index and optical density are directly correlated, but light speed and refractive index
are inversely correlated. A substance is referred to as optically denser when its refractive index
is higher than that of the other. A material's optical density will decrease over time, resulting
in a slower wave velocity across it.
Apparatus:

1. Speed of Light Meter

2. 1 digital oscilloscope 25MHZ,2 channels

3. 2 Screen cable, BNC,1-750mm

Procedure:

Part1: Velocity of light

1. The diagram in Figure 1 served as the guide for setting up the experimental light
velocity.
2. After setting the speed of light metre to mode Δφ, the "Calibration" button was pressed.
3. On the oscilloscope, the phase displacement emission between the two coinciding
signals was captured.
4. The mirror was moved in 10 distinct displacements, denoted by Δx, along the graded
scale.
5. Ten distinct displacements, Δ𝑥, were used to record the time differences, Δt, on the
speed of light metre.
∆𝑡
6. Formula was used to compute the speed of light which is ∆𝑠 and the distance,∆𝑠 was
determined by 2. Δx.

Part2: Velocity of light in water

1. The schematic in Figure 1 from part I was followed while setting up the experimental
light velocity.
2. The tube filled with water was positioned behind the mirror and up against the laser
beam.
3. After setting the speed of light metre to mode Δφ, the "Calibration" button was pressed.
4. On the oscilloscope, the phase displacement emission between the two coinciding
signals was seen.
5. The graduated scale was taken out of the water-filled tube. After then, the mirror was
moved along the graduated scale until the oscilloscope displayed two signals that
coincided once more.
6. Step 5 was carried out five times, Δ𝑥, using distinct displacements.
7. By comparing the light's velocity in air, 𝑐𝑎 , with the light's velocity in water, V
Part III: The Velocity of light in acrylic glass

1. The schematic in Figure 1 from part I was followed while setting up the experimental
light velocity.
2. The rod of acrylic glass was positioned behind the mirror and up against the laser beam.
3. After setting the speed of light metre to mode Δφ, the "Calibration" button was pressed.
4. On the oscilloscope, the phase displacement emission between the two coinciding
signals was seen.
 5. The graduated scale was taken out of the water-filled tube. After then, the mirror was
moved along the graduated scale until the oscilloscope displayed two signals that
coincided once more.
6. Step 5 was carried out five times, Δ𝑥, using distinct displacements.
7. By comparing the light's velocity in air, 𝑐𝑎 , with the light's velocity in water, V

Result and Analysis:

Part 1: The velocity of light in air

Displacement, ∆x Distance, ∆s Time difference, ∆t Velocity, c

(±0.01) m (±0.01) m (±0.01) ns (±0.01) m/s ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟖

1.00 2.00 6.90 2.90

1.10 2.20 7.60 2.90
1.20 2.40 8.40 2.86
1.30 2.60 9.10 2.86
1.35 2.70 9.50 2.84
1.40 2.80 9.80 2.86
1.45 2.90 10.10 2.87
1.50 3.00 10.50 2.86
1.55 3.10 10.80 2.87
1.60 3.20 11.20 2.86

Calculation:

Mean value of the velocity of light in air, 𝒄𝒂

(2.90+2.90+2.86+2.86+2.84+2.86+2.87+2.86+2.87+2.86)
𝑐𝑎 =
̅̅̅ 10
28.68
= 10

= 2.87 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

2
𝑖
σ=

(2.90−2.87)2
= √
10−1
 = 0.01 𝑚/𝑠

∆𝑐𝑎 = 0.01 𝑚/𝑠

𝑐𝑎 = 2.87 × 108 ± 0.01 𝑚/𝑠

∴ ̅̅̅

Percentage error of velocity of light in air

| 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

| 2.87×108−2.99 ×108 |
= × 100%
2.99×108

= 4.01 %
Part 2: The velocity of light in water

Initial distance, 𝒙𝒊 Final distance, 𝒙𝒇 Time difference, ∆ t Displacement,∆x

(±0.01) m (±0.01) m (±0.01) ns (±0.02) m

0.60 0.74 19.90 0.14

0.70 0.83 19.00 0.13
0.80 0.91 19.30 0.11
0.90 1.08 18.80 0.18
1.00 1.28 18.40 0.28
1.10 1.40 18.00 0.30

Calculation:

Mean value of displacement, ∆x

̅̅̅̅ = (0.14+0.13+0.11+0.18+0.28+0.30)
∆𝑥 6
1.14
= 6

= 0.19 𝑚

2
𝑖
σ=

(0.14−0.19)2
= √
6−1

= 0.02 m
̅̅̅̅ = 0.19 ± 0.02 𝑚
∴ ∆𝑥

Refractive index of water, 𝒏𝒘

∆x = 0.19 ± 0.02 m

Length of water column, 𝑙𝑤 = 0.50 ± 0.01 𝑚

∆𝑥 + 𝑙𝑤
𝑛𝑤 =
𝑙𝑤

∆𝑥 + 𝑙𝑤 = ( 0.19 + 0.50 ) ± (0.02 + 0.01 )

= 0.69 ± 0.03 𝑚
 ∆𝑥+ 𝑙𝑤 0.69
𝑛𝑤 = 𝑙𝑤
= 0.50
= 1.38

( ) ( 𝑤)
( )( )( )
Δ𝑥 +𝑙 Δ Δ𝑥 +𝑙 Δ 𝑙 Δ𝑥 +𝑙
𝑤 𝑤
Δ 𝑤 = Δ𝑥 +𝑙 + 𝑙 𝑙
𝑙𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤

0.03 0.01
= ( 0.69 + 0.50 ) (1.38)

= 0.09
∴ 𝑛𝑤 = 1.38 ± 0.09

Percentage error of refractive index water

| 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

| 1.38−1.33 |
= × 100%
1.33

= 3.76 %
The velocity of light in water, 𝒄𝒘

𝑐𝑎 2.87 × 108
𝑐𝑤 = = = 2.08 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛𝑤 1.38

Percentage error of velocity of light in water

| 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

| 2.08×108−2.23×108 |
= 2.23×108
× 100%

= 6.73 %
Part 3: The velocity of light in acrylic glass

Initial distance, 𝒙𝒊 Final distance, 𝒙𝒇 Time difference, ∆ t Displacement,∆x

(±0.01) m (±0.01) m (±0.01) ns (±0.02) m

0.60 0.85 18.20 0.25

0.70 0.96 18.20 0.26
0.80 1.05 18.20 0.25
0.90 1.16 18.20 0.26
1.00 1.25 18.20 0.25
1.10 1.36 18.20 0.26

Calculation:

Mean value of displacement, ∆x

̅̅̅̅ = (0.25+0.26+0.25+0.26+0.25+0.26)
∆𝑥 6
1.53
= 6

= 0.26 𝑚

2
𝑖
σ=

(0.25−0.26)2
= √
6−1

= 0.05 m
̅̅̅̅ = 0.26 ± 0.05 𝑚
∴ ∆𝑥

Refractive index of acrylic glass, 𝒏𝒈

∆x = 0.26 ± 0.05 m

Length of acrylic glass cylinder, 𝑙𝑔 = 0.49 ± 0.01 𝑚

∆𝑥 + 𝑙𝑔
𝑛𝑔 =
𝑙𝑔

∆𝑥 + 𝑙𝑔 = ( 0.26 + 0.49 ) ± (0.05 + 0.01 )𝑚

= 0.75 ± 0.06 𝑚
 ∆𝑥+ 𝑙𝑔 0.75
𝑛𝑔 = = = 1.53
𝑙𝑔 0.49

( ) ( 𝑔)
( )( )( )
Δ𝑥 +𝑙 Δ Δ𝑥 +𝑙 Δ 𝑙 Δ𝑥 +𝑙
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
Δ 𝑙𝑔
= Δ𝑥 +𝑙 + 𝑙 𝑙
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

0.06 0.01
= ( 0.75 + 0.49 ) (1.53)

= 0.15
∴ 𝑛𝑔 = 1.53 ± 0.15

Percentage error of refractive index acrylic glass

| 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

| 1.53−1.49 |
= 1.49
× 100%

= 2.69 %
The velocity of light in acrylic glass, 𝒄𝒈

𝑐𝑎 2.87 × 108
𝑐𝑔 = = = 1.88 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛𝑔 1.53

Percentage error of velocity of light in acrylic glass

| 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 |
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

| 1.88×108−2.01×108 |
= × 100%
2.01×108

= 6.47%
Discussion
The experiment's first phase involves measuring the velocity of light in air, or V_A. The light
meter's speed a, which is linked to the digital oscilloscope, is configured. Using the formula
∆𝑠
𝑐 = ∆𝑡, according to the time difference, with different distances, s obtained the speed of light
at each distance is determined. The average velocity of light in air, 𝑐 has been calculated and
the value obtained is 𝑎 2.87 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −2 . The theoretical value of velocity of light in air, is m/s
which results in 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −2 the velocity of light in air, Since the percentage error achieved
by comparing the theoretical and experimental values is 4.01 percent, the value of 𝑐 obtained
experimentally is still within the range.

In the meantime, the experimental determination of the light's velocity in water, v, takes place
in part II of the experiment. The displacements, ∆𝑥, that are acquired come from the
discrepancy between the mirror's starting distance, 𝑥, and ultimate distance, 𝑖. After calculating
the average value of the displacements and letting 𝑓 ∆𝑥, the value that was obtained is 0.19 ±
0.02 m. The refractive index of water is −1.33 determined using the formula 𝑛, resulting in the
∆𝑥+𝑙
value of the refractive index of water, is 𝑛𝑤 = 𝑙 𝑤 resulting in the value of the refractive
𝑤
index of water which is 0.69 ± 0.03 𝑚. The empirically determined refractive index of water,
𝑛, is still within the range of the theoretical value, with a percentage error of 3.76 % when
comparing the two values. The theoretical value of 𝑛 is 1.33 indices of water. Regarding the
𝑐
light's velocity in water, 𝑐w, the result is 2.08 × 108 m/s using the equation of 𝑐𝑤 = 𝑛𝑎 . When
𝑤
comparing the experimental and theoretical values of light velocity in air, v, where m/s is the
theoretical value, the obtained c = 2. 23 × 10 8 experimental values of v are still within range
since the percentage error acquired is v in a modest value, 6. 73%.

Proceeding to the third section of the research, the experimental determination of the light's
velocity in acrylic glass is 𝑐. The displacements, ∆𝑥, were derived from the mirror distance
difference, or the difference between the beginning and end distances, 𝑥. After calculating the
average value of 𝑖 𝑥 𝑓 the displacements, ∆𝑥, the value obtained is 0.26 ± 0.05 𝑚. The
refractive index of acrylic glass, 𝑛 is determined from the equation of that resulting of 𝑛𝑔 =
∆𝑥+𝑙𝑔
in the value of the refractive index of acrylic glass, 𝑛 is. The comparison between the 𝑔
𝑙𝑔
0.75 ± 0.06 𝑚 The refractive index of glass has a theoretical value of 𝑛, which is equal to the
experimental value of 𝑔 1. 49 The experimental value is still in anger and has a good accuracy
due to the tiny value and the percentage error obtained of 2.69 %. On the other hand, the value
of the light velocity in acrylic glass, V, as determined by the V formula, is m/s. The contrast
𝑐
between the velocity of the theoretical value of 𝑐𝑔 = 𝑐𝑎 1.88 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 lights in acrylic glass,
𝑔
𝑐 which is m/s, and the experimental value is determined. The 𝑔 2. 01 × 10 8 percentage error
gained from the comparison between the theoretical value and experimental value of the
velocity of light in acrylic glass, 𝑐 is that is in a small value making the experiment highly is
6.47. 48 % perfect.
Precaution and error:

Errors Precautions

System Errors Errors in the data may arise from inaccurate calibration of the equipment
employed, such as the measuring or timing devices.

Parallax Errors When reading a measuring apparatus such as a meter ruler, parallax errors
can be minimized by viewing the reading at eye-level and at the meniscus.

Systematic mistakes can be introduced by the phenomena of refraction and

Measurement dispersion in the medium through which light is flowing. It can be difficult
Errors to appropriately account for these impacts.

Temperature Variations in the observed speed can result from changes in the qualities
errors of the medium through which light is travelling, such as air or a transparent
substance, which can be affected by changes in temperature and pressure.

Conclusion

In this experiment, we can conclude that the velocity of lights can be seen in three different
mediums which are air, water, and acrylic glass. First calculations that we got is value of the
velocity of light in air, C̅ is 2.87 × 108 𝑚/𝑠. After we compared with theoretical velocity of
light in air, C̅ is 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 which is constant, the percentage error we got after the calculation
is 4.01% only that makes our experiment acceptable. Next calculations are the velocity of light
in water C̅ is 2.08 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 and refractive index of water that we obtained is 1.38. From
velocity of light in water, we also calculate the theoretical of velocity in water is 2.23 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
and for the theoretical index of water is 1.33 that conclude the percentage error is 3.76% and
6.73%. Lastly, the velocity of light in acrylic glass that we measured is 1.88 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 and
1.53 ± 0.15 for the refractive index of acrylic glass. The theoretical values of velocity of light
in acrylic glass is 2.01 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 and theoretical for the refractive index of acrylic glass is 1.49
that contributes 6.47% and 2.69% for the percentage error.
References

Gibbs, P. (1997). How is the speed of light measured? math.ucr.edu.

https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/measure_c.html

Penshin, A. (2023, November 2). How did we measure the speed of light? Science ABC.
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/how-did-we-measure-the-speed-of-light.html

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Refractive index. Encyclopædia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/refractive-index

Libretexts. (2022, February 20). 25.3: The law of refraction. Physics LibreTexts.
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/College_Physics_1e_(OpenSta
x)/25%3A_Geometric_Optics/25.03%3A_The_Law_of_Refraction

Helmenstine, A. (2021, October 20). What is the speed of light? Science Notes and Projects.
https://sciencenotes.org/what-is-the-speed-of-light/