Code of Practice For The Design, Planning, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of Sound Systems

BS 6259:2015
Licensed for distribution by NAPIT under licence number 2019JK0003 © BSI
BSI Standards Publication
Code of practice for the

design, planning,
installation, testing and
maintenance of sound
systems
BS 6259:2015 BRITISH STANDARD
Publishing and copyright information

The BSI copyright notice displayed in this document indicates when the document
was last issued.
© The British Standards Institution 2015
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2015
ISBN 978 0 580 71083 4
ICS 33.160.30
The following BSI references relate to the work on this document:
Committee reference EPL/100
Draft for comment 13/30218906 DC
Publication history
First published May 1952
Second edition, June 1964
Third edition, September 1982
Fourth edition, April 1997
Fifth (present) edition, March 2015
Amendments issued since publication

Date Text affected
BRITISH STANDARD BS 6259:2015
Contents
Foreword iii
Section 1: General 1
1 Scope 1
2 Normative references 1
3 Terms and definitions 2
Section 2: Exchange of information and definition of responsibilities 5
4 Technical advice and performance specification 5
Section 3: Sound system design 8
5 System-level considerations 8
6 Planning 8
7 System design 10
Section 4: Installing a sound system 14
8 Installation 14
9 Commissioning 16
10 Documentation 16
11 Certification 18
12 Lifetime activities 19
13 Responsible person 22
Section 5: Operation and maintenance 23
14 System components: Application of standards 23
Annexes
Annex A (informative) Explanation of technical words and phrases 25
Annex B (informative) Loudspeakers and associated system components 27
Annex C (informative) Types of microphones 36
Annex D (normative) Use and siting of microphones 43
Annex E (informative) STI qualification bands 49
Annex F (informative) Examples of certificates 50
Annex G (informative) Dynamics processors (compressors and AGC) 57
Bibliography 58
List of figures
Figure 1 – Effect of ambient noise sensing 12
Figure B.1 – Diagram showing the floating-return technique for disabling local
loudspeaker attenuators in an emergency 34
Figure C.1 – Horizontal directional response of an omnidirectional microphone
with its axis vertical: decibel scale 37
Figure C.2 – Directional response of a cardioid microphone: decibel scale 38
Figure C.3 – Directional response of a supercardioid microphone: decibel
scale 38
Figure C.4 – Directional response of a hypercardioid microphone: decibel
scale 39
Figure C.5 – Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle)
microphone where f = 250 Hz and barrel length is 275 mm 40
microphone where f = 2.5 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm 41
microphone where f = 10 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm 42
Figure C.8 – Relative operating distances of directional microphones for equal
direct-to-reverberant signal ratios 42
Figure D.1 – Two methods of positioning microphones on a conference
table 46
Figure D.2 – The 3 to 1 ratio for microphone positioning (normal) 46
Figure D.3 – A reduced 3 to 1 ratio using angled microphones 47
Figure D.4 – Illustrations of good and bad microphone placements 47
© The British Standards Institution 2015 • i

Figure D.5 – Optimization of the height of the microphone above the Table 48
Figure F.1 – Design certificate 50
Figure F.2 – Installation certificate 51
Figure F.3 – Commissioning certificate 52
Figure F.4 – Acceptance certificate 53
Figure F.5 – Verification certificate 54
Figure F.6 – Servicing certificate 55
Figure F.7 – Modification certificate 56
Figure G.1 – Typical steady-state output/input characteristics 57
List of tables
Table 1 – Overall view of planning stages 9
Table 2 – Documentation 17
Table 3 – Sound system equipment 23
Table E.1 – Examples of STI qualification bands and typical applications 49
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv,
pages 1 to 60, an inside back cover and a back cover.
ii • © The British Standards Institution 2015

Foreword
Publishing information
This British Standard is published by BSI Standards Limited under licence from
The British Standards Institution and came into effect on 31 March 2015. It was
prepared by Technical Committee EPL/100, Audio, video and multimedia systems
and equipment. A list of organizations represented on this committee can be
obtained on request to its secretary.
Supersession
This British Standard supersedes BS 6259:1997, which is withdrawn.
Information about this document

This is a full revision of the standard, updating all aspects.
Use of this document

As a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and
recommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and
particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are not
misleading.
Any user claiming compliance with this British Standard is expected to be able to
justify any course of action that deviates from its recommendations.
The recommendations of this British Standard are intended to enable a clear
understanding, including understanding by non-technical users, of the functions
and limitations of a proposed sound system.
Presentational conventions
The provisions in this standard are presented in roman (i.e. upright) type. Its
recommendations are expressed in sentences in which the principal auxiliary
verb is “should”.
Commentary, explanation and general informative material is presented in
smaller italic type, and does not constitute a normative element.
Contractual and legal considerations

This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users are responsible for its correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from legal

obligations.
© The British Standards Institution 2015 • iii

Licensed for distribution by NAPIT under licence number 2019JK0003 © BSI BS 6259:2015 BRITISH STANDARD
iv • © The British Standards Institution 2015 This page deliberately left blank
Section 1: General
1 Scope
This British Standard gives recommendations for the design, planning,
installation, testing and maintenance of sound systems intended for
communicating speech, music and/or other signals, including systems conveying
emergency messages or signals that are not connected to a fire detection
system.
NOTE 1 For systems used for conveying emergency messages, recommendations are
given in BS 5839-8.
This standard is intended for use by clients, designers, installers and those
responsible for commissioning, testing, operation and maintenance of sound
systems.
This standard is not applicable to:
a) voice alarm systems within the scope of BS 5839-8 or BS EN 54-16 or
BS EN 54-24;
b) emergency voice communication systems within the scope of BS 5839-9;
c) emergency sound systems within the scope of BS 7827;
d) simultaneous interpretation systems (see ISO 2603);
e) some of the aspects associated with recording studios, and applies only to
some types of broadcasting studio;
f) home entertainment systems;
g) systems intended only to modify the perceived acoustic characteristics of the
space;
h) manual fire detection systems; or
i) audio conferencing systems.
This standard is not applicable to cinema sound systems.
NOTE 2 Cinema sound technology is evolving very rapidly at present, due partly to
the elimination of film stock in favour of digital distribution and the increased
practicability of multichannel sound systems with tens of channels. Existing standards
such as BS 5550-3.4.9 are likely to be replaced by completely new standards within a
few years. It is therefore not at present practicable to give advice on these systems
in this standard.
2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this
document and are indispensable for its application. For dated references, only
the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
BS 7671:2008+A3:2015, Requirements for electrical installations – IET Wiring
Regulations (Seventeenth edition)
© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 1

3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this British Standard, the following terms and definitions
apply.
NOTE A glossary of technical words and phrases is given in Annex A.
3.1 Acoustics
3.1.1 acoustic feedback

energizing of a microphone by the acoustic output of a loudspeaker of the same
sound reinforcement system
NOTE As the effect increases so does the distortion, which might become
intolerable, and eventually the system might oscillate continuously at some

frequency, usually audible, at which the microphone to loudspeaker gain exceeds the
loss in the feedback path. The system is then said to “howl round”.
3.1.2 average sound pressure level (Lp)

twenty times the logarithm to base ten of the ratio of the r.m.s. sound pressure
under consideration, p, to the reference r.m.s. sound pressure, po
NOTE 1 The average sound pressure level, Lp, expressed in decibels, is calculated as
follows:
p
Lp = 20lg
po
NOTE 2 The standard reference sound pressure po is 20 µPa in air.
3.1.3 echo
sound heard as a repetition of a first hearing
NOTE Repetition of a sound can occur in three ways:
a) if a sound is reflected from an object more than about 10 m away;
b) if sound travels to a distant listener by more than one route and the path
length difference is more than 10 m; and
c) if electronically delayed signals are intentionally generated.
3.1.4 reverberation time

(of an enclosure for a sound of a given frequency or frequency band)
time that would be required for the sound pressure level in the enclosure to
decrease by 60 dB, after the source has been stopped
3.2 Intelligibility
3.2.1 audibility
property of a sound which allows it to be distinguished from other sounds
NOTE The property may include intensity, spectral distribution and variation with
time.
3.2.2 clarity
property of a sound which allows its information bearing components to be
distinguished by the listener
NOTE Clarity is related to the freedom of the sound from distortion of all kinds.
3.2.3 intelligibility
measure of the proportion of the content of a speech message that can be
correctly understood
2 • © The British Standards Institution 2015

NOTE Intelligibility requires sufficient audibility and sufficient clarity. These can be
related to the mathematical basis of the objective method of determining
intelligibility though the use of the speech transmission index (STI), but clarity in
that case is limited to freedom from reverberation.
3.2.4 speech transmission index

STI
metric ranging between 0 and 1 representing the transmission quality of speech
with respect to intelligibility by a speech transmission channel
[SOURCE: BS EN 60268-16:2011]
3.3 People
3.3.1 client
person, group or organization that commissions the design and installation of
the sound system
NOTE The client is usually, but not always, the purchaser of the system.
3.3.2 contractor
person or company that enters into a written agreement with the purchaser to
supply a sound system
NOTE The contractor might also undertake the system design and/or the
installation. In major building projects the sound system may be the subject of a
written agreement between the main building contractor and the specialist supplier.
3.3.3 installer
person, group or organization responsible for the installation of the sound
system as specified by the system designer
3.3.4 operator
person who controls the sound system manually when it is in use
3.3.5 system designer

person responsible to the client for the design and specification of the sound
system
3.3.6 user
person, group or organization who supervises the operation of the equipment
in use
NOTE The needs of the user are important factors in the design of a sound system.
There might be more than one user and the user might not be the client or owner
of the system when a room is hired with a sound system.
3.4 System features
3.4.1 channel
signal path between input and output of a system
3.4.2 control point

place where controls for the operation of the system are located
NOTE A control point can have controls for operating the system only under special
conditions, for example a police or fire control point. There can be more than one
control point.

3.4.3 line-level voltage

voltage of 0.775 V r.m.s. (corresponding to a power of 1 mW in 600 Ω)
NOTE When this voltage is used as a reference level (“line level”) in decibels (0 dB),
it is written as 0 dB (0.775 V) or 0 dBu. Although the reference level is derived from
a system having a characteristic impedance of 600 V, such systems are rarely used
now (see BS EN 61938).
3.4.4 mixer
specialized amplifier whose output is at line-level voltage, with facilities to allow
input signals from several sources to be controlled or combined or both
3.5 System types

3.5.1 sound system

system including amplifiers, loudspeakers and sources of speech, music or tone
signals, which is intended to present the signals to people outside the household
environment
3.5.2 sound reinforcement system

sound system intended to reinforce sound signals from actors, musicians, etc.
NOTE In these systems the microphones are exposed to the sound produced by the
loudspeakers.

Section 2: Exchange of information and definition of

responsibilities
4 Technical advice and performance specification
4.1 General
NOTE Except for basic systems sold as a complete kit, the engagement of a skilled
system designer is advisable and is considered to be essential whenever large or
complex installations are involved.
If prospective purchasers wish the sound system to be in accordance with this
British Standard, then a reference to the standard should be included in written

agreements relating to the installation, modification and extension of the sound
system.
4.2 Purpose of the system

Before approaching a supplier, the client should write down, in non-technical
terms, what the users of the system require it to do and the environment in
which it is to be used. Care should be taken that this is as comprehensive as
possible. Anything left out at this stage can result in extra expenditure later.
Factors that should be considered include:
a) the room(s) and other three dimensional space(s) to be covered, their
dimensions and the nature of their surfaces and their acoustic
characteristics;
b) the various usages of each space and the background noise associated with
them;
c) what audio signals are to be reproduced and their sources (e.g.
microphones, alert signals and recorded messages), including all the sources
and places;
d) methods of controlling the sound system, both manual and automatic;
e) presentation of user interfaces (e.g. volume control, touch-screen, paging
panel);
f) interconnection with other audio systems [e.g. audio frequency induction
loop systems (AFILS) and infrared systems];
g) priorities of input sources if applicable;
h) the need to avoid unwanted broadcast of audio information to adjacent
environments (e.g. noise pollution in a public space, or confidentiality in a
court, where the audio information needs to be kept confidential); and
i) architectural considerations or restrictions (e.g. listed building status).
4.3 Obtaining technical advice

Wherever possible, technical advice should be obtained during the early
planning stages of a sound system. Such advice should cover:
a) the suitability of a sound system for a particular venue and/or application;
b) factors that might adversely affect the performance of a sound system;
c) factors that might add to the cost of installing a sound system; and
d) the need for, and scope of, an initial site assessment.
NOTE For a small sound system, the cost of a formal initial survey might not be
justified, but many contractors conduct an informal survey as a matter of course.

4.4 The nature of the advice

Advice to be obtained depends on the particular installation requirements for
each sound system, but should generally include the following:
a) advice from the contractor to the client on all aspects, from initial
quotations for the task in the planning stages through to installation,
commissioning and maintenance of the sound system;
b) advice from the designer to a technically competent installer (e.g. in the
case of systems in new buildings where installation is to be carried out by
electrical contractors; systems installed by in-house staff); and
c) advice from an appropriate organization or professional body, such as the
Institute of Sound and Communications Engineers.
4.5 Professional (consultancy) advice

Professional advice from a specialist consultant should be obtained when
installations are to be undertaken in extra-large or prestigious buildings and
those posing special difficulties, such as very reverberant spaces, areas with high
ambient noise levels and multi-purpose spaces.
NOTE The advice of an independent consultant or a professional body might also
be useful in the event of a dispute between the client and supplier or manufacturer.
Such advice can often provide the most economical resolution of a dispute.
4.6 Choosing the system supplier

4.6.1 General
Possible procedures for acquiring a sound system are recommended
in 4.6.2, 4.6.3 and 4.6.4. The choice of procedure should depend on the size of
the space to be covered and any special complications which might be involved.
4.6.2 Approaching a contractor

For a small and uncomplicated sound system, a contractor may be asked to
design, supply and install suitable equipment and all cabling, based on the
objective of the system (see Clause 6).
NOTE Names of contractors who specialize in this work may be obtained from
business directories and trade associations.
Responsibility for choosing appropriate equipment (microphones, amplifier, etc.)
and for installing and setting up the sound system correctly should rest with the
contractor.
For some sound systems, the installation contractor may call in a manufacturer
to provide detailed technical advice on areas of uncertainty or particular
difficulty. On these occasions the agreed obligations of the installation
contractor and the manufacturer to the prospective purchaser should be clearly
documented, preferably in a single document.
4.6.3 Approaching a manufacturer of sound system equipment

Some manufacturers of sound system equipment are willing to produce the site
survey for the proposed installation, design a system and, perhaps, recommend
an installation contractor. Manufacturers who are unable to provide this service
themselves might offer contact with appropriate designers/installers who can
undertake such projects.
NOTE Names of manufacturers can be obtained from business directories and trade
associations.

Responsibility for choosing appropriate equipment (microphones, amplifier, etc.)

and commissioning the system should rest with the selected manufacturer or
designer. The contractor should be responsible to the manufacturer for the
correct installation of the sound system and commissioning (where this is also
undertaken).
4.6.4 Approaching a specialist consultant

When it is appropriate to engage a specialist consultant, this should be done at
the earliest opportunity. The consultant should be responsible for the initial
survey, design and commissioning of the sound system, choice of equipment and
helping to assess installers’ proposals. Where necessary, the consultant should
also liaise with architects and construction contractors on matters affecting the
sound system.
NOTE Such a consultant might be independent or might be a suitably competent

person employed by a manufacturing or contracting organization.
4.7 Performance specification

A performance specification should be prepared by the system designer and
agreed with the client. It is this performance to which the system is required to
conform at the commissioning stage. If the choice of equipment to be used is
not completely under the control of the system designer (for example, if some
existing microphones are to be used), any reservations about the suitability of
such equipment should be clearly explained to the client in writing.
4.8 Specification for tests of completed installation

Tests of the completed installation to verify that the sound system performs
satisfactorily should be specified in writing and should cover:
a) intelligibility within the covered space, assessed both subjectively and
objectively – this may consist of a “walk test” and STI measurements, or a
much more intensive assessment using, for example, PB word scores
(see BS EN 60268-16)];
b) quality of installation;
c) functionality of inputs;
d) correct operation of controls and priorities;
e) accuracy of documentation;
f) correct implementation of loudspeaker zones (if any); and
g) unwanted coverage and noise pollution.
The specification should include documented provisions regarding remedial
action in case the system does not pass the test.
NOTE The system designer would normally be responsible for detailing required
remedial proposals and their implementation.

Section 3: Sound system design

5 System-level considerations
5.1 Classification of systems
5.1.1 General
Sound systems can be classified into the three categories given in 5.1.2 to 5.1.4.
NOTE Classifications start with the letter S (standing for “sound system”) to avoid
confusion with fire systems which have L and P classifications, audio frequency
induction loops (AFILS) which have A classifications and voice alarm systems which
have V classifications.
5.1.2 Category S1
Category S1 systems aim mainly at the reproduction of speech with good
intelligibility, but not necessarily a high degree of naturalness. They are suitable
for broadcasting emergency messages. Music, if reproduced at all, would be of
an acceptable quality but not necessarily of artistic merit. Where acoustic
conditions are bad, for example because noise levels are high or reverberation is
excessive, these systems can be expected to provide the best results that can be
achieved.
5.1.3 Category S2
Category S2 systems are most commonly used. The aim is to produce intelligible
and natural sounding speech and/or music of a quality that the average listener
considers pleasant. It is desirable that the listening conditions are either already
fairly good acoustically or can be made so by suitable acoustic treatment.
5.1.4 Category S3
Category S3 systems aim at the highest possible quality of reproduction. This
category is appropriate when the audience is expected to be critically interested
in the programme for its own sake and not merely as a background. It is
essential that the listening conditions are acoustically very good, and that the
input to the system is of adequately high quality, as any defects can sound more
objectionable. Signal quality from an amplitude modulated broadcast receiver,
for example, can cause the reproduction from a category S3 system to be less
satisfactory than that obtained from a category S2 system using similar inputs.
5.2 Provisions for conveying emergency messages

The operation of the system under emergency conditions should be documented
in an overall plan for handling emergencies at the site. Priority should be given
to emergency messages over all other functions of the system.
6 Planning
The project should be planned over all phases. The detail required depends on
the size and complexity of the installation. Table 1 gives a detailed overall plan,
which might need to be supplemented by detailed planning tables for some
stages.

Table 1 Overall view of planning stages
Stage Purpose of work and Tasks to be People directly Usual

decisions to be reached undertaken involved terminology
A. Inception To prepare general Identify client Client organization, Briefing

outline of requirements organization for Project team leader
and plan future action briefing. Consider
requirements,
appoint project
team leader
B. Feasibility To provide an appraisal Carry out studies of Client’s
and recommendation in use requirements, representatives,
order to allow the client site conditions, Project team leader,

to determine the form planning, statutory Building and system
in which the project is obligations, design, acoustic consultant,
to proceed, ensuring and cost, etc., as System electronic
that it is feasible and necessary to reach designer, according to
functional – technically decisions the nature of the
and financially project
C. Outline To determine general Develop the brief Client’s Sketch plans
proposals approach to layout, further. Carry out representatives,
design and construction studies on the user Project team leader,
in order to get requirements, Building and system
authoritative approval technical problems, acoustic consultant,
for the client on the planning, design System electronic
outline proposals and and cost, as designer, as required
accompanying report necessary to reach
decisions
D. Scheme To complete the brief Final development Client’s
design and decide on particular of the brief, full representatives,
proposals, including design of the Project team leader,
outline specification, project by project Building and system
and cost, and to obtain team leader, acoustic consultant,
all approvals preliminary system System electronic
schematic using designer, all statutory
BS/ISO standard and other approving
symbols, prepare authorities
cost plan and full
explanation report.
Submission of
proposals for all
approvals
Brief should not be modified after this point.
E. Detailed To obtain final decision Full design or Project team leader, Working
design on all matters related to selection of all parts Building and system drawings
design, specification, and components of acoustic consultant,
construction and cost the sound system. System electronic
Complete cost designer, Sound
checking of design system installer (if
appointed)
Any further changes in location, size, shape or cost after this point will result in abortive work.
F. Bills of To prepare and Preparation of Bills Project team leader,
quantity complete all of Quantities and Sound system installer
information and tender (if appointed)
arrangements for documentation
obtaining tender

Table 1 Overall view of planning stages
Stage Purpose of work and Tasks to be People directly Usual

decisions to be reached undertaken involved terminology
G. Works To enable the Prepare workshop Project team leader, Site

planning contractor to drawings for Contractor, operations
programme the work in approval by project Subcontractor sound
accordance with the team leader system installer
written agreement
H. Sound To follow the plan Off-site assembly Project team leader,
system through to practical and testing, Contractor,
installation completion of the installation and Subcontractor sound
sound system testing by the system installer

installation installer
I. Complet- To hand over the sound Project team leader Project team leader,
ion system to the project commissioning: Contractor,
team leader for use by agree and carry out Subcontractor sound
the client, remedy any any remedial works system installer
defects, settle the final as required
account, and complete
all work in accordance
with the written
agreement
7 System design
7.1 Overview
When designing a sound system, the following factors should be taken into
account:
a) loudness, which is controlled by amplifier power and loudspeaker sensitivity
and siting;
NOTE 1 An increase of 3 dB in loudness requires a doubling of amplifier
power. An increase of 10 times in amplifier power is required to produce an
apparent doubling of loudness.
NOTE 2 Loudspeakers vary considerably in sensitivity (maximum sound pressure
produced by a given amplifier power). Details of loudspeakers and associated
system components are given in Annex B.
b) frequency range; and
c) echoes and reverberation, whose effects are minimized by the siting and
selection of microphones.
NOTE 3 Details of microphones are given in Annex C.
Microphones should be used and sited in accordance with Annex D.
NOTE 4 A sound system consists essentially of the following four basic components:
1) microphone(s) and other signal source(s);
2) pre-amplifier (control unit);
3) power amplifier(s); and
4) loudspeakers (normally more than one).
NOTE 5 In order to obtain the maximum performance from a system, to maintain
an adequate signal-to-noise ratio and provide an appropriate frequency response, a
number of other additional elements may be added, such as compressors and
equalizers. Additionally, loudspeaker zoning or group switching might be required.

7.2 Loudspeaker siting

Good siting of loudspeakers is very important for uniform sound coverage. A
position above audience listening can help to establish a clear line-of-sight path
to every listener and also helps to equalize the distances between loudspeakers
and listeners. Difficult compromises might have to be reached to accommodate
objections to the visibility of the loudspeakers.
NOTE Fewer, more costly, loudspeakers of high sensitivity might reduce aesthetic
difficulties over their visibility.
The relationship between the power supplied to the loudspeaker and the sound
level achieved depends on the sensitivity of the loudspeaker, the distance from
the loudspeaker to the listener and the acoustics of the room. Near to the
loudspeaker, the sound pressure is proportional to the voltage input to the

loudspeaker; as the distance between listener and loudspeaker increases, so the
sound reflected from the room boundaries becomes more important. At a
certain (“critical”) distance from the loudspeaker, the sound level stops
decreasing with distance because of the addition of reflected sounds.
7.3 Ambient noise level sensing

In many locations, for example sports stadia, railway stations and airports, the
background noise level is not constant. It might fluctuate over long or short
periods, or both. A sound system having a fixed output level might be too loud
when the noise is least, or inaudible when the noise is greatest. (See Figure 1 for
examples.) The technique of ambient noise level sensing should be considered
and may be applied to overcome this defect. It can also eliminate or mitigate
noise nuisance.

Figure 1 Effect of ambient noise sensing

a) System level fixed above maximum noise level – too loud in quiet periods
b) System level fixed below maximum noise level – too quiet in loud periods
c) System level varied by sensing noise level – acceptable in all periods

7.4 Frequency range

Historical limitations of frequency range have largely been eliminated in modern
equipment, but there is a cost penalty (and possibly unnecessary technical
difficulties) if the design is based on an excessively wide range. The following
factors should be taken into account:
a) extended low-frequency reproduction requires large loudspeakers or high
amplifier power, or both; and
b) high frequencies are absorbed by the atmosphere over long path lengths,
and this effect varies greatly with the humidity.
7.5 Speech intelligibility and quality of reproduction

The intelligibility (which depends on both audibility and clarity) of speech

signals, the audibility of any warning tones, and the desired quality of
reproduction of any music signals are of prime importance. The quality of
reproduction of music signals depends on factors additional to audibility and
clarity.
Audibility is related to loudness, but excessive loudness results in a reduction of
intelligibility. Clarity is related to freedom from echoes and reverberation.
Non-linearity distortion is very seldom an issue with modern equipment, but has
much less effect on speech than on the quality of music reproduction. On the
other hand, the quality of music reproduction is little affected by reverberation,
and echo may even be used for artistic effect.
Several methods currently exist of objectively measuring speech intelligibility,
one of which is STI (see BS EN 60268-16). However, no objective method is
absolutely reliable, so a subjective assessment should be also carried out.
NOTE Annex E gives examples of STI qualification bands and typical applications.
7.6 Electronic equipment and wiring

7.6.1 Electronic equipment
Electronic equipment should be sited where it is accessible to authorized people
but not others. Responsibility for providing any housing, support or other
accessories should be agreed and documented. Care should be taken that the
equipment is sited so that it will not overheat or become excessively damp. The
equipment should conform to the appropriate safety standard for the
environment in which it is used.
7.6.2 Wiring
The installation of mains wiring and protective devices should conform to
BS 7671. Microphone and other signal cables are Category 2 circuits as defined
in BS 7671 and should be segregated from mains and other cables in
Category 1 circuits.

Section 4: Installing a sound system

8 Installation
8.1 General
One organization should be responsible for the installation of the sound system
and this responsibility should be agreed prior to the start of the work.
NOTE It is not, in general, the responsibility of the installer to verify whether the
design of the system is in accordance with the recommendations of this standard,
unless the installer is also the designer.
The responsibility of the installer should be to install the system in accordance

with the requirements of the design specification and to follow good practice in
the installation work. However, in practice, compliance with a number of these
recommendations impacts on both design and installation, and may, therefore,
be delegated by the designer to the installer, provided the responsibility for
compliance is clearly documented, that the installer is competent to address the
issues and that the responsibility is accepted by the installer.
8.2 Installation of cables

NOTE The designer may delegate decisions regarding cable routes to the installer,
by simple reference in the design to compliance with this clause. At the design
stage, the designer might have inadequate information to enable compliance with
all the relevant recommendations. For example, drawings on which the design is
based might not show sufficient information about structural features or final
fittings of the building.
The installer should ensure that all wiring and cable types conform to the design
documentation. All cables should be clearly identified, at least at each end and
at all the joints on the route. These should be accurately recorded for future
reference.
Cables should be installed without external joints wherever practicable. All
terminations and other connectors should be such as to minimize the probability
of early failure. Other than in the case of joints at or within system components
such as amplifiers and microphones, terminals and connectors used to joint
cables should be constructed of materials that will withstand a similar
environment and be of similar durability to that of the cable. All joints, other
than those within system components, should be enclosed within junction boxes,
labelled with the words “Sound system” to avoid confusion with other services.
Care should be taken to ensure the electrical continuity of electromagnetic
screens, including those of microphone cables.
Cables that are directly fixed to surfaces should be neatly run and securely fixed
at suitable intervals, in accordance with the recommendations of the cable
manufacturer. Cables should not be supported by suspended ceilings. Where
new conduit, trunking or tray is installed, its capacity should be in accordance
with the requirements of BS 7671.

Where a cable passes through an internal wall, a small clearance hole should be
provided. If additional mechanical protection is necessary, a smooth-bore sleeve
should be sealed into the wall. Where a cable passes through an external wall, it
should be contained in a smooth-bore sleeve of metal or other non-hygroscopic
material sealed into the wall. This sleeve should slope downwards towards the
outside and should be plugged with a suitable non-hardening waterproof
compound to prevent the entry of rain, dust or vermin. Care should be taken to
ensure that the ends of any sleeves are free from sharp edges which might
damage cables during installation. Where a cable passes through a floor, the
recommendations above should be applied. The sleeve should extend as far
above floor level as is required to provide adequate protection of the cable, but
not less than 300 mm.
Penetration of construction (e.g. for the passage of cables, conduit, trunking or
tray) should be made good to prevent the free passage of fire or smoke,
regardless of whether the construction has a recognized degree of fire
resistance.
8.3 Inspection and testing of wiring

Continuity of all circuits should be tested. Insulation resistance between
conductors, between each conductor and earth, and between each conductor
and any screen, should be at least 2 MΩ. Care should be taken not to measure
the insulation resistance with a voltage high enough to damage the equipment.
Alternatively, any such equipment should be disconnected before applying the
test, but this latter procedure is less reliable.
8.4 As-fitted drawings

As-fitted drawings should be produced, which include at least:
a) the positions of all sound system equipment;
b) the positions of all cables, including the type, sizes and actual routes of
cables;
c) the position(s) of microphone(s); and
d) the positions of all equipment that might require routine attention or
adjustment.
The cable routes shown should be a reasonable representation of the routes
followed, to enable any cable to be located in the event of a fault or need for
modification or extension of the system.
NOTE A simple schematic showing the sequence in which devices are wired is
unlikely to be sufficient, other than in small, simple systems.
In the case of extensions or alterations, existing as-fitted drawings should be
updated. Where necessary, in complex buildings, a cabling schedule
cross-referencing the drawings should be produced in order to help explain the
cable routes.
8.5 Check list

The installer should ensure that:
a) adequate space is provided around the equipment for access;
b) the structure can accept the weight of the equipment;
c) adequate cooling or ventilation is provided to keep the equipment within
its rated temperature range; and
d) the installation of microphones and loudspeakers is strictly in accordance
with the design specification.

To facilitate safe maintenance work, the installer should ensure that all sound
system equipment that is likely to need routine attention is sited in accessible
locations.
All metallic parts of the installation, including conduit, trunking, ducting,
cabling and enclosures, should be separated from any metalwork forming part
of a lightning protection system.
NOTE 1 Further guidance is given in BS EN 62305.
On completion of the installation work the installer should issue an installation
certificate.
NOTE 2 An example of a model installation certificate is given in Annex F.
Where a designer makes variations from any of the preceding recommendations
of this subclause, they should communicate this in the form of specific written
requirements (e.g. within a specification). In this case, the installer should record
the relevant variations within the installation certificate.
9 Commissioning
The system should be commissioned by a person who has access to the
requirements of the designer (i.e. the system specification) and any other
relevant documentation or drawings, and possesses a thorough knowledge and
understanding of the standard.
At commissioning, the entire system should be inspected and tested to ensure
that it operates satisfactorily and that, in particular:
a) intelligibility and signal-to-noise ratios conform to the system specification;
b) an acceptable level of intelligibility is achieved throughout the covered
volume;
c) no changes to the building since the time of the agreed design have
compromised the performance of the system (e.g. by erection of new
structures that affect the effectiveness of the sound system);
d) mains power supplies are appropriately rated; and
e) all relevant documentation has been provided to the user or purchaser.
On completion of the commissioning a certificate should be issued. All
inspection and test results obtained during the commissioning process should be
clearly documented.
NOTE An example of a model commissioning certificate is given in Annex F.
10 Documentation
10.1 General
On completion of the commissioning, all records and other documentation
relating to the system should be provided to the user or purchaser.
NOTE The user and purchaser might, or might not, be the same organization.
The responsibility for provision of the documentation may rest with more than
one organization. Priority should be given to the preparation and accuracy of
as-fitted drawings (see 8.4) and operation and maintenance manuals. The
manuals should be adequately specific to the system. Without these drawings
and manuals, maintenance or future modification of the system is very likely to
be difficult.

10.2 Documentation for the project as a whole

Documentation of the project should be as set out in Table 2.
Table 2 Documentation
Project stage Personnel involved
a) the initial consultation to determine the client’s needs Consultant

and what is possible or not within the available technology Client
or budget
b) design to produce a workable design based on a) Consultant
Client
Designer
c) installation and project management to implement the Consultant
design of b)
Client
Designer
Contractor
d) testing and commissioning to prove the design is Consultant
working and achieves the objectives and performance of a) Client
and b)
Designer
e) certification where appropriate, affirming that the Consultant
appropriate standards have been met according to their
Client
individual responsibilities
Designer
Contractor
f) maintenance Consultant
Client
Maintenance contractor
10.3 Documentation of software

Documentation of software should be such that, where relevant:
a) the system can be maintained and updated as and when necessary;
b) in the event of the absence of the software author(s), the system can still be
maintained and adjusted as necessary;
c) the operation of the system is transparent and that new
operators/maintainers can be trained without problems; and
d) it is made clear that, in the event of a “commissioned work”, i.e. where the
client has paid for the software, the copyright is transferred to the client
and they are entitled to all source code and similar documentation.

10.4 Documentation for the client

The following documentation should be provided to the client:
a) certificates for design, installation and commissioning of the system;
b) a comprehensive operation and maintenance manual for the system, which
should provide information specific to the system in question, including the
following:
• a list of equipment provided and its configuration (e.g. schematic
diagram);
• use and operation of the system;
• service and maintenance of the system;
• the importance of ensuring that changes to the building, such as new

structures, do not affect the standard of coverage in the space; and
• the need to update the “as-fitted” drawings after extensions or
alterations;
c) as-fitted drawings indicating at least the following:
• the positions of all sound system equipment;
• the positions of all microphones, loudspeakers and inputs; and
• the type, sizes and actual routes of cables;
d) a record of any agreed variations from the original design specification; and
e) a logbook in which to record periodic testing of the system, and repairs and
changes.
10.5 Logbook
The following information should be recorded in the logbook:
a) the name of the responsible person;
b) details of the maintenance organization;
c) brief details of maintenance arrangements;
d) dates, times and types of all tests;
e) dates, times and types of all faults and defects; and
f) dates and types of all maintenance (e.g. maintenance visit or non-routine
attention).
NOTE It is important to ensure that the logbook is updated to reflect any changes
of responsible person, maintenance organization or maintenance arrangements.
11 Certification
This standard does not prescribe a certification scheme, but Annex F gives
examples of certificates that might be used in such a scheme or without the
support of such a scheme.

On completion of design, installation and commissioning, a separate certificate

should be issued for each of these three processes, confirming compliance with
the recommendations of this standard for the stage in question (i.e. design,
installation or commissioning) or identifying variations. Three separate
certificates should be independently issued, i.e. the issue of one should not
depend on the issue of another. The person(s) who sign(s) these certificates
should be competent to verify whether the recommendations of this standard in
respect of the process to which the certificate refers have, or have not, been
satisfied.
The client should be asked to complete an acceptance certificate provided by
the organization, bearing overall responsibility for the system. Before accepting
a system, the client should ensure, at least, that:
a) all installation work appears to be satisfactory;

b) the system is capable of giving intelligible broadcasts;
c) the following documents have been provided to the purchaser or user:
• as-fitted drawings;
• operating and maintenance instructions;
• certificates of design, installation and commissioning; and
• a logbook to record the periodic testing of the system;
d) sufficient representatives of the user have been adequately trained in the
operation of the system, including, if applicable, all means of broadcasting
emergency signals and the correct use of emergency microphones (if
installed);
e) the nominated responsible person has been advised of their responsibilities
and how these might be discharged; and
f) all relevant tests, defined in the system specification, have been witnessed.
Where modifications are carried out to a system, the client should require that
the organization responsible for the work issues a new commissioning
certificate.
The purchaser or user might decide that there is a need for independent
verification of compliance of the installed system with this standard as a result
of one or more of the following:
1) the division of work elements between different organizations;
2) the evolution of the building design during construction; and
3) the lack of detailed information at the time of design.
The person responsible for verification should be familiar with this standard and
with the relevant installation practices. The scope and extent of the verification
process should be agreed between the purchaser or user and the organization
responsible for verification. On completion, a verification certificate should be
issued.
12 Lifetime activities
12.1 Regular testing
The mechanical components of the system, for example connectors, connecting
leads and switches, are less reliable than the electronic equipment. Regular tests
should be carried out to ensure that there has not been any failure of the sound
system, or, if there has been a failure, that repairs can be carried out before the
system is required for use.

On a weekly basis, the responsible person should ensure that operation of the
system in the areas where coverage is required is checked. The performance of
these tests, the results and any user complaints should be recorded in the system
logbook (10.5).
12.2 Inspection and maintenance

The system should be periodically inspected, so that faults are identified,
preventive measures are taken to ensure the continued reliability of the system,
and the user is made aware of any changes to the building that might affect the
performance afforded by the system. Periodic inspection and maintenance
should be carried out by a person with appropriate knowledge of sound
systems, adequate access to spare parts and sufficient information regarding the
system.
Where maintenance is carried out by a third party, there should be an

agreement for call-out to deal with any fault or damage that occurs to the
system, and this agreement should be such that a technician of the maintenance
organization can normally attend the premises in an acceptable period after a
call from the user. The name and telephone number of the party responsible for
maintenance of the system should be prominently displayed.
During inspections, the following processes should be carried out:
a) the system logbook should be examined to check that any faults recorded
have received appropriate attention;
b) a visual inspection should be made to check whether structural or occupancy
changes have affected the system, with particular care taken to check
whether:
• any new or relocated partitions have been erected affecting the volume
to be covered;
• any changes to the use or occupancy of an area makes the existing
sound system design unsuitable, for example increase of acoustic
ambient noise; and
• any building alterations or extensions require the installation of
additional sound system equipment;
c) any structural or occupancy changes that have been found as a result of the
inspection should be reported to the responsible person so that appropriate
design and implementation of corrective works can be commissioned;
d) all controls and visual indicators at control and indicating equipment should
be checked for correct operation;
e) all further checks and tests recommended by the manufacturer of the sound
system equipment and other components of the system should be carried
out; and
f) the following physical checks should be made:
• ensure that the amplifier ventilation holes are clear and no
unauthorized articles are stacked on it;
• check mains leads, microphone leads and wiring (where accessible) for
fraying, damage or incorrect location which could affect safety;
• for temporary or modified systems, clean any connectors that appear to
be tarnished before they are inserted;
• clean dust and grime from the system equipment;

• check and remake as necessary all leads that are heavily used, to
improve reliability, noting that leads with moulded plugs can fail with
little or no warning, as their internal condition cannot be accurately
assessed;
• the intelligibility should be checked to see that it meets the design
minimum within the space; and
• the signal-to-noise ratio should be checked when all the electrical
equipment normally used in the environment is functioning.
Following the work carried out above, any outstanding defects should be
reported to the responsible person (see Clause 13) and the system logbook
should be completed.
Following repair or modification, the system should be recommissioned to the

extent needed, all documentation should be brought up to date to reflect the
new status, and a modification certificate should be issued. On successful
completion of any remedial works, an inspection and servicing certificate should
be issued.
12.3 Non-routine attention

12.3.1 Overview
The recommendations given in 12.1 and 12.2 are intended to maintain the
system in operation under normal circumstances. However, from time to time,
the sound system is likely to require non-routine attention, including special
maintenance. Non-routine maintenance should include:
a) a special inspection of an existing sound system when a new organization
takes over maintenance of the system;
b) repair of faults or damage;
c) modification to take account of extensions, alterations or changes in
occupancy; and
d) inspection and test of the system following a user complaint.
12.3.2 Special inspection on appointment of a new maintenance

organization
The following should be undertaken on appointment of a new maintenance
organization:
a) for an existing system, a special inspection should be carried out and records
should be studied in order to produce a plan for effective maintenance of
the system;
b) if any of the following are found during the inspection, they should be
reported to the responsible person and action taken to resolve them:
• areas of non-coverage;
• areas of unacceptable coverage or intelligibility; and
• inadequate standards of electrical safety; and
c) if no logbook exists, a suitable logbook should be provided by the
maintenance organization.
12.3.3 Documentation of repairs

All faults or damage should be recorded in the system logbook, and repairs
should be carried out as soon as possible.

12.3.4 Modifications to the system

The following recommendations apply to all modification work:
a) responsibility for modification of a sound system should rest, ultimately,
with a person who is conversant with this standard and the installed system,
and has access to the as-fitted drawings;
NOTE This person may, for example, be the original designer, or may be a
representative of the user or maintenance organization.
b) on completion of the modifications, all as-fitted drawings and other
relevant system records should be updated as appropriate; and
c) on commissioning of the work and completion of the tests, a modification
certificate (see Annex F) should be issued, confirming that the work has
been carried out in accordance with the recommendations of this standard,
or identifying any variations.
13 Responsible person
A single, named responsible person should be appointed to supervise all matters
pertaining to the sound system. The responsible person should be given
sufficient authority to carry out the duties described in this section and should
normally be the keeper of the documentation. The responsible person should
ensure that the sound system is checked at least once a week, or before each
use if the sound system is used less frequently than once a week, to confirm that
there are no faults on the system.
The responsible person should ensure that arrangements are in place for testing
and maintenance of the system in accordance with the recommendations of this
standard. The responsible person should ensure that the system logbook is kept
up to date and is available for inspection by any authorized person.
The responsible person should ensure that authorized operators of the sound
system are instructed in the proper use of the system. Particular care should be
taken to ensure that operators are able to interpret fault indications and are
adequately familiar with the appropriate controls and the circumstances in
which these should, and should not, be used.
The responsible person should establish a liaison between those responsible for
changes in, or maintenance of, the building fabric (including redecoration) to
ensure that the work does not unnecessarily compromise the performance of
the system or create system faults. If structural or occupancy changes occur or
are planned, the responsible person should ensure that any necessary changes to
the sound system are considered at an early stage.
When changes are made to the system, the responsible person should ensure
that operating instructions and “as-fitted” drawings are updated.
The responsible person should ensure that any stock of spare parts agreed
between the user and the organization responsible for the maintenance of the
system is held within the premises.

Section 5: Operation and maintenance

14 System components: Application of standards
NOTE 1 The system components are microphones, amplifiers (including mixers),
loudspeakers and dynamics processors. Detailed explanations, except for amplifiers,
are given in Annexes B, C, D and G).
The manufacturer’s specifications of all components of a sound system should be
based on the provisions of the relevant Part of the IEC, CENELEC and British
Standard Sound system equipment.
Table 3 explains the functions of the Parts of the IEC, CENELEC and British
standard “Sound system equipment”. Because the Parts of the underlying

IEC standard have been revised at different times, during which CENELEC and
BSI have changed their standards adoption policies and numbering systems, a
key to the Parts is essential for good understanding.
NOTE 2 Dated references are not given, as they might change during the life of
this publication.
Table 3 Sound system equipment
IEC Part BSI reference Title (all titles begin “Sound Function
reference system equipment”)
IEC 60268
1 BS 6840-1 Methods for specifying and Methods of measuring and

measuring general specifying
characteristics used for
equipment performance
2 BS 6840-2 Glossary of general terms and Reference material
calculation methods
3 BS EN 60268-3 Amplifiers Methods of measuring and
specifying
4 BS EN 60268-4 Microphones Methods of measuring and
specifying
5 BS EN 60268-5 Loudspeakers Methods of measuring and
specifying
6 BS 6840-6 Methods for measuring and Methods of measuring and
specifying the characteristics of specifying (long out-of-date)
auxiliary passive elements
7 BS EN 60268-7 Headphones and earphones Methods of measuring and
specifying
measuring the characteristics of specifying (long out-of-date)
automatic gain control devices
measuring the characteristics of specifying (long out-of-date)
artificial reverberation, time
delay and frequency shift
equipment
10 BS 6840-10 Peak programme level meters Methods of measuring and
specifying, and performance
requirements

Table 3 Sound system equipment
IEC Part BSI reference Title (all titles begin “Sound Function
reference system equipment”)
IEC 60268
11 BS 6840-11 Specification for application of Application data (for consumer and

connectors for the “semi-pro” applications)
interconnection of sound
system components
12 BS EN 60268-12 Application of connectors for Application data
broadcast and similar use
13 BS 6840-13 Listening tests on loudspeakers Subjective testing (mainly
applicable to cabinet loudspeakers)

14 BS 6840-14 Guide for circular and elliptical Obsolete, to be withdrawn
loudspeakers, outer frame
diameters and mounting
dimensions
15 — BS EN 61938 Electrical interface values
16 BS EN 60268-16 Objective rating of speech Methods of measuring and
intelligibility by speech specifying
transmission index
measuring the characteristics of specifying and performance
standard volume indicators requirements
18 BS 6840-18 Peak programme level meters. Methods of measuring and
Guide for digital audio level specifying, and performance
meter requirements

Annex A Explanation of technical words and phrases

(informative)
Discussions and communications regarding sound systems often involve the use
of technical and quasi-technical words and phrases in addition to those defined
in Clause 3. They are therefore defined in this annex.
A.1 sound distribution system

sound system intended to distribute signals from one or more locations to a
number of other locations through a multiplicity of loudspeakers
NOTE In these systems, the microphones are not normally exposed to the sound
produced by the loudspeakers.
A.2 sound reproduction system

sound system intended for the reproduction in one (or a small number of)
location(s) of sound signals generated in another location, usually through a
small number of loudspeakers
NOTE In these systems, the microphones are not exposed to the sound produced by
the loudspeakers.
A.3 voltage line principle

principle for designing and specifying audio amplifiers in terms of (maximum)
output voltage and power and loudspeakers in terms of (maximum) input
voltage and power, where the voltage is the same for all products and only the
power varies
NOTE This has the following objectives:
a) to simplify the connection and matching of several loudspeakers to one
amplifier;
b) to minimize power losses in cables;
c) to facilitate interchangeability; and
d) to provide a simple means of adjusting the sound level produced by an
individual loudspeaker in a system, without incurring power losses and affecting
the rest of the system.
A.4 100 V line system

sound system in which the amplifiers and loudspeakers are specified by the
voltage line principle and the system voltage is 100 V
A.5 matching
correct coupling of a source to a load, for example a microphone to an
amplifier, or an amplifier to a loudspeaker system
NOTE Formally, matching involves a condition of maximum power transfer from
source to load, but the word is widely used informally for any condition that enables
units to work together satisfactorily. A future edition of BS EN 61938 is expected to
use the term “interoperability”, which is not widely used in this context at present.

A.6 sound power level (Lw)

ten times the logarithm to base ten of the ratio of the sound power under
consideration, W, to a reference sound power, Wref
NOTE 1 The sound power level, Lw, expressed in decibels, is calculated as follows:
W
LW = 10lg
Wref
NOTE 2 The standard reference sound power, Wref, is 10–12 W (1 pW).
A.7 long path delay

time interval between the generation of a sound and its perception at a distant
point, due to the finite velocity of propagation of sound waves

(approximately 340 m·s–1 in air at 20 °C)
A.8 confidence signal

response, audible to an announcer, which confirms that their speech is being
delivered by the system
A.9 equalizer
equipment used in a sound system to adjust the overall frequency response, i.e.
that of the total signal path including the room or space
NOTE The performance of a sound system can often be most effectively improved
by the provision of appropriate equalization. The setting of an equalizer is, at least,
semi-permanent, and is not intended change the “tone” of the system, or to
compensate for deficiencies in input signals.
A.10 foldback
provision to a performer, by headphone or loudspeaker, of a signal selected to
assist coordination with other performers or signals
A.11 functional surveillance

continuous automatic monitoring that audio equipment is functioning correctly
A.12 graphic equalizer

bank of band filters, each of whose loss or gain can be varied by means of a
continuously variable control (usually a sliding control)
A.13 parametric equalizer

set of one or more filters in which the centre frequency, response shape and,
sometimes, the symmetry of each filter can be adjusted in addition to its loss or
gain
NOTE Adjustable band limiting filters may also be provided.
A.14 pre-set control

device for varying some characteristic of the equipment, the use of which is not
required during the normal functioning of the equipment
NOTE 1 Such controls are used only for setting up the equipment and are usually
arranged to be inaccessible to unauthorized persons
NOTE 2 “User pre-sets” can be adjusted by the user in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. “Factory pre-sets”, however, are intended to be adjusted
only by the manufacturer or authorized service agents.

A.15 screened wiring

wiring in which the insulated conductor or conductors are enclosed within a
continuous electrically conducting screen
A.16 user control

device usually operated manually, for varying some characteristic that might
require adjustment or selecting a particular programmable configuration during
the normal functioning of the equipment
Annex B Loudspeakers and associated system components

(informative)
B.1 Loudspeakers
B.1.1 General
It is essential for successful sound system design that the right type of
loudspeaker is chosen. A good choice takes into account not only the
characteristics of the loudspeaker (sensitivity, maximum sound pressure level,
axial and directional frequency responses and directivity index), but also the
acoustic characteristics of the environment in which it is to be used.
The choice of loudspeakers is influenced by the following:
a) functional requirements relating to the required sound pressure level and
the programme content, for example speech only, or music with extended
bass;
b) operational requirements relating to the use to which the system is to be
put, for example hotel paging system, performance system or emergency
evacuation system;
c) architectural constraints relating to the acoustics of the space and any
limitation it imposes on the system, for example extended reverberation
time, presence of echoes, curved surfaces and aesthetic conditions; and
d) environmental conditions relating to any matter which would affect the
operation or performance requirements of the loudspeaker, for example
high noise levels, high temperature and humidity, atmospheric pollution and
hazardous conditions.
A shortlist of relevant characteristics and references to standard methods of
measurement is therefore given in B.2.3, and manufacturers are encouraged to
provide at least this minimum of reliable data.
B.1.2 Characterization of loudspeakers

Loudspeakers can be characterized by the following:
a) directionality;
b) sensitivity;
c) frequency response;
d) power handling;
e) impedance;
f) distortion; and
g) size.
There can be no rules with regard to the selection of the loudspeaker as there
might be a large number of factors to be considered. The following are,
however, some basic guidelines.

As the reverberation time of the space increases, the loudspeaker is generally

required to be more directional, so as to reduce the acoustic power radiated
into the reverberant space.
If high ambient noise levels are encountered or if high sound levels are
required, then the loudspeakers need to be more directional, more sensitive and
more powerful. This inevitably means a larger loudspeaker.
If improved system quality is required, this implies wider, flatter frequency
response and lower distortion. This generally necessitates a reduction in
sensitivity.
The directional properties of most types of loudspeaker are very much a
function of frequency, and this is important for comparisons between different
products. The variation in directionality is also important at the design stage.
Loudspeakers can be divided into eight types, with different directional

characteristics:
1) “constant-directivity” devices, normally large horns;
2) column devices relying on wave interference for their means of operation,
which means that their directional properties can be very frequency
dependent;
3) re-entrant or folded-horn devices which are directional but where
directionality is frequency dependent;
4) straight, circular or rectangular horn devices;
5) bi-directional devices, based on the use of the radiation from both sides of a
diaphragm or a pair of diaphragms;
NOTE 1 Such devices may be of the horn-loaded or direct-radiator types.
6) cabinet loudspeakers, which have an identifiable “front”, and radiate
middle and high frequencies mainly into the front hemisphere;
7) omnidirectional loudspeakers that usually employ a circular cone drive unit
with its axis vertical; for example, ceiling loudspeakers; and
NOTE 2 Although described as “omnidirectional”, the directional response in
the vertical plane is often more nearly a hemisphere, although more truly
omnidirectional devices are available.
8) resonant pipe enclosures.
B.1.3 Types of loudspeaker and their uses

B.1.3.1 Cabinet loudspeakers
The term “cabinet loudspeaker” refers to one or more moving-coil direct
radiator units mounted in an enclosure. Small types are used for low-level sound
reinforcement or distribution. Larger types that may incorporate horn-loaded
midrange and/or high-frequency units are used for music reproduction, for
example, in nightclubs, and in other high-level systems in small auditoria.
Another variant is the “bass bin”, which, as the name implies, contains one or
more large direct radiator units designed for low-frequency reproduction only,
the higher frequencies being supplied by other, often horn-loaded, radiators.
Small cabinet loudspeakers are suitable for music, speech, and paging systems in
areas where the floor-to-ceiling height is typically 4 m or less. The useful
coverage is normally restricted to a cone of 60° to 90° apex angle.

B.1.3.2 Ceiling loudspeakers

Ceiling loudspeakers consist of a moving-coil direct radiator unit (preferably
mounted in a closed-back enclosure) designed for mounting in a ceiling. A
device may be incorporated which is intended to widen the directional response
pattern. This is a particularly important characteristic at high frequencies
(above 3 kHz), in determining the number of loudspeakers required to cover an
area evenly with good intelligibility. The use of ceiling loudspeakers with
open-backed enclosures is often unsatisfactory, due to the excitation of
reverberation in the ceiling void. Some of the available ceiling loudspeakers are
unsatisfactory in other ways, for example, frequency response. These
loudspeakers are used for low-level sound reinforcement or distribution.
Recessed ceiling loudspeakers may be used in areas with ceiling heights up
to 5 m to 6 m. The coverage from a ceiling-mounted loudspeaker is generally

less than that from a wall-mounted cabinet, because the throw is limited by the
ceiling height. When calculating the area covered by a ceiling loudspeaker, the
height of the listener’s ears above floor level is an important parameter. A
high-density ceiling loudspeaker installation can form the basis of a high quality
sound reinforcement system with very uniform coverage. When designing a high
quality sound reinforcement system, the coverage angle at 4 kHz is used;
typically, this is 60° for a 200 mm cone loudspeaker.
B.1.3.3 Column or “line-source” loudspeakers

Column or line-source loudspeakers consist of a series of moving-coil direct
radiator units arranged in a linear array in an enclosure. There may be a
complementary array of high-frequency units in the same enclosure. The rear of
the enclosure may be rigid, or may consist of a porous structure acting as an
acoustic phase-shift network, tending to minimize the amount of rear radiation.
Such an array, set up with the long axis vertical, can have a broad directional
response pattern 90° to 120° apex angle in the horizontal plane and a narrow
pattern 15° to 20° apex angle in the vertical plane. However, designing to
achieve these characteristics is not simple, and many examples fall short of
expectations. Nevertheless, column loudspeakers can provide an economical
solution for low- and high-level systems in auditoria, and outdoors if naturalness
of reproduction is required without high sound pressure levels. It is also possible
to use the line-source principle with horn-loaded compression driver units. Such
assemblies can provide very high sound pressure levels over a wide area
hundreds of metres from the source.
It is important to orient the column loudspeakers correctly so that the beams of
sound produced are directed at the listeners. Column loudspeakers ought not
usually to be mounted flat against a wall, but provided with suitable angle
brackets allowing correct alignment.
By directing the axis of each column loudspeaker towards the centre of the area
to be covered, a fairly uniform coverage is obtained as the nearer listeners are
located out of the main beam of sound which extends towards the rear of the
area. When using repeater columns, for example, in long churches, the repeater
units can be located within 12 m to 15 m of the primary or any other
supplementary loudspeakers, unless signal delay lines are employed.

B.1.3.4 Straight, circular or rectangular exponential horns

The loudspeaker consists of a moving-coil compression driver (or more than one)
attached to a horn flare of circular cross section, which might transform to
rectangular towards the mouth. This type is capable of high sensitivity and high
sound pressure levels, but unless very large has limited low-frequency response.
The high-frequency response is also somewhat uneven and restricted, but this is
usually tolerable. The directional pattern is narrow, but depends strongly on
frequency. At high sound pressure levels, amplitude non-linearity is usually
evident, but can be prevented from compromising intelligibility by good design
and attention to the spectral distribution (frequency response) of the applied
signal. Straight horns are typically used for high-level sound reinforcement and
distribution outdoors. Derivative types also exist, such as units equipped with
two horns facing in opposite directions, which are used where this bi-directional
distribution is thought to be required, for example, on railway station platforms.
Another derivative type has a basically square mouth divided into two rows of
more or less square sections, and the name “multicellular” is applied to this as
well as to the rather different types described in B.1.3.7 and B.1.3.8.
B.1.3.5 Constant-directivity (CD) horns

The loudspeaker employs one or more compression drivers connected to horns
of arcane shape, which are claimed to give exceptionally wide and/or frequency
invariant directional response patterns. In some designs, the angles of
distribution in orthogonal planes may differ, so that the product may be
specified for example as a “90° × 40° CD horn”. They are used in high-level
systems, both indoors and out.
CD horns are becoming increasingly popular in high quality sound systems
applications, or where high sound pressure levels are required. Their many
advantages over re-entrant or other horn types include the following.
a) They are extremely sensitive, typically exhibiting a 1 W/1 m sensitivity of
around 113 dB SPL for a 60° × 40° horn.
b) They can provide extremely uniform coverage as they exhibit a reasonably
constant directivity with frequency, for example within ±10° over their
operational range of 500 Hz to 16 kHz plus, for a well-designed
large-format device.
c) They exhibit considerably lower distortion characteristics than a re-entrant
horn.
d) They provide a very much smoother and uniform frequency response. CD
horns may be used for high quality sound systems in theatres and concert
halls, as well as large stadia or reverberant exhibition halls. A CD horn
usually operates over the range 500 Hz to 15 kHz plus (or from 800 Hz for
the small types). An associated low-frequency loudspeaker is therefore
required to form a complete system operating from well below 100 Hz, for
example 50 Hz, to over 15 kHz. A crossover unit is therefore employed to
block low frequencies being fed to the horn and high frequencies to the
bass driver. The crossover may either be active or passive, depending on the
particular application and system configuration desired.
e) The controlled dispersion of a CD horn ensures that high-frequency beaming
and “hot spots” do not occur, but instead a uniform distribution of sound is
created at all frequencies within the working range of the horn. The
controlled radiation of the CD horn also enables it to work well in
acoustically difficult and reverberant spaces, allowing the sound to be
directed onto the absorbing audience or congregation and away from the
reflective room surfaces.

B.1.3.6 Concentric folded or “re-entrant” horns

The inconvenient length of a straight exponential horn is reduced by “folding”
the axis. This results in a loss of bandwidth and uniformity of frequency
response and, often, an increase in amplitude non-linearity which is important
at the design stage. Even so, such products can be very effective, especially for
systems mounted on vehicles, and can also be used for speech-only
reinforcement and distribution in noisy situations both indoors and outdoors.
They are often used for emergency sound systems. Extreme restriction of the
spectral distribution of the applied signal, so as to follow broadly the measured
frequency response of the loudspeaker, is very advantageous in reducing
distortion and making best use of the output capability of the amplifier.
NOTE Restriction of the frequency response, as described above, is intended to
prevent damage to the loudspeakers. Equalization to widen the system bandwidth is

thus not appropriate. However, equalization within the effective frequency range of
the loudspeakers can be employed with advantage, in order to combat irregularities
in the frequency response.
Re-entrant horn loudspeakers have a restricted frequency response and are used
mainly for speech. They are more efficient than either the cabinet or column
loudspeaker and are therefore suitable for use in areas with high background
noise levels, large enclosed areas, and outdoors. The coverage angles of horn
loudspeakers vary considerably but typically are between 40° and 80°.
B.1.3.7 Radial horns

A radial horn loudspeaker has the moving-coil driver(s) attached to a horn flare
which is of constant dimension in one direction, but flares in the perpendicular
direction. Various advantages, which include ease of manufacture, are claimed
for this principle, and such units are typically used in high level reinforcement
and distribution systems. The directional response pattern in the plane
perpendicular to the parallel faces of the horn flare tends to be broad, but
might degenerate into several narrow lobes at high frequencies, due to wave
interference effects across the mouth of the horn. This effect can be reduced by
dividing the mouth into a number of sections.
B.1.3.8 Multicellular horns

In most cases, and particularly in describing American products, the term
“multicellular horn” is applied to horns that have a rectangular mouth aperture
of large aspect ratio, divided into two or more “cells” by partitions. Claims are
made for the width and uniformity of the directional response pattern of these
devices, which are used in high-level systems.
B.1.3.9 Folded horn cabinets

Folded horn cabinets are distinguished from the more modest (and less costly)
cabinet type described in B.1.3.1. They consist of one or more horn-loaded
drivers mounted in an enclosure. The low-frequency driver is horn-loaded by
structures forming part of the enclosure (designs differing widely in detail),
while mid-range and high-frequency drivers are provided with discrete or
integral horn flares. Such systems are used for very high level reinforcement in
large auditoria and stadia, and have higher sensitivities than direct-radiator
types.
Both two-way and three-way designs are available in a range of sizes, power
handling capabilities, frequency ranges, and dispersion patterns. Power ratings
range from around 100 W to 400 W. Some models employ dedicated control
units, which may incorporate equalization filters, crossover networks and signal
limiters to avoid potential loudspeaker overloads.

These loudspeakers may either be portable, transportable or permanently

installed. Weather-resistant models are also available for outdoor use. The
loudspeakers may be used in almost any high-quality sound system for both
speech and music purposes, where highly uniform or directional control across a
wide frequency range, for example from 500 Hz upwards, is not required. They
therefore find application in clubs, discotheques, theatres, auditoria, assembly
halls and leisure centres. Care is needed, however, when employing them in
reverberant spaces, for example, concert halls. Their directional characteristics
generally make them less suitable for use in highly reverberant spaces, unless
located close to the listener or arrayed to provide additional directional control.
B.1.3.10 Resonant pipe enclosures

Resonant pipe enclosures have recently enjoyed some popularity. A large drive
unit is mounted approximately one-third the way along a circular tube. Such a
device can offer high sensitivity and high sound pressure levels over a restricted
range of low frequencies, provided that the drive conditions are carefully
adjusted. The manufacturer normally provides full information on this. Such
products are used in large auditoria and stadia.
B.1.3.11 Bi-directional enclosures and horns

Bi-directional and wedge loudspeakers may either be directly mounted on a wall
or ceiling or suspended below a high ceiling by a chain or wire. The loudspeaker
produces two cones of sound (60° to 90°). A dead spot, where the sound
pressure level is very low at some frequencies, can occur directly under the
loudspeaker.
B.1.3.12 Loudspeakers with digitally-controllable characteristics

Loudspeakers with digitally-controllable characteristics allow system
performances to be achieved that are impossible or impracticable otherwise.
Most manufacturers provide comprehensive documentation and technical
support for the use of their products.
B.1.4 Performance
Objective measurements, in accordance with BS EN 60268-5, of loudspeakers are
of irreplaceable value, but have limitations. The evaluation of results requires
special knowledge and experience in order to determine their subjective
significance. Measurement of large enclosures and horns in an anechoic chamber
might be impracticable due to the limited number of very large chambers and
the high cost of using them. Open air measurements are more practicable than
is generally realized.
Major irregularities in the frequency response characteristics, both on axis and
off axis, ought not to be accepted. Large variations of the input impedance as a
function of frequency ought not to be accepted, especially reductions below the
rated value, since these increase line losses and can affect the system frequency
response.
It is essential that objective measurements of loudspeakers are supplemented by
listening tests, under as near practical operating conditions as possible. The
relative importance of naturalness, intelligibility, high sound pressure level and
high sensitivity vary with the application, and positive decisions on these are
best made before the tests are conducted, so as to provide a firm base for the
measurements. Loudspeakers are affected by the acoustic environment and
peaks in their response, coupled with the room acoustic characteristics, can
cause acoustic feedback in sound reinforcement systems.

B.2 Loudspeaker volume controls and override circuits

B.2.1 Volume controls
It is often convenient or necessary to be able to control locally the sound level
produced by one or a group of loudspeakers. This technique, however, might
make the system difficult to operate, and the volume controls might be adjusted
by unauthorized persons. In particular, it is important that a volume control is
not sited where a person adjusting it cannot properly hear the loudspeaker(s) it
controls.
There are two main types of loudspeaker volume controls, resistive and
transformer. Resistive types can further be divided into continuously-variable and
switched types. The use of a simple variable series resistor is not recommended,
because this might lead to noticeable distortion at low volume levels.

A continuously-variable resistive control may be a simple potentiometer (of
adequate power rating) or a special type with two resistive elements, forming a
variable L-network. Such controls result in some power loss and some impedance
mismatching, which could result in changes in frequency response. This is most
noticeable with loudspeakers having large magnet systems and two-way
(woofer/tweeter) and multi-way systems having simple dividing (crossover)
networks. If used with loudspeakers having inexpensive magnet systems, an
increase in distortion might occur at low volume levels. This effect is due to
non-linearity of the driver system and can be reduced by adding a fixed resistor
so as to prevent the volume being reduced too far, and adding a switch to the
control if it is required to be able to silence the loudspeaker(s). In addition, or as
an alternative, measures can be taken to reduce the level of signals below the
main (bass) resonance frequency of the loudspeaker, which produce little useful
sound output.
The resistance of the potentiometer is typically four times the rated impedance
of the loudspeaker reflected through the line transformer if the attenuator is in
the primary circuit. This gives a power loss of just under 1 dB at maximum
setting, and a maximum source resistance (at 6 dB attenuation) equal to the
rated impedance. The effects of this value of source resistance on distortion are
usually negligible, but changes in the frequency response of multi-way systems
can be very significant, in which case a transformer-type control might be used.
Switched resistive controls can be based on the same circuit configurations as
continuously-variable controls, but it is also possible to use more complex
configurations which cause less power loss and less impedance mismatching.
Switched controls ought normally to have steps of approximately 3 dB
(2:1 power ratio); smaller steps have little audible effect.
Transformer controls may employ a tapped autotransformer or line transformer.
In the latter case, greater efficiency and reduced safety concerns arise if the
secondary winding is tapped. While generally larger and more expensive than
resistive controls, transformer controls give less power loss and better impedance
matching, with less chance of distortion at low volume levels.
B.2.2 Override circuits

Where local volume controls are provided, it might be necessary to be able to
override these from a remote point. This is often achieved by providing each
volume control with a relay which switches the attenuation to a lower value or
to minimum.

It is recommended that such systems use a fail-safe mode of operation, whereby

the presence of a control current is necessary for the volume control to function.
In this way, failure of the control voltage disables the volume controls
(see Figure B.1). In order to reduce the standing current required to energize
the relays, the control voltage may be applied through a parallel
resistor-capacitor circuit, so designed that a large current is available to pull the
relay in, while a smaller current, sufficient to hold the relay, flows continuously.
With suitable relays, a reduction of standing current to 25% of pull-in current is
possible. This technique may be applied individually to each relay, or to groups,
or to all of them.
The relay power supply is normally tolerant of brief short-circuits (such as might
happen during maintenance), and the technique mentioned earlier can help to
achieve this. The continuous short-circuit current is limited, for conformity with
safety standards, to a value which does not damage the power supply or cables.
Failure of the power supply normally causes an indication at the control point.
Another technique which may be employed is a three-conductor system, in
which the earthy ends of the volume controls (of the resistive type, but the
technique is not applicable to volume controls using auto-transformers or
tapped line transformers) are all connected to a return conductor separate from
that to which the earthy ends of the loudspeaker voice-coils or the line
transformer primary windings are connected. The separate return conductor is
then connected to the earthy output terminal of the amplifier via the contacts
of a switch, or the normally-open contacts of a single relay which is
de-energized in the “override” mode. Each loudspeaker is thus connected in
series with part of the volume control, and does not operate at true full volume.
An improvement may be obtained if, instead of simply disconnecting the volume
control return line from the amplifier earthy output terminal, it is connected
instead, by means of a changeover switch, or contact set on the relay, to the live
output terminal. This reduces the resistance in series with each loudspeaker, but
cannot eliminate it completely. The use of attenuators of less than four times
the (reflected) resistance of the loudspeakers entails greater power loss but
reduces the residual series resistance.
Figure B.1 Diagram showing the floating-return technique for disabling local loudspeaker attenuators
in an emergency

B.2.3 Characteristics in loudspeaker specifications, and methods of

measurement
A comprehensive list of characteristics to be specified is included in
BS EN 60268-5, and may sometimes be considered too long for convenience. The
following extracted list is expected to be short enough for all manufacturers to
use for all products. The order in which the characteristics are listed is that of
perceived interest to the prospective purchaser, rather than that of the list in
BS EN 60268-5. BS EN 60268-5 recommends that input voltages rather than input
powers are specified. This is because the values of power quoted are purely
notional, being related to the rated rather than the actual impedance, and this
convention leads to abuses and complications which are causing increasing
difficulty. For a transition period of several years, it is necessary to include both
specifications, until the use of voltage values is sufficiently widely accepted.

The list of characteristics and methods of measurement to be included is as
follows:
a) marking of terminals and controls (see BS 6840-2);
b) reference plane, reference point and reference axis (see
BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Clause 15);
c) rated impedance (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 16.1);
d) for electrodynamic drive units only, total Q-factor, Qt (see
BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 16.3), equivalent air volume of a loudspeaker
drive unit compliance, Vas (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 16.4), resonance
frequency, fr (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 19.2), and design data (see
BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Clause 28);
NOTE 1 The first three values in item d) are often known as the “Thiele-Small
characteristics”. While of greater importance for low-frequency drive units, their
specification can also assist the design of filter networks for high-frequency
drive units.
e) rated noise voltage or power (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Clause 18);
NOTE 2 The rated noise power used to be called “power handling capacity”.
f) characteristic sensitivity in a stated frequency band
(see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 20.3);
g) frequency response (curve) (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 21.1);
h) effective frequency range (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 21.2);
NOTE 3 This is not the same as the rated frequency range
(see BS EN 60268-5+A1:2009, 19.1), which is an arbitrary choice of the
manufacturer, including the effect of any specified filter circuit.
i) directional response patterns, for at least three frequencies within the
effective frequency range, one near the lower bound, one central and one
near the upper bound of the range (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 23.1);
j) directivity index (ratio) (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 23.3);
k) coverage angle (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, 23.4);
l) rated ambient conditions (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Clause 25); and
m) physical characteristics covering dimensions, weight, and connector and
cable data (see BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Clause 27).

Annex C Types of microphones

(informative)
C.1 General
Numerous microphone types and characteristics are available. They may be
classed by their directional response, type of generating element and physical
characteristics. If a microphone is placed very close to a loud source of sound, it
might be necessary to include an attenuator between the microphone and the
pre-amplifier, in order to prevent the latter being overloaded. Such attenuators
need careful design to preserve the correct impedances and circuit balance.
C.2 Directional responses

Microphones of the following types are available.
a) Omnidirectional microphones pick up sound equally from all directions, and

are thus not suitable when discrimination is required against either
reverberant sound pick-up, unwanted sound or noise pick-up.
b) Directional microphones do not pick up sound equally from all directions.
They may therefore be used in situations where it is desirable or necessary
to discriminate against sounds arriving from a particular direction or to
reduce reverberant sound pick-up.
NOTE 1 Directional microphones normally give the best results. Selection and
installation of highly directional microphones require considerable skill and
experience in order to achieve consistent loudness, unless the signal levels are
continuously monitored and adjusted. However, where a microphone has to be
located at a distance from the source (on a balcony front in a theatre for example) a
highly directional microphone might be required in order to achieve adequate
intelligibility.
NOTE 2 Although the term “unidirectional” is used in describing microphones, no
practicable microphone can really be described in this way, over the whole audio
frequency range.
Idealized directional responses of omnidirectional microphones and a selection
of directional microphones are shown in Figure C.1 to Figure C.7. The properties
of the hypercardioid and supercardioid responses are given in Figure C.8.
C.3 Type of generating element

The two most widely used types of microphone element are the dynamic
(moving coil) and the electret. Dynamic microphones are generally extremely
robust and offer a wide range of performance characteristics which are little
influenced by temperature and humidity, making them potentially suitable for
both indoor and outdoor use.
NOTE Good quality moving coil microphones offer a wide frequency response, but
this may be deliberately tailored to a particular characteristic to aid intelligibility, for
example by applying low-frequency cut-off.
Electret microphones are capable of providing a very smooth and extended
frequency response at a higher output level than the dynamic type. They need
to have their own external power supply to operate and are generally not as
robust as the dynamic microphone, but their higher sensitivity enables very small
electret capsules to be made that can be employed in a number of special types
of microphone. Some models have an internal battery, but these are best
avoided in professional installations due to their continual maintenance
requirements. They are, however, very convenient for portable use.

C.4 Physical characteristics

Lavalier microphones are small, usually dynamic, with an omnidirectional
response, designed for speech pick-up from lecturers, etc., and are fitted with a
neck cord, to be worn by the person speaking. Tie-clip microphones are small
and lightweight, usually electret, and may be clipped to the clothing of the
person speaking by a clip or lapel badge.
NOTE 1 These are generally omnidirectional but directional types are available.
Boundary-layer (pressure zone) microphones are based on a small, usually
electret, capsule fitted onto a special mounting plate. They are most useful for
recording purposes or sound pick-up of more than one person. The form and
mounting arrangement can substantially reduce the reverberant sound pick-up
of conventional microphones.
Noise-cancelling microphones are used in high-noise environments. These
microphones are highly insensitive to indirect sound pick-up and need a close
speaking distance.
NOTE 2 Generally, the frequency response is limited, and optimized for speech.
Radio microphones may be in the form of either a small tie-clip and pocket
transmitter or an all-in-one, hand-held or stand-mounted unit. They need a
separate receiver unit tuned to the microphone transmission frequency, but
allow freedom of movement. They are not suitable for use where a secure
transmission is required.
Figure C.1 Horizontal directional response of an omnidirectional microphone with its axis vertical:
decibel scale

Figure C.2 Directional response of a cardioid microphone: decibel scale

Figure C.3 Directional response of a supercardioid microphone: decibel scale

Figure C.4 Directional response of a hypercardioid microphone: decibel scale


Figure C.5 Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle) microphone where f = 250 Hz
and barrel length is 275 mm
NOTE Some microphones of this type have an approximately cardioid response (see Figure C.8) at low
frequencies.

Figure C.6 Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle) microphone where f = 2.5 kHz

Figure C.7 Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle) microphone where f = 10 kHz
Figure C.8 Relative operating distances of directional microphones for equal direct-to-reverberant
signal ratios
Distances in metres

Annex D Use and siting of microphones

(normative)
D.1 Distance between the microphone and the source of sound
When a directional microphone is used very close to the sound source, be that
an orator or a singer, there is a bass frequency increase (proximity effect) which
might or might not be desirable. Close talking or singing into a microphone
increases the chances of the explosive phona (such as “P”s or “S”s), producing a
popping effect. Careful choice of microphone can help in reducing the adverse
effect and a certain amount of equalization might also be beneficial and specific
to each user. A trained operator is usually needed under such circumstances if a
poor or mediocre result is to be avoided.
It is not possible to give numerical design procedures for determining the
maximum permissible distance between a microphone and the wanted source of

sound. Two primary factors should be jointly taken into account, i.e. general
noise and room reverberation.
The further a microphone is located away from the sound source, the weaker
the wanted signal becomes. This effectively reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and
also reduces the direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio. In order to
maintain an acceptable direct-to-reverberant signal ratio, the maximum
microphone distance should be limited to approximately 6 m to 10 m, even in
quiet auditoria with trained speakers and assuming a microphone having a
cardioid directional response. The use of a highly directional “shotgun”
microphone can extend the range up to 15 m for sound effects only. The effects
of reverberation, however, are additive to noise, and tend to reduce the
distance still further. For effective speech intelligibility, a direct-to-reverberant
ratio of greater than 0 dB is necessary. For hearing impaired listeners, a
direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio of at least +4 dB to +6 dB is
usually required, but this is highly dependent upon a number of factors,
including size, shape, volume and reverberation time of the room, and the
characteristics of any reflecting surfaces. In all cases the microphone should be
located as close as possible to the wanted sound source.
NOTE 1 For example in an auditorium with a volume of 3 000 m3 and a
reverberation time of 1.5 s, the maximum acceptable distance with two cardioid
microphones operating may be as little as 4 m to 5 m.
In other cases, and especially where the room configuration changes, one or
more microphones should be provided together with a mixer or mixing
amplifier, specifically for the sound system. Such microphones should be chosen
and sited with a view to obtaining as much direct sound from the original
sources as possible, and a uniform loudness balance if there are several sources.
Adjacent microphones should not be closer together than three times the
distance between the source of sound and the closest microphone. Where the
talker position is predictable, the microphone should be securely fixed and
maintained in position.
To avoid introducing audibly delayed signals, the difference in path lengths
between any source and the two nearest active microphones should not
exceed 5 m for music or 8 m for speech. Adjacent microphones should not be
closer together than three times the distance between the microphone and the
source of sound.

Inexpensive microphones, such as those intended for household use, should not
be used. Except for tie-clip, lavalier, and wireless microphones, those requiring
batteries should not be used, because of the inconvenience of replacing them.
Where questions or comments from an audience are to be relayed via the sound
system, highly directional microphones can be used. These should be positioned
so that in spite of the very restricted coverage provided by each microphone,
uniform pick-up from all audience positions is achieved. A separate
pre-amplification channel should be used for each of these microphones, and an
operator should control the channel gains when the microphones are in use.
Microphones should be located so as to have a clear “view” of the source they
are intended to cover, and should be located away from air conditioning grilles,
fans, strong air currents or other potential sources of acoustic noise pick-up, for
example fluorescent or theatre lighting, and video projectors.
NOTE 2 The use of appropriate equalization on an individual microphone channel

can considerably help to reduce unwanted room effects and low-frequency acoustic
noise transmission.
D.2 Use of several microphones

Microphones that are not directly picking up the wanted signal should be
switched off.
NOTE 1 The fewer the number of microphones in operation at any one time the
better the clarity and intelligibility of the wanted signal becomes. Microphone
mixers and pre-amplifiers that include voice switching or noise gating are extremely
useful when more than one or two microphones are needed and a trained operator
is not available.
NOTE 2 In small to medium-sized meeting rooms, a boundary-layer microphone
located centrally on the meeting table or on the ceiling immediately above it can
often prove more effective than four or five simultaneously operating cardioid
table microphones, as a more uniform and less “coloured” sound pick-up is possible.
However, the maximum distance over which such a device operates effectively is
likely to be less than approximately 3 m from the talker.
At larger distances than 3 m, use of a greater number of local microphones
should be considered to improve the direct-to-reverberant sound-pressure level
ratio, with the absolute minimum number of microphones being in operation at
any given time.
The direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio, K, should be calculated
from the following equation, if only a single microphone is used:
where:
Q is the directivity index of the microphone;
V is the volume of the room, in cubic metres (m3);
D is the distance between sound source and the microphone, in
metres (m); and
RT is the reverberation time of the room, in seconds (s).
If more than one microphone is used, the subject becomes significantly more
complicated and specialist advice should be sought.

Except for large auditoria and places of worship, RT for most medium to large
rooms is likely to be between 1 s and 2 s. Small rooms generally have a shorter
RT, e.g. around 0.5 s for well furnished (domestic) rooms and up to around 1 s
to 1.2 s for lecture theatres and similar sized rooms. Primary school classrooms
should have an RT value of 0.6 s or less, secondary schools 0.8 s, and open plan
areas/seminar rooms and assembly halls 0.8 s to 1.2 s. Lecture theatres should
have RT values <1.0 s and 0.8 s for small rooms (<50 people).
It should be taken into account that the equation assumes a diffuse, statistical
sound field to exist and does not take into account the effects of local
reflections, or non-exponential sound decay within the room. However, the
equation may be used to obtain an initial estimate of the likely maximum usable
microphone distances.
NOTE 3 The ratio K decreases by a factor of 3 dB each time the number of active
microphones in operation is doubled. For example, using two microphones instead
of one reduces the direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio by
approximately 3 dB.
NOTE 4 Since the equation for K includes the directivity index Q of the
microphone, the directional characteristic of the microphone affects the distance
from the source of sound at which a given direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level
ratio is achieved. The directional characteristics of some common types of
microphone are shown in Figure C.1 to Figure C.7. The hypercardioid characteristic
gives the maximum rejection of reverberant sound of all simple microphones, while
the supercardioid characteristic gives the maximum ratio of front to random energy
efficiency. The directional characteristics of highly-directional or shotgun
interference-tube rifle microphones vary considerably with frequency
(see Figure C.2 to Figure C.7), and they might therefore pick up considerable
low-frequency reverberation. This can be reduced by the careful use of equalization.
NOTE 5 A type of microphone which has low sensitivity to reverberant sound is the
boundary-layer (pressure-zone) microphone, in which the microphone capsule is
mounted very close to a plane reflecting surface, supplied as part of the
microphone. These microphones are designed to be placed in contact with a large
flat surface, and owe their reduced sensitivity to reverberation to the confinement
(by the large flat surface) of the directional response in three dimensions to
half-space, instead of the full-space which applies to other types of microphone. The
basic directional characteristic of the microphone capsule may be omnidirectional, in
which case the three-dimensional directional characteristic is a hemisphere, or a
cardioid, giving a three-dimensional pattern in the form of a half-cardioid of
revolution.
Figure C.8 shows the relative distances from the source of sound at which
different types of microphone can be operated, for a given direct-to-reverberant
sound pressure level ratio. The actual distance in all cases should be minimized,
but with a minimum distance of approximately 300 mm, below which breath
noise, coloration and large variations in signal level with small changes in
distance can lead to degradation of intelligibility.
NOTE 7 Two methods of positioning microphones on a conference table are
illustrated in Figure D.1, the 3 to 1 ratio for microphone positioning in
Figure D.2 and Figure D.3 and typical examples of good and bad microphone
positioning in Figure D.4.
The sound wave reflected from a desk top can interfere with the direct sound
(as shown in Figure D.5) which should be taken into account. This effect can
cause considerable unevenness in the frequency response above 1 kHz, which
should be minimized by positioning the microphone at least 150 mm above the
surface. The desk top around the microphone should be covered with a layer of
soft material, preferably at least 25 mm thick.

D.3 Electrical characteristics

The output from a microphone is generally of the order of a few millivolts. A
pre-amplifier with a considerable degree of gain, typically 60 dB to 70 dB, is
therefore necessary.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that microphone circuits are not
subjected to either RF or other forms of electrical interference. Microphone
circuits should be low impedance and balanced, and cables should be
segregated from other services by at least 300 mm or by the use of dedicated
and compartmentalized trunking or conduit.
D.4 Microphone mountings

When mounting microphones on lecterns or table tops, shock/vibration isolating

mounts should be used to reduce unwanted noise or vibration pick-up.
Figure D.1 Two methods of positioning microphones on a conference table
Figure D.2 The 3 to 1 ratio for microphone positioning (normal)

Figure D.3 A reduced 3 to 1 ratio using angled microphones

Figure D.4 Illustrations of good and bad microphone placements

Figure D.5 Optimization of the height of the microphone above the Table
Dimension in millimetres
Key
1 Layer of soft material

Annex E STI qualification bands

(informative)
Examples of STI qualification bands and typical applications are given in
Table E.1.
Table E.1 Examples of STI qualification bands and typical applications
Category Nominal STI Type of message Examples of typical uses Comment

value information (for natural or reproduced
voice)
A+ >0.76 — Recording studios Excellent

intelligibility but
rarely achievable in
most environments
A 0.74 Complex messages, Theatres, speech auditoria, High speech
unfamiliar words parliaments, courts, intelligibility
assistive hearing systems
(AHS)
B 0.7 Complex messages, — —
unfamiliar words
C 0.66 Complex messages, Theatres, speech auditoria, High speech
unfamiliar words teleconferencing, intelligibility
parliaments, courts
D 0.62 Complex messages, Lecture theatres, Good speech
familiar words classrooms, concert halls intelligibility
E 0.58 Complex messages, Concert halls, modern High quality PA
familiar context churches systems
F 0.54 Complex messages, PA systems in shopping Good quality PA
familiar context malls, public buildings systems
offices, voice alarm (VA)
systems, cathedrals
G 0.5 Complex messages, Shopping malls, public Target value for VA
familiar context buildings offices, VA systems
systems
H 0.46 Simple messages, VA and PA systems in Normal lower limit
familiar words difficult acoustic for VA systems
environments
I 0.42 Simple messages, VA and PA systems in very —
familiar context difficult spaces
J 0.38 — Not suitable for PA systems —
U <0.36 — Not suitable for PA systems —
NOTE 1 These values are minimum target values.
NOTE 2 Perceived intelligibility relating to each category also depends on the frequency response at each listening
position.
NOTE 3 The STI values refer to measured values in sample listening positions or as required by specific application
standards.

Annex F Examples of certificates

(informative)
F.1 Design certificate
Figure F.1 Design certificate

F.2 Installation certificate

Figure F.2 Installation certificate

F.3 Commissioning certificate

Figure F.3 Commissioning certificate

F.4 Acceptance certificate

Figure F.4 Acceptance certificate

F.5 Verification certificate

Figure F.5 Verification certificate

F.6 Servicing certificate

Figure F.6 Servicing certificate

F.7 Modification certificate

Figure F.7 Modification certificate

Annex G Dynamics processors (compressors and AGC)

(informative)
It is important to recognize that the distinction between automatic gain control
(AGC) and compression is not widely understood. AGC is characterized by
sufficient gain in the control loop to hold the steady-state amplifier output
current substantially constant for values of sinusoidal source e.m.f. above a
threshold value, and a release time-constant in the control loop of 1 s or
greater. AGC does not, when correctly implemented, change the subjective
quality of the programme signals.
Similarly, compression (amplitude compression) is characterized by gain in the
control loop set so that the steady-state amplifier output current increases with
source e.m.f. less than proportionally for values of sinusoidal source e.m.f above
a threshold value, and a release time-constant in the control loop of the order
of milliseconds. Compression changes the subjective quality of the programme

material.
For both techniques, the attack time-constant in the control loop is usually of
the order of milliseconds.
It is recognized that other definitions of automatic gain control, automatic
volume control and compression are in use, but the earlier definitions are
appropriate for this standard.
The compression ratio is the difference in decibels between an increment of
level of source e.m.f. and the resulting 1 dB increment of level of output
current. There is evidence that compression ratios in the region of 2 can improve
speech intelligibility, while values above 3 tend to make the sound quality
strident and unpleasant. Compression can depress speech levels undesirably in
noisy situations.
Figure G.1 shows typical steady-state output/input characteristics.
Figure G.1 Typical steady-state output/input characteristics
Key
AGC
Compression 2
Compression 3

Bibliography
Standards publications
For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the
latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
BS 5550-3.4.9:1987, Cinematography – Part 3: 35 mm film – Section 3.4 Sound –
Subsection 3.4.9 Specification for reproduction characteristics of the A-chain
frequency response for 35 mm photographic sound
BS 5839-8:2008, Fire detection and fire alarm systems for buildings – Part 8: Code
of practice for the design, installation, commissioning and maintenance of voice
alarm systems
BS 5839-9, Fire detection and fire alarm systems for buildings – Part 9: Code of
practice for the design, installation, commissioning and maintenance of
emergency voice communication systems
BS 6840-1:1987, Sound system equipment – Part 1: Methods for specifying and
measuring general characteristics used for equipment performance
BS 6840-2:1993, Sound system equipment – Part 2: Glossary of general terms and
calculation methods
measuring the characteristics of auxiliary passive elements
measuring the characteristics of automatic gain control devices
measuring the characteristics of artificial reverberation, time delay and
frequency shift equipment
measuring the characteristics of peak programme level meters
BS 6840-11:1994, Sound system equipment – Part 11: Specification for
application of connectors for the interconnection of sound system components
BS 6840-13:1998, Sound system equipment – Part 13: Listening tests on
loudspeakers
BS 6840-14:1987, Sound system equipment – Part 14: Guide for circular and
elliptical loudspeakers; outer frame diameters and mounting dimensions
measuring the characteristics of standard volume indicators
BS 6840-18:1996, Sound system equipment – Part 18: Peak programme level
meters. Guide for digital audio level meter
BS 7827:2011, Code of practice for designing, specifying, maintaining and
operating emergency sound systems at sports venues
BS EN 54-16:2008, Fire detection and fire alarm systems – Part 16: Voice alarm
control and indicating equipment
BS EN 54-24:2008, Fire detection and fire alarm systems – Part 24: Components
of voice alarm systems – Loudspeakers
BS EN 60268-3:2001, Sound system equipment – Part 3: Amplifiers
BS EN 60268-4:2010, Sound system equipment – Part 4: Microphones
BS EN 60268-5:2003+A1:2009, Sound system equipment – Part 5: Loudspeakers
BS EN 60268-7:2011, Sound system equipment – Part 7: Headphones and
earphones

BS EN 60268-12:1995, Sound system equipment – Part 12: Application of

connectors for broadcast and similar use
BS EN 60268-16:2011, Sound system equipment – Part 16: Objective rating of
speech intelligibility by speech transmission index
BS EN 61938:2013, Multimedia systems – Guide to the recommended
characteristics of analogue interfaces to achieve interoperability
BS EN 62305:2012, Protection against lightning
ISO 2603:1998, Booths for simultaneous interpretation – General characteristics
and equipment

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BS 6259:2015

Licensed for distribution by NAPIT under licence number 2019JK0003 © BSI

BSI Standards Publication

Code of practice for the

Publishing and copyright information

Amendments issued since publication

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • i

Table E.1 – Examples of STI qualification bands and typical applications 49

ii • © The British Standards Institution 2015

Information about this document

Use of this document

Contractual and legal considerations

Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from legal

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • iii

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 1

3 Terms and definitions

3.1.1 acoustic feedback

intolerable, and eventually the system might oscillate continuously at some

3.1.2 average sound pressure level (Lp)

3.1.4 reverberation time

2 • © The British Standards Institution 2015

3.2.4 speech transmission index

3.3.5 system designer

3.4 System features

3.4.2 control point

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 3

3.4.3 line-level voltage

3.5 System types

3.5.1 sound system

3.5.2 sound reinforcement system

4 • © The British Standards Institution 2015

Section 2: Exchange of information and definition of

British Standard, then a reference to the standard should be included in written

4.2 Purpose of the system

4.3 Obtaining technical advice

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 5

4.4 The nature of the advice

4.5 Professional (consultancy) advice

4.6 Choosing the system supplier

4.6.2 Approaching a contractor

4.6.3 Approaching a manufacturer of sound system equipment

6 • © The British Standards Institution 2015

Responsibility for choosing appropriate equipment (microphones, amplifier, etc.)

4.6.4 Approaching a specialist consultant

NOTE Such a consultant might be independent or might be a suitably competent

4.7 Performance specification

4.8 Specification for tests of completed installation

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 7

Section 3: Sound system design

5.2 Provisions for conveying emergency messages

8 • © The British Standards Institution 2015

Table 1 Overall view of planning stages

Stage Purpose of work and Tasks to be People directly Usual

A. Inception To prepare general Identify client Client organization, Briefing

order to allow the client site conditions, Project team leader,

© The British Standards Institution 2015 • 9

Table 1 Overall view of planning stages

Stage Purpose of work and Tasks to be People directly Usual

G. Works To enable the Prepare workshop Project team leader, Site