Mandal - Power Electronics-MC GRAW HILL INDIA (2014)

Power electronics
About the Author
Soumitra Kumar Mandal has a BE degree in Electrical Engineering from

Bengal Engineering College, Shibpur, and an MTech (Electrical Engineering)
with specialisation in Power Electronics from Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi. He received his PhD degree from
Panjab University, Chandigarh. He started his career as a lecturer of Electrical
Engineering, SSGM College of Engineering, Shegaon. After that he joined as
a lecturer at Panjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, and served there from
March 1999 to January 2004. Presently, he is Associate Professor in Electrical
Engineering at National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research,
Kolkata, since February 2007. He is also a life member of ISTE and a member of IE. In the span of
his academic career, he has published about 25 research papers in national and international journals
and presented many papers in national and international conferences. His research interests are in
the field of computer-controlled drives, microprocessor- and microcontroller-based system design,
embedded system design and neuro-fuzzy computing.
Power electronics
soumitra Kumar Mandal

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Association of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research,
Kolkata, West Bengal
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Power Electronics
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contents
Preface xi
1. Introduction to Power Electronics 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of Power Electronics 3
1.3 Classification of Power Semiconductor Devices 8
1.4 Applications of Power Electronics Devices 9
1.5 Advantages of Power Electronics Converters 11
1.6 Disadvantages of Power Electronics Converters 11
Summary 13
Multiple-Choice Questions 13
Fill in the Blanks 14
Review Questions 14
2. Power Semiconductor Diodes and Circuits 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Structure of a Power Diode 15
2.3 I-V Characteristics of Power Diode 17
2.4 Conductivity Modulation in Power Diode 19
2.5 Breakdown Voltage of Power Diode in Reverse Bias Condition 20
2.6 Reverse Recovery Characteristics of Power Diode 22
2.7 Comparison Between General Low Power Diode and Power Diode 25
2.8 Schottky Power Diodes 25
2.9 Fast Recovery Power Diodes 27
2.10 Power Diode Ratings 27
Summary 28
Review Questions 30
3. Power Transistor 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Structure of Power Bipolar Junction Transistor 31
3.3 I-V Characteristics 35
3.4 On State Loss of Power BJT 38
3.5 Safe Operating Area of Power BJT 41
vi Contents
3.6 Series and Parallel Operation of BJT 42

3.7 Switching Characteristics of Power BJT 44
3.8 Power MOSFET 49
3.9 I-V Characteristics of Power MOSFET 52
3.10 On-State Loss Power MOSFET 53
3.11 Safe Operating Area of Power MOSFET 54
3.12 Series and Parallel Operation of Power MOSFET 56
3.13 Switching Characteristics of Power MOSFET 58
3.14 Comparison Between Power MOSFET and Power BJT 60
3.15 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor 61
3.16 I-V Characteristics of IGBT 63
3.17 Safe Operating Area of IGBT 67
3.18 Switching Characteristics of IGBT 68
3.19 Comparison Between Power MOSFET and IGBT 71
3.20 Static Induction Transistor (SIT) 72
3.21 Drive Circuits for BJT, MOSFET and IGBT 74
Summary 92
Review Questions 95
4. Thyristors 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 99
4.3 Diode Model of Thyristor 103
4.4 Two-Transistor Analogy of Thyristors 103
4.5 Transient Model of Thyristor 105
4.6 Turn-On or Triggering Methods of Thyristor 106
4.7 Switching Characteristics of SCR 107
4.8 Gate Characteristics 112
4.9 Ratings of Thyristor 124
4.10 Voltage Ratings 124
4.11 Current Ratings 126
4.12 Protection of Thyristor 132
4.13 Design of Snubber Circuit 137
4.14 Series and Parallel Connection of Thyristors 142
4.15 Series Connection of Thyristors 143
4.16 Parallel Connection of Thyristors 148
4.17 Triggering Circuits for Thyristors 152
4.18 Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 159
4.19 Relaxation Oscillator 161
4.20 UJT Triggering Circuit 162
4.21 Synchronized UJT Triggering Circuit 163
4.22 RAMP and Pedestal Triggering 165
4.23 Gate Drive Circuit of Thyristor with Isolation 169
4.24 Commutation of Thyristor 182
4.25 DIAC 202
4.26 TRIAC 204
Contents vii
4.27 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) 211

Summary 221
Review Questions 231
5. Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 241
5.1 Introduction 241
5.2 Classification of Rectifiers 241
5.3 Single-Phase Half-Wave Uncontrolled Converter with Resistive Load 242
5.4 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Transformer Coupled Input 248
5.5 Fourier Series of Output Voltage of a Half-Wave Rectifier 249
5.6 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with L Load 250
5.7 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with C Load 252
5.8 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RL Load 253
5.9 Single-Phase Half-Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier with RL Load and
Free Wheeling Diode 256
5.10 Battery Charger 258
5.11 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier 261
5.12 Centre-Tapped Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier 261
5.13 Single-Phase Bridge Rectifier 268
5.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier 271
5.15 Comparison of Rectifiers 271
5.16 Fourier Series of the Output Voltage of a Full-Wave Rectifier 272
5.17 Single-Phase Full-Wave Uncontrolled Converter with RL Load 272
5.18 Single-Phase Full-Wave Uncontrolled Converter with R-L-E Load 275
5.19 Effect of Transformer Leakage Inductance in Full Wave Rectifier with
R-L Load 278
Summary 280
6. Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 286
6.2 Classification of Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 287
6.3 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Converters with R Load 287
6.4 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Converters with RL Load 292
6.5 Single-phase Half-Controlled Converters with RL Load and
Free Wheeling Diode 296
6.6 Single-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Converters with RE Load 299
6.7 Single-phase Half-Wave Controlled Converters with RLE Load 305
6.8 Single-Phase Full-Wave-Controlled Rectifiers Using Centre Tap Transformer 307
6.9 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier Using Centre Tap Transformer
with R Load 307
with RL Load 311
with RL Load and Free Wheeling Diode 315
viii Contents

with RLE Load 318
6.13 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifier 321
6.14 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with R Load 321
6.15 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RL Load 323
6.16 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Rectifier with Free Wheeling Diode Df
and RL Load 326
6.17 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RLE 326
6.18 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier with R Load 341
6.19 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RL Load 343
6.20 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifier with RLE 348
with Transformer Leakage Inductance and R-L Load 357
6.22 Effect of Source Inductance in Performance of Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled
Bridge Rectifier with RL Load 359
6.23 Dual Converters 362
Summary 368
7. Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 376
7.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier 377
7.3 Six-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier 382
7.4 Multiphase Rectifier 386
7.5 Three-Phase Double Star Rectifier with Inter-Phase Transformer 388
7.6 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier 389
7.7 Six-Phase Series Bridge Rectifiers 396
7.8 Six-Phase Parallel Bridge Rectifier 400
7.9 Comparative Performance of Different Three Phase Rectifiers 401
Summary 401
8. Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 405
8.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier 406
8.3 Three-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load 417
8.4 Six-Pulse or Six-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier 431
8.5 Multi-Phase Controlled Rectifier 436
8.6 Three-Phase Full-Controlled Bridge Rectifier 439
8.7 Three-Phase Semiconverter 459
8.8 Effect of Source Impedance on the Performance of Three-Phase Full Bridge
Converters 470
8.9 Twelve-Pulse Converters 475
Contents ix
8.10 Three-Phase Dual Converters 477

Summary 483
9. AC Voltage Controllers and Cycloconverters 491
9.2 Integral Cycle Control 492
9.3 Phase-Controlled Single-Phase ac Voltage Controller 496
9.4 Single-Phase Half-Wave ac Voltage Controller With R Load 497
9.5 Single-Phase Full-Wave ac Voltage Controller With R Load 500
9.6 Single-Phase ac Voltage Controller with Resistive and Inductive Load 509
9.7 AC Voltage Controllers with Purely Inductive Load 513
9.8 Three-Phase ac Voltage Controller 521
9.9 Delta-Connected Thyristor and Load Configuration 523
9.10 Delta-Connected R Load Configuration of Three Phase ac Voltage Controller 526
9.11 Three-Phase ac Voltage Controller with Y connected R Load 528
9.12 Applications of ac Voltage Controller 531
9.13 Cycloconverter 538
9.14 Single-Phase to Single-Phase Step-up Cycloconverters 539
9.15 Single-Phase to Single-Phase Step-Down Cycloconverters 543
9.16 Three-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter 554
9.17 Three-Phase to Three-Phase Cycloconverter 559
9.18 Output Voltage of a Cycloconverter 561
Summary 563
10. DC-to-DC Converters (Choppers) 575
10.2 Operating Principle of dc-to-dc Converter 576
10.3 Control Strategies 577
10.4 Operating Principle of Step-up Chopper 583
10.5 Classification of dc-to-dc Converters or Choppers 586
10.6 Steady-State Analysis of Step-Down Chopper 591
10.7 Non-Isolated dc-to-dc Converters (Choppers) 611
10.8 Isolated dc-to-dc Converters (Choppers) 630
10.9 Voltage or Impulse Commutated Chopper 640
10.10 Load Commutated Chopper 646
10.11 Current Commuted Chopper 651
10.12 Jones Chopper 659
10.13 Morgan Chopper 663
10.14 Multiphase Choppers 664
Summary 668
x Contents
11. Inverters 679

11.2 Classification of Inverters 680
11.3 Performance Parameters of Inverters 682
11.4 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter 682
11.5 Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter 693
11.6 Three-Phase Inverter 706
11.7 Pulse Width Modulated Inverters 720
11.8 Resonant Converters 733
11.9 Classification of Resonant Converters 740
11.10 Voltage Control of Inverters 745
11.11 Harmonic Reduction in Output Voltage of Inverter 748
11.12 McMurray Half-Bridge Inverter (Auxiliary Impulse Commuted Inverter) 753
11.13 Modified McMurray Half-Bridge Inverter 756
11.14 McMurray Full-Bridge Inverter 762
11.15 Modified McMurray Full-Bridge Inverter 763
11.16 McMurray Bedford Half-Bridge Inverter 765
11.17 McMurray Bedford Full-Bridge Inverter 770
11.18 Current Source Inverter 770
11.19 Comparison Between Voltage Source Inverter and Current Source Inverter 778
Summary 779
12. Applications of Power Electronics in Electrical Drives, Power Factor
Improvement, UPS 790
12.2 DC Motor Drives 791
12.3 Single-Phase dc Drive 795
12.4 Three-Phase dc Drives 806
12.5 DC-to-dc Converter (Chopper) Fed dc Drives 820
12.6 Two-Quadrant Chopper-Fed dc Drives 831
12.7 Four-Quadrant Chopper-Fed dc Drives 832
12.8 AC Drives 833
12.9 Induction Motor Drives 835
12.10 Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motor 840
12.11 Synchronous Motor Drives 855
12.12 Power Factor Improvement 863
12.13 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) 868
Summary 869
PrefAce
Why Power Electronics?

Power Electronics is the technology that applies to conversion and control of electric power and
serves as the interface between electronic technology and electric power. The term Power Electronics
originated sometime at the beginning of the 19th century, with the development of mercury-arc
rectifiers, but the real revolution started in 1956 with the development of thyristors. The most popular
semiconductor device of the thyristor family is the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), introduced by
General Electric in 1957. With the advent of the SCR, power electronics entered a new age.
Continuous evolution of the semiconductor technology ensured furtherance in power electronics
with the advent of power semiconductor devices such as the Power BJT, Power MOSFET, TRIAC,
GTO, IGBT, LASCR, PUT, LAPUT, RBDT, RCDT, RCTT, SBS, SUS, SIT, SITH, RCT, MCT, etc.,
Presently, power electronics is one of the, if not the most active, disciplines for research in electric
power engineering.
Prerequisites
A thorough understanding of power electronics can only be attained through an ability to apply
fundamental concepts learnt in several disciplines such as semiconductor physics, analog and digital
electronics, circuit theory, signals and systems, analog and digital control systems, signal processing,
electromagnetics, electrical machines and power systems. Hence, my advice to my dear students and
readers would be to equip themselves with a solid background of the prerequisites prior to embarking
on the road to master power electronics
Who can Use this Book?

This book caters to undergraduate and polytechnic students, as well as practicing engineers. For all
students of Electrical, Instrumentation, Electronics, Electronics & Communication, Electrical &
Electronics and Industrial Electronics Engineering, power electronics is now a compulsory subject
offering. Those in the automation and process control industries, other than industries related to the
disciplines mentioned above, will also find this book extremely useful.
Another group who could benefit immensely from this humble offering are those who are serious
about cracking competitive examinations such as IES, UPSC, GATE, etc. When developing this book,
a conscious effort has been made in incorporating the curriculum requirements of these important
examinations.
xii Preface
Why Should You Choose this Book?

It is because this book provides an interesting and eclectic mix of concepts, examples, applications
and various pedagogical features. Highlights of the book have been listed below:
d A dedicated chapter on ac and dc drives
d Equivalent circuits provided for most power circuits
d Elaborate derivations
d A variety of numerical examples designed on semester and competitive examination patterns
d Complete coverage of the various university syllabi on Power Electronics
Pedagogy includes
d Over 700 brilliant illustrations
d Over 230 Solved Examples!
d More than 550 Review Questions
d 650 and more Objective Type Questions
Chapter Organization of the Book

The book contains 12 chapters.
Chapter 1 covers the evolution of power electronics’ devices and their applications in different
converter circuits in detail.
Chapter 2 deals with the construction, operating principles, ratings, series and parallel operation of
power diode in a generalized way. This chapter also covers diode circuits with different types of loads:
R, R-L, RLC and L and the diode circuit for energy recovery operation.
Chapter 3 describes the construction, operating principles, characteristics, ratings, safe operating area
(SOA), switching characteristics, series and parallel operation, gate and base drive circuits of power
BJT, power MOSFET, IGBT and SIT elaborately.
Chapter 4 deals with the construction, operating principles, characteristics, ratings, series and parallel
operation of thyristors. Two-transistor analogy, transistor model, triggering methods, gate-switching
characteristics, protection, snubber circuit and firing circuits of thyristors are discussed elaborately.
In this chapter, the commutation of thyristors, both natural and forced, are incorporated in detail.
The structure, operating principle, I-V characteristics, switching characteristics and drive circuits of
DIAC, TRIAC and GTO are explained.
Chapter 5 introduces single-phase uncontrolled rectifiers with R, R-L, R-L-E loads with and without
freewheeling diodes. The effect of transformer leakage inductance in performance of single-phase
full-wave rectifiers and applications of filters to reduce ripples at output voltage are also incorporated.
Chapter 6 covers single-phase controlled rectifiers (half-wave controlled, full-wave controlled rectifier
using centre-tap transformer, bridge converter and semi-converter, etc.) with R, R-L, R-L-E loads with
and without freewheeling diodes. The effect of transformer leakage inductance and source inductance
in performance of single-phase full-wave controlled rectifiers and the operation of single-phase dual
converters are explained in detail.
Chapter 7 presents the operating principle of three-phase uncontrolled rectifiers (half-wave rectifier
and bridge rectifier), six-phase half-wave rectifier, multiphase rectifier, six-phase series bridge rectifier,
and six-phase parallel bridge rectifier with load.
Preface xiii
Chapter 8 covers the operation of different three-phase controlled rectifiers with R, R-L, and R-L-E
load. The effect of source inductance in performance of three-phase bridge converters and the operation
of three-phase dual converters are discussed elaborately in this chapter.
Chapter 9 deals with ac voltage controllers and cycloconverters. The operating principle of ON and
OFF control and phase control of single-phase ac voltage controllers with R and R-L load, three-phase
ac voltage controllers with delta- and star-connected load, and applications of ac voltage controller
in tap changer and ac chopper are explained in detail. The principle of operation of single-phase to
single- phase, three-phase to single-phase, and three-phase to three-phase cycloconverters are also
incorporated.
Chapter 10 describes the classification of chopper, time ratio control and current limit control strategies,
step-down choppers, step-up choppers, derivation of load voltage and currents with R, R-L and R-L-E
load, Morgan’s chopper, Jones chopper and oscillation chopper, non-isolated dc-to-dc converters such
as Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost and CUK converters, isolated dc-to-dc converters, namely fly-back,
forward, push-pull, half-bridge and full-bridge converters.
Chapter 11 covers single-phase and three-phase voltage source inverters, different control strategies
such as PWM techniques, sinusoidal PWM, modified sinusoidal PWM and multiple PWM, voltage and
harmonic control, series resonant inverter, current source inverters, McMurray, modified McMurray,
McMurray Bedford inverters and their applications.
Chapter 12 deals with thyristor-controlled dc drives, single-phase series dc motor drives, three-phase
dc motor drives, dual-converter fed dc motor drives, reversible dc drives, speed regulation of dc series
and shunt motor, dc chopper-fed dc drives. Thyristor-controlled ac drives, various speed-control schemes
of induction motor and synchronous motor are explained in detail.
Get More on the Web

In this age of technology, we have something for the tech-savvy.
Visit http://www.mhhe.com/mandal/pe to access the following:
For Instructors
Solution Manual, PowerPoint Lecture Slides
For Students
Various concepts, illustrations, examples which will take your knowledge further
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude towards the cooperation and inspiration received from Dr S K
Bhattacharya, Former Director NITTTR, Kolkata; Dr S Chakraborty, Director NITTTR, Kolkata; Dr
Gurnam Singh, PEC, Chandigarh; Dr S Chatterjee, NITTTR, Chandigarh; Prof. Amitabha Sinha, Former
Director School of IT, WBUT; Dr C K Chanda, and Dr P Shyam, Professor of Electrical Engineering,
Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur; Late Prof. R Shrinivasan; Prof. P Sarkar; Dr S
Chattopadhay, Associate Professor;and Dr S Pal, Assistant Professor, NITTTR, Kolkata.
I am also thankful to the other staff of Electrical Engineering—Mr A K Das, Mr N K Sarkar, Mr
S Roy Choudhury, and Mr Surojit Mallick—who helped me complete the manuscript of this book.
Special thanks to the reviewers mentioned here, as well as those who chose to remain anonymous,
for taking out time and providing valuable suggestions regarding improvement of the manuscript:
Debadyuti Banerjee Academy of Technology, Hooghly, West Bengal
Snehashish Pal JIS College of Engineering, Kalyani, West Bengal
xiv Preface
Saroj Ranjan Pattnaik Eastern Academy of Science and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Anil J Patil Shri Gulabrao Deokar College of Engineering, Jalgaon,
Maharashtra
Chirag Dalal Dharmsinh Desai University, Nadiad, Gujarat
Dattatray Surykant Sawant Sardar Patel Institute of Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Somasundram T Mahendra Institute of Engineering and Technology, Namakkal
Tamil Nadu
B Geethalakshmi Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry
Rajani Kanth V Sri Kalahasteeswara Institute of Technology, Srikalahasti,
Andhra Pradesh
G Manohar CVR College of Engineering, Vastunagar, Andhra Pradesh
P Satish Kumar University College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
I would also like to thank the editorial team at McGraw Hill Education (India) for bringing out this
book in its present form.
Feedback
Let me know what you think of this book. Readers can write to me at [email protected].
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IntroductIon to Power
electronIcs
1
1.1 IntroductIon
Power Electronics is the study of conversion and control of electric power. In other
words, it is the interface between electronics and power. The primary work of power
electronics is to process and control the flow
of electric energy by providing voltages and
currents in a form which is optimally suited
for consumer demands. This conversion of
electric power is called power electronics
converter, as depicted in Fig. 1.1. Power
electronics converters are also known as Fig. 1.1 Conversion of electric power
power converters or converters or switching
converters or power electronic circuits.
Any power electronic system consists of power electronics converter and controller
including the corresponding measurement and interface circuits. Power converters are
used to convert electric power of one form to another using power semiconductor device,
whereas controllers are required to generate control signals for turn on and turn off of
switching devices. Subsequently, the required output voltage at specified frequency is
available at output terminals. The basic structure of a power electronic-based system is
shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 A power electronics-based system

2 Power Electronics
The source of electric power is dc generator, Photovoltaic (PV) Cell and Battery, i.e., dc power and
alternator and induction generator, i.e., ac power. The controlled power flows from ac/dc power source
to load through a power electronics converter. The power converter is also called power semiconductor
converter or power modulator.
The output of a power electronics converter may be a variable dc or a variable ac with variable
voltage and frequency. Usually, the output of a power converter depends upon the requirement of load.
When the load is three-phase induction motor, the converter output will be adjustable ac voltage and
frequency. If the load is dc motor, the converter output will be adjustable dc voltage.
The feedback signals are the measured parameters of the load, i.e., voltage, current, speed and
position. These signals are used as input signals of controller. The command signals are also applied
to the controller. Then the feedback signals are compared with the reference or command signals and
accordingly the control signals are generated by the controller to turn-on the semiconductor switches
of power converter. Consequently, the required output at the load is obtained.
The control circuit is the heart of the system as it provides triggering pulses to power semiconductor
switches of converter. The synchronising circuit is required for dc-to-ac converter and ac-to-ac
converters circuits, but the synchronising circuit is not required for dc-to-dc converter. The detail
operations of different triggering circuits are explained in Chapter 4.
Presently, power electronics is the most active discipline in electric power engineering and it is
related with other disciplines such as semiconductor physics, analog and digital electronics, circuit
theory, analog and digital control system, signal processing, electromagnetic, electrical machine and
power system. Figure 1.3 shows the relation between power electronics and other disciplines.
Fig. 1.3 Relation between power electronics and other disciplines
Due to very fast development in semiconductor physics, electronics devices and circuits, advanced
control theory, signal processing and processor technology, applications of power electronics have
improved significantly. At present, the major issues in power electronics are the following:
d To fulfill the requirements of consumer demand.
d To improve the system efficiency for reliable operation of power semiconductor devices as well
as energy saving.
d To implement power conversion with less volume, less weight, and less cost.
Introduction to Power Electronics 3
d To reduce negative influence to other equipments in the electric power system and the
electromagnetic environment.
In this chapter, a brief history of power electronics, symbols, characteristics and ratings of power
semiconductor devices, classification and applications of solid state power devices, different types of
power electronics converter with their applications, advantages, disadvantages and scope of power
electronics converter, ideal switch and practical switch, and dynamic performance of switches are
discussed elaborately.
1.2 HIstory of Power electronIcs

Power electronics originated at the beginning of 19th century with the development of mercury-arc
rectifiers. A mercury-arc rectifier or mercury-vapor valve is a type of electrical rectifier which is used
to convert high ac voltage into dc voltage. They were very useful to provide power for industrial
motors, electric railways and electric locomotives, as well as high
voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission. The mercury-
arc rectifiers with glass envelope, grid controlled mercury-arc
rectifiers and mercury-arc rectifiers with metal envelope were
developed in 1900, 1903 and 1908 respectively. Figure 1.4 shows
the glass-bulb envelope mercury-arc rectifier Thyratrons, i.e., hot-
cathode mercury arc rectifier with grid control was developed by
Langmuir in 1914.
Thyratron is a type of gas filled tube which is used as a high
voltage electrical switch and a controlled rectifier. Usually,
thyratrons are manufactured as triode, tetrode and pentode. Due
to the mercury vapour or neon or xenon gas fill, thyratrons can Fig. 1.4 A glass-bulb envelope
handle much greater currents. Figure 1.5 shows a triode thyraton. mercury-arc rectifier
In 1925, the first solid state power device, selenium rectifier was
developed without a glass tube as depicted in Fig. 1.6. The selenium
rectifier is also known as metal rectifier. The selenium rectifier is
an early type of semiconductor rectifier in which the semiconductor
is copper oxide or selenium. This device is used in phase controlled
converters, inverters, battery chargers and cyclo-converters.
In 1930, cyclo-converters, i.e., a variable frequency output voltage
from fixed frequency input voltage, were developed by Rissik. During
1933, Lenz developed the ac voltage regulator or controller using
solid state power devices. In 1947, the point-contact transistor was
developed by W. H. Brattain, J. Bardeen and W. Shockley.
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) using germanium was
invented in 1948 and this was the beginning of the new age of
semiconductor electronics. There has been much reduction in size,
cost, and power consumption of solid state power devices and
simultaneously the research is going on to develop equipments with Fig. 1.5 A triode thyratron
more complexity and more power handling capability.
A 100A germanium power diode was developed in 1953. A new revolution began in 1956 with
the development of thyristor, i.e., a four-layer silicon PNPN device. The most popular semiconductor
device of the thyristor family is the SCR which was introduced by General Electric in 1957.
4 Power Electronics
Fig. 1.6 A selenium rectifier Fig. 1.7 Power semiconductor devices
In 1964, the power FET was developed Zuleeg and Teszner. The VMOSFET was the first
commercially available power FET followed by vertical DMOS (double-diffused MOS) and the
HEXFET. The development of power FET has witnessed significant effects on the power semiconductor
industry.
Generally, the most commonly used power semiconductor devices are power diodes, power BJT,
power MOSFET, thyristors, SCR, GTO, DIAC, TRIAC and IGBT. When these devices are in ON state,
switches are closed and these devices behave just like ordinary switches. Current flows from source to
load through power semiconductor devices as well as load. In the same way, when these devices are in
OFF state, switch is opened and no current flows from source to load. Power semiconductor devices are
available in wide range of voltage from few volts to several kV and current from few amperes to several
kA. Table 1.1 shows the symbols and characteristics of power semiconductor devices. The voltage and
current rating, switching frequency, and switching time of power semiconductor devices are given in
Table 1.2. Power semiconductor devices should have the following properties:
d Breakdown voltage should be very high
d On state voltage drop should be low
d On state resistance should be low
d Turn-on and turn-off process should be very fast
d Power dissipation capacity is high
Table 1.1 Symbols and characteristics of power semiconductor devices
Device Name Symbol I-V Characteristics
Power Diode
(Contd.)
Power BJT
NPN
Power
MOSFET
Thyristors
(SCR)
(Contd.)
6 Power Electronics
Light Activated
SCR
IGBT
GTO
Or
(Contd.)
DIAC
TRIAC
MCTs
8 Power Electronics
Table 1.2 Voltage and current rating, switching frequency, and switching time of power semiconductor devices
Device Name Voltage/ Maximum Switching Switching On-state
current rating operating on time off time resistance
frequency
Generalised 5 kV/5 kA 1 kHz 50 to 100 ms 50 to 100 ms 0.3 to 0.6 milli-ohm
Power Diode
High Speed 3 kV/1 kA 20 kHz 5 to 10 ms 5 to 10 ms 1.2 to 1.96 milli-ohm
Power Diode
Power BJT 1400 V/400 A 10 kHz 2 ms 9 to 30 ms 4 to 10 milli-ohm
Power MOSFET 1 kV/50 A 100 kHz 0.1 ms 1 to 2 ms 1 to 2 milli-ohm
Thyristors 10 kV/5 kA 1 kHz 2 to 5 ms 20 to 100 ms 0.25 to 0.75 milli-ohm
IGBT 3.3 kV/2.500 A 50 kHz 0.2 ms 2–5 ms 2 to 40 milli-ohm
GTO 5 kV/3 kA 2 kHz 3 to 5 ms 10–25 ms 2.5 milli-ohm
TRIAC 1200 V/300 A 0.5 kHz 2 to 5 ms 200 to 400 ms 3.5 milli-ohm
MCTs 1200 V/100 A 20 kHz 0.2 ms 50 to 110 ms 10 to 25 milli-ohm
1.3 classIfIcatIon of Power semIconductor devIces

In general, the power semiconductor devices may be classified as the following:
1. Power diodes
2. Power BJTs
3. Power MOSFETs
4. Power IGBT
5. Thyristors (SCR, DIAC, TRIAC)
The power semiconductor devices can be classified based on the following factors:
1. Number of layers of semiconductor materials used in the device
2. Driver circuit used in the device
3. Carrier used in the device
4. Number of terminals in the device
5. Triggering methods
Based on the layers of semiconductor materials used, these devices can also be classified as two
layer, three layer, four layers and multilayer device as depicted in Fig. 1.8(a). Power semiconductor
devices are also classified based on driver circuit as shown in Fig. 1.8(b).
Fig. 1.8(a) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on number of the layers of semiconductor
materials used in the device
Fig. 1.8(b) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on driver circuit used in the device
The power semiconductor devices can also be classified as majority carrier devices and minority
carrier devices as depicted in Fig. 1.8(c). The majority carrier devices are called unipolar devices and
minority carrier devices are known as bipolar devices. Power semiconductor devices are also classi-
fied based on number of terminals such as two-terminal devices and three-terminal devices as shown
in Fig. 1.8(d). These devices can also be classified as triggering methods such as pulse triggering
devices and level triggering devices. Figure 1.8(e) shows the classification of power semiconductor
devices based on triggering methods.
Fig. 1.8(c) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on carrier used in the device
Fig. 1.8(d) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on number of terminals
Fig. 1.8(e) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on triggering methods
1.4 aPPlIcatIons of Power electronIcs devIces

Power semiconductor devices have a wide spectrum of applications in household products, industrial
and commercial applications, transportation and utility systems, Telecommunications, aerospace and
10 Power Electronics
defense applications, Electrical power system and space technology. The detail applications of power
semiconductor devices are given below.
1. Residential and home appliances
d Lighting control d Heating, electric blankets d Air conditioning
d Cooking d Refrigeration, freezers d Vacuum cleaners
d Sewing machines d Washing machines d Grinders and mixers
d Entertain equipments d Games and toys d Dryers and door openers
2. Industrial applications
d dc motor drives d ac motor drives d Induction heating
d Welding, lighting d Refrigeration d Arc furnaces and ovens
d Sewing machines d Electrolysis d Grinders and mixers
d Electroplating d Pumps, compressors d Industrial robot, elevator
d Crane and hoist d Traffic signal control d Machine tool
3. Commercial applications
d Battery charger d Audio amplifiers d Induction heating, Electric dryer
d Computer d Central refrigeration d Lighting, Security systems
d Office equipments d Elevator d Air conditioning
d Photocopiers d Electric fans d Vending machines
4. Transportation applications
d Electric trains, locomotives d Trolley buses d Magnetic levitation
d Electric vehicles d Subways d Automotive electronics
d Street cars d Elevator d Battery chargers
5. Power system applications

d High voltage dc (HVDC) transmission system d Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS)
d Static VAR compensation (SVC) d Harmonics suppression
d Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) d Thyristor switch capacitor (TSC)
d Custom power and power quality control d Energy storage systems
d Non-conventional energy sources d Alternator excitation system
d Static circuit breakers d Fans and boiler-feed pumps
6. Telecommunications Applications
d Battery chargers d DC power supply and UPS
d VLF transmitters, radars d Power supply of wireless communication equipments
7. Aero space Applications

d Aircraft power system d Spaceship power systems
d Space vehicle power systems d Spaceship power system
1.5 advantages of Power electronIcs converters

The advantages of power electronics converters are as follows:
d Increase efficiency of power converter due to less loss in power semiconductor devices.
d High reliability of power converter-based system.
d Life period of power converter circuit is long.
d Less maintenance is required due to absence of moving components in power electronics
converters.
d The dynamic response of power electronics converters is very fast compared to electromechanical
converters.
d The size and weight of power electronics converters is less. Hence the installation cost is low.
1.6 dIsadvantages of Power electronIcs converters

The disadvantages of power electronics converters are as follows:
d Generate harmonics in the supply system as well as in the load.
d The ac-to-dc and ac-to-ac converters operate at low power factor under certain conditions.
Always try to avoid the low power factor operation of power converters.
d The overload capacity of power electronics converters is low.
d The cost of power electronics converters is high.
Example 1.1 A switching waveform of a normal practical switch as shown in Fig. 1.9 has the following
parameters:
V = 250 V, Von = 1.5 V, I = 80 A, t d = 0.5 ms, tr = 1.5 ms, ton = 100 ms, t s = 2.5 ms, t f = 3m s, toff = 3 ms
(a) Determine switching frequency.
(b) Find Pturn-on , Pturn-off , Pon-state and PD.
Fig. 1.9
Solution
Given: V = 250 V, I = 80 A, Von = 1.5 V, t d = 0.5 ms, tr = 1.5 ms, ton = 100 ms, t s = 2.5 ms, t f = 3 ms, toff = 30 ms
(a) The total time period is
Ts = TON + TOFF
= t d + tr + ton + ts + t f + toff
= (0.5 + 1.5 + 100 + 2.5 + 3 + 30) ms = 137.5 ms
The switching frequency is fs = 1 = 1
Hz = 7.272 kHz
Ts 137.5 ¥ 10 - 6
1 1
(b) Average turn-ON loss is equal to Pturn-on = VItr fs + Von Itr fs
6 3
1 3 1
= ¥ 250 ¥ 80 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10 ¥ 7.272 ¥ 10 + ¥ 1.5 ¥ 80 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 7.272 ¥ 103 W
-6
6 3
= 36.796 W.
1 1
Average turn-OFF loss is equal to Pturn-off = VIt f fs + Von It f fs
6 3
1 1
= ¥ 250 ¥ 80 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 7.272 ¥ 103 + ¥ 1.5 ¥ 80 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 7.272 ¥ 103 W
6 3
= 73.592 W
Average ON-state loss is equal to Pon-state = Von I ◊ (ton + t s ) ◊ fs
= 1.5 ¥ 80 ¥ (100 ¥ 10 -6 + 2.5 ¥ 10 -6 ) ¥ 7.272 ¥ 103 W = 89.445 W
The total power dissipation of a switching device is
PD = Pon-state + Pturn-on + Pturn-off = (89.445 + 36.796 + 73.592) W = 199.833 W.
Example 1.2 If I = 80 A, V = 220 V, tr = 2.5 ms

and t f = 4 ms for a switching waveform of a normal
practical as switch as shown in Fig. 1.10, determine
the energy loss during switch ON and switch OFF.
When the switching frequency is 1 kHz, find the
average power loss in the switch.
Solution Fig.1.10
Given: V = 220 V, I = 80 A, tr = 2.5 ms, t f = 4 ms, and fs = 1 kHz
Energy loss during switch ON is
1 1
Wturn-on = VItr = ¥ 220 ¥ 80 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10 -6 Ws = 7.333 mWs
6 6
Energy loss during switch OFF is
1 1
Wturn-off = VIt f = ¥ 220 ¥ 80 ¥ 4 ¥ 10 -6 Ws = 11.733 mWs
6 6
Average turn ON loss is equal to
1 1
Pturn-on = VItr fs = ¥ 220 ¥ 80 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 1.0 ¥ 103 W = 7.333 W
6 6
Average turn OFF loss is equal to
1 1
Pturn-off = VIt f fs = ¥ 220 ¥ 80 ¥ 4 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 1.0 ¥ 103 W = 11.733 W
6 6
Average ON state loss is equal to Pon-state = 0

Average power dissipation of a switching device is
PD = Pon-state + Pturn-on + Pturn-off = (0 + 7.333 + 11.733) W = 19.06 W
summary
d Power electronics have revolutionized the concept of power control for power conversion.
d A power electronics based system has been discussed elaborately.
d History of development of power electronics devices and their applications are explained in this chapter.
Multiple-choice Questions
1.1 Cyclo-converters are used to convert
(a) low frequency ac to high frequency ac (b) high frequency ac to low frequency ac
(c) ac to dc (d) dc to ac
1.2 Controlled rectifier is used to convert
(a) ac to ac (b) ac to dc (c) dc to dc (d) dc to ac
1.3 Inverters are used to convert
(a) ac to ac (b) ac to dc (c) dc to dc (d) dc to ac
1.4 Match the devices on the left hand with circuit symbols on the right-hand side.
(a) BJT (1) (b) IGBT (2)
(c) MOSFET (3) (d) MCT (4)
(a) A Æ 1, B Æ 2, C Æ 3, D Æ 4 (b) A Æ 2, B Æ 1, C Æ 4, D Æ 3
(c) A Æ 2, B Æ 1, C Æ 3, D Æ 4 (d) A Æ 1, B Æ 2, C Æ 4, D Æ 3
Fill in the Blanks

1.1 ______ is a unidirectional switching device.
1.2 ______ is a two-terminal three-layer semiconductor device.
1.3 ______ is a bidirectional switching device.
1.4 Bipolar devices are ______.
1.5 ______, ______, ______ and ______ are minority carrier switching device.
1.6 ______ is an uncontrolled turn-ON and turn-OFF device.
1.7 ______ is a majority carrier switching device.
1.8 ______, ______, ______, and ______ are controlled turn-ON and turn-OFF device.
1.9 ______ is a gate turn and turn-OFF device.
1.10 ______ is a two-terminal two-layer semiconductor device.
review Questions
1.1 What is power electronics? Draw the block diagram of a typical power electronics-based system and
explain briefly.
1.2 Write the voltage and current rating, switching frequency, and switching time of power semiconductor
devices.
1.3 Draw the symbol and V-I characteristics of the following devices:
(a) SCR (b) IGBT (c) MCT (d) TRIAC
(e) DIAC
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions

1.1 (b) 1.2 (b) 1.3 (d) 1.4 (b)
Answers to Fill in the Blanks

1.1 SCR 1.2 Power diode 1.3 TRIAC
1.4 BJT, IGBT, and MCT 1.5 Diode, SCR, GTO, IGBT 1.6 Power diode
1.7 MOSFET 1.8 BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, MCT 1.9 GTO
1.10 Diode
Power Semiconductor
diodeS and circuitS
2
2.1 IntroductIon
Low power semiconductor diode is the simplest semiconductor device. These devices
consist of two layers; P and N materials. These two layers are formed by epitaxial growth
and develop a PN junction. A depletion layer is formed across the junction. The width
of depletion layer depends on the doping density of P-type and N-type material, applied
voltage across anode to cathode and the junction temperature.
Power diode is more complicated in structure and operating characteristics
than low power general-purpose diode. Usually, power diodes have high forward
current-carrying capability and high reverse breakdown voltage. The area of
pn-junction in a power diode is very high compared to low power signal diodes. Therefore,
the structure modification of low power general-purpose diode is required to make them
suitable for high power applications. There are three types of power diodes:
1. General-purpose diodes
2. Schottky diodes
3. Fast recovery diodes
In this chapter, the structure of power diode, conducting modulation in power diode,
I-V characteristics, reverse bias condition in power diode and switching characteristics
of power diode are explained elaborately. The operating principle of Schottky diode
and fast recovery diode, rating of diode, series and parallel connection of power diode
are also incorporated in this chapter. The effect of switching a dc source voltage to a
diode circuit with RLC load and application of diodes in freewheeling and stored energy
recovery are explained in detail.
2.2 Structure of a Power dIode

Generally, power diodes should operate in several kA current during conduction in forward
biased direction with low power loss and it should block high voltage about several
kV in reverse biased direction. For large blocking voltage, the width of depletion layer
must be large in order to limit the electric field strength. The lightly doped pn-junction power diode
should have sufficient width so that the required depletion layer must be accommodating within the
device. Then simple lightly doped pn-junction power diode provides high resistance during forward
biased condition. Consequently, during conduction of forward biased power diode, a large power is
dissipated with in the diode but it is not acceptable. To reduce the forward resistance as well as power
loss, if the doping level is increased, the reverse breakdown voltage of power diode will be reduced.
To sort out this problem, a lightly doped n– is introduced between two highly doped p+ and n+ layers.
Figure 2.1 shows the pn-junction power diode. The structure of a pn-junction power diode consists
of a highly doped n-type substrate (n+) which is grown above the lightly doped n– epitaxial layer and
a highly doped p-type region (p+). Actually, the pn-junction is formed by diffusing a highly doped
p-type region (p+) in the lightly doped n– epitaxial layer. The anode terminal of power diode is available
from p+ region and the cathode terminal is taken out from n+ region. The thickness of n+ layer is about
250 mm and the doping density is ND = 1019 cm–3. The thickness of n– epitaxial layer is about 100
mm and the doping density is ND = 1014 cm–3 and this region is also called drift region. Similarly, the
thickness of p+ layer is about 10 mm and the doping density is NA = 1019 cm–3. The layer thickness and
doping density of n+ cathode substrate, n– drift region and p+ anode are depicted in Fig. 2.1(c). The
cross-section area of diode depends on current rating of the devices. Power diodes are commercially
available from few amperes to several thousand amperes (kA). For 1000 kA rating of power diode,
the cross-section area will be several square centimeter and wafer diameter will be about 4 inches.
Fig. 2.1 (a) Structure of power diode, (b) Symbol of power diode and (c) Doping density of semiconductor
material and width of each layer
Power Semiconductor Diodes and Circuits 17
In the structure of power diode as depicted in Fig. 2.1, the n– epitaxial layer is known as drift
region. This region is very lightly doped about ND = 1014 cm–3 and sometimes doping density is
nearly intrinsic. Therefore, the drift region is also called as i-layer and the device is represented by
p-i-n diode. The drift region or i-layer is the most important structure feature in power diode as the
breakdown voltage dependent on the thickness of drift region. Actually, the drift region was not found
in general purpose low power rating diodes.
In power diode, the n– layer is used to absorb the depletion layers of the reverse biased p+ n– junction.
The width of the drift region must be significantly large at large reverse voltages. This lightly doped
n– drift region provides ohmic resistance to the diode during forward biased condition. Consequently,
during conduction of forward biased power diode, a large power is dissipated with in the diode.
2.3 I-V characterIStIcS of Power dIode

The I-V characteristics of power diode are shown in Fig. 2.2. When the diode is forward biased and
applied voltage is greater than cut-in voltage, diode starts conducting and current flows linearly with
forward biased voltage rather than exponentially. The cut-in voltage of a power diode is about 0.7 V.
The lightly doped drift region provides resistance. Due to large current, it develops a voltage drop
across diode. The ON state voltage drop across resistance of diode is about 1V. The I-V characteristics
of power diode can be expressed as
Ê qVD ˆ
i = I o Ë e j - 1¯
kT
(2.1)
where, i is the current flow through diode in A,
VD is the voltage across diode with anode is positive with respect to cathode in V,
IO is the reverse saturation current or leakage current in A,
q is the charge of electron in Coulomb (q = 1.6022 ¥ 10–19 C),
Tj is the junction temperature in Kelvin, and
k is Boltzmann’s constant in J/K and k = 1.3806 ¥ 10–23 J/K
Fig. 2.2 I-V characteristics of a power diode

Equation (2.1) can also be expressed as

Ê VD ˆ
i = I o ÁË e VT - 1˜¯
kT j
where, VT is the thermal voltage and it is expressed by VT =
q
During reverse bias condition, a very small leakage current flows from cathode to anode. The
amplitude of reverse saturation current does not depend on the applied reverse voltage, but it varies
with junction temperature. Therefore, this current is independent of the reverse voltage and it flows
until the reverse voltage across the anode to cathode reaches reverse voltage breakdown voltage VBD.
For a 1000 A power diode, the value of leakage current is less than 100 mA.
When the voltage reaches at reverse breakdown voltage VBD, voltage across anode to cathode
becomes constant but current increases extensively. This current is limited by the external circuit
parameters. Due to large voltage at breakdown and large reverse current, the excessive power is
dissipated across the power diode and the junction temperature is further increased as the device
operates in the reverse breakdown region. Consequently, the power diode may be destroyed quickly
due to excessive heat. Therefore, the operation of power diode in breakdown region should be avoided.
During reverse biased condition, the I-V characteristic of a diode is temperature sensitive and the
diode current is function of temperature. The diode current can be expressed as
Ê - q VD ˆ
i = I o ÁË e j - 1˜¯
kT
where, Io is the reverse saturation current, and

VD is the voltage across anode to cathode and Tj is junction temperature.
After substituting the value of q = 1.6 ¥ 10–19 Coulomb and k = Boltzmann’s constant =
1.38 ¥ 10–23 Joules/K, we get
Ê -1.5942 VD ˆ
i = I o ËÁ e - 1¯˜ where, Tj is the junction temperature.
Tj
The I-V characteristic of a power diode at junction temperature Tj1 and Tj2 is depicted in Fig. 2.3.
Fig. 2.3 I-V characteristic of a power diode at junction temperature Tj1 and Tj2
2.4 conductIvIty ModulatIon In Power dIode

It is clear from Fig. 2.1 that the p+ and n+ layers are heavily doped and the n– layer is lightly doped.
Consequently, the depletion layers will be developed at p+ n– (J1) junction and n– n+ (J2) junction.
During forward bias condition, a large number of holes can be drift from the p+ region to the n– drift
region and can able to cross the n– region. In forward bias condition, a large number of electrons
from the n+ region cross to the n– drift region. Therefore, there is a heavy influx of charge carriers of
holes as well as electrons in the middle of n– drift region as depicted in Fig. 2.4(a). This large influx
of holes and electrons is called high-level injection. When the influx of holes and electrons is low, it
is called low-level injection.
In case of low-level injection, all excess p-type carriers are recombined with n-type carriers in the
n– region. But in case of high-level injection, the excess p-type carriers reach to the n– n+ (J2) junction
and also attracted by n+ region and then cross the n– n+ junction. This injection method is known as
double injection.
When the influx of holes and electrons is very large, the thermal equilibrium charge densities in
the n– drift region are changed as dpn– >> pn0 and dnn– >> nn0. The excess charges from the p+n– (J1)
junction must be equal the excess charges from n– n+ (J2) junction must be equal. Therefore, dpn– =
dnn–. During reverse bias condition, the carrier density decreases while the excess carriers on the
border of the p+ n– and n– n+ junctions are swept away. The resistance of n– drift region is small during
forward bias condition and it provides high conductivity. In reverse bias condition, the resistance of
n– drift region is very large and it provides low conductivity. This phenomenon of n– drift region is
called as the conductivity modulation. Due to high conductivity in forward bias condition, the diode
is able to carry the high current density. But the large injection of minority carriers in the n– drift
region creates the switching delay problem during turn OFF as there is certain time delay to remove
charge during reverse bias.
Fig. 2.4 (a) Forward biased power diode with holes drift from the p+ region to the n– region and electrons drift
from the n+ region to the n– region, (b) Initial carrier distribution (------ line) and carrier distribution
at forward bias (–––– line)
The voltage drop across the forward biased power diode (VD) is sum of the voltage drop across
p+n– (J1) junction, VJ and the ohmic drop in the n–-drift region, VRD. The VD can be expressed by
VD = VJ + VRD
The value of VRD depends on forward current density JF and the width of the drift region W. Due to very
high current, JF is very large and the drift region voltage behaves just like an ohmic drop. If IF current
flows through the forward biased power diode, the voltage drop across diode VD can be expressed as
VD = VJ + RonIF
The on state voltage drop across resistance of diode VD is about 1 V.
2.5 Breakdown voltage of Power dIode In

reverSe BIaS condItIon
When the power diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer is formed at p+ n– metallurgical junction.
As NA>>ND, the space charge region extends into the n– drift region. At reverse breakdown voltage,
the physical width of the drift region may be smaller or larger than the depletion layer width. Based
on the depletion layer width, there are two types of diodes:
1. Non-punch through type diodes
2. Punch through type diodes
In non-punch through type diodes, the depletion layer boundary cannot reach the end of the n–drift
region. But in punch through diodes, the depletion layer can be extend to the entire n– drift region
and can also be contact with the n+ cathode. As the doping density of the cathode is very large (10+19
cm–3), the penetration of drift region inside the cathode is insignificant.
2.5.1 Breakdown voltage of non-punch through Power diode

Figure 2.5(a) shows the a reverse biased non-punch through diode and the electric field of reverse
biased non-punch through diode is depicted in Fig. 2.5(b). Under reverse biased condition of a non-
punch through diode, the depletion layer just touch the end of the n–drift region as shown in Fig. 2.5(c).
Fig. 2.5 (a) A reverse biased non-punch through diode, (b) The electric field of reverse biased non-punch through
diode, (c) The depletion layer just touch the end of the n–drift region
It is clear from Fig. 2.5(b) that the electric field strength is maximum at the p+ n– (J1) junction and
its strength decreases towards the depletion region. At the end of the depletion region, the electric field
strength is zero. When the depletion layer is almost cover the complete n– drift region, the breakdown
voltage VBD is
2
e E BD
VBD = (2.2)
2qN D
where, EBD is the electric field intensity at avalanche breakdown and its value is about 200 kV/cm, and
ND is the donor density of n– drift region.
From Eq. (2.2), it is justified that the breakdown voltage is inversely proportional to doping density
in per cubic centimeter. For very high break down voltage, the doping density of n– drift region is
low. If the breakdown voltage of a power diode is 1000 V, the doping level of n– drift region is about
ND = 1014 cm–3 and the minimum thickness of n– drift region (W) is about 100 mm.
2.5.2 Breakdown voltage of Punch through Power diode

When depletion layer has been extended to n– drift region and contact with the maximum part of n+
region as shown in Fig. 2.6(a), punch though occurs in power diode. After that, if the reverse bias
voltage is increased, the width of depletion layer cannot increase due to high doping density in n+ region
ND = 1019 cm–3. Actually, the highly doped n+ region can block the further increase of the depletion
layer and the electric field profile starts to flatten as shown in Fig. 2.6. In the punch though power
diodes, the electric field strength is almost uniform as the electric field strength is less triangular and
moves toward rectangular. When the n– drift region is very lightly doped, the electric field strength
can be almost constant.
It is clear from Fig. 2.6(c) that the electric field has two components such as triangular-shaped
component and rectangular component. E1 is maximum part of triangular shaped component and E2
is maximum part of rectangular component. The electric field EBD is sum of E1 and E2.
The electric field E1 is expressed as
qN DW
E1 =
e
where, ND is the donor density of n– drift region and W is the width of depletion layer.
The area of the triangular-shaped component is equal to the voltage V1 and it can be represented by
qN DW 2
V1 =
2e
The area of the rectangular component represents the voltage V2 and it can be expressed as
V2 = E2W
Then, the electric field intensity at avalanche breakdown EBD = E1 + E2 and the breakdown voltage
is equal to
VBD = V1 + V2
After substituting the value of V1 and V2, we get
qN DW 2
VBD = V1 + V2 = + E2W
2e
Fig. 2.6 (a) The depletion layer touch the maximum part of n+ region, (b) Reverse biased punch through diode
with depletion layer and (c) Electric field intensity of reverse biased punch through diode
qN DW 2
As E2 = EBD – E1, VBD = + ( E BD - E1 )W
2e
qN DW 2
= + E BDW - E1W
2e
qN DW
After substituting E1 = in the above equation, we get
e
qN DW 2 qN DW 2
VBD = E BDW + -
2e e
qN DW 2
= E BDW -
2e
When the doping density in the n– drift region is very small, V1 will be negligible compared to V2.
Then VBD = EBDW.
2.6 reverSe recovery characterIStIcS of Power dIode

Figure 2.7 shows the reverse recovery characteristics of a power diode. When a diode is switched off,
the forward diode current decays to zero and the diode continue to conduct in reverse direction due
to storage charge carriers both electrons and holes in the depletion region and semiconductor layers
(p+, n– and n+). The reverse current flows through the diode for a time trr as shown in Fig. 2.7. trr is
Fig. 2.7 Reverse recovery characteristics of a power diode (a) Variation of current, (b) Variation of voltage
known as reverse recovery time. Actually, the reverse recovery time trr is the time interval from the
instant t = t1 to the time t = t3. At t = t1, the forward diode current becomes zero and at the instant
t = t3 the reverse recovery current reduces to 25% of its peak value. When the reverse recovery current
decreases to zero, the diode regains its blocking capability.
The reverse recovery time consists of ta and tb, i.e., trr = ta + tb ◊ ta is the time between t = t1 and
t = t2. At time t = t1, the forward diode current becomes zero and at t = t2, current through the diode
reaches the peak reverse current IRR. During this time interval ta, the stored charge in depletion region
can be removed completely. tb is the time interval between t = t2 and t = t3. tb can be determined from
the instant of peak reverse current IRM to the instant reverse recovery current reduces to 25% of its peak
value. During the time interval tb, the storage charge in p+, n– and n+ semiconductor layers is removed.
The shaded area as shown in Fig. 2.7(a) stands for the reverse recovery charge QR. During trr time,
the charge QR must be removed. The value of QR can be expressed as
1 1 1 1
QR = I RR t a + I RR tb = I RR (t a + tb ) = I RR trr as trr = t a + tb
2 2 2 2
The peak reverse current IRR in terms of QR and trr is equal to
2QR
I RR = (2.3)
trr
di
The peak reverse current IRR can also be expressed in terms of and ta and its value is equal to
dt
di
I RR = t a (2.4)
dt
From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), we obtain

2QR di 2QR
I RR = = ta or trr t a =
trr dt di / dt
2QR
As tb is very small compared to ta, ta ª trr and trr2 = .
di / dt
2QR di
Then, trr = and I RR = 2QR
di / dt dt
tb
The time ratio is called the softness factor or S factor. The S factor determines the voltage
ta
transients when the diode recovers its original state from ON state to OFF state. Usually, its value is
equal to unity. When S = 1, the reverse recovery process of diode have low oscillatory. If the value of
S is less than unity and is very small, the reverse recovery process of diode contains large oscillatory
over voltage. According to recovery characteristic, diodes are classified as fast recovery diodes and
soft recovery diodes. When S factor is less than 1, diode is called fast recovery diode. If S factor is
equal to 1, diode is called soft recovery diode. The reverse recovery characteristics of general or slow
recovery diode and fast recovery diode are depicted in Fig. 2.8(a) and (b) respectively. The reverse
recovery time of general-purpose diode is large and its value is about 25 ms but the reverse recovery
time of fast recovery diode is small and its value is in the range of 25 ns to 100 ns.
Fig. 2.8 Reverse recovery characteristics (a) Slow recovery diode and (b) Fast recovery diode
Example 2.1 The reverse recovery current of a power diode is 5 ms and the rate of fall of current is about
20 A/ms. Calculate (a) the storage charge and (b) the peak reverse current IRR.
Solution
Given: trr = 5 ms, di/dt = 20 A/ms
1 di 2 1
(a) The storage charge is QR = t = ¥ 20 A/ms ¥ (5 ms)2 = 250 mC.
2 dt rr 2
di
(b) The peak reverse current I RR = 2QR = 2 ¥ 250 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 20 ¥ 106 A = 100 A.
dt
2.7 coMParISon Between general low Power

dIode and Power dIode
The structure and performance of power diodes are different from the small signal diodes. Table 2.1
shows the comparison between general diode and power diode.
Table 2.1 Comparison between general diode and power diode
Low power signal diode or general diode Power diode
When the input forward bias voltage is greater than When the input forward bias voltage is greater than
threshold voltage (VT = 0.7 V), the diode becomes ON threshold voltage (VT = 1 V), the diode becomes ON
and current increases exponentially. and current increases linearly.
Low power or small signal diodes have low current Power diodes have high current and high voltage han-
and low voltage handling capability. They are used in dling capability. They are used in high power circuits.
low power circuits and electronics circuits.
Low power or small signal diodes are two layer devices.
Power diodes are thee layer device.
Lightly doped n– epitaxial layer is not present in pn-
Power diodes has lightly doped n– epitaxial layer
junction diode. which can absorb the depletion layer during reverse
biased. The thickness of n– layer is adjustable and its
width depends upon the reverse blocking voltage
The impurity concentrations of power diodes may not The impurity concentrations of power diodes vary
vary layer to layer. layer to layer.
The low power or small signal diodes operate at high Power diodes can able to handle power at frequency
frequency about some hundreds kHz. 50 Hz and the frequency below 1 kHz.
The general diodes are available from few volts (5 V) Power diodes are available from few volts to 10 kV
to 1000 V (breakdown voltage) and power rating up and from few amperes to 5 kA.
to 50 W
The ON state voltage drop is about 0.7 V. The on state voltage drop is about 1 V.
Reverse recovery time is low, about 1 ns to 1 ms Reverse recovery time is high, about 25 ms
2.8 Schottky Power dIodeS

Schottky power diodes operate at high speed and it has low forward voltage drop, i.e., less than 1 V.
The ON-state voltage varies between 0.3 V to 0.5 V. It has high reverse leakage current with high
temperature withstand capability. This type of diode can able to withstand at high junction temperature
(Tj) up to 175°C. This device is build up by placing a thin film of metal, i.e., platinum metal or
aluminum metal in homogeneous contact with a semiconductor material. Usually the metal film is
placed on an n–-type silicon substrate as shown in Fig. 2.9. The metal film is used as the positive
electrode (anode) and the n-type silicon substrate is used as cathode.
Electrons in different metals have different absolute potential energy. As electrons have larger
average energy in silicon compared to aluminum metal, electrons are diffuse from n type material to
Al metal as depicted in Fig. 2.10. There is no hole injection in n-type substrate as there is no source of
holes in aluminum. Consequently the metal will be negatively charged and the semiconductor material
will acquire positive charge. Then a potential barrier is developed with a very thin depletion layers in
n– substrate as shown in Fig. 2.10.
When the Schottky diode is forward biased, electrons from the n– layer cross the barrier potential and
should reach to the positive potential metal. Thus Schottky diode is a majority carrier device and there
is no storage charge. In Schottky diode, fast switching is possible due to absence of storage charge.
Fig. 2.9 (a) and (b) Structure of Schottky diode
Fig. 2.10 (a) Diffusion of electrons and depletion layer and (b) Electron energy in metal and n-type silicon
substrate
Actually, the metal film is deposited on an

n– -type semiconductor substrate in a Schottky
diode as shown in Fig. 2.11. A guard ring
structure can be used to improve the breakdown
voltage capability of the diode. The metal film
is used as positive electrode, i.e., anode and
semiconductor is used as cathode. The I-V
characteristic of Schottky diodes is similar to the
I-V characteristics of a pn junction diode and the
diode current can be expressed as
Ê qVD ˆ Fig. 2.11 Structure of Schottky diode with guard ring
i = I o ÁË e j - 1˜¯
kT
(2.5)
where, i is the current flows through diode in A
VD is the voltage across diode with anode is positive with respect to cathode in V
IO is the reverse saturation current or leakage current in A
Tj is the junction temperature in Kelvin
Schottky diodes have large reverse leakage current compared to a pn-junction diode. The reverse
breakdown voltage of Schottky diodes is about 100 V to 200 V. The current rating of Schottky diode is
about 1 A to 400 A. This diode is used in high current and low voltage dc power supply. The difference
between Schottky diodes and pn-junction diodes is given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Difference between Schottky diode and pn-junction diode
Schottky diodes pn-junction diodes

Schottky diode is a majority carrier device and it has high The pn-junction diode is minority carrier device it
operating frequency. has low operating frequency.
During reverse biased condition of a Schottky diode, a large In reverse biased condition of pn diode, a small
leakage current flows from cathode to anode due to minor- leakage current flows from cathode to anode.
ity carrier.
The on state voltage drop across diode is small about 0.3 V The on state voltage drop across diode is about
to 0.5 V. 1 V.
Due to low on state voltage drop, Schottky diodes are less Power loss of pn-junction diode is more than
power loss compared to a pn-junction diode. Schottky diodes.
2.9 faSt recovery Power dIodeS

The reverse recovery time (trr) of general-purpose power diodes is greater than 25 ms. Due to large
reverse recovery time (trr), the general-purpose power diodes cannot be used in high frequency power
electronics circuits such as choppers, inverters, switch mode power supply (SMPS), resonant converters
and uninterrupted power supply (UPS), among others. In the high frequency power electronics circuits,
the reverse recovery time must be in the range of 25-100 ns.
The fast recovery diode is formed when a highly doped p+-type and n+-type semiconductor layers
are sandwitched by a lightly doped n– semiconductor layer. For very fast switching, reverse recovery
time will be minimised when the storage charge is reduced in n– region and the carrier lifetime is
minimised. The recovery time can be controlled by platinum or gold diffusion. The maximum rating of
fast recovery power diodes is about 3 kV and 1 kA and the reverse recovery time (trr) is about 100 ns.
2.10 Power dIode ratIngS

The rating of any power semiconductor device is a value which can represent a voltage, current
and power handling capability or a limiting condition of the device. The limiting conditions of any
power semiconductor device should have a either maximum or minimum value. These values can be
determined for a specified environment and operation and can be represented by standard terms. A
power diode has different specified voltage and current ratings which are explained below.
2.10.1 voltage ratings

1. Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage, VRSM This is the maximum allowable instantaneous
reverse voltage across power diode including all non-repetitive transients and its duration must be
less than 10 ms. The non-repetitive peak reverse voltage is generated by power line switching such
as opening or closing of circuit breaker.
2. Repetitive peak reverse voltage, VRRM It is the maximum allowable instantaneous reverse
voltage including transients which occur every cycle and its duration must be less than 10 ms when
duty cycle is about £ 0.01s. The repetitive peak reverse voltage is applied in converter circuit for
commutation of power semiconductor devices such as thyristor and GTO.
Fig. 2.12 Voltage rating of power diode (a) Input voltage waveform and (b) Reverse I-V characteristics
3. Crest working reverse voltage, VRWM This is the maximum allowable instantaneous reverse
voltage including transients which may be applied on every cycle excluding all repetitive and non-
repetitive transients. The crest working reverse voltage is very useful for selecting diodes for uncon-
trolled and controlled rectifiers.
4. Continuous reverse voltage, VR This is the maximum allowable constant reverse voltage. To
prevent thermal runaway, junction temperature must be below Tj max and the amplitude of VR may
be limited. This is used for selecting free-wheeling diodes in dc-to-dc converters and dc-to-ac voltage
source inverter circuits.
2.10.2 current ratings

1. Average forward current, IF(AV) This is the maximum average current which may be passed
through the device without exceeding Tj max for either square or sinusoidal current waveforms.
2. Root mean square current, IF(RMS) It is the rms value of a current waveform and it is the value
which causes the same power dissipation as the equivalent dc value.
3. Repetitive peak forward current, IFRM This is the maximum allowable peak forward current
including transients which occur every cycle. During repetitive current transients, the junction tem-
perature should not be more than Tj max.
4. Non-repetitive forward current, IFSM It is the maximum allowable peak forward current which
may be applied no more than 100 times in the life of the device.
5. Repetitive peak reverse current, IRRM This is the maximum allowable peak reverse current
including transients which occur every cycle.
6. Non-repetitive reverse current, IRSM It is the maximum allowable peak reverse current which
may be applied no more than 100 times in the life of the device.
Summary
d The structure and characteristics of power diode are different from those of ideal diodes. The reverse
recovery time is very important for high speed switching applications.
d Diodes are classified as general purpose diodes, Schottky diodes and fast recovery diodes. The operation of
power diode, schottky diodes and fast recovery diodes are explained in detail.
multiple-choice Questions
2.1 A power diode is a ______ type-three layer device
(a) p+ n– n+ (b) p+ n+ n– (a) n+ p– p+ (a) n+ p+ n–
2.2 The breakdown voltage of non-punch though power diode is
2 2 2 2
(a) e E BD (b) e E BD (c) e E BD (d) e E BD
2qN A 2q( N A + N D ) 2q( N A - N D ) 2qN D
2.3 The breakdown voltage of punch though power diode is
qN DW 2 qN DW 2
(a) E BDW + (b) E BDW -
2e 2e
qN AW 2 qN AW 2
(c) E BDW + (d) E BDW -
2e 2e
2.4 The reverse recovery time of a power diode is defined as
(a) the time between the instant forward diode current IF = 0 and the instant reverse recovery current
decays to 25% of its peak value.
(b) the time between the instant forward diode current IF = 0 and the instant reverse recovery current
decays to 50% of its peak value.
(c) the time between the instant forward diode current IF is maximum and the instant reverse recovery
current decays to 25% of its peak value.
(d) the time between the instant forward diode current IF is maximum and the instant reverse recovery
current decays to 50% of its peak value
2.5 The peak of reverse recovery current of a power diode depends on
(a) storage charge (b) rate of current flow and storage charge
(c) peak inverse voltage (d) temperature
2.6 Reverse recovery time of a power diode is
2QR 2QR 2di / dt 2dv / dt
(a) trr = (b) trr = (c) trr = (d) trr =
di / dt dv / dt QR QR
2.7 Compared to general purpose power diode, Schottky diode has
(a) lower cut-in voltage (b) higher operating frequency
(c) higher reverse leakage current (d) All of these
2.8 The softness factor is
t t t t
(a) b (b) a (c) 1 + a (d) 1 + b
ta tb tb ta
2.9 The high frequency operation of a power semiconductor circuit is limited by
(a) on-state loss (b) off-state loss (c) switching loss (d) All of these
2.10 For conduction of Schottky diode
(a) electrons can participate (b) holes can participate
(c) both holes and electrons can participate (d) None of these
2.11 The cut-in voltage of Schottky diode is
(a) greater than the cut-in voltage of pn-diode
(b) less than the cut-in voltage of pn-diode
(c) equal the cut-in voltage of pn-diode
(d) None of these
2.12 The maximum reverse voltage of a power diode is known as
(a) peak inverse voltage (b) breakdown voltage
(c) continuous reverse voltage (d) non-repetitive reverse voltage
Fill in the Blanks

2.1 Power diode is a ______ carrier device.
2.2 A Schottky diode turn on and turn off time is ______ than a pn-junction diode.
2.3 Reverse recovery time of a fast recovery diode is ______.
2.4 The softness factor for a soft recovery diode is ______.
2.5 The softness factor for a fast recovery diode is ______.
2.6 The cut-in voltage for power diode is equal to ______.
2.7 The forward voltage drop of a power diode is about ______.
2.8 Schottky diode is a ______ carrier device.
2.9 Power diode is a two terminal ______ layer semiconductor device.
2.10 The I-V characteristics of a power diode at high forward current is ______.
2.11 Power diodes has ______ doped n–-epitaxial layer which can absorb the depletion layer during ______
biased.
2.12 When the width of ______ region in a power diode increases, the reverse voltage blocking capability
increases.
2.13 The reverse break down voltage of a power diode is more than ______.
2.14 The doping density in n–-drift region of a power diode is _______.
review Questions
2.1 What is power diode? Write the difference between general purpose diode and power diode.
2.2 Draw the structure of a power diode and explain its operating principle briefly.
2.3 What are the types of power diodes?
2.4 What is the reverse recovery time of a diode?
2.5 Explain the conductivity modulation in the power diode.
2.6 Draw the V-I characteristics of a power diode. What is the effect of junction temperature on the V-I
characteristics of a power diode?
2.7 What is the breakdown voltage of non-punch through diode?
2.8 What is the breakdown voltage of punch through diode?
2.9 What is softness factor of diodes?
2.10 Draw the structure of Schottky diode and explain briefly.
2.11 What are the main differences between general purpose pn-junction diode and Schottky power diode?
2.12 Why power diodes are connected in series? What are the different problems of series connected power
diodes? How these problems are solved?
2.13 Why power diodes are connected in parallel? What are the different problems of parallel connected
power diodes? What are the possible solutions?
2.14 What is fast recovery diode? Draw the reverse recovery characteristic of a diode.
2.15 What is the importance of series parallel operation of power diodes? Explain the series and parallel
operation of power diodes with proper diagram.
2.16 The reverse recovery current of a power diode is 4 ms and the rate of fall of current is about 25 A/ms.
Calculate (a) the storage charge and (b) the peak reverse current IRR.

2.1 (a) 2.2 (d) 2.3 (b) 2.4 (a) 2.5 (b) 2.6 (a) 2.7 (d)
2.8 (a) 2.9 (c) 2.10 (a) 2.11 (b) 2.12 (a)

2.1 minority 2.2 faster 2.3 25-100 ns 2.4 1
2.5 <1 2.6 0.7 V 2.7 1 V 2.8 majority
2.9 three 2.10 linear 2.11 lightly, reverse 2.12 n– drift
2.13 non-repetitive peak reverse voltage VRSM 2.14 1014 cm–3
Power TransisTor
3
3.1 IntroductIon
Power diode is an uncontrolled device as the turn-on and turn-off characteristics of power
diodes are not controllable. Power transistors are controlled device as the turn-ON and
turn-OFF characteristics of power transistor are controllable. When a current signal is
applied to base of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the device will operate in ON
state as long as the control signal is present. When the control signal is removed from
base of BJT, the power transistor will be turned OFF and operate in OFF-state. Similarly,
when a voltage signal is applied to gate of MOSFET, the device will be ON and if a
voltage signal is removed from gate, MOSFET operates in OFF state. Generally, power
transistors are four types namely,
1. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
2. Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
3. Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and
4. Static induction transistor (SIT)
In this chapter, the structure of power BJT, I-V characteristics, second breakdown,
ON-state loss, safe-operating area and switching characteristics are discussed. The basic
operation of n-channel and p-channel MOSFET and I-V characteristics are explained.
The structure of power MOSFET, I-V characteristics, ON-state loss, safe-operating area
and switching characteristics are incorporated in this chapter. The structure, operating
principle, and I-V characteristics of IGBT and SIT are discussed elaborately. In this
chapter, the base drive circuits of BJT and gate drive circuits of MOSFET and IGBT
are also explained in detail.
3.2 Structure of Power BIPolar JunctIon

tranSIStor
Figure 3.1 shows an n-p-n power transistor which is a four layer n+ p n– n+ structure.
This transistor has three terminals such as collector (C), base (B) and emitter (E). Base
is used as an input terminal, and collector is used as the output terminal. In common
emitter configuration, emitter is common between input and output terminals. The width of
emitter, n+ layer is about 10 mm and its doping intensity is NA = 1019 cm–3. Usually, the base thickness
or width of p layer is about 5 to 20 mm and the doping density of p-type semiconductor materials is
moderate and it is about NA = 1016 cm–3. The width of n– layer or collector drift region is about 50 mm
to 200 mm and the doping density is minimum in drift region and its value is about NA = 1014 cm–3.
The width of n+ collector region is maximum and it is about 250 mm. The doping density of N + type
semiconductor layer is NA = 1019 cm–3. The doping density of semiconductor materials and width of
each layer are depicted in Fig. 3.1(b).
Fig. 3.1 (a) Structure of n-p-n-type power BJT and (b) Doping density of semiconductor materials
Power Transistor 33
The base thickness of bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is as small as possible to provide good
amplification capability. But due to very small base thickness, the breakdown voltage capability of
BJT is reduced. Therefore, the base thickness of power transistors must be more compared with the
logic level transistors to increase breakdown voltage capability. In case of logic level BJTs, the base
thickness is a small fraction of micrometer. But the base thickness of power transistors should varies
with in few tens of micrometers. The breakdown voltage of the power transistors is also depending
on the thickness of the collector drift region. As a result, the thickness of collector drift region varies
from 50 mm to 200 mm depending upon the break down voltage.
Usually, the vertical structure of power transistors is used in manufacturing as this structure provides
the maximum cross-sectional area through which the current flows with in the device and the current
density per unit area becomes minimum. Consequently, the on-state resistance as well as the power
loss of power transistors will be minimised. Due to large cross-sectional area, the thermal resistance
of power transistors becomes low and the power dissipation problems can be reduced.
For a p-n-p transistor, the four layer structure of power
transistors will be p+ n p– p+ and the doping level will be
opposite of n-p-n transistor. In power electronics circuits,
n-p-n transistors are most commonly used as power switches.
The circuit symbols of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are given
in Fig. 3.2.
I
The current gain of a power transistor is b = C and its
IB
value is small about 5 to 10. To increase the current gain, Fig. 3.2 (a) Circuit symbol of n-p-n
transistor and (b) Circuit
Darlington pair of BJTs is used. Figure 3.3 shows the monolithic symbol of p-n-p transistor
design of a Darlington pair of power BJTs where,
A = auxiliary transistor
M = main transistor
IBA = base current of auxiliary transistor
ICA = collector current of auxiliary transistor
IEA = emitter current of auxiliary transistor
IBM = base current of main transistor
ICM = collector current of main transistor
The relationship between collector current ICA and base
current IBA of the auxiliary transistor is
ICA = bAIBA where, bA is current gain of auxiliary transistor.
The emitter current of auxiliary transistor IEA is equal to the base Fig. 3.3 Darlington pair of power
BJTs
current IBM of the main transistor. Therefore, IBM = (1 + bA)IBA
Then the collector current of main transistor is equal to
ICM = bMIBM = bM(1 + bA)IBA where, bM is current gain of main transistor
The total load current IC is sum of ICA and ICM.
Then, IC = ICA + ICM = bAIBA + bM(1 + bA)IBA = (bA + bM + bMbA)IBA
I
Consequently, the new current gain b = C will be
I BA
b = bMbA + bM + bA
where, bM is current gain of main transistor, bA is current gain of auxiliary transistor.
Since the values of bM and bA are relatively large, the product will be very large compared to bM
and bA. Subsequently the approximate value of b is about bMbA, i.e., the product of the current gains
of individual transistors. Therefore, the Darlington pair of power BJTs requires very much smaller
current control for its operation compared to single transistor but the switching time of the Darlington
pair of power BJTs is more than the switching time of a single transistor. Figure 3.4 shows the vertical
cross section of a pair of monolithic Darlington BJTs and its representation is depicted in Fig. 3.5.
The diode D1 is used to fast turn-off of the main transistor and the diode D2 is used for half-bridge
and full-bridge inverter circuit applications.
Fig. 3.4 Structure for Darlington pair of Power BJTs
Fig. 3.5 Darlington pair of power BJTs with diodes D1 and D2

Power Transistor 35
3.3 I-V characterIStIcS

The output characteristics of a n-p-n power transistor are the plot of iC versus VCE is shown in
Fig. 3.6. Actually, all features of the power transistor characteristics such as cut-off region, active region
and saturation region can be found in low level logic devices. But the major difference between I-V
characteristics of a power transistor and a low signal or logic level transistor is the quasi-saturation
which is present in power transistors. The quasi saturation is occurred due to the lightly doped collector
drift n– region in the structure of power transistors. The low level signal transistors have no drift region.
Fig. 3.6 I-V characteristics of an n-p-n power BJT
3.3.1 Quasi Saturation

To discuss the quasi-saturation, a collector drift region has been incorporated in the structure of
power BJT as shown in Fig. 3.7(a). Initially, the transistor operates in the active region and the base
current starts to increase. Due to increase in base current, the collector current will be increased and
the collector emitter voltage (VCE) is reduced due to increase voltage drop across the collector load
resistance, RL. Consequently, the voltage drop in the drift region is increased, and the ohmic resistance
drop is also increased as the collector current (IC) is increased. Therefore, the reverse bias voltage
across collector base junction, n–p junction becomes smaller or reduced and the junction may be
forward biased at several points.
When n–p junction is forward biased at several points, holes are injected from the base to the
collector n– drift region. For the space charge neutrality, electrons must be injected into the drift region
with the same number of holes. Actually, the large numbers of electrons are supplied to the collector-
base junction through injection from the emitter and subsequent diffusion across the base. Then the
excess carriers can be build up in the drift region and subsequently the quasi-saturation region is
developed in I-V characteristics of an n-p-n power BJT.
When the ohmic resistance of the n– drift region is Rd , the collector current is equal to
VCE
IC =
Rd
Fig. 3.7 (a) The biasing of n-p-n power BJT, (b) Storage charge in the base region in active mode,
(c) Storage charge in the base region in quasi-saturation and (d) Storage charge in the base
region in hard saturation
Power Transistor 37
In quasi saturation, the double injection can take place in the drift region in the same way as in the
drift region of a forward biased power diode. The stored charge is accumulated in the n– drift region
from one side of drift region, i.e., the collector-base pn– junction. The electron injection across the
n–n+ junction is very less measurable as there are more abundant electrons at the pn– junction. If the
injected carriers increase, the n– drift region is shorted progressively and the voltage across the drift
region is reduced even though the collector current (IC) is large.
It is clear from Fig. 3.7(c) that the hole injection from the base to the collector-base (pn–) junction
has been started, the thickness of the virtual base is increased. Therefore, the effective value of b
decreases and the magnitude of collector current for a specified base current must be decreased. In the
quasi-saturation, the n– drift region can not be completely shorted out through high-level injection. As
a result the power dissipation of BJT in the quasi-saturation is greater larger than the power dissipation
during hard saturation.
3.3.2 hard Saturation

The hard saturation occurs when the excess carrier density reaches the end of n+ drift region. For hard
saturation, it requires a minimum amount of stored charge Q1 in the virtual base region as shown in
Fig. 3.7(d). Then the effective base thickness is increased and it is roughly the sum of the normal base
thickness and the length of the n– drift region. It is clear from Fig. 3.7(d) that the additional stored
charge Q2 can drive the transistor more into hard saturation. During hard saturation, the voltage drop
across the n– drift region is small and the on state power dissipation is minimized compared to quasi
saturation of power transistor.
When the transistor operates in the saturation region, the collector current ICS is equal to
VCC - VCES
ICS = and
RC
ICS
the minimum base current required to operate in saturation is I BS = .
b
When the base current is less than IBS, the transistor operates in active region. While base current
V
IB is very high (IB > IBS), the collector current ICS = CC as VCES ª 0. With the more base current,
RC
transistor operated in hard saturation. The ratio of IB and IBS is known as overdrive factor (ODF) and
it can be expressed as
IB
ODF =
I BS
The value of ODF is about 4 or 5. The forced current gain bf is the ratio of ICS to IB. The value of bf
is always less than b.
The total power loss in two junctions of power transistor is
PTotal–loss = VBEIB + VCEIC
The other important features of I-V characteristics of monolithic Darlington pair power transistors
are:
1. VCE|SUS When a sustainable collector current flows through power transistor, this device can able
to withstand or sustained up to a maximum collector-emitter voltage. This maximum voltage across
collector-emitter is represented by VCE |SUS as depicted in Fig. 3.6.
2. VCE0 When the base is open circuit, the base current is zero (IB = 0) and the device operate in
cut-off region, the power bipolar junction transistor can able to sustain up to a maximum collector
emitter voltage VCE0 as shown in Fig. 3.6. The voltage VCE0 is called collector emitter breakdown
voltage when the base current is zero.
3. VCB0 This is collector-base break down voltage when the emitter is open circuit. The value of
VCB0 is greater than VCE0 as depicted in Fig. 3.6.
In the common emitter configuration of power BJT, the breakdown voltage VCE0 is smaller than the
breakdown voltage VCB0. The relationship between VCE0, VCB0 and b can be expressed as
V
VCE 0 = CB1 0 where, n = 4 for NPN transistors and n = 6 for PNP transistors.
bn
It is clear from the above expression that the transistor with high breakdown voltage has small
values of beta. The value of beta for high voltage NPN transistors varies in the range 10 to 20. When
V V
b = 15 and n = 4 for a typical NPN transistor, VCE 0 = CB10 = CB 0 and the value of VCE0 is about
15 4 1.967
one-half of VCB0.
4. Primary breakdown The primary breakdown of a power transistor is same as conventional
avalanche breakdown of collector-base junction due to large current flow. The primary breakdown
should be avoided due to large power dissipation with in the device. This breakdown is also known
as first breakdown. Actually, the primary breakdown is the limit of collector emitter voltage at which
power BJT can sustain with a high collector current. When the junction temperature within the safe
limit, transistor will not be damaged and the device can get its original position if both collector cur-
rent and collector-emitter voltage are reduced.
5. Second breakdown When the power transistor operates in active region with a large collector
current, there is voltage drop across collector-emitter junction. If suddenly collector current increases
significantly, there is large power dissipation within the device. This situation is very dangerous as the
power dissipation is non-uniformly spread over the entire volume of the power BJT. Consequently,
local hot-spots are developed within the device and the transistor’s breakdown occurs and the device
may be completely damaged. This breakdown is called second breakdown as shown in Fig. 3.13. The
second breakdown can be avoided by using the snubber circuit, maintaining the instantaneous voltage
and current with in forward biased safe operating area, and controlling the overall power dissipation
within the device.
3.4 on State loSS of Power BJt

When the power bipolar junction transistor operates at low and medium operating frequency but not
in high operating frequency, the power dissipation within the device is equal to the power loss during
ON state. To determine on state loss, it is assumed that the device operates in hard saturation region.
The power dissipation of BJT can be expressed as
P = VCEIC
where, VCE is the collector emitter saturation voltage during hard saturation, IC is the collector current
and the collector-emitter saturation voltage VCE increases with increasing collector current IC.
Figure 3.8 shows the different internal voltage drops in a power transistor. These voltage drops
can be used to determine the on state voltage drop across collector emitter of power BJT and the VCE
can be expressed as
VCE = VBE – VBC + VD + IC (RE + RC)
Power Transistor 39
The VBE is the voltage appearing across the forward biased base-emitter junction and the VBC is the
voltage across the forward biased collector-base junction. The VBE and VBC voltages differ from each
other by 0.1 V to 0.2 V. The collector base junction has very large area compared to the base-emitter
junction but the doping levels across the collector-base junction are very lower than the doping levels
across the base-emitter junction. The voltage difference VBE – VBC does not dependent on collector
current.
Fig. 3.8 ON- state collector-emitter voltage of a power transistor
The resistance RE is the ohmic resistance of the heavily doped emitter and RC is the ohmic resistance
of the heavily doped collector region. At low and reasonable collector currents, the voltage drops
across RE and RC are insignificant. When a large current flows though the device, the voltage drops
across RE and RC are significant. VD is the voltage drop
across the collector drift region. The value of VD is low
due to conductivity modulation and it is independent of
collector current.
Example 3.1 A bipolar transistor as shown in Fig. 3.9 has b

= 30 and the load resistance RC = 15 W. The dc supply voltage
VCC = 200 V and the input voltage to base is VB = 10 V. When
VCE(saturation) = 1.2 V and VBE(saturation) = 1.5 V, determine (a) the
value of resistance RB so that transistor operates in saturation and
Fig. 3.9
(b) power loss in the transistor.
Solution
Given bf = 30, RC = 15 W, VCC = 200 V, VB = 10 V, VCE(saturation) = 1.2 V, VBE(saturation) = 1.5 V
(a) When the transistor operates in saturation, load current is
VCC - VCE (saturation) 200 - 1.2
ICS = = = 13.253 A
RC 15
The base current that drives the transistor in saturation is equal to
ICS 13.253
I BS = = = 0.4177 A
bf 30
The value of resistance RB so that transistor operates in saturation is equal to
VB - VBE (saturation) 10 - 1.5
RB = = = 20.349 W
I BS 0.4177
(b) The power loss in transistor is
PTotal-loss = VBEIB + VCEIC = VBE(saturation)IBS + VCE(saturation)ICS
= 1.5 ¥ 0.4177 + 1.2 ¥ 13.253 Watt = 16.53 Watt
Example 3.2 A bipolar transistor as depicted in Fig. 3.9 has b in the range 10 to 40 and the load resistance
RC = 10 W. The dc supply voltage VCC = 150 V and the input voltage to base is VB = 12 V. When VCE(saturation) =
1.0 V and VBE(saturation) = 1.5 V, determine (a) the value of resistance RB so that transistor operates in saturation
with ODF = 4, (b) forced current gain and (c) power loss in the transistor.
Solution
Given bmin = 10, bmax = 40, RC = 10 W, VCC = 150 V,
VB = 12 V, VCE(saturation) = 1.0 V, VBE(saturation) = 1.5 V
(a) When the transistor operates in saturation, load current is
ICS = = = 14.9 A
RC 10
The base current that drives the transistor in saturation is equal to
ICS 14.9
I BS = = = 1.49 A
b min 10
The base current with ODF = 4 is
IB = ODF ¥ IBS = 4 ¥ 1.49 A = 5.96 A
The value of resistance RB so that transistor operates in saturation with ODF = 4 is equal to
VB - VBE (saturation) 10 - 1.5
RB = = = 1.426 W as VBE(saturation) = 1.5 V
I BS 5.96
ICS 14.9
(b) Forced current gain is b forced = = = 2.5
I B 5.96
(c) The power loss in transistor is
PTotal–loss = VBEIB + VCEIC
= 1.5 ¥ 5.96 + 1.0 ¥ 14.9 Watt = 23.84 Watt
Power Transistor 41
3.5 Safe oPeratIng area of Power BJt

The safe operating area (SOA) represents the maximum values of current and voltage at which the
power BJT can be withstand safely. As per manufacture datasheet related to specification of power
BJT, there are two separate SOAs namely
1. Forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA) and
2. Reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA).
Figure 3.10 shows the forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA) of power transistor where current
IC and voltage VCE are represented by logarithmic scale. The term forward biased states that the base-
emitter junction is forward biased and base current flows from source to base.
The boundary of the FBSOA depends on the operation in continuous dc signal and a pulse signal
of different frequency. In Fig. 3.10, ICmax represents the maximum collector current even when a pulse
signal is applied to the power transistor. If the device operates with dc signal, the boundary of the
FBSOA is A-B-C-D-E. The boundary A-B represents the maximum limit of collector current ICmax
with VCE is less than 100 V. When VCE is greater than 100 V, the collector current has been reduced
as per boundary B-C so that the operating junction temperature of power BJT must be less than the
maximum operating junction temperature. For high value of VCE, the collector current will be further
reduced to avoid the second breakdown of power transistor and the boundary is represented by CD.
The boundary D-E represents the maximum voltage capability of a power transistor.
Fig. 3.10 FBSOA of a power BJT
When the power transistor operates as a switch and it is driven by a pulse signal, the boundaries
of the FBSOA can be extended as shown in Fig. 3.10. The extension of the SOA is only possible for
switch mode operation. Actually, the silicon wafer and its packaging of power transistor have a specified
thermal capacitance and it has an ability to absorb a limited amount of energy without increasing the
junction temperature excessively. When the power transistor turns on for a few microseconds, the
device can absorb very small amount of energy and the junction temperature rise will be low and the
boundary of FBSOA can be increased. If the pulse width is about 10–1 s, the FBSOA is greater than
the boundary A-B-C-D-E. If the pulse width is further reduced and its value is about some ms (10–6 s),
the FBSOA is greater than the boundary with pulse with 10–1 s. It is clear from Fig. 3.10 that the
FBSOA increases with the decrease of pulse width.
The term reverse biased states that the base-emitter junction is reverse biased and base current flows
in reverse direction. During turn-OFF of power transistor, the base-emitter junction is highly reverse
biased and the transistor must withstand at high current. The reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA)
is a plot of collector current with respect to collector emitter voltage as depicted in Fig. 3.11. When
the base current is zero, transistor can sustained at voltage VCE0. If the base-emitter junction is reverse
biased, the power transistor can able to withstand up to collector-base breakdown voltage VCB0 with
low collector current as depicted in Fig. 3.11.
Fig. 3.11 RBSOA of a power BJT
3.6 SerIeS and Parallel oPeratIon of BJt

Power BJTs can be connected in series to increase the voltage-handling capability. It is extremely
important that the series-connected power transistors must be turned on and off simultaneously. If
the series-connected transistors are not turned ON and OFF simultaneously, the slowest device will
be at turn-ON state but the fastest device will be at turn-OFF state. Subsequently, the turned-OFF
transistor must be withstand to the full voltage of the collector-emitter. If the device cannot withstand
at high voltage, the device may be completely damaged due to high voltage. Therefore, during series
connection, the power BJTs should have same gain, ON-state voltage; turn-ON time, turn-OFF time,
and base drive circuit.
When one power transistor cannot handle the load current, transistors may be connected in parallel.
For the equal current sharing among transistors, the power BJTs should have same turn-ON time,
Power Transistor 43
turn-OFF time, gain, saturation voltage, and transconductance. Figure 3.12 shows the parallel
connections of two BJTs. Current IE1 flows through transistor T1 and current IE2 flows through transistor
T2. Total current IT is shared by transistors T1 and T2.
Then, IT = IE1 + IE2 and VCE1 + IE1RE1 = VCE2 + IE2RE2
Therefore, VCE1 + IE1RE1 = VCE2 + (IT – IE1)RE2
V -V + I R
or I E1 = CE 2 CE1 T E 2
RE1 + RE 2
About 45% to 55% current can be shared by connecting resistance in series with transistors. Actually,
resistances are used for current sharing under steady-state condition. Under dynamic condition, current
can be shared by connecting coupled inductors as shown in Fig. 3.12. When the current flow through
di
transistor T1 increases, the amplitude of L across L1 increases. Then a opposite polarity voltage is
dt
induced across inductor L2. Consequently, a low impedance path is provided by transistor T2, and the
current is shifted from transistor T1 to transistor T2.
Fig. 3.12 Parallel connection of transistors (a) Current sharing at steady-state condition
(b) Current sharing at dynamic condition
Example 3.3 Two BJTs are connected in parallel to share the total current 25 A. The collector-to-emitter
voltage of T1 and T2 are 1.5 V and 1.75 V respectively. Determine the emitter current of each transistors and the
difference of current sharing when the current sharing series resistance are (a) RE1 = 0.25 W and RE2 = 0.35 W
and (b) RE1 = 0.5 W and RE2 = 0.5 W
Solution
Given: IT = 25 A, VCE1 = 1.5 V, VCE2 = 1.75 V
(a) When RE1 = 0.25 W and RE2 = 0.35 W
V -V + I R 1.75 - 1.5 + 25 ¥ 0.35
I E1 = CE 2 CE1 T E 2 = = 15 A
RE1 + RE 2 0.25 + 0.35
IE2 = IT – IE1 = 25 – 15 = 10 A
DI = IE1 – IE2 = (15 – 10) A = 5 A
(b) When RE1 = 0.5 W and RE2 = 0.5 W
V -V + I R 1.75 - 1.5 + 25 ¥ 0.5
I E1 = CE 2 CE1 T E 2 = = 12.75 A
RE1 + RE 2 0.5 + 0.5
IE2 = IT – IE1 = 25 – 12.75 = 12.25 A
DI = IE1 – IE2 = (12.75 – 12.25) A = 0.5 A
3.7 SwItchIng characterIStIcS of Power BJt

Figure 3.13 shows a n-p-n power BJT as a switch. When a pulse input voltage is applied to the base
V - VBE
of transistor, the base current is I B = i and the voltage VCE = VCC – ICRC. The output voltage
RB
is Vo = VCE. The switching waveforms of a npn transistor are depicted in Fig. 3.14 and it is represented
in simplified form in Fig. 3.15.
Fig. 3.13 n-p-n power BJT as a switch
Fig. 3.14 The switching waveforms of a npn transistor

Power Transistor 45
Assume the pulsating input voltage Vi varies between –V1 to +V2 as shown in Fig. 3.13. At time
t = t0, input voltage at the base of power transistor is Vi = –V1, emitter-base junction is reverse biased.
Then transistor operates in OFF state as base current IB = 0 and the collector current IC is equal to
zero and the output voltage is Vo = VCE = VCC.
Fig. 3.15 The switching waveforms of a npn transistor in simplified form
At time t = t1, voltage starts to increase gradually from –V1 to +V2 and the collector current IC
increases gradually from zero and the collector-emitter voltage VCE starts to fall from VCC. Therefore,
the transistor changes its state from cut-off to saturation gradually. The maximum steady state current
V
is IC = C .
RC
1. Delay time td The delay time td is the time required for collector current iC to reach 10% of the
steady state current IC (0.1IC) and the vCE falls from VCC to 90% of VCC (0.9VCC).
2. Rise time tr The rise time tr is the time required for collector current iC to increase from 10%
of the steady state current IC (0.1IC) to 90% of IC (0.9IC) and the vCE falls from 90% of VCC (0.9VCC)
to 10% of VCC (0.1VCC).
3. Turn-ON time tturn–on The turn-ON time is the sum of the delay time td and the rise time tr and
it can be expressed as tturn–on = td + tr. The turn-ON time of power transistor is typically 30 to 300 ns.
When the transistor is ON, it will operate in saturation region as long as input voltage is equal to V2.
4. Storage time, ts At time t = t2, the input voltage again changes from +V2 to –V1, then the base
current IB changes from IB2 to IB1 gradually. The base IB1 is negative and excess carriers can be removed
from the base. The collector current can not be changed immediately but its value gradually reduced
to zero as depicted in Fig. 3.14. The time interval between the instant of the change over of the input
voltage from +V2 to –V1 to the instant collector current iC falls to 90% of the steady state current IC
(0.9IC) is called the storage time, ts. During the storage time ts, the collect emitter voltage increases
from VCE(saturation) to 10% of VCC and all excess carriers will be removed. The applied negative volt-
age –V1 can increase the rate of removal of excess carriers from base and subsequently the storage
time as turn-off time will be reduced.
The fall time tf is the time in which the collector current iC falls from 90% of steady state current
IC (0.9IC) to 10% of steady state current IC (0.1IC) and the collector emitter voltage increase from 10%
of VCC to 90% of VCC. The turn-OFF time is the sum of the storage time (ts) and fall time (tf) and
it can be represented by tturn-off = ts + tf. The turn on time of power transistor is about 30 to 300 ns.
Example 3.4 The switching waveform of a power transistor is shown in Fig. 3.16 where VCC = 200 V,
VCE(saturation) = 1.5 V, ICS = 100 A, td = 0.25 ms, tr = 1.25 ms, ton = 40 ms, ts = 2 ms, tf = 1.5 ms. Determine
(a) energy loss during delay time, (b) energy loss during rise time, (c) energy loss during conduction time ton and
(d) average power loss of power transistor during turn-ON when switching frequency is 5 kHz and the emitter
leakage current is ICE0 = 5 mA.
Fig. 3.16
Solution
Given: VCC = 200 V, VCE(saturation) = 1.5 V, ICS = 100 A, td = 0.25 ms, tr = 1.25 ms, ton = 40 ms, ts = 2 ms, tf = 1.5 ms,
fs = 5 kHz and ICE0 = 5 mA
Power Transistor 47
(a) Energy loss during delay time td is equal to

Wdelay = VCCICEOtd = 200 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 10–6 Watt second = 0.25 ¥ 10–6 Watt-second
(b) During rise time tr the voltage v and current i waveform can be expressed by
È t˘ t
vCE (t ) = ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ and iC (t ) = ICS as ICEO << ICS
Î t r˚ t r
È t˘ t
Therefore, the instantaneous power is p = vCE (t )iC (t ) = ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ ICS
Î t r˚ t r
t t
r r
È t˘ t
The energy loss is Wrise = Ú pdt = Ú ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ ICS dt
0 0Î t r˚ t r
È1 1 ˘
= Í VCC - (VCC - VCES )˙ ICS tr
Î2 3 ˚
È1 1 ˘
= Í ¥ 200 - (200 - 1.5)˙ ¥ 100 ¥ 1.25 ¥ 10 -6 Watt second = 4229.166 ¥ 10–6 Watt-second
Î 2 3 ˚
(c) Energy loss during on time ton is equal to
Won = VCESICSton = 1.5 ¥ 100 ¥ 40 ¥ 10–6 Watt-second = 6000 ¥ 10–6 Watt-second
(d) Average power loss of power transistor during turn-ON is
È1 1 ˘
VCC ICEO t d fs + Í VCC - (VCC - VCES)˙ ICS tr fs
Î2 3 ˚
È1 1 ˘
= 200 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 5 ¥ 103 + Í ¥ 200 - (200 - 1.5)˙
Î 2 3 ˚
¥ 100 ¥ 1.25 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 5 ¥ 103
= 22.395 Watt
Example 3.5 The switching waveforms of a power transistor is depicted in Fig. 3.16 where VCC = 220 V,
VCE(saturation) = 2 V, ICS = 100 A, td = 0.5 ms, tr = 1.5 ms, ton = 50 ms, ts = 3.5 ms, tf = 2.5 ms. When the switching
frequency is 2 kHz and the emitter leakage current is ICE0 = 2.5 mA. Find
(a) average power loss during delay time,
(b) average power during rise time,
(c) peak instantaneous power loss during rise time,
(d) average power during conduction time ton,
(e) average power loss during storage time,
(f) average power during fall time,
(g) peak instantaneous power loss during fall time and
draw the waveform for instantaneous power loss for period Ts.
Solution
VCC tr
Given: VCC = 220 V, VCE(saturation) = 2 V, ICS = 100 A, t m = , tr = 1.5 ms, ton = 50 ms, ts = 3.5 ms, tf =
VCC - VCES 2
2.5 ms, fs = 2 kHz and ICE0 = 2.5 mA
(a) Average power loss during delay time td is equal to
Pdelay = VCCICE0td fs = 220 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2 ¥ 103 Watt = 0.55 ¥ 10–3 Watt = 0.55 mW
(b) During rise time tr the voltage v and current i waveform can be expressed by
È t˘ t
vCE (t ) = ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ and iC (t ) = ICS as I CEO << ICS
Î t r˚ t r
È t˘ t
Therefore, the instantaneous power is p = vCE (t )iC (t ) = ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ ICS
Î tr ˚ tr
tr t
1 1 rÈ t˘ t
The energy loss is Prise =
Ts
Ú pdt =
T
Ú ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ ICS dt
t t
0 s 0Î r˚ r
È1 1 ˘ 1
= Í VCC - (VCC - VCES )˙ ICS tr fs as fs =
Î2 3 ˚ Ts
È1 1 ˘
= Í ¥ 220 - (220 - 2)˙ ¥ 100 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 2 ¥ 103 Watt = 11.2 Watt
Î2 3 ˚
(c) Instantaneous power loss during rise time is
È t˘ t t t2
p = vCE (t )iC (t ) = ÍVCC - (VCC - VCES ) ˙ ICS = VCC ICS - (VCC - VCES ) ICS 2
Î tr ˚ tr tr tr
dp
At time t = tm the maximum power loss =0,
dt
VCC tr 220 1.5 ¥ 10 -6
then tm = = = 0.7568 ms = 0.7568 ms
VCC - VCES 2 220 - 2 2
Therefore, the peak instantaneous power loss is
t t2
pm |at ◊ t = tm = VCC ICS m - (VCC - VCES )ICS m2
tr tr
0.7568 0.75682
= 220 ¥ 100 ¥
- (200 - 2)100 = 6660.423 Watt
1.5 1.52
(d) Average power loss during on time ton is equal to
Pon = VCESICStonfs = 2 ¥ 100 ¥ 50 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2 ¥ 103 Watt = 20 Watt
(e) Average power loss during storage time ts is equal to
Pstorage = VCESICStsfs = 2 ¥ 100 ¥ 3.5 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2 ¥ 103 Watt = 1.4 Watt
(f) During fall time tf the voltage v and current i waveform can be expressed by
t È t˘
vCE (t ) = (VCC - VCES ) and iC (t ) = ICS Í1 - ˙ as ICE 0 << ICS
tf Î t r˚
t È t˘
Therefore, the instantaneous power is p = vCE (t )iC (t ) = (VCC - VCES ) ICS Í1 - ˙
tf Î tr ˚
tf tf
1 1 t È t˘
The average power loss is Pfall =
Ts
Ú pdt = T Ú (VCC - VCES ) t ICS Í1 - ˙ dt
t
0 s 0 f Î r˚
1 1
= (VCC - VCES )ICS t f fs as fs =
6 Ts
1
= ¥ (220 – 2) ¥ 100 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2 ¥ 103 Watt = 18.1666 Watt
6
(g) Instantaneous power loss during fall time is
t È t˘
p f = vCE (t )iC (t ) = (VCC - VCES ) ICS Í1 - ˙
tf Î t r˚
t t2
= (VCC - VCES )ICS - (VCC - VCES )ICS 2
tf tf
Power Transistor 49
dp tf
At the maximum power loss = 0 , then t m =
dt 2
Therefore, the peak instantaneous power loss is
t t2
pm |at ◊ t = tm = (VCC - VCES )ICS m - (VCC - VCES )ICS m2
tf tf
tm 1 1
As = , pm |at ◊ t = tm = (VCC - VCES ) ICS
tf 2 4
1
= (220 – 2) ¥ 100 = 5450 Watt
4
Instantaneous power loss during delay time is
p = vCE(t)iC(t) = VCCICEO = 220 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10–3 Watt = 0.55 Watt
Instantaneous power loss during conduction and storage time is
p = vCE(t)iC(t) = VCESICS = 2 ¥ 100 Watt = 200 Watt
Instantaneous power loss during rise time is calculated as per equation
t t2
VCC ICS - (VCC - VCES )ICS 2 and maximum loss is 6660.423 Watt
tr tr
Instantaneous power loss during fall time is calculated as per equation
t t2
(VCC - VCES )ICS - (VCC - VCES )ICS 2 and maximum loss is 5450 Watt.
tf tf
Figure 3.17 shows the instantaneous power dissipation with in the power transistor.
Fig. 3.17 Instantaneous power loss with in the power transistor
3.8 Power MoSfet

A power MOSFET is a four-layer semiconductor structure with alternate p-type and n-type doping.
Figure 3.18 shows a vertically oriented enhancement mode n-channel power MOSFET which is a n+
p n– n+ structure. Actually, a power MOSFET consists of a parallel connection of many MOSFET
cells in a single IC.
The doping density in the two n+ end layers of a vertically oriented power MOSFET is same and
its value is quite large, typically 1019 cm–3. One end is used as source and the other end (n+ substrate)
is used as drain as depicted in Fig. 3.18. The n– layer is epitaxially grown on the n+ substrate. Then
p-type semiconductor is diffused in the epitaxially grown n– layer and the p region developed. After
that n+ semiconductor is diffused in the p region and the n+ region is developed.
Fig. 3.18 Structure of a n-channel power MOSFET
The n– layer is called the drain drift region and the doping density in the n– layer is low. The typical
value of n– layer doping density is about 1014 cm–3 to 1015 cm–3. The thickness of n– drift region
determines the breakdown voltage of the device. The p-type semiconductor layer is the region where the
channel is established between source and drain. Therefore, p region is called the body of a transistor.
The doping density of p region is about 1016 cm–3. This structure is known as vertical diffused MOSFET
(VDMOS). A four-layer semiconductor structure with the opposite doping density of Fig. 3.18 can
also be manufactured and then the developed structure is called a p-channel MOSFET.
It is clear from Fig. 3.19 that there are two pn junctions such as drain-to-body (n–p) junction and
body-to-source (pn+) junction. When the gate-to-source voltage is zero (VGS = 0), the current ID can not
flow from the drain to source terminals of MOSFET as any one of the pn junctions is reverse biased
by the input voltage VDD. As the gate is isolated from the body (p region) by a layer of silicon dioxide
(SiO2) which behaves as a very good insulator, the minority carriers can not be injected into the p
region through the gate terminal. The thickness of silicon dioxide layer is about 1000 Å.
When the gate to source voltage is greater than zero, the gate is positive with respect to the source,
an electric field will be developed and a n channel is formed in the p region as depicted in Fig. 3.19.
Then source is connected with drain through n channel and current ID flows from drain to source. If
the gate-to-source voltage is increased, the drain current ID increases. The value of ID depend on the
Power Transistor 51
thickness of the silicon dioxide or gate oxide, the width of gate and the number of gate and source
regions which are connected in parallel.
Fig. 3.19 n channel power MOSFET with parasitic BJT and parasitic diode
A parasitic n-p-n bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is developed between the source and drain
contacts as shown in Fig. 3.19. The p-type body region acts as the base, n+ region as emitter and n–
drift region as collector of the parasitic BJT. As the p-type body region is shorted to the source region
due to overlapping the source metallisation on the
p-type body region, source is connected with the
base and emitter of the parasitic BJT. Therefore,
the potential difference between base and emitter
of the parasitic BJT is zero and the parasitic BJT
always operate in cut-off region. The development
of the parasitic diode is depicted in Fig. 3.19. In
parasitic diode, source acts as anode and drain acts
as cathode. This inbuilt diode is used in half-bridge
and full-bridge inverter circuits. The circuit symbol
of n channel power MOSFET and p-channel power
MOSFET are depicted in Fig. 3.20. The direction of Fig. 3.20 (a) Symbol of n-channel power MOSFET
the arrow represents the direction of current flow. (b) Symbol of p-channel power MOSFET
3.9 I-V characterIStIcS of Power MoSfet

The n-channel power MOSFET has three terminals namely gate (G), drain (D) and source (S). Figure
3.21 shows an n-channel power MOSFET circuit where the input signal VGS is applied across gate to
source and the output signal VDS is obtained from drain. The current flow from drain to source ID is
controlled by gate signal. Usually the source terminal is common between the input and output of a
power MOSFET.
The transfer characteristic of an n-channel power MOSFET is depicted in Fig. 3.22. The drain
current ID is a function of gate-to-source voltage VGS. When the gate-to-source voltage is less than
threshold voltage VGS(th), the current flow from drain to source is zero. The value of VGS(th) for power
MOSFET is about few volts (2 to 3 V). Since ID is equal to zero, the drain to source is open circuit
and the device should able to hold the supply voltage VDD.
It is clear from Fig. 3.23 that the drain-to-source breakdown voltage VDSS must be greater than
VDD to keep away from the device breakdown. If the drain to source voltage is larger than VDSS, the
power MOSFET will be breakdown due to avalanche breakdown of the drain-to-body (n–p) junction.
Fig. 3.21 n-channel power MOSFET circuit Fig. 3.22 Transfer characteristics of power MOSFET
Fig. 3.23 Output characteristics of power MOSFET

Power Transistor 53
The output characteristics of a power MOSFET is shown in Fig. 3.23. The drain current ID is a function
of drain-to-source voltage VDS when gate-to-source voltage VGS is constant. It is clear form Fig. 3.23
that the output characteristics consist of three regions such as cut-off, active and ohmic regions.
When the drain-to-source voltage is small, the relation between ID and VDS is linear and power
MOSFET operates in the ohmic region. The device operate in the ohmic region when
VGS > VGS(th) and VDS > 0
The power dissipation must be within a limit and its value will be minimum due to small drain to
source voltage VDS(on) through large drain current ID flows from drain to source.
When the power MOSFET is used as a switch to control the flow of power to the load, the ID – VDS
characteristics of the device must be traversed from the cut-off region to the ohmic region through the
active region. The device turns OFF in the cut-off region and turns on in the ohmic region.
In the active region the drain current ID does not depend on the drain-source voltage VDS but it varies
with the gate to source voltage VGS. Since the current ID is known as saturated current, this region is
also called the saturation region. In this region, the drain current can be expressed by
ID = K[VGS – VGS(th)]2
where, K is a constant which depends on the device parameters device. At the crossing point between
the active region and ohmic region, [VGS – VGS(th)] is equal to VDS. Consequently, the above equation
can be written as
2
I D = KVDS as [VGS - VGS (th) ] = VDS
The output characteristics for a p-channel power MOSFET will be same as the output characteristics
for a n-channel power MOSFET, but the current and voltage polarities are reversed. Therefore the
characteristics for the n-channel power MOSFET should be appear in the third quadrant of the ID –
VDS plane.
VGS(max) It is the maximum allowable gate-to-source voltage. When a voltage is applied across gate
to source, an electric field will be developed. The VGS(max) voltage can be determined when the gate
oxide will not be broken due to large electric field. Usually silicon dioxide can be break at electric
field about 5–10 Mega Volt/cm. When the thickness of silicon dioxide is about 1000 Å, the maximum
allowable gate-to-source voltage of power MOSFET VGS(max) is about 20–30 V.
VDSS It is the maximum allowable drain to source voltage at which the power MOSFET sustained
without avalanche breakdown of the drain to body n–p junction. To achieve the high breakdown volt-
age, the n– drift region must be lightly doped. The value of VDSS is about few hundred volts.
3.10 on-State loSS Power MoSfet

The ON-state resistance of a power MOSFET RDS(on) is sum of drain resistance, n– drift region resistance
RD, accumulation layer resistance, channel resistance and source region resistance as depicted in
Fig. 3.24. At low breakdown voltage, all resistance components contribute equally to determine the total
ON-state resistance. When the breakdown voltage VDSS is greater than few hundred volts, the n– drift
region resistance RD contributes maximum value of the total ON-state resistance RDS(on). Actually, the
resistance of drift region is a function of breakdown voltage and it can expressed as
VD = IRD = JARD as I = JA
VD
or = ARD = 3 ¥ 10 -7 VDSS
2
J
where, VD is voltage drop in the n– drift region, A is the cross-section area through which the drain
current ID flows, J is the current density.
Fig. 3.24 On-state resistances of n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET
Since RD depends on the breakdown voltage VDSS, the value of RD increases with increasing
the breakdown voltage for power MOSFET. The ON-state resistance also depends on the junction
temperature. The on-state resistance of power MOSFET increases with increasing junction temperature.
The power dissipation in the device during on-state is equal to
Pon = IDRDS(on)
where, ID is the current flow from drain to source and RDS(on) is the total on-state resistance and the
typical value of RDS(on) is about 9 to 100 milliohms
3.11 Safe oPeratIng area of Power MoSfet

The Safe Operating Area (SOA) represents the maximum values of current and voltage at which the
power MOSFET can withstand safely. As per manufacture datasheet related to specification of power
MOSFET, the safe operating area (SOA) can be determined by the following parameters:
1. Maximum drain current ID(max) or IDM
2. Internal junction temperature Tj
Power Transistor 55
3. Breakdown voltage VDSS

4. Maximum power dissipation PD(max)
Figure 3.25 shows the safe operating area (SOA) of power MOSFET where drain current ID and
drain-to-source voltage VDS are represented in logarithmic scale. At low value of VDS, the maximum
drain current ID(max) is limited by the power dissipation. The maximum power dissipation is also limited
by the maximum tolerable junction temperature Tj within the device. The breakdown voltage VDSS
at low drain current is limited to avoid the avalanche breakdown of the drain to body n–p junction.
Fig. 3.25 SOA of a power MOSFET
When the device operates with dc signal, the boundary of the SOA is A-B-C-D. During operation
with dc signal, a continuous power will be dissipated within device and the junction temperature
increases significantly. Boundary A-B represents the maximum limit of drain current IDM with VDS is less
than 30 V. When VDS is greater than 30 V, the drain current has been reduced as per boundary B-C so
that the operating junction temperature of power MOSFET is less than the maximum operating junction
temperature. The boundary C-D represents the maximum voltage capability of a power MOSFET.
When the power MOSFET operates as a switch and it is driven by a pulse signal, the boundaries
of the SOA can be extended. The extension of the SOA is only possible for switch mode operation.
Actually, the silicon wafer and its packaging of power MOSFET have a specified thermal capacitance
and it has an ability to absorb a limited amount of energy without increasing the junction temperature
excessively. When the power MOSFET turns ON for a few microseconds, the device can absorb very
small amount of energy and the junction temperature rise will be low and the boundary of SOA will
be increased. When the pulse width is about 10–1 s, the SOA is greater than the boundary A-B-C-D. If
the pulse width is further reduced and its value is about some ms (10–6 s), the SOA is greater than the
boundary with pulse with 10–3 s. It is clear from Fig. 3.25 that the SOA increases with the decrease
of pulse-width.
3.12 SerIeS and Parallel oPeratIon of Power MoSfet

Power MOSFETs can be connected in series to increase the voltage-handling capability. It is extremely
important that the series-connected power MOSFETs must be turned ON and OFF simultaneously.
When the series-connected transistors are not turned ON and OFF simultaneously, the slowest device
will be at turn-ON state but the fastest device will be at turn-OFF state. Consequently, the turned-
off power MOSFETs must be withstand to the full voltage of the drain-source. If the device is not
able to withstand at high voltage, the device may be completely destroyed due to high voltage.
Therefore, during series connection, the power MOSFETs should have same gain, on-state voltage,
transconductance, threshold voltage, turn-ON time, turn-OFF time, and gate drive circuit.
When a power MOSFET is not able to handle the load current, transistors may be connected in
parallel. For the equal current sharing among MOSFETs, the power transistors should have same
turn-ON time, turn-OFF time, gain, threshold voltage and transconductance. Figure 3.26 shows the
parallel connections of two MOSFETs. Current ID1 flows through transistor T1 and current ID2 flows
through transistor T2. Total current IT is shared by transistors T1 and T2.
Then, IT = ID1 + ID2 and VDS1 + ID1RS1 = VDS2 + ID2RS2
Therefore, VDS1 + ID1RS1 = VDS2 + (IT – ID1)RS2
VDS 2 - VDS1 + IT RS 2
or I D1 =
RS1 + RS 2
About 45% to 55% current can be shared by connecting resistance in series with MOSFETs. Actually,
resistances are used for current sharing under steady-state condition. Under dynamic condition, current
can be shared by connecting coupled inductors as shown in Fig. 3.26. If the current flow through
di
transistor T1 increases, the amplitude of L across L1 increases. Then a opposite polarity voltage is
dt
induced across inductor L2. Accordingly a low impedance path is provided by transistor T2, and the
current is shifted from transistor T1 to transistor T2.
Fig. 3.26 Parallel connection of power MOSFET (a) Current sharing at steady-state condition
(b) Current sharing at dynamic condition
Power Transistor 57
When n number of power MOSFETs are connected in parallel to share the total current IT, the
average current IDav is shared by each MOSFET. Then the average current IDav is equal to
IT
I Dav =
n
If the maximum current rating of MOSFET is represented by ID max, the unbalance factor a is
computed from the equation a = I D max - I Dav .
I Dav
In ideal case the value of a should be zero but it varies between 0 to 1. In order to protect the
device from permanent damage, ID max must be less than the device current rating ID rated.
Therefore, ID max < ID.rated
When ID max = ID rated, the unbalance factor a is equal to
I D max - I Dav I D ◊ rated - I Dav I D ◊ rated
a= = = -1
I Dav I Dav I Dav
IT I D ◊ rated I D ◊ rated nI D ◊ rated

As I Dav = ,a = -1= -1= -1
n I Dav IT / n IT
nI D ◊ rated
Therefore, the total current IT =
a +1
nI D ◊ rated
For any value of a and n, the total current IT must be lass than .
a +1
nI D ◊ rated
Therefore, IT £
a +1
Example 3.6 Two power MOSFETs are connected in parallel to share the total current 20 A. The drain to
source voltage of T1 and T2 are 3.5 V and 2.75 V respectively. Determine the drain current of each transistors and
the difference of current sharing when the current sharing series resistance are (a) RS1 = 0.2 W and RS2 = 0.3 W
(b) RS1 = 0.45 W and RS2 = 0.5 W
Solution
Given: IT = 20 A, VDS1 = 3.5 V, VDS2 = 2.75 V,
(a) When RS1 = 0.2 W and RS2 = 0.3 W
V - VDS1 + IT RS 2 2.75 - 3.5 + 20 ¥ 0.3
I D1 = DS 2 = = 10.5 A
RS1 + RS 2 0.2 + 0.3
ID2 = IT – ID1 = 20 – 10.5 = 9.5 A
DI = ID1 – ID2 = (10.5 – 9.5)A = 1 A
(b) When RS1 = 0.45 W and RS2 = 0.45 W
V - VDS1 + IT RS 2 2.75 - 3.5 + 20 ¥ 0.45
I D1 = DS 2 = = 9.166 A
RS1 + RS 2 0.45 + 0.45
ID2 = IT – ID1 = 20 – 9.166 = 10.834 A
DI = ID1 – ID2 = (10.834 – 9.166)A = 1.668 A
3.13 SwItchIng characterIStIcS of Power MoSfet

Figure 3.27 shows a steady state switching circuit of a power MOSFET and the switching model of
a power MOSFET is depicted in 3.28. When a pulse input voltage is applied to the gate of power
MOSFET, the device will be turn-ON if the gate to source voltage VGS is greater than threshold voltage
VGS(th). The switching waveforms of a power MOSFET are illustrated in Fig. 3.29.
Fig. 3.27 Power MOSFET as a switch
Fig. 3.28 Switching model of MOSFET
Fig. 3.29 The switching waveforms of a Power MOSFET

Power Transistor 59
At time t = t0, input voltage at the gate of power MOSFET is Vg = 0 and the gate to source voltage
VGS is less than threshold voltage VGS(th). At that moment, the device operates in OFF state and the
drain current ID is equal to zero and the output voltage is Vo = VDS = VDD.
At time t = t1, voltage starts to increase from 0 to V1 and the input capacitance Cgs starts to charge as
depicted in Fig. 3.29. During the turn on delay time td , the capacitance Cgs is charged to gate threshold
voltage VGS(th). During rise time tr, the gate to source voltage VGS increases from gate threshold level
VGS(th) to the full gate voltage, VGSP to operate the transistor in linear region. In time tr, the drain
current increases from 0 to ID. The total turn on time of MOSFET is sum of delay time and rise time.
1. Delay time td The delay time td is the time required to charge the input capacitance from its
initial value to gate threshold voltage VGS(th).
2. Rise time tr The rise time tr is the time required to charge the input capacitance Cgs from gate
threshold level VGS(th) to the full gate voltage, VGSP.
3. Turn-ON time tturn-on The turn-ON time is the sum of the delay time td and the rise time tr and
it can be expressed as tturn-on = td + tr. The turn on time of power transistor is typically 1.6 ms.
MOSFET is a majority carrier device. In the turn-OFF process, the gate voltage Vg is removed
t = t2, the input capacitance starts to discharge from gate voltage V1 to VGSP. VGS must be decreased
significantly so that VDS starts to increase. The fall time is the time during which input capacitance
discharged from VGSP to gate threshold voltage VGS(th). In this time, the drain current decreases from
ID to zero. When VGS < VGS(th), the device completely turn off.
The turn-OFF delay time tdf is the time during which the input capacitance discharges from gate
voltage V1 to VGSP.
The fall time tf is the time in which the input capacitance discharges from gate voltage VGSP to
VGS(th) and the drain current becomes zero
The turn-OFF time is the sum of the turn-OFF delay time (tdf) and fall time (tf) and it can be
represented by tturn-off = tdf + tf. The turn-OFF time of power MOSFET is about 30 to 300 ns.
Average power loss when the device in OFF state is
Poff-state = VDS IDSS toff fs Watt
Average power loss during turn ON is
1
Pturn-on = VDS I D tr fs Watt
6
Average power loss during turn OFF is
1
Pturn-off = VDS I D t f fs Watt
6
Average power loss during ON state of device is
Pon-state = I D2 RDS (on) ton fs
Example 3.7 The switching waveform of a power transistor has the following parameters: VDD = 150 V,
IDSS = 2.5 mA, ID = 50 A, td = 0.1 ms, tr = 0.45 ms, ton = 10 ms, tdf = 0.2 ms, tf = 0.8 ms, RDS(on) = 0.1 W. Determine
(a) Average power loss when the device in off state, (b) Average power loss during rise time, (c) Average power
loss during conduction time ton and (d) Average power loss during fall time. Assume switching frequency is 50 kHz.
Solution
Given: VDD = 150 V, IDSS = 2.5 mA, ID = 50 A, td = 0.1 ms, tr = 0.45 ms, ton = 10 ms, tdf = 0.2 ms, tf = 0.8 ms and
fs = 50 kHz
1 1
Ts = = = 20 ms
fs 50 ¥ 103
toff = Ts – (td + tr + ton + tdf + tf) = 20 ms – (0.1 + 0.45 + 10 + 0.2 + 0.8) ms = 8.45 ms
(a) Average power loss when the device in OFF state
Poff-state = VDSIDSStoff fs Watt
= 150 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 8.45 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 50 ¥ 103 Watt = 0.1584 Watt
(b) Average power loss during rise time
1
Pturn-on = VDS I D tr fs Watt
6
1
= ¥ 150 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.45 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 50 ¥ 103 Watt = 28.185 Watt
6
(c) Average power loss during conduction time ton
Pon-state = I D2 RDS (on)ton fs Watt
= 502 ¥ 0.1 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 50 ¥ 103 Watt
= 125 Watt
(d) Average power loss during fall time
1
Pturn-off = VDS I D t f fs Watt
6
1
= ¥ 150 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 50 ¥ 103 Watt = 50 Watt
6
3.14 coMParISon Between Power MoSfet and

Power BJt
The comparison between power MOSFET and power BJT is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Comparison between power MOSFET and power BJT
POWER MOSFET POWER BJT

1. Power MOSFET is a unipolar device. 1. Power BJT is a bipolar device.
2. Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. 2. Power BJT is a current controlled device.
3. Power MOSFET is a majority carrier device. 3. Power BJT is a majority as well as minority
carrier device.
4. Input impedance of power MOSFET is very high 4. Input impedance of power BJT is low com-
compared to power BJT. pared to power MOSFET.
5. Power MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient. 5. Power BJT has negative temperature coef-
With increase in temperature, resistance increases. ficient. With increase in temperature, resis-
tance decreases.
6. Secondary breakdown does not occur in power 6. Secondary breakdown occurs in power BJT.
MOSFET.
(Contd.)
Power Transistor 61
POWER MOSFET POWER BJT

7. The operating frequency of power MOSFET is high 7. The operating frequency of Power BJT is low
about 100 kHz. about 10 kHz.
8. Power MOSFET has low switching loss but conduc- 8. Power BJT has high switching loss but con-
tion loss is more due to high on-state resistance. duction loss is less.
9. The on state voltage of power MOSFETs is high com- 9. The on state voltage of power BJT is low
pared to power BJTs. compared to power MOSFETs.
10. Powers MOSFET are available with low current rat- 10. Powers BJT are available with high current
ing compared to Power BJT. Current rating of power rating compared to power MOSFET. Current
MOSFET is about 140 A. rating of power BJT is about 800 A.
11. Power MOSFETS are very sensitive to voltage spikes 11. Power BJTs are less sensitive to voltage
compared to power BJTs. spikes compared to power MOSFETs.
3.15 InSulated gate BIPolar tranSIStor

An insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a multi-layer semiconductor structure with alternate
p-type and n-type doping. Figure 3.30 shows a vertically oriented n-channel IGBT which is a p+ n+
n– p n+ structure. To make the p-channel IGBT, the structure of IGBT will be implemented by changing
the doping type in each layer as depicted in Fig. 3.30. Accordingly, the p-channel IGBT will be n+
p+ p– n p+ structure.
Fig. 3.30 Structure of a n-channel IGBT
Initially the n+ layer is epitaxially grown on the p+ substrate and a p+n+ junction J1 is formed. The
p substrate is used as drain and minority carriers are injected through drain region. Therefore, p+ is
+
called injecting layer. The doping density in the p+ and n+ layers is about 1019 cm–3. The n– layer is
also epitaxially grown on the n+ substrate. After that p-type semiconductor is diffused in the epitaxially
grown n– layer and the p region will be developed. Finally n+ semiconductor is diffused in the p region
and the n+ region is developed.
The n+ region which is formed above p+ substrate is known as buffer layer. The n– layer is called
the drain drift region and the doping density in the n– layer is low. The typical value of n– layer doping
density is about 1014 cm–3 to 1015 cm–3. The thickness of n– drift region determines the breakdown
voltage of the device. The p-type semiconductor layer is the region where the channel is established
between source and drain. For that reason, p region is called the body of a IGBT. The doping density
of p region is about 1016 cm–3 to 1017 cm–3.
The doping density in the two end layers such as p+ and n+ of a vertically oriented IGBT is same
and its value is quite large, typically 1019 cm–3. n+ region is used as source and the p+ region is used
as drain as depicted in Fig. 3.30.
It is clear from Fig. 3.30 that there are three p-n junctions such as drain to buffer layer p+ n+ junction
J1, drain drift region to body n–p junction J2 and body to source pn+ junction J3.
Actually, the presence of n+ buffer layer between the p+ injecting layer or drain contact and the n-
drift region is not important for the operation of the IGBT. Some IGBTs are made without n+ buffer
layer. When n+ buffer layer is present between p+ injecting layer and n– drift layer and the doping
density and thickness of n+ buffer layer are selected properly, the operating performance of the IGBT
can be improved significantly.
A parasitic pnpn thyristor is developed between the source and drain contacts as shown in
Fig. 3.30. The p-type body region acts as the gate, n+ region as cathode and p+ drift injecting as anode
of the parasitic thyristor. As the p-type body region is shorted to the source region due to overlapping
the source metallisation on the p-type body region, source is connected with the gate and cathode of
the parasitic thyristor. As the potential difference between gate and cathode of the parasitic thyristor
is zero, the parasitic thyristor always operate in cut-OFF region. Actually turn-ON of this thyristor
is undesirable. The body and source are shorted in the IGBT to minimise the turn-ON possibility of
the parasitic thyristor.
It is clear from Fig. 3.30 and Fig. 3.19 that the IGBT structure is somewhat similar to the structure
of power MOSFET except p+ injecting layer. The n-channel IGBT has three terminals namely gate
(G), drain (D) or collector (C) and source (S) or emitter (E). The circuit symbols of n-channel IGBT
and p-channel IGBT are depicted in Figs. 3.31(a) and (b) respectively. The direction of the arrow
represents the direction of current flow.
Fig. 3.31 (a) Circuit symbol of n-channel IGBT (b) Circuit symbol of p-channel IGBT
Power
TransisTor Power Transistor 63
3.16 I-V CharaCteristiCs of iGBt

Figure 3.32(a) shows an n-channel IGBT circuit where the input signal VGS is applied across gate to
source and the output signal VDS is obtained from drain. The current flow from drain to source ID is
controlled by gate signal. Generally, the source terminal is common between the input and output of
a IGBT. The alternative representation of Fig. 3.32(a) is depicted in Fig. 3.32(b) where the emitter
terminal is common between the input and output of a IGBT.
Fig. 3.32 n-channel IGBT circuit
The transfer characteristic ID – VGS of an n-channel IGBT is depicted in Fig. 3.33. The drain current
ID is a function of gate-to-source voltage VGS and the curve is reasonably linear in most of the drain
current when the gate-to-source voltage is greater than threshold voltage VGS(th). But the curve is non-
linear when the drain current is low and the gate-to-source voltage is approaching the threshold voltage
VGS(th). If the gate-to-source voltage is less than threshold voltage VGS(th), the current flow from drain
to source is about zero. The value of VGS(th) for IGBT is about 2 to 3 volts. While ID is equal to zero,
the drain to source is open circuit and then IGBT operates in off -state and the device should able to
hold the supply voltage VDD.
Fig. 3.33 Transfer characteristic of an n-channel IGBT
When the gate-to-source voltage is less than threshold voltage VGS(th), there is no inversion layer
developed to connect the drain to the source. Consequently, the drain to source is open circuit and
the applied voltage is dropped across the junction J2 and a very small leakage current flows. At that
time IGBT operates in off-sate.
It is clear from Fig. 3.34(a) that the drain-to-source breakdown voltage VDSS must be greater than
VDD to keep away from the device breakdown. If the drain-to-source voltage is greater than VDSS, the
IGBT will be breakdown due to avalanche breakdown of the drain-to-body junction.
The output characteristics of an n channel IGBT is depicted in Fig. 3.34(a). The drain current ID is
a function of drain-to-source voltage VDS when gate-to-source voltage VGS is constant. It is clear form
Fig. 3.34(a) that the output characteristics consist of three regions such as cut-off, active and on regions.
The I-V characteristics of IGBT are similar to I-V characteristics of a logic level bipolar junction
transistor (BJT). In case of BJT, the controlling parameter is base current where as the controlling
parameter of IGBT is gate-to-source voltage VGS. The characteristics of p-channel IGBT will be the
same characteristics of n-channel IGBT but the polarities of the voltages and currents will be reversed.
When the IGBT operates in off-state, the junction J2 blocks the forward voltages. The IGBT
has reverse voltage blocking capability. The reverse blocking voltage of IGBT will be equal to the
forward blocking voltage when the IGBT is manufactured without n+ buffer layer. During reverse
bias condition, the junction J1 behaves as reverse blocking junction. When n+ buffer layer is present
within the device, the breakdown voltage of J1 junction will be reduced significantly and its value is
about few tens of volts due to presence of high doping density on both sides of J1 junction. When the
applied reverse voltage is greater than the breakdown voltage of J1 junction, the IGBT lost his reverse
blocking capability. Since IGBT has reverse voltage blocking capability, it can be used in ac circuit
applications. In Fig. 3.34(a) VBR is the reverse breakdown voltage.
Fig. 3.34 (a) Output characteristic of an n-channel IGBT (b) Output characteristic of an n-channel IGBT
3.16.1 symmetrical iGBt and anti-symmetrical iGBt

Just like a MOSFET, the gate-to-source voltage VGS controls the state of the IGBT. When VGS is less
than the threshold voltage VGS(th), the inversion layer will not be developed to connect the drain to the
source. Subsequently, the IGBT operates in the off-state. In this condition, the applied drain-to-source
voltage is dropped across the junction J2 and a very small leakage current flow.
There are two types of IGBT namely
1. Symmetrical IGBT or non-punch through IGBT and
2. Anti-symmetrical IGBT or punch through IGBT
1. Symmetrical IGBT The depletion region of junction J2 can be extended into the n–drain drift
region as the p-type body region is doped heavily compared to the n– drain drift region. The thickness
of n– drain drift region will be such that the depletion region of junction J2 can be accommodated
Power Transistor 65
and the depletion layer boundary cannot touch the p+ injecting layer. This type of IGBT is called
as a symmetrical IGBT or non-punch through IGBT. Due to absence of n+ buffer region, the reverse
blocking voltage is equal to the forward blocking voltage. The reverse voltage blocking capability of
IGBT is useful in ac circuit applications.
2. Anti-symmetrical IGBT In anti-symmetrical IGBT, the thickness of the n– drift region is reduced
by a factor of 2 and the device becomes a punch through structure. In this case, the depletion layer
can be extended into the complete n- drift region when applied voltage is significantly less than the
breakdown voltage. Subsequently, the depletion layer boundary can able to touch the p+ injecting layer.
The reach-through of the depletion layer to the p+ injecting layer can be avoided by adding an n+
buffer region between the n– drain drift region and the p+ injecting layer. This type of IGBT structure
is called an anti-symmetric IGBT or punch–through IGBT. Due to small length of n– drift region, the
on-state loss of IGBT will be less. Since the n+ buffer region is present with in the device, the reverse
blocking capability of anti-symmetric IGBT or punch–through IGBT is low. Therefore, these types of
IGBT are not suitable for ac circuit applications.
3.16.2 on-state Voltage Drop

When a voltage is applied between gate and source and the applied gate-to-source voltage VGS is
greater than the threshold voltage VGS(th), an inversion layer is created just below the gate of the
IGBT. The developed inversion layer can interconnect the n– drift region and the n+ drift region and
electron current flows through this inversion layer as shown in Fig. 3.35. In the same time, holes are
Fig. 3.35 Flow of electrons and holes during on-state of IGBT

injected from the p+ drain region to the n– drift region as depicted in Fig. 3.35. The injected holes
can come across the n– drift region using drift and diffusion methods and can able to reach the p-type
body region. Whenever the holes reach in the p-type body region, these holes attract electrons from
the source and the excess holes recombined with electrons.
The formation of MOSFET, p-n-p and n-p-n transistors with in the structure of IGBT is depicted in
Fig. 3.36. The equivalent circuit of IGBT is shown in Fig. 3.37(a). The IGBT can be represented by
a Darlington circuit with the p-n-p transistor (main transistor) and the MOSFET as the driver device
as given in Fig. 3.37(b). The Fig. 3.37(a) can be represented by Fig. 3.38 as approximate equivalent
circuit for normal operating condition represents the resistance of the n– drift region is the resistance
between the p-n-p base and the MOSFET drain and it is represented by Rdrift.
The ON-state voltage across drain to source is VDS(on) and it can be expressed as
VDS(on) = VJ1 + Vdrift + IDRChannel
where, VJ1 is the voltage drop across the junction J1 and it is the forward biased voltage drop across
a PN junction and its value is about 0.7 V to 1.0 V.
Vdrift is the voltage drop across the drift region. The value of Vdrift voltage is less in the IGBT than
in the MOSFET due to the conductivity modulation of the drift region.
IDRChannel is the voltage drop across the channel due to the resistance of the channel.
Fig. 3.36 MOSFET, p-n-p and n-p-n transistors within the structure of IGBT
Power Transistor 67
Fig. 3.37 (a) Equivalent circuit of IGBT Fig. 3.38 Approximate equivalent
(b) Darlington circuit of MOSFET and p-n-p transistor circuit of IGBT
3.17 safe operatinG area of iGBt

The safe operating area (SOA) represents the maximum values of current and voltage at which the
IGBT can withstand safely. As per manufacture datasheet related to specification of IGBT MOSFET,
the safe operating area (SOA) can be determined the following parameters:
1. Maximum drain current ID(max) or maximum collector current IC(max)
2. Maximum permissible internal junction temperature Tj(max)
3. Forward blocking voltage in FBSOA VDSS or VCE(max)
4. Reverse breakdown voltage in RBSOA VBR
5. Maximum power dissipation PD(max)
6. Maximum gate voltage VGE(max)
IC(max) is the maximum permissible collector current of IGBT and its value is about 200 A to 400
A. VGE(max) is the maximum gate voltage which is determined by the breakdown of the silicon dioxide
(SiO2) layer. VCE(max) is the maximum collector to emitter voltage which is determined by the breakdown
voltage of transistor T2. The commercially available IGBT has 1700 V blocking capability. Tj(max) is
the maximum permissible internal junction temperature and its value is about 150°C.
Figure 3.39 shows the safe operating area
(SOA) of IGBT where drain current ID and
drain to source voltage VDS are represented
in logarithmic scale. At low value of VDS, the
maximum drain current ID(max) is limited by
the power dissipation. The maximum power
dissipation is also limited by the maximum
tolerable junction temperature Tj(max) within
the device. The breakdown voltage VDSS
at low drain current is limited to avoid the
avalanche breakdown of the drain drift to
body n–p junction.
When the IGBT operates with dc signal,
the boundary of the SOA is A-B-C-D. During Fig. 3.39 FBSOA of a IGBT
operation with dc signal, a continuous power will be dissipated within device and the junction
temperature increases significantly. Boundary A-B represents the maximum limit of drain current IDM
with VDS is less than 100 V. When VDS is greater than 100 V, the drain current has been reduced as
per boundary B-C so that the operating junction temperature of power MOSFET must be less than
the maximum operating junction temperature. The boundary C-D represents the maximum voltage
capability of a IGBT.
When the IGBT operates as a switch and it is driven by a pulse signal, the boundaries of the SOA
can be extended as shown in Fig. 3.39. The extension of the SOA is only possible for switch mode
operation. Actually, the silicon wafer and its packaging of IGBT have a specified thermal capacitance
and it has an ability to absorb a limited amount of energy without increasing the junction temperature
excessively. The forward biased safe operating area (FBSOA) of IGBT is square for short switching
times and it is similar to FBSOA of MOSFET. For longer switching times, the FBSOA of IGBT is
identical to FBSOA of MOSFET.
When the IGBT turns ON for a few microseconds, the device can absorb very small amount of
energy and the junction temperature rise will be low and the boundary of SOA will be increased.
When the pulse width is about 10–2 s, the SOA is greater than the boundary A-B-C-D. If the pulse
width is further reduced and its value is about some 10–5 s, the SOA is greater than the boundary with
pulse with 10–2 s. It is clear from Fig. 3.39 that the SOA increases with the decrease of pulse-width.
The reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA) of IGBT is different from the FBSOA of IGBT.
dVDS
With the increase of the rate of change of reapplied drain to source voltage , the upper right
dt
hand corner of the reverse bias safe operating area (RBSOA) of IGBT is cut out gradually and the
RBSOA of IGBT reduces significantly. Figure 3.40 shows the RBSOA of IGBT.
Fig. 3.40 RBSOA of IGBT
3.18 switChinG CharaCteristiCs of iGBt

Figure 3.41 shows the turn on switching characteristics of IGBT. The delay time td(on) is the required
time to fall the collector-emitter voltage from VCE to 0.9VCE where VCE is the initial collector emitter
voltage. The delay time td(on) is also the time required for collector current to increase from its initial
Power Transistor 69
Fig. 3.41 Turn-ON switching characteristics of IGBT
value to the 10% of the rated collector current (0.1IC). The rise time tr is the required time to increase
the collector current from the 10% of the rated collector current (0.1IC) to its rated value (IC) and the
collector-emitter voltage falls from 90% of VCE(0.9VCE) to 10% of VCE(0.1VCE). The total turn-ON
time ton is sum of delay time and rise time and it is expressed as
ton = td(on) + tr.
After turn on the IGBT, the collector-emitter voltage falls to small value called ON-state voltage
drop VCES where S represents the saturated value.
Figure 3.42 shows the turn-OFF switching characteristics of IGBT which is somewhat complex and
the bipolar transistor plays an important role to understand the switching characteristics of a IGBT.
The total turn-OFF time toff consists of delay time td(off) and rise time, initial fall time tf1 and final fall
time tf2. The total turn-off time toff can be expressed as
toff = td(off) + tf 1 + tf 2.
The delay time td(off) is the required time during which the gate-emitter voltage falls from VGE to
the threshold voltage VGE(th). Since the gate-emitter voltage falls to VGE(th) during td(off), the collector
current falls from rated value (IC) to the 90% of the rated collector current (0.9IC). At the end of delay
time td(off), the collector-emitter voltage starts to rise.
The first fall time tf 1 is the time during which the collector current falls from the 90% of the rated
collector current (0.9IC) to the 20% of the rated collector current (0.2IC) or time during which the
collector emitter voltage rises from VCES to 10% of VCE(0.1VCE).
The final fall time tf 2 is the time during which the collector current falls from the 20% of the rated
collector current (0.2IC) to the 10% of the rated collector current (0.1IC) or time during which the
collector emitter voltage rises from 10% of VCE (0.1VCE) to final value of VCE.
Fig. 3.42 Turn-OFF switching characteristics of IGBT
The switching characteristics of an IGBT are very much similar to that of a Power MOSFET but
the major difference is that IGBT has a tailing collector current due to the stored charge in the N– drift
region. Actually, the tail current increases the turn-off loss. To reduce switching losses, it is required
to switch OFF the gate with a negative voltage of –15 V.
During the turn-ON process of IGBT, the energy loss in the device is
VCEmax ICmax ton
Won =
6
Then average power loss during the turn-ON process of IGBT is equal to
VCEmax ICmax ton fs
Pon(average) = Won fs = where, fs is the switching frequency of IGBT
6
Similarly, during the turn-OFF process of IGBT, the energy loss in the device is
VCEmax ICmax toff
Woff =
6
Subsequently, the average power loss during the turn-OFF process of IGBT is equal to
VCEmax ICmax toff fs
Poff(average) = Woff fs = where, fs is the switching frequency of IGBT
6
Example 3.8 A IGBT switching circuit as shown in Fig. 3.43 has the following parameters:
ton = 2.5 ms, toff = 3.5 ms, VCE(saturation) = 2.4 V, RL = 10 W, fs = 1.5 kHz, VCC = 250 V.
Power Transistor 71
When duty cycle is 50%, determine (a) average load current,

(b) average conduction loss, (c) turn-on loss and (d) turn-off loss.
Solution
Given: ton = 2.5 ms, toff = 3.5 ms, VCE(saturation) = 2.4 V, RL = 10 W,
fs = 1.5 kHz, VCC = 250 V
(a) ICmax = = A = 24.76 A
RL 10
As duty cycle is 50%, the average load (collector) current
is
Fig. 3.43
ICaverage = DICmax = 0.5 ¥ 24.76 = 12.38 A
(b) Average conduction loss is
VCE (saturation) ICaverage = 2.4 ¥ 12.38 = 29.712 Watt
(c) Turn-ON loss is

VCEmax ICmax ton fs 250 ¥ 24.76 ¥ 2.5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 103
Pon(average) = Won fs = = W = 3.868 W
6 6
(d) Turn-OFF loss is
VCEmax ICmax toff fs 250 ¥ 24.76 ¥ 3.5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 103
Poff(average) = Woff fs = = W = 5.416 W
6 6
3.19 Comparison Between power mosfet

anD iGBt
The comparison between power MOSFET and IGBT is given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Comparison between power MOSFET and IGBT

Power MOSFET IGBT
1. Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. 1. IGBT is a voltage controlled device.
2. Power MOSFET has three terminals namely gate 2. IGBT has three terminals namely gate (G), drain
(G), drain (D) and source (S). (D) or emitter (E) and source (S) or collector (C).
3. Input impedance of power MOSFET is very high. 3. Input impedance of IGBT is very high.
4. Power MOSFET has positive temperature coeffi- 4. IGBT has positive temperature coefficient. With
cient. With increase in temperature, on-sate resis- increase in temperature, on-state resistance in-
tance increases compared to IGBT. creases but rate of increment is less than increase
in MOSFET.
5. The on-state voltage drop of MOSFET is large 5. IGBT has a very low on-state voltage drop due to
compared to on-state voltage drop of IGBT. conductivity modulation. So smaller chip size is
possible and the cost can be reduced.
6. The ON-state voltage drop of MOSFET increases 6. The increment of ON-state voltage drop of IGBT
by 3 times for temperature rise from room tem- is very small.
perature to 200°C.
(Contd.)
Power MOSFET IGBT

7. Current sharing between parallel connected 7. Current sharing between parallel connected
MOSFETs is poor compared to IGBTs. IGBTs is better compared to MOSFETs.
8. At high ambient temperature, maximum current 8. At high ambient temperature, IGBT is well suited.
rating reduces.
9. Switching speed of power MOSFET is superior to 9. Switching speed of IGBT is inferior to that of a
that of a IGBT. power MOSFET.
10. Wide FBSOA. 10. Wide FBSOA and RBSOA. It also has excellent
forward and reverse blocking capabilities.
11. The power MOSFET has a parasitic BJT as an in- 11. The IGBT has a parasitic thyristor as an integral
tegral part of its structure. part of its structure.
3.20 statiC inDuCtion transistor (sit)

The static induction transistor (SIT) is a high power high frequency semiconductor device. This
device was developed by J. Nishizawa in Japan in 1987. The basic structure of an SIT is depicted in
Fig. 3.44(a). SIT is the solid state version of the triode vacuum tube. This is a n+n–n semiconductor
device with p+ gate. Figure 3.44(a) shows the vertical structure with short n-type multi-channels and
the symbol of SIT is illustrated in Fig. 3.44(b). p+ gate is buried in n–epitaxial layer, as shown in Fig.
3.44(a). The p+ buried gate structure provides the low resistance between gate and source, the low
capacitance between gate and source and low thermal resistance. Due to low channel resistance, the
voltage drop will be less. SIT has high audio frequency power handling capability, low distortion and
less noise. The turn ON and turn OFF times (ton and toff) of SIT are very small and these times are
about 0.25 ms to 0.35 ms. The operating frequency of SIT is about 100 kHz. The maximum voltage
and current rating of SIT is 1200 V and 300 A respectively.
Generally, this device operates in ON state when VGS is zero and VDS is present. The majority carriers,
i.e., electrons will flow from source terminal to n-type region and passes though n-type channels to
n– region and finally reach to n+ region. The drain current ID can flow from drain to source.
Fig. 3.44 (a) Basic structure of SIT (b) Symbol of SIT

Power Transistor 73
When VGS is negative (VGS < 0), the p+n becomes reverse biased and a depletion layer will be
developed around p+ buried gate as depicted in Fig. 3.45. The channel width will be reduced and the
current flow from drain to source will be reduced. If the VGS is highly negative, the depletion layer
around p+ buried gate is so high that the channel will be cut-off completely. Consequently, current ID
becomes zero and the device operates in OFF state as shown in Fig. 3.46.
The ON-state voltage drop is typically high. For example, if 180 A current flow through the device,
the ON-state voltage drop is about 90 V as the channel resistance of SIT is about 0.5 ohms. The I-V
characteristics of SIT are depicted in Fig. 3.47. SIT is most commonly used in high power and high
frequency applications such as microwave amplifiers, induction heaters, AM/FM transmitters, VHF/
UHF applications, high voltage and low current power supply.
Fig. 3.45 Drain current ID reduced due to depletion layer when low reverse voltage is applied
Fig. 3.46 Drain current ID reduced to zero due to depletion layer when high reverse voltage is applied
Fig. 3.47 I-V characteristics of SIT
3.21 DriVe CirCuits for BJt, mosfet anD iGBt

Power semiconductor devices such as BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs are becoming increasingly popular
in all applications of power electronics based circuits like the dc-dc converters, ac-to-dc rectifiers with
power factor correction, dc-to-ac inverters, dc and ac motor drives, SMPS, choppers and UPS, etc.
In almost all power electronics applications, power semiconductor devices operate in switched mode
operation to achieve maximum efficiency and the power devices are being used as switches. To achieve
proper and efficient operation of the power electronics equipments, the power semiconductor devices
should be driven in an appropriate manner so that these devices behave as switches.
The input and output characteristics of transistors (BJT/MOSFET/IGBT) are different from input
and output characteristics of thyristors. For example, when a thyristor is forward biased and a triggering
pulse is applied in between anode and cathode, it will be turned ON. Once thyristor is triggered and
turned ON, it continues to remain in conduction state unless the current passes through it reduces to
zero. Actually, if the current flow through thyristor is below the holding current, thyristor will be turned
OFF. But in the case of transistors, the device will operate in conduction state when continuous base
signal is applied to BJT and continuous gate signal is applied to MOSFET.
Bipolar junction transistors are current controlled devices whereas metal oxide field effect transistors
(MOSFETs) are voltage controlled devices. Therefore, separate driver circuits are required for BJTs
and MOSFETs. In this section, base drive circuits of BJTs and gate drive circuits of MOSFETs and
IGBTs are discussed in detail.
3.21.1 Base Drive Circuit of a power BJt

Usually, a base drive circuit should provide electrically isolated base signal to turn-ON and turn-OFF a
transistor. A power BJT has a current gain about 5 to 10 (b = 5 to 10). The power handling capability
of driver circuit should be 20% higher than the power circuit. This circuit should have very high
impedance; therefore a very low power driver circuit is carefully designed to drive a BJT.
Power Transistor 75
Figure 3.48 shows the base current IB, input voltage, voltage across base-emitter and collector
current waveforms of the base drive circuit for a power transistor. During the turn-ON period, the base
current IB should be fast rising and should overshoot the steady-on value of IB. The maximum value
of the base current IB during turn-on is represented by IBmax+. During the turn-OFF period, a negative
base current IB should be applied to the base of power BJT to quickly remove the stored charges in the
transistor. The maximum negative value of the base current IB during turn-OFF is represented by IBmax–.
Fig. 3.48 Waveforms of base current IB, collector current IC and voltage across base-emitter VBE
During the steady-on period of transistor, the base current value is limited by the transistor
predictable collector current and the minimum value of b. When the transistor operates in conduction
state, the steady-state on state base current is represented by IB_on. For the duration of the steady-off
period, the base current value should be zero. Consequently, a base drive circuit of transistor should
be designed in such way that the base current wave shape should follow the waveform as depicted in
Fig. 3.48(a). If a base drive circuit is properly designed, the circuit reliability improves by minimising
the switching time. Then switching losses will be reduced and the device can be operating in robust
mode. Usually, the value of IB_on, IBmax+ and IBmax– are expressed by
IC I
I B _ on = 2 = 2 C , I B max + = 1.5I B _ on and I B max - = 1.5I B _ on
h fe b
If a high-current pulse is superimposed with the normal turn-ON base current which is supplied by
a current source, BJT can be rapidly switched into conduction state from turn-OFF state. Consequently,
both the turn-ON switching time and switching losses are reduced. During turn-OFF process of
transistor, when a negative base current is applied instead of simply decreasing the input base current,
the turn-OFF time of switching time can be reduced.
Usually, the base drive circuits of transistor are placed near to the device. It reduces the length of
wire and inductance of the connecting wires. The effects of noise or stray signals are minimised and
it clamps the oscillation in the base drive circuit signal.
As a high power current source is required to drive the base of power transistor, the difficulty arises
when the emitter is at a fixed voltage level or the emitter is not at ground potential. When a load is
connected in between emitter and ground or BJTs are connected in bridge configuration, the emitter
terminal will be at floating potential. Subsequently, the emitter potential changes from zero to supply
voltage and supply voltage to zero when the BJT is in OFF and ON condition respectively.
A properly designed base drive circuit should be able to
1. Provide adequate positive base current during turn ON
2. Provide adequate base current to maintain the transistor in the steady-on state
3. Supply negative base current during turn OFF of the transistor
For high power applications, the drive circuit should
1. provide isolation between the control circuit which generates control signals for the base drive
and the power circuit where power transistors are turned ON and OFF periodically to control
power.
dv
2. have proper protection arrangement against high or surge voltage and over currents.
dt
3.21.2 Classification of Base Drive Circuits
The base drive circuit can be classified based on presence of isolation and negative voltage source.
The following types of base drive circuits are commonly used:
1. Base drive circuit without isolation
2. Base drive circuits without negative voltage source
3. Base drive circuits with negative voltage source
4. Base drive circuit with transformer isolation
5. Base drive circuits with opto-isolation
6. Base drive circuits with various combinations of the above.
In this section, some base drive circuits are explained in detail.
Base drive circuit without isolation and without negative voltage source
Figure 3.49 shows a simplest base drive circuit for a power BJT. Actually, this circuit is the basic
building block of any complex base drive circuit. This
base drive circuit is suitable only for low power and low
frequency applications. When the input signal Vcontrol is
greater than Vreference, the comparator output voltage is
high. If the input signal Vcontrol is less than Vreference, the
comparator output voltage is low. Hence, the comparator
output signal VB is a square wave as depicted in Fig. 3.49.
During the turn-ON time, this circuit does not provide
the starting base current IBmax+. The resistance R2 is used
to provide the discharge path for removing the base
charges in the power transistor TP.
Generally, the value of I B_on is expressed by Fig. 3.49 Simplest base drive circuit for a
IC IC and the current flows through R power BJT
I B _ on = 2 =2 2
h fe b
is I R = I B _ on .
2
Power Transistor 77
VBE V VBE h fe IC VB - VBE (VB - VBE )h fe

Then R2 = = BE = as I B _ on = 2 and R1 = =
I R2 I B _ on 2 IC h fe 2 I B _ on 4 IC
Figure 3.50 shows a drive circuit of power transistor. In this circuit TP is the power transistor which
will be turned ON and OFF to control power flow and T1 and T2 are auxiliary low power transistors.
When the current sourcing capability of VB is low, this circuit is very useful. Actually, transistors T1
and T2 provide the required current gain to drive the power transistor TP.
While the voltage VB is positive, T1 turns ON. Consequently, the collector to emitter voltage of
transistor T1 is about zero. Subsequently, resistance R3 is connected to ground at one end and the
emitter-base junction of the p-n-p transistor T2 is forward biased. As a result, T2 turns ON. Accordingly,
the necessary base drive current flows through the resistance R1 and the power transistor TP will be
turned on.
Fig. 3.50 A drive circuit of power transistor
When VB is zero, subsequently transistor T1 is turned OFF and the voltage at base of transistor T2 is
high, hence T2 becomes turned OFF. Therefore, there is no base current to drive the power transistor
TP and TP will operate in off state.
Figure 3.51 shows a drive circuit of power transistor which improved version of Fig. 3.50. In this
circuit, the turn-OFF time of the power transistor TP is reduced by using an inductor L.
Fig. 3.51 A drive circuit of power transistor

When the transistor T2 operates in conducting state, a current I flows through inductor L and some
energy will be stored in the inductor. The current flow through the inductor L is limited by the resistance
R5. Whenever the transistor T2 operates in cut off, the inductor L does not allow sudden change in its
current. Consequently, the voltage polarity across the inductor will be reversed. For this reason, the
inductor behaves as a generator and it provides the reverse base current IBmax– for fast turn off of the
power transistor TP. Normally, the value of L is determined by the following equation:
( R5 + R6 )I B max - - VBE
L=
dI B
dt
dI B
where, = 0.15IC A / ms for high voltage transistors (> 700 V)
dt
dI B
= 0.5IC A / ms for low voltage transistors (< 200).
dt
Base drive circuit without isolation and with negative voltage source This base
drive circuit without isolation and with negative voltage source is shown in Fig. 3.52. This circuit
is similar to Fig. 3.50, but the resistance R6 is connected to a negative supply. The operation of Fig.
3.52 is similar to that of the base drive circuit as shown in Fig. 3.50, but during turn off of the power
transistor TP, a negative base current IB max– is supplied by the negative voltage source (–VCC) through
the resistance R6. The value of resistance R6 is determined by
VBE + VCC
R6 =
I B max -
Fig. 3.52 Base drive circuit without isolation and with negative voltage source
IC I
If = 2 C , and I B max - = 1.5I B _ on ,
I B _ on = 2
h fe b
(VBE + VCC )h fe
The value of resistance R6 is equal to R6 =
3I C
Power Transistor 79
Base drive circuit with isolation Actually, the base drive or control circuit operates at low
voltage with lower power and the load or the power circuit is connected with high voltage and power
circuit is used to control power. If the control circuit is not isolated from power circuit, the control
circuit will be damaged. Therefore, the isolation between the base drive or control circuit and the load
or the power circuit is required for high power applications. Usually, isolation can be provided either
by using opto-couplers or by using transformers.
Base drive circuit using opto-coupler Figure 3.53 shows a base drive circuit which uses an opto-
coupler to provide the isolation between the base drive side and the high power collector side circuit.
Fig. 3.53 A base drive circuit using an opto-coupler
When the base drive pulse VB is positive, a current flows through the photodiode of the opto-
coupler as shown in Fig. 3.53. Consequently, the transistor T1 of the opto-coupler is to be turned on.
As a result the transistor T2 operates in OFF state and transistor T3 becomes ON. When T3 is turned
on, a surge current IBmax+ is supplied to the base of the power transistor TP through the path R8 - C.
Due to presence of base surge current, power transistor TP will be turned on rapidly. When the power
transistor TP is fully on, the capacitor should be charged to VCC.
Similarly, when the base drive pulse VB is zero, no current flows through the photodiode and the
transistor T1 of the opto-coupler operates in off-state. At this instant, T2 is turned ON and the power
transistor TP turns OFF with reverse base current flowing through T4. The selection of the opto-coupler
depends on the breakdown voltage between the diode terminals and the transistor terminals, the current
transfer ratio of the opto-coupler and the propagation delay.
Base drive circuit using pulse transformer Figure 3.54 shows a base drive circuit which
uses a pulse transformer to provide the isolation between the base drive side and the high power
collector side circuit.
When a positive base drive pulse voltage VB is applied to transistor T1, the transistor T1 will be
turned on and the VCC voltage is applied across the primary of the pulse transformer. Generally, the
pulse transformer is a special type of transformer and it is designed to operate at specified frequency
range. As a pulse voltage is applied across the primary winding of pulse transformer, it passes the
primary pulse to the secondary winding. The output pulse from secondary winding is used to turn on
the power transistor TP.
Fig. 3.54 A base drive circuit using a pulse transformer
When the base drive pulse VB is zero volts, the transistor T1 is turned OFF and suddenly the
current in the primary winding will be cut-off and there will be sudden increase in voltage across the
di
primary winding due to L . Since the high voltage appears across transistor T1 and it can damage
dt
the transistor T1. To save the transistor T1, the abrupt cut-off of the primary winding current should
flow through a freewheeling diode DF and resistance R3 when T1 is turned OFF.
The duty cycle of this circuit is limited as the transistor T1 must be turned OFF for the time duration
when (during which) the core will be reset. When the value of R3 is large, the core resetting will be
faster and subsequently the range of duty cycle will be larger. The voltage drop across R3 is higher
and the collector emitter voltage VCE rating of transistor T1 is also higher. Practically, the duty ratio
D is limited to less than 50%. The collector emitter voltage VCE rating of transistor T1 should follows
the following relationship:
VCE (T1 ) > VCC + I m R3 + VDF
where, Im is the magnetising current which flows through the primary winding,
VDF is the voltage drop across freewheeling diode DF
In Fig. 3.54, the freewheeling path consists of a resistor R3 and a freewheeling diode DF and there
is power dissipation in resistance R3. This dissipation can be avoided when a third winding is added
in the isolation transformer. Whenever transistor T1 is turned OFF, the dot poles of the transformer
become negative with respect to the other poles. At this instant diode DF is to be forward biased. Since
DF conducts and the magnetic energy stored in the core freewheel. Accordingly, the core is resetting
and it prevents core saturation. Assume winding n3 is used for demagnetising the core practically, to
achieve a very tight coupling between n1 and n3, these windings are wound bifilar. As the turns ratio
n1:n3::1:1 is maintained. As a result, a time equal to the on time of T1 is needed for the core to reset.
Hence, the OFF time of transistor T1 should be equal to the on time of T1. Consequently, the duty
ratio D is limited to 50% and it never exceeds 50%.
Power Transistor 81
3.21.3 Gate Drive Circuit for power mosfet

MOSFET is a voltage controlled device and the gate current of MOSFET is independent of the drain
current. The input gate characteristics of a power MOSFET is different from power BJT. The gate is
electrically isolated from the source by a layer of silicon dioxide. In ideal condition, when a voltage is
applied, no current flows into the gate, but a very small leakage current about 10-10 A flows to maintain
gate voltage. During turn-ON and turn-OFF periods of MOSFET, the small current flow is enough to
charge and discharge the capacitances. The capacitances of MOSFET and source impedance of gate
drive circuit limit the switching speed.
The driver circuit of power MOSFET is very much similar to driving a very high impedance
capacitive network. Therefore, a properly designed very low power driver circuit is required to drive
a power MOSFET. Actually, the gate voltage controlled power MOSFET requires a very low power
driver circuit.
An n-channel MOSFET has three parasitic capacitances namely Cgd, Cds and Cgs. These capacitances
are non-linear and voltage dependent. The values of capacitances are high for very low value of VDS
and are almost constant at higher or rated value of VDS. Figure 3.55 shows an n-channel MOSFET
with voltage dependent capacitance.
To turn-OFF a MOSFET, the gate voltage
must be reduced to zero and then VDS attains
the supply voltage VDD. The potential at drain
terminal changes from 0 V to VDD and the
capacitance Cgd will be charged up to VDD
through a low gate-source impedance Rg. When
a gate signal is applied to MOSFET and its
value is higher than the threshold voltage VTh,
MOSFET will be turned ON. When the switch
is ON, in ideal case, the voltage across D and
S is about zero and the potential of terminal D
swings to ground potential. The decreasing of
dV
VDS generates a feedback current i = Cgd DS
dt Fig. 3.55 An n-channel MOSFET with voltage dependent
to the gate and these current flows through Cgd. capacitance
This feedback system is known as Miller Effect.
Since the capacitor Cgs is charged and discharged and there is a large swing in gate to drain voltage,
a gate drive circuit is required with high current source and current sink capability. Though Cgs is an
important parameter, but the Cgd has more effect due to miller effect. Figure 3.56 shows the voltage
swing across drain to source of MOSFET during turn ON and turn OFF.
The turn-ON time and turn-OFF time of MOSFET are affected by Rg as Rg is connected in series
with the capacitances Cgs and Cgd. The turn-ON time and turn-OFF time of device (MOSFET) can be
reduced by a diode which allows the quick charge and discharge of parasitic capacitors, by shorting
Rg. Hence, a bipolar gate drive signal can be used to turn-ON and turn-OFF transistors rapidly. Figure
3.57 shows driver circuits during turn ON and turn OFF.
When the MOSFET is in the ON condition, the gate power requirement is very low. Therefore, the
gate current during ON condition of MOSFET is also very low. Figure 3.58 shows the gate current
waveform of a gate drive circuit of a MOSFET. It is clear from Fig. 3.58 that the gate current Ig required
to maintain the MOSFET in the steady state on condition is about zero. Actually, the energy of gate
circuit is only used to turn ON and turn OFF the MOSFET. During turn ON, a maximum positive
Fig. 3.56 Voltage swing across drain to source of MOSFET (a) during turn ON and (b) during turn OFF
gate current of Igmax+ is applied to turn ON the MOSFET. During turn OFF a maximum negative gate
current of Igmax– is used for fast turn OFF of the MOSFET.
During the turn-ON period of MOSFET, assume a constant gate current of Igon is being applied to
the gate of the MOSFET. The turn-ON surge current Igmax+ is related with Igon as follows:
I g max +
I gon =
2
To turn-ON a MOSFET, a specific amount of gate charge QG must be supplied to the gate of the
MOSFET. As per the manufacturers’ data sheets, the amount of gate charge QG is equal to
QG = Igon ◊ ton
Power Transistor 83
Fig. 3.57 Driver circuits (a) during turn ON and (b) during turn OFF
Fig. 3.58 Gate current waveform of a gate drive circuit of a MOSFET
For fast turn-ON of the MOSFET, the required Igon must be more. When a smaller Igon is supplied,
MOSFET can be switched slower. If about 500 nC of charge is required to turn ON the MOSFET and
the device will be turned ON within 1 ms, the required Igon will be about 500 mA and Ig max+ will be
1000 mA. If the required turn-ON time becomes 2 ms, then the required Igmax+ will be about 250 mA
and the required Igmax+ will be about 500 mA. A series resistor R may be connected in series with the
gate of the MOSFET to limit the gate current. The value of R will be
VCC
R=
I g max +
where, VCC is the gate drive source voltage.
Usually manufacturers do not specify the device parasitic capacitances namely Cgd, Cds and Cgs,
but they provide input, output and reverse common-source capacitances such as Ciss, Coss and Crss
respectively. All these capacitances are represented by
Ciss = Cgs + Cgd when Cds is shorted
Coss = Cds + Cgd when Cgs is shorted
Crss = Cgd
The switching speed of MOSFET largely depends upon Crss and the gate-drive source impedance.
Therefore, the accurate estimation of the switching time (turn-ON and turn-OFF) of MOSFET becomes
difficult. Actually, the value of Ciss changes with VDS and at low drain-voltage level this variation is
large. Subsequently, the switching time constant determined by Ciss and gate drive impedance changes
during the switching cycle. Figure 3.59 shows the ideal switching characteristics of MOSFET with
R load. The ideal switching characteristics of MOSFET with resistive load can be divided into three
distinct periods as given below.
CissVGS (Th)
iG = during t0 £ t £ t1
t1 - t0
Crss (VDD - VDS (ON ) )
t2 - t1
Ciss (VGS (ON) - VGS (Th) )
t3 - t 2
Fig. 3.59 Ideal switching characteristics of MOSFET with R load
The value of capacitances may be found from the manufacturers’ data sheet. During t0 £ t £ t1 and
V
t1 £ t £ t2, Ciss and Crss values may be considered corresponding to VDS = DD . But, during t2 £ t £ t3,
2
the value of Ciss may be considered corresponding to VDS = VDS(ON).
A MOSFET drive circuit is shown in Fig. 3.60. The resistance R1 is used for limiting the turn-ON
surge current. Resistance R2 is used to provide a discharge path for the input capacitance during turn-
off of the MOSFET. Usually R2 is about ten times
the value of R1.
When the gate drive supply voltage Vg has
sinking current capability, then resistance R2 is
not required. In that case, the output resistance of
Vg is low and the input capacitance of MOSFET
is charged and discharged through resistance R1.
MOSFETs can also be driven directly using
a CMOS logic IC as depicted in Fig. 3.61. To
reduce turn on time, Igon must be increased. This
can be achieved by parallel connection of buffers
as shown in Fig. 3.61(b). CD 4049 IC is a CMOS
hex inverting buffer and CD 4050 IC is the non-
inverting hex buffer. Either CD 4049 or CD 4050 Fig. 3.60 MOSFET drive circuit
Power Transistor 85
Fig. 3.61 (a) MOSFET drive circuit using hex inverter CD 4049 IC (b) CMOS hex buffer CD 4049 IC
can be used to drive MOSFETs. In this circuit, the series resistor R1 is used to limit the turn-ON gate
surge current Ig max+.
Figure 3.62 shows a MOSFET drive circuit by using transistors to increase the turn-on gate drive
current Igon. This circuit operates just like the base drive circuit as depicted in Fig. 3.62. The only
difference is that the negative power supply is not present.
When the applied voltage VB is zero, the p-n-p transistor T1 is ON. Subsequently, the base terminals
of transistors T2 and T3 are positive. Then the base-emitter of transistor T2 will be forward bias and
the base-emitter of transistor T3 will be reverse bias. Thus transistor T2 is turned ON and transistor
T3 is turned OFF. When T2 is turned ON, maximum positive gate current of Ig max+ is supplied to
turn ON the power MOSFET TP. Due to presence of surge gate current, power MOSFET TP will be
turned ON rapidly.
In this circuit operation, the input capacitance of the MOSFET provides the required forward bias
to turn on the p-n-p transistor T3 when T2 is turned OFF. Consequently, the power MOSFET TP will
be turned OFF.
Fig. 3.62 A MOSFET drive circuit using transistors

3.21.4 mosfet Drive Circuit using isolation

In some power electronics circuits, the gate and source terminals of a MOSFET are floating with
respect of other MOSFETs which exist within the circuit. Isolation can be provided to these MOSFETs
by using opto-isolators or by using pulse transformers. Figure 3.63 shows a gate drive circuit using
an opto-coupler. This circuit operates just like the base drive circuit of BJT using opto-isolators as
depicted in Fig. 3.53. In all opto-isolated drive circuits for BJT and MOSFET, the secondary circuit
should have a local power supply and the secondary circuit must be isolated from primary side.
When the base drive pulse VB is positive, a current flows through the photodiode of the opto-coupler
as shown in Fig. 3.63. As a result, the transistor T1 of the opto-coupler is to be turned on. Subsequently,
the transistor T2 operates in OFF state and transistor T3 becomes ON. When T3 is turned on, a surge
gate current is supplied to the power MOSFET TP through resistance R7. Due to presence of gate surge
current, power MOSFET TP will be turned ON rapidly.
Fig. 3.63 A gate drive circuit of MOSFET using an opto-coupler
In this circuit operation, the input capacitance of the MOSFET TP provides the required forward
bias to turn on the p-n-p transistor T3 when T2 is turned OFF. Consequently, the power MOSFET TP
will be turned OFF.
A gate drive circuit for power MOSFET using an opto-coupler is also depicted in Fig. 3.64. In
this figure, the complementary pair transistors T3 and T4 are replaced by CMOS hex non-inverting
buffer CD 4049 IC. In place of CD 4049 IC, CMOS hex inverting buffer CD 4050 IC can also be
used in this circuit.
Figure 3.65 shows a gate drive circuit which uses a pulse-transformer to provide the isolation
between the gate drive side circuit and the high power MOSFET side circuit. This circuit operates just
like the base drive circuit of BJT using transformer isolation as depicted in Fig. 3.54.
When a positive gate drive pulse voltage VB is applied to transistor T1, the transistor T1 will be
turned on and the VCC voltage is applied across the primary of the pulse transformer. Usually, the
pulse transformer is a special type of transformer and it is designed to operate at specified frequency
range. As a pulse voltage is applied across the primary winding of pulse transformer, it passes the
primary pulse to the secondary winding. The output pulse from secondary winding is used to turn on
the power MOSFET TP.
Power Transistor 87
Fig. 3.64 A gate drive circuit using an opto-coupler and CMOS hex buffer
Fig. 3.65 A gate drive circuit of MOSFET using a pulse transformer
Whenever the gate drive pulse VB becomes zero volts, the transistor T1 is turned OFF and suddenly
the current in the primary winding will be cut-off and there will be sudden increase in voltage across
di
the primary winding due to L . Since the high voltage appears across transistor T1 and it can damage
dt
the transistor T1. To save the transistor T1, the abrupt cut-off of the primary winding current should
flow through a freewheeling diode DF and resistance R3 when T1 is turned off.
The duty cycle of this circuit is limited

as the transistor T1 must be turned OFF for
the time duration when (during which) the
core will be reset. When the value of R3
is large, the core resetting will be faster
and subsequently the range of duty cycle
will be larger. The voltage drop across R3
is higher and the collector emitter voltage
VCE rating of transistor T1 is also higher.
Practically, the duty ratio D is limited to
less than 50%. Once again, we can use a
demagnetising winding to perform non-
dissipate freewheeling as depicted in Fig.
3.66. Fig. 3.66 A gate drive circuit using three winding pulse
transformer
3.21.5 Gate Drive Circuits of iGBt

Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are gaining considerable use in power electronics circuits at
high voltage, high current and moderate switching frequencies. Usually, IGBT based circuits are used
in motor control, uninterruptible power supply and other similar inverter applications. In comparison
to bipolar transistors which were formally used in such power electronics circuits, the IGBT offers a
considerable reduction in both size and complexity of the drive circuitry. Present improvements in IGBT
switching speed have yielded devices suitable for uninterruptible power supply applications. Hence, in
place of MOSFET, IGBTs can also be used for certain high voltage applications. The gate drive circuit
requirements of the IGBTs are very much similar to the gate drive circuits of the power MOSFET.
dv
Depending upon the presence of , IGBT drive circuits can be divided into two basic application
categories such as dt
1. Presence of high dv/dt to the collector/emitter of the IGBT when it is OFF.

2. Absence of high dv/dt to the collector/emitter of the IGBT when it is OFF.
In some power electronics circuits, only one switch is employed or multiple switches are activated
dv
synchronously. The high is applied to IGBT during the off-state in most bridge circuits when
dt
opposing devices are turned on. Therefore, simultaneous
conduction of opposing devices in a bridge circuit can occur
in, often with catastrophic results when the proper gate drive
and layout precautions are not followed. This happens due
to the presence of parasitic collector to gate capacitance
or miller effect and a capacitive divider with the gate-to-
emitter capacitance. Consequently, a gate-to-emitter voltage
is induced as shown in Fig. 3.67.
When high OFF-state dv/dt is not present, all the gate
drive circuits of power MOSFET as explained in Section
3.21.4 can be used to drive the IGBT. Generally, 15 volts Fig. 3.67 High dv/dt at the collector
is applied gate to emitter during the ON-state to minimise couples to the gate through
saturation voltage. In a gate drive, the gate resistor is used parasitic capacitance in a IGBT
Power Transistor 89
to limit gate current to control IGBT turn ON directly. But turn OFF is partially governed by minority
carrier and it is less affected by gate drive.
There are different techniques which can be employed to eliminate simultaneous conduction when
high OFF-state dv/dt is present. The most commonly used technique is a Kelvin connection between
the IGBT emitter and the driver’s ground. If high di/dt is present in the emitter circuit, the substantial
transient voltages will be developed in the gate drive circuit when it is not properly referenced. Actually,
the Kelvin drive connection minimises the effective driver impedance for maximum attenuation of
the dv/dt induced gate voltage.
Design aspects of gate drive circuits for IGBT Since the input characteristics of the IGBT
are similar to that of MOSFET, the design considerations of gate drive circuit for an IGBT and the
MOSFET are identical. During design of the gate drive circuits for an IGBT, the following design
aspects are to be considered:
1. Just like MOSFET IGBT is a voltage controlled device. IGBT has a gate to emitter threshold
voltage VGE(Th) and capacitive input impedance. To turn on the IGBT, the input capacitance
must be charged up to a voltage which is greater than VGE(Th). The collector-to-emitter saturation
voltage decreases with an increase in magnitude of gate-to-emitter voltage VGE. Just after turn
on the IGBT, the collector current starts to flow.
2. During turn OFF the IGBT, the gate drive circuit must provide a resistance between gate and
emitter (RGE). Actually the gate-to-emitter resistance (RGE) provides the path to discharge the
gate capacitance and the device will be turned OFF. The discharge time constant and dv/dt
during turn OFF depend on the value of the gate-to-emitter resistance (RGE).
3. IGBTs should have a maximum controllable current which is dependent on the gate to emitter
dv/dt. If the gate to emitter dv/dt is high, the controllable collector current will be low. As a
result, for a maximum controllable collector current, the gate-to-emitter resistance (RGE) should
have a lower limit.
4. The output current of the gate-drive circuit must be sufficient to charge and discharge the gate
source capacitance rapidly. Therefore, the turn-ON and turn-OFF time of IGBT can be reduced
and the switching losses will also be reduced.
5. The gate drive circuit must be able to source short duration high magnitude gate current pulses
for fast turn-ON. The gate drive circuit can also sink short duration high magnitude gate current
pulses for fast turn-OFF.
6. The gate drive circuit should be designed with over current protection. Therefore, it can sense
the collector current and turn-OFF the device accordingly to protect the device when excessive
current flows.
7. The control circuit must be electrically isolated from the power circuit using IGBT. Actually
isolation can be provided using either an opto-coupler or pulse transformer. The opto-coupler
must be used for isolation with shorter propagation delay and high noise immunity.
The gate drive circuits for MOSFET are also applicable to IGBT. There are different variations in
the drive circuit. It is safe to use the gate drive circuits of power MOSFFETs with minor modification
for driving to the IGBT. Usually, a negative turn-off voltage is not required between gate and emitter
to drive IGBT.
Figure 3.68 shows a typical drive circuit. The value of the gate to emitter resistance (RGE) should be
quite large so that the drive current is minimised. Therefore, the turn-ON and turn-OFF times would
be slow to about tens of microseconds.
Figure 3.69 shows a high speed asymmetrical gate drive circuit for IGBT. The pulse transformer
TR1 is used to provide isolation between primary and secondary. A diode D is used in combination
with R3 to provide a fast turn-ON time without affecting

the turn-OFF time. Hence, R3 and RGE can be used to
determine turn-ON and turn-OFF times respectively.
Figure 3.70 shows the gate drive circuit which
satisfies all the design requirements of gate drive
for IGBT. The totem pole arrangement of the driver
transistors T3 and T4 must ensure quick charging and
discharging of the input capacitance of the IGBT.
Consequently, the turn-ON and turn-OFF times of the
IGBT will be reduced and subsequently the switching
losses will also be reduced. Whenever transistor T3 is
turned ON, a voltage is applied and the IGBT is to be
turned-on. To turn-OFF an IGBT, transistor T3 is to be Fig. 3.68 Simple gate drive circuit of IGBT
turned OFF and T4 is to be turned ON.
Fig. 3.69 Gate drive circuit of IGBT using pulse transformer as isolation
Fig. 3.70 Gate drive circuit of IGBT using opto-coupler as isolation
It is clear from Fig. 3.70 that the control circuit is isolated from the power circuit using an
optocoupler. When a pulse voltage VG is applied at point A, transistor T1 is turned ON and a current
Power Transistor 91
flows through the photodiode of the opto-coupler. Consequently, the transistor T2 of the opto-coupler
is to be turned ON. Then the potential at non-inverting terminal of comparator is greater than the
potential at inverting terminal of comparator. Hence comparator output is high.
Similarly, when the gate drive pulse VG is zero, transistor T1 is turned OFF and no current flows
through the photodiode and the transistor T2 of the opto-coupler operates in OFF state. At this instant
the potential at non-inverting terminal of comparator is less than the potential at inverting terminal of
comparator. Hence comparator output is low. Actually, the comparator acts as a wave shaping circuit
and generates a rectangular waveform with sharp leading and trailing edges. This is necessary to nullify
the effect of slow opto-coupler on the shape of the waveform. Whenever the comparator output is high,
transistor T3 is ON, T4 is OFF and IGBT will be ON. When the comparator output is low, transistor
T3 is OFF, T4 is ON and IGBT will be OFF.
If a short circuit occurs in the power circuit, the collector current of the IGBT will increase rapidly.
Whenever this current exceeds a critical value, the collector-emitter voltage increases quickly. This
increased collector-emitter voltage can be used to indicate over current. Due to over current, IGBT may
be damaged. Therefore, over current protection feature must be incorporated in the gate drive circuit.
In Fig. 3.70 diode D will conduct at normal operating conditions. Due to short circuit, when the
over current condition arises, the collector-emitter voltage increases rapidly and the diode D will be
reverse biased. As soon as diode D is turned-off, the comparator output is not allowed to pass through,
to the totem pole driver circuit and consequently IGBT quickly turned-OFF. In this way, IGBT can be
protected from over current condition.
Example 3.9 Figure 3.71 shows a base drive circuit where a

power BJT has to switch a 1 A load. The base drive circuit draws
power from +5 V dc voltage source. Determine the values of
resistance R1 and R2. Assume hfe of BJT is 80 and VBE = 0.7 V
Solution
Given: IC = 1 A, hfe = 80, VBE = 0.7 V, VB = 5 V
V V V h
The value of R2 = BE = BE = BE fe as I B _ on = 2 IC
I R2 I B _ on 2 IC h fe
0.7 ¥ 80
= = 28 W
2 ¥1 Fig. 3.71
V - VBE (VB - VBE )h fe (5 - 0.7) ¥ 80
The value of R1 = B = = = 86 W
2 I B _ on 4 IC 4 ¥1
Example 3.10 A base drive circuit is shown in Fig. 3.72 where a BJT has to switch a 10 A load which is
connected to a 150 V dc. The base drive circuit draws power from +10 V dc power source. Determine the value
of inductance L. Assume hfe of BJT is 100, VBE = 0.7 V and R5 = R6 = 100 W.
Solution
Given: IC = 10 A, hfe = 100, VBE = 0.7 V, VB = 10 V, R5 = R6 = 100 W.
IC I 10
I B _ on = 2 =2 C =2¥ = 0.2 A
h fe b 100
I B max - = 1.5I B _ on = 1.5 ¥ 0.2 A = 0.3 A
As the voltage of power transistor is less than 200 V,
dI B
= 0.5IC A / ms = 0.5 ¥ 10 A / ms = 5 A /ms
dt
Fig. 3.72
The value of inductance is L = ( R5 + R6 )I B max - - VBE

dI B
dt
(100 + 100) ¥ 0.3 - 0.7
= = 11.86 mH
5
summary
d The structured and operating characteristics of power BJTs are discussed elaborately in this chapter. The
power BJTs has a vertically oriented structure and a lightly doped collector drift region. The blocking
voltage of power BJT depends on drift region and quasi-saturation region exist in I-V characteristics of
power BJT.
d Power BJTs have low current gain. Therefore monolithic Darlington pair power transistors are developed
to increase current gain.
d Hard saturation, primary breakdown, second breakdown, on state loss of power BJT are explained in detail.
The safe operating area (SOA) of power BJT is limited by second breakdown. The RBSOA is normally the
limiting factor.
d The power MOSFETs have a vertically oriented structure with a lightly doped drift region and a highly
interdigitated gate-source structure.
d MOSFET is a majority carrier device, it’s on state resistance has a positive temperature co-efficient. It is
easy to connect MOSFETs in parallel for increasing current handling capability.
d The safe operating area of power MOSFET is large due to the absence of second breakdown.
d Switching characteristics, series and parallel operation of power BJTs, Power MOSFETs are incorporated
in this chapter.
d The performance of IGBT is the midway between a MOSFET and BJT. In this chapter structure, I-V
characteristics, safe operating area, switching characteristics of IGBT are explained.
d The drive circuits of BJT, MOSFET and IGBT are also incorporated in this chapter.
Power Transistor 93
Multiple-Choice Questions
3.1 A power transistor is a ______ layer device.
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
3.2 A n-p-n power transistor is a ______ layer device.
(a) n+ pn– n+ (b) p+ n+ n– n+ (c) n– n+ p– p+ (d) n+ p– p+ n–
3.3 A p-n-p power transistor is a ______ layer device.
(a) n+ pn– n+ (b) p+ np– p+ (c) n– p+ n– p+ (d) p+ n– p+ n–
3.4 The width of base region is about
(a) 50 to 200 mm (b) 5 to 20 mm (c) 10 to 100 mm (d) 100 to 250 mm
3.5 The droping density of a n-p-n transistor collector is
(a) 1014 cm–3 (b) 1015 cm–3 (c) 1614 cm–3 (d) 1019 cm–3
3.6 When bA is gain of auxiliary transistor and bM is gain of main transistor, the gain of Darlingtor pair BJT is
(a) b = bMbA + bM + bA (b) b = bMbA + bM (c) b = bMbA + bA (d) b = bMbA – bM – bA
3.7 The overdrive factor (ODF) is equal to
I IB IE IC
(a) BS (b) (c) (d)
IB I BS I BS I BS
3.8 The total power loss in two junctions of power transistor is
(a) VBEIB + VCEIC (b) VBEIB + VCEIE (c) VBCIB + VCEIC (d) VBEIC + VCEIB
3.9 Which of the following statements are true
(a) VCE|SUS > VCE 0 (b) VCE0 < VCB0 (c) VCE|SUS < VCE 0 (d) VCE0 > VCB0
3.10 Power BJT is a switch when
(a) both base-emitter and collector-base junction is forward biased
(b) both base-emitter and collector-base junction is reverse biased
(c) base-emitter is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased
(d) base-emitter is reverse biased and collector-base junction is forward biased
3.11 Secondary breakdown occurred in
(a) BJT only (b) MOSFET only (c) Both BJT and MOSFET (d) SIT only
3.12 A power BJT is a
(a) npn (b) n+ pn– n+ (c) n+pn+n– (d) n+pn+
3.13 The relation between a and b is
b a a b
(a) a = (b) b = (c) b = (d) a =
b +1 1-a 1+a b -1
3.14 The forced current gain bf is
I IB I IB
(a) CS (b) (c) BS (d)
IB I BS IB ICS
3.15 Which is the correct statement for power transistor
(a) FBSOA and RBSOA exist in power transistor (b) RBSOA is less than FBSOA
(c) FBSOA is less than RBSOA (d) only FBSOA exist
3.16 In a n-p-n power BJT, the relationship between VCE0 and VCB0 is
V V V V
(a) VCE 0 = CB 0 (b) VCE 0 = CB1 0 (c) VCE 0 = CB1 0 (d) VCE 0 = CB1 0
b b 2
b 3 b4
3.17 ODF of power transistor is
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8
3.18 The n– drift region has ______ droping density
(a) 1014 cm–3 (b) 1015 cm–3 (c) 1016 cm–3 (d) 1019 cm–3
3.19 Power MOSFET has three terminals namely
(a) gate, drain, source (b) gate, emitter, collector (c) gate, source, emitter (d) gate, base, collector
3.20 Which of the following statement is true

(a) BJT is voltage controlled and MOSFET is current controlled
(b) BJT is current controlled and MOSFET is voltage controlled
(c) Both BJT and MOSFET are current controlled
(d) Both BJT and MOSFET are voltage controlled
3.21 Which of the following statement is true?
(a) BJT has negative temperature coefficient and MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient
(b) BJT has positive temperature coefficient and MOSFET has negative temperature coefficient
(c) Both BJT and MOSFET have positive temperature coefficient
(d) Both BJT and MOSFET have negative temperature coefficient
3.22 Compared to BJT, MOSFET has
(a) low switching frequency and low conduction loss
(b) high switching frequency and low conduction loss
(c) high switching frequency and high conduction loss
(d) low switching frequency and high conduction loss
3.23 The high frequency operation of a switching circuit is limited by
(a) turn-ON and turn-OFF loss within the device (b) ON-state conduction loss within the device
(c) OFF-state loss within the device (d) both (a) and (b)
3.24 As compared to BJT, power MOSFET has
(a) high switching loss and low conduction loss (b) high switching loss and high conduction loss
(c) low switching loss and low conduction loss (d) low switching loss and high conduction loss
Fill in the Blanks

3.1 A n-p-n power transistor is a_____ layer ______ structure.
3.2 The current gain of Darlingtor pair BJT is______.
3.3 The quasi saturation is occurred due to the _____doped collector drift n– region in the structure of power
transistors.
3.4 The power dissipation of BJT in the quasi saturation is ___ than the power dissipation during____
saturation.
3.5 During quasi saturation of BJT, the double injection can be occurred in the ____region.
3.6 A power transistor (BJT) is a ______.
3.7 Power MOSFET is a ______ device.
3.8 BJTs are ______ controlled devices whereas MOSFETs are ______ controlled devices.
3.9 Power MOSFET has _____ input impedance.
3.10 IGBT is a______ device.
3.11 IGBT can support ______ voltage during OFF state.
3.12 IGBT has ______ overload capability as compared to a MOSFET.
3.13 IGBTs are more like the ______ during turn-OFF and like the ______ during turn on.
3.14 During turn-ON period, the base current must be ______ than the steady state ON current.
3.15 During turn-OFF period, the______ base current must be applied to quickly remove the stored charges
in the transistor.
3.16 SIT is a_____ device.
3.17 SIT is a normally _____ device.
3.18 RBSOA of power transistor is ______than FBSOA.
3.19 The safe operating area (SOA) of a MOSFET in switching applications is____ as it is not subject to
second breakdown.
3.20 The MOSFET has a ______ BJT in its structure.
3.21 The IGBT structure has ______ thyristor that must not be allowed to turn on.
Power Transistor 95
3.22 The isolation between the high power collector side and the low power base side of power BJT is
provided by using ______ and______.
3.23 In case of opto-coupler isolation, the duty cycle can be varied from______.
3.24 In case of transformer isolation, the duty cycle can be varied from______.
3.25 In MOSFET switching, the gate current is ______ on the drain current.
3.26 Compared to the BJT, the MOSFET drive circuit requires ______ power.
3.27 Power BJT is a______ device.
review Questions
3.1 What is power BJT? What are the types of power BJT? Write the difference between general purpose
BJT and power BJT.
3.2 Draw the structure of a power BJT and explain its operating principle briefly.
3.3 What are the difference between n-p-n and p-n-p transistors?
3.4 Draw the V-I characteristics of a power transistor and explain different operating regions.
3.5 What is beta b and forced beta bf? What is the difference between b and bf?
3.6 Explain the operation of transistor as a switch.
3.7 Discuss quasi-saturation and hard saturation of a power BJT.
3.8 What is primary breakdown and secondary breakdown of a power BJT?
3.9 What is the on state loss of a power BJT?
3.10 Explain the safe operating area of a power BJT. Draw the FBSOA and RBSOA of power BJT. Among
the FBSOA and RBSOA which area is large?
3.11 Explain the series and parallel operation of power BJTs.
3.12 What are FBSOA and RBSOA of a power BJT?
3.13 Explain the switching characteristics of power BJT. Define delay time, rise time, turn-ON time, storage
time, fall time and turn-OFF time.
3.14 What is power MOSFET? What are the types of power MOSFET? Write the difference between general
purpose MOSFET and power MOSFET?
3.15 Write the difference between enhancement-type MOSFETs and depletion-type MOSFETs.
3.16 Draw the structure of a power MOSFET and explain its operating principle briefly.
3.17 Draw the V-I characteristics of a power MOSFET and explain different operating regions.
3.18 What is ON-state loss of a power MOSFET?
3.19 Explain the safe operating area (SOA) of a power MOSFET. What is the effect of pulse width on SOA.
3.20 Discuss the series and parallel operation of power MOSFETs.
3.21 Draw the switching characteristics of power MOSFETs. Define turn-ON delay time, rise time, turn-ON
time, turn-OFF delay time, fall time and turn-OFF time.
3.22 Write the differences between power BJT and power MOSFET.
3.23 Compare power MOSFET and power BJT.
3.24 What is IGBT? What are advantages of IGBT over power BJT and power MOSFET?
3.25 Draw the structure of IGBT and explain its operating principle briefly.
3.26 Draw the V-I characteristics of a IGBT and explain different operating regions.
3.27 What are symmetrical IGBT and anti-symmetrical IGBT?
3.28 Discuss ON-state voltage drop of IGBT with suitable diagram.
3.29 Explain the safe operating area (SOA) of IGBT. Draw the FBSOA and RBSOA of IGBT. Write the
differences between FBSOA and RBSOA of IGBT.
3.30 Draw the switching characteristics of IGBT. Define turn-ON delay time, rise time, turn-ON time, turn-
OFF delay time, first fall time, final fall time and turn-OFF time.
3.31 Compare power MOSFET and IGBT.
3.32 What is SIT?
3.33 Draw the structure of a SIT and explain its operating principle briefly.
3.34 Draw the V-I characteristics of a SIT.
3.35 What are the problems of series and parallel operation of power BJTs and power MOSFETs?
3.36 A transistor has an a of 0.95. Determine the value of b.
3.37 A transistor has a b of 60. Find the value of a.
3.38 The collector current of a transistor is 98 mA and its b is 70. Calculate the value of base current and
emitter current.
3.39 A transistor has b = 95 and the emitter current is 85 mA. Determine the value of base current and
collector current.
3.40 A transistor has a base current IB = 120 mA and the collector current (IC) is equal to 6 mA. (a) Determine
the value of b, a and emitter current. (b) If the base current changes by 30 mA and the corresponding
collector current change is 0.6 mA, calculate the new value of b.
3.41 The common-base dc current gain of a transistor is 0.95. When the emitter current is 145 mA, determine
the base current and collector current.
3.42 A bipolar transistor as shown in Fig. 3.73 has bf = 32 and the load resistance RC = 16 W. The dc supply
voltage VCC = 210 V and the input voltage to base is VB = 10 V. When VCE(saturation) = 1.25 V and
VBE(saturation) = 1.6 V, determine (a) the value of resistance RB so that transistor operates in saturation and
(b) power loss in the transistor.
3.43 A bipolar transistor as depicted in Fig. 3.73 has
b in the range 15 to 50 and the load resistance
RC = 10 W. The dc supply voltage VCC = 160 V
and the input voltage to base is VB = 12 V. When
VCE(saturation) = 1.0 V and VBE(saturation) = 1.2 V,
determine (a) the value of resistance RB so that
transistor operates in saturation with ODF = 4 (b)
forced current gain (c) power loss in the transistor.
3.44 Two BJTs are connected in parallel to share the
total current 30 A. The collector to emitter voltage Fig. 3.73
of T1 and T2 are 1.55 V and 1.70 V respectively.
Determine the emitter current of each transistors and the difference of current sharing when the current
sharing series resistance are (a) RE1 = 0.25 W and RE2 = 0.35 W and (b) RE1 = 0.5 W and RE2 = 0.5 W
3.45 The switching waveform of a power transistor is shown in Fig. 3.106 where VCC = 220 V, VCE(saturation)
= 2 V, ICS = 120 A, td = 0.25 ms, tr = 1.25 ms, ton = 40 ms, ts = 2 ms, tf = 1.5 ms. Determine (a) energy
loss during delay time, (b) energy loss during rise time, (c) energy loss during conduction time ton and
(d) average power loss of power transistor during turn-on when switching frequency is 5 kHz and the
emitter leakage current is IEO = 6 mA.
3.46 The switching waveforms of a power transistor is depicted in Fig. 3.74 where VCC = 200 V, VCE(saturation)
= 1.2 V, ICS = 100 A, td = 0.45 ms, tr = 1.5 ms, ton = 45 ms, ts = 3.5 ms, tf = 2.5 ms. When the switching
frequency is 2 kHz and the emitter leakage current is IEO = 2.5 mA, Find
(a) average power loss during delay time,
(b) average power during rise time,
(c) peak instantaneous power loss during rise time,
(d) average power during conduction time ton,
(e) average power loss during storage time,
(f) average power during fall time and
(g) peak instantaneous power loss during fall time.
Draw the waveform for instantaneous power loss for period Ts.
Power Transistor 97
Fig. 3.74
3.47 Two power MOSFETs are connected in

parallel to share the total current 25 A. The
drain-to-source voltage of T1 and T2 are
3.55 V and 2.75 V respectively. Determine
the drain current of each transistors and
the difference of current sharing when the
current sharing series resistance are (a) RS1
= 0.2 W and RS2 = 0.3 W and (b) RS1 = 0.45
W and RS2 = 0.5 W.
3.48 A IGBT switching circuit as shown in
Fig. 3.75 has the following parameters: ton =
3.5 ms, toff = 3.5 ms, VCE(saturation) = 2.5 V, RL
Fig. 3.75
= 10 W, fs = 1.5 kHz, VCC = 250 V.
When duty cycle is 50%, determine (a) average load current, (b) average conduction loss, (c) turn-on
loss and (d) turn-OFF loss
3.49 What are the requirements of a good base drive circuit? Draw the base current waveform of a BJT during
turn-ON and turn-OFF process and explain the effect of base current in turn-ON time and turn-OFF time
of a BJT.
3.50 What the types of base drive circuits? Explain any one base drive circuit of BJT.
3.51 Why isolation is required in a base drive circuit? What is the value of duty cycle of transformer isolation
base drive circuit? How can the duty cycle range be improved with transformer isolation between the
collector side and the base drive side?
3.52 Draw a gate drive circuit of power MOSFET and explain its operation briefly.
3.53 Write the different design aspects of a gate drive circuit for IGBT.
3.54 Draw a gate drive circuit of IGBT and explain its operation briefly.
3.55 Draw and explain a gate drive circuit of IGBT with over current protection.
3.56 Justify the following statements:
(a) IGBT combines the advantages of MOSFET and IGBT.
(b) IGBT is preferred as power switch over power BJT and power MOSFET.
3.57 Figure 3.76 shows a base drive circuit where a power BJT has to switch a 1.5 A load. The base drive
circuit draws power from +6 V dc voltage source. Determine the values of resistance R1 and R2. Assume
hfe of BJT is 100 and VBE = 0.7 V.
3.58 A base drive circuit is shown in Fig. 3.77 where a BJT has to switch a 20 A load which is connected
to a 100 V dc. The base drive circuit draws power from +10 V dc power source. Determine the value of
inductance L. Assume hfe of BJT is 80, VBE = 0.7 V, R5 = 100 W, R6 = 120 W.
Fig. 3.76 Fig. 3.77

3.1 (c) 3.2 (a) 3.3 (a) 3.4 (b) 3.5 (d) 3.6 (a) 3.7 (b)
3.8 (a) 3.9 (b) & (c) 3.10 (a) 3.11 (a) 3.12 (b) 3.13 (b) & (a) 3.14 (a)
3.15 (c) 3.16 (d) 3.17 (a) 3.18 (a) 3.19 (a) 3.20 (a) 3.21 (a)
3.22 (c) 3.23 (a) 3.24 (d)

3.1 four, n+pn–n+ 3.2 bMbA + bM + bA 3.3 lightly
3.4 greater, hard 3.5 drift 3.6 current controlled
3.7 voltage controlled 3.8 current, voltage 3.9 high
3.10 voltage controlled 3.11 bipolar 3.12 greater
3.13 BJTs, MOSFETs 3.14 greater 3.15 negative
3.16 n+n–p+n 3.17 ON 3.18 larger
3.19 rectangular 3.20 parasitic 3.21 parasitic
3.22 opto-couplers, transformers 3.23 0 to 1 3.24 0 to 0.5
3.25 not dependent 3.26 less 3.27 current controlled
ThyrisTors
4
4.1 IntroductIon
Thyristor is a general term and it consists of a family of power semiconductor devices
such as silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), light activated SCR (LASCR), gate turn-OFF
thyristors (GTO) TRIAC, reverse conducting SCR, asymmetric SCR (ASCR), etc.
These devices are used extensively in power electronics circuits. These devices operate
in conducting and non-conducting states just like a bistable switch. The conduction of
thyristor is possible by providing current to gate terminal. The turn-OFF of thyristor is
also possible when the current flows through the device below the holding current. From
the above devices, SCR is the most simplest in structure and most commonly used in
power electronics circuits. SCR is a unidirectional device, but its turn on process and
turn-OFF are controllable. TRIAC is a bidirectional device.
In this chapter, basic structure of silicon controlled rectifiers (thyristors), I-V
characteristics, two transistor model of SCR, SCR turn-ON methods, switching
characteristics, gate characteristics, SCR ratings, protection of SCR, series and parallel
operation of SCR, gate triggering circuits and different commutation techniques are
discussed elaborately. The basic structure, operating principle and I-V characteristics of
DIAC and TRIAC are also incorporated in this chapter.
GTO is just like a conventional thyristor but the turn-OFF feature is incorporated with
in the device. Whenever GTO is forward biased and a positive gate current is applied
in between gate and cathode, the device will be turned ON and conducts. When GTO
operates in conduction and a negative gate current of required amplitude is applied to
gate-cathode terminals of GTO, it will be turned OFF. Due to self-turned OFF capability,
GTO is most suitable device for inverters and choppers. In this chapter, the basic structure,
operating principle, I-V characteristics and triggering circuits of GTO are also explained
in detail.
4.2 SIlIcon controlled rectIfIer (Scr)

SCR is the most commonly used power semiconductor devices of thyristor family and
was developed in 1957. SCRs are available from few voltages to several kV and few
amperes to several kA.
Figure 4.1(a) shows the basic structure of

SCR. It is a four layer PNPN switching device
with alternate layers of P and N semiconductor
materials. There are three junctions namely J1, J2
and J3 and three external terminals such as anode
(A), cathode (K) and gate (G). The symbol of
Thyristor is depicted in Fig. 4.1(b). The detail
structure of thyristor is given in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.1 (a) Structure of thyristor and (b) Symbol of
thyristor
Fig. 4.2 Detailed structure of thyristor
The width of each semiconductor layer and doping intensity are depicted in Fig. 4.3. The P1 and N2
semiconductor layers are heavily dropped. The width of N2 is very small about 10 mm and the width
of N1 is large about 50 to 100 mm but most lightly dropped about 1014 cm–3. The width of P1 layer is
30 to 50 mm where as width of P2 is about 30 to 100 mm.
Due to low doping level, the depletion layer width becomes wide and provides high forward and
reverse voltage blocking capability. The turn-OFF time and ON-state device losses are increased with
the width of N1 of the device. Hence the switching speed of SCR is reduced with increasing the width
of N1. For high speed SCR, the width of N1 layer is reduced and the impurity density of N1 layer must
be increased. But the reverse voltage blocking capability and on-state voltage drops reduced.
Figure 4.4(a) shows the actual V-I characteristics of SCR and ideal V-I characteristics of SCR is
depicted in Fig. 4.4(b). It is clear from Fig. 4.4 that SCRs have three operating regions such as forward
conduction state, forward blocking state and reverse blocking state.
Thyristors 101
Fig. 4.3 (a) Doping intensity and width of layers of SCR (b) Diode model of SCR
Fig. 4.4 (a) Actual characteristics of SCR (b) Ideal characteristics of SCR
4.2.1 forward Blocking region

The forward blocking region is the most wide operating region. In this region, anode terminal is positive
with respect to cathode. Junction J1 and J3 are forward biased (FB), but junction J2 is reverse biased
(RB). The anode current (IA) and voltage across anode to cathode (VAK) vary in wide range with the
amplitude of gate current.
The width of the forward biased junction depletion layer (J1 and J3) and the reverse biased junction
depletion layer (J2) depend on the dropping density and biasing voltage. The forward biased junction
depletion layer width is thin while the reverse biased junction depletion layer width is thick. When a
voltage is applied, as junction J1 and J3 are forward biased, the applied voltage should appear across
junction J2 as depicted in Fig. 4.5(b).
Figure 4.5(a) and (b) show the forward blocking of SCR. When the switch(s) is opened, there is no
current flow though gate (ig = 0). While the anode-to-cathode voltage increased gradually, the depletion
layer across J2 increased. Due to reverse biased at junction J2, a reverse current flows through the
junction and also from anode (A) to cathode (K). The amplitude of current is in mA range when VAK is
continuously increased. Whenever VAK increased to the forward break over voltage, junction J2 should
be break down. The depletion layer of N1 increased and can reach the opposite end of the layer, i.e.,
the depletion layer at J1. Breakdown is possible through punch-through and avalanche breakdown.
Fig. 4.5 (a) Forward Blocking of SCR (b) Forward bias of J1 and J3 and reverse bias of J2
4.2.2 forward conduction region

When the SCR is forward biased and the gate current is applied though the gate terminal (G), the
junction J2 breakdown. Then all the layers are filled with charge carriers. The SCR provides very low
impedance between A and K and current flows through anode-to-cathode and amplitude of current
is limited by external circuit parameters. The value of gate voltage VG varies with in few volts. The
forward conduction of SCR is depicted in Fig. 4.4(a).
Thyristors 103
4.2.3 reverse Blocking region

During reverse biased, the anode terminal is negative with respect to cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are
reverse biased and junction J2 is forward biased as depicted in Fig. 4.6(b). As the N1 layer is lightly
doped and the wide reverse biased depletion layer at J2 is large. The depletion layer width of junctions
J2 and J3 are thin. A reverse leakage current flows from cathode (K) to anode (A). When the applied
voltage increased to breakdown voltage VBD, the junction breaks. Figures 4.6(a) and (b) show the
reverse blocking of SCR.
Fig. 4.6 (a) Reverse blocking of SCR (b) Reverse bias of J1 and J3 and forward bias of J2
4.3 dIode Model of thyrIStor

A thyristor has three PN junctions, J1, J2 and J3 as shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Each PN junction is represented
by diodes. When thyristor is forward biased, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is
reverse biased. Consequently, J1 and J3 are represented by forward bias diode DJ1 and DJ3 respectively.
Similarly, J2 is represented by reverse biased diode DJ2. When the gate current Ig flows, P2 is flooded
by electrons from cathode. Subsequently, P2 losses its own identity. The electrons cross the junction
and accelerated by anode to cathode voltage. The accelerated electrons collide with the covalent bond
of silicon and generates more electron-hole pairs or minority carriers in N1 layer. Hence, both sides
of J2 flooded by the minority carriers and the device become turn ON.
4.4 two-tranSIStor analogy of thyrIStorS

The structure of PNPN wafer of thyristor can be represented by two transistors T1 and T2. The
connection of T1 and T2 is depicted in Figs. 4.7 and 4.8. T1 is a PNP transistor and T2 is a NPN
transistor. The collector of transistor T1 is connected with the base of T2 the gate current and collector
current IC1 provide the base current of T2. While a gate current flows through the gate terminal, a base
current flows through the base of T2. Then the amplified collector current of T2 is applied to the base
of T1 which generates the very large collector current IC1. After that the amplified collector current
is applied to the base of T2. Hence a regenerative operation is performed and thyristor becomes ON
with in few microseconds.
Fig. 4.7 (a) Schematic diagram of thyristor (b) Two-transistor model of SCR
Fig. 4.8 (a) Two-transistor model of SCR (b) Variation of current gain a with emitter current IE
In a BJT, the relationship between collector current IC and emitter current IE is

IC = a I E + ICB 0
where a is the dc current gain,
ICB0 is the collector leakage current when base current is zero.
The base current of transistor T2 is I B 2 = IC1 + I G
Thyristors 105
For the transistor T1, the collector current IC1 = a1I E1 + ICB 01
For the transistor T2, the collector current IC 2 = a 2 I E 2 + ICB 02
Assume that I A = I E1 , and I E 2 = I K
Applying the KCL, we obtain
I A = I B1 + IC1 = IC 2 + IC1
After substituting IC1 and IC2, we get
I A = a 2 I E 2 + ICB 02 + a1I E1 + ICB 01
or I A = a 2 I K + ICB 02 + a1I A + ICB 01 as I A = I E1 and I E 2 = I K
or I A = a1I A + ICB 01 + a 2 I G + a 2 I A + ICB 02 as I K = I G + I A
or I A = (a1 + a 2 )I A + a 2 I G + ICB 01 + ICB 02
a I G + ICB 01 + ICB 02
or IA =
1 - (a1 + a 2 )
When a small gate current IG is supplied, IE2 increases. Then current gain a2 increases. Due to
increase of a2, IC2 increases. Correspondingly, there will be change in base current as IB1 = IC2. Then
IE1 increases as IE1 = IC1 + IB1 and a1 is also increased. Therefore, the gain a1 + a2 increases towards 1
(unity). Then one transistor can able to drive another transistor into saturation. Since both the transistors
T1 and T2 operates in saturation, thyristor operates in conduction state and IA increases significantly and
its amplitude is limited by external circuit parameters though as per equation it is infinite in ideal case.
4.5 tranSIent Model of thyrIStor

Any PN junction can be represented by a resistance (RJ) and a capacitance (CJ) which is connected in
parallel with RJ. If a junction is forward biased, RJ will be zero and the junction capacitance is not used
to represent forward biased junction. When a PN junction reverse biased, the junction resistance (RJ)
will be infinite. Therefore, junction capacitance CJ will be present to represent reverse biased junction.
The equivalent circuit of SCR at transient condition is shown in Fig. 4.9. The current flows though
junction capacitance CJ2 is
dq d (CJ 2VJ 2 ) dV dC J 2
ICJ 2 = J 2 = = CJ 2 J 2 + VJ 2
dt dt dt dt
dVJ 2
As CJ2 is constant, ICJ 2 = CJ 2 .
dt
dV
Since VJ2 = VAK, ICJ 2 = CJ 2 AK
dt
As junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, these junctions provide zero resistance. As junction
dV
J2 is reverse biased, it provides infinite impedance. When is very large, IJ2 increased. If the
dt
junction current is more than latching current (IJ2 > IL) for a specified time duration, SCR operates
in conduction state.
Fig. 4.9 Dynamic model of thyristor
4.6 turn-on or trIggerIng MethodS of thyrIStor

Thyristors can be turned on by different methods such as
1. Thermal triggering
2. High forward voltage triggering
dV
3. High triggering
dt
4. Light triggering
5. Gate triggering
dV
In this section, the thermal triggering, high forward voltage triggering, high triggering, light
dt
triggering, and gate triggering of SCRs are discussed elaborately.
4.6.1 thermal triggering

While the temperature of thyristor increases, the large numbers of electron-hole pairs are generated.
As the minority carriers moves freely and cross the junction J2, the reverse leakage current increases.
Just after crossing the junction, these minority carriers are accelerated and strike the covalent bond and
generate more electron hole pairs. This increases the leakage currents and a1 and a2 increases. Due
to positive feedback or regenerative action, a1 + a2 increases towards unity (1) and the thyristor will
be turned on. Actually, N1 and P2 layers have large number of thermally generated carriers and the
device is turned on. Usually this method of triggering is not used as it increases junction temperature
and the voltage with stand capability is reduced. Sometime thermal runway is developed within the
device and this method is normally avoided.
Thyristors 107
4.6.2 high forward Voltage triggering

When the applied voltage across anode to cathode is greater than the break down voltage VBD, a leakage
current flow which can generates regenerative action. Then the device is turned on. Actually, this type
of turn on method is destructive and must be avoided.
dV
4.6.3 high triggering
dt
If a thyristor is forward biased, the junction J2 is reverse biased and junction J1 and J3 are forward
biased. The reverse biased voltage across J2 blocks the conduction of device. The depletion of junction
J2 provides very large capacitance. When the rate of change of voltage across anode to cathode is
dV
high, the charging current ICJ 2 = CJ 2 AK increases which flows though P2 just like the gate current
dt
is supplied from gate terminal. Then the device is turned on. A high value of charging current may
dV
destroy the device. Therefore, thyristors must be protected from high . Actually, the snubber circuit
dV dt
is used for protection.
dt
4.6.4 light triggering

If a beam of light falls on the junction J2 of the thyristor, it generates the electron-hole pairs (minority
carrier). The generated minority carriers cross the blocking junction J2 and reach P2. Due to high electric
field, minority carriers are accelerated and strike the covalent bond of silicon wafer and generate more
electron-hole pairs. So the regenerative action takes place and the device is turned on. Actually this
method of triggering is used in light activated SCR (LASCR). This method is most commonly used
for HVDC transmission system, static VAR compensation system where current as well as voltage
rating are high.
4.6.5 gate triggering

The gate triggering is most commonly used to turn on SCRs. When the thyristor is forward biased
and if a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and cathode, a gate current flows through gate
and the thyristor will be turn on. For successful triggering of SCR, the applied gate voltage Vg and
gate current Ig must be close to their maximum value but always less than maximum value. When the
gate current is increased, the forward blocking voltage capability of SCR is decreased. The different
gate trigger circuits are explained in Section 4.17.
4.7 SwItchIng characterIStIcS of Scr

Thyristor is subjected to different voltages across it and different current flows through it during turn-
on and turn-OFF process of thyristor. Due to time variation of voltage across thyristor and current
through it during turn-ON and turn-OFF process, the switching characteristics of thyristor will be
dynamic. There are two types of switching characteristics of thyristor namely
1. Turn-ON characteristics of thyristor
2. Turn-OFF characteristics of thyristor
4.7.1 turn-on characteristics of thyristor

When the thyristor is forward biased and a positive gate pulse is applied between the gate
and cathode, it will be turned ON. But there is a finite transition time to switch from forward
OFF-state to forward ON-state for a thyristor. This finite transition time is known as turn-ON
time. The turn-ON characteristics of thyristor is shown in Fig. 4.10. The turn-ON time tturn-on
is the sum of the delay time td, rise time tr and spread time tp and it can be expressed as
t turn-on = t d + tr + t p
Fig. 4.10 Turn-ON characteristics of thyristor
Delay time td There is a time delay to turn on a device. The delay time td is the required time
interval from initial anode current, i.e., forward leakage current to reach 10% of final value of anode
current (0.1IA) where IA is the final value of anode current. The delay time td can be measured from
the instant of the gate current reaches 0.9Ig to the instant at which anode current reaches to 0.1IA
where Ig is the final value of gate current and IA is the final value of anode current. The delay td can
also be measured by the time interval during which anode voltage falls from VA to 0.9VA where VA is
the initial value of anode to cathode voltage.
Rise time tr The rise time is the time interval during which the anode current increases from 10%
to 90% of final anode current. During rise time the forward blocking OFF-state voltage decreases, the
rise time tr can be measured from the instant of 90% of forward blocking OFF-state voltage (0.9VA)
to the instant at which forward blocking OFF-state voltage reaches to 0.1VA. The rise time tr can also
be measured from the instant of the gate current reaches 0.9Ig to the instant at which gate current Ig
where Ig is the final value of gate current.
The rise time is inversely proportional to the amplitude of gate current and its build up rate. The rise
time deceases when high and steep current pulse is applied to gate of SCR. The value of tr depends
on the nature of anode circuit (R-L and R-C circuits). For example, in a series R-L circuit, the rate of
rise of anode current is slow due to presence of inductance L and rise time is more. In case of a series
R-C circuit, the rate of rise of anode current is high and rise time is less.
Thyristors 109
Spread time tp The spread time is the time interval during which the forward blocking voltage
falls from 10% of its value (0.1VA) to the ON-state voltage drop about 1 V to 1.5 V. The spread time
can be defined as the time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9IA to IA. During this time, the
conduction spreads over the entire cross section of the SCR cathode. The spreading time depends on
the area of cathode and gate structure of SCR.
After spread time, SCR is completely turned on and final steady state anode current flows through
the device and the voltage drop across SCR is about 1 V to 1.5 V. The total turn-ON time of SCR is
equal to 1 to 4 ms. The total turn-ON time depends on the anode circuit parameters and the amplitude of
gate current and its wave shape. With the increase of gate current, the turn-ON time will be decreased
significantly. The amplitude of gate current is 3 to 5 times of minimum gate current to trigger thyristor.
During design of gate triggering circuit, the following conditions should be maintained:
1. The gate must be removed just after turn ON of thyristor.
2. When the thyristor is reverse biased, the gate signal should not be applied.
3. The pulse width of gate pulse must be sufficient so that the anode current must increases to
latching current and it must be grater than turn-ON time.
4.7.2 turn-off characteristics of thyristor

When a thyristor is in conducting state and it can be turned OFF if the anode current is reduced slowly
below the holding current IH. The turn-OFF process of thyristor is called commutation. There are two
different methods of thyristor turn-OFF such as natural commutation and forced commutation. The
turn-OFF time of a SCR tq can be defined as the time interval between the instant at which anode
current through the device becomes zero and the instant at which SCR regain its forward blocking
capability. The turn-OFF time of a SCR tq is sum of the reverse recovery time trr and gate recovery
time tgr and it is equal to
tq = trr + t gr
The turn-OFF characteristics of thyristor is shown in Fig. 4.11.
Fig. 4.11 Turn-OFF characteristics of thyristor

Reverse recovery time trr At time t = t1, the anode current becomes zero. After t = t1, anode
current starts to build up in the reverse direction due to presence of charge carriers in the four layers
of SCR. Actually, the reverse recovery current removes the excess charge carriers from junctions J1
and J3 during the time interval between t = t1 and t = t3. Consequently, the holes are sweeping out from
top p-layer and the electrons are sweeping out from bottom n-layer. At t = t2, about 60% of the stored
charge carriers are removed from outer two layers, i.e., top p-layer and bottom n-layer. As a result,
the carrier density in junctions J1 and J3 decreases and subsequently the reverse recovery current also
decreases. Initially the rate of decrease of reverse recovery current is very fast but it is gradual thereaf-
ter. Due to fast decay of reverse recovery current, a reverse surge voltage appears across the SCR and
the device may be damaged. This condition may be avoided by using RC snubber circuit across SCR.
Gate recovery time tgr At time t = t3, the reverse recovery current becomes very small and its val-
ue is about zero and the thyristor is able to block the reverse voltage. During the time interval between
t = t1 and t = t3, all excess charge carriers are removed from outer junctions J1 and J3. At t = t3, the mid-
dle junction J2 still consists of charge carriers and it cannot able to block the forward voltage. Since the
charge carriers present in the junction J2 cannot able to flow to the external circuit, these carriers can be
removed by recombination only. The recombination is possible when a reverse voltage is applied across
SCR for a specified time. The rate of recombination does not depend on the external circuit parameters.
The recombination of charge carriers takes place between t = t3 and t = t4. The time interval between
t = t1 and t = t3 is called gate recovery time tgr. At t = t4, thyristor operates in OFF state.
When a reverse voltage is applied, all the excess carriers in the four layer sweeps out or recombined.
The reverse recovery current flows and its magnitude is more than the rated reverse blocking current.
The reverse recover current flows for reverse recovery time trr and the charge is computed from Ir ¥
trr which is called reverse recovery charge Qr. The excess carrier in N1 and P2 will be reduced due to
recombination. The time required for this operation is tgr which is called the gate recovery time. The
thyristor turn-OFF time is in the order of 3 ms to 100 ms. The turn-OFF time depends on the amplitude
of forward current, junction temperature and di/dt during commutation process. With the increase of
forward current, junction temperature and di/dt, thyristor turn-OFF time increases.
Example 4.1 The turn-ON and turn-OFF time of SCR are 2.5 ms and 7.5 ms respectively, determine the
maximum switching frequency of SCR in a converter circuit.
Solution
Given: t turn-on = 2.5 ms and t turn-off = 7.5 ms
The minimum time period is
Tmin = t turn-on + tturn-off = 2.5 ms + 7.5 ms = 10 ms
The maximum switching frequency of SCR in a converter circuit is
1 1
fmax = = = 100 kHz
Tmin 10 ms
Example 4.2 A 230 V, 50 Hz single phase ac supply is connected to a thyristor in series with a load resistance
RL. Under forward blocking condition, the capacitance of junction J2 is 1.45 nF. At room temperature 30°C,
thyristor has the following parameters:
VRRM = 1000 V, VRMS = 300 V, VF = 1 V, VgT = 2.5 V, IgT = 100 mA, dV/dt = 75 V/ms and
di/dt = 50 V/ms.
Prove that a spike of 300 V for 3 ms duration is sufficient to trigger thyristor.
Thyristors 111
Solution
The rate of rise of voltage is
dv 300 V
= = 100 V/ms
dt 3 ms
dv
This value is greater than the maximum limit.
dt
The charging current of capacitor is
dv
iC = C j 2 = 1.45 ¥ 10 -9 ¥ 100 V/ms = 145 mA
dt
The charging current iC is grater than the minimum gate current (IgT = 100 mA) required to turn on thyristor.
Therefore, thyristor will be falsely triggered.
Example 4.3 When a thyristor acts as a switch, anode current rises linearly from zero to final value of 200 A
but the anode voltage falls linearly from 500 V to zero during turn-ON process. The turn-ON time of thyristor is
10 ms. If the switching frequency of thyristor is 250 Hz, determine the average power loss in thyristor.
Solution
Given: V = 500 V, I = 200 A, tturn-on =10 ms and f = 250 Hz
The average power loss in thyristor is equal to
1 1
VIt f = ¥ 500 ¥ 200 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 250 Watt = 41.66 Watt
6 turn-on 6
Example 4.4 In a thyristor, the capacitance value of reverse-biased junction J2 is C J = 30 pF and it is

2
independent of the OFF-state voltage. The limit value of the charging current to turn the thyristor is about 20
dv
mA. Find the critical value of .
dt
Solution
Given: C J2 = 30 pF and iJ2 = 20 mA
dv
iC = C j 2
dt
dv dv i 20 ¥ 10 -3
The critical value of is = C = = 666.67 V/ms
dt dt C J 2 30 ¥ 10 -12
Example 4.5 The capacitance value of reverse-biased junction J2 of a thyristor, CJ2 is independent of OFF-
state voltage. The limit value of the charging current to turn the thyristor is about 15 mA. If the critical value of
dv
is 750 V/ms, compute the value of junction capacitance C J2 .
dt
Solution
dv
Given: = 750 V/ms and iJ2 = 15 mA
dt
dv
iC = C j 2
dt
-3 -6
The value of C J2 is C J = iC = 15 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 = 200 pF
2 dv 750
dt
4.8 gate characterIStIcS

A SCR can be triggered and turned ON when a positive gate voltage Vg is applied between gate
and cathode or a positive gate current ig flows from gate to cathode. The values of Vg and ig are not
restricted to a specified value but it varies over a wide range and depends upon gate characteristics of
SCR. Figure 4.12 shows the forward gate characteristics which is a graph between gate voltage Vg and
gate current ig. Since gate-cathode of a SCR is represented by pn junction, the gate characteristic is
similar to a pn-junction diode. The gate characteristics are widely spread between curve-1 and curve-2
due to inadvertent difference in doping density of P2 and N2 layers. Curve-1 represents the lowest gate
voltage values which are applied to gate-cathode of SCR for turn-on satisfactorily. Similarly, curve-2
represents the highest possible gate voltage values which are also applied to gate-cathode of SCR for
turn-ON adequately.
Always there is a minimum and maximum limit of gate voltages and gate current during triggering
a SCR. It is clear from Fig. 4.12 that
ox is the minimum gate current to trigger an SCR
oy is the minimum gate voltage to trigger an SCR
oa is the non-triggering gate voltage of an SCR
Igm is the maximum gate current to trigger an SCR
Vgm is the maximum gate voltage to trigger an SCR
Pgav is the average gate power dissipation of an SCR
During design of a gate drive circuit, the values of Vgm, Igm and Pgav should not be exceeded.
If these values increase, the junction J3 will be permanently damage. In Fig. 4.12, the shaded area
b - c - d - e - f - g - h - b is the preferred gate drive area where SCR operates safely. oa is the non-
triggering gate voltage of a thyristor. The value of oa is also specified by the manufacturer. When a
triggering or firing circuit generates a gate signal with gate voltage oa and gate current ox, SCR will
not be turned ON. Therefore, amplitude of all unwanted signals or noise signals must be less than
non-triggering voltage oa.
Fig. 4.12 Gate-characteristics of an SCR

Thyristors 113
Figure 4.13 shows a triggering circuit of an SCR where

Vs is the gate source voltage,
Rs is the resistance of source voltage,
Vg is the gate to cathode voltage, and
ig is the gate current.
Fig. 4.13 Triggering circuit of an SCR
For the above circuit, Vs = ig Rs + VG . The value of internal resistance Rs should be such that the
current Vs should not be very high so that voltage source as well as gate drive circuit operate safely
Rs
during turn-on of SCR. If Rs is very small, an external resistance must be connected across gate-cathode
terminals of SCR as depicted in Fig. 4.14. When a minimum gate voltage Vgmin is applied between
gate and cathode, the minimum gate current Igmin flows through gate. Then current flows through
V
resistance R1 is equal to g min and the source voltage is equal to
R1
Ê Vg min ˆ
Vs = Vg min + Á ig + R as VG = Vg min
Ë R1 ˜¯ s
Fig. 4.14 Triggering circuit of an SCR
In Fig. 4.15, A-B is the load line of gate-cathode circuit. OB is the source voltage Vs and OA is
V
the current s when triggering circuit is short circuit. Assume that SCR operates in curve -3. The
Rs
intersection of load line and curve-3 is Q which is the operating of SCR. At point Q, the gate voltage is
OR = QP and the gate current is equal to OP, the intersection between load line and curve-1 and curve-2
are S1 and S1 respectively. With the variation of parameters, the SCR operates within the operating
points S1 and S2 as operating point must lie within the limit curve-1 and curve-2. The gradient of load
OB
line AB is which represents the gate source resistance Rs. The minimum value of gate–source
OA
resistance Rs min is obtained by drawing a tangent on the Pgav curve.
Fig. 4.15 Gate-characteristics of an SCR

Thyristors 115
Since the thyristor is a current or charge controlled device, it must be ensured that if the magnitude
of gate current is increased, the time taken to inject the required charge for turn ON of a SCR will
be reduced significantly. It can also be ensured that gate pulse width should be sufficient to allow the
anode current to exceed the latching current IL. Therefore the gate pulse width must be greater than
to equal to SCR turn-ON time, i.e.,
T ≥ t turn-on
where, T is the pulse width and
tturn-on is the turn-ON time of SCR as shown in Fig. 4.16.
When the pulse triggering is used to turn-ON SCR, the greater amount of gate power dissipation may
be allowed, but its value must be less than the maximum (peak) instantaneous gate power dissipation
Pgmax. Generally, Pgmax of any SCR is specified by the manufacturers. The frequency of firing pulse
to trigger SCR can be obtained from the following equation:
Pg maxT
≥ Pgav
T1
where, Pgmax is maximum gate power dissipation,
Pgav is average gate power dissipation, T is pulse width and T1 is periodic time.
1
Since f = is the frequency of firing pulse in Hz, we can write
T1
Pg max f T ≥ Pgav
Pgav
or Pg max ≥ (4.1)
fT
Pgav Pgav
For limiting case, Pg max = or f =
fT T .Pg max
The duty cycle of a pulse is the ratio of pulse on period T to the periodic time of pulse T1 and it is
T 1
represented by d = = f T as f = .
T1 T1
Fig. 4.16 (a) Pulse triggering of SCR (b) High frequency triggering pulse of SCR
Then Eq. (4.1) can be written as

Pgav
Pg max ≥ as d = fT
d
For any SCR, Vgm, Igm and Pgmax are specified in manufacturer data sheet. When Vgm and Igm are used
for pulse triggering, the power dissipation may be exceed the Pgmax and the SCR may be damaged
completely. For example, Vgm = 10 V and Igm = 1 A for an SCR. Then power dissipation is equal to
Pgmax = 10 W, but the specified value of Pgmax is 5 W. Therefore, it must be ensured that
Amplitude of pulse voltage ¥ Amplitude of pulse current < Pgmax
Example 4.6 The average gate power dissipation of a thyristor is Pgav = 0.45 Watt. If the gate voltage varies
from 2.5 V to 10 V, plot the curve where gate voltage is a function of gate current. Assume average gate power
dissipation is constant.
Solution
Given: Pgav = 0.45 Watt, Vg varies from 2.5 V to 10 V
Assume four voltages Vg1 = 2.5 V, Vg2 = 5 V, Vg3 = 7.5 V and Vg4 = 10 V
The corresponding currents are
Pgav 0.45
I g1 = = = 0.18 A as Vg1I g1 = Pgav
Vg1 2.5
Pgav 0.45
I g2 = = = 0.09 A
Vg 2 5
Pgav 0.45
I g3 = = = 0.06 A
Vg 3 7.5
Pgav 0.45
Ig4 = = = 0.045 A
Vg 4 10
The plot between gate voltage and gate current is shown in Fig. 4.17.
Fig. 4.17 Gate voltage Vg vs gate current Ig

Thyristors 117
Example 4.7 In a gate triggering circuit, the average power dissipation is 0.25 W. The slope of load line is
100 V per ampere, source voltage is 12 V and minimum gate current to turn-ON thyristor is 15 mA. Determine
gate current, gate voltage and gate source resistance.
Solution
Given: VgIg = Pgav = 0.25 Watt, Vs = 12, Rs = 100 W
0.25
The gate voltage is Vg =
Ig
The gate source voltage is Vs = I g Rs + Vg
0.25
or 12 = 100 I g +
Ig
or 100 I g2 - 12 I g + 0.25 = 0
-(-12) ± (-12)2 - 4 ¥ 100 ¥ 0.25
Then Ig = = 0.0931 A, 0.0268 A
2 ¥ 100
0.25
Then gate voltage Vg = = 2.685 V when Ig = 0.0931 A = 93.1 mA
Ig
= 9.328 V when Ig = 0.0268 A = 26.8 mA
Assume the gate current Ig = 93.1 mA as minimum gate current to turn-ON thyristor is 15 mA.
Therefore, the gate voltage is Vg = 2.685 V
The gate source resistance is equal to
Vs - Vg 12 - 2.685
Rs = = W = 100.053
Ig 0.0931
Example 4.8 The gate characteristics of a thyristor is Vg = 1 + 5Ig. When a rectangular pulse of 10 V with
25 ms is applied to gate, determine (a) the series connected resistance in gate, (b) triggering frequency and
(c) duty cycle. Assume average power dissipation is 0. 5 W and peak gate drive power is 4 W.
Solution
Given: VgIg = Pgav = 0.5 Watt, Vs = 10 V
Then, VgIg = (1 + 5Ig)Ig = 0.5 as Vg = 1 + 5Ig
(a) For pulse triggering of thyristors,
Peak gate voltage ¥ peak gate current = peak gate drive power
Since gate pulse width is 25 ms which is less than 100 ms, the dc data may not be applied. The
equation (1 + 5Ig)Ig = 0.5 is relevant only for pulse width greater than 100 ms.
Therefore, (1 + 5Ig)Ig = 4
or 5I g2 + I g - 4 = 0
-1 ± 12 - 4 ¥ 5 ¥ (- 4)
Then Ig = = 0.8 A
2¥5
The gate source voltage Vs = I g Rs + Vg = I g Rs + (1 + 5I g ) as Vg = 1 + 5I g
or 10 = 0.8 Rs + 1 + 5 ¥ 0.8
The gate source resistance is equal to
Rs = 6.25 W
Pgav
(b) We know that Pg max =
fT
Pgav 0.5
or f= = Hz = 5 kHz
Pg maxT 4 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 - 6
(c) Duty cycle d = f T = 5 ¥ 103 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.125
Example 4.9 A 220 V dc voltage is connected to a thyristor in series with R-L load. Assume the latching
current of thyristor is 80 mA. When (a) R = 25 W and L = 0.1 H and (b) R = 25 W and L = 1 H, find the minimum
width of gate pulse current to turn-ON thyristor. What is the effect of inductance on gate-pulse width?
Solution
Given: V = 220 V and Latching current iL = 80 mA
(a) The voltage equation is
di
V = iR + L
dt
or
i=
V
R
( - t
1- e L
R
)
or
80 ¥ 10 -3 =
220
25
(
- t
1 - e 0.1
25
)
or (1 - e ) = 220
2
-250 t
or t = 36.529 ms
Therefore the minimum width of gate pulse current to turn-ON thyristor is 36.529 ms.
Ê - tˆ
R
(b) We know that i = V Á 1 - e L
˜
RË ¯
220 Ê - tˆ
25
Then or, 80 ¥ 10 -3 = Á1 - e 1 ˜
25 Ë ¯
or (1 - e ) = 220
2
-25t
or t = 365.29 ms
Therefore the minimum width of gate pulse current to turn-ON thyristor is 365.29 ms.
With the increase of inductance from 0.1 H to 1 H, the width of gate pulse current increases
from 36.529 ms to 365.29 ms.
Example 4.10 The gate-cathode characteristics of SCR are spread by the following equations:
I g = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3 Vg2 and I g = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3 Vg1.5
If the gate source voltage is 16 V and Rs = 125 W, determine the triggering voltage and triggering current.
Assume the gate power dissipation is 0.5 W.
Thyristors 119
Solution
Given: Pgav = 0.5 Watt, Vs = 16 V
We know that Vg I g = Pgav = 0.5 Watt
0.5
or Vg =
Ig
The source voltage Vs = I g Rs + Vg
0.5
or 15 = 125I g +
Ig
or 125I g2 - 15I g + 0.5 = 0
-(-16) ± (-16)2 - 4 ¥ 125 ¥ (0.5)

Then I g = = 73.796 mA, 54.20 mA
2 ¥ 125
According to Ig – Vg characteristics,
2
0.5
I g = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3 Vg2 = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3
I g2
0.5 0.5
or I g = 85.70 mA and Vg = = = 5.83 V
I g 85.70 ¥ 10 -3
0.5 1.5
I g = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3 Vg1.5 = 2.5 ¥ 10 -3
I 1.5
g
0.5 0.5
or I g = 60.05 mA and Vg = = = 8.326 V
I g 60.05 ¥ 10 -3
Since the gate current will be in between I g = 85.70 mA and I g = 60.05 mA , the gate current at operating
point Q, I g = 73.796 mA
0.5
As I g = 73.796 mA , Vg = V = 6.775 V
73.796 ¥ 10 -3
Hence, the operating point Q is (73.796 mA, 6.775 V).
Example 4.11 A 200 V dc supply voltage is

applied to an SCR which is connected in series
with RL load as shown in Fig. 4.18. The latching
current of a thyristor is 20 mA. When a gate pulse of
30 ms is applied, whether the SCR will be turned
ON or not?
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, Latching current iL = 20 mA
The voltage equation is
di
V = iR + L
dt
Fig. 4.18
VÊ - tˆ
R
or i= Á1 - e L ˜
RË ¯
200 Ê - tˆ
20
or 20 ¥ 10 -3 = Á 1 - e 0.1 ˜
20 Ë ¯
-3
¥ 10
or (1 - e ) = 400200
-200 t
or t = 10.01 ms
As the minimum width of gate pulse current to turn-ON thyristor is 10.01 ms and a gate pulse of 30 ms is applied,
thyristor will be turned on.
Example 4.12 Figure 4.19 shows that a thyristor is connected in series with R-L load. The latching current is
75 mA. When a firing pulse of 100 ms is applied in between gate and cathode, find the state of thyristor whether
it is turned-ON or turned-OFF.
Solution
Given: R = 10 W, L = 0.25 H, V = 200 V, IL = 75 mA, t = 100 ms
When the thyristor is turned ON, the current will increase
exponentially due to inductive load. The load current can be
expressed by
VÊ - ˆ
t
i (t ) = Á 1 - e t ˜
RË ¯ Fig. 4.19
Since t=
L 0.25
=
R 10
= 0.025 , i(t ) = 200
10
( -
t
1 - e 0.025 ) = 20 ( -
t
1 - e 0.025 )
Ê -
100 ¥10 -6 ˆ
At t = 100 ms, the value of current is i(t = 100 ms) = 20 Á 1 - e 0.025 ˜ = 79.68 mA
ÁË ˜¯
Since the value of current is greater than latching current, thyristor operates in turned-ON state.
Example 4.13 In Fig. 4.20, the latching current of

thyristor is 100 mA. What will be the minimum pulse width
of gating pulse to turn-ON thyristor?
Solution
Given: L = 0.2 H, V = 150 V, IL = 100 mA
When the thyristor is turned ON, the circuit equation is
di
V =L
dt Fig. 4.20
L
or dt = di
V
After integrating the above equation, we obtain
L
Ú dt = V Ú di
Thyristors 121
L
or t= i
V
L 0.2
The minimum pulse width of the trigger pulse is t |min = i= ¥ 100 ¥ 10 -3 = 133.33 ms
V 150
Example 4.14 Figure 4.21 shows the i – v the

characteristics of a thyristor. Determine the average
power loss due to the rectangular current pulse of Iav =
80 A for 180° conduction angle of thyristor.
Solution
Given: Iav = 80 A, b = 180°
Assume Im is the current of thyristor during continuous
conduction.
If the conduction angle of thyristor is b, the average
current is equal to
b
I av = I
360∞ m
For 180° conduction angle, Fig. 4.21
360∞ 360
Im = I = ¥ 80 = 160 A
b av 180
According to i – v the characteristics of thyristor as shown in Fig. 4.21, the voltage drop across thyristor is equal
to VT = 1.6 V
b 180∞
Average power loss is Pav = VT I m ¥ = 1.6 ¥ 160 ¥ = 128 Watt
360∞ 360∞
Example 4.15 When ig – Vg characteristics of a thyristor is a straight line passing through origin with a
gradient of 2.5 ¥ 103, find the value of gate voltage if Pg = 0.015 Watt
Solution
Vg
Given: = 2.5 ¥ 103, Pg = 0.015 Watt
ig
The value of gate voltage is Vg = 2.5 ¥ 103 ig

Pg = Vg I g = 0.015 Watt
3
or 2.5 ¥ 10 I g I g = 0.015 Watt
or I g = 2.449 mA
The value of gate voltage is Vg = 2.5 ¥ 103 ¥ 2.449 ¥ 10 -3 = 6.122 V .
Example 4.16 In a thyristor, the gate-cathode characteristics is a straight line passing through origin
V
with a gradient of g = 15 V/A . The maximum turn-on time is 100 ms, the minimum gate current required is
100 mA. When the igate-to-source
g voltage is 10 V, find the value of gate-source resistance which is connected
in series with gate drive circuit as shown in Fig.

4.22 determine the power dissipation. If the average
gate power dissipation is 120 mW, determine the
maximum triggering frequency of thyristor.
Solution
Vg
Given: = 15 V/A , igmin = 100 mA, Vs = 10 V
ig
Vg
The value of gate voltage is Vg = 15ig as = 15 V/A
ig Fig. 4.22
or Vg = 15 ¥ 100 ¥ 10 -3 = 1.5 V as igmin = 100 mA

(a) The value of gate-source resistance which is connected in series with gate drive circuit is equal
to
Vs - Vg 10 - 1.5
Rs = = = 85 W
Ig 100 ¥ 10 -3
(b) Power dissipation Pg = Vg I g = 1.5 ¥ 100 ¥ 10 -3 Watt = 150 mW
Pgav
We know that Pgmax =
fT
Pgav 120
The maximum triggering frequency is f = = = 8 kHz
T .Pgmax 100 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 150
Example 4.17 In a forward biased thyristor, the gate current is gradually increased from zero until the
device is turned ON. At the instant of turn ON, the gate current is about 1.2 mA and when the thyristor operates
in conduction, gate current decays to about 0.4 mA. Justify the above statement. What will be the gate cathode
voltage when Vs is zero?
Solution
When the thyristor is forward biased, anode terminal is positive with respect to cathode, then a small voltage
E¢g is generated internally and this voltage appears across the gate cathode terminals as shown in Fig. 4.23(b).
The amplitude of E¢g depends on the device geometrical structure of thyristor and applied anode voltage. The
gate cathode equivalent circuit between gate cathode of thyristor is depicted in Fig. 4.23(b) where R is the static
non-linear gate resistance.
Fig. 4.23 (a) SCR circuit (b) Equivalent circuit between gate and cathode when thyristor is forward biased
(c) Equivalent circuit for the triggering circuit
Thyristors 123
When the thyristor is turned ON by applying a positive gate signal, the equivalent circuit for the triggering circuit
is depicted in Fig. 4.23(c) where Eg is the internally generated gate voltage due to the flows of anode current.
The amplitude of E¢g is less than Eg. For example, the typical value of E¢g = 0.05 V, and Eg = 0.7 V. Just before
the thyristor starts to conduct, gate current is equal to
Vs - Eg¢
I g¢ =
R + Rs
Vs
Since E¢g is very small, I g¢ = as Vs >> Eg¢
R + Rs
Just after turned on thyristor, the gate current is equal to
Vs - Eg
Ig =
R + Rs
Since Eg is much greater than E¢g , the gate current is reduced from I g¢ to Ig. Hence, the statement “at the instant
of turn ON, the gate current is about 1.2 mA and when the thyristor operates in conduction, gate current decays
to about 0.4 mA” is justified.
Vs - Eg Eg
When Vs becomes zero, the gate current is equal to I g¢¢= =- as Vs = 0. At this instant, the
R + Rs R + Rs
voltage appears across the gate-cathode is Eg - I g¢¢R .
Example 4.18 In Fig. 4.24, a trigger pulse of 50 ms is applied across gate cathode of thyristor. The latching
current of thyristor is 40 mA. When R = 75 W and L = 2.5 H, check whether the thyristor will be turned on or
turned OFF ? If thyristor is not in turned ON, when the device will be turned ON?
Fig. 4.24
Solution
Given: R = 75 W, L = 2.5 H, iL = 40 mA
When thyristor is conducting, the current flow is
VÊ - ˆ
t L 2.5
i= Á1 - e t ˜ where t= = = 0.0333
RË R 75
¯
Ê -
50 ¥10 -6 ˆ
250
or i= Á 1 - e 0.0333 ˜ = 4.992 mA
75 Á ˜¯
Ë
Since the pulse width is 50 ms, the anode current is equal to 4.992 mA which is very much less than the latching
current, i.e., 40 mA. Hence, thyristor will not be turned ON.
A remedial resistance R1 is connected in parallel with R-L show that latching current should flow though the
device. The value of R1 may be computed from the following equation:
250
iL = 40 ¥ 10 -3 = + 4.992 ¥ 10 -3
R1
250
or R1 = = 7.141 kW
40 ¥ 10 -3 - 4.992 ¥ 10 -3
4.9 ratIngS of thyrIStor

Each semiconductor device should have limited power handling capability in terms of voltage and
current. Actually, the power handling capability of SCR depends on the temperature withstand capacity
of pn junction at steady state and dynamic conditions. Thyristor can be used within the safe operating
area (SOA) without damage and malfunction when it operates within voltage, current, power and
temperature limit. Usually the rating of thyristors are specified in the manufacturer data sheet. Some
very useful specification of thyristor voltage and current ratings are discussed in this section.
4.10 Voltage ratIngS

4.10.1 on-State Voltage drop (VT)
This is the voltage drop across anode and cathode with specified forward on state current and junction
temperature. Its value is about 1 V to 1.5 V.
4.10.2 Peak working forward Blocking Voltage (VdwM)

It is the maximum forward blocking voltage at which thyristor can withstand during its working as
shown in Fig. 4.25.
Fig. 4.25 Voltage rating of thyristor
4.10.3 Peak repetitive forward Blocking Voltage (VdrM)

This is the repetitive peak transient voltage at which thyristor can withstand in its forward blocking
state. This voltage rating is specified at a maximum allowable junction temperature when gate circuit is
open or a specified biasing resistance is present between gate and cathode. VDRM is obtained whenever
Thyristors 125
a thyristor is commutated or turned OFF. Due to abrupt change in reverse recovery current during
di
turn-OFF process of SCR, a spike voltage of amplitude L is generated and appeared across SCR
dt
terminals.
4.10.4 non-repetitive forward Blocking Voltage (VdSM)

This is the peak value of surge voltage which is non-repetitive. Its value is about 130% of peak
repetitive forward blocking voltage VDRM but its value is less than forward break over voltage VB0.
4.10.5 Peak working reverse Voltage (VrwM)

It is the maximum reverse voltage at which thyristor can withstand repeatedly. Its value is equal to
the peak negative value of a sine voltage wave.
4.10.6 repetitive Peak reverse Voltage (VrrM)

It is the repetitive maximum reverse voltage at which thyristor can withstand at the allowable maximum
junction temperature. This transient voltage lasts for a fraction of the time of a cycle.
4.10.7 non-repetitive Peak reverse Voltage (VrSM)

This is the maximum allowable instantaneous reverse voltage including all non-repetitive transients.
Its value is about 130% of peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM. But its value is less than reverse
break over voltage VBR.
4.10.8 Voltage Safety factor (VSF)

The voltage safety factor is the ratio of the peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM) to the maximum
value of input voltage and it is represented by
Peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM )
VSF =
2 RMS value of operating voltage
Usually, voltage safety factor is about 2 to 3.
4.10.9 finger Voltage

This is the minimum forward bias voltage between anode and cathode for turn ON the SCR using gate
triggering. The amplitude of finger is always greater than the normal on state voltage drop across SCR.
4.10.10 forward dv/dt rating

This is the maximum rate of rise of the anode voltage at which thyristor will not be triggered when
there is no gate signal and anode to cathode voltage is less than forward breakover voltage.
During the forward blocking mode, the applied voltage appears across the junction J2 as junctions
J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. The reverse bias junction J2 behaves
as capacitor. When a forward voltage is applied suddenly and dv/dt is very high, a charging current
dv
i = Cj starts to flow and the thyristor will be turned ON. This type of unwanted triggering of SCR
dt
must be avoided. Therefore, if the dv/dt is less than forward dv/dt rating, thyristor must be remain in
forward blocking state.
4.11 current ratIngS

4.11.1 latching current (IL)
The latching current is the minimum value of anode current to trigger or turn ON the thyristor from
its OFF state to ON state even after the trigger pulse is removed. To trigger an SCR, the anode current
must be build up to the latching current before the gate pulse is removed.
4.11.2 holding current (IH)

The holding current is the minimum value of anode current to hold the thyristor in ON state. During
turn OFF, the anode current should be below the holding current. Usually the value of holding current
is in milli-amperes.
4.11.3 gate current (Ig)

The gate current is required at the gate of the thyristor to turn ON. There are two types of gate
current: minimum gate current igmin and maximum gate current igmax ◊ igmin is the minimum value of
gate current which is required at the gate to trigger the thyristor from its OFF state to ON state and
its value depends on the rate of rise of current. igmax is the maximum value of gate current that can be
applied to the device for turn-on without damaging the gate. The turn ON time of thyristor reduces
with the increase of gate current.
4.11.4 average on-State current (Itav)

The forward ON-state voltage drop across SCR is low and its value is about 1 V to 1.5 V. Therefore,
the average power loss in SCR depends on the forward ON-state average current ITav. The average
power loss is equal to
Pav = ON-state voltage drop across thyristor ¥ ITav
When a continuous dc current Idc flows through SCR, the junction temperature increases to Tj = 125°C.
If SCR has low thermal time constant, the junction temperature increases to Tj = 125°C within very
short time. When the anode current is a rectangular waveform but the average ON-state current is
equal to Idc, the amplitude of rectangular waveform is 2Idc. Due to very low thermal time constant of
SCR, temperature rise will be more than the allowable junction temperature Tj = 125°C as shown in
Fig. 4.26. In order to maintain the junction temperature at Tj = 125°C, the amplitude of rectangular
current waveform may be reduced and better cooling arrangement must be provided with thyristors.
Consequently, average ON-state current rating of thyristor will be reduced and thyristor is derated.
Usually, manufacturers provide the “forward average current derating characteristics” which shows
ITav as a function of the case temperature Tc with the current conduction angle.
Thyristors 127
Fig. 4.26 (a) Constant anode current and junction temperature (b) Rectangular anode current and
junction temperature
Average current rating is affected by different conduction angles. For the same average ON-
state current ITav at different conduction angles, the instantaneous current increases with decrease in
conduction angle. Subsequently, the voltage drop across thyristor increases and junction temperature
is also increases. Due to over heating, thyristor may be completely damaged. Therefore the maximum
allowable average current will be reduced with the decrease in conduction angle.
When current waveform is sine wave, the average on state current of thyristor is equal to
I
ITav = rms
FF
where, FF is form factor and Irms is maximum rms ON-state current.
If current waveform is rectangular wave, the average ON-state current of thyristor is equal to
I
ITav = dc
FF
where, FF is form factor and Idc is the ON-state current.
4.11.5 rMS current (IrMS)

For dc current, the rms value of current IRMS is equal to the average current Iav or dc current Idc. When
the SCR is subjected to high peak current and low duty cycle, rms current rating of SCR is most
important. The heating of the resistive elements of a SCR such as metallic joints, leads and interfaces
depends on the RMS current IRMS. The RMS current rating is specified by manufacturers at maximum
junction temperature. This current has an upper limit for dc as well as pulse current waveforms. This
limit should not be exceeded on a continuous basis.
4.11.6 Surge current (ItSM)

When the thyristor operates under repetitive rated voltage and current, the junction temperature is never
exceeded. If the thyristor operates under abnormal conditions due to some faults or short circuits, the
junction temperature may exceed the limit value and the device may be damaged. In order to overcome
these unusual working conditions, surge current rating of thyristor must be specified by manufacturers.
Actually, the surge of thyristor specifies the maximum allowable non-repetitive current at which
the device can withstand. Surge currents are assumed to be sine waves of power frequency with a
minimum duration of ½ cycles. Usually, manufacturers provide at least three different surge current
ratings for different durations.
For example, ITSM = 2000 A for ½ cycles
ITSM = 1500 A for 3 cycles
ITSM = 1000 A for 5 cycles
The sub-cycle surge current rating ISB can be determined by equating the energies involved in one
cycle surge and one sub-cycle surge as given below:
2 2
I SB ◊ t = I TSM ◊T
T I TSM 1
or I SB = I TSM or, I SB =
◊ For 50 Hz supply, T = 10 ms
t 10 t
where, T is the time for one-half cycle of supply frequency in sec.
t is the duration of subcycle surge in sec.
ITSM is one cycle surge current rating
ISB is sub cycle surge current rating
4.11.7 I2t rating

I2t rating of thyristor is used to select fuse and other protective equipments. This rating is represented
in terms of Ampere2-sec. For example, I2t rating for 4 A thyristor is about 10 Ampere2-sec and for 40
A thyristor is about 100 Ampere2-sec.
This rating specifies the energy that the thyristor can absorb for a short time before the fault is
cleared. The I2t rating is equal to
RMS value of one cycle surge current 2 ¥ Time for one cycle
4.11.8 di/dt rating

The di/dt rating of thyristor is the maximum rate of rise of current from anode to cathode without any
damage to the device. During turn on process, the conduction starts at a place near gate. After that
conduction spreads to the whole area of junction. When the rate of rise of anode current is very high
compared to the spread velocity of charge carriers across the cathode junction, the local hot spots will
be developed near the gate connection. Consequently, the junction temperature may exceed the limit
value and thyristor may be damage permanently. I2t rating of thyristor is also specified by manufacturer
and the typical value of I2t rating is about 20 to 500 A/m sec.
Thyristors 129
Example 4.19 The maximum rms ON-state current of thyristor is 50 A. When the thyristor is used in a resistive
load circuit and the current waveform is rectangular wave as shown in Fig. 4.27, determine average ON-state
current rating for conduction angle (a) 120°, (b) 60°, (c) 30°.
Fig. 4.27 Rectangular current waveform
Solution
Given: I = 50 A and conduction angle is 120°, 60° and 30°
T
The conduction angle of thyristor is = ¥ 360∞
nT
360∞
Therefore, n =
conduction angle
1
I ¥T I Ê I 2T ˆ 2 I
The average current is I av = = and the rms current is I rms = Á ˜ =
nT n Ë nT ¯ n
360∞ 360∞
(a) When conduction angle is 120°, n = = =3
conduction angle 120∞
I 50 I 50
I av = = = 16.666 A and I rms = = = 28.868 A
n 3 n 3
Form factor FF = I rms = 28.868 = 1.732
I av 16.666
I 50
Average ON-state current rating of thyristor is ITav = dc = = 28.868 A
FF 1.732
360∞ 360∞
(b) When conduction angle is 60°, n = = =6
I 50 I 50
I av =
= = 8.333 A and I rms = = = 20.412 A
n 6 n 6
I av 8.333
Average on-state current rating of thyristor is I = I dc = 50 = 20.416 A
T av
FF 2.449
(c) When conduction angle is 30°, n = 360∞ 360∞
= = 12
I 50 I 50
I av = = = 4.1666 A and I rms = = = 14.4337 A
n 12 n 12

I av 4.1666
Average ON-state current rating of thyristor is ITav = I dc = 50 = 14.434 A
FF 3.464
Example 4.20 The maximum rms ON-state current of thyristor is 40 A. When the thyristor is used in a
resistive load circuit and the current waveform is half-sine wave as shown in Fig. 4.28, determine average ON-
state current rating for conduction angle (a) 120° and (b) 60°.
Fig. 4.28 Current waveform
Solution
Given: I = 40 A and conduction angle is 120° and 60°
If the thyristor conducts from a to 180°,
1 p I
2p aÚ m
the average current is I av = I sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = m (1 + cos a ) and
2p
1 1
È 1 p ˘2 È I 2 Ê p - a 1 ˆ ˘2
the rms current is I rms = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ d (w t )˙ = Í m Á + sin 2a ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2p a ˙˚ ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 4 ¯ ˚˙
(a) For conduction angle = 120°, a = 180° – 120° = 60° = 1.0476 rad
Im I
I av = (1 + cos a ) = m (1 + cos60) = 0.2387I m
2p 2p
1
È I2 Ê p - a 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms = Í m Á + sin 2a ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 4 ¯ ˙˚
1
È I 2 Ê p - 1.0476 1 ˆ ˘2
=Í mÁ + sin (2 ¥ 60)˜ ˙ = 0.4484 I m
ÎÍ 2p Ë 2 4 ¯ ˚˙
I rms 0.4484 I m
From factor is FF = = = 1.8785
I av 0.2387 I m
I 40 40
Average ON-state current rating of thyristor is ITav = = = = 21.29 A
FF FF 1.8785
Thyristors 131
(b) For conduction angle = 60°, a = 180° – 60° = 120° = 2.0952 rad.
Im I
I av = (1 + cos a ) = m (1 + cos120) = 0.07956 I m
2p 2p
1
È I2 Ê p - a 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms = Í m Á + sin 2a ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 4 ¯ ˙˚
1
È I 2 Ê p - 2.0952 1 ˆ ˘2
=Í m Á + sin (2 ¥ 120)˜ ˙ = 0.2209 I m
ÎÍ 2p Ë 2 4 ¯ ˚˙
I rms 0.2209 I m
From factor is FF = = = 2.7765
I av 0.07956 I m
I 40 40
Average ON-state current rating of thyristor is ITav = = = = 14.406 A
FF FF 2.7765
Example 4.21 The half cycle surge current rating of thyristor is 2500 A at 50 H supply. Find the one–cycle
surge current rating and I2t rating of thyristor.
Solution
Given: ISB = 2500 A and T = 10 ms for 50 H supply
2 2
We know that I SB t = I TSM ◊T
2 1 1
or I TSM ◊ = I2
100 SB 200
The one-cycle surge current rating of thyristor is equal to
I SB 2500
I TSM = = = 1767.766 A
2 2
I2t rating of thyristor is
2 1
= I TSM ¥
2f
1
= 1767.7662 ¥ = 31249 Amp2sec
100
Example 4.22 Figure 4.29 shows a circuit diagram of a thyristor. I2t rating of thyristor is 50 A2/s. If the terminal
A and B is short circuited, determine fault clearance time so that thyristor is not damaged completely.
Fig. 4.29
Solution
When the terminals A and B are short circuited, the equivalent resistance is equal to
5¥5
Req = 1 + 5 || 5 = 1 + = 3.5 W
5+5
The maximum fault current is
220 2
A = 88.89 A which remains constant for a short time tc,
3.5 i.e., fault clearance time.
The fault clearance time tc can be computed from the following expression:
tc tc
Úi dt = Ú 88.892 dt = 50 A 2 /s
2
0 0
or (88.89) 2
tc = 50 A 2 /s
Therefore, tc 50
= ¥ 1000 = 6.32 ms
88.892
Example 4.23 The subcycle surge current rating of thyristor is 3000 A for 50 Hz supply. Determine the one
cycle surge current rating of thyristor and I2t rating.
Solution
The subcycle surge current rating ISB can be determined by equating the energies involved in one cycle surge
and one subcycle surge as given below.
2 2
I SB ◊ t = I TSM ◊T for 50 Hz supply, T = 10 ms
where, T is the time for one-half cycle of supply frequency in sec.
t is the duration of subcycle surge in sec.
ITSM is one cycle surge current rating
ISB is sub cycle surge current rating
2 1 1
or I TSM = I2
100 SB 200
The one-cycle surge current rating of thyristor is equal to
I SB
3000
I TSM = = = 2121.32 A
2 2
Therefore, one cycle surge current rating of thyristor is 2121.32 A.
I2t rating of thyristor is
2 1
= I TSM ¥
2f
1
= 2121.322 ¥ = 49999.98 Amp2sec
100
4.12 ProtectIon of thyrIStor

For proper and reliable operation, thyristor must be operating within the specified voltage and current
ratings. But in some applications, thyristors may be subjected to over voltage and over current. Due
to over voltage and over current, the junction temperature may exceed the maximum allowable
Thyristors 133
temperature 150°C and device may be damaged permanently. Therefore, different efficient cooling
methods are used in thyristor based converter circuits to dissipate the excess heat into atmosphere.
During turn-ON and turn-OFF process, there is a lot of power loss within the device and temperature
increases. In high frequency applications, power loss is significantly high and device may be damaged
due to temperature rise.
di
During turn ON of thyristor, may be comparatively large and local heating is possible within
dt
the device. As a result, thyristor may be destroyed. The false triggering of thyristor is also possible due
dv
to presence of high and noise signal across gate to cathode terminals. Therefore, thyristor must
dt
be always protected from false triggering. For normal operation of thyristors in different converter
circuits, the following protections should be taken care:
di
1. protection
dt
dv
2. protection
dt
3. Over-voltage protection
4. Over-current protection
5. Gate protection
Fig. 4.30 Anode current through junction J2 at (a) t = t1, (b) t = t2 and (c) t = t3 where t1 < t2 < t3
di
4.12.1 Protection
dt
If a thyristor is forward biased and a gate pulse is applied to gate cathode, anode current starts to
flow in the region nearest to gate cathode junction. After that current spreads across the whole area of
di
junction. When the rate of rise of anode current is large compared to spreading velocity of carries
dt
50 m/s, the local hot spots will be developed near the gate connection due to high current density
and thyristor will be damaged permanently. Consequently, the rate of rise anode current must be kept
di
within the specified value during turn on of thyristor. To maintain the within a specified value, a
dt
di di
inductor may be connected in series with the anode circuit. The rating varies from few tens
dt dt
of A/ms to 500 A/ms.
dv
4.12.2 Protection
dt
dv dV
When rate of rise of across thyristor is high, charging current ic = C j flows through thyristor
dt dt
dv
and the device will be turned ON without any gate signal. This is called triggering of thyristor.
dt
Actually, this type of triggering is called false or abnormal triggering. For proper and reliable operation
dv dv
of thyristor, the rate of rise of must be kept within the specified limit. The typical value of
dt dt
dv
is about 20 V/ms to 500 V/ms. For protection, a snubber circuit which is a series combination
dt
of resistance Rs and a capacitance Cs, is connected across thyristor. The design of snubber circuit is
explained in Section 4.13.
4.12.3 over-Voltage Protection

Just like any other semiconductor device, thyristors are very sensitive to over-voltage and the over-
voltage is the main cause of failure. The transient over-voltage across thyristor may turn ON the device
without any gate signal and the converter perform malfunction. Generally, thyristor should be able to
withstand external over-voltage and internal over-voltage.
External over-voltage When the current flow in an inductive circuit is interrupted or the lightning
strokes on the lines, external over-voltage is applied across thyristor. If a converter circuit is supplied
through transformer, transient over-voltage across thyristor occurs when the transformer is energised
or de-energised. Due to transient over-voltage, thyristor will be turn ON abruptly and over-voltage
appear across load. Consequently, a large fault current flows though the converter circuit and thyristors
may also be damaged partially or completely.
Internal over-voltage Usually internal over voltage is generated during turn-OFF process of
thyristor. After the anode current becomes zero, this current starts to flow in reverse direction due to
stored charges and reaches the peak reverse recovery current. After that the reverse recovery current
Thyristors 135
di
starts to fall abruptly with large . As a series
dt
inductance L is present in the converter circuit,
di
a large transient L voltage is generated and
dt
thyristor may be damaged due to this transient
over-voltage.
Therefore, voltage clamping devices such
as varistor may be used to protect thyristors
from over-voltage. Actually varistor is a non-
linear resistance when the current increases its
resistance value decreases. Figure 4.31 shows
the V-I characteristics of varistor and action of
current limiting fuse is depicted in Fig. 4.32. Fig. 4.31 V-I characteristics of varistor
Fig. 4.32 Function of current limiting switch
4.12.4 gate Protection

For proper operation of thyristor-based converter circuits, gate drive should be always protected from
over-voltage as well as over-current. Due to sudden over-voltage across gate circuit, thyristor will be
triggered. This type of triggering is false or abnormal triggering. A zener diode Z is connected across
gate drive circuit to protect from over voltage as shown in Fig. 4.33. Due to over current in the gate
circuit, junction temperature may exceed the specified limit and thyristor may be completely damaged.
A resistance R1 is connected in series with the gate drive circuit to protect device from over-current.
Sometimes thyristors are also turned ON due to presence of noise signal. Therefore, a resistance R2
and capacitor C are connected between gate and cathode to bypass the noise signals.
Fig. 4.33 Thyristor protection
4.12.5 over-current Protection

Figure 4.34 shows the electronic crowbar protection circuit. A crowbar thyristor is connected across
dc supply. When over-current flows through converter circuit and current sensing resistance generates
voltage which is greater than preset value, triggering circuit generates triggering pulse which is applied
to the crowbar thyristor. Subsequently, crowbar thyristor will be turn ON. As thyristor becomes turn
ON and dc supply will be short circuited, fuse will be blown due to high current and interrupt the fault
current to protect thyristor. Sometimes fuse may be replaced by circuit breaker for thyristor protection.
Fig. 4.34 Electronic crowbar protection circuit

Thyristors 137
4.13 deSIgn of SnuBBer cIrcuIt

When a voltage is applied across anode to cathode of thyristor and anode is positive with respect to
cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2 is reverse biased. The reverse
biased junction J2 behaves as capacitor. Then holes from p-region of junction J1 are accumulated at
junction J2 and electrons from n-layer of junction J3 are also accumulated at the other side of junction
J2. Therefore, space charge carriers are present across the junction J2. When a large voltage is applied
abruptly, charging current iC flows through thyristor and the device will be turned on without gate
signal. This is the unwanted triggering of thyristor.
dq
The charging current ic =
dt
d (C jV ) dC j dV
As q = C jV , we obtain ic = =V + Cj
dt dt dt
dV dC j
or ic = C j as =0
dt dt
dV dV
Usually, the rating of thyristor is 20 to 500 V/m sec. If the value of is more than its
dt dt
rated value, thyristor will be turned ON and this is the abnormal triggering of thyristor. Subsequently,
thyristor-based converter circuit starts to malfunction. Therefore, a snubber circuit should be connected
dV
in parallel with thyristor to protect from .
dt
A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of a resistance Rs and a capacitance Cs and it is
connected in parallel with thyristor as shown in Fig. 4.35. If a capacitor Cs is connected in parallel with
thyristor, the capacitor Cs itself is sufficient to protect from unwanted abnormal triggering of thyristor.
Fig. 4.35 Snubber circuit across thyristor

When the switch S is closed at t = 0, suddenly the supply voltage appears across the circuit and the
capacitor behaves as short circuit. Therefore, the voltage across thyristor is zero. With the progress
dV
of time, the voltage across capacitor builds up slowly with a , which is less than the specified
dV dt dV
maximum . Consequently, Cs is sufficient to prevent the thyristor from triggering.
dt dt
dV
When gate pulse is not applied and is less than its maximum limit, thyristor will be in OFF
dt
state and capacitor is charged to supply voltage Vs. Whenever the thyristor is turned ON by gate
pulse, the capacitor starts to discharge through SCR and the current flows through local path formed
by capacitor Cs and thyristor is equal to
VS
IS =
RT
where, RT is the resistance of thyristor during forward conduction state.
di
Since, the value of RT is quite low, the during turn ON will be excessively high and thyristor
dt
may be permanently damaged. Then current IS will be a safe value when a series resistance RS is
connected with the capacitor CS.
When the switch S is closed, capacitor is short circuit and SCR operates in forward blocking state,
the equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.35 is given in Fig. 4.36.
Fig. 4.36 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.35
Applying the KVL in the circuit, we obtain

dis
Vs = is ( Rs + RL ) + L
dt
The solution of above equation is
t
Vs -
is = (1 - e t )
Rs + RL
Thyristors 139
t
- Vs L
or is = I (1 - e t ) where, I = and t =
Rs + RL Rs + RL
After differentiating the above equation, we get
t t
di - 1 Vs Rs + RL - t
= Ie t = e
dt t Rs + RL L
t
Vs - t
= e
L
di
At t = 0, is maximum
dt
di V
Then, = s
dt max L
Vs
or L=
di
dt max
The voltage across SCR is v = iRs
After differentiating, we obtain
dv di
= Rs
dt dt
dv di
Then = Rs
dt max dt max
dv RV
or = s s
dt max L
L dv
Therefore, Rs =
Vs dt max
The R-L-C circuit should be fully analysed to find the optimum values of snubber circuit parameters
Rs and Cs. After analysed, the values of Rs and Cs are
2
L Ê 2x ˆ
Rs = 2x and Cs = Á ˜ L
Cs Ë Rs ¯
where, x is the damping factor and it varies in the range of 0.5 to 1.
Example 4.24 When a SCR is operating with a peak supply voltage of 220 2 V and it has the following
parameters:
dv di
Repetitive peak current I p = 100 A, = 400 V/ ms, = 80 A / ms .
dt max dt max
Design a snubber circuit for SCR protection. Assume the factor of safety is 2 and the minimum value of resis-
tance is 20 W.
Solution
100 dv 400
As factor of safety is 2, the permissible value of I p = A = 50 A , = V/ms = 200 V/ms ,
2 dt max 2
di 80
= A/ms = 40 A/ms
dt max 2
di
To limit the value of within 40 A/ms, a inductance L must be connected in series with thyristor
dt max
-6
and its value is L = Vs = 220 2 ¥ 10 = 7.778 mH
di 40
dt max
L dv 7.778 ¥ 10 - 6 200
The value of Rs = = ¥ - 6 = 5.5 W
Vs dt max 220 2 10
When the SCR is in the blocking state, the capacitor will be charged to maximum voltage 220 2 . When the
SCR is turned on, the peak current flows through the SCR is
220 2 220 2
+ = 72.124 A
20 5.5
The maximum permissible peak current is 50 A. Therefore, the value of RS should be such that, the peak
current is less than 50 A.
Assume Rs = 10 W, then the peak current flows through the SCR is
220 2 220 2
+ = 46.668 A
20 10
If the damping factor x = 0.65, the value of capacitance is
2 2
Ê 2x ˆ Ê 2 ¥ 0.65 ˆ
Cs = Á ˜ L = Á ˜ ¥ 7.778 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.1314 mF
Ë Rs ¯ Ë 10 ¯
The parameter of snubber circuit is Rs = 10 W and Cs = 0.1314 mF
di dv
Example 4.25 Determine the rating and rating of thyristor which is connected in the circuit as
dt dt
shown in Fig. 4.37. Find the average and rms current rating of thyristor at the firing angle a = 90°. What is the
voltage rating of thyristor?
Fig. 4.37
Thyristors 141
Solution
Given: Vs = 220 2 sin 314t , Cs = 0.13 mF, R = 20 W and L = 7.7 mH
di Vs 220 2
The = = = 40.406 A/ms
dt max L 7.7 ¥ 10 -6
dv di
The = Rs = 10 ¥ 40.406 = 404.6 A/ms
dt max dt max
Load reactance is X L = w L = 314 ¥ 7.7 ¥ 10 - 6 W = 0.0024 W . As the magnitude of XL is less than R = 20 W, the
current through thyristor is limited by load resistance.
The maximum load current is equal to
Vs 220 2
= = 15.556 A
R 20
2 2
At firing angle a = 90∞, ITav =
I = ¥ 15.556 A = 6.999 A
p m p
The rms current rating of thyristor is 15.556 A
The voltage rating of thyristor is equal to
(2.5 - to - 3) ¥ Peak voltage = 777.817 V to 933.38 V
Therefore, the voltage rating of thyristor is about 900 V.
Example 4.26 When a thyristor is operating with a peak supply voltage of 440 2 V and it has the following
specifications:
di dv
Repetitive peak current I p = 400 A, = 100 A/ms, = 200 V/ms
dt max dt max
di dv
Assume that the factor of safety is 2.5 for Ip, determine the permissible value of and . Design a
dt max dt max
suitable snubber circuit for SCR protection . Assume the factor of safety is 2 and the minimum value of resis-
tance is 10 W.
Solution
400
As the factor of safety is 2.5, the permissible value of I p = A = 160 A ,
2.5
di 100
The permissible value of = A /ms = 50 A /ms
dt max 2
dv 200
The permissible value of = V/ms = 100 V/ms
dt max 2
di
To limit the value of within 50 A/ms, a inductance L must be connected in series with thyristor and its
dt max
Vs 440 2 ¥ 10 -6
value is L = = = 12.445 mH
di 50
dt max
L dv 12.445 ¥ 10 -6 100
The value of Rs = = ¥ -6 = 2.0 W
Vs dt max 440 2 10
When the SCR is in the blocking state, the capacitor will be charged to maximum voltage 440 2 . When the
thyristor is turned on, the peak current flows through the thyristor is
440 2 440 2
+ = 377.35 A
10 2.0
The maximum permissible peak current is 160 A. Therefore, the value of RS should be such that, the peak cur-
rent is less than 160 A.
Assume Rs = 70 W, then the peak current flows through the SCR is
440 2 440 2
+ = 155.11 A
10 7
Assume the damping factor x = 0.65, then the value of capacitance is
2 2
Ê 2x ˆ Ê 2 ¥ 0.65 ˆ
Cs = Á ˜ L = Á ˜ ¥ 12.445 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.4292 mF
Ë Rs ¯ Ë 7 ¯
The parameter of snubber circuit is Rs = 7 W and Cs = 0.4292 mF.
4.14 SerIeS and Parallel connectIon of thyrIStorS

The power handling capability (voltage and current ratings) of thyristors are limited and
depends on cooling efficiency, utilisation and encapsulation. Nowadays, voltage rating of
10 kV and current rating of 3.5 kA thyristors are available in market. For high power applications such
as HVDC transmission system, a single thyristor cannot able to meet the requirements. Consequently,
thyristors are connected in series to increase the voltage handling capability and these devices are
connected in parallel to increase the current handling capability. Therefore, the series and parallel
connection of thyristors are used to increase voltage as well as current rating.
During series and parallel connections of thyristors, each thyristor must be utilised properly. The
term ‘string efficiency’ is used to measure the degree of utilisation of thyristors in a string. The string
efficiency can be expressed as
Actual voltage or current rating of the string
String efficiency =
Voltage or current rating of one thyristor ¥ Number of thyristor in thestring
Actually, the value of string efficiency is always less than 1. To get maximum string efficiency,
thyristors having identical I-V characteristics may be connected in series and parallel string. Since same
ratings thyristors manufactured by different manufacturers do not have identical I-V characteristics,
the voltage and current are shared unequally by series and parallel connected thyristors. As a result,
string efficiency can never be equal to 1. But the unequal voltage/current sharing by thyristors can be
minimised by using external static equalising circuit.
The reliability of the series and parallel string is measured by the factor called de-rating factor
(DRF). The de-rating factor can be expressed as
DRF = 1 - string efficiency
When a large number of thyristors are used in a string, string efficacy will be reduced and the de-
rating factor will be more. Consequently, the reliability of string increases.
For example, if the string voltage is 4000 V and seven 600 V rating thyristors are used in the string,
the string efficiency is equal to
4000
String efficiency = = 0.9523 or 95.23%
600 ¥ 7
Thyristors 143
Then the de-rating factor is

DRF = 1 - string efficiency = 1 - 0.9523 = 0.0476 or 4.76%
When one extra thyristor is connected in the string, the string efficiency is equal to
4000
String efficiency = = 0.8333 or 83.33%
600 ¥ 8
and subsequently the de-rating factor is
DRF = 1 - string efficiency = 1 - 0.8333 = 0.1666 or 16.66%
It is clear from above example that if the numbers of thyristors are increased in a string, string efficacy
will be reduced, the de-rating factor will be increased and the reliability of string will be high.
4.15 SerIeS connectIon of thyrIStorS

During series connection of thyristors in a string, same voltage rating and current rating thyristors must
be used and devices must be manufactured by the same company. Even though device ratings are same,
the V-I characteristics of thyristors are different. Therefore, there is variation in forward breakover
voltage, reverse blocking conditions, junction capacitance, ON-state voltage drop, and reverse recovery
characteristics of devices. Then the following problems may arise in series connected thyristors:
1. Unequal voltage distribution across thyristors
2. Difference in reverse recovery characteristics
The series connection two thyristors T1 and T2 is depicted in Fig. 4.38(a) and the V-I characteristics
of two thyristors with different forward voltage handling capability is shown in Fig. 4.38(b). When
the forward blocking current, IB i.e., OFF-state leakage current flows through thyristors, thyristor T1
supports V1 voltage and thyristor T2 supports V2 voltage. Then total blocking voltage is V1 + V2 which
is less than 2V1. The switching responses of devices are different due to different characteristics and
junction temperature. If there is a large voltage drop across a device, the particular devices will response
slowly and turn-ON time is maximum. Therefore, special triggering or gate drive circuits are required
to turn-ON all the devices in a string.
Fig. 4.38 (a) Series connection of thyristors T1 and T2 (b) V-I characteristics of thyristors T1 and T2
The string efficiency of two series connected thyristors is equal to
V1 + V2 1 Ê V2 ˆ
String efficiency = = Á1 + ˜
2V1 2 Ë V1 ¯
When the same leakage current I0 flows through thyristor T1 and T2, the leakage resistance of T1
V1 V
is and the leakage resistance of T2 is 2 . For equal voltage sharing at steady state, a suitable
I0 I0
resistance R is connected across each thyristor as depicted in Fig. 4.39. This circuit is known as the
static equalising circuit.
Fig. 4.39 Static equalising circuit of thyristors T1 and T2
4.15.1 Static equalizing circuit

For uniform voltage distribution at steady state condition, resistance R should be connected across
each thyristor. Figure 4.40 shows n number of thyristors connected in series. The first thyristor shares
the maximum blocking voltage VB1 and other n-1 devices shares the remaining voltage equally
VB 2 = VB3 = VB 4 = VB 5 = VB6 ........ = VBn
The minimum leakage current I B (min) flows through thyristor T 1 and the leakage current
IB (max) flows through each of remaining n-1 thyristors.
Assume VB1 = VB(max) and IB2, IB3, IB4, … IBn are the current flows through T2, T3, T4, … Tn
respectively and IR2, IR3, IR4 … IRn are the current flows through R2, R3, R4 … Rn respectively and
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = .......... Rn
VB 2 = VB3 = VB 4 = VB 5 = VB6 ........ = VBn ,
I B 2 = I B3 = I B 4 = I B 5 = I B6 ........ = I Bn , and
I R 2 = I R 3 = I R 4 = I R 5 = I R 6 ........ = I Rn
Thyristors 145
Fig. 4.40 Series connection of n number thyristors T1 to Tn
When the thyristor T1 has a maximum blocking voltage, it provides maximum internal resistance and
the blocking current IB is minimum.
Consider I B1 = I B(min) and I B 2 = I B3 = I B 4 = I B 5 = I B6 ........ = I Bn = I B(max)
Since the total current is same,
I = I B1 + I R1 = I B 2 + I R 2
or I B 2 - I B1 = I R1 - I R 2
or DI B = I B 2 - I B1 = I R1 - I R 2
Hence, DIB is the difference between the maximum and minimum leakage current of the devices under
blocking conditions.
Total voltage drop across n number of thyristors is equal to
V = VB1 + VB 2 + VB3 + ......... VBn
or V = VB(max) + (n - 1)VB 2
= VB1 + (n - 1) RI R 2 as VB 2 = RI R 2
= VB1 + (n - 1) R( I R1 - DI B ) as I R 2 = I R1 - DI B
= VB1 + (n - 1) RI R1 - (n - 1) R D I B
= VB1 + (n - 1)VB1 - (n - 1) R D I B as VB1 = RI R1
nVB1 - V
Therefore, R=
(n - 1)D I B
Usually manufacturers should specify the maximum value of IB (max) and rarely specify
DIB. If IB (min) is neglected, IB (min) = 0. and DIB = IB (max).
V2
Then power dissipation in the resistance R is equal to PR = RMS .
R
4.15.2 dynamic Voltage equalization

During low frequency and steady-state operation, the static voltage equalization circuit is sufficient to
protect the thyristor under over-voltage. Since the turn-ON and turn-OFF characteristics of thyristors
are varied in wide range, the turn-ON delay time may be decreased by using proper gate drive signal.
If a device (thyristor) has maximum turn-ON time delay, device must be capable to withstand at full
supply voltage. When the voltage across thyristor is greater than maximum forward blocking voltage,
the device may be damaged. During turn-OFF, thyristors with less reverse-recover time (trr) will be
turned OFF firstly and should support the high transient voltage.
For equal voltage distribution during dynamic voltage equalization, capacitors are connected
across each thyristor. When one thyristor becomes turned OFF, the reverse current stops to flow
through it. Then the capacitor provides a path to flow the reverse current of thyristors. As capacitors
are connected in parallel with thyristors, the voltage across the recovered thyristor should not be
built up to a high voltage quickly. Therefore, the slower devices in the series string recover slowly
and can support the supply voltage. To limit the discharging current of capacitor through thyristor, a
resistance Rc is connected in series with capacitor C. The combination of Rc and C is called dynamic
dv
equalizing circuit. This RC snubber circuit is also used for protection. Figure 4.41(a) shows the
dt
dynamic equalising circuit for thyristors T1 and T2. The reverse recovery characteristics of T1 and T2
is depicted in Fig. 4.41(b).
Fig. 4.41 (a) Dynamic equalizing circuit for thyristors T1 and T2 (b) Reverse recovery
characteristics of T1 and T2
ThyrisTors Thyristors 147
As the turn-ON process of power semiconductor devices is very fast, the turn-ON time of thyristors
is about some microseconds. However, the turn-OFF process of power semiconductor devices is slow
compared to the turn-ON process, the turn-OFF of thyristors is about few microseconds to a few
hundred microseconds. The voltage unbalance occurs when thyristor T1 recovers and other thyristors
T2 to Tn recover slowly. Figure 4.42 shows the dynamic equalizing circuit for thyristors T1, T2 ……. Tn.
Assume that VB1 and VB2 are the blocking voltage of fast and slow thyristors
Then the input voltage is equal to
V = Vfast + (n - 1)Vslow
V = VB1 + (n - 1)VB 2 as Vfast = VB1 and Vslow = VB 2 = VB3 = VB 4  = VBn
The unequal voltage distribution of series connected thyristors is more predominant during turn-OFF
time rather than during turn-ON time. The choice of capacitor value depends on the reverse recovery
characteristics of thyristors. It is clear from Fig. 4.41(b) that the reverse recovery time of thyristor
T1 is short compared to thyristor T2. The shaded area is equal to DQ which is directly proportional to
the product of current and time. Actually, DQ is the difference between the reverse recovery charges
of thyristors T1 and T2. Since thyristors T1 recovers fast and goes to the blocking state, it does not
allow passing excess charge DQ. Then the excess charge DQ should pass through capacitor C. When
the thyristor operates in the forward blocking state, the capacitor will be charged to input voltage. In
order to bypass the resistance RC, diode D must be connected in parallel with RC.
Fig. 4.42 Dynamic equalizing circuit for thyristors T1, T2 ……. Tn.
Assume that DV is the maximum permissible difference between voltages VB1 and VB2
DQ Q
Therefore, DV = VB1 - VB 2 = as C =
C V
DQ
or VB 2 = VB1 -
C
The string voltage is equal to
V = VB1 + (n - 1)VB 2
Ê DQ ˆ DQ
or V = VB1 + (n - 1) Á VB1 - as VB 2 = VB1 -
Ë C ˜¯ C
DQ
or V = VB1 + (n - 1)VB1 - (n - 1)
C
DQ
or V = nVB1 - (n - 1)
C
(n - 1)DQ
or C=
nVB1 - V
4.16 Parallel ConneCtion of thyristors

Thyristors are connected in parallel to increase
current rating and reduce the ON-state voltage
drop. During parallel operation, ON state
voltage drop across each thyristor must be same
to share the current equally. Due to difference
in V-I characteristics, there is a large difference
in the current share. The device which share
maximum current will be heated and thermal
runaway may be developed within the device
and the device may be destroyed. The V-I
characteristics of two thyristors T1 and T2 are
mismatched and total current I flows through T1
Fig. 4.43 Current sharing of two mismatched V-I
and T2. Figure 4.43 shows the current sharing characteristics parallel connected thyristors
of two mismatched V-I characteristics parallel
connected thyristors.
Due to mismatch in V-I characteristics, thryristor T1 shares I1 current and thryristor T2 shares I2
current. The total current I = I1 + I2 is less than 2I1. The string efficiency of two parallel connected
thyristors is
I1 + I 2
h=
2 I1
Since I1 is the rated current of thyristor and I1 > I2, string efficiency is less than 1 (h < 1).
Figure 4.44 shows the parallel connection of two thyristors. Due to different V-I characteristics,
thyristor T1 shares IT1 current and thyristor T2 shares IT2 current and the total current is IF. Since external
resistance R is connected with each thyristor, the forward voltage drops across each arm should be equal.
Thyristors 149
Therefore, VT 1 + IT 1 R + IT 1 RT 1 = VT 2 + IT 2 R + IT 2 RT 2
where, VT1 is the voltage drop across thyristor T1
RT1 is the junction resistance of thyristor T1
VT2 is the voltage drop across thyristor T2
RT2 is the junction resistance of thyristor T2
For current equalization, the voltage drop across the resistance varies from 1 V to 2 V.
Fig. 4.44 Current equalization of thyristors T1 and T2 using external resistance
In case of ac circuits, the current equalization can be

possible with the help of inductors. Figure 4.45 shows
the parallel connection of thyristors with inductive
coupling. When the current flows through T1 and T2
are same (IT1 = IT2), the voltage drop across inductance
is zero due to mutual cancellation of induced emfs in
inductor L1 and L2.
If the current flows through T1 is greater than T2 (IT1
> IT2), the induced emfs in the inductive coil is directly
proportional to the unbalance currents. Then current
flow though the inductance L1 decreases but the current
Fig. 4.45 Current equalization of thyristors
through the coil L2 increases. Hence, there is a tendency T1 and T2 using external inductance
to share the current equally.
Example 4.27 Thyristors with a rating of 1250 V and 200 A are used in a string to handle 10 kV and 1 kA.
Determine the number of series and parallel connected thyristors in case de-rating factor is (a) 0.2, (b) 0.3.
Solution
De-rating factor is DRF = 1 - string efficiency
10,000 1000
String efficiency = =
ns ¥ 1250 n p ¥ 200
Where, ns = number of series connected thyristors
np = number of parallel connected thyristors
10,000 1000
(a) As DRF = 0.2, 0.2 = 1 - = 1-
ns ¥ 1250 n p ¥ 200
The number of series connected thyristors

10,000
0.2 = 1 -
ns ¥ 1250
10,000
or ns = = 10
(1 - 0.2) ¥ 1250
The number of parallel connected thyristors

1000
0.2 = 1 -
n p ¥ 200
1000
or np = = 6.25 @ 7
(1 - 0.2) ¥ 200
10,000 1000
(b) As DRF = 0.3, 0.3 = 1 - = 1-
ns ¥ 1250 n p ¥ 200
The number of series connected thyristors

10,000
0.3 = 1 -
ns ¥ 1250
10,000
or ns = = 11.42 @ 12
(1 - 0.3) ¥ 1250
The number of parallel connected thyristors

1000
0.3 = 1 -
n p ¥ 200
1000
or np = = 7.142 @ 8
(1 - 0.3) ¥ 200
Example 4.28 A 175 A SCR is connected in parallel with a 225

A SCR as shown in Fig. 4.46. The ON-state voltage drop across
SCRs is 1.85 V and 1.75 V respectively. Determine the series
resistance that must be connected in series with each SCR when
400 A current is shared by two SCRs according to their rating.
Solution
Given: IT1 = 175 A, IT2 = 225 A, VT1 = 1.85 V, VT2 = 1.75 V
Assume that the voltage across each thyristor is same.
Then VT 1 + IT 1R = VT 2 + IT 2 R
VT 1 - VT 2 1.85 - 1.75
or R= = = 0.002 W
IT 2 - IT 1 225 - 175 Fig. 4.46
Example 4.29 When a 250 A thyristor operate in parallel with another 300 A thyristor, the ON-state voltage
drops across thyristors is 1.5 V and 1.2 V. Find the value of resistance which will be connected in series with
each thyristor. Assume that the total current 550 A is shared by thyristors according to their rating.
Thyristors 151
Solution
1.5
Dynamic resistance of 250 A thyristor T1 = W
250
1.2
Dynamic resistance of 300 A thyristor T2 = W
300
If external resistance R is connected with each thyristor, the current shared by thyristor T1 and T2 are
1.2
R+
IT 1 = 550 ¥ 300
Total resistance
1.5
R+
IT 2 = 550 ¥ 250
Total resistance
1.2
IT 1 R + 300
Then =
IT 2 R + 1.5
250
As the total current 550 A is shared by thyristors according to their rating,
IT1 µ 250 and IT2 µ 300
1.2
IT 1 250 R + 300
Therefore, = =
IT 2 300 R + 1.5
250
Then the value of R is 0.006 W.
Example 4.30 A string of five series connected SCRs has static and dynamic equalizing circuits. The string
should withstand at 10 kV. When the static equalizing resistance is 20 kW and the dynamic equalizing circuit
consists of RC = 50 W and C = 0.05 mF, determine the voltage across each SCR and discharge current through
SCR T1. Assume the leakage current of five SCRs are 10 mA, 12 mA, 15 mA, 18 mA and 20 mA respectively.
Solution
When SCRs are in OFF state, current I flows through the string of five series connected SCRs.
The voltage across R is equal to the voltage across each SCR.
Therefore, Voltage across SCR T1 V1 = ( I - 0.01) ¥ 20,000
Voltage across SCR T2 V2 = ( I - 0.012) ¥ 20,000
The sum of voltages V1, V2, V3, V4, V5
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 = (5I - 0.075) ¥ 20,000 = string voltage
As string voltage is 10,000 V, (5I - 0.075) ¥ 20,000 = 10,000
or I = 0.085 A
Then voltages across SCRs are
V1 = ( I - 0.01) ¥ 20,000 = (0.085 - 0.01) ¥ 20,000 = 1500 V
V2 = ( I - 0.012) ¥ 20,000 = (0.085 - 0.012) ¥ 20,000 = 1460 V

V3 = ( I - 0.015) ¥ 20,000 = (0.085 - 0.015) ¥ 20,000 = 1400 V
V4 = ( I - 0.018) ¥ 20,000 = (0.085 - 0.018) ¥ 20,000 = 1340 V
V5 = ( I - 0.02) ¥ 20,000 = (0.085 - 0.02) ¥ 20,000 = 1300 V
The discharge current through SCR T1 is equal to
V1 1500
= = 30 A
RC 50
Example 4.31 Two thyristors having a difference of 2 mA in latching current are connected in series in a circuit.
The voltage across the thyristors are 400 V and 380 V respectively. Determine the required equalizing resistance.
Solution
Given: DIB = 2 mA, VB1 = 400 V, VB2 = 380 V
The value of equalizing resistance is
nVB1 - V
R= where, n = 2 and V = VB1 + VB2
(n - 1)D I B
2 ¥ 400 - (400 + 380)
= = 10 kW
(2 - 1) ¥ 2 ¥ 10 -3
Example 4.32 What are the different conditions to turn on a thyristor?

Solution
The following conditions must be satisfied to turn ON a thyristor:
(a) Thyristor must be forward biased and anode potential must be positive with respect to cathode.
(b) The width of gate pulse must be greater than the turn-ON time of thyristor. Anode current must be greater
than latching current when the gate signal is removed.
(c) Anode to cathode voltage must be greater than finger voltage.
(d) Amplitude of gate current must be more than the minimum gate current which is required to turn on SCR.
(e) Amplitude of gate current must be less than the maximum permissible gate current so that gate circuit may
not be damaged.
(f) The gate triggering must be synchronized with ac supply.
4.17 triggering CirCuits for thyristors

dv
A thyristor can be turned on by forward-voltage triggering, triggering, temperature triggering, light
dt
triggering and gate triggering. From the above these triggering methods, forward-voltage triggering,
dv
triggering, and temperature triggering are not used to control output of any converter circuit as
dt
these methods are abnormal triggering. Light triggering is used in some special applications such as
series-parallel connected SCRs. The most commonly used triggering method is gate triggering as this
method accurately control the turning on of thyristors output voltage of converter. The gate triggering
method is very efficient and most reliable method. To turn ON thyristor from its forward blocking
state, a gate signal of proper wave shape and frequency must be applied between gate and cathode.
Thyristors 153
In gate triggering method, thyristor is forward biased, anode is positive with respect to cathode, a
voltage signal is applied at the gate terminal, thyristor will be turned ON. The gate signal may be a
slow-rising rectified dc signal (sine wave), a sharp single pulse a constant magnitude dc signal and
high frequency pulse signal as depicted in Fig. 4.47. Thyristor will be turned on as soon as the gate
voltage Vg is greater than the required critical gate trigger voltage VgT. In Fig. 4.47(a) at wt = a,
voltage Vg is equal to VgT and the thyristor will be triggered. Then the firing angle of thyristor is a.
Fig. 4.47 Triggering signals of a thyristor
An ideal gate current waveform is shown in Fig. 4.48. The initial high amplitude and fast rise in
gate current turn on the device. Usually, a continuous gate is required for thyristor. When thyristor
becomes turn-on, there is no requirement of gate signal after successful triggering. The gate voltage
signal is generated by a gate-drive which is called triggering or firing circuit for thyristors. The
different triggering circuits are:
1. Resistance (R) triggering circuit
2. Resistance capacitance (RC) triggering circuit
3. Uni-junction transistor triggering circuit or UJT relaxation oscillator triggering circuit

4. Half-wave controlled rectifier
5. Full-wave controlled rectifier
Fig. 4.48 Gate current waveform
4.17.1 resistance (R) triggering Circuit

Figure 4.49 shows the simplest resistance triggering circuit. R1 is the variable resistance, R2 is the
stabilizing resistance. When R1 is zero, the gate current flows through Rmin, D, gate-cathode, load and
source. This current should not be greater than maximum permissible gate current Igm.
Vm
£ I gm
Rmin
Vm
or Rmin ≥ where, Vm is the maximum source voltage.
I gm
During positive half-cycle of input voltage at wt = a, the voltage applied at gate terminal is greater than
VgT. Before turn-on of SCR, the input voltage is applied to SCR and operates in forward blocking state.
The value of R2 should be such that the maximum voltage across it is not greater than gate voltage
Vgm.
R2
Therefore, Vm £ Vgm
Rmin + R1 + R2
4.49 (a) Resistance triggering circuit (b) Voltage waveforms

Thyristors 155
Since R1 and R2 are very large, the gate trigger circuit draws small current. Due to diode D, the
current flows in positive half cycle only. Amplitude of voltage is controlled by VgT. When R1 is very
large and voltage across R2 is Vg = iR2. If the peak of Vg is less than VgT, thyristor will not be turned-
on. Consequently, the output voltage is equal to zero (Vo = 0) as shown in Fig. 4.50.
Fig. 4.50 Output voltage
When R1 is reduced, ig current increases, Vg exceeds the VgT and thyristor will be turn ON.
ÊV ˆ
At wt = a, Vgp sin a = VgT and a = sin -1 Á gT ˜
Ë Vgp ¯
R Ê VgT R + R1 + R2 ˆ
When Vgp = Vm a = sin -1 Á ˜¯
R + R1 + R2 Ë Vm R
As VgT, R1, R, Vm are constant, a µ sin -1 ( R2 )
or a µ R2
Hence the firing angle is directly proportional to R2. As R2 increases, firing angle a increases. The
maximum limit of firing angle is a = 90°. Since a = 0° is not possible, the range of firing angle is
represented by 90° ≥ a > 0°.
This triggering circuit can be used for TRIAC. In this case, if diode D will be removed and the
triggering signal will be available at the gate terminal during positive as well as negative half cycles.
Example 4.33 In resistance triggering circuit as depicted in Fig. 4.52(a), Ig (min) = 0.15 mA and Vg (min) = 0.5 V.
When the peak amplitude of input voltage is 100 V, find the trigger angle a for R1 = 100 kW and Rmin = 10 kW.
Solution
The KVL equation of gate circuit is
V = I g ( Rmin + R1 ) + VD + Vg
At the point of trigger,

V = I g ( Rmin + R1 ) + VD + Vg = 0.15 ¥ 10 -3 (10 ¥ 103 + 100 ¥ 103 ) + 0.7 + 0.5 V
= 17.7 V
Assume that the firing angle of thyristor is a. Then 17.7 = 100 sin a
Ê 17.7 ˆ
a = sin -1 Á = 10.195∞
Ë 100 ˜¯
4.17.2 RC triggering Circuit

Figure 4.51(a) shows a RC triggering circuit. In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the capacitor
C charges through diode D2 to the negative peak value of supply voltage –Vm. At wt = –90°, Vc = –Vm.
After wt = –90°, the supply voltage starts to decrease from –Vm to zero at wt = 0°. In –90° £ wt £ 0°,
the capacitor voltage decreases and finally fall to OA. At wt = 0°, Vc = OA. After wt > 0°, the supply
voltage is positive and capacitor starts to charge through variable resistance R. When the capacitor-
voltage reaches B and holds the positive voltage during the positive half cycle of supply voltage, the
capacitor voltage Vc is greater than VgT and thyristor will be turned on. Hence, the firing angle can be
controlled by varying resistance R.
Diode D1 is used to flow current in positive direction only. Hence, it prevents the breakdown of
cathode to gate junction during negative half cycle.
Fig. 4.51 (a) RC triggering circuit (b) Voltage waveforms
Using this method, firing angle will be never 0° and 180°. The control range of firing angle is
0° < a < 180°. In a RC firing circuit, the following condition must be satisfied:
1.3T 4 1
RC ≥ @ where, T = = time period of ac line frequency in seconds
2 w f
Thyristor will be turned on when Vc = VgT + Vd where Vd is the voltage drop across diode D1. If
the capacitor voltage drop is constant at the instant of triggering, the gate current IgT must be supplied
through R, D1 and gate-cathode of thyristor.
Thyristors 157
The maximum value of R is given by

V ≥ I gT R + Vc
or V ≥ I gT R + VgT + Vd
V - VgT - Vd
or R£ where, V is the voltage at which thyristor will be turned ON.
I gT
When the thyristor is turned ON, the on-state voltage drop across thyristor is about 1 V to 1.5 V.
Therefore, the voltage drop across R and C will also be reduced to the value of 1 V to 1.5 V until the
negative half cycle voltage appears across C. In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the capacitor
is charged to the maximum voltage of –Vm. If the R value is less, firing angle is less and conduction
angle is more. When R is increased, firing angle increases and conduction angle decreases.
4.17.3 RC full Wave triggering Circuit

Figure 4.52 shows the RC full wave triggering circuit. Diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used as full wave
bridge rectifier. Then full wave output voltage is applied across load and thyristor. Initially capacitor
is charged to a low positive voltage which is almost zero. Figure 4.52 behaves as clamping circuit.
The capacitor upper plate is positively charged and lower plate is negatively charged. Thyristor will
be turned on when the capacitor voltage is greater than VgT and the rectified output voltage will be
available across load. The value of RC is computed from the following equation:
T 157
RC ≥ 50 @
2 w
The value of R is given by the relation
V - VgT
R <<
I gT
Figure 4.53 shows the voltage and current waveforms of RC full wave triggering circuit.
Fig. 4.52 RC full wave triggering circuit

Fig. 4.53 Voltage waveforms of RC full wave triggering circuit
Example 4.34 A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is connected to a resistance capacitance (RC) triggering circuit as
depicted in Fig. 4.51(a). If the resistance R is variable from 2 kW to 20 kW, VgT = 2 V and C = 0.47 mF, what is
the minimum and maximum firing angle?
Solution
The current flow through capacitance C is equal to
2
where, Z = R 2 + ÊÁ
V 1 ˆ
I= Ë wC ˜¯
Z
2 2
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
(a) If R2 = 2 kW, Z = R2 + Á = 20002 + Á = 7064.98 W
Ë wC ˜¯ Ë 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.47 ¥ 10 -6 ˜¯
1/wC 6775.98
and f = tan -1 = tan -1 = 73.55∞
R1 2000
V 230–0∞
The current I leads V by an angle q, I = = = 0.03255–73.55∞
Z 7064.98– - 73.55∞
The voltage across capacitor is
VC = IXC = 0.03255–73.55∞ ¥ 6775.98–- 90∞ = 220.58–-16.45∞
Thyristors 159
or vC = 2 ¥ 220.58 sin (w t - 16.45)
At w t = a1, vC = 2 ¥ 220.58 sin (a1 - 16.45) = 2

2
or a1 = sin -1 + 16.45 = 16.81∞
2 ¥ 220.58
2 2
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
(b) If R2 = 20 kW , Z = R 2 + Á = 200002 + Á = 21116.67 W
Ë wC ˜¯ Ë 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.47 ¥ 10 -6 ˜¯
1/wC 6775.98
and f = tan -1 = tan -1 = 18.71∞
R1 20000
V 230–0∞
The current I leads V by an angle f, I = = = 0.010891–18.71∞
Z 21116.67–-18.71∞
VC = IXC = 0.010891–18.71∞ ¥ 6775.98–- 90∞ = 73.78–- 71.29∞
or vC = 2 ¥ 73.78 sin (w t - 71.29)
At w t = a1, vC = 2 ¥ 73.78 sin (a1 - 71.29) = 2

2
or a1 = sin -1 + 71.29 = 72.38∞
2 ¥ 73.78
4.18 unijunCtion transistor (ujt)

A UJT is a three terminal semiconductor device (Emitter E, Base B1 and Base B2) as shown in
Fig. 4.54(a) and (b). It is formed from a lightly doped slab of n-type material which has high resistance.
The two base contacts are made at each end of one side of the slab and aluminum rod is inserted on
the other side to form a single pn junction. Therefore, UJT is called as uni-junction. The aluminum
rod is located near to the base terminal 2 (B2). The B2 is positive with respect to B1 by voltage VBB.
The symbol of a UJT is shown in Fig. 4.55(a).
Fig. 4.54 The basic structure of an UJT

Figure 4.55(b) shows the equivalent circuit of the

UJT. The diode represents the p-n junction, RB1 is a
variable resistance, and RB2 is a fixed resistance. The
value of RB1 decreases when emitter current increases.
The RB1 varies from 50 kW to 50 W when emitter-current
IE changes from 0 to 50 mA.
The inter-base resistance between B1 and B2 is expressed
as
RBB = RB1 + RB 2
and it’s range is approximately 4 kW to 10 kW.
When IE = 0, the voltage across RB1 is
RB1
VRB1 = V = hVBB
RB1 + RB 2 BB Fig. 4.55 (a) Symbol of UJT
RB1 (b) Equivalent circuit of the UJT
h= is intrinsic stand-off ratio.
RB1 + RB 2
Actually the intrinsic stand-off ratio is controlled by the location of the aluminum rod.
The emitter threshold potential is
VP = hVBB + VD
The V-I characteristics of a UJT is depicted in Fig. 4.56. When VE crosses the threshold potential
VP, the emitter fires and holes are injected into the n-type slab through the p-type rod. Therefore, the
holes content of the n-type slab increases. Consequently, the number of free electrons increases and
hence conductivity increased. Thus VE drops off while increasing IE. The UJT operates in the negative
resistance region as depicted in Fig. 4.56. The UJT passes through the valley point (IV, VV) and then
becomes saturated.
Fig. 4.56 V-I characteristics of a UJT

Thyristors 161
4.19 relaxation osCillator

The relaxation oscillator is an oscillator using UJT which can
generate saw-tooth waveform. The UJT relaxation oscillators store
energy in a capacitor and then dissipate that energy repeatedly to
setup the oscillations. For example, the capacitor can be charged
toward a positive power supply until it reaches a threshold voltage
sufficiently close to the supply. When the capacitor reaches each
threshold, capacitor can be quickly discharged due to electrical short.
In all such capacitor-based relaxation oscillators, the period of the
oscillations is set by the dissipation rates of the capacitor. The UJT
relaxation oscillators consist of a UJT, capacitor C which is charged
through resistance RE. Figure 4.57 shows the UJT relaxation oscillator.
The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially and when Fig. 4.57 Relaxation oscillator
capacitor voltage reaches the peak point voltage VP, the UJT starts
conducting and the capacitor voltage is discharged rapidly through E-B1 and R1. After the peak point
voltage of UJT VP, it provides negative resistance to the discharge path which is useful in the working
of the relaxation oscillator. When the voltage reaches VV, the capacitor C starts to charge again. This
cycle is repeated continuously generating a saw-tooth waveform across C.
The capacitor is charged and discharged cyclically as depicted in Fig. 4.58 where VC is the voltage
across capacitor. The charging time constant of capacitor is RC. At time t1, VC = VP, the UJT is turned
ON and the capacitor discharges through R1 for t2 duration until reaches valley point voltage VV. When
UJT reaches the valley point, it becomes open circuit and capacitor starts to charge again.
Fig. 4.58 Waveforms of VC and VR1
The total cycle time T = t1 + t2.

Ê V - VV ˆ
The charging time of capacitor t1 = RE C ln Á
Ë V - VP ˜¯
ÊV ˆ
The discharging time of capacitor t2 = ( RB1 + R1 ) C ln Á P ˜
Ë VV ¯
Time period T = t1 + t2
The oscillation frequency is f = 1 as t1>> t2
Ê 1 ˆ
RE C ln Á
Ë 1 - h ˜¯
4.20 ujt triggering CirCuit

Figure 4.59(a) shows a UJT triggering circuit. The values of external resistances R1 and R2 are smaller
than the values of internal resistances RB1 and RB2 of UJT. The value of charging resistance R should
be such that load line must intersect the negative resistance region of UJT characteristics.
When a dc voltage V is applied, the capacitor starts to charge through R. During charging of
capacitor, emitter is open circuit. The capacitor voltage VC can be represented by
t
-
t1
VC = V (1 - e )
t
-
or VC = V (1 - e RC ) as t1 = RC is the charging time constant of capacitor.
Fig. 4.59 (a) UJT triggering circuit (b) Waveforms of UJT triggering circuit
When the capacitor voltage reaches the voltage VP(VP = hV + VD), the junction between E-B1
will be break down. Consequently, UJT will be turned ON and capacitor starts to discharge through
resistance R1. The discharging time constant t2 = R1C. t2 is smaller than t1. Accordingly the emitter
voltage decreases to valley voltage VV and emitter current falls below IV. Subsequently, UJT will be
turned OFF.
t t
- -
The voltage VP = hV + VD = VV + V (1 - e RC ) as VD = VV and h = (1 - e RC )
T
-
At t = T, h = (1 - e RC )
1 Ê 1 ˆ
Therefore, T= = RC ln Á
f Ë 1 - h ˜¯
Thyristors 163
The firing angle is equal to

Ê 1 ˆ
a1 = w T = w RC ln Á where, w is the angular frequency of UJT oscillator.
Ë 1 - h ˜¯
When the output pulse of UJT oscillator is used to trigger thyristor, R1 should be small so that the
normal leakage current drop must be less than Vp and UJT will not be triggered.
R1
Then, V < SCR trigger voltage VgT
RBB + R1 + R2
Where, RBB = RB1 + RB 2
10 4
The value of R2 = and the width of triggering pulse is equal to R1C.
hV
The maximum value of R can be determined from the peak voltage VP and peak current IP. If the
voltage across capacitor is VP, the voltage across R is equal to V – VP.
Therefore, V - VP V - (hV + VD )
Rmax = =
IP IP
The minimum value of R is computed from valley point voltage and current values Vv and Iv
V - VV
Rmin =
IV
4.21 synChronized ujt triggering CirCuit

Figure 4.60 shows a synchronized UJT triggering circuit. This circuit has a bridge rectifier which
consists of four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 and converts ac to dc. The full wave rectified dc output
voltage is obtained from bridge-rectifier. Resistance R1 and zener diode Z are used to clip the rectified
output voltage to specified voltage level VZ. The output voltage waveforms are depicted in Fig. 4.61.
Fig. 4.60 Synchronized UJT triggering circuit
When output voltage is applied across RC circuit, the capacitor C is charged and its charging rate
depends on the value of resistance R. When the capacitor voltage VC reaches the threshold voltage
of uni-junction transistor (hVZ), the emitter-base (E-B1) junction of UJT will be breakdown and the
capacitor will be discharged through primary winding of pulse transformer. As current i flows through
primary winding of pulse transformer, a voltage will be induced in the secondary winding which is
used as triggering signal of thyristor as depicted in Fig. 4.61.
During discharging of capacitor, when the capacitor voltage is less than valley voltage of UJT, E-B1
junction becomes open circuit and capacitor starts again to charge through R. The rate of capacitor
voltage is controlled by varying the value of resistance R. In this method, the variation of firing angle
is 0° < a < 150°. Figure 4.62 shows the triggering circuit for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier
and the generation of triggering pulse and output voltage is depicted in Fig. 4.61.
Fig. 4.61 Generation of pulse voltage and output voltage of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier
Thyristors 165
Fig. 4.62 Triggering circuit for single phase half-wave controlled rectifier
4.22 raMP and Pedestal triggering

Figure 4.63 shows the ramp and pedestal triggering circuit which is the improved synchronised UJT
triggering circuit. This triggering circuit can be used for ac voltage controller, single phase semi-
converter and full converter. VZ is the specified output voltage of zener diode. The resistance R2 is
used as potential divider. The pedestal voltage VPD can be controlled by changing the wiper position.
The value of VPD is always less than the threshold voltage of UJT (hVZ). When wiper voltage VPD is
small, capacitor is charged through R.Whenever the capacitor voltage reaches the threshold voltage of
UJT hVZ, UJT is turned ON and a current flows through primary of pulse transformer and a triggering
pulse can be obtained from secondary of pulse transformer. After that capacitor voltage reduces to
VPD and then it also reduces to zero at wt = p. Triggering circuit for single phase ac voltage controller
using thyristor is depicted in Fig. 4.63 and Fig. 4.64 shows the triggering circuit for single phase ac
voltage controller using TRIAC.
Fig. 4.63 Triggering circuit for a single phase ac voltage controller using thyristor
The generation of triggering pulse and output voltage of ac voltage controller is given in Fig. 4.65.
During charging of capacitor, VC is greater than VPD, diode D operates in off-state due to reverse bias.
Since the pedestal voltage across C is low, the charging time of capacitor is long and firing angle will
be more and output voltage is low. With high value of pedestal voltage across C, the charging time of
capacitor is small and firing angle will be less and output voltage is high.
Assume time T is required to charge capacitor from pedestal voltage VPD to the threshold voltage
of UJT (hVZ). Then we can write
T
-
hVZ = VPD + (VZ - VPD )(1 - e RC )
Actually, the (VZ – VPD) is the effective voltage which is used to charge C from VPD to hVZ
Ê V - VPD ˆ
Then, T = RC ln Á Z and the firing angle a is equal to
Ë VZ (1 - h) ˜¯
Ê V - VPD ˆ
a = w RC ln Á Z
Ë VZ (1 - h) ˜¯
Fig. 4.64 Triggering circuit for single phase ac voltage controller using TRIAC
Example 4.35 Design a relaxation oscillator circuit using UJT which has the following specifications:
h = 0.65, Ip = 0.65 mA, Vp = 12 V, Iv = 2.0 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, RBB = 4.5 kW
and Norman leakage current is 3 mA when emitter open circuit.
The firing frequency is 2.5 kHz. Assume the suitable value of capacitance C.
Solution
h = 0.65, Ip = 0.65 mA, Vp = 12 V, Iv = 2.0 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, RBB = 4.5 kW, f = 2.5 kHz
Choose the value of capacitance C = 0.047 mF.
The value of charging resistance of capacitor C is
Thyristors 167
Fig. 4.65 Generation of pulse voltage and output voltage of single phase ac voltage controller
1 1 Ê 1 ˆ
R= as T = = RC ln Á
Ê 1 ˆ f Ë 1 - h ˜¯
fC ln Á
Ë 1 - h ˜¯
1
= = 8.1067 kW
3 -6 Ê 1 ˆ
2.5 ¥ 10 ¥ 0.047 ¥ 10 ln Á
Ë 1 - 0.65 ˜¯
We know that Vp = hVBB
Vp 12
Therefore, VBB = = V = 18.46 V @ 18.5 V
h 0.65
10 4 10 4
The value of R2 = = W = 831.60 W as VBB = V
hV 0.65 ¥ 18.5
VBB
We know that R1 + R2 + RBB =
Leakage current
The value of R1 is
VBB
R1 = - R2 - RBB
Leakage current
18.5
= W - 831.60 W - 4.5 kW = 835 W
4.5 ¥ 10 -3
Example 4.36 The firing frequency of relaxation oscillator is varied by changing the value of charging
resistance R. Find the maximum and minimum values of R and their corresponding firing frequencies.
Assume h = 0.65, Ip = 0.65 mA, Vp = 12 V, Iv = 2.0 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, VBB = 20 V, and C = 0.047 mF
Solution
The minimum value of R is computed from valley point voltage and current values Vv and Iv
V - Vv 20 - 1.5
Rmin = = = 9.25 kW
Iv 2.0 ¥ 10 -3
The maximum value of R is computed from peak point voltage and current values Vp and Ip
V - Vp 20 - 12
Rmax = = = 12.3076 kW
Ip 0.65 ¥ 10 -3
1 1 Ê 1 ˆ
Firing frequency f = as T= = RC ln Á
Ê 1 ˆ f Ë 1 - h ˜¯
RC ln Á
Ë 1 - h ˜¯
The maximum firing frequency f = 1 1
max = Hz
Ê 1 ˆ 3 -6 Ê 1 ˆ
RminC ln Á 9.25 ¥ 10 ¥ 0.047 ¥ 10 ln Á ˜
Ë 1 - h ˜¯ Ë 1 - 0.65 ¯
= 2191.05 Hz
The minimum firing frequency f = 1 1
min = Hz
Ê 1 ˆ 3 -6 Ê 1 ˆ
RmaxC ln Á 12.3076 ¥ 10 ¥ 0.047 ¥ 10 ln
Ë 1 - h ˜¯ ÁË 1 - 0.65 ˜¯
= 1646.72 Hz
Thyristors 169
4.23 gate drive CirCuit of thyristor With isolation

Actually, the gate drive or control circuit operates at low voltage with lower power and the load or
the power circuit is connected with high voltage and power circuit is used to control power. If the
control circuit is not isolated from power circuit, the control circuit will be damaged. Therefore, the
isolation between the gate drive or control circuit and the load or the power circuit is required for
high power applications. Usually, isolation can be provided either by using pulse transformers or by
using opto-couplers.
4.23.1 gate drive Circuit using Pulse-transformer

Pulse transformers are generally used in firing circuits for thyristors. Usually pulse transformer has two
secondary windings and one primary. The turn ratio from primary to secondary is 1:1:1 or 2:1:1. The
pulse transformer has low winding resistance, low leakage reactance and low inter-winding capacitance.
The application of pulse transformer in firing circuit of a thyristor has the following advantages:
1. The isolation between the low voltage gate circuit (control circuit) and high-voltage anode
circuit (power circuit).
2. The triggering pulses from same trigger source can be used to turn on two or more number
thyristors.
Figure 4.66(a) shows the most simplified pulse transformer triggering circuit for SCR. When a square
pulse is applied at the primary terminals of pulse transformer, it will be transmitted at its secondary
terminals as a square wave or the transmitted signal will be the derivative of the input voltage signal.
Fig. 4.66 (a) Simplified pulse transformer triggering circuit for SCR
Actually a square waveform is applied to base of a transistor T1 which is act as a switch. When the
input pulse is high, transistor T1 will be turned on and the dc voltage is applied to primary winding
of pulse transformer [Fig 4.66 (b)]. The advantage of this circuit is that
1. It is not required a strength pulse generator since the amplitude of pulse is same; the strength of
generated pulses may be increased by increasing the amplitude of dc bias voltage.
Fig. 4.66 (b) Simplified pulse transformer triggering circuit for two SCRs
2. The circuit operation is independent of the pulse characteristics as the pulse is used to turn
ON or turn OFF the transistor. The pulse distortion has no effect on the circuit operation. The
resistance RL is connected in series with the primary winding of pulse transformer to limit the
current flow.
3. When the amplitude of applied pulse at base of transistor T1 is low, T1 will be turned OFF and
then diode D starts to operate. Subsequently diode D allows the flow of current through pulse
transformer.
Figure 4.67(a) shows the equivalent circuit of pulse transformer trigger circuit as depicted in
Fig. 4.66(a) and Rg is the resistance of gate-cathode circuit of thyristor. The modified from of
Fig. 4.67(a) is illustrated in Fig. 4.67(b). This circuit can also be represented by Thevenin’s theorem
in between “1” and “2”. Figure 4.67(c) shows the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.67(b).
Fig. 4.67 (a) Equivalent circuit of pulse transformer trigger circuit as shown in Fig. 4.66(a) (b) Modified form
of Fig. 4.67(a) (c) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.67(b)
Thyristors 171
R1
Thevenin’s voltage is equal to Vth = VCC and
R1 + RL
2
R1 RL ÊN ˆ
Thevenin’s resistance is Rth = where, R1 = Á 1 ˜ Rg
R1 + RL Ë N2 ¯
KVL equation for Fig. 4.70(c) is
di
Vth = iRth + L
dt
After substituting the values of Vth and Rth in the above equation, we obtain
R1 RR di
VCC = 1 L i+L
R1 + RL R1 + RL dt
R1 + RL di
or VCC = iRL + L
R1 dt
After solving the above equation, we get
V ( -
R1RL
i = CC 1 - e L ( R1 + RL )
RL
t
)
The amplitude of voltage across pulse transformer is
R1RL
R1 - t
di
e = L = VCC e L ( R1 + RL )
dt R1 + RL
Rth
R1 - t R1 RL
or e = VCC e L as Rth =
R1 + RL R1 + RL
Depending upon the value of Rth and L, the pulse transformer operates in two different modes such as
L T L
(a) < (b) > 10T where, T is the pulse width of input signal.
Rth 10 Rth
L T
(a) Condition < : Rth is very large compared with L.
Rth 10
Rth
R1 - t
We know that e = VCC e L
R1 + RL
R1
At t = 0, e(t = 0) = VCC = e0
R1 + RL
10 10
R1 - t R1 - T
At t = T, e(t = T ) = VCC e T = VCC e T = e(t = 0) ¥ e-10 = 0.0000453e0
R1 + RL R1 + RL
For step rise in input voltage, the pulse transformer output is a positive pulse. The input signal is
transmitted as a derivative of the input waveform for a step rise. For a step fall in input voltage,
a negative pulse appears at the pulse transformer output. The operation of the pulse transformer
in this mode can be achieved by using a small value of L. It is possible by using an air core
pulse transformer.
L
(b) Condition > 10T , L is very large compared to Rth.
Rth
Rth t
R1 - t R1 -
Therefore, e = VCC e L = VCC e 10T
R1 + RL R1 + RL
R1
At t = 0, e(t = 0) = VCC = e0
R1 + RL
t T
R1 - R1 -
At t = T, e(t = T ) = VCC e 10T = VCC e 10T = e(t = 0) ¥ e - 0.1 = 0.9048e0
R1 + RL R1 + RL
When the pulse transformer has large inductance, the pulses are reproduced. If the inductance is
small, the pulses are exponentially decaying pulses. The wave shape of the output pulses from a pulse
transformer is depicted in Fig. 4.68. The triggering pulse is exponentially decaying in nature for the
following causes:
1. The triggering pulse waveform is suitable for injecting a large current in the gate circuit for
reliable operation.
2. The duration of pulse is shorter and there will not be much heating in the gate circuit.
3. For the same gate cathode power, it is permissible to raise VCC to a suitable high value so that
a hard drive of thyristor can be obtained. Thyristor with a hard drive can able to withstand high
di/dt at the desirable anode circuit.
4. The size of the pulse transformer is reduced. For an extended pulse, a large value of L is required
which increases size and cost of the pulse transformer.
L T
Fig. 4.68 (a) Input voltage (b) Output pulse voltage across secondary of pulse transformer with <
L Rth 10
(c) Output pulse voltage across secondary of pulse transformer with > 10T .
Rth
Thyristors 173
When we know the voltage across the primary winding of pulse transformer, the amplitude of the
trigger voltage at the secondary terminals of pulse transformers is equal to
N2 R1 N2
Vg = V where, is the turn ratio
N1 CC R1 + RL N1
The amplitude of VCC must be large enough to produce trigger voltage VgT at the gate circuit of
thyristor.
N2 R1
Therefore, V ≥ VgT
N1 CC R1 + RL
N1 Ê RL ˆ
or VCC ≥ VgT 1+
N 2 ÁË R1 ˜¯
A gate trigger circuit for thyristors in phase controlled rectifiers and ac voltage controllers should
have the following features:
1. A zero crossing detection circuit on the input voltage signal is required.
2. Trigger pulses should be generated as per required wave shape.
3. DC power source is needed for pulse transformer.
4. Gate trigger circuit should be isolated from the power circuit by using pulse transformers or
optocouplers.
Figure 4.69 shows a schematic block diagram for gate trigger for single-phase converter. The gating
circuit consists of synchronising transformer, diode rectifier, zero crossing detector, firing angle delay
generator circuit, pulse transformer, gate pulse isolation transformer and power circuit for converters.
Fig. 4.69 Block diagram of a thyristor trigger circuit

The synchronising centre tapped transformer steps down the supply voltage to a suitable low voltage
for zero crossing detectors and for generating dc power supply VCC , which is used for the gate trigger
circuit and pulse transformer. The zero crossing detector circuit which uses operational amplifier, is
used to convert ac synchronising input voltage into a square wave signal as depicted in Fig. 4.70.
The negative pulses are eliminated by using diodes at the output stage of each operational amplifier.
In Fig. 4.70(a), the first Exclusive-OR gate is used as an inverter and the voltage waveform A is
generated at the output of the inverter. Subsequently, A voltage signal is fed to the delay circuit, i.e.,
R-C integrator circuit and the voltage waveform B is obtained across the capacitor of the delay circuit.
Fig. 4.70 (a) Hardware implementation of ramp triggering circuit (b) Oscillator circuit (c) Logic circuit to
generate trigger pulse
Thyristors 175
When the signals A and B are fed to the input terminals of second Ex-OR gate and the waveform
C is obtained at output of 2nd Ex-OR gate. The C waveform is used for resetting the ramp-generator.
The generated ramp voltage is synchronised with the zero crossing of ac input voltage signal. The
output signal at point D is a ramp waveform.
In the delay firing angle generation unit, the constant amplitude ramp voltage is compared with
the control voltage VC. At the instant the amplitude of ramp voltage is equal to the control voltage; a
pulse signal of controlled duration is generated. Figure 4.71(h) shows the control signals for thyristors
1 and 2 and the control signals for thyristors 3 and 4 are shown in Fig. 4.71(i). Whenever the control
voltage VC is less than the ramp voltage, there is no firing control signal. If the amplitude of dc control
voltage decreases, the firing angle a decreases and if VC is increased, the firing angle a is increased.
This states that the firing angle is directly proportional to the control signal. The pulse output from
the firing angle generator is fed to a pulse amplifier circuit. After that the amplified pulses are used
for triggering thyristors 1, 2, 3, and 4 through gate pulse isolation transformers.
Fig. 4.71 Ramp triggering circuit for a single phase converter

The voltage waveform at E is ANDed with A and A separately. The oscillator generates pulses
at about 7 kHz. The output voltage waveforms are modulated by high frequency pulses. Actually the
high frequency switching is required to reduce thyristor gate power dissipation and the size of pulse
transformer. The waveforms are fed to separate driver circuits which are also called pulse amplification
and isolation stages. Pulse transformer and transistor driver circuit, MOSFET driver circuit and opto-
coupler driver circuit are illustrated in Fig. 4.72. The pulse transformer and transistor driver circuit
can be handled easily and the operation will be most reliable.
Fig. 4.72 (a) Gate drive circuit for thyristor using pulse transformer (b) MOSFET driver circuit for thyristor
Thyristors 177
4.23.2 gate Pulse amplifiers

The pulse output from integrated circuits can be directly fed to gate-cathode terminals of a low power
thyristor to turn ON the device. In case of high power thyristors, the high trigger current is required.
Therefore, the triggering pulses generated from ICs must be amplified and subsequently fed to thyristor
for reliable turn ON-operation. In a thyristor converter circuit, the anode circuit should have the
capability to withstand at high voltage but the gate circuit operates at a low voltage. Consequently,
isolation is required between a power circuit using thyristor and the control circuit or gate-pulse
generator. The isolation is provided by an opto-coupler or a pulse transformer.
Figure 4.73 shows a pulse amplifier circuit for amplifying the input trigger pulses. This circuit
consists of a transistor, a pulse transformer for isolation and two diodes D1 and D2. Whenever a voltage
is applied to the base of transistor or gate of a MOSFET, it will be turned ON. Consequently, the dc
voltage VCC appears across the pulse transformer primary winding and accordingly a pulse voltage
is induced in the transformer secondary winding. Subsequently, the amplified pulse output at the
secondary side of pulse transformer is applied to gate and cathode terminals of a thyristor to turn it
ON. When pulse signal is applied to the gate of the MOSFET becomes zero, the MOSFET is turned
OFF. Then the current flow thorough primary winding starts to fall as the voltage across secondary
winding tends to fall and subsequently flux in core of pulse transformer tends to zero. As a result, a
voltage of opposite polarity is induced in both primary and secondary windings of the pulse transformer.
Diode D1 is used in the secondary side of pulse transformer to prevent the negative gate current flow
due to the reverse secondary voltage whenever MOSFET is in OFF state. Due to the induced reverse
voltage in primary winding of pulse transformer, diode D2 is forward biased. Subsequently, current
starts to flow through primary winding, resistance R2 and diode D2. Hence, the stored energy in the
transformer magnetic core will be dissipated in R2 and the core flux will be reset. If the pulse width at
the secondary terminals is increased, then a capacitor C is connected across R2 as depicted in Fig. 4.74.
Fig. 4.73 Pulse transformer driver circuit using MOSFET for short pulse output
Fig. 4.74 Pulse transformer driver circuit using MOSFET for long pulse output
4.23.3 Pulse train gating signal

The gate pulse triggering as explained above is not suitable for inductive load or R-L load as initiation of
thyristor conduction is not well defined during inductive load. To overcome this difficulty, a continuous
gate triggering signal or a train of firing pulses is used to turn ON a thyristor. When continuous gating
is applied to turn on SCRs, the circuit has the following disadvantages:
1. Thyristor losses will be increased.
2. Distortion of output pulse due to saturation in pulse transformer by continuous pulse.
To overcome the problems of continuous gating signal, a train of firing pulses is used to turn ON a
thyristor. A pulse train of gating signal is known as high frequency carrier gating signal. A pulse train
can be generated by the pulse width modulation technique at frequency about 10 kHz to 20 kHz.
Figure 4.75 shows a circuit for generating a pulse train. This circuit consists of an AND logic
gate, 555 timer, MOSFET, isolation pulse transformer and diodes D1 and D2. The input pulse signal
Vi is obtained from the thyristor trigger circuit and it is fed to an AND gate. The output signal of the
555 timer, Vt is also applied to AND gate. Since, the signals Vi and Vt are processed by AND gate,
a pulse train signal will be output from the output terminal of AND gate. Subsequently, the output
of AND gate is fed to pulse amplifier circuit to generate pulse with higher amplitude. After that the
amplified output voltage waveform is then applied to gate cathode terminals of a thyristor to turn it
ON as depicted in Fig. 4.76.
Thyristors 179
Fig. 4.75 Pulse train gating circuit for thyristor
Fig. 4.76 Waveforms for pulse train gating of thyristor

4.23.4 firing Circuit using Cosine Wave scheme

Figure 4.77 shows the cosine firing scheme for thyristors of a single phase controlled rectifier. This
circuit consists of synchronising transformer, non-inverting ZCD, integrator and amplifier, inverting
ZCD, inverter and transistorized switch, comparator, oscillator, logic circuit and driver circuit. The
synchronising transformer is used to step down the supply voltage to a specified voltage level. The
input to synchronising transformer is taken from the same source at which the single phase controlled
rectifier circuit is energised. The output voltage of synchronising transformer, V1 is integrated to obtain
cosine-wave signal.
Fig. 4.77 Schematic block diagram of cosine firing scheme for triggering thyristors
The low voltage synchronising ac input signal which is obtained from synchronising transformer is
fed to non-inverting ZCD, inverting ZCD and an integrator (90° phase shifter). Each ZCD converts the
synchronising ac input signal into square wave signal. Hence, A and A voltage signals are obtained at
the outputs of the ZCD as shown in Fig. 4.78. The signal B is the output of integrator and amplifier
(90° phase shifter). The waveform B is also known as cosine wave with respect to the input voltage
V1. The signal B is fed to an operational-amplifier (inverting amplifier) and transistorized switch and
subsequently C is generated. The C and C signals are added and are fed to the comparator. The
comparator compares the combined waveform (C + C ) with a dc voltage control signal VC.
The dc voltage control signal VC varies from the maximum positive +VCC to maximum negative
–VCC and actually the amplitude of VC is controlled by the pot. Since VC varies from +VCC to –VCC,
the firing angle can be varied from zero to 180°. The output signal of comparator, D is fed to the logic
and driver circuit to generate triggering signals for thyristors T1, T2, T3, and T4.
The firing angle is governed by the intersection of C + C and VC. When VC is maximum positive,
i.e., + VCC, firing angle is zero. If VC is maximum negative, i.e., –VCC, firing angle is 180°. The firing
angle in terms of a is expressed by
VCC cos a = VC
Thyristors 181
Fig. 4.78 Waveforms of cosine firing scheme for triggering thyristors
ÊV ˆ
or a = cos-1 Á C ˜
Ë VCC ¯
In a single phase full converter, the average output voltage is
2Vm
Vo = cos a where, Vm is the maximum input voltage and a is firing angle
p
After substituting the value of cos a in the above equation, we obtain

2Vm 2V V
Vo = cos a = m C
p p VCC
Since, Vm and VCC are constant, the output voltage of a single phase full converter is directly
proportional to dc control voltage, i.e., Vo µ VC .
Hence the cosine firing scheme provides a linear transfer characteristics between the average output
voltage Vo and control voltage VC. Consequently, the linear transfer characteristics can able to improve
the performance of converter. For this reason, cosine firing angle scheme is popular in the industry.
4.24 CoMMutation of thyristor

A thyristor (SCR) can be turned OFF when its forward current IA is reduced below the holding current IH
and when a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor for a specified time so that the device recover
to the blocking state. After it is turned OFF, the forward voltage can be reapplied after certain time so
that the excess carriers in the outer and inner layers of the SCR have to decay adequately. The decay
and recombination of excess carriers can be accelerated by applying a reverse voltage across the SCR.
The process of turning OFF the thyristor is called commutation. There are two types of commutation:
1. Natural or line commutation
2. Forced commutation
4.24.1 natural or line Commutation

In ac circuits, when the current in the SCR goes through a natural zero and a reverse voltage appears
across the SCR, the SCR will be turned OFF. This type of turned-OFF process of SCR is called natural
commutation. In natural commutation, there is no requirement of external circuits for turning OFF the
SCR. For example, class-F commutation is natural commutation. This type of commutation is used in
single phase and three phase controlled rectifiers, ac voltage controllers and cyclo-converters.
4.24.2 forced Commutation

In dc circuits, the forward current which flows through SCR must be reduced to zero forcefully
by an external circuit to turn OFF the SCR. This type of turned-OFF process of SCR is known as
forced commutation. Since separate commutation circuits are required, forced commutated thyristor
converters need more control components. Consequently, the control circuit cost will be more. This
type of commutation is used in dc to dc converters, dc to ac inverters.
There are different forced commutation methods. Based on the arrangement of commutation circuit
components and the manner in which zero current is obtained in the SCR, forced commutations are
classified as the following:
1. Class A Commutation or Resonant Commutation
2. Class B Commutation
3. Class C Commutation
4. Class D Commutation
5. Class E Commutation
Thyristors 183
Class A commutation or resonant commutation Figure 4.79 shows the Class A commuta-
tion circuit where L and C are commutation components and RL is load resistance. For low value of
load resistance, RL, L and C are connected in series as shown in Fig. 4.79(a). In case of high value of
load resistance, C and RL are connected in parallel and then in series with L as shown in Fig. 4.79(b).
Fig. 4.79 (a) Class A commutation using series capacitor (b) Class A commutation using shunt capacitor
When a dc voltage is applied to the circuit and a gate pulse is also applied, thyristor will be turned
ON and only the charging current of capacitor flows through thyristor. After certain time, the charging
current decays to a value which is less than holding current whenever the capacitor is charged to supply
voltage V. The current wave from is shown in Fig. 4.79. At point A, the current becomes zero and
the commutation of thyristor occurs at this point. The time taken to turn OFF the thyristor depends
on the resonant frequency and the resonant frequency is function of commutating components and
load resistance. During high frequency applications above 1 kHz, this type of commutation circuit is
used as the LC resonant circuit. Practically, this circuit is widely used in series inverter circuit. This
commutation is also known as resonant commutation or self-commutation.
Design of Class A commutation when Load RL is connected in series with L and

C Assume thyristor T1 is ON at t = 0 and initial capacitor voltage is zero. The voltage and current
waveforms of class A commutation is depicted in Fig. 4.80.
Fig. 4.80 Voltage and current waveforms of Class A commutation
Then the circuit equation is

di 1
V=L + Ú i ◊ dt + i ◊ RL (4.3)
dt C
After differentiating the Eq. (4.3) and dividing by L, we obtain
1 d d 2i 1 R di
(V ) = 2 + i+ L
L dt dt LC L dt
d
Since V is constant, (V ) = 0 and the above equation can be written as
dt
d 2i 1 R di
+ i+ L =0 (4.4)
dt 2 LC L dt
Equation (4.4) is a second-order equation and the solution of this equation under damped condition is
i = e -d t ( A1 cos w t + A2 sin w t )
RL 1
where d = , and w o =
2L LC
1 R2
w = wo 1 - d 2 = wo - 2
LC 4 L
V
If i(0+) = i(0–) = 0, A1 = 0 and A2 =
L
Thyristors 185
RL
Current i(t ) = e
-
2L
t ÈV ˘ (4.5)
Í w L sin w t ˙
Î ˚
It is clear from Fig. 4.83 that thyristor current i becomes zero at wt = p
pR
di - L ÊVˆ
Then p and = - e 2w L Á ˜
t= Ë L¯
dt
1 R2
- 2
LC 4 L
The capacitor voltage at the end of conduction is
di
VC = V - VL where, VL = L
dt
Therefore, È - L ˘
pR
VC = V ÎÍ1 + e 2w L ˚˙
When VO is the initial state voltage of the capacitor, Eq. (4.5) can be written as
RL
- t È V - Vo ˘ and
i (t ) = e 2L
Í w L sin w t ˙
Î ˚
p RL
- t
VC = V + e - Vo ) 2w (V
As w > 0, the condition for under damped is

1 R2
- 2 >0
LC 4 L
1 R2
or > 2
LC 4 L
4L
or R<
C
Design of Class A commutation when load RL is connected in parallel with C When
V is the applied voltage, Vo is the load voltage and i is the load current, the circuit equation is
di
V=L + Vo and
dt
dV V
i=C o + o
dt R
After applying the Laplace transform, we obtain
V (s) = sL.I (s) + Vo (s) and
Vo (s)
I (s) = sCVo (s) + (4.6)
R
Then Vo (s) = V (s) - sLI (s)
V V
= - sLI (s) as V (s) =
s s
After substituting the value of Vo(s) in equation (4.3), we get
V V sLI (s)
I (s) = sC[ - sLI (s)] + -
s sR R
È sL ˘ V È1 ˘
or I (s) Í1 + s2 LC + ˙ = Í R + sC ˙
Î R˚ s Î ˚
V È 1 + sRC ˘
or I ( s) = Í R + sL + s2 RLC ˙
s Î ˚
È ˘
V Í 1 + sRC ˙
or I ( s) = Í (4.7)
sRLC Í 2 1 1 ˙˙
s + s+
Î RC LC ˚
After inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (4.3), we obtain
VÈ ˘
t
1 w n2 - RC
i (t ) = Í1+ e sin (w t + f )˙
RÍ 1 - r2 r ˙
Î ˚
1 L
where, r = = damping ratio,
2R C
1
wn = = undamped natural angular frequency
LC
w = wn 1 - r2
1 L
or w= 1- 2
LC 4R C
1 1
or w= - 2 2
LC 4 R C
2 RCw 1 - r2
f = tan -1 - tan -1
-r -r
or f = tan -1 2RCw
1
At t = 0, i(t) = 0 and f = - sin -1 , the current is equal to
A
VÈ 1 ˘
t
-
i (t ) = Í1 + Ae 2 RC sin(w t - sin -1 )˙
RÍ A ˙
Î ˚
The load voltage may be computed from Eq. (4.3) and it is expressed as
V
Vo (s) =
Ê 2 1 1 ˆ
LC Á s + s+
Ë RC LC ˜¯
Thyristors 187
After taking the inverse Laplace transform, we obtain

t
wn -
Vo (t ) = V e 2 RC sin w t + V
1 - r2
The condition for class A commutation is that the triggering
frequency of thyristor must be less than wn so that the
conduction cycle of thyristor should be completed properly.
Class B Commutation Figure 4.81 shows the class B

commutation circuit which consist of thyristor T1 and L-C
circuit. Class B commutation is a self-commutation process
by an L-C circuit. The L-C resonating circuit is connected
Fig. 4.81 Class B Commutation
across the thyristor. This circuit is also known as resonant-
pulse commutation.
MODE 1 Initially the supply voltage V is applied to the circuit t = 0 and the capacitor starts to charge
and it finally charged to voltage V with upper plate positive and lower plate negative. The charging
of capacitor is done by the following path:
V + - L - C - RL - V -
MODE 2 When the gate pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at t = t1 and thyristor T1 will be turned on,
a constant current IL flows through load and capacitor discharging current flows through capacitor.
The load current IL follows though the following path:
V + - T1 - RL - V - and the capacitor is discharged through the path
C + - L - T1 - C -
MODE 3 When the capacitor is completely discharged, it starts to charge with reverse polarity. Due
to reverse polarity of capacitor voltage, the commutating current iC opposes the load current IL. Since
thyristor is a unidirectional device, the net current flows through is
IT 1 = I L - iC
As soon as the commutating current iC is greater
than the load current IL, thyristor becomes turned
OFF.
MODE 4 When thyristor is turned OFF, ca-
pacitor again starts to charge with upper plate
positive and lower plate negative. Whenever
capacitor is fully charged, thyristor will operate
in the forward blocking state and it will be turned
on when a trigger pulse is applied to thyristor.
It is clear from Fig. 4.82 that if the thyristor
is turned ON by applying a gate pulse and
loads current flows though thyristor and load
for certain specified time duration. After the
specified time period, thyristor will be turned Fig. 4.82 Voltage and current waveforms of class B
OFF due to self-commutation. commutation
Design of Class B Commutation The KVL equation for the L-C circuit is
di 1
L + Ú idt = V
dt C
After differentiating the above equation, we obtain
d 2i 1 dV dV
L 2
+ i (t ) = = 0 as =0
dt C dt dt
d 2i 1
or L + i (t ) = 0
dt 2 C
After applying Laplace transform on the above equation, we get
Ê 2 1ˆ
ÁË s L + C ˜¯ I (s) = 0
After solving the above equation, we find

C 1
i (t ) = V sin w 0 t where, w 0 =
L LC
The peak commutation current is equal to
C
I c (peak) = V
L
During class B commutation process, the time taken by thyristor to get into reverse biased is
approximately equal to one-quarter period of the resonant circuit. Then turn-OFF time of thyristor is
equal to
p
toff =LC
2
and the peak discharge current is about two times of load current
C
I c(peak) = 2 I L = V .
L
Example 4.37 In a class B resonant pulse commutation circuit, L = 5 mH and C = 25 mF. The initial voltage
across capacitor is 220 V, determine (a) resonant frequency, (b) peak value of resonant current and (c) turn-OFF
time of thyristor.
Solution
Given: L = 5 mH, C = 25 mF and V = 220 V
1 1
(a) Resonant frequency is equal to w 0 = = = 89.445 kHz
LC 5 ¥ 10 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 - 6
- 6
C 25 ¥ 10 -6
(b) Peak value of resonant current is I c (peak) = V = 220 = 491.93 A
L 5 ¥ 10 -6
(c) Turn-OFF time of thyristor is toff = p LC = p 5 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 -6 = 17.553 ms

2 2
Thyristors 189
Class C commutation Figure 4.83 shows the class C commutation circuit which consists of two
thyristors such as main thyristor T1 and auxiliary thyristor TA and a commutating capacitor. The load
resistance RL is connected in series with main thyristor T1. This commutation technique is also known as
complementary commutation as the commutation of main thyristor T1 occurs when the auxiliary thyris-
tor TA is turned ON. This commutation process is also known as complementary impulse commutation.
Fig. 4.83 (a) Class C commutation circuit with T1 ON and TA OFF (b) Class C commutation circuit with T1 OFF
and TA ON
MODE 1 Initially, both the thyristors T1 and TA are in OFF state and the voltage across capacitor is
zero. The conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor may be represented by
T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state and VC = 0
MODE 2 When the triggering pulse is applied to main thyristor T1 at t = t1, thyristor T1 will be turned
on and two currents namely load current IL and capacitor charging current iC flows through the circuit.
The load current iL follows though the following path:
V + - RL - T1 - V - and the capacitor charging current flows through the path
V + - R2 - C + - C - - T1 - V -
At steady state condition, capacitor is fully charged to the supply voltage V with the polarity as
shown in Fig. 4.86 and the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor may be represented by
T1 is in ON state, TA is OFF state and VC = V
MODE 3 When a triggering pulse is applied to auxiliary thyristor TA at t = t2, thyristor TA will be
turned on. As soon as thyristor TA is turned ON and starts conducting, a negative polarity voltage of
the capacitor C is applied to cathode of thyristor T1 with respect to anode. Subsequently, thyristor T1
will be reverse biased and turned OFF immediately. Therefore, the commutation of main thyristor T1
is possible by turning on the auxiliary thyristor TA.
Then the capacitor C is charged through the load and its polarity becomes reverse. The charging
path of capacitor is
V + - RL - C + - C - - TA - V -
At the end of this mode of operation, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor may be represented by
T1 is in OFF state, TA is ON state and VC = –V
MODE 4 Again thyristor T1 is triggered and turned ON at t = t2. Then auxiliary thyristor will be
turned OFF immediately as reverse bias voltage is applied across TA and capacitor starts to charge
in reverse direction. At the end of this mode of operation, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor
may be represented by
T1 is in ON state, TA is OFF state and VC = V
The voltage and current waveforms of class C commutation is shown in Fig. 4.84. The class C
commutation is very useful for operating frequency below 1 kHz and this commutation technique is
used in Mc Murray Bedford inverter. The characteristics of class C commutation are sure and most
reliable commutation.
Fig. 4.84 Voltage and current waveforms of Class C commutation
Design of Class C commutation When thyristor T1 conducts and capacitor C is charged to

input voltage V through resistance RL. Whenever a triggering pulse is applied to thyristor TA and TA is
turned ON, a voltage twice the dc supply voltage is applied to the RL C series circuit. Then applying
the KVL in the closed loop, we can write:
Thyristors 191
1
iRL + Ú idt + VTA - V = 0
C
1
or iRL + Ú idt - V = 0 as VTA = 0
C
Applying Laplace transform on the above equation, we get
Ê 1ˆ V
ÁË RL + sC ˜¯ I (s) = s
After applying the inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we obtain

t
2V - RLC
i (t ) = e
RL
The voltage across thyristor T1 is equal to
VT 1 = V - iRL
t
2V - RLC
or VT 1 = V - e RL
RL
t t
- -
RLC RLC
or VT 1 = V - 2Ve = V (1 - 2e )
To turn-OFF the main thyristor T1, the capacitor voltage should be equal to the voltage across
t
-
RLC
thyristor T1. Therefore, VC = VT 1 = V (1 - 2e )
toff
-
RLC
At t = toff , VC = 0 and V (1 - 2e )=0
toff
-
RLC
or (1 - 2e )=0
Therefore, toff = 0.6931RL C
toff
or C = 1.44
RL
dV
The maximum permissible across thyristor T1 using commutating components is given by
dt
dV 2V
>
dt max RL C
Example 4.38 In a Class C commutation, if V = 220 V, RL = 20 W, R2 = 100 W calculate (a) the peak value
of current through thyristors T1 and T2 (b) the value of capacitance C when turn-OFF time of each thyristor is
equal to 25 ms. Assume that the factor of safety is 2. Assume T2 = TA.
Solution
Ê 1 2ˆ
(a) The peak value of current through thyristors T1 is V Á + when thyristor T1 is turned ON to com-
Ë RL R2 ˜¯
2V
mutate at the instant iT2 = 0, vT2 = –V, vT1 = –0 and iC =
R2
Ê 1 2ˆ Ê 1 2 ˆ
iT 1 = V Á + ˜ = 220 Á + = 15.4 A
Ë RL R2 ¯ Ë 20 100 ˜¯
The peak value of current through T2 is equal to
Ê 2 1ˆ Ê 2 1 ˆ
iT 2 = V Á + = 220 Á + = 44 A
Ë RL R2 ˜¯ Ë 20 100 ˜¯
(b) The value of capacitance C when turn-off time of each thyristor is equal to 25 ms is
toff 25 ¥ 10 -6
C = 1.44 = 1.44 ¥ = 1.8 mF
RL 20
2 ¥ toff 2 ¥ 25 ¥ 10 -6
If factor of safety is 2, the value of C is C = 1.44 = 1.44 ¥ = 3.6 mF
RL 20
Class D commutation Figure 4.85 shows the

class D commutation circuit which consists of two thy-
ristors such as main thyristor T1 and auxiliary thyristor
TA, inductor L, diode D and a commutation capacitor
C. The main thyristor T1 and load resistance RL act as
a power circuit but inductor L, diode D and auxiliary
thyristor TA are used to form the commutation circuit.
MODE 1 Initially, the dc voltage V is applied to
circuit, the thyristor T1 and TA are in OFF-state. There
is no current flow though dc supply and commutation
circuit. The conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor may
be represented by
T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state and VC = 0
Fig. 4.85 Class D commutation circuit
MODE 2 Firstly the triggering pulse is applied to
auxiliary thyristor TA, thyristor TA will be turned ON and capacitor C gets charged. The capacitor
charging current flows through the path
V + - C + - C - - TA - RL - V -
Since the voltage across the capacitor C increases gradually, the current flow through the thyristor TA
decreases slowly. Whenever the capacitor is fully charged to V, the auxiliary thyristor TA gets turned
OFF.
In this mode, the conditions of T1 and TA and capacitor may be represented by
Initially TA is in ON state, and at steady state condition
T1 is in OFF state, TA is OFF state and VC = V
Thyristors 193
MODE 3 When the triggering pulse is applied to main thyristor T1, the current flows in the two
different paths:
The load current IL follows though the following path:
V + - T1 - RL - V -
and commutation current (capacitor discharging current) flows through the following path:
C + - T1 - L - D - C -
When the capacitor is fully discharged, its polarity will be reversed. The discharging of capacitor C
in reverse direction is not possible due to presence of diode D.
At the end of this mode of operation, T1 is in ON state, TA is in OFF state and VC = –V.
MODE 4 In this mode, whenever the thyristor TA is triggered and turned on, capacitor C starts to
discharge through the following path:
C + - TA - T1 - C -
When the commutating current (discharging current of capacitor) becomes more than load current IL,
thyristor T1 gets turned OFF. At the end of mode 3 operation,
T1 is in OFF state and TA is OFF state
Capacitor C will again charge to the supply voltage V with the polarity as shown in Fig. 4.86.
Since the commutation energy rapidly transfers to the load, high efficiency is possible in class D
commutation. This commutation is most commonly used in Jones chopper circuit.
Design of Class D commutation Design of Commutation capacitor (C)

The magnitude of commutating capacitor (C) depends on the following parameters:
1. Maximum load current to be commutated
2. Turn off time of thyristor, toff
3. The input voltage V
The turn-OFF time of thyristor, toff is available from manufacturer data sheet. The capacitor voltage
is changed from –V to 0 during turn off time toff. By assuming load current IL is constant during turn-
OFF time toff, we can write
CV = I L toff as CV = q = it where, i = IL and t = toff
I L toff
or C=
V
Design of Commutation inductor (L)
The magnitude of commutating inductor (L) depends on the following parameters:
1. The maximum permissible value of capacitor current is IC when the main thyristor T1 operates
in the ON state.
2. During the time interval t2 – t1, the capacitor voltage must be reset to correct polarity for
commutating thyristor T1.
As the capacitor current IC is an oscillatory current in nature and flows through main thyristor T1,
L, D and C when thyristor T1 is triggered and turned ON.
The peak value of current IC is given by

V 1
IC (peak) = where, w r = Oscillating frequency = rad/sec
wr L LC
After substituting the value of wr, we get
C
IC (peak) = V
L
The periodic time during oscillation is equal to
2p
Tr = = 2(t1 - t2 )
wr
Fig. 4.86 Voltage and current waveforms of Class D commutation

Thyristors 195
When IL(max) is the maximum current through the main thyristor T1 for commutation, the capacitor
peak current must be equal to the load current.
C
Therefore, V £ I L (max)
L
2
Ê V ˆ
or L ≥ CÁ ˜
Ë I L (max) ¯
Example 4.39 In a Class D commutation circuit, V = 200 V, L = 25 mH and C = 50 mf. If load current
is 100 A, determine (a) peak value of current through capacitance, main thyristor and auxiliary thyristor and
(b) turn-OFF time of thyristors.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, L = 25 mH, C = 50 mF and IL = 100 A
(a) An oscillatory current flows through C, T1, and L and it is expressed by
C
ic (t ) = V sin w o t
L
C 50 ¥ 10 - 6
Peak value of current through capacitance is I p = V = 200 = 282.842 A
L 25 ¥ 10 - 6
Peak value of current through main thyristor T1 is I p + I L = 282.842 + 100 = 382.842 A
Peak value of current through auxiliary thyristor TA is I L = 100 A

I L toff
(b) As C = , Turn-OFF time of main thyristor is equal to
V
V 200
toff = C = 50 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ = 100 ms
IL 100
Turn-OFF time of auxiliary thyristor is equal to

p p p 1
toff = = LC = 25 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 - 6 = 55.50 ms as w o =
2w o 2 2 LC
Class E commutation Figure 4.87 shows the class E commutation circuit. In this commutation
method, the reverse voltage applied to the current carrying thyristor from an external pulse source.
This commutation is also known as external pulse commutation. In this case, the commutating pulse
is applied through a pulse transformer which is design in such a way that there should be tight cou-
pling between the primary and secondary windings of pulse transformer. The pulse transformer is also
designed with a small air gap so that there will not be any saturation when a pulse voltage is applied
to its primary. Whenever the commutation of thyristor T1 is required, the pulse duration equal to or
slightly greater than the specified turn-OFF time of thyristor T1 must be applied. The voltage and
current waveforms of class E commutation is illustrated in Fig. 4.88.
MODE 1 When the thyristor T1 is triggered and turned ON, the current starts to flow through the
pulse transformer and load resistance RL. The current flows through the following path:
V + - T1 - Primary of pulse transformer - RL - V -
Fig. 4.87 Class E commutation
Fig. 4.88 Voltage and current waveforms of Class E commutation
MODE 2 When an external pulse voltage VP is applied across the primary of the pulse transformer,
a voltage will be induced in the secondary of the pulse transformer. This induced voltage in the sec-
ondary appears as reverse voltage (–VP) across the thyristor T1. Subsequently, thyristor T1 gets turned
OFF. Since the frequency of induced pulse voltage is very high, the capacitor provides almost zero
impedance. When the thyristor T1 is turned OFF completely, the load current decays to zero. Before
the computation process, the capacitor voltage remains at a value of about 1 V.
Since the minimum energy is required for commutation and both the time ratio and pulse width
regulations are easily incorporated, this type of commutation method is very efficient.
ThyrisTors
Thyristors 197
Class F commutation Figure 4.89 shows the

class F commutation and it is voltage and current
waveforms are depicted in Fig. 4.90. This type of
commutation is also known as natural commutation
or ac line commutation. This type of commutation
only occurs when the input voltage is ac. When
the thyristor based converter circuit is energised
by an ac source voltage and the gate signal is ap-
plied to thyristor T1 during positive half-cycle of
supply voltage, thyristor T1 becomes turn ON and
current flows thyristor and load. At the end of each
positive half-cycle of supply voltage, current passes Fig. 4.89 Class F commutation
through its natural zero and then ac source applies
a reverse voltage across thyristor automatically. Consequently, thyristor T1 will be turned OFF. This
commutation technique is called natural commutation as no external circuit is required to turn OFF
the thyristor. Usually, this commutation method is commonly used in controlled rectifiers, line com-
mutated inverters, ac voltage controllers and cyclo-converters.
Fig. 4.90 Voltage and current waveforms of Class F commutation

Example 4.40 In class A commutation circuit, a thyristor is connected in series with R-L-C. When L = 10
mH, C = 20 mF and R = 1 W, check whether self-commutation is possible or not. Determine the conduction time
of thyristor.
Solution
Given: L = 10 mH, C = 20 mF and R = 1 W
The damped frequency of oscillation is
2
1 Ê Rˆ
wd = -
LC ÁË 2 L ˜¯
2
1 Ê Rˆ 4L
Since wd > 0, - >0 or R<
LC ÁË 2 L ˜¯ C
4 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 6
Then R< or R< 2
20 ¥ 10 - 6
In the circuit, the value of resistance is 1 W which is less than 2 . Therefore, the circuit is underdamped.
2
1 Ê Rˆ
2
1 Ê 1 ¥ 106 ˆ
Then w r = -Á ˜ = - Á ˜ = 50,000 rad/sec
LC Ë 2 L ¯ 10 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 - 6 Ë 2 ¥ 10 ¯
p p ¥ 106
The conduction time of thyristor is t1 = = ms = 62.857 ms
w r 50000
Example 4.41 In class A commutation circuit, a thyristor is turned on at t = 0. Compute (a) the conduction
time of thyristor and (b) voltage across thyristor and capacitor when thyristor is turned OFF. Assume the following
parameters L = 10 mH, C = 20 mF, R = 0 W and V = 250 V.
Solution
Given: L = 10 mH, C = 20 mF and R = 0 W
The KVL equation of the circuit is
di 1
dt C Ú
V =L + idt

C 1
i (t ) = Vsin w ot where, w o = is the resonant frequency
L LC
The voltage across capacitor is equal to
VC (t ) = V (1 - cos w ot )
(a) If the thyristor starts conduction at t = 0, it conducts up to to where, woto = p and the conduction time of
p
thyristor is to = = p LC = p 10 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.4472 ms
wo
(b) The voltage across thyristor at turned-OFF condition is VT = -V = -250V
The voltage across capacitor when thyristor is turned OFF
VC (to ) = V (1 - cos w oto ) = 2V = 2 ¥ 250 = 500 V as w oto = p
ThyrisTors
Thyristors 199
Example 4.42 In a class D commutation circuit, determine the value of commutating capacitor C and
commutating inductor L with the help of following data:
V = 100V , I L (max) = 50 A and toff for T1 = 20ms
Solution
Assuming 50% tolerance given to turn-OFF time of thyristor T1, the turn-off time is equal to
Ê 50 ˆ
toff = Á 20 + 20 ¥ ms = 30 ms
Ë 100 ˜¯
The value of commutating capacitor is
I L toff 50 ¥ 30 ¥ 10 - 6
C= = = 15 ms
V 100
The value of commutating inductor is
2
Ê V ˆ
L ≥ CÁ ˜
Ë I L (max) ¯
2
Ê 100 ˆ
or L ≥ 15 ¥ 10 - 6 Á
Ë 50 ˜¯
or L ≥ 60 mH
Example 4.43 Figure 4.91 shows a voltage commutation circuit. Determine the turn off time of main thyristor
when C = 15 mF, R = 10 W and V = 220 V. Assume the capacitor is charged to voltage V.
Fig. 4.91
Solution
Given: C = 15 mF, R = 10 W and V = 220 V
When T1 is in off state and TA in on state, the KVL equation is
1
CÚ
iR + idt = V
After Laplace transform, we get

1 Ê I (s) CV ˆ V
RI (s) + - =
C ÁË s s ˜¯ s
Ê 1ˆ 2V
or ÁË R + sC ˜¯ I (s) = s
2V sC 2V 1
or I ( s) = =
s sRC + 1 R s + 1
RC
t
2V - RC
Then i (t ) =
e
R
The voltage across capacitor C is
1
CÚ
vc (t ) = idt + Vc (0) where, Vc (0) = -V
t
1 t 2V - RC Ê -
t ˆ
= Ú
C0 R
e dt - V = V Á 1 - 2e RC ˜
Ë ¯
The turn-OFF time of auxiliary thyristor tC is equal to time taken to change the capacitor voltage from –V to zero.
(
Then, 0 = V 1 - 2e
-
tc
RC ) or, t = RC ln(2) = 10 ¥ 15 ¥ 10
c
-6
ln(2) = 103.97 ms
Example 4.44 Figure 4.92 shows a load commutation circuit. Find the value of commutation time of thyristor
and resonant frequency when L = 2 mH and C = 10 mF.
Fig. 4.92
Solution
Given: L = 2 mH and C = 10 mF
When the thyristor is ON, KVL equation of the circuit is
di 1
dt C Ú
+L idt = V

C 1
i (t ) = V sin w 0t where, w0 =
L LC
Thyristors 201
At t = tc, thyristor is switched OFF. Then w0tc = p

p
or conduction time of thyristor is tc = = p LC = p 2 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 6 = 44.446 ms
w0
1 1
As w 0 = , the resonant frequency is 2p f0 =
LC LC
1 1
or f0 = = = 11.2494 kHz
2p LC 2p 2 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 6
Example 4.45 In a class C commutation circuit, the dc input voltage is 220 V and current through RL and R1
is 20 A. If the turn-OFF time of both main and auxiliary thyristor is 25 ms, determine the value of commutating
capacitor C.
Solution
V = 220 V, I = 20 A, toff = 25 ms
The value of RL and R1 is
V 220
RL = R1 = = = 11 W
I 20
The value of commutating capacitor C is
toff 25 ¥ 10 - 6
C = 1.44 = 1.44 ¥ = 3.272 mF
R1 11
Example 4.46 A class D commutation circuit has the following parameters:

V = 230 V, L = 20 mH and C = 40 mF
If the load current is 120 A, determine the circuit turn-OFF times for main and auxiliary thyristors.
Solution
Given: V = 230 V, L = 20 mH, C = 40 mF and IO = 120 A
The turn-OFF times for main and auxiliary thyristors is
CV 40 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 230
t turn-off = = sec = 0.07666 m sec
Io 120
Example 4.47 For a class C commutation circuit, the dc input voltage is 200 V and current through RL and
R1 is 10 A. If the turn-OFF time of both main and auxiliary thyristor is 40 ms, calculate the value of commutating
capacitor C.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, I = 10 A, toff = 40 ms
The value of RL and R1 is
V 200
RL = R1 = = = 20 W
I 10
The value of commutating capacitor C is
toff 40 ¥ 10 - 6
C = 1.44 = 1.44 ¥ = 2.88 mF
R1 20
Example 4.48 A class D commutation circuit has the following parameters:

V = 220 V, L = 12 mH and C = 25 mF
When the load current is 100 A, find the circuit turn off times for main and auxiliary thyristors.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, L = 12 mH, C = 25 mF and IO = 100 A
The turn off times for main and auxiliary thyristors is
CV 25 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 220
t turn-off = = sec = 0.055 m sec
Io 100
4.25 Diac
A DIAC is a two-terminal semiconductor device. Figure 4.93 shows the arrangement of semiconductor
layers. DIAC is a bidirectional avalanche diode which can be switched from the OFF-state to the ON-
state in both positive and negative direction. The terminals are not designated as cathode and anode,
but as main terminal-1 (MT-1) and main terminal-2 (MT-2). Sometimes, they are also designated as
anode-I and anode-II as the device can conduct and anode current flows in either direction.
Figure 4.93 shows the operating characteristic of a DIAC. It is clear from Fig. 4.94 that it can work
for either polarity of ac supply. Therefore, DIAC is also called two-terminal ac (di + ac) switch. The
device operates in I and III quadrants and each direction has a different value of breakover voltage
(VBO). DIAC has no gate and the only way to fire a DIAC is to apply its breakover voltage VBO.
When the breakover voltage is reached across two terminals in either direction, DIAC conducts.
If the MT-1 is positive with respect to MT-2 and the voltage across two terminals V12 is greater than
Fig. 4.93 (a) Construction of DIAC (b) Symbol of DIAC

Thyristors 203
Fig. 4.94 I-V characteristic of a DIAC
breakover voltage VBO1 the structure PNPN conducts. In the same way when the MT-2 is positive
with respect to MT-1 and the voltage across two terminals V12 is greater than breakover voltage VBO2
the structure PNPN conducts. The breakover voltage of a DIAC is about 30 V. When a DIAC is in
conducting state, it acts as a low resistance with about 3 V drop across it.
When the voltage across DIAC is less than the breakover voltage, a leakage current flows through
the device. Consequently, the device remains in non-conducting state as shown by region OA in Fig.
4.94. At point A, when the voltage just reaches the breakover voltage, the device starts conducting.
During its conduction, DIAC demonstrate the negative resistance characteristics and the current flow
through it starts increasing and the voltage across it starts decreasing. AB portion of the characteristic
curve as shown in Fig. 4.94 is the conduction state. The magnitude of voltage at point A is called the
breakover voltage. Similarly, the characteristic curve can be obtained for negative half-cycle of supply
voltage and the device operates in the third quadrant.
Once the device starts conducting, the current flow through the DIAC is high and it is amplitude is
limited by external resistance. When a DIAC in conducting state, it stops conducting only when the
current is reduced below its holding value.
Figure 4.95 shows the circuit for DIAC operation. DIAC will be ON when the input voltage is
greater than its break-over voltage value VBO. During positive half cycle, if the supply is greater the
breakover voltage at t1, the DIAC is closed and starts to conduct from t = t1 to t = p. In the negative half
cycle, when the supply is greater the breakover voltage at t2, the DIAC is again closed and starts to
conduct from t = t2 to t = 2p. The DIAC can be OFF by reducing the supply voltage when the current
through the device falls below its holding value. Since each DIAC has the same value of break over
voltage, the firing angle of a DIAC is fixed. Hence, a DIAC is used as a two-terminal ac switch.
Fig. 4.95 (a) The circuit for DIAC operation and (b) Output voltage across RL
Usually DIAC is used as triggering

device for a TRIAC which require
positive or negative trigger pulses to turn
ON. It can be used as a lamp dimmer,
heater control, fan regulator, ac motor
control, etc. All circuits are almost similar
and only the load (lamp, heater, fan,
motor, etc.) is changed as depicted in
Fig. 4.96. During the positive or negative Fig. 4.96 Application of DIAC to trigger TRIAC
half cycle, the capacitor C is charged
depending upon the value of variable resistor R. When the voltage across C is equal to break over
voltage of DIAC VBO, the DIAC becomes ON. Since the DIAC is turned ON, the triggering pulse
is applied to TRIAC. Then TRIAC becomes turn on and the load circuit (lamp, heater, fan, motor,
etc.) is ON. The voltage across the load depends upon the firing angle of the TRIAC. By varying the
resistance R, the firing angle of TRIAC will be varied and the voltage across the load will be varied.
4.26 Triac
SCR is a unidirectional device as it can conduct from anode
to cathode. It has reverse blocking characteristics and current
cannot flow from cathode-to-anode direction. But in some
applications, particularly in ac circuit, the bidirectional current
flow is required. For this, two thyristors are connected back
to back or two anti-parallel thyristors can be integrated into
a single chip as depicted in Fig. 4.97. This deviced is called
a TRIAC (triode ac switch). TRIAC can conduct in both
directions. Hence, TRIAC is a bidirectional thyristor and it is Fig. 4.97 Equivalent circuit of a TRIAC
extensively used for ac controller circuits.
TRIAC is derived by combining the capital letters from the words TRIode and AC. TRIAC can be
conduct in bidirectional and it is equivalent to two SCRs connected in anti-parallel. The anode and
cathode terminals are not used to represent a TRIAC. TRIAC has three terminals such as MT1, MT2
and gate G. MT1 is as the reference point to measure voltages and currents at gate terminal and MT2.
The gate G is present near MT1. The structure of TRIAC is depicted in Fig. 4.98.
Thyristors 205
Fig. 4.98 Structure of a TRIAC
The circuit symbol of TRIAC is shown in Fig. 4.99(a) and the V-I characteristic of a TRIAC is
shown in Fig. 4.99(b). It is clear from Fig. 4.99(b) that TRIAC operates in first quadrant and third
quadrant. In the first quadrant, MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 and in the third quadrant, MT1
is positive with respect to MT2. When no gate pulse is applied, the TRIAC can block the both half
cycles of the ac applied voltage and the peak voltage across MT1 and MT2 is always less than break
over voltage in both directions.
Fig. 4.99 (a) Circuit symbol of a TRIAC (b) V-I characteristic of a TRIAC
Assume that the device is in blocking condition before

applying the gate signal. When a gate pulse is applied, a gate
current flows to trigger the TRIAC either in first or third
quadrant. Depending on the gate pulse and biasing condition,
TRIAC conducts in four different operating modes as given
below:
Mode 1: MT2 positive and positive gate current When
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1, junctions P1 N1, P2 N2 are
forward biased and the junction N1 P2 is reverse biased. When
the gate terminal is positive with respect to MT1, the gate cur-
rent is positive and it flows from gate terminal to MT1 through
junction J3 (P2 N2) just like ordinary SCR. This device will be
turn on just like an SCR. But in case of TRIAC, the gate cur-
rent requirement is greater than SCR. Due to the ohmic contacts
of gate and MT1 on P2 layer, some gate current flows from
the gate terminal to MT1 through the semiconductor layer P2
without crossing through P2N2 junction. P2 layer is flooded by
electrons when gate current flows through P2N2 junction. After
that these electrons diffuse the junction J2 and collected at N1
and the reverse bias junction N1P2 break downs just like normal Fig. 4.100 Mode 1- MT2 positive and
SCR. Then the structure operates as P1N1P2N2 as depicted in Fig. positive gate current
4.100. Under this condition, the TRIAC operates in first quadrant.
Mode 2: MT2 positive and gate current
negative When MT2 is positive and gate ter-
minal is negative with respect to MT1, gate cur-
rent flows through P2-N3 and initially P1N1P2N3
structure start to conduct. With the conduction
of P1N1P2N3, the voltage drop across this path
falls, and the potential of P2N3 junction rises
towards the anode potential of MT2. As the right
hand portion of P2 is clamped at the potential
of MT1, a potential gradient exists across P2, its
left-hand region being at higher potential than
its right hand region. A current is established in
layer P2 from left to right which forward biased
P2N2 junction as depicted in Fig. 4.101 and fi-
nally P1N1P2N2 structure starts to conduct. The
turn-ON process of TRIAC when MT2 is positive
and gate is negative, is less sensitive compared
to the turn-ON process of TRIAC when MT2 is Fig. 4.101 Mode 2- MT2 positive and negative gate
positive and gate is positive. current
Mode 3: MT2 negative, positive gate current When MT2 terminal in negative with respect to
MT1, the device will be turn on by applying a positive gate voltage across gate and MT1. The device
Thyristors 207
operates in third quadrant when it is turned ON. The main struc-

ture P2N1P1N4 with N2 acting as a remote gate. The gate current
forward biases P2N2 junction. Layer N2 injects electrons into P2
layer as depicted in Fig. 4.102. The electrons from N2 are col-
lected by P2N1 junction due to increase of current through the
junction P2N1. The holes are injected from P2, diffuse through
N1 and reach at P1. Consequently, a positive space charge builds
up in the P1 region and more electrons from N4 diffuse into P1
to neutralise the positive space charge region. These electrons
reach at junction J2. They generate a negative space charge
in the N1 region. Then more holes are injected from P2 into
N1 and the regenerative process continues until the P2N1P1N4
completely turned ON. After turning ON of TRIAC the current
flow is limited by external load. Since the TRIAC is turned ON
by the remote gate N2, this device is less sensitive in the third
quadrant with positive gate current compared to MT2 negative
and negative gate current.
Mode 4: MT2 negative and negative gate current In this
mode, N3 acts as a remote gate. The gate current IG flows through
forward biased P2N3 junction and electrons are injected from N3
to P2 as depicted in Fig. 4.103. The electrons from N3 are col- Fig. 4.102 Mode 2- MT2 negative
and positive gate current
lected by P2N1 cause an increase of current across P1N1. Then
the structure P2N1P1N4 turns ON by the regenerative action. The
device turns ON due to the increased current in layer N1. The
device is more sensitive in this mode operation compared to
MT2 negative and positive gate current.
The TRIAC is rarely operated in first quadrant with MT2
positive and negative gate current and in the third quadrant
MT2 negative and positive gate current. Since there are two
conducting paths from MT2 to MT1 and MT1 to MT2 and
semiconductor layers interact with each other in the structure
of TRIAC, the voltage, current and frequency ratings are
much less than thyristors. Presently TRIACs are available
with voltage rating 1200 V and current rating 300 A. TRIACs
are extensively used in lamp dimmers, heat control and speed
control of single phase ac motors.
4.26.1 Firing circuit of Triac

Figure 4.104 shows a firing circuit for TRIAC using a DIAC.
R1 is a constant resistance, R2 is variable resistance, R3 is also
a constant resistance. When R2 = 0, R1 is used to protect the
DIAC and TRIAC gate circuit from expose to approximately
full ac supply voltage. Resistance R3 is connected in series
with DIAC and TRIAC gate circuit to limit the current when Fig. 4.103 Mode 2- MT2 negative and
the DIAC operates in on-state. The value of R2 and C are negative gate current
selected in such a way that the firing angle can be varied from 0° to 180°. But practically, the triggering
angle range may be varied from 10° to 170°.
Fig. 4.104 (a) Firing circuit of TRIAC using a DIAC (b) Firing circuit of TRIAC using a DIAC and snubber circuit
Actually the value of resistance R2 is varied to change the charging time of the capacitor C and
subsequently the firing angle of TRIAC can be varied. When R2 is equal to zero, the charging time of
capacitor is R1C which is small but the conduction angle of TRIAC will be high.
If R2 exists, the charging time constant is (R1 + R2)C. When the value of R2 is small, charging time
is small and firing angle of TRIAC will be small. If R2 is high, charging time is high, firing angle is
more and the conduction time of TRIAC will be less.
Whenever the capacitor charges to the breakdown voltage VDIACT of DIAC, DIAC will be turned
ON. Since the capacitor discharges very rapidly, the capacitor voltage VC will be applied as a pulse
across the TRIAC gate and the device will be turned ON. When the thyristor is turned ON at the firing
angle a, the input voltage is applied across load during the positive half-cycle of supply voltage. At wt
= p, the input voltage becomes zero and TRIAC will be turned OFF. After wt = p, the input voltage
becomes negative, the capacitor C becomes charge with the lower plate positive. At the instant, the
capacitor charges to the breakdown voltage VDIACT of DIAC, DIAC will be turned ON. Subsequently,
TRIAC will be turned ON and conducts during the positive half-cycle of supply voltage. Then input
voltage is applied across load during the negative half-cycle for p – a duration. Hence, the turning
ON and OFF process will be repeated for both positive and negative half-cycle of supply voltage.
Thyristors 209
Fig. 4.105 Waveforms for TRIAC firing circuit with minimum value of R
The waveforms for input voltage V, capacitor voltage VC, voltage across TRIAC VT and output
voltage Vo are shown in Fig. 4.105(a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively for minimum value of R. Similarly,
Fig. 4.106(a), (b), (c) and (d) show the waveforms for input voltage V, capacitor voltage VC, voltage
across TRIAC VT and output voltage Vo respectively for maximum value of R.
Figures 4.105 and Fig. 4.106 show the waveform for TRIAC firing circuit with ideal circuit
components and these waveforms are unsymmetrical in nature for the positive and negative half-cycles
of load voltage. The unsymmetrical is developed due to the asymmetry TRIAC characteristics and
hysteresis present in the capacitor. This states that if the input voltage is zero, the capacitor voltage is
not zero. We can also state that capacitor retains some charge of the initial voltage applied across its
plates when the input voltage becomes zero. The output voltage waveforms for positive and negative
half-cycles can be symmetrical when an additional resistance R3 and capacitor C1 are connected in
the circuit as depicted in Fig. 4.107. This circuit is most commonly used for speed control of single
phase induction motor, lamp dimmers, heat converters. This circuit can be operating with inductive
load when a R-C snubber circuit is connected across TRIAC.
Fig. 4.106 Waveforms for TRIAC firing circuit with maximum value of R
Fig. 4.107 Commercially available firing circuit of TRIAC using a DIAC

Thyristors 211
4.27 GaTe Turn-OFF ThyrisTOr (GTO)

Thyristors can be used as ideal switches in power electronics circuits. When thyristors are forward
biased and a gate pulse is applied between anode to cathode, these devices will be turned ON. Once
thyristor is turned ON, it operates in the ON-state. These devices can be turned OFF by natural
commutation and forced commutation. The commutation circuit for thyristor is bulky and expensive.
Thyristors can be used as switching device up to about 1 kHz. During OFF-state, these devices can
block high voltages of about several thousand volts and in the ON-state, a large current about several
thousand amperes flows from anode to cathode with only a small ON-state voltage about a few volts
drop across thyristor. Due to the disability to turn-OFF the devices by using a control signal at the
thyristor gate and cathode terminals, thyristors cannot be used in switch-mode applications such as
chopper and inverter circuits. To incorporate the turn-OFF capability in the thyristor, the structure of
thyristor must be modified.
GTO is just like a conventional thyristor but the turn-OFF feature is incorporated within the device.
When a positive gate current is applied in between gate and cathode, the device will be turned ON
and conducts. Whenever a negative gate current of required amplitude is applied to gate-cathode
terminals, GTO will be turned OFF. Due to self-turned OFF capability, GTO is most suitable device
for inverters and choppers.
4.27.1 Basic structure of GTO

GTO is a four layer p-n-p-n device with three terminals gate (G), cathode (K) and anode (A). The
basic structure of GTO is shown in Fig. 4.108. The dropping profile of different layers of GTO will
be similar to the dropping profile of different layers of thyristor. In GTO, the thickness of p2 layer is
smaller compared to conventional thyristor.
Fig. 4.108 Basic structure of GTO

In the anode region of GTO, n+ region penetrate the p-type anode (p1 layer) at regular interval so
that the n+ region makes contact with the n– region (n1 layer). As the n+ regions are overlaid with the
same metallisation contacts, the p-type anode is called anode short. Due to anode short structure, the
turn-OFF of GTO will be fast. GTO can be represented by two transistor analogy as shown in Fig.
4.109(a). Transistor T1 is p+np+ type whereas transistor T2 is np+n+ type. The p+ emitter of transistor T1
is anode of GTO and n+ emitter of transistor T2 is cathode of GTO. Figure 4.109(b) shows the symbol
of GTO. The two-way arrow convention on the gate terminal can be used to differentiate GTO from
a conventional thyristor.
Fig. 4.109 (a) Two transistor analogy of GTO (b) Circuit symbol of GTO
4.27.2 I-V characteristic of GTO

The I-V characteristic of GTO is identical to a
conventional thyristor in the forward direction
as depicted in Fig. 4.110. The latching current
of GTO is few amperes where as the latching
current of conventional thyristor is 100 to
500 mA for same power rating. When the
gate current cannot able to turn ON the GTO,
it behaves just like a high voltage low gain
transistor with sufficient anode current. In this
condition, there will be certain power loss. In
the reverse direction, the GTO has virtually no
blocking capability for anode-short structure.
As the junction J3 operates in reverse direction
block and it has low break down voltage about
20–30 V due to large doping densities on both
sides of the junction. The difference between
Fig. 4.110 I-V characteristic of GTO
GTO and conventional thyristor is given below.
Thyristors 213
Table 4.1 Differences between GTO and thyristor

Gate-Turn-OFF thyristor (GTO) Conventional thyristor
The magnitude of latching and holding current of GTO The magnitude of latching and holding current of thy-
is more than thyristor. ristor is less than GTO.
The ON-state voltage drop of GTO is more than thy- The ON-state voltage drop of thyristor is less than
ristor. GTO.
The gate and cathode structure of GTO are highly The gate and cathode structure of GTO are not highly
interdigitated with small cathode and gate widths, the interdigitated
use of anode shorts of GTO.
In the drift region, a carrier lifetime is shorter than car- The carrier life time in thyristor is more than the carrier
rier used in conventional thyristor. life time of GTO in drift region.
Due to multi-cathode structure of GTO, the required The required gate current to turn on a thyristor is less
gate current to turn on a GTO is more than the required than the required gate current of a GTO.
gate current for a conventional thyristor.
Gate drive circuit losses for GTO are more. Gate drive circuit losses for thyristor are less.
The reverse voltage blocking capability of GTO is lessReverse voltage blocking capability of thyristor is
than forward voltage blocking capability. greater than Reverse voltage blocking capability of
GTO.
GTO has faster switching speed compared to thyristor. Thyristor has less switching speed compared to GTO.
GTO has more di/dt rating at turn-on compared to Thyristor has less di/dt rating at turn-on compared to
thyristor. GTO.
GTO circuit has lower size and weight as compared to Thyristor circuit has larger size and weight as com-
thyristor circuit. pared to GTO circuit.
Due to elimination of commutation choke, GTO circuit Thyristor circuit has more acoustical and electromag-
has reduced acoustical and electromagnetic noise. netic noise compared to GTO circuit.
4.27.3 Operating Principle of GTO

GTO during turn-ON Just like a thyristor, GTO is a monolithic p-n-p-n structure and its operat-
ing principle can be explained in a similar manner to that of a thyristor. The p-n-p-n structure of a
GTO can be consist of two transistors where one p-n-p and one n-p-n transistor are connected in the
regenerative configuration as shown in Fig. 4.111.
Fig. 4.111 Current distribution in a GTO during turn ON
The collector current of T1 iC1 = a1I A + ICB 01 as a1 = a p

The base current of T1 iB1 = iC 2 = a 2 I K + ICB 02 as a 2 = a n

We know that I K = I A + I G and I A = iB1 + iC1
After combining the above equations, we get
a I + (iCB 01 + iCB 02 )
IA = 2 G
1 - (a1 + a 2 )
When the GTO is forward biased and the applied forward voltage VAK is less than the forward breakover
voltage VBRF, both the currents ICB01 and ICB02 are small. If gate current IG is zero, anode current IA
is only slightly higher than (ICB01 + ICB02). In this instant both the current gain a1 and a2 are small
and a1 + a2 << 1. Then GTO operates in off condition and the device is said to be in the forward
blocking mode.
To turn ON the device, a gate current is injected through gate terminal. When a positive gate current
Ig input to gate and cathode and the GTO is forward biased, the current gain a1 and a2 start to increase
rapidly as the emitter current increases. As a1 + a2 approaches to 1 or a1 + a2 @ 1, the anode current
IA tends to infinity. When a1 + a2 = 1, the device starts to regenerate and each transistor operates in
saturation. Once transistor T1 and T2 operate in saturation, all junctions will be forward biased and the
total potential drop across the GTO is equal to that of a single p-n diode. Therefore, each transistor
reaches saturation level, GTO is turned ON and the anode current begins to flow. Once the device has
been turned ON, anode current is limited by load impedance.
GTO during turn-OFF To turn-OFF a GTO, the gate terminal voltage is negative with respect
to the cathode terminal so that gate-cathode is negative biased. Actually, the holes injected from the
anode are taken out from the p base through the gate metallisation into the gate terminal. Hence, the
voltage drop across the p base and the n emitter of transistor T2 starts reverse biasing the junction J3
and electron injection stops.
When the electron injection stops completely, depletion layer starts to grow on both junctions J2
and J3. Subsequently, the device once again starts blocking forward voltage. The cathode current has
stop and the anode to gate current continues to flow as the n base excess carriers diffuse towards
junction J1. This current is called ‘tail current’. The amplitude of tail current decays exponentially
as the n base excess carriers will be reduced by recombination. When the tail current becomes zero,
the device regain its steady state blocking characteristics and GTO operates in off-state. Figure 4.112
shows the current distribution in a GTO during turn-OFF.
Fig. 4.112 Current distribution in a GTO during turn-OFF

Thyristors 215
The performance of GTO can be analysed using two transistor

model of thyristor. In the equivalent circuit, both transistors T1
and T2 are saturated when the GTO is in ON state. When the base
current to transistor T2 is less than the value needed to maintain
I
saturation, i.e., I B 2 < C 2 , subsequently transistor T2 operates in
b2
active mode and the gate turn-OFF thyristor starts to turn-OFF as
the regenerative action present in the circuit when both transistors
T1 and T2 operate in active mode or any one transistor operates
in active mode.
In the equivalent circuit of GTO as shown in Fig. 4.113,
IC 2 = b2 I B 2 and IC1 = b1I B1
IC 2 = a 2 I E 2 and IC1 = a1I B1
Fig. 4.113 Two transistor analogy
When a negative gate current I g¢ is applied across gate-cathode of GTO during turn-OFF
terminals, the KCL equation at node B is equal to
I C1 - I g¢ - I B 2 = 0
or I C1 - I g¢ = I B 2
or a1I A - I g¢ = I B 2 as I C 1 = a1 I A
Since I A = I C 1 + I C 2, I A - I C 1 = I C 2
or IC 2 = I A - IC1 = (1 - a1)I A
IC 2
When transistor T2 is saturated, I B 2 = . For turning OFF GTO, transistor T2 must be out of
b2
I I
saturation. This is possible when the base current of transistor T2, IB2 is less than C 2 , i.e., I B 2 < C 2 .
b2 b2
Consequently, the transistor T2 is shifted from saturation region to active region, then the regenerative
action starts and GTO will be turned OFF. Therefore, the condition for turn-OFF of GTO is
IC 2
I B2 < (4.8)
b2
Substituting the values of IB2 and IC2 in Eq. (4.8), we obtain
(1 - a1 )I A
a1I A - I g¢ < as I B 2 = a1I A - I g¢ and IC 2 = (1 - a1 )I A
b2
(1 - a1 )I A
or - I g¢ < - a1 I A
b2
IA Ê 1ˆ
or - I g¢ < - a1 I A Á 1 + ˜
b2 Ë b2 ¯
a2 Ê ˆ
As b2 = , - I g¢ < I A (1 - a 2 ) - a1I A 1 + 1 - a 2
1 - a2 a2 Á
Ë a2 ¯ ˜
Ê 1 ˆ a
or - I g¢ < I A Á - 1˜ - 1 I A
Ë a2 ¯ a2
Ê 1 - a1 - a 2 ˆ
or - I g¢ < I A Á ˜¯
Ë a2
Ê a + a 2 - 1ˆ
or I g¢ > I A Á 1 ˜¯
Ë a2
The gate current I g¢ for turning-OFF GTO is low, a2 is near to unity whereas a1 should be small. The
turn-OFF gain of GTO is the ratio of anode current IA to gate current I g¢ needed to turn-OFF the GTO.
The turn-OFF gain is equal to boff = I A = a2
I g¢ a1 + a 2 - 1
When a negative gate current I g¢ flows between gate-cathode terminals, the total base current
I B 2 - I g¢ is reversed, excess carriers are drawn from p+ region of T2 and collector current IC1 of Q1 is
diverted into the external gate circuit. Hence, the base drive of transistor T2 is removed and the base
current IB1 of transistor T1 is further removed. As a result, GTO will be turned OFF.
A low value of negative gate current requires low value of a1 and high value of a2. Low value
of current gain a1 of transistor T1 can be possible by diffusing gold or heavy metal into n base of T1
transistor or by short circuiting n+ fingers in the anode p+ layer or by combination of both techniques.
4.27.4 GTO Turn-On characteristics

The turn-ON process of GTO is similar to that of a conventional thyristor. Turn-ON is initiated by a
gate pulse. The sequence of events during turn-ON of a thyristor is same as GTO. During turn-ON
di
of GTO, the rate of gate current g increases and the peak gate current Igm must be large enough
dt
so that all cathode islands start to conduct and there should be good dynamic sharing of the anode
current. If all cathode islands do not conduct simultaneously, a small number of islands may be
carrying the total current and local thermal runway could occur and subsequently there is a possibility
of destruction of GTO.
The gate current Igm must be supplied for long time about 10 ms so that the turn-ON process of
GTO is complete properly. After turn-ON of a GTO, a minimum gate current Igmin must be flow during
the entire ON-state period to prevent unwanted turn OFF. The gate current IgT is known as backporch
current as shown in Fig. 4.114. When the gate current is zero and the anode current is too low, some
cathode islands stop conducting. If the anode current increases, the remaining cathode islands will not
be conducting and cannot share anode current. Consequently, GTO can be destroyed due to localised
thermal runway.
Figure 4.115 shows a gate drive circuit of a GTO. A large pulse of gate current is provided by the
gate drive circuit when both transistors T1 and T2 are ON. The stay inductance in the positive gate
dig
drive circuit should be minimum so that there is a large at turn ON. The gate current Igmax is
dt
maintained for tW duration and after that the gate current is reduced to a minimum value IgT by turning
OFF of transistor T1.
Thyristors 217
Fig. 4.114 (a) Gate current ig (b) Anode current iA (c) Anode-to-cathode voltage VAK (d) Gate-to-cathode
voltage VGK during turn-ON
Fig. 4.115 Gate drive circuit of a GTO

4.27.5 GTO Turn-OFF characteristics

Figure 4.116 shows the GTO turn-OFF characteristics when a large negative gate current is applied.
Figure 4.115 shows the gate drive circuit which supplies the negative gate current by turning on
transistor T3. The gate current should be very large about 1/5 to 1/3 of the anode current. Due to
large negative gate current, GTO will be turned OFF within a very short time. Transistor T3 will be
dig
a low-voltage MOSFET. The must be negative large in order to have a short storage time ts and
dt
Fig. 4.116 (a) Gate current ig, (b) Anode current iA, (c) Anode-to-cathode voltage VAK, (d) Gate to cathode
voltage VGK during turn-OFF
Thyristors 219
a short anode current fall time tf. Hence, the

gate power dissipation will be reduced. The
dig
value of must be as per manufacturer
data sheet. dt
dig
The negative can be controlled by
–VGG and LG of thedtdrive circuit as shown in
Fig. 4.118. The value of –VGG must be less
than the gate-cathode junction breakdown
voltage. When the value of –VGG is known, the
value of LG can be selected properly to provide
di
the specified g . If the current rating of GTO
dt
is large, the stay inductance in the negative
gate drive circuit may be equal to LG.
During the storage time ts, the negative gate
current is removing the stored charge in the p2
and n2 layers at the periphery of the cathode
islands. Since the stored charge is continuously
removed from the periphery, the size of the
plasma-free region grows as it expands in
the lateral direction towards the centres of
the cathode islands with a squeezing velocity.
The removal of plasma is the inverse of
establishment during turn ON. After removal
of sufficient amount of stored charge, the
regenerative action in the GTO is stopped and
the anode current starts to fall. This represents Fig. 4.117 Turn-off phenomena of GTO (a) Negative
the end of the storage charge interval. Figure gate current squeezing the excess carrier
4.117 shows turn-off phenomena of GTO. plasma (b) Lateral ohmic resistance in p2
layer
4.27.6 rating of GTO
Usually the rating of GTOs is specified in the manufacturer data sheet. Some very useful specification
of GTOs voltage and current ratings are discussed in this section.
1. Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage (VDRM) This is the repetitive peak transient voltage at
which GTO can withstand in its forward blocking state. GTO can block rated voltage only if the gate
is reverse biased or at least connected to the cathode through a low value resistance. The forward
voltage withstanding capacity of GTO is a function of the gate cathode reverse voltage for a specified
dv
forward .
dt
2. Repetitive peak reverse voltage (VRRM ) It is the maximum repetitive reverse voltage at which
GTO can able to withstand. The typical value of VRRM is in the range of 20–30 V.
3. VDC It is the maximum continuous dc voltage at which the GTO can withstand. If the applied dc
voltage is exceeding VDC voltage, there is the possibility of a cosmic radiation failure.
4. IFRMS It is the maximum RMS on state current of GTO. The value of IFRMS is specified at a given
case temperature assuming half wave sinusoidal on state current at power frequency.
5. IFAVM This is the maximum average on state current of GTO. The value of IFRMS is specified at a
given case temperature assuming half wave sinusoidal on state current at power frequency
6. IFSM It is the maximum allowable peak value of non-repetitive surge current assuming power
frequency half-wave sinusoidal.
2
7. Ú i dt It is the limiting value of the surge current integral assuming half-cycle sine wave surge
current. For this rating, the junction temperature is to be at the maximum value before the surge current
and the voltage across the GTO following the surge is to be zero. Fuse rating must be less than the
2
Ú i dt rating of GTO to protect the device.
8. IH It is the holding current of the GTO. The value of holding current of a GTO is significantly
higher compared to a similarly rated thyristor.
4.27.7 advantages of GTOs over Bipolar Junction Transistors

1. GTO has higher blocking voltage capability.
2. The ratio of maximum (peak) current rating to average current is high.
3. The ratio of maximum (peak) surge current rating to average current is high and it is about 10:1.
4. High ON-state current gain and it value is about 600.
5. The pulse width of gate signal is short.
6. Under surge conditions, GTO goes into deeper saturation due to regenerative action.
4.27.8 advantages of GTOs over Thyristors

1. GTO has faster switching speed compared to thyristor.
2. GTO has more di/dt rating at turn-ON compared to thyristor.
3. The surge current capability is analogous with an SCR.
4. GTO circuit has lower size and weight as compared to thyristor circuit.
5. Due to elimination of commutation choke, GTO circuit has reduced acoustical and
electromagnetic noise.
6. Elimination of commutating circuit components in forced commutation.
7. Improved efficiency of converter circuits.
4.27.9 applications of GTO

1. High performance DC drives.
2. High performance AC drives where the field-oriented control or vector control are used specially
in rolling mills, process control industry, machine tools control, and robotics.
3. Electric traction drive system.
4. Variable voltage variable frequency inverter fed ac drives.
Thyristors 221
summary
d The structure, operating principles, I-V characteristics of thyristor are explained in detail.
d Thyristor has four layer construction of alternating p-type and n-type regions. The I-V characteristics of
thyristor has two stable states, one is on-state and other is off-state or forward blocking state.
d Thyristor is a minority carrier device and it has highest blocking voltage capability and current carrying
capability with respect to any of semiconductor switches.
d Switching characteristics, series and parallel operation, triggering methods, ratings and protection of thyristors
are discussed elaborately.
d Different triggering circuits and commutation of thyristors are also incorporated in this chapter.
d The structure, operating principle, I-V characteristic of DIAC, TRIAC and GTO are explained in detail.
d GTO has four layer structure just like thyristor but there is some modifications in the structure to enable the
gate to turn-off the device.
d Switching characteristics and gate drive circuits of GTO are also discussed in this chapter.
4.1 A thyristor is a ______ layer device.
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five
4.2 The number of pn junctions in a thyristor is
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1
4.3 A thyristor is a ______ layer device.
(a) pnpn (b) p+ n+ n– n+ (a) n– n+ p– p+ (a) n+ p–p+ n–
4.4 If anode terminal of thyristor is positive with respect to cathode, the number of forward biased junctions are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4.5 If thyristor is forward biased, the number of reverse biased junctions are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4.6 The width of p region near anode is about
(a) 50 to 200 cm–3 (b) 30 to 50 mm (c) 10 to 100 mm (d) 100 to 250 mm
4.7 If anode terminal of thyristor is negative with respect to cathode, the number of blocked p-n junctions are
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4.8 The droping density of n-region near cathode is
(a) 1014 cm–3 (b) 1015 cm–3 (c) 1016 cm–3 (d) 1019 cm–3
4.9 The anode current in a thyristor is made up of
(a) only holes (b) only electrons (c) electrons or holes (d) electrons and holes
4.10 When the gate circuit is open, thyristor operating state can be changed from forward blocking state to
forward conducting state when
(a) The applied voltage is greater than forward break over voltage
(b) The applied voltage is greater than reverse break down voltage
(c) 1.2 V
(d) The applied voltage is greater than peak repetitive reverse voltage
4.11 In a thyristor, the latching is
(a) equal to holding current (b) greater than holding current
(c) less than holding current (d) 2.5 time of holding current.
4.12 In a thyristor, the holding is
(a) equal to latching current (b) greater than latching current
(c) less than latching current (d) 0.4 time of latching current.
4.13 After turn-ON, a thyristor,

(a) the gate pulse should not be removed
(b) the gate pulse should be removed to reduce losses and junction temperature
(c) the gate pulse nay or may not be removed
(d) the gate pulse has no relation with thyristor turn on
4.14 The turn-ON time of thyristor is equal to
(a) delay time (b) rise time
(c) spread time (d) sum of delay time, rise time and spread time
4.15 In a thyristor, turn-ON time is
(a) equal to turn-OFF time (b) greater than turn-OFF time
(c) less than turn-OFF time
4.16 In the forward blocking state of thyristor,
(a) large current flows through thyristor
(b) voltage across thyristor is 1.2 V
(c) voltage across thyristor is high and very small current flows through thyristor
(d) voltage across thyristor is low and high current flows through thyristor
4.17 The ratio of latching current to holding current is
(a) 1 (b) 1.5 (c) 2 (d) 2.5
4.18 The ON-state voltage drop of a thyristor is
(a) 0.7 V (b) 1 V to 1.5 V (c) 50 V (d) 100 V
4.19 The forward voltage drop across thyristor
(a) remain constant with load current change
(b) increases slightly with load current
(c) decreases with load current
4.20 Which of the following is the normal trigger of thyristor?
(a) thermal triggering (b) high forward voltage triggering
dv
(c) triggering (d) gate triggering
dt
4.21 In gate triggering turn on method of thyristor,
(a) the gate pulse width must be greater than or equal to turn-ON time.
(b) the gate pulse width must be less than or equal to turn-ON time.
(c) the gate pulse width must be equal to turn-ON time.
(d) the gate pulse width must be less than turn-ON time.
di
4.22 The typical rating of thyristor is
dt
(a) 0.1 mA to 1 mA (b) 0.5 mA to 5 mA (c) 20 mA to 500 mA (d) 1000 mA
dv
4.23 The typical rating of thyristor is
dt
(a) 0.1 mV to 1 mV (b) 0.5 mV to 5 mV (c) 20 mV to 500 mV (d) 1000 mV
4.24 Snubber circuit is used for ______ protection of thyristor.
di dv
(a) (b) (c) over current (d) gate
dt dt
4.25 Thyristor can be used as
(a) ac switch (b) dc switch (c) either ac or dc switch (d) square wave switch
4.26 The static voltage equalisation in series connected thyristors is possible by using
(a) resistors of same value across each thyristor
(b) resistors of different values across each thyristor
(c) one resistor in series with the string of thyristors
(d) one resistor across the string of thyristors
Thyristors 223
4.27 The dynamic voltage equalization in series connected thyristors is possible by using
(a) resistor R and capacitance C in series and diode D across R
(b) resistor R and capacitance C in series and diode D across C
(c) resistor R and diode D in series and capacitance C across D
(d) capacitance C and diode D in series and resistor R across C
4.28 The snubber circuit parameters are
2 2
Ê ˆ Ê 2x ˆ
(a) Rs = 2x Cs and Cs = 2x L (b) Rs = 2x L
and Cs = Á ˜ Rs
L ÁË R ˜¯ Cs Ë L¯
s
2 2
x Ê 2x ˆ L Ê 2x ˆ
(c) Rs = 2 L and Cs = Á ˜ L (d) Rs = 2x and Cs = Á ˜ L
Cs Ë Rs ¯ Cs Ë Rs ¯
4.29 In a RC triggering circuit of thyristor, the value of R will be
(a) R £ V - VgT - Vd (b) R £ V + VgT - Vd (c) R £ V - VgT + Vd (d) R £ V + VgT + Vd

I gT I gT I gT I gT
4.30 The oscillation frequency of UJT oscillator is
1 1 1 1
(a) f = (b) f= (c) f= (d) f =
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
REC ln Á REC ln Á RE ln Á C ln Á
Ë 1 + h ¯˜ Ë 1 - h ¯˜ Ë 1 - h ¯˜ Ë 1 - h ¯˜
4.31 In a UJT with VBB voltage across two base terminals, the emitter potential at the peak point is given by
(a) VP = VBB + hVD (b) VP = hVBB (c) VP = hVBB - VD (d) VP = hVBB + VD
4.32 A DIAC can be used
(a) in triggering circuit of a TRIAC (b) for protection of a TRIAC
(c) to increase efficiency of a TRIAC (d) to decrease efficiency of a TRIAC
4.33 The latching current of a thyristor is involved with
(a) turn-OFF process (b) turn-ON process (c) turn-ON and turn-OFF process
4.34 The snubber circuit is used in a thyristor
di dv
(a) to limit the value of (b) to limit the value of
dt dt
di dv
(c) to limit both the value of and (d) to turn on
dt dt
4.35 In the forward blocking state, a thyristor is associated with
(a) large voltage, large current (b) large voltage, low current
(c) low voltage, large current (d) low voltage, low current
4.36 In the forward conducting state, a thyristor is associated with
(a) large voltage, large current (b) large voltage, low current
(c) low voltage, large current (d) low voltage, low current
4.37 The three terminals of TRIAC are
(a) MT1, MT2 and gate (b) Base 1, Base 2 and emitter
(c) Anode, cathode and gate (d) Base, emitter, collector
4.38 Thyristor is equivalent to
(a) two transistors (b) two diodes (c) two DIAC (d) two MOSFET
4.39 TRIAC is equivalent to
(a) two transistors (b) two Thyristors (c) two DIAC (d) two MOSFET
4.40 The turn-off time of thyristor with a series connected R-L circuit can be reduced by
(a) increasing L (b) increasing R (c) decreasing L (d) decreasing R
4.41 The minimum value of current required to maintain conduction of thyristor is known as
(a) latching current (b) holding current (c) gate current (d) surge current
4.42 Thyristor is a
(a) voltage controlled
(b) current controlled
(c) both voltage and current controlled
4.43 Thyristor is a
(a) bi-directional device
(b) uni-directional device
(c) bipolar device
(d) unipolar device
4.44 The commutation of thyristor means
(a) turn ON
(b) turn OFF
(c) both turn ON and turn OFF
(d) breakdown
4.45 Figure 4.118 is a ______ commutation circuit.
(a) class A
(b) class B
(c) class C
(d) class D
4.46 Match List I and List II and select the correct answer
(a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A -3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 Fig. 4.118
(A) (1) class C commutation
(B) (2) class A commutation

Thyristors 225
(C) (3) class B commutation
(D) (4) class D commutation
4.47 Match List I and List II and select the correct answer
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3 (c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
(A) Resonant commutation (1) Class E

(B) Complementary commutation (2) Class A
(C) External pulse commutation (3) Class E
(D) Line commutation (4) Class C
4.48 In a commutation circuit of a thyristor, for satisfactory turn of thyristor the following condition must be
satisfied:
(a) circuit time constant is less than device turn-OFF time.
(b) circuit time constant is greater than device turn-OFF time.
(c) circuit time constant is equal or less than device turn-OFF time.
(d) circuit time constant is equal to device turn-OFF time.
4.49 Match List I and List II and select the correct answer.
(A) Resonant commutation (1) Load commutation

(B) Complementary impulse commutation (2) Current commutation
(C) Resonant pulse commutation (3) Natural commutation
(D) Line commutation (4) Parallel capacitor commutation
4.50 When the amplitude of the gate pulse to thyristor is increased,

(a) the delay time would decrease but the rise time would increase
(b) both delay time and rise time would increase
(c) the delay time would decrease but the rise time remains unaffected
(d) the delay time would increase but the rise time would decrease
4.51 TRIACs are most commonly used when the supply voltage is
(a) low frequency ac voltage (b) high frequency ac voltage
(c) dc voltage (d) full-wave rectified output voltage
4.52 Which of the following statements are correct?
(a) TRIAC is a 2 terminal switch (b) TRIAC is a 2 terminal bilateral switch
(c) TRIAC is a 3 terminal bilateral switch (d) TRIAC is a 3 terminal unilateral switch
4.53 Which of the following characteristic of a silicon p-n junction diode makes an ideal diode?
(a) It has low saturation current,
(b) It has a high value of forward cut-in voltage,
(c) It can withstand large reverse voltage
(d) It has low saturation current and it can withstand large reverse voltage
4.54 Which of the following statements are correct in a two–transistor model of the p-n-p-n four layer device?
(a) It is used to explain the turn-on process of the p-n-p-n device
(b) It is used to explain the turn-off process of the p-n-p-n device
(c) It explains the device characteristics in reverse biased region
(d) It explains all the regions of the device characteristics
4.55 Thyristors can be turned OFF by
(i) Reducing the anode current below the holding current
(ii) Applying a reverse voltage between anode and cathode of the device
(iii) Reducing the gate current
(a) i (b) i, ii (c) iii (d) i, ii, iii
4.56 The turn-ON time for a thyristor is 40 ms. If the pulse train is applied at the gate having frequency of 2.5
kHz with duty ratio of 0.25, the thyristor will be
(a) turn ON (b) not turn ON
(c) turn ON if pulse frequency is increased
(d) turn ON if pulse frequency is decreased
4.57 In turn-ON process of a thyristor, the maximum power losses occur during
(a) tr (b) td (c) ts (d) None of these
4.58 A pulse transformer is used in a thyristor driver circuit
(a) to generate high frequency pulses (b) to save from dc triggering
(c) to shape the trigger signal (d) to provide isolation
4.59 Unequal current distribution in the parallel-connected thyristors is developed due to the non-uniformity
in the
(a) forward characteristics (b) reverse characteristics
(c) di/dt withstand capability (d) dv/dt withstand capability
4.60 di/dt protection in a device is needed because
(a) it destroys the device (b) it interferes with control electronics
(c) it introduces voltage surges (d) None of these
4.61 The over-current protection of thyristor is provided by using
(a) circuit breaker and fuse (b) saturable di/dt coils
(c) snubber circuit (d) heat sinking
4.62 The capacitance of a reverse biased junction of a thyristor is 20 pico-farad. The charging current of the
thyristor is 4 mA. What is the limiting value of dv/dt in V/ms?
(a) 100 V/ms (b) 200 V/ms (c) 300 V/ms (d) 400 V/ms
4.63 The cosine triggering circuit is used to linearise the relation between
(a) VC, Vo (b) a, Vo (c) VC, a (d) Io, Vo
Thyristors 227
4.64 To generate triggering signal for thyristors, 555 time IC is used as

(a) astable multivibrator (b) mono-stable multivibrator
(c) bistable multivibrator (d) None of these
4.65 In synchronised UJT triggering of a thyristor, the voltage across capacitor reaches threshold voltage of
UJT thrice in each half cycle. Therefore there are three firing pulses during each half cycle. The firing
angle of the thyristor can be controlled
(a) thrice in each half cycle (b) twice in each half cycle
(c) Once in each half cycle (d) None of these
4.66 The function of a zener diode which is connected in an UJT trigger circuit for thyristor is,
(a) to provide a constant voltage to UJT to prevent unreliable firing
(b) to expedite the generation of triggering pulses
(c) to provide a variable voltage to UJT as the source voltage changes
(d) to provide delay the generation of triggering pulses
4.67 A relaxation oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 4.119. What will
be the change in voltage across capacitor, if the input voltage V
is doubled.
(a) The frequency of VC will reduce to half its value.
(b) The frequency of VC will get doubled
(c) The amplitude will get doubled, but the frequency will re-
main unchanged
(d) The amplitude will remain unchanged, but the frequency
will get doubled?
4.68 In a pulse transformer, the ferrite material used for its core and
the possible turn-ratio from primary to secondary is
Fig. 4.119
(a) 10:1 (b) 20:1 (c) 1:1
(d) 5:1
4.69 GTOs with anode fingers have
(a) high turn-OFF time (b) no reverse blocking capability
(c) reduced turn-OFF gain (d) reduced tail current
(i) Anode fingers in GTO increase its turn-OFF gain
(ii) Anode-shorting reduces its reverse-voltage blocking capability to zero
(iii) GTO has n+-type fingers in the anode
(a) i (b) i, ii (c) i, iii (d) i, ii, iii
4.71 A gold-doped GTO has
(a) low turn-OFF time (b) high reverse blocking capability
(c) low on-state voltage drop (d) increased tail current
4.72 In a GTO, anode current begins to fall when
(a) gate current is negative peak at time t = 0
(b) gate current is negative peak at t = storage period ts
(c) gate current Is negative peak at t = ts + fall time
4.73 A reverse conducting thyristor is used in place of anti-parallel combination of thyristor and feedback
diode in an inverter circuit
(a) decreases the operating frequency of operation
(b) effectively minimises the peak commutating current
(c) weakening in the commutation performance
(d) minimises the effect of lead inductance on the commutation performance
4.74 In a normal SCR, turn-ON time is
(a) equal to turn-OFF time tq (b) less than turn-OFF time tq
(c) more than turn-OFF time tq (d) about half of turn-OFF time tq
4.75 The average current rating of a thyristor, as specified by the manufacturer data sheet, corresponds to
(a) resistive and inductive current (b) resistive current
(c) inductive current (d) capacitive current
4.76 In reliable gate triggering of thyristors, usually we use

(a) slight over triggering (b) very hard triggering
(c) very soft triggering (d) none of these
4.77 The most commonly used gate triggering signal for thyristors is
(a) a short duration pulse (b) a steady dc signal
(c) a high-frequency pulse train (d) a low frequency pulse train
4.78 When thyristor starts conducting a forward current, its gate losses control over
(a) anode circuit voltage and current
(b) anode circuit voltage only
(c) anode circuit voltage and current and time
(d) anode circuit current only
4.79 The thyristor ratings such as di/dt in A/ms and dv/dt in V/ms, can vary, respectively between
(a) 20 to 500 A/ms, 10 to 100 V/ms (b) 20 to 500 A/ms, 20 to 500 V/ms
(c) 10 to 100 A/ms, 10 to 100 V/ms (d) 50 to 300 A/ms, 20 to 500 V/ms
4.80 A driver circuit is mainly needed between the controller and the power circuit for
(a) providing necessary drive power (b) voltage level change
(c) polarity change (d) isolation between power circuit and control circuit
4.81 Turn-ON time of an SCR can be decreased by using a
(a) rectangular pulse of high amplitude and narrow width
(b) triangular pulse
(c) rectangular pulse of low amplitude and wide width
(d) trapezoidal pulse
4.82 If the turn-ON time of an SCR is about 5 ms, an ideal trigger pulse should have
(a) short rise time with pulse width of 6 ms
(b) long rise time with pulse width of 6 ms
(c) short rise time with pulse width of 3 ms
(d) long rise time with pulse width of 3 ms
4.83 Turn-ON time of a thyristor in series with R-L load can be reduced by
(a) increasing inductance L (b) decreasing L
(c) increasing resistance R (d) decreasing R
4.84 A forward voltage can be applied to a thyristor after its
(a) reverse recovery time (b) gate recovery time
(c) anode voltage reduces to zero (d) anode current reduces to zero
4.85 The turn-ON time for a thyristor is 15 ms. If an inductance L is inserted in the anode circuit then the turn-
ON time will be
(a) 15 ms (b) less than 15 ms (c) more than 15 ms (d) about 15 ms
4.86 Turn-OFF time of a thyristor is measured from the instant
(a) gate current becomes zero (b) anode current becomes zero
(c) anode voltage becomes zero (d) both anode voltage and anode current become zero
4.87 In a thyristor, anode current flows over a narrow region near the gate during
(a) delay time td and rise time tr (b) rise time tr and spread time tp
(c) delay time td and spread time tp (d) delay time td
4.88 The average on-state current for a thyristor is 25 A for a conduction angle of 120°. What will be the
average ON-state current for 60° conduction angle?
(a) less than 25 A (b) 10 A (c) greater than 20 A (d) 50 A
4.89 Surge current rating of a thyristor specifies the maximum
(a) repetitive current with sine wave
(b) non-repetitive current with sine wave
(c) repetitive current with rectangular wave
(d) non-repetitive current with rectangular wave
4.90 Gate characteristic of a thyristor
(a) is Vg = a + bI g (b) is a straight line passing through origin
(c) is a curve between Vg and Ig (d) is spread between two curves of Vg – Ig
Thyristors 229
4.91 The di/dt rating of a thyristor is specified for its

(a) rising anode current (b) decaying anode current
(c) decaying gate current (c) rising gate current
4.92 The function of snubber circuit which is connected across a thyristor is to
(a) suppress dv/dt (b) increase dv/dt
(c) decrease dv/dt (d) remain transient overvoltage at a constant value
4.93 In a thyristor based converter circuit, dv/dt protection is achieved through the use of
(a) R-L in series with thyristor (b) R-C snubber across thyristor
(c) L in series with thyristor (d) RC in series with thyristor thyristor
4.94 In a thyristor based converter circuit, di/dt protection is achieved through the use of
(a) R in series with thyristor (b) RL in series with thyristor
(c) L in series with thyristor (d) L across
4.95 The maximum di/dt in a thyristor circuit is
(a) directly proportional to maximum value of supply voltage
(b) inversely proportional to maximum value of supply voltage
(c) directly proportional to maximum value of supply voltage and inversely proportional to circuit in-
ductance L
(d) directly proportional to L
4.96 The resistance and capacitance are connected across gate circuit to protect the thyristor gate against
(a) overvoltages (b) dv/dt (c) over currents (d) noise signals
4.97 During the turn-OFF process in a thyristor, the current flow will not stop at the instant current becomes
zero but continues to flow to a peak value in the reverse direction. This is happened due to
(a) hole-storage effect
(b) commutation failure
(c) presence of reverse voltage across the thyristor
(d) protective inductance in series with the thyristor
4.98 UJT has negative resistance region
(a) between peak and valley points (b) before the peak point
(c) after the valley point (d) Both (a) and (b)
4.99 When an UJT relaxation oscillator circuit is used for triggering a thyristor, the wave shape of the voltage
which is generated by UJT circuit is a
(a) saw-tooth wave (b) sine wave (c) square wave (d) trapezoidal wave
4.100 In an UJT relaxation oscillator, the maximum value of charging resistance is associated with
(a) valley point (b) peak point
(c) any point between peak point and valley point
(d) any point after the valley point
4.101 If an UJT relaxation oscillator circuit is used for triggering of a thyristor, stand-off ratio h = 0.64 and dc
source voltage VBB is 20V. The UJT would trigger at the instant when the emitter voltage is
(a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 12.8 V (d) 13.5 V
4.102 UJT is used for relaxation oscillator due to
(a) positive resistance part of V-I characteristics (b) negative resistance part of V-I characteristics
(c) peak-point potential (d) valley-point potential
4.103 UJT is used to make a relaxation oscillator. Whenever it is energised, but it fails to oscillate due to
(a) large value of capacitor (b) low value of charging resistor
(c) high base terminal voltage VBB (d) Both (b) and (c)
4.104 In dynamic equalising circuit for series connected thyristors, the value of C is depends on
(a) reverse recovery characteristics (b) turn-OFF characteristics
(c) turn-ON characteristics (d) rise time characteristics
4.105 A power semiconductor device may be damaged due to
(a) high di/dt (b) low di/dt (c) high dv/dt (d) low dv/dt
4.106 A TRIACe is corresponding to

(a) two thyristors connected in anti-parallel (b) two diodes connected in anti-parallel
(c) one thyristor and one diode connected in parallel (d) two thyristors connected in parallel
(i) TRIAC is a five layer devices
(ii) TRIAC consists of two parallel sections p1n1p2n2 and p2n1p1n4
(iii) TRIAC is a double ended SCR
(a) i (b) ii (c) iii (d) i, ii, iii
4.108 For the semiconductor devices TRIAC and thyristor
(a) TRIAC requires more current for turn-on than SCR at a particular voltage
(b) a TRIAC has less time for turn-off than hyristor
(c) both are unidirectional
(d) both are bidirectional
4.109 In a reverse blocking thyristor
(a) external layers are heavily doped and internal layers are lightly doped
(b) external layers are lightly doped and internal layers are heavily doped
(c) p-layers are lightly doped and n-layers are heavily doped
(d) p-layers are heavily doped and n-layers are lightly doped
Fill in the Blanks

4.1 A thyristor is a ______ layer ______ structure.
4.2 Thyristor is a ________ device.
4.3 When gate is open, thyristor may turn ON due to large forward ______.
4.4 To turn-OFF, a thyristor the anode current must be bring below ______current.
4.5 A thyristor can be turned on when a forward voltage greater than _______ voltage is applied.
4.6 A forward biased thyristor can be turned ON when a positive ______ pulse is applied.
4.7 The forward break over voltage of thyristor decreases with increase in ______ current.
4.8 A ______ biased thyristor can be turned ON by applying a ______ gate current pulse.
4.9 The reverse breakdown voltage of a thyristor is ______of gate current.
4.10 The total turn-ON time of a thyristor is sum of ______ time______ time and ______ time.
4.11 In the gate triggering of a thyristor, the pulse width of gate current must be larger than the ________ time
of the device.
4.12 The total turn-OFF time of a thyristor is sum of ______ time and _______ time.
4.13 During ______ time the rate of rise of anode current must restricted to avoid local ______.
4.14 The reverse recovery charge of a thyristor depends on the ______current and ______time. .
4.15 ______ grade thyristors have _______ turn-OFF time compared to a converter grade thyristor.
4.16 SCR is a ______device.
4.17 TRIAC is ______device.
4.18 TRIAC is a ______and ______carrier device.
4.19 TRIAC is just like two _______ connected thyristors.
4.20 TRIAC operates either in the ______ quadrant or the ______ quadrant of the V-I characteristics.
4.21 Thyristor is a ______ layer, ______ terminal, ______ carrier semi-controlled device
4.22 Three terminals of a thyristor are called ______, ______ and ______.
4.23 A thyristor can _____voltage of both polarity but conducts current only from anode to cathode.
4.24 After turn on the voltage across the thyristor drops to a very low value about ____Volt.
4.25 A TRIAC is functionally equivalent to ______ anti parallel connected thyristors. It can ______ voltages
in both directions and ______ current in both directions.
4.26 TRIACs are extensively used at power frequency ______ load control applications.
Thyristors 231
4.27 In the ______ quadrant the TRIAC is fired with ______ gate current while in the _____ quadrant the gate
current must be ______.
4.28 To avoid unwanted turn ON of a TRIAC due to large dv/dt, ______ circuits are used across TRIACs.
4.29 For “proper turn ON” of a TRIAC, the ______ time of the gate current pulse should be as ______ as
possible.
4.30 A thyristor can be turned ON by applying a ______ gate current pulse when it is ______ biased.
4.31 A thyristor can be turned OFF by decreasing its anode current below ______ current and applying a
reverse voltage across the device for duration ______ than the turn OFF time of the device.
4.32 The reverse recovery charge of a thyristor depends on the ______ of the forward current just before turn
OFF and its rate of ______.
4.33 Inverter grade thyristors have______ turn-OFF time compared to a converter grade thyristor.
4.34 VRSM rating of a thyristor is ______ than the VRRM rating but ______ than the VBRR rating.
4.35 The maximum average current rating of a thyristor depends on the______ temperature of the thyristor
and the ______ of the current wave form.
4.36 The gate non-trigger voltage specification of a thyristor is useful for avoiding unwanted turn on of the
thyristor due to ______ voltage signals at the gate.
4.37 The reverse saturation current of a thyristor ______ with gate current.
4.38 To prevent unwanted turn ON of a thyristor all ______signals between the gate and the cathode must be
less than the______.
4.39 A thyristor can conduct current in ______ direction and can block voltage in ______ direction.
4.40 Thyristor can be turned ON due to large forward ______.
4.41 GTO is a ______layer, ______terminal current controlled minority carrier device.
4.42 A GTO can be turned ON by applying a ______gate current pulse when it is forward biased and turned
OFF by applying a ______gate current.
4.43 GTOs have relatively ______ turn-OFF current gain.
4.44 GTO can block rated forward voltage only when the gate cathode junction is______.
4.45 GTO is a____ controlled _____ carrier device.
4.46 The anode shorts of GTO improve the _____ performance but degrade the ______ performance.
4.47 To turn OFF a conducting GTO the gate terminal is ______biased with respect to the ______.
4.48 The reverse voltage blocking capacity of a GTO is ______due to the presence of anode shorts.
4.49 A conducting GTO reverts back to the blocking mode when the anode current falls below ______
current.
4.50 Anode shorts help to reduce the ______ current in a GTO.
4.51 In the gate drive circuit of GTO, a low value resistance is connected between the gate and the cathode
terminals for minimum______ voltage.
4.52 The gate drive circuit of a GTO must provide continuous positive gate ______ during ON period and
continuous negative gate______ during OFF period.
4.53 The holding current of a GTO is______ compared to a thyristor.
4.54 During turn-ON process, the turn on delay time and current rise time of a GTO can be reduced by
increasing the gate current______ and______.
4.55 GTO can operate safely in the ______ region for a short time provided the gate cathode junction is
reverse biased.
4.56 The switching delay times and energy loss of a GTO can be reduced by ______the gate current magnitude
and its rate of rise.
4.57 The maximum turn-OFF anode current of a GTO can be increased by increasing the______.
review Questions
4.1 What is SCR? What is thyristor? What are the different names of thyristors? Write the difference between
thyristor and power BJT.
4.2 Draw the structure of a thyristor and explain its operating principle briefly.
4.3 Draw the constructional details of thyristor with doping intensity and width of layers and explain in
detail. What is the symbol of thyristor?
4.4 What is the diode model of thyristor?
4.5 Describe the basic behaviour of thyristor using a two-transistor model.
4.6 What are the different modes of operation of a thyristor? Explain each mode briefly.
4.7 What is two transistor model of thyristor? Prove that anode current of thyristor is given by
a I G + ICB 01 + ICB 02
IA =
1 - (a1 + a 2 )
4.8 Draw the V-I characteristics of a thyristor and explain different operating regions. What is the effect of
gate current on the V-I characteristics of a thyristor?
4.9 Explain the transient model of thyristor.
4.10 What are the necessary conditions for turning ON of a thyristor?
4.11 What are the different turning-ON methods of a thyristor? Explain each method.
4.12 Describe the different methods of triggering of SCR.
4.13 What is gate triggering of thyristor? What is latching current of thyristor? What is holding current of
thyristor?
4.14 What are the types of switching characteristics of SCR? Draw the turn-ON characteristics of SCR and
explain briefly?
4.15 Draw the turn-OFF characteristics of SCR and explain briefly?
4.16 Define (a) delay time (b) rise time (c) spread time (d) reverse recovery time (e) gate recovery time
4.18 Explain the turn-ON and turn-OFF time of SCR.
4.19 Draw the gate characteristics of a thyristor and explain its importance in design of gate drive(triggering)
circuit.
4.20 Discuss following ratings of thyristor
(a) On state voltage drop (b) Finger voltage (c) Voltage safety factor
(d) Latching current (e) Holding current (f) Surge current (g) I2t rating
4.21 Why turn-ON time is less than turn-OFF time in a thyristor?
4.22 Why protection circuit is required during operation of thyristor? What are the different protection
schemes of thyristor?
di dv
4.23 What is the purpose of and protection?
dt dt
4.24 Write short notes on the following:
(a) Over voltage protection (b) Over current protection (c) Gate protection
4.25 What is snubber circuit? Explain the design method of a snubber circuit.
4.26 Explain the series and parallel operation of thyristors.
4.27 Define string efficiency. What is the derating factor of a series connected thyristors? Prove that string
efficiency of two series connected SCRs is less than unity or 1.
4.28 Discuss the common technique for voltage sharing of series connected thyristors. Derive the expression
for the resistance (R) used for static voltage equalisation for a series connected string.
4.29 Explain the common technique for current sharing of parallel connected thyristors. Prove that string
efficiency of two parallel connected SCRs is less than unity or 1.
4.30 What is the effect of reverse recovery time on the dynamic (transisent) voltage sharing of series connected
thyristors? Derive an expression for the capacitance (C) used for dynamic voltage equalisation for a
series connected string.
4.31 Describe the crowbar protection circuit for the over current protection of thyristors.
4.32 Explain the different triggering signals of a thyristor. What is the nature of gate current waveform?
4.33 What are the different triggering circuits of a SCR? Draw a resistance triggering circuit and explain its
operation. What is the limitation of a resistance triggering circuit?
Thyristors 233
4.34 Draw a RC triggering circuit and explain its operation. What are the advantages of RC triggering over R
triggering circuit?
4.35 What do you mean by the following terms in a UJT:
(a) Peak voltage (b) Valley voltage (c) Stand-off ratio
4.36 What is relaxation oscillator?
(a) UJT triggering circuit (b) Synchronised UJT triggering circuit
(c) Ramp and pedestal triggering circuit.
4.38 Compare UJT triggering circuit with R and RC firing circuit.
4.39 If the turn-ON and turn-OFF times of a thyristor are not constant, list the factors briefly.
4.40 Justify the statement “lower the gate current, the forward break-over voltage is higher”.
4.41 What is commutation? What are the types of commutation? Explain any one commutation circuit with a
diagram and waveforms.
4.42 Distinguish between the following:
(a) Natural commutation and forced commutation
(b) Voltage commutation and current commutation
4.43 Draw the self-commutation circuit and discuss in detail. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
self-commutation with respect to other commutations?
(a) Resonant pulse commutations (b) Complementary commutations (c) Class D commutations
(d) Class E commutations (f) Class F commutations
4.45 What is DIAC? Explain the operating principle of DIAC with proper diagram.
4.46 Draw the V-I characteristics of a DIAC and explain different operating regions. What are the applications
of DIAC?
4.47 What is TRIAC? Explain the operating principle of TRIAC with proper diagram.
4.48 Draw the V-I characteristics of a TRIAC and explain different operating regions. What are the applications
of TRIAC?
4.49 What are the problems of series and parallel operation of thyristors?
4.50 The turn-ON and turn-OFF time of SCR are 3.5 ms and 6.5 ms respectively, determine the maximum
switching frequency of SCR in a converter circuit.
4.51 A 220 V, 50 Hz single phase ac supply is connected to a thyristor in series with a load resistance RL.
Under forward blocking condition, the capacitance of junction J2 is 1.35 nF. At room temperature 30°C,
thyristor has the following parameters:
VRRM = 1000 V, VRMS = 300 V, VF = 1 V, VgT = 2.5 V, IgT = 100 mA, dV/dt = 75 V/ms and di/dt = 50 V/ms.
Prove that a spike of 300 V for 3 ms duration is sufficient to trigger thyristor.
4.52 When a thyristor acts as a switch, anode current rises linearly from zero to final value of 210 A but the
anode voltage falls linearly from 520 V to zero during turn-ON process. The turn-ON time of thyristor is
9.5 ms. If the switching frequency of thyristor is 260 Hz, determine the average power loss in thyristor.
4.53 The average gate power dissipation of a thyristor is Pgav = 0.5 Watt. If the gate voltage varies from 2.45
V to 9.8 V, plot the curve where gate voltage is a function of gate current. Assume average gate power
dissipation is constant.
4.54 Assume the slope of the gate cathode characteristics of thyristor is 160 and average power dissipation is
0.85 W. When the gate source voltage is 16 V, determine the gate source resistance.
4.55 In a gate triggering circuit, the average power dissipation is 0.35 W. The slope of load line is 110 V per
ampere, source voltage is 14 V and minimum gate current to turn-ON thyristor is 16 mA. Determine gate
current, gate voltage and gate source resistance.
4.56 The gate characteristics of a thyristor is Vg = 1 + 4.5Ig. When a rectangular pulse of 12 V with 25 ms
is applied to gate, determine (a) the series connected resistance in gate, (b) triggering frequency and
(c) duty cycle. Assume average power dissipation is 0. 45 W and peak gate drive power is 4 W.
4.57 A 230 V dc voltage is connected to a thyristor in series with R-L load. Assume the latching current of
thyristor is 80 mA. When (a) R = 20 W and L = 0.1 H and (b) R = 20 W and L = 1 H, find the minimum
width of gate pulse current to turn-ON thyristor. What is the effect of inductance on gate-pulse width?
4.58 The gate-cathode characteristics of SCR are spread by the following equations:
I g = 2.45 ¥ 10 -3 Vg2 and I g = 2.45 ¥ 10 -3 Vg1.5
If the gate source voltage is 15 V and Rs = 120 W, determine the triggering voltage and triggering current.
Assume the gate power dissipation is 0.45 W.
4.59 A 220 V dc supply voltage is applied to an SCR
which is connected in series with RL load as shown
in Fig. 4.120. The latching current of a thyristor
is 25mA. When a gate pulse of 30 ms is applied,
whether the SCR will be turned-on or not?
4.60 The maximum rms ON-state current of thyristor is
60 A. When the thyristor is used in a resistive load
circuit and the current waveform is rectangular wave
as shown in Fig. 4.121, determine average ON-state
current rating for conduction angle (a) 90° and (b) 60°. Fig. 4.120
Fig. 4.121
4.61 The maximum rms ON-state current of thyristor is 50 A. When the thyristor is used in a resistive load
circuit and the current waveform is half-sine wave as shown in Fig. 4.122, determine average ON-state
current rating for conduction angle (a) 120° (b) 90° (c) 60°.
Fig. 4.122
4.62 The half-cycle surge current rating of thyristor is 3000 A at 50 H supply. Find the one-cycle surge current
rating and I2t rating of thyristor.
4.63 When a SCR is operating with a peak supply voltage of 230 2 V and it has the following parameters:
Repetitive peak current I p = 100 A, dv = 400 V/ms,

di
= 80 A/ms .
dt max dt max
Thyristors 235
Design a snubber circuit for SCR protection. Assume the factor of safety is 2.5 and the minimum value
of resistance is 25 W.
di dv
4.64 Determine the rating and rating of thyristor which is connected in the circuit as shown in
dt dt
Fig. 4.123. Find the average and rms current rating of thyristor at the firing angle a = 60°. What is the
voltage rating of thyristor?
Fig. 4.123
4.65 Thyristors with a rating of 1200 V and 200 A are used in a string to handle 15 kV and 1.5 kA. Determine
the number of series and parallel connected thyristors in case derating factor is (a) 0.2 (b) 0.3.
4.66 A 180 A SCR is connected in parallel with a 220 A SCR
as shown in Fig. 4.124. The on-state voltage drop across
SCRs is 1.8 V and 1.7 V respectively. Determine the series
resistance that must be connected in series with each SCR
when 400 A current is shared by two SCRs according to
their rating.
4.67 When a 280 A thyristor operate in parallel with another 320
A thyristor, the ON-state voltage drops across thyristors is
1.5 V and 1.2 V. Find the value of resistance which will
be connected in series with each thyristor. Assume that
the total current 600 A is shared by thyristors according to Fig. 4.124
their rating.
4.68 A string of five series connected SCRs has static and dynamic equalising circuits. The string should
withstand at 11 kV. When the static equalizing resistance is 20 kW and the dynamic equalizing circuit
consists of RC = 50 W and C = 0.04 mF, determine the voltage across each SCR and discharge current
through SCR T1. Assume the leakage current of five SCRs are 11 mA, 12 mA, 14 mA, 18 mA and 20 mA
respectively.
4.69 Two thyristors having a difference of 2.5 mA in latching current are connected in series in a circuit.
The voltage across the thyristors are 410 V and 370 V respectively. Determine the required equalising
resistance.
4.70 Design a relaxation oscillator circuit using UJT which has the following specification:
h = 0.7, Ip = 0.65 mA, Vp = 12 V, Iv = 2.0 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, RBB = 4.5 kW
and Norman leakage current is 4 mA when emitter open circuit.
The firing frequency is 2.5 kHz. Assume the suitable value of capacitance C.
4.71 The firing frequency of relaxation oscillator is varied by changing the value of charging resistance R.
Find the maximum and minimum values of R and their corresponding firing frequencies.
Assume h = 0.7, Ip = 0.65 mA, Vp = 12.5 V, Iv = 2.0 mA, Vv = 1.5 V, VBB = 20 V, and C = 0.047 mF.
4.72 In class A commutation circuit, A thyristor is connected in series with R-LC. When L = 11 mH, C = 21
mF and R = 1 W, check whether self-commutation is possible or not. Determine the conduction time of
thyristor.
4.73 In a class D commutation circuit, determine the value of commutating capacitor C and commutating
inductor L with the help of following data:
V = 110 V, IL(max) = 55 A and toff for T1 = 20 ms
4.74 Figure 4.125 shows a voltage commutation circuit. Determine the turn-OFF time of main thyristor when
C = 16 mF, R = 11 W and V = 220 V. Assume the capacitor is charged to voltage V.
Fig. 4.125 Fig. 4.126

4.75 Figure 4.126 shows a load commutation circuit. Find the value of commutation time of thyristor and
resonant frequency when L = 2.5 H and C = 12 mF.
4.76 In a class C commutation circuit, the dc input voltage is 230 V and current through RL and R1 is 25 A.
If the turn-OFF time of both main and auxiliary thyristor is 24 ms, determine the value of commutating
capacitor C.
4.77 A class D commutation circuit has the following parameters:
V = 220 V, L = 20 mH and C = 40 mF
If the load current is 125 A, determine the circuits turn-OFF times for main and auxiliary thyristors.
4.78 Explain the different features of a thyristor firing circuit. Draw a schematic block diagram of thyristor
firing circuit and explain the function of each block elaborately.
4.79 Draw the circuit diagram of a resistance firing circuit for thyristor. Is it possible to obtain a firing angle
greater than 90° using R triggering method?
4.80 In resistance firing circuit, prove that firing angle is proportional to the variable resistance.
4.81 Compare the UJT firing circuit with R and RC firing circuits.
4.82 Discuss the working principle of UJT relaxation Oscillator. Derive the expressions for the frequency of
triggering and firing angle delay in terms of eta and charging resistance.
4.83 Draw the circuit diagram for the ramp and pedestal trigger circuit which is used for a single phase semi-
converter. Explain circuit operation with waveforms.
4.84 Explain the application of pulse transformer in the triggering circuit of thyristors and GTOs.
4.85 Draw the trigger circuit for a TRIAC using a DIAC and explain its operation with waveforms.
4.86 Draw a gate trigger circuit for a single phase full converter. Explain how the adjustment of control
voltage varies the firing delay angle.
4.86 Describe the gate-pulse amplifier using a MOSFET.
4.87 Draw a cosine firing scheme for the triggering of thyristors and explains its operation. Why is the cosine-
firing scheme so popular?
4.88 Why pulse train gating is preferred over pulse gating? Explain the pulse-train gating of thyristors with
relevant circuit waveforms.
4.89 What is GTO? Draw the structure of a GTO.
4.90 Explain the turn-OFF process of GTO with its two-transistor model.
4.91 Describe switching performance of a GTO with proper voltage and current waveforms.
Thyristors 237
4.92 Write the merits and demerits of GTOs as compared to conventional thyristors. Write some applications
of GTOs.
4.93 In a thyristor the capacitance value of reverse-biased junction J2 is C J = 40 pF and it is independent of
2
the OFF-state voltage. The limit value of the charging current to turn the thyristor is about 25 mA. Find
dv
the critical value of .
dt
4.94 The capacitance value of reverse-biased junction J2 of a thyristor, C J is independent of OFF-state
2
voltage. The limit value of the charging current to turn the thyristor is about 20 mA. If the critical value
dv
of is 500 V/ms, compute the value of junction capacitance C J .
dt 2
4.95 Figure 4.127 shows that a thyristor is connected in series with R-L load. The latching current is 80 mA.
When a firing pulse of 90 ms is applied in between gate and cathode, find the state of thyristor whether
it is turned ON or turned OFF.
4.96 In Fig. 4.128, the latching current of thyristor is 80 mA. What will be the minimum pulse width of gating
pulse to turn-ON thyristor?
Fig. 4.127 Fig. 4.128
4.97 When ig – Vg characteristics of a thyristor is a straight line passing through origin with a gradient of 2.5
¥ 103, find the value of gate voltage if Pg = 0.025 Watt.
4.98 In a thyristor, the gate-cathode characteristics is a straight line passing through origin with a gradient of
Vg
= 14 V/A . The maximum turn-ON time is 100
ig
ms, the minimum gate current required is 100 mA.
When the gate to source voltage is 10 V, (a) find the
value of gate-source resistance which is connected
in series with gate drive circuit as shown in
Fig. 4.129 (b) determine the power dissipation.
If the average gate power dissipation is 150 mW,
determine the maximum triggering frequency of Fig. 4.129
thyristor.
4.99 In a forward biased thyristor, the gate current is gradually increased from zero until the device is turned
ON. At the instant of turn-ON, the gate current is about 1.2 mA and when the thyristor operates in
conduction, gate current decays to about 0.4 mA. Justify the above statement. What will be the gate
cathode voltage when Vs is zero?
4.100 In Fig. 4.130, a trigger pulse of 50 ms is applied across gate cathode of thyristor. The latching current of
thyristor is 50 mA. When R = 75 W and L = 2.5 H, check whether the thyristor will be turned on or turned
OFF? If thyristor is not in turned ON, when the device will be turned ON.
Fig. 4.130
4.101 I-V characteristic of a thyristor is a straight line as shown in Fig. 4.131. Calculate the average power loss
in the thyristor and rms current rating of thyristor for following conditions:
(i) A constant current of 150 A for one half cycle.
(ii) A half cycle sine wave current with peak value of 150 A.
Draw the voltage drop across thyristor for the above conditions.
Fig. 4.131 Fig. 4.132

4.102 Fig. 4.132 shows a circuit diagram of a thyristor. I t rating of thyristor is 60 A2/s. If the terminal A and B
2
is short circuited, determine fault clearance time so that thyristor is not damaged completely.
4.103 The sub-cycle surge current rating of thyristor is 3500 A for 50 Hz supply. Determine the one cycle surge
current rating of thyristor and I2t rating.
4.104 When a SCR is operating with a peak supply voltage of 230 2 V and it has the following parameters:
dv di
Repetitive peak current I p = 120 A, = 400 V/ms, = 90 A/ms
dt max dt max
Design a snubber circuit for SCR protection. Assume the factor of safety is 2 and the minimum value of
resistance is 20 W.
4.105 When a thyristor is operating with a peak supply voltage of 400 2 V and it has the following
specifications:
di dv
Repetitive peak current I p = 450A, = 100 A/ms, = 210 V/ms
dt max dt max
Assume that the factor of safety is 2.5 for I p , di and

dv Design a suitable snubber circuit for
dt max dt max
SCR protection . Assume the factor of safety is 2 and the minimum value of resistance is 10 W.
Thyristors 239
4.106 In resistance triggering circuit, Ig(min) = 0.16 mA and Vg(min) = 0.6 V. When the peak amplitude of input
voltage is 100 V, find the trigger angle a for R1 = 100 kW and Rmin = 12 kW.
4.107 A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is connected to a resistance capacitance (RC) triggering circuit. If the resistance
R is variable from 5 kW to 20 kW, VgT = 2.5 V and C = 0.47 mF, what is the minimum and maximum firing
angle?
4.108 In a class B resonant pulse commutation circuit, L = 10 mH and C = 25 mF. The initial voltage across
capacitor is 230 V, determine (a) resonant frequency (b) peak value of resonant current (c) turn-OFF time
of thyristor.
4.109 In a Class C commutation, if V = 200 V, RL = 20 W, R2 = 100 W calculate (a) the peak value of current
through thyristors T1 and T2 (b) the value of capacitance C when turn-OFF time of each thyristor is equal
to 20 ms. Assume that the factor of safety is 2.
4.110 In a Class D commutation circuit, V = 220 V, L = 20 mH and C = 60 mF. If load current is 100 A,
determine (a) peak value of current through capacitance, main thyristor and auxiliary thyristor (b) turn-
OFF time of thyristors.
4.111 In class A commutation circuit, a thyristor is turned on at t = 0. Compute (a) the conduction time of
thyristor (b) voltage across thyristor and capacitor when thyristor is turned OFF. Assume the following
parameters L = 12 mH, C = 25 mF, R = 0 W and V = 200 V.
V = 220 V, L = 20 mH and C = 40 mF
If the load current is 100 A, determine the circuit turns OFF times for main and auxiliary thyristors.
4.113 For a class C commutation circuit, the dc input voltage is 220 V and current through RL and R1 is 12 A.
If the turn-OFF time of both main and auxiliary thyristor is 40 ms, calculate the value of commutating
capacitor C.
V = 230 V, L = 12 mH and C = 25 mF
When the load current is 100 A, find the circuit turn-OFF times for main and auxiliary thyristors.
4.115 The firing circuit of a TRIAC using a DIAC is shown in shown in Fig. 4.135 and this circuit has the
following parameters:
R1 = 1000 W, R2 = 0 W to 25000 W, C = 0.47 mF, V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz and DIAC breakdown voltage is
25 V. Determine the minimum and maximum value of firing angle of TRIAC if the effect of load
impedance is neglected.

4.1 (c) 4.2 (b) 4.3 (a) 4.4 (b) 4.5 (a) 4.6 (b) 4.7 (b)
4.8 (d) 4.9 (d) 4.10 (a) 4.11 (b) & (d) 4.12 (d) 4.13 (b) 4.14 (d)
4.15 (c) 4.16 (c) 4.17 (d) 4.18 (b) 4.19 (b) 4.20 (d) 4.21 (a)
4.22 (c) 4.23 (c) 4.24 (b) 4.25 (b) 4.26 (a) 4.27 (a) 4.28 (d)
4.29 (a) 4.30 (b) 4.31 (d) 4.32 (a) 4.33 (b) 4.34 (b) 4.35 (b)
4.36 (c) 4.37 (a) 4.38 (a) 4.39 (b) 4.40 (c) 4.41 (b) 4.42 (b)
4.43 (b) 4.44 (b) 4.45 (a) 4.46 (d) 4.47 (a) 4.48 (b) 4.49 (a)
4.50 (c) 4.51 (a) 4.52 (c) 4.53 (d) 4.54 (a) 4.55 (b) 4.56 (a)
4.57 (a) 4.58 (d) 4.59 (a) 4.60 (a) 4.61 (a) 4.62 (a) 4.63 (a)
4.64 (a) 4.65 (c) 4.66 (a) 4.67 (a) 4.68 (c) 4.69 (a) 4.70 (c)
4.71 (c) 4.72 (b) 4.73 (d) 4.74 (b) 4.75 (b) 4.76 (a) 4.77 (c)
4.78 (a) 4.79 (b) 4.80 (a) 4.81 (a) 4.82 (a) 4.83 (b) 4.84 (b)
4.85 (c) 4.86 (b) 4.87 (a) 4.88 (a) 4.89 (b) 4.90 (d) 4.91 (a)
4.92 (a) 4.93 (b) 4.94 (c) 4.95 (c) 4.96 (d) 4.97 (a) 4.98 (a)
4.99 (a) 4.100 (b) 4.101 (d) 4.102 (b) 4.103 (d) 4.104 (a) 4.105 (a)
4.106 (a) 4.107 (d) 4.108 (a) 4.109 (a)

4.1 four, p-n-p-n 4.2 minority carrier 4.3 Ê dv ˆ 4.4 holding
ÁË dt ˜¯
4.5 forward break over 4.6 gate 4.7 gate
4.8 forward, positive 4.9 independent 4.10 delay time, rise time, spread time
4.11 turn ON 4.12 reverse recovery time, gate recovery time 4.13 rise, hot spots
4.14 IRR, reverse recovery 4.15 inverter, faster 4.16 unidirectional 4.17 bidirectional
4.18 bidirectional, minority 4.19 anti-parallel 4.20 first, third
4.21 four, three, minority 4.22 anode, cathode, gate 4.23 block 4.24 1
4.25 two, block, conduct 4.26 AC 4.27 first, positive, third, negative
4.28 R-C snubber 4.29 rise, small. 4.30 positive, forward 4.31 holding, larger
4.32 Amplitude, decrease 4.33 less 4.34 greater, less
4.35 case, conduction angle 4.36 noise or surge 4.37 increases
4.38 spurious noise, gate non-trigger voltage 4.39 one, both 4.40 dv/dt
4.41 four, three 4.42 positive, negative 4.43 low 4.44 reverse biased
4.45 current, minority 4.46 turn OFF, turn ON) 4.47 reverse (negative), cathode
4.48 small 4.49 holding 4.50 tail
4.51 forward blocking 4.52 current, voltage 4.53 large
4.54 Amplitude, dig/dt 4.55 reverse avalanche 4.56 increasing
4.57 turn-OFF snubber capacitance
Single-PhaSe
Uncontrolled rectifierS
5
5.1 IntroductIon
The rectifier circuit is used to convert ac input voltage into fixed dc voltage. Figure 5.1
shows the block diagram of a rectifier with its input voltage and output voltage. This
circuit is also called ac-to-dc converter (uncontrolled). Power diodes are used in rectifier
circuit. When a power semiconductor diode is forward biased, it conducts if input voltage
is greater than cut-off voltage of diode. As soon as power diode is reverse biased, it turns
OFF and stop conducting. Usually single-phase and three-phase rectifier circuits are used
as dc power supply in different applications depending upon the voltage and current rating.
Generally, dc power supply is used in dc motor drives, battery charging system, regulated
dc power supplies, electronics equipments and different home appliances.
Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of a rectifier
In this chapter, the classification of rectifiers based on their number of phases and the
type of devices used, are discussed. The working principle and analysis of single-phase
uncontrolled half wave and full wave rectifiers with resistive, inductive, capacitive and
back emf-type loads are also incorporated in this chapter.
5.2 classIfIcatIon of rectIfIers

The phase controlled converters or rectifiers are used to convert ac power into dc power.
These converter circuits are divided into two types such as uncontrolled converters and
controlled converters. When diodes are used in ac-to-dc converter circuits, the circuit is
known as uncontrolled ac-to-dc converters or uncontrolled rectifiers. In these circuits,
diodes are turned ON and OFF depending upon the supply voltage and circuit parameters
such as resistive, inductive and capacitive load. Converters are also divided based on positive and
negative half-cycle voltage. When either positive or negative half-cycle voltage is applied to load,
it is known as half wave converter. But, if both positive as well as negative half-cycle voltages are
applied across load, it is called as full-wave converter.
Usually phase control converters are classified as single-phase converter and three-phase converter.
Then both single-phase and three-phase converters are also classified depending upon the number of
pulses in cycle. The single-phase uncontrolled and controlled converters are classified as single pulse
and two pulse converters. Different types of three-phase converters are three pulse, six pulse and
twelve pulse converters. The detail classification of rectifiers are given in Figs. 5.2(a), (b) and (c).
Fig. 5.2 (a), (b) and (c) Classification of rectifiers
5.3 sIngle-Phase half-Wave uncontrolled

converter WIth resIstIve load
Figure 5.3 shows the single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier with resistive (R) load and it is
the most simple rectifier circuit or ac-to-dc converter with fixed output voltage. In this circuit, diode
conducts when it is forward biased. When the diode (D) is ON, switch is closed and current flows
through diode and load resistance RL. When the diode is reverse biased, diode stops conduction and
switch becomes opened and current does not flows through diode as well as load.
Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 243
A single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit

consists of a diode (D) in series with a load
resistance RL, as depicted in Fig. 5.3. AC input
voltage (n) is applied as input of the half-wave
rectifier and this voltage can be expressed as
v = Vm sin w t = Vm sin q
= 2V sin w t = 2V sin q
where n is the instantaneous voltage Fig. 5.3 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit
Vm is the maximum voltage, with resistive (R) load
V is the rms voltage
w = 2p f is the angular frequency
wt = q is the angle
During the positive half cycle of the ac input voltage, the diode is forward biased and conducts
when the instantaneous voltage is greater than the knee voltage or cut-in voltage of diode Vg about 1
V for power diodes. The peak value or the maximum voltage Vm is very large compared to the cut-in
voltage Vg , it is assumed Vg = 0 for rectifier circuit analysis. When the diode conducts, the diode acts
as a closed switch and the current flows through load and diode. Therefore, there is a voltage drop
across the load resistance RL. The output voltage at load RL will be same as the positive half cycle
ac input voltage. The waveform of load current must be same as output voltage wave shape, but its
amplitude depends on the load resistance RL.
In the negative half cycle of ac input voltage the diode is reverse biased and it will not conduct.
Consequently, there is no current flow through the diode and the voltage drop across the load is zero.
Hence, the output voltage is zero in the negative half cycle of input voltage. It is clear from Fig. 5.4 that
Fig. 5.4 (a) Input voltage (b) Output voltage (c) Load current (d) Diode voltage
only the positive half cycle of ac input voltage will be output across RL. Therefore, only the positive
half cycle of the ac input voltage can be utilised to deliver power to the circuit.
The output voltage is not a steady dc voltage. It is a pulsating dc voltage with a ripple frequency
equal to the input voltage frequency. The output voltage can be measured by a dc voltmeter and output
current can be measured by a dc ammeter. The output voltage and output current waveforms can be
displayed on cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). As the circuit uses only the positive half cycle of the
ac input voltage, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.
5.3.1 average (dc) output voltage

Assume that a sinusoidal ac input voltage is applied to a half-wave rectifier. The instantaneous value
of sinusoidal ac input voltage is
v = Vm sin w t = Vm sin q
where Vm is the maximum voltage
q = wt is the angle
The output voltage across the load can be expressed as
vo = Vm sin wt = Vm sin q 0£q£p
=0 p £ q £ 2p
Area under the curve over the full cycle
Vav = Vdc = VO =
base
where, base = full cycle time = T
T p 2p
Ú vdq Ú Vm sin q dq + Ú 0 ◊ dq
p
= 0
= 0
T 2p
p
Ú Vm sin q dq
V V V
= 0
= m | - cos q | p0 = m [ +1 - (-1)] = m = 0.318 Vm
2p 2p 2p p
Form the above expression we can say that the average or dc output voltage is 31.8% of the maximum
ac input voltage.
5.3.2 average (dc) load current

The instantaneous current i flows though the diode D and the load resistance RL and it can be expressed as
i = Im sin wt = Im sin q 0£q£p
=0 p £ q £ 2p
Vm
where I m = as Rf is the ON state resistance of diode and RL is load resistance
R f + RL
Vm
As RL >> Rf, I m =
RL
Area under the curve i over the full cycle
I av = I dc =
base
where, base = full cycle time = T
T p 2p
Ú idq Ú I m sin q dq + Ú 0 ◊ dq
p
= 0
= 0
T 2p
p
Ú I m sin q dqIm
= 0
=| - cos q |p0
2p 2p
I I V
= m [ + 1 - (-1)] = m = 0.318 I m where, I m = m
2p p RL
From the above equation, it is justified that the average or dc load current is 31.8% of the maximum
load current.
5.3.3 diode voltage

When a voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the dc voltage, the reading of voltmeter
is not equal to IdcRf as the diode can not be modelled as a constant resistance. Actually diode has two
resistance values such as Rf is the resistance during ON state of diode and its value is low, Rr is the
resistance during OFF state of diode and its value is very high (infinite).
The dc voltmeter measures the average value of the voltage across the terminals of diode.
1 Èp 2p ˘
Vdc¢ = Í Ú I m R f sin q dq + Ú Vm sin q dq ˙
2p Î 0 p ˚
Im Vm 1 I R
= Rf - = [ I m R f - I m ( R f + RL )] = - m L
p p p p
The negative result means that positive terminal of voltmeter must be connected to cathode and
the negative terminal is connected to the anode.
The dc voltage across diode is equal to the voltage across load resistance RL. This result is correct
as the sum of the dc voltage around the complete circuit must be zero.
5.3.4 Peak Inverse voltage (PIv) of diode

During the negative half cycle of ac input voltage, the diode is reverse biased. As diode will not conduct,
no current flows through diode and load resistance RL, the voltage drop across RL is zero. When KVL
is used in the circuit, we find that the negative voltage appears as reverse voltage across the diode.
The maximum value of reverse voltage is the peak of the negative voltage of ac input voltage which
is equal to Vm. Thus the maximum reverse voltage is called the peak inverse voltage (PIV) Therefore
the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a diode in a half wave rectifier is Vm.
5.3.5 rMs value of load current

A root-mean-square (RMS) ammeter is used to measure RMS current. As per definition of the RMS
value, squared of a periodic function time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve, which
represents the square of the function, divide by the time period.
1
È 1 2p ˘2
I rms = Í Ú
2
i dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚
1
È 1 p 2p ˘2
= Í ( Ú I m2 sin 2 q dq + Ú 0 dq )˙
Î 2p 0 p ˚
1
È I 2 p 1 - cos 2q ˘ 2 I m
=Í m Ú dq ˙ =
Î 2p 0 2 ˚ 2
The pulsating load current is sum of the dc load current and ripple (ac) current. The instantaneous
value of the ripple (ac) current is iripple is the difference between the instantaneous value of current i
and the dc current Idc. The instantaneous value of the ripple current can be expressed as
iripple = i – Idc
The rms value of the ripple current is
1 1
È 1 2p ˘ 2 È 1 2p 2 2 ˘2
I ripple,rms = Í Ú (i - I dc ) dq ˙ = Í
2
Ú (i + I dc - 2iI dc )dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚ Î 2p 0 ˚
2p 1
Ú (i + I dc - 2iI dc ) dq = 2p ( I rms - I dc ), we get I ripple,rms = [ I rms - I dc ]2

2 2 2 2 2 2
As
0
5.3.6 rMs value of output voltage

A root-mean-square (RMS) voltmeter is used to measure RMS voltage. According to the definition of
the RMS value, squared of a periodic function time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve, which
represents the square of the function, divide by the time period. The RMS output voltage is equal to
1
È 1 2p ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú
2
v dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚
1
È 1 p 2p ˘2
= Í ( Ú Vm2 sin 2 q dq + Ú 0 dq )˙
Î 2p 0 p ˚
1
È V 2 p 1 - cos 2q ˘ 2 Vm
=Í m Ú dq ˙ =
ÎÍ 2p 0 2 ˚˙ 2
The pulsating output voltage is sum of the dc output voltage and ripple component (ac) output
voltage. The instantaneous value of the ripple (ac) output voltage is vripple is the difference between the
instantaneous value of voltage v and the dc output voltage Vdc. The instantaneous value of the ripple
output voltage can be expressed as
vripple = v – Vdc
The rms value of the ripple output voltage is
1 1
È 1 2p ˘2 È 1 2p ˘2
vripple,rms = Í Ú
2
vripple dq ˙ = Í Ú (v - Vdc ) dq ˙
2
Î 2p 0 ˚ Î 2p 0 ˚
1
È 1 2p ˘2
=Í Ú (v
2
+ Vdc2 - 2 vVdc ) dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚
2p
Ú (v + Vdc - 2vVdc ) dq = 2p (Vrms - Vdc ) , we find
2 2 2 2
As
0
1
Vripple,rms = [Vrms
2
- Vdc2 ] 2
5.3.7 ripple factor

The output voltage and output current have two components such as dc component and ac component.
The ac component part of the output voltage and current is called a ripple. The ripple factor can be
expressed as
RMS value of the ac component of pulsating output voltage
Ripple factor (g ) =
dc component of pulsating output voltage
Vripple,rms
=
Vdc
1
We know that Vripple,rms = [Vrms
2
- Vdc2 ] 2
Therefore, the ripple factor is
1 2
[V 2 - V 2 ] 2 ÊV ˆ V
g = rms dc = Á rms ˜ - 1 = FF 2 - 1 as Form factor FF = rms
Vdc Ë dc ¯
V Vdc
Vm V
In a half-wave rectifier, Vrms = and Vdc = m ,
2 p
Vrms Vm p p
then the ratio = ¥ =
Vdc 2 Vm 2
So ripple factor is
2 2
ÊV ˆ Êpˆ
g = Á rms ˜ - 1 = Á ˜ - 1 = 1.21
Ë Vdc ¯ Ë 2¯
The ripple factor in terms of current is
I ripple,rms
I dc
1
We know that I ripple,rms = [ I rms
2
- I dc
2 2
]
So the ripple factor is
1 2
[ I 2 - I 2 ]2 ÊI ˆ I
g = rms dc = Á rms ˜ - 1 = FF 2 - 1 as Form factor FF = rms
I dc Ë I dc ¯ I dc
Im I
In a half-wave rectifier, I rms = and I dc = m ,
2 p
I rms I m p p
I dc 2 Im 2
So ripple factor is
2 2
ÊI ˆ Êpˆ
g = Á rms ˜ - 1 = Á ˜ - 1 = 1.21
Ë dc ¯
I Ë 2¯
Therefore, AC component is 121% of DC output voltage is present in the output of a half-wave rectifier.
Consequently, the half-wave rectifier is not a very good ac to dc converter.
5.3.8 rectifier efficiency

The efficiency of a single-phase half-wave rectifier is defined as the ratio of dc power output to the load
to the ac power input from the secondary winding of transformer. The efficiency can be expressed as
dc power output to load Pdc
h= =
ac power input Pac
The dc power output to the load is
Pdc = I dc
2
RL = I av
2
RL
The ac power input to the rectifier is Pac = I rms
2
( R f + RL )
2 2
I dc RL Ê I ˆ RL
Then h = = Á dc ˜
I rms ( R f + RL ) Ë I rms ¯ ( R f + RL )
2
Im I I I 2 2
In a half-wave rectifier, I rms = and I dc = m , then the ratio dc = m ¥ =
2 p I rms p Im p
2
Ê 2ˆ RL 4 RL 0.406
Therefore, efficiency h = ÁË p ˜¯ ( R + R ) = 2 ( R + R ) = Rf
p
f L f L
1+
RL
As RL >> Rf, hmax = 0.406 = 40.6%
Consequently, it is proved that the maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6% when the
load resistance is very large compared to the forward resistance of a diode.
5.4 sIngle-Phase half-Wave rectIfIer cIrcuIt WIth

transforMer couPled InPut
Figure 5.5 shows a single-phase half-wave
rectifier circuit with transformer coupled input.
The transformer coupling has the following
advantages:
1. The applied ac voltage across the
rectifier can be stepped up or stepped
down from the ac supply as per Fig. 5.5 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with
requirement transformer coupled input
2. AC power supply is electrically isolated
from the rectifier circuit.
3. The output voltage of transformer V2 is obtained from the expression

V2 N 2
=
V1 N1
where, V1 = rms voltage across the primary winding of transformer
V2 = rms voltage across the secondary winding of transformer
N1 = number of turns in the primary winding of transformer
N2 = number of turns in the secondary winding of transformer
5.4.1 transformer utilization factor (tuf)

It is defined as the ratio of dc power output to the load and the ac power rating of transformer. The
transformer utilisation factor (TUF) can be expressed as
dc power output to load Pdc
TUF = =
ac power rating of transformer Pac ratingof transformer
Im
The dc power output to the load is Pdc = I dc
2
R where, I dc =
p
The ac power rating of transformer is
I Vm
Pac ratingof transformer =
¥ m where, Vm = I m ( R f + RL )
2 2
So the transformer utilisation factor (TUF) of single-phase half-wave rectifier with transformer coupled
input is
2
Ê Im ˆ
ÁË ˜¯ RL 2 2 RL
TUF = p = 2
I m ( R f + RL ) I m p R f + RL
¥
2 2
If RL >> R f , TUFmax = 0.287 . Therefore in a half-wave rectifier, the maximum TUF is 0.287.
5.5 fourIer serIes of outPut voltage of a

half-Wave rectIfIer
The output voltage can be expressed as
•
v(t ) = Vo + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
n =1,2,3.....
2p p
1 1 2V V
Vo = Ú v ◊ d (w t ) = 2p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = p = p
m
2p 0 0
where, V is the rms voltage and maximum voltage Vm = 2V
1 2p 1p
an = Ú v ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0 p0
2V 1 + (- 1)n Vm 1 + (- 1)n
= = for n = 2, 4, 6......
p 1 - n2 p 1 - n2
=0 for n = 1, 3, 5,......
1 2p 1 p
bn = Ú v ◊ sin n w td (w t ) = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0 2p 0
V V
== m for n = 1
2 2
=0 for n = 2, 3,......
After substituting the Vo, an and bn in the output voltage equation, we get
2V V 2 2V 2 2V 2 2V
v= + sin w t - cos 2w t - cos 4w t - cos 6w t ºº
p 2 3p 15p 35p
It is clear from the above equation, the output
voltage contains dc voltage and harmonics at
multiples of fundamental frequency as depicted
in Fig. 5.6.
5.6 sIngle-Phase half-

Wave rectIfIer
cIrcuIt WIth L load
rectifier circuit with inductive load. If the
switch is closed at wt = 0, the diode is forward
biased and starts conducting. Figure 5.8 shows Fig. 5.6 DC output voltage and harmonics
the output voltage and current waveforms. The output voltage across inductance (L) is equal to input
voltage and it can be expressed as
v = 2V sin w t = Vm sin w t
di
= vo = L
dt
di
Therefore, L = Vm sin w t
dt
V V
or i = m Ú sin w tdt = - m cos w t + C Fig. 5.7 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with
L wL
inductive load
(5.1)
Vm
Since i = 0 at wt = 0, we can write that 0 = - +C
wL
Vm
Then, C =
wL
After substituting the value C in Eq. (5.1), the current flow through load can be expressed as
V V V
i = - m cos w t + m = m (1 - cos w t )
wL wL wL
di
The output voltage is vo = L = Vm sin w t
dt
Fig. 5.8 Input voltage, output voltage and current waveform
The average value of output voltage is

1 2p
V0 = Ú V sin w t ◊ dw t = 0
2p 0 m
At wt = p, the current is maximum. The maximum value of current is
V V 2V
I max = m (1 - cos w t ) = m (1 + 1) = m
wL wL wL
The current waveform consists of dc or average current Iav and fundamental current I1.
Average value of current is
1 2p Vm
I av = I 0 = Ú (1 - cos w t ) ◊ dw t
2p 0 w L
Vm I max
==
wL 2
The rms value of fundamental component of current is
1
È 1 2p
Ê Vm ˆ
2 ˘2
I1 = Í Ú ÁË w L ˜¯ (1 - cos w t ) dw t ˙
2
ÎÍ 2p 0 ˚˙
Vm I
= = av
2w L 2
The voltage across diode is zero.
5.7 sIngle-Phase half-

Wave rectIfIer
cIrcuIt WIth C load
rectifier circuit with capacitive (C) load.
When the switch(s) is closed at wt = 0, the
diode is forward biased and starts conducting.
The input voltage, current flow through
Fig. 5.9 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with
capacitor, voltage across capacitor and diode capacitive load
are depicted in Fig. 5.10.
Fig. 5.10 Input voltage, output voltage, current waveform and voltage across diode
The voltage across capacitance (C) is equal to input voltage and the current flow through capacitance is
dv d
i=C = C (Vm sin w t ) = w CVm cos w t
dt dt
At wt = 0, the current flows through capacitance C is maximum. The value of capacitor current
Imax at wt = 0 is
I max = w CVm cos(cos 0) = w CVm
The output voltage across capacitance is
1
vc = Ú i ◊ dw t = Vm sin w t
C
p p
At w t = , the capacitor is charged to maximum voltage Vm and after w t = , the voltage across
2 2
p
capacitance remains constant. After w t = , the voltage across diode is
2
vD = v - vC = Vm sin w t - Vm = Vm (sin w t - 1)
5.8 sIngle-Phase half-Wave rectIfIer cIrcuIt

WIth RL load
A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive
and inductive (RL) load is depicted in Fig. 5.11.
During the positive half-cycle of supply voltage,
inductance (L) stores energy and it continue in
conduction state during negative half-cycle and
release the stored energy for a certain period. The
extension of conduction of diode depends upon
the value of inductance (L). The output voltage is
sum of the voltage across R and L. As inductance
(L) is a energy storage device, the energy storage
over a cycle is zero. Therefore, the energy storage
must be equal to the energy release over a cycle. Fig. 5.11 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit
with RL load
The voltage and current waveforms of a single-
phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier with RL load are shown in Fig. 5.12. The voltage across resistance
is VR = iR. The waveform of VR will be same as current waveform. The voltage across inductance (L)
is vL = v – vR as depicted in Fig. 5.11. When v > vR, the energy is stored in L and it is represented by
area A. While v < vR, the energy is released by L and it is represented by area B. The area A must be
equal to area B as shown in Fig. 5.12.
At wt = 0, diode starts to conduct and current flows through it. At wt = p, diode conducts and current
flow through it continuously. After wt > p, inductor always provides a negative voltage at cathode of
diode and the cathode voltage is more negative than anode. Consequently anode is positive with respect
to cathode. The diode continues its conduction though the supply voltage becomes negative and it
conducts till the current through it reduces to zero. It is clear from Fig. 5.12 that the diode conducts up
to wt = b which is known as extinction angle or cut-off angle. Therefore, output voltage across the RL
load is available from 0 to b and the supply voltage is available across diode during the angle b to 2p.
Fig. 5.12 Input voltage, output voltage, load current, and voltage across diode of a single-phase half-wave
rectifier circuit with RL load
When the diode conducts, the voltage equation is

di
2V sin w t = L
+ Ri at 0 £ w t £ b
dt
where, V is the rms voltage and input current is i
After solving the above differential equation, the output current can be expressed as
2V È - Rt ˘
i (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) + sin f ◊ e L ˚ 0 £ wt £ b
Z
or i (t ) =
2V Èsin (w t - f ) + sin f ◊ e - tanwtf ˘ 0 £ wt £ b (5.2)
Z ÍÎ ˙˚
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 and tan f =
R
and current i(t) = 0 for b £ wt £ 2p
The first term of the above equation is sinusoidal and it becomes zero at certain value of wt. The
second term is exponential component which is always positive. When L is large and R is small,
the time constant is large and the amplitude of exponential term decreases very slowly. Therefore,
di
the current flows after the input voltage becomes zero at wt = p. Due to the induced voltage L
dt
across inductance by the decreasing current, diode

anode terminal is maintained positive with respect
wL
to cathode for the period p £ w t £ b . If is very
R
high or infinite, the cut-off angle b will be about 2p
or 360°. At wt = b, current i = 0.
After substituting wt = b in Eq. (5.2), the extinction
or cut-off angle can be computed from
2V ÈÍ
b ˘
-
tan f ˙
i (t ) = 0 = Îsin( b - f ) + sin f ◊ e ˚
Z
Rb
- wL
or sin(b - f ) + sin j ◊ e =0 (5.3)
R
Rb Fig. 5.13 Variation of b with
- wL wL
R cos b - e
or =
wL sin b
R
The variation of cut-off angle b with respect to for single-phase half-wave rectifier is shown in
wL
Fig. 5.13. It is clear from Fig. 5.13 that the conduction angle b is increased with increasing inductance
R
and decreasing .
wL b
-
Equation (5.3) can be written as sin f ◊ e tan f = sin (f - b ) . Therefore, b is function of f and the
b
- tan f
graphical solution of sin f ◊ e = sin (f - b ) is depicted in Fig. 5.14.
b
-
tan f
Fig. 5.14 Graphical solution of sin f ◊ e = sin ( f - b )
The average voltage drop across a pure inductance is zero in steady state condition. Consequently
average output voltage across R is equal to the voltage drop across RL. Then the dc output voltage
is given by
1 b 1 b Vm b Vm
Vo = Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú V sin q ◊ dq = 2p [ - cos q ]0 = 2p (1 - cos b )
2p 0 2p 0 m
The rms value of output voltage is
1 b 1 b 2 2 Vm 2 Ê sin 2 b ˆ
2
Vrms = Ú (V sin w t ) 2
◊ d (w t ) = Ú V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = ÁË b - ˜
2p 0 m 2p 0 m 4p 2 ¯
1
V Ê sin 2 b ˆ 2
or Vrms = m Á b - ˜
2 p Ë 2 ¯
The average output current is
1 b Vm È - ˘
Rt
Io = Ú ÍÎsin (w t - f ) + sin f ◊ e L ˙˚ ◊ d (w t )
2p 0 Z
b
1 Vm Èsin(w t - j ) + sin j ◊ e - wRL w t ˘ ◊ d (w t )
= Ú Î ˚
2p 0 R 2 + w 2 L2
wL - R wt wL
For large value of time constant, tends to infinity, e w L Æ 0 and R 2 + w 2 L2 Æ R . As << 1 ,
R R
Ê wLˆ
f = tan -1 Á = 0 . Therefore the average output current is
Ë R ˜¯
1 b Vm
Io = Ú sin w t ◊ d (w t )
2p 0 R
Vm V
= [ - cos q ]0b = m (1 - cos b )
2p R 2p R
5.9 sIngle-Phase half-Wave uncontrolled rectIfIer

WIth RL load and free WheelIng dIode
In single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier with RL load, the load current i is discontinuous and
it is same as line current. When a free wheeling diode is connected across load, only positive half
cycle supply voltage is applied across load as
diode D will conduct from 0 to p duration and
line current flows during 0 to p duration. Single-
phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier with RL
load and free wheeling diode is shown in Fig.
5.15. At wt = p, conduction of diode D stops and
free wheeling diode DF starts conduction. If D is
OFF and DF starts conduction, load current flows
through RL load and diode DF, but the magnitude
of load current decreases. The load current may
be continuous or discontinuous depending upon Fig. 5.15 Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier
b or the value of inductance L. with RL load and free wheeling diode
Figure 5.16 shows the voltage and current waveforms. The output voltage is same as resistive
load, but the load current waveform is different. Due to presence of free wheeling diode in Fig. 5.15,
the output voltage is always positive. The energy stored in inductance L during positive half cycle
of input voltage is supplied to load resistance R through free wheeling diode. As a result the system
efficiency will be improved.
Fig. 5.16 Input voltage, output voltage, load current, and voltage across diode of a single-phase half-wave
rectifier circuit with RL load and free wheeling diode
The average dc output voltage is

1 p 2V
VO = Ú 2V sin w td (w t ) = p
2p 0
Vo 2V
The average load current is IO = =
R pR
Example 5.1 The dc output voltage of a single-phase uncontrolled rectifier with RL load is 75 V. If the input
voltage is 220 V, determine (a) the cut-off angle b and (b) rms value of output voltage.
Solution
Given: Vo = 75 V, V = 220 V
The maximum voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 V = 311.12
b
1 V
2p Ú0 m
(a) The dc output voltage is Vo = V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = m (1 - cos b )
2p
311.12
or 75 = (1 - cos b )
2p
or 1.513 = (1 - cos b )
or cos b = –0.513
The cut-off angle b = 239° = 4.169 rad
(b) The rms value of output voltage is
1 1
V Ê sin 2 b ˆ 2 311.12 Ê sin (2 ¥ 239) ˆ 2
Vrms = m Á b - ˜¯ = ÁË 4.149 - ˜¯ = 169 V
2 p Ë 2 2 p 2
5.10 Battery charger

When the output of a half-wave rectifier
circuit is connected to a battery, the rectifier
can be used as a battery charger. Figure 5.17
shows a battery charger circuit. When input
voltage v is greater than battery voltage (E),
diode D starts conduction. When the input
voltage v is less than battery voltage, diode
is reverse biased and it turns OFF. The input
voltage, output voltage, load current and
v-E waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 5.18. Fig. 5.17 Battery charger circuit
The angle a at which diode starts conduction can be computed from the equation
2V sin a = E at wt = a
Ê E ˆ
or a = sin -1 Á
Ë 2V ˜¯
When the input voltage v is less than battery voltage, diode is reverse biased at b = p – a and it is turned
OFF. Therefore, the charging current flows though load during a £ wt £ b and it can be expressed as
v - E Vm sin w t - E 2V sin w t - E
i= = =
R R R
Fig. 5.18 Input voltage, output voltage, load current and v-E waveforms
The average charging current is

1 b Vm sin w t - E
I av = Ú d (w t )
2p a R
1
= (2Vm cos a + 2 Ea - p E ) as b = p - a
2p R
When the charging current (Iav) is known, the resistance value can determined from
1
R= (2Vm cos a + 2 Ea - p E )
2p I av
The rms current flows through battery is Irms and it is given by
1 b (Vm sin w t - E )2
2
I rms = Ú d (w t )
2p a R2
1 ÈÊ V 2 ˆ Vm2 ˘
= ÍÁ m + E 2 ˜ (p - 2a ) + sin 2a - 4Vm E cos a ˙
2p R 2 ÍÎË 2 ¯ 2 ˙˚
2
During charging power loss across resistance is I rms R
Power delivered to battery is Pdc = EIdc = EIav as Idc = Iav
The rectifier efficiency is
Power delivered to the battery Pdc
h= =
Power input to the rectifier Pdc + I rms
2
R
The peak inverse voltage of diode is PIV = Vm + E
Example 5.2 A 24 V, 500 W-Hr is charged using single-phase half-wave rectifier as depicted in Fig. 5.17.
The input ac voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz. The average charging current is 5 A. Determine (a) conduction angle of
diode, (b) the value of current limiting resistance R, (c) rms battery current, (d) charging time, (e) rectification
efficiency and (f) peak inverse voltage of diode.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, E = 24 V, Iav = 5 A
The maximum voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 V = 311.12
(a) The angle a is equal to
Ê E ˆ Ê 24 ˆ
a = sin -1 Á = sin -1 Á = 3.682∞ = 0.064 rad
Ë 2V ˜¯ Ë 2 ¥ 220 ˜¯
Then b = p - a = 180∞ - a = 180∞ - 3.682∞ = 176.318∞
The conduction angle of diode is b - a = 176.318∞ - 3.682∞ = 172.636∞
(b) The value of current limiting resistance R is
1
R= (2Vm cos a + 2 Ea - p E )
2p I av
1
= (2 ¥ 2 ¥ 220 cos 3.682 + 2 ¥ 24 ¥ 0.064 - p ¥ 24) = 17.47 W
2p ¥ 5
(c) The rms current flows through battery is Irms
1 ÈÊ Vm2 ˆ Vm2 ˘
2
I rms = 2 ÍÁ + E 2 ˜ (p - 2a ) + sin 2a - 4Vm E cos a ˙
2p R ÎÍË 2 ¯ 2 ˚˙
1 ÈÊ 311.122 ˆ
= ÍÁË + 242 ˜ (p - 2 ¥ 0.064)
2p ¥ 17.472 Î 2 ¯
311.122 ˘
+ sin(2 ¥ 3.682) - 4 ¥ 311.12 ¥ 24 ¥ cos 3.682 ˙
2 ˚
1
= [147509.14 + 6203.26 – 29805.86] = 64.64
2p ¥ 17.472
Irms = 8.04A
(d) Power delivered to battery Pdc = EIdc = 24 ¥ 5 = 120 W
500 W-Hr = Pdc ¥ h = 120 ¥ h
Then h = 4.166 Hr
(e) The rectifier efficiency is
Power delivered to the battery Pdc 120
h= = = = 9.60%
Power input to the rectifier Pdc + I rms R 120 + 64.64 ¥ 17.47
2
(f) The peak inverse voltage of diode is PIV = Vm + E = 2 ¥ 220 + 24 = 335.12 V

5.11 sIngle-Phase full-Wave rectIfIer

Single-phase full-wave rectifier is a circuit through which a current flows through load in one
direction during the complete cycle (positive half cycle as well as negative half cycle) of input voltage.
Figure 5.19 shows the block diagram representation of a single-phase full-wave rectifier.
Fig. 5.19 (a) The block diagram of a single-phase full-wave rectifier (b) The output voltage waveform
There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier such as

1. Centre-tapped single-phase full wave rectifier
2. Single-phase bridge rectifier
In this section, the operation of centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier and single-phase
bridge rectifier are discussed elaborately.
5.12 centre-taPPed sIngle-Phase full-Wave rectIfIer

The circuit diagram of a centre-tapped single-
phase full-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 5.20.
This circuit consists of two diodes D1 and
D2 which are connected to the centre tapped
secondary winding of a transformer. The input
ac supply voltage is applied across the primary
winding of the transformer. The centre tap of
secondary winding is used as ground or zero
reference voltage.
The voltage between the centre tap of
transformer and either end of the secondary Fig. 5.20 Centre-tapped single-phase full-wave
winding is half of the secondary winding rectifier
V
voltage, VS = 2 . The operating principle of centre-tapped single-phase full wave rectifier is explained
2
below.
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding are depicted
in Fig. 5.21. The diode D1 is forward biased and the diode D2 is reverse bias. As a result, the diode D1
conducts as it is in ON state and the diode D2 is in OFF state and current flows through load resistance
RL and diode D1 as shown in Fig. 5.21.
Fig. 5.21 Centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier during positive half cycle of supply voltage
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding are depicted in
Fig. 5.22. The diode D2 is forward biased and the diode D1 is reverse bias. As a result, the diode D2
conducts as it is in ON state and the diode D1 is in OFF state and current flows through load resistance
RL and diode D2 as shown in Fig. 5.22.
Fig. 5.22 Centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier during positive half cycle of supply voltage
Hence the current flows through load in the same direction for positive as well as negative half
cycle of supply voltage. Consequently, the output voltage across the load resistance is full-wave
rectified dc voltage.
The centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier can also be represented by Figs. 5.23 and 5.24. In
Fig. 5.23, the load resistance RL is connected to the centre tap of transformer and cathodes of diodes
D1 and D2. In Fig. 5.24, one terminal of the load resistance RL is connected to the cathodes of diodes
D1 and D2 and other terminal of RL is grounded. The centre tap of transformer is also grounded.
Fig. 5.23 Centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier

Fig. 5.24 Another representation of Fig. 5.23
In a centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier, the voltage between the centre tap and either end
of secondary winding is half the secondary winding voltage. When V1 is the rms voltage across the
primary winding of transformer, V2 is the rms voltage across the secondary winding of transformer,
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding of transformer and N2 is the number of turns in the
secondary winding of transformer, the transformer secondary voltage is computed from
N2
V2 = V
N1 1
N2
If the turn ratio is 1, the secondary winding voltage is equal to the primary winding voltage
N1
(V2 = V1). Therefore, the voltage between the centre-tap of transformer and either end of the secondary
V V
winding of transformer is VS = 2 = 1
2 2
5.12.1 average or dc output voltage
Figure 5.25 shows the output voltage across the load and it can be expressed as
vo = Vm sin wt = Vm sin q 0£q£p
= –Vm sin wt = –Vm sin q p £ q £ 2p
where, Vm is the maximum voltage across each half of the secondary winding
Area under the curve over the half cycle
Vav = Vdc = VO =
base
where, base = half cycle time
p p
Ú vdq Ú Vm sin q dq
= 0
= 0
p p
Vm p V
= - cos q 0 = m [ +1 - (-1)]
p 2p
2Vm
= = 0.636Vm
p
From the above expression we can say that the average or DC output voltage is 63.6% of the
maximum AC input voltage and it is double that of a half-wave rectifier. Hence a full-wave rectifier
is two times effective than a half-wave rectifier.
Fig. 5.25 (a) Input voltage (b) Output voltage (c) Load current waveforms

The instantaneous current i flows though the diode D and the load resistance RL and it can be
expressed as
= –Im sin wt = –Im sin q p £ q £ 2p
Vm
where, I m =
RL
Area under the curve i over the half cycle
I av = I dc =
base
p p
Ú idq Ú I m sin q dq
= 0
= 0
p p
Im p
=
- cos q 0
p
I 2I V
= m [ +1 - (-1)] = m = 0.636 I m where, I m = m
p p RL
From the above equation, it is justified that the average or DC load current is 63.6% of the maximum
load current.
5.12.3 Peak Inverse voltage (PIv)

In a centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier, each diode is alternately forward biased and reverse
biased. If the secondary voltage VS has the polarity, the anode of the diode D1 is at Vm and anode of
D2 is at –Vm. As the diode D1 is forward biased, its cathodes is at same potential as its anode and its
voltage is Vm. Therefore, the total reverse voltage across the diode D2 is
PIV = Vm – (–Vm) = 2Vm
The maximum reverse voltage at which each diode must be with stand is equal to the maximum
secondary voltage or two times of the maximum voltage across each half of the secondary voltage (2Vm).
5.12.4 rMs value of load current

The rms value of load current is given by
1
È 1 2p ˘2
I rms =Í Ú
2
i dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚
1 1
È 1 p 1 2p ˘2 È 1 p ˘2
= Í Ú ( I m sin q )2 dq + Ú (- I m sin q ) dq ˙ = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 q dq ˙
2
Î 2p 0 2p p ˚ Îp 0 ˚
1
È I 2 p 1 - cos 2q ˘ 2 I m
=Í m Ú dq ˙ =
Îp 0 2 ˚ 2
The pulsating load current is sum of the dc load current and ripple (ac) current. The instantaneous
value of the ripple (ac) current is iripple is the difference between the instantaneous value of current i
and the dc current Idc. The instantaneous value of the ripple current can be expressed as
iripple = i – Idc
The rms value of the ripple current is
1 1
È 1 2p ˘È 12 2p ˘2
I ripple,rms = Í Ú
2
iripple =Í
dq ˙ Ú (i - I dc ) dq ˙
2
Î 2p 0 ˚ Î 2p 0 ˚
1
= [ I rms
2
- I dc
2 2
]
5.12.5 rMs value of output voltage

The rms value of output voltage is given by
1
È 1 2p ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú
2
v dq ˙
Î 2p 0 ˚
1 1
È 1 p 1 2p ˘2 È 1 p ˘2
= Í Ú (Vm2 sin q )2 dq + Ú (- Vm sin q ) dq ˙ = Í Ú Vm2 sin 2 q dq ˙
2
Î 2p 0 2p p ˚ Îp 0 ˚
1
È V 2 p 1 - cos 2q ˘ 2 Vm
=Í m Ú dq ˙ =
ÎÍ p 0 2 ˚˙ 2
The pulsating output voltage is sum of the dc output voltage and ripple component (ac) output
voltage. The instantaneous value of the ripple (ac) output voltage is vripple which is the difference
between the instantaneous value of AC input voltage v and the dc output voltage Vdc. The instantaneous
value of the ripple output voltage can be expressed as
Vripple = v – Vdc
The rms value of the ripple output voltage is
1 1
È 1 2p ˘È 12 2p ˘2
Vripple,rms = Í Ú
2
vripple =Í
dq ˙ Ú (v - Vdc ) dq ˙
2
Î 2p 0 ˚ Î 2p 0 ˚
1
= ÈÎVrms
2
- Vdc2 ˘˚
2
5.12.6 ripple factor

The ripple factor can be expressed as
Vripple,rms
Vdc
Therefore, the ripple factor can be expressed as
1
ÈVrms
2
- Vdc2 ˘˚
2
ÊV ˆ
2
g =Î
1
= Á rms ˜ - 1 As Vripple.rms = [Vrms
2
- Vdc2 ] 2
Vdc Ë Vdc ¯
V 2V
In a full-wave rectifier, Vrms = m and Vdc = m ,
2 p
Vrms Vm p p
Vdc 2 2Vm 2 2
So ripple factor is
2
ÊV ˆ Vrms
g = Á rms ˜ - 1 = FF 2 - 1 as form factor FF =
Ë Vdc ¯ Vdc
2
Ê p ˆ
=
ÁË ˜ - 1 = 0.482
2 2¯
The ripple factor in terms of current is
I ripple,rms
I dc
The ripple factor can be given by
1 2
[ I 2 - I 2 ]2 ÊI ˆ 1
g = rms dc = Á rms ˜ - 1 = FF 2 - 1 as I ripple,rms = [ I rms
2
- I dc
2 2
] and
I dc Ë I dc ¯
I rms
form factor FF =
I dc
Im 2Im
In a full-wave rectifier, I rms = and I dc = , and
2 p
I rms I m p p
the ratio = ¥ =
I dc 2 2Im 2 2
So ripple factor is
2 2
ÊI ˆ Ê p ˆ
g = Á rms ˜ - 1 = Á - 1 = 0.482
Ë I dc ¯ Ë 2 2 ˜¯
As a result, AC component is 48.2% of DC output voltage which is present in the output of a full
wave rectifier. Therefore, the full wave rectifier is a good ac to dc converter.
5.12.7 efficiency
The efficiency of a single-phase full-wave rectifier can be defined as the ratio of dc power output to
the load to the ac power input from the secondary winding of transformer. The efficiency of rectifier is
DC power output to load Pdc
h= =
AC power input Pac
The dc power output to the load is
Pdc = I dc
2
RL
The ac power input to the rectifier is
Pac = I rms
2
( R f + RL )
2 2
2
I dc RL Ê I ˆ RL Ê I ˆ R
Then h = 2 = Á dc ˜ = Á dc ˜ L as R f Æ 0
I rms ( R f + RL ) Ë rms ¯
I ( R f + RL ) Ë I rms ¯ RL
Im 2I
In a full-wave rectifier, I rms = and I dc = m ,
2 p
I 2I 2 2 2
then the ratio dc = m ¥ =
I rms p Im p
2
Ê2 2ˆ RL 8 RL 0.812
Thus, the efficiency is equal to h = Á = =
Ë p ˜¯ ( R f + RL ) p 2 ( R f + RL ) Rf
1+
RL
If RL >> Rf , hmax = 0.812 = 81.2%
Therefore, the maximum efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is 81.2% while the load resistance is
very large compared to the forward resistance of a diode. However, the efficiency is always less than
81.2% in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
The advantages and disadvantages of a centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier are given
below:
Advantages
1. The average or dc output voltage of full-wave rectifier is twice of the average or dc output
voltage of a half-wave rectifier.
2. The average or dc load current of full-wave rectifier is twice of the average or dc load current
of a half-wave rectifier.
3. The ripple factor is comparatively less than that of half-wave rectifier.
4. The efficiency of full-wave rectifier is about 81.2%, but the efficiency of half wave rectifier is
40.6%. Therefore, the efficiency is twice that of half-wave rectifier.
Disadvantages
1. The output voltage is half of the secondary winding.
2. The peak inverse voltage of diode is two times of the half-wave rectifier.
3. This is expensive due to the centre-tapped transformer, which generates equal voltages on either
half of the secondary winding.
5.13 sIngle-Phase BrIdge rectIfIer

Figure 5.26 shows a single-phase bridge rectifier
which consists of four diodes (D1, D2, D3 and D4)
and a load resistance RL.
During the positive half cycle of input voltage, the
diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and conduct as
they are in the ON state. The diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased and they are in the OFF state. The
current flows through load RL and diodes D1 and D2
as shown in Fig. 5.27. The output across load RL is
the positive half cycle of input voltage. Fig. 5.26 Single-phase bridge rectifier circuit
Fig. 5.27 Operation during positive half cycle of supply voltage
In the negative half cycle of input voltage, the diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct
as they are in the ON state. The diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and they are in the OFF state.
The current flows through load and diodes D3 and D4 as shown in Fig. 5.28. The output across load
RL is the negative half cycle of input voltage. As current flows in the same direction through load, a
full wave rectified output voltage is developed across the resistance RL.
Fig. 5.28 Operation during negative half cycle of supply voltage

Figure 5.29 shows the alternative arrangement of full-wave rectifier circuit. In Fig. 5.31(a), the load
resistance connected between A and B. In Fig. 5.29(b), one end of the load resistance is connected to
A and other end is connected to ground. The B point is also at ground potential.
Fig. 5.29 Alternative arrangement of single-phase bridge rectifier
5.13.1 average or dc output voltage

Figure 5.30 shows the input voltage, output voltage and load current waveforms. The output voltage
across the load can be expressed as
vo = vm sin wt = V sin q 0£q£p
= –Vm sin wt = –Vm sin q p £ q £ 2p
where, Vm is the maximum voltage across each half of the secondary winding
Area under the curve over the half cycle
Vav = Vdc = Vo =
base
Fig. 5.30 (a) Input voltage (b) Output voltage (c) Load current waveforms

p p
Ú vdq Ú Vm sin q dq
= 0
= 0
p p
Vm p V
= - cos q 0 = m [ +1 - (-1)]
p 2p
2Vm
= = 0.636Vm
p
From the above expression, we can say that the average or dc output voltage is 63.6% of the maximum
ac input voltage and it is double that of a half-wave rectifier. Hence, a full-wave rectifier is two times
effective than a half-wave rectifier.

The instantaneous current i flows though the diode D and the load resistance RL and it can be expressed as
= –Im sin wt = –Im sin q p £ q £ 2p
V
where, I m = m
RL
Area under the curve i over the half cycle
I av = I dc =
base
p p
Ú idq Ú I m sin q dq
= 0
= 0
p p
Im I 2I V
= | - cos q |p0 = m [ +1 - (-1)] = m = 0.636 I m where, I m = m
p p p RL
From the above equation, it is justified that the average or DC load current is 63.6% of the maximum
load current.
5.13.3 Peak Inverse voltage

In a single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier, the polarities of secondary windings corresponding to the
positive half cycle of input voltage is shown in Fig. 5.31. The diode D1 and D2 are forward biased and
they are in ON state. The diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and have a maximum voltage equal to
Vm. Therefore, peak inverse voltage of each diode is Vm.
Fig. 5.31 Polarities of secondary windings w.r.t. positive half cycle of input voltage
5.14 advantages and dIsadvantages of sIngle-Phase

full-Wave BrIdge rectIfIer
The advantages and disadvantages of a single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier are given below.
Advantages
1. No centre tap is required on the transformer.
2. This circuit allow the floating point output terminals and no terminal is grounded.
3. This transformer is less costly compared to centre tap transformer.
4. The average or dc output voltage and average or dc load current is twice of a half-wave rectifier.
5. The ripple factor is comparatively less than that of half-wave rectifier.
6. The efficiency of full-wave rectifier is about 81.2%, but the efficiency of half-wave rectifier is
40.6%. Therefore, the efficiency is twice that of half-wave rectifier.
Disadvantages
1. This circuit requires four diodes as compared to the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. As the
silicon diodes are less cost, this circuit is economical
2. The PIV rating of diodes is half of the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier.
3. The output voltage is half of the secondary winding.
4. The peak inverse voltage of diode is two times of the half-wave rectifier.
5. This is expensive due to the centre-tapped transformer, which generates equal voltages on either
half of the secondary winding.
5.15 coMParIson of rectIfIers

The comparison between half-wave rectifier, centre tapped full-wave rectifier and full-wave bridge
rectifier is given in Table 5.1
Table 5.1 Comparison of half-wave, centre-tapped full wave and full-wave bridge rectifier
Parameter Half-wave rectifier Centre-tapped full- Full-wave bridge

wave rectifier rectifier
Number of diodes 1 2 4
Peak inverse voltage Vm 2Vm Vm
Average of DC output 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm
voltage
RMS value of output Vm Vm Vm
voltage
2 2 2
Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Ripple frequency f 2f 2f
Percentage efficiency 40.6 81.2 81.2
Transformer utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812
factor
5.16 fourIer serIes of the outPut voltage of a

full-Wave rectIfIer
The output voltage of a full-wave rectifier can be expressed by Fourier series as given below:
•
v(t ) = Vo + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
n =1,2,3.....
The dc component of output voltage is Vo and its

value is
1p 1p
Vo = Ú vd (w t ) = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
p0 p0
2 2V 2Vm
= =
p p
1 2p
an = Ú v ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0 Fig. 5.32 DC output voltage and harmonics
p
2
= Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0
4 2V • -1
= Â for n = 2, 4, 6, 8……
p n = 2,4,6... ( n - 1)( n + 1)
=0 for n = 1, 3, 5, 7…..
2p p
1 2
bn = Ú v ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) = p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) = 0
p 0 0
After substituting the V0, an and bn in the output voltage equation, we get
2 2V 4 2V 4 2V 4 2V
v=- cos 2w t - cos 4w t - cos 6w t.....
p 3p 15p 35p
It is clear from the above equation, that the output voltage contains dc voltage and harmonics at
multiples of fundamental frequency as depicted in Fig. 5.32.
5.17 sIngle-Phase full-Wave uncontrolled

converter WIth RL load
Figure 5.33 shows the single-phase full-wave
uncontrolled converters with RL load. The
load current and line current depends on the
nature of load impedance and phase angle f.
For RL load, the current flows RL from 0 to
p duration and also from p to 2p.
When diode is forward biased, it conducts.
During the positive half cycle of supply
voltage, diode D1 and D2 are forward biased
and conduct. Similarly, during the negative Fig. 5.33 Single-phase full-wave rectifier with RL load
half cycle of supply voltage, diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct. When diodes D1 and
D2 conduct, current io flows through load from wt = 0 to wt = p. After wt = p, D3 and D4 become
forward biased and current flows through load from wt = p to wt = 2p. The input voltage, output
voltage, load current, voltage across VD1 and VD2 for a single-phase full-wave rectifier with RL load
are depicted in Fig. 5.34 when f < 90°. Figure 5.35 shows the input voltage, output voltage, load
current, current through D1, D2, D3 and D4, line current i for a single-phase full-wave rectifier with
RL load where f @ 90°.
Fig. 5.34 Input voltage, output voltage, load current, voltage across VD1 and VD2 for a single-phase full-wave
rectifier with RL load where f < 90°
The input voltage and output current can be expressed as

di
2V sin w t = L o + Rio (5.4)
dt
where, V is the rms voltage and output current is io
After solving the above differential Eq. (5.4), the output current can be expressed as
2V - Rt wL
io (t ) = sin (w t - f ) + Ae L where, f = tan -1 (5.5)
Z R
At wt = 0, the output current io = 0.
2V - R ¥0
Therefore, io (w t = 0) = 0 = sin (- j ) + Ae L
Z
Fig. 5.35 Input voltage, output voltage, load current, current through D1, D2, D3, and D4, line current i for a
Single-phase full wave rectifier with RL load where f @ 90°
2V
or A= sin f (5.5)
Z
After substituting the value of A in Eq. (5.5), we obtain
2V - Rt
io (t ) = [sin(w t - f ) + sin f ◊ e L ]
Z
2V - wt
or io (t ) =[sin(w t - f ) + sin f ◊ e tan f ]
Z
wL
where, Z = R + (w L ) and tan f =
2 2
R
The average output voltage can be expressed as
1p 2 2V
VO = Ú 2V sin w td (w t ) = p
p0
Example 5.3 A single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is fed from a 220 V, 50 Hz supply. It consists
of four diodes, a load resistance 20 W and a very large inductance so that the load current is constant. Determine
(a) the average or dc output voltage, (b) average load current, (c) average value of diode current, (d) rms value of
diode current, (e) the rms value of input current, (f) the dc output power and (g) the input power factor. Assume
all diodes are ideal.
Solution
The maximum input voltage is Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 V = 311.125 V
(a) The dc output voltage is
2V 2 ¥ 311.12
Vav = Vo = m = = 198.165 V
p p
(b) Average load current is
V 198.165
I av = I o = av = = 9.9 A
R 20
(c) Average value of diode current is
I ¥ p I av 9.9
I av of diode = av = = = 4.95 A
2p 2 2
(d) The rms value of diode current is
2
I av ¥ p I av 9.9
I rms of diode = = = = 7.0 A
2p 2 2
(e) The rms value of input current is
2
I av ¥p
I rms of input current = = I av = 9.9 A
p
(f) The dc output power is Pdc = Vav I av = Vo I o = 198.165 ¥ 9.9 W = 1961.83 W
(g) We know that V ¥ I rms of input current ¥ cos f = Pdc
The input power factor is
Pdc 1961.83
cos f = = = 0.9
V ¥ I rms of input current 220 ¥ 9.9
5.18 sIngle-Phase full-Wave uncontrolled

converter WIth R-L-E load
Figure 5.36 shows a single-phase full-wave rectifier with R-L-E load. When the input voltage v is greater
than E, the load current flows. The relation between input voltage and load current can be expressed as
di
2V sin w t = L o + Rio + E for io ≥ 0
dt
where, V is the rms voltage and load current is io, and E is battery voltage
After solving the above differential equation,

the output current can be expressed as
2V - Rt E
io (t ) = sin (w t - f ) + Ae L - (5.6)
Z R
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 and tan f =
R
The single-phase full-wave rectifier with
R-L-E load can be operating in continuous
current mode and discontinuous current mode.
Fig. 5.36 Single-phase full-wave rectifier with R-L-E load
5.18.1 continuous current Mode operation

Input voltage, rectifier output voltage, battery voltage, output load current and input line current
waveforms of single-phase full-wave rectifier with R-L-E load during continuous mode operation is
depicted in Fig. 5.37. For continuous load current, at wt = p, io = Io, then the value of A is
Ê E 2V ˆ Rp
A = Á Io + - sin f ˜ e L w
Ë R Z ¯
After substituting the value of A in Eq. (5.6), we get
sin (w t - f ) + Á I o + E - 2V sin f ˜ e L ( w ) -
2V Ê ˆ R p -1 E
io (t ) = (5.7)
Z Ë R Z ¯ R
Fig. 5.37 Continuous mode operation

At wt = 0, io = Io, then we can write

2V Ê ˆ Rp E
Io = sin (- f ) + Á I o + E - 2V sin f ˜ e L w - (5.8)
Z Ë R Z ¯ R
At wt = p, io = Io, then we obtain
sin (p - f ) + Á I o + E - 2V sin j ˜ e L ( w w ) -
2V Ê ˆ R p -p E
Io = (5.9)
Z Ë R Z ¯ R
Using the above equations, we get the current Io is equal to
-R p
2V 1+ e Lw E
Io = sin f -
Z -R p
1- e Lw R
After substituting the value of Io in Eq. (5.7), we obtain
- Rt
2V 2 2V e L E
io (t ) = sin (w t - f ) + sin f -
Z Z - RL wp R
1- e
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 and tan j =
R
5.18.2 discontinuous current Mode operation

Figure 5.38 shows input voltage, rectifier output voltage, battery voltage, and output load current
waveforms of single-phase full-wave rectifier with R-L-E load during discontinuous mode operation.
Fig. 5.38 Discontinuous mode operation

For discontinuous current, the load current flows from wt = a to wt = b.

Then Vm sin a = E
E E E
or a = sin -1 = sin -1 = sin -1 x where, x =
Vm 2V 2V
If v is greater than E, the load current flows. The relation between input voltage and load current io
can be expressed as
di
2V sin w t = L o + Rio + E (5.10)
dt
where, V is the rms voltage and output current is io, and E is battery voltage.
After solving the above differential Eq. (5.10), the output current can be expressed as
2V - Rt E
i (t ) = sin (w t - f ) + Ae L - (5.11)
Z R
-1 w L
where, Z = R + (w L ) and f = tan
2 2
R
For discontinuous load current, at wt = a, io = 0 then the value of A is
ÊE 2V ˆ Rp
A=Á - sin (a - f )˜ e L w
ËR Z ¯
Ê ˆ E
sin (w t - f ) + Á E - 2V sin (a - f ) e L ( w - t ) ˜ -
2V R a
io (t ) =
Z ËR Z ¯ R
At wt = b, io = 0, then we get
2V
io (t ) = 0 =
ÊE
sin (b - f ) + Á -
2V ( ) E
R a -b ˆ
sin (a - f )e L w ˜ -
Z ËR Z ¯ R
The value of b can be determined by numerical analysis.
5.19 effect of transforMer leakage Inductance In

full Wave rectIfIer WIth R-L load
Figure 5.39 shows a single-phase full-wave rectifier with inductive load where L is load inductance and
Lc is transformer leakage inductance or source inductance. Due to the presence of source inductance
Fig. 5.39 Single-phase full-wave rectifier with inductive load and transformer leakage inductance
in series with diode, the instantaneous transfer of load current from one diode to other diode is not
possible. Therefore current will flows through a diode though input voltage polarity becomes reverse.
As the input voltage becomes zero, the load current can be transferred gradually from one diode to
other diode as shown in Fig. 5.40.
Fig. 5.40 The effect of transformer leakage inductance in full-wave rectifier with inductive load
The current flow through diode D1 is iD1 and the current flow through diode D2 is iD2. During
transition, iD1 slowly decreases to zero and iD2 slowly increases to Io. At any instant, sum of two
diode currents iD1 + iD2 is equal to Io. During the dual conduction period, both diodes conduct and
the transformer secondary winding will be shorted though transformer leakage inductance (Lc). Since
the potential difference between the transformer centre tap point and the common cathode terminal is
zero, the output voltage across load during the overlap period (m) is zero.
The angle of overlap period (m) is function of transformer leakage inductance (Lc), applied voltage
and load current (Io). While the diode D1 is in the conducting state, the input voltage phase is reversed
at wt = p and the current flows through the diode D1 continuously.
The voltage across leakage inductance is
di
vLc = LC D1
dt
or vLc dt = LC diD1
2 T /2 2 Io
Therefore, Ú vLc dt = Ú LC diD1
T o T 0
2
or VLC = LC I o = 2 fL C I o
T
The average voltage across the leakage inductance is
w LC
VLC = 2 fL C I o = I
p o
The average output voltage of a single-phase full-wave rectifier is
2 2V w LC I o
Vav = -
p p
This output voltage is available from m to p.
The average output voltage of a single-phase full-wave rectifier in terms of overlap angle m is
1p 2V
Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = (1 + cos m ) (5.12)
pm p
1 m 2V
The load current is I o = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = (1 - cos m )
w LC 0 w LC
w LC I o
Therefore, cos m = 1 -
2V
After substituting the value of m in Eq. (5.12), we get
2V Ï Ê w LC I o ˆ ¸ 2 2V w LC I o
Vav = Ì1 + Á 1 - ˜˝ = p - p
p Ó Ë 2V ¯ ˛
Summary
d The rectifier circuit is used to convert ac input voltage into fixed dc voltage and electrical power flows from
the ac input to the dc output.
d Classification of rectifiers based on their number of phases, the type of devices used, circuit topology, and
the control mechanism are discussed in this chapter.
d The operation of single-phase uncontrolled half-wave and full-wave rectifiers with resistive (R), inductive
(L), and back emf (E) type loads explained in detail.
d Determine the characteristic parameters of single-phase uncontrolled rectifiers from the input voltage,
output voltage and current waveforms.
d The effect of transformer leakage inductance (LC) in performance of single-phase full-wave rectifier is also
incorporated in this chapter.
d Applications of filters to reduce ripples at output voltage are explained briefly.
5.1 A rectifier is used to
(a) convert ac to dc (b) convert dc to ac
(c) convert high voltage to low voltage (d) convert low voltage to high voltage
5.2 In a half-wave rectifier, the load current flows

(a) during complete cycle of the input voltage signal
(b) during positive half-cycle of the input voltage signal
(c) during negative half-cycle of the input voltage signal
(d) in either positive half cycle or negative half cycle of the input voltage signal
5.3 In a full-wave bridge rectifier, the current in each of the diodes flows for
(a) a complete cycle of the input signal. (b) a half cycle of the input signal
(c) less than half cycle of the input signal (d) more than half cycle of the input signal
5.4 The ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is
(a) 0.482 (b) 0.284 (c) 1.12 (d) 1.21
5.5 The ripple factor of a full wave bridge rectifier is
(a) 0.482 (b) 0.842 (c) 1.12 (d) 1.21
5.6 A bridge rectifier is preferable to a full-wave rectifier using centre tap transformer as
(a) it uses four diodes (b) its transformer does not require centre tap
(c) it requires much smaller transformer for the same output
(d) All of these
5.7 The function of a filter in a dc power supply is to
(a) remove ripples from the rectified output signal
(b) minimise voltage variations in ac input signal
(c) reduce harmonics in rectified output signal
(d) introduce more ripples into the rectified output signal
5.8 If a 50 Hz ac signal is fed to a rectifier, the ripple frequency of output voltage waveform for full bridge
rectifier is
(a) 25 Hz (b) 50 Hz (c) 100 Hz (d) 150 Hz
5.9 If the peak value of an applied voltage in a half-wave rectifier is Vm, the peak-inverse voltage of diode is
(a) Vm (b) 2Vm (c) 2Vm (d) 2 2Vm
5.10 A full-wave rectifier has twice the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier as
(a) full-wave rectifier use a transformer
(b) ripple factor of full-wave rectifier is less
(c) full-wave rectifier utilizes both half cycle of the input signal
(d) output frequency is equal to the line frequency.
5.11 If the peak value of an applied voltage in a full wave rectifier is Vm, the peak-inverse voltage of diode is
(a) Vm (b) 2Vm (c) 2Vm (d) 2 2Vm
5.12 If the peak value of an applied voltage of each half of secondary winding of centre tap transformer is Vm,
the peak-inverse voltage of each diode in a full wave rectifier using centre tap transformer is
(a) Vm (b) 2Vm (c) 2Vm (d) 2 2Vm
5.13 Which rectifier requires four diodes?
(a) half-wave rectifier
(b) full-wave bridge circuit full-wave voltage
(c) full-wave rectifier circuit using centre tap transformer
(d) voltage clipping circuit
5.14 Which rectifier requires two diodes?
(a) half-wave rectifier
(b) full-wave bridge circuit full-wave voltage
(c) full-wave rectifier circuit using centre tap transformer
(d) voltage clipping circuit
5.15 Which circuit requires one diode?
(a) half-wave rectifier (b) full-wave bridge circuit full-wave voltage
(c) full-wave rectifier circuit using center tap transformer

(d) None of the above
5.16 When 220 V dc voltage is connected to a bridge rectifier in place of ac source, the bridge rectifier will
be damaged due to short circuit of
(a) one diode (b) two diodes (c) three diodes (d) four diodes
5.17 The polarity of dc output voltage of a half-wave rectifier can be reversed by reversing
(a) transformer primary (b) the diode (c) transformer secondary (d) None of these
5.18 In a LC filter, the ripple factor
(a) increases with the load current (b) increases with the load resistance
(c) remains constant with the load current (d) decreases with the load current
5.19 The bleeder resistor is used in filter circuit of a dc power supply to
(a) reduce voltage regulation (b) improve voltage regulation
(c) improve filtering action (d) improve voltage regulation and filtering action
5.20 A capacitor filter rectifier provides
(a) poor voltage regulation (b) good voltage regulation
(c) voltage regulation remain constant (d) None of these
5.21 In a dc regulated power supply, the ripple factor is a measure of
(a) voltage regulation (b) filter efficiency
(c) diode rating (d) quality of power output
5.22 The use of a capacitor filter in a rectifier circuit provides satisfactory performance only while
(a) the load current is high (b) the load voltage is high
(c) the load current is low (d) the load voltage is low
fill in the Blanks

5.1 In a single-phase rectifier, power flows from the _________ side to the ________ side.
5.2 A rectifier is a power electronic converter which converts ________sources to dc voltage and current.
5.3 In an uncontrolled rectifiers, semiconductor device_______ is used where as in controlled rectifiers
semiconductor device_______ is used.
5.4 The ripple factor of the output voltage and current waveforms of a single-phase uncontrolled half wave
rectifier is __________.
5.5 Single-phase uncontrolled full-wave rectifier have ______ average output voltage and improved ripple
factor compared to a half-wave rectifier with resistive and inductive load.
5.6 In case of an inductive load, the ripple factor of the output current of the half-wave rectifier ________but
that of the output voltage becomes ________.
5.7 The output voltage of a single-phase full-wave rectifier with an inductive load is _______ of the load
parameters.
5.8 In continuous conduction, the load of a single-phase bridge rectifier must be ______.
5.9 In the _____ conduction mode, the output voltage of a single-phase bridge rectifier is _______ of load
parameters.
5.10 With highly _____ load the output voltage waveform of a full-wave rectifier may be independent of the
load parameters.
review Questions
5.1 Draw the circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier with R load. Explain its working principle. What is the
peak-inverse voltage of a diode? Determine the following parameters:
(a) dc output voltage (b) Average dc load current (c) rms output voltage
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor (f) Regulation (g) Efficiency
5.2 Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier using center-tap transformer and R load. Explain its
working principle. What is the peak-inverse voltage of a diode?. Determine the following parameters
(a) dc output voltage (b) Average d.c. load current (c) rms output voltage
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor (f) regulation (g) efficiency
5.3 Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit R load. Explain its working principle.
What is the peak-inverse voltage of a diode? Determine the following parameters
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor (f) Regulation (g) Efficiency
5.4 What are the advantages of a full wave bridge rectifier as compared to a full-wave center-tapped rectifier?
5.5 Give a list of comparison between a half-wave and full-wave rectifiers.
5.6 What is ripple factor? Why ripple factor is so important is power supply? Derive the expression of ripple
factor of a half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer.
5.7 What is the transformer utilisation factor (TUF)? Derive the expression of transformer utilisation factor
(TUF) of a half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer.
5.8 What is the efficiency of a rectifier? Derive the expression of efficiency of a half-wave rectifier and
full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer. Discuss the difference between half wave rectifier and
full-wave rectifier.
5.9 Discuss the effect of transformer leakage inductance on full-wave rectifier circuit with voltage and
current waveforms. Prove that the average output voltage of a single-phase full-wave rectifier is
2 2V w LC I o
Vav = - .
p p
5.10 Define filter. Why filters are used in a dc power supply?
5.11 What are the types of filters? Explain any two types with circuit diagram and waveform. What is the
function of bleeder resistance in filter?
5.12 Explain LC filter and Π-filter with suitable diagram.
5.13 In a half-wave rectifier circuit (Fig. 5.41),
a diode is connected in series with a load
resistance about 500 ohms. The forward
resistance of the diode is 25 ohms and the
reverse resistance is infinite. The rectifier
circuit is fed from a rms supply of 220 V. Fig. 5.41
Calculate (a) the dc output voltage at no load
(S is opened), (b) the dc load current (S is closed), (c) the dc output voltage at full load, (d) the percentage
of voltage regulation, (e) reading of voltmeter connected across the diode, (f) the dc power delivered to
the load and (g) efficiency at full load.
5.14 In a half-wave rectifier circuit with transformer
coupled input as shown in Fig. 5.42, ac input
is fed from a rms supply of V1 = 100 V.
Calculate (a) the dc load current, (b) the dc
output voltage, (c) rectifier efficiency and
(d) transformer utilisation factor. Assume the
diode is an ideal one.
5.15 In a half-wave rectifier circuit with transformer Fig. 5.42
coupled input, ac input is fed from a rms supply of 220 V. Determine (a) the dc load current, (b) the dc
output voltage and (c) the peak inverse voltage of diode.
5.16 In a half-wave rectifier circuit with transformer coupled input, the rms output voltage at secondary of
transformer is 110 V. Determine (a) turn ratio of transformer if ac input is fed from a rms supply of
220 V, (b) the dc load current, (c) the dc output voltage and (d) the dc power delivered to the load and
(e) efficiency and (f) transformer utilisation factor. Assume the forward resistance of the diode is zero
ohms and the reverse resistance is infinite.
5.17 The dc output voltage of a single-phase uncontrolled rectifier with RL load is 70 V. If the input voltage
is 200 V, compute (a) the cut-off angle b and (b) rms value of output voltage.
5.18 A centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier has two diodes and the transformer secondary voltage
from centre to each half of the secondary winding is 100 2 sin w t and the load resistance is 100 ohms.
Determine (a) the average value of load current, (b) the rms value of load current and (c) the peak inverse
voltage of each diode.
5.19 In a centre-tapped single-phase full-wave rectifier, the voltage across each half of the secondary winding
is 141.4 sin wt and the load resistance is 50 ohms. Determine (a) the average value of load current, (b)
the rms value of load current, (c) the ripple factor, (d) the dc power, (e) the ac power and (f) efficiency
of rectifier.
5.20 A 12 V, 250 Watt-Hour battery is charged using
single-phase half-wave rectifier as depicted in
Fig. 5.43. The input ac voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz.
The average charging current is 4 A. Determine (a)
conduction angle of diode, (b) the value of current
limiting resistance R, (c) rms battery current, (d)
charging time, (e) rectification efficiency and (f)
peak inverse voltage of diode.
5.21 The primary winding to secondary winding turns
ratio of a centre-tapped transformer is 4:1. The
primary winding of transformer is fed from 220 Fig. 5.43
V ac supply and the secondary voltage is connected to a single-phase full-wave rectifier which consists
of two diodes. The load resistance is 25 ohms. Determine (a) the average value of load current, (b) the
average value of current in each diode, (c) the rms value of load current, (d) the ripple factor, (e) the dc
power, (f) the ac power, (g) regulation and (h) efficiency of rectifier.
5.22 A single-phase full-wave rectifier using centre-tapped transformer of 100-0-100 V has two diodes. The
dc output current is Iav = 15 A. Determine (a) the value of load resistance that can be connected across
load terminals, (b) the average value of output voltage and (c) the peak inverse voltage of each diode.
Assume all diodes are ideal.
5.23 A single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is fed from a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. It consists of four
diodes, a load resistance 25 W and a very large inductance so that the load current is constant. Determine
(a) the average or dc output voltage, (b) average load current, (c) average value of diode current, (d) rms
value of diode current, (e) the rms value of input current, (f) the dc output power and (g) the input power
factor. Assume all diodes are ideal.
5.24 The turn ratio of the transformer used in a single-phase full-wave rectifier circuit is 2:1. The primary of
transformer is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine (a) the dc output voltage, (b) peak inverse
voltage of each diode and (c) output frequency. Assume all diodes are ideal.
5.25 A single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is fed from a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. It consists of four
diodes, a load resistance 25 W and a very large inductance so that the load current is constant. Determine
(a) the average or dc output voltage, (b) average load current, (c) average value of diode current, (d) rms
value of diode current, (e) the rms value of input current, (f) the dc output power and (g) the input power
factor. Assume all diodes are ideal.
5.26 The output voltage of a full-wave rectifier circuit is fed to an inductor filter. Design the inductor filter if the
ripple factor of filter output voltage is 4% for a load resistance 150 W and the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
5.27 The output voltage of a half-wave rectifier circuit is fed to a capacitor filter. Design the capacitor filter if
the ripple factor of filter output voltage is 1% for a load resistance 1000 W and the supply frequency is
50 Hz.
5.28 Design a LC filter when the output voltage of a full-wave rectifier circuit is fed to filter circuit and the
ripple factor is 0.01 and the supply frequency is 50 Hz. Assume L = 1.1 H.

5.1 (a) 5.2 (d) 5.3 (b) 5.4 (d) 5.5 (a) 5.6 (c) 5.7 (a)
5.8 (c) 5.9 (a) 5.10 (c) 5.11 (a) 5.12 (b) 5.13 (b) 5.14 (c)
5.15 (a) 5.16 (d) 5.17 (b) 5.18 (c) 5.19 (d) 5.20 (b) 5.21 (d)
5.22 (c)

5.1 ac, dc 5.2 ac voltage or current 5.3 diode, thyristor 5.4 1.21
5.5 higher 5.6 improves, poorer 5.7 independent 5.8 inductive
5.9 continuous, independent 5.10 inductive
Single-PhaSe
Controlled reCtifierS
6
6.1 IntroductIon
In uncontrolled converter or rectifier, the average output voltage is constant for a given
load and for fixed input voltage. When a variable input voltage is applied to uncontrolled
converter through an auto-transformer or varIac or tap changing transformer, the output
voltage will be varied. ac-to-dc converters or rectifiers using tap changing transformer
are shown in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 6.2. Figure 6.3 shows a full-wave rectifier circuit using
auto-transformer.
Fig. 6.1 ac-to-dc converter (half-wave rectifier) using tap changing transformer
Fig. 6.2 ac-to-dc converter (full-wave rectifier) using tap changing transformer
Fig. 6.3 ac-to-dc converter (full-wave rectifier) using auto-transformer

Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 287
Using the above circuits, the variable output voltage can be obtained very simply, but these circuits
have some demerits such as large size, heavy weight and high cost of transformers. Therefore, phase
controlled converters are used in place of half-wave and full-wave rectifier using auto transformer or
tap changing transformer. Single-phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in many industrial
applications such as electric traction systems, steel rolling mills, paper mills, textile mills, magnet
power supply and electro-mechanical devices, etc.
Power semiconductor devices such as power diodes and Scrs are used in phase controlled converter
as switches. These devices are turned ON and OFF sequentially and repetitively. Hence, the required
ac-to-dc power conversion is possible. When a power semiconductor diode is forward biased, it will
conduct if input voltage is greater than cut-off voltage of diode. as soon as power diode is reverse
biased, it becomes turned OFF and stop conducting. In case of Scrs, when Scrs are forward biased
and a triggering pulse is applied, it becomes turned ON and starts conducting. The conducting Scr
will be turned OFF while a reverse bias or commutation voltages appears across it. The turned OFF
process of Scr is known as commutation. The commutations of Scrs are two types such as natural
commutation (line commutation) and forced commutation.
In forced commutation, thyristor is turned OFF when a specially designed circuit is used to apply
a reverse voltage across Scr for short duration and Scr is forced to turn OFF. This commutation
method is also known as artificial commutation.
In natural commutation, the Scr will be turned OFF whenever the applied ac voltage of the circuit
becomes zero. This commutation method is called as line commutation. This technique is commonly
used in controlled rectifier circuit. In this chapter, all types of single phase controlled converters with
R, R-L and R-L-E load are discussed.
6.2 classIfIcatIon of sIngle-Phase controlled

rectIfIers
When diodes are replaced by Scrs in all the figures of chapter 5, a controllable output voltage can be
obtained by controlling the delay angle or firing angle or triggering angle a. Hence, a variable voltage
can be available at output terminals of controlled rectifiers. Similar to uncontrolled converters, single
phase controlled converters are classified as single-phase half-wave (1-pulse) controlled converter,
single-phase full-wave (2-pulse) controlled converter. Figure 6.4 shows classification of single-phase
controlled converters.
Fig. 6.4 Classification of single-phase controlled converters
6.3 sIngle-Phase half-controlled converters

WIth R load
The single-phase half-controlled converter with resistive (r) load is shown in Fig. 6.5. The thyristor
T1 will conduct only when the anode is positive with respect to cathode and a positive gate pulse is
Fig. 6.5 Single-phase half controlled converter with R load
applied, otherwise it can operate in forward blocking state and the load current can not flow though
thyristor. During the positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased. When the Scr
T1 is fired at wt = a, it starts conduction at wt = a and the load current flows through T1 and load.
after that the Scr T1 continue it’s conduction up to wt = p.
During the negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is reverse biased. Therefore, Scr T1
will be turned OFF due to natural commutation at wt = p and the current flow though load becomes
zero. consequently, the average or dc output voltage is controlled by varying the firing angle a.
Figure 6.6 shows the input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and voltage
across T1 for half-wave controlled rectifier with R load. It is clear from Fig. 6.6 that the output voltage
waveform is same as output or load current waveform due to zero phase difference in resistive load.
In this converter, the dc or average output voltage is always positive and the current is also positive.
as a result single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load operates in first quadrant and this
converter is known as half-wave semi-converter.
Fig. 6.6 Input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and voltage across T1 for half
wave controlled rectifier with R load
Since a is the delay or firing angle of thyristor T1, T1 will be OFF from wt = 0 to wt = a and
wt = p to wt = 2p. Thyristor T1 will be ON from wt = a to wt = p. Therefore the output voltage across
load is zero from wt = 0 to wt = a and wt = p to wt = 2p and the output voltage across load is equal
to input voltage from wt = a to wt = p. consequently, in a complete cycle, the output voltage across
load is available during positive half cycle only.
From the above discussion, the output voltage across the load can
be expressed as
vO = Vm sin w t for a £ w t £ p
=0 for 0 £ w t ·a and p £ w t £ 2p
The value of average output voltage is equal to
1 p 2V
VO = Ú 2V sin w td (w t ) = 2p (1 + cos a ) Fig. 6.7 Firing angle vs output
2p a
voltage
When a = 0, the average output voltage is
2V 2V
(1 + cos 0) =
2p p
If a = p, the average output voltage is
2V
(1 + cos p ) = 0
2p
2V
Hence the dc output voltage can be varied from to 0 when
p
firing angle varies from a = 0 to a = p as depicted in Fig. 6.7.
V 2V
The average current is Iav = Idc = Io = O = (1 + cos a ) .
R 2 Rp Fig. 6.8 Quadrant operation
The current waveform is similar to voltage waveform. Hence, the of single half-wave
converter operates in first quadrant only as shown in Fig. 6.8. controlled rectifier
The rms value of output voltage across load is with R load
1 1
È 1 p ˘2 È 1 p ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ = Í Ú 2V 2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p a ˚ Î 2p a ˚
1 1
ÈV 2 p ˘2 V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
Î 2p a ˚ 2 Îp Ë 2 ˚
Then the rms value of load current is
1
V V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = Í ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
R 2R Îp 2 ˚
The dc output power is equal to
Pdc = Vdc ¥ I dc = Vo ¥ I o
2V 2V
= (1 + cos a ) ¥ (1 + cos a )
2p 2 Rp
V2
= (1 + cos a )2
2p 2 R
The ac output power is equal to

Pac = Vrms ¥ I rms
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= Í p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ ¥ Í p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
2Î ˚ 2R Î ˚
V2 È1 Ê 1 ˆ˘
= Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
2 R ÍÎ p Ë 2 ˚
The from factor of load current is
1
I rms V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 2V
FF = = Í ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ (1 + cos a )
I av 2R Îp 2 ˚ 2 Rp
1 1
p È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 1 È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= Í Á p - a + sin 2a ¯˜ ˙ = Íp Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
(1 + cos a ) Î p Ë 2 ˚ (1 + cos a ) Î Ë 2 ¯ ˚
The ripple factor of load current is
1
1 È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
RF = FF - 1 =2
p Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ - (1 + cos a )
(1 + cos a ) ÎÍ Ë 2 ¯ ˙
˚
The volt ampere rating of transformer is
1
V2 È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
VA = VI rms = Í p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
2R Î ˚
Transformer utilisation factor is
Power delivered to load Pdc
TUF = =
Input VA VA
Vdc I dc Vo I o (1 + cos a )2
= = = 1
VI rms VI rms È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
p Í2p Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Î Ë 2 ¯˚
Example 6.1 a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load is shown in Fig. 6.5 and it is fed
from a 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply. When R = 10 W and a = 45°, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) rms
output voltage, (c) form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) rectification efficiency, (f) TUF and (g) peak inverse voltage
of thyristor.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, R = 10 W and a = 45° = 0.785 rad
(a) The average output voltage is equal to
2V 2 ¥ 220
VO = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 45) = 84.56 V
2p 2p
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ 2 220 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ = Í p ÁË p - 0.785 + 2 sin(2 ¥ 45)˜¯ ˙ = 148.35 V
2Î ˚ 2 Î ˚
(c) The form factor is equal to

Vrms 148.35
FF = = = 1.754
Vav 84.56
(d) The ripple factor of load current is
RF = FF 2 - 1 = (1.754)2 - 1 = 1.441
Vo 84.56
(e) The dc output current is I o = = = 8.456 A
R 10
The dc output power is equal to
Pdc = Vdc ¥ I dc = Vo ¥ I o = 84.56 ¥ 8.456 Watt = 715.039 Watt
Vrms 148.35
The rms output current is I rms = = = 14.835 A
R 10
Pac = Vrms ¥ I rms = 148.35 ¥ 14.835 = 2200.77 Watt
Pdc 715.039
rectification efficiency = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 32.49%
Pac 2200.77
(f) The volt ampere rating of transformer is
VA = VI rms = 220 ¥ 14.835 VA = 3263.7 VA
Power delivered to load Pdc 715.039
TUF = = = = 0.219
Input VA VA 220 ¥ 14.835
(g) Peak inverse voltage of thyristor is
PIV = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 V = 311.08 V
Example 6.2 a single phase 220 v, 1 kW heater is connected a half-wave controlled rectifier and it fed from
a 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the power absorbed by the heater when the firing angle is (a) a = 30° and
(b) a = 90°.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, a = 30° = 0.523 rad and a = 90° = 1.57 rad
V 2 2202
The resistance of heater is R = = = 48.4 W as W = 1 kW = 1000 Watt
W 1000
(a) The rms value of output voltage at a = 30° is
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ 2 220 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
Vrms =Í p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ = Í p ÁË p - 0.523 + 2 sin(2 ¥ 30)˜¯ ˙ = 153.34 V
2Î ˚ 2 Î ˚
The power absorbed by the heater at firing angle a = 30° is
2
Vrms (153.34)2
Pat ◊a = 30∞ =
= Watt = 485.809 Watt
R 48.4
(b) The rms value of output voltage at a = 90° is
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ 2 220 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
2Î ˚ 2 Î ˚
The power absorbed by the heater at firing angle a = 90° is

2
Vrms (110.01)2
Pat ◊ a = 90∞ = = Watt = 250.04 Watt
R 48.4
Example 6.3 a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load is supplied from a 230 v, 50 Hz ac
source. When average dc output voltage is 50% of maximum possible average dc output voltage, determine
(a) firing angle of thyristor, (b) average dc output voltage, (c) rms output voltage, (d) average and rms output
current and (e) average and rms current of thyristor. assume R = 20 W
Solution
Given: V = 230 v, R = 20 W
(a) When a = 0°, the maximum possible average output voltage is available across load.
2V 2V 2V
VO = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 0) =
2p 2p p
2V
Therefore VO max =
p
at firing angle a,
2V
VO at ◊a = (1 + cos a ) = 50% of maximum possible average dc output voltage
2p
2V
= 0.5VO max = 0.5 ¥
p
or (1 + cos a) = 1
Therefore, firing angle of thyristor is a = 90°
2V 2 ¥ 230
(b) average dc output voltage is VO = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 90) = 51.78 V
2p 2p
(c) the rms value of output voltage is
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ 2 230 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
2Î ˚ 2 Î ˚
as a = 90° = 1.57 rad
Vo 51.78
(d) The dc output current is I o = = = 2.589 a
R 20
V 115.01
The rms output current is I rms = rms = = 5.755 a
R 20
(e) Since the thyristor current waveform is same as output current waveform,
average current of thyristor is Io = 2.589 a
rms current of thyristor is Irms = 5.755 a

WIth RL load
a single-phase half-wave rectifier with RL load is depicted in Fig. 6.9. During the positive half-cycle,
thyristor T1 is forward biased and a gate pulse is applied at wt = a. Thyristor T1 becomes turn ON and
input voltage is applied across the load. Due to inductive load, the output current increases gradually
from zero to maximum value and then it starts decreasing. at wt = p, the polarity of input voltage has
been changed from positive to negative and the load

current flows through thyristor T1 due to inductive load.
after wt = p, thyristor T1 is subjected to reverse
anode voltage but it will not be turned OFF as load
current io is greater than the holding current. Therefore,
thyristor T1 remains in conduction. at wt = b, load
current io becomes zero and thyristor T1 is turned
OFF as it was already reverse biased. after wt = b, the
output voltage across load is zero and current io = 0.
as the thyristor T1 starts conduction at wt = a and it Fig. 6.9 Single-phase half controlled converter
is turned OFF wt = b, the conduction period of Scr with RL load
is b – a. b is known as extinction angle and b – a is
called the conduction angle.
From the above discussion, the output voltage across the load can be expressed as
vO = Vm sin w t for a £ w t £ b
=0 for 0 £ w t < a and b £ w t £ 2p
Figure 6.10 shows the waveforms of input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output
current and voltage across T1 for half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load. During the time from wt
= a to wt = p, the input voltage and output current are positive. Hence, power flows from the supply
Fig. 6.10 Input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and voltage across T1 for half
wave controlled rectifier with R L load
to load. This mode of operation is called rectification mode and

single-phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load operates in
I quadrant. During the time from wt = p to wt = b, the input voltage
is negative but output current is positive and power flows in
reverse direction from the load to supply. This mode of operation
is known as inversion mode and single phase half wave controlled
rectifier with RL load operates in Iv quadrant. Depending upon
the firing or delay angle a, the average or dc output voltage will
be either positive or negative. Therefore, the single phase half
wave controlled rectifier with RL load operates in two quadrants
as depicted in Fig. 6.11 and it is called full converter.
The voltage equation for the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.9 when Fig. 6.11 Quadrant operation
thyristor T1 is ON, is of single half-wave
di controlled rectifier with
2V sin w t = L o + Rio at a £ w t £ b RL load
dt
where, V is the rms input voltage and output current is io
The output current io can be expressed as
R
2V - t
io (t ) = is + it =
sin(w t - f ) + Ae L (6.1)
Z
The current io has two components such as steady state component (is) and transient component (it).
2V
The steady state component current is is (t ) = sin(w t - f ) and the transient component current
- t
R Z
is it (t ) = Ae L
at wt = a, current io= 0, Eq. (6.1) can be written as
2V -Ra
0= sin(a - f ) + Ae L w
Z
2V Ra
or A=- sin(a - f ) ¥ e L w
Z
after substituting the value of A in Eq. (6.1), we get
2V È Ra
- Rt ˘
io (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e e L ˚
Lw
Z
2V È - RL (w t - a ) ˘
or io (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e w ˚
Z
2V È f ˘
t -a
- wtan
or io (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚ for a £ w t £ b
Z
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 , and tan f =
R
It is clear from output current waveform that io = 0 at wt = b.
2V È - tan f ˘
b -a
Therefore, 0 = Îsin(b - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚
Z
b -a
-
or sin(b - f ) = sin(a - f )e tan f (6.2)
Equation (6.2) can be solved to find out the value of b.
Since the average output voltage across the inductor (L) is zero, the average output voltage across
RL is equal to the average voltage across R. The average output voltage can be determined from
1 b 2V
Vav = VO = Ú 2V sin w td (w t ) = (cos a - cos b )
2p a 2p
When b = p, the average output voltage is maximum. With increasing the value of b, the average
output voltage decreases.
1 1
È 1 b ˘2 È 1 b ˘2
ÎÍ 2p a ˚˙ Î 2p a ˚
1 1
ÈV 2 b ˘2 V È 1 ˘2
= Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙ = ÍÎ(b - a ) - 2 (sin 2 b - sin 2a )˙˚
Î 2p a ˚ 2 p
The form factor is

Vrms
FF =
Vav
1
V È 1 ˘2 2V
= Í(b - a ) - (sin 2 b - sin 2a )˙ (cos a - cos b )
2 p Î 2 ˚ 2p
1
È 1 ˘2
p Í(b - a ) - (sin 2 b - sin 2a )˙
= Î 2 ˚
cos a - cos b
Example 6.4 a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is connected across a RL load as shown in Fig.
6.9 and feeds from a 230 v, 50 Hz ac supply. When R = 10 W and L = 0.05 H, determine (a) the firing angle to
ensure no transient current and (b) the firing angle for the maximum transient.
Solution
Given: V = 230 v, f = 50 Hz, R = 10 W and L = 0.05 H
The current flows through load is
2V È - tan f ˘
wt - a
i (t ) = ÎÍsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚˙ for a £ w t £ b
Z
wL
Where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 , and tan f =
R
2V È - tan f ˘
wt - a
The transient current is it (t ) = - ÎÍsin(a - f )e ˚˙
Z
(a) When there is no transient current
2V È - tan f ˘
wt - a
it (t ) = 0 = - ÎÍsin(a - f )e ˚˙
Z
or sin (a – f) = 0
Then the firing angle to ensure no transient current is

wL 2p fL 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.05
a = f = tan -1
= tan -1 = tan -1 = 57.50∞
R R 10
(b) For maximum transient current,
sin(a - f ) = 1 = sin 90∞
or a = 90∞ + f = 90∞ + 57.50∞ = 147.50∞
Therefore, the maximum transient occurs at firing angle a = 147.50°

WIth RL load and free WheelIng dIode
In single-phase half-wave controlled converter with
RL load, a negative voltage will be output during
wt = p to wt = b. Due to negative voltage, the average
output voltage reduces with increasing b and the
performances of converter are reduced. To improve
converter performance, a freewheeling diode can be
connected across RL load. Figure 6.12 shows the circuit
diagram of single phase half-wave controlled converter
with RL load and freewheeling diode DF. as free
wheeling diode is connected across load, the converter
Fig. 6.12 Single-phase half-controlled converter
operates as half-controlled converter. This converter
with RL load and freewheeling diode
operates in continuous mode and discontinuous mode. DF
6.5.1 discontinuous Mode operation

During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and triggering pulse
is applied at wt = a. Just after application of triggering pulse, thyristor T1 becomes ON and input
voltage is applied across load and the current starts to flow through load. Then thyristor T1 conducts
from wt = a to wt = p. after wt = p, the polarity of input is reversed, but the load current still flows
due to inductance (L). This current decreases with time. at wt = p, diode DF is forward biased and
starts conduction. Then the decaying inductive current flows though load and diode DF up to b for
discontinuous mode operation. as the thyristor T1 is reverse biased, it turns OFF at wt = p. Figure
6.13 shows the waveforms of input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current
and voltage across T1 for half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and freewheeling diode during
discontinuous mode operation.
The dc or average output voltage will be
1 p 2V
Vav = VO = Ú 2V sin w td (w t ) = (1 + cos a )
2p a 2p
The dc or average output current will be
VO 2V
I av = = (1 + cos a )
R 2p R
Fig. 6.13 Input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and voltage across T1 for single
phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode (discontinuous mode)
6.5.2 continuous Mode operation

The continuous mode operation of single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and
freewheeling diode has two subparts such as (i) MODE I: Conduction of T1 (ii) MODE II : Conduction
of DF . Figure 6.14 shows input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and
voltage across T1 for half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and freewheeling diode.
MODE I: Conduction of T1 For continuous mode operation, the voltage equation for the circuit
as shown in Fig. 6.12, is
dio
2V sin w t = L + Rio for a £ w t £ p
dt
2V - Rt
io (t ) = is + it = sin(w t - f ) + Ae L (6.3)
Z
Fig. 6.14 Input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output current and voltage across T1 for single
phase half wave controlled rectifier with R-L load and freewheeling diode (continuous mode)
The current io has two components such as steady state component (is) and transient component (it).
2V
The steady state component current is is (t ) = sin(w t - f ) and the transient component current
Z
- RL t
is it (t ) = Ae
at wt = a, current io= Io, Eq. (6.3) can be written as

2V -Ra
Io = sin(a - f ) + Ae L w
Z
Ï 2V ¸ Ra
or A = ÌIo - sin(a - f ) ˝ ¥ e L w
Ó Z ˛
2V È 2V ˘ Ra
- Rt
io (t ) = sin(w t - f ) + Í I o - sin(a - f )˙ ¥ e Lw ¥ e L
Z Î Z ˚
2V È 2V ˘ - R (w t -a )
or io (t ) = sin(w t - f ) + Í I o - sin(a - f )˙ ¥ e Lw for a £ w t £ p
Z Î Z ˚
MODE II : Conduction of DF The voltage equation during conduction of DF, is
dio
0=L + Rio for p £ w t £ 2p + a
dt
The solution of the above equation is
- RL t
io (t ) = Ae (6.4)
p
at wt = p, t = and current io= Io1, Eq. (6.4) can be written as
w
- LRwp
I o1 = Ae
after substituting the value of A in Eq. (6.4), we obtain
- RL t
io (t ) = Ae
Rp
- Rt - R (w t - p )
or io (t ) = I o1e Lw e L = I o1e L for p £ w t £ 2p + a
The advantages of free wheeling diode in single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load
are given below:
1. Output voltage is increased
2. Input power factor can be improved
3. Load current wave form is improved
4. Performance of controlled rectifier is better
5. Since the stored energy in inductance L is transferred to R when the free-wheeling diode
conducts, the converter efficiency is improved.
6.6 sIngle-Phase half-Wave controlled converters

WIth RE load
Figure 6.15 shows a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RE load. actually the output
voltage of a half-wave rectifier circuit is connected to a battery (E) in series with a resistance R. This
circuit can be used as a battery charger.
When input voltage Vs is greater than battery voltage (E), thyristor is forward biased. as soon as a
gate pulse is applied between gate and cathode, thyristor T1 will be turned ON. When the input voltage
Vs is less than battery voltage, thyristor T1 is reverse biased and it becomes turned OFF. The input
voltages, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across

thyristor and load current waveforms are illustrated
in Fig. 6.16.
It is clear from Fig. 6.16 that at wt = q1 thyristor T1
is forward bias and starts conduction as gate pulse is
applied at wt = q1. The angle a = q1 can be computed
from the equation
2V sin q1 = E at w t = q1
Ê E ˆ Fig. 6.15 Single-phase half-wave controlled

q1 = sin -1 Á
Ë 2V ˜¯
or rectifier with RE load
Fig. 6.16 Input voltages, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current waveforms
wt = a = q1
at wt = q2, the input voltage Vs is less than battery voltage (E), thyristor T1 is reverse biased at q2
= p – q1 and it is turned OFF. Therefore the charging current flows though load during q1 £ wt £ q2
and it can be expressed as
vs - E Vm sin w t - E 2V sin w t - E
io = = =
R R R

1 q2 Vm sin w t - E
I av = Ú d (w t )
2p q1 R
1
=
(2Vm cos q1 - 2 E (p - 2q1 )) as q 2 = p - q1
2p R
When the charging current (Iav) is known, the resistance value can determined from
1
R= [2Vm cos q1 - 2 E (p - 2q1 )]
2p I av
The rms current flows through battery is Irms and it is given by
1 q2 (Vm sin w t - E )2
2
I rms = Ú d (w t )
2p q1 R2
1 q2 2 2
= Ú (Vm sin w t + E - 2Vm E sin w t )d (w t )
2
2p R 2 q1
1
= 2
[(Vm2 + E 2 )(p - 2q1 ) + Vm2 sin 2 q1 - 4Vm E cos q1 ]
2p R
2
During charging power loss across resistance is I rms R
Power delivered to battery is Pdc = EI dc = EI av as I dc = I av
The rectifier efficiency is
Power delivered to the battery Pdc
h= =
Power input to the rectifier Pdc + I rms
2
R
When the triggering pulse is applied at wt = a > q1, thyristor T1 will conducts from wt = a to wt = q2.
Then input voltages, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current waveforms
at wt = a > q1 are depicted in Fig. 6.17. Then the average charging current can be determined from
1 q2 Vm sin w t - E 1
I av = Ú d (w t ) = [V (cos a - cos q 2 ) - E (q 2 - a )]
2p a R 2p R m
The rms current flows through battery is Irms and it can be determined from
1 q2 (Vm sin w t - E )2
2
I rms = Ú d (w t )
2p a R2
1 q2 2 2
= Ú (Vm sin w t + E - 2Vm E sin w t )d (w t )
2
2p R 2 a
1 È 2 1 2 ˘
= ÍÎ(V + E )(q 2 - a ) - 2 V (sin 2q 2 - 2 sin 2a ) - 2Vm E (cos a - cos q 2 )˙˚
2
2p R 2
Therefore,
1
1 È 2 1 ˘2
I rms = Í(V + E 2 )(q 2 - a ) - V 2 (sin 2q 2 - 2 sin 2a ) - 2Vm E (cos a - cos q 2 )˙
2p R Î 2 ˚
Fig. 6.17 Input voltages, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current waveforms
at wt = a > q1
2
Power loss across resistance R is I rms R
Power delivered to battery is Pdc = EI dc = EI av as I dc = I av
Pdc + I rms
2
R
Input power factor is =
VI rms
Example 6.5 a 100 v battery is charged through a resistor R as depicted in Fig. 6.15. When the charger
circuit is fed from 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply and R is 5 W, compute (a) the minimum angle at which thyristor will
be turned ON, (b) the angle at which thyristor will be turned OFF, (c) maximum conduction period of thyristor,
(d) average charging current when a = 45°, (e) Power supplied to battery, (f) Power dissipated in resistor R and
(g) input power factor.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, f = 50 Hz, E = 100 v
(a) The minimum angle at which thyristor will be turned ON is a = q1 and it can be computed from the equa-
tion
Ê E ˆ Ê 100 ˆ
q1 = sin -1 Á = sin -1 Á = 20.70∞ = 0.3611 rad
Ë 2V ˜¯ Ë 2 ¥ 220 ˜¯
(b) The angle at which thyristor will be turned OFF is
q 2 = p - q1 = 180∞ - 20.70∞ = 159.29∞ = 2.778 rad.
(c) Maximum conduction period of thyristor is q2 – q1 = 159.20° – 20.70° = 138.59°
(d) The average charging current at firing angle a is

q2
1 Vm sin w t - E
I av =
2p
Ú R
d (w t ) where, Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 = 310.2 V
a
1
= [Vm (cos a - cos q 2 ) - E (q 2 - a )] where, a = 45∞ = 0.785 rad
2p R
1
= [ 2 ¥ 220(cos 45 - cos 159.29) - 100(2.778 - 0.785)] A = 9.923 A
2p ¥ 5
(e) Power supplied to battery is Pdc = EIdc = EIav = 100 ¥ 9.923 Watt = 992.3 Watt
(f) The rms current flows through battery is Irms and it is given by
1
È 21 1 2 ˘2
I rms = ÍÎ(V + E )(q 2 - a ) - 2 V (sin 2q 2 - 2 sin 2a ) - 2Vm E (cos a - cos q 2 )˙˚
2
2p R
1 È 1
= (2202 + 1002 )(2.778 - 0.785) - 2202 (sin(2 ¥ 159.29) - 2 sin(2 ¥ 45))
2p ¥ 5 ÍÎ 2
1
˘2
- 2 ¥ 310.2 ¥ 100(cos 45 - cos 159.29)˙
˚
= 22.419 a
2
(g) Power dissipated in resistor I rms R = 22.4192 ¥ 5 = 2513.05 Watt
Pdc + I rms
2
R 992.3 + 2513.05
(e) Input power factor is = = = 0.7107 lagging
VI rms 220 ¥ 22.419
Example 6.6 a 100 v battery is charged through a resistor R as depicted in Fig. 6.15. When the charger
circuit is fed from 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply and R is 5 W. If thyristor is triggered at a = 35° in every positive
cycle., compute (a) average charging current, (b) power supplied to battery, (c) rms value of load current,
(d) Power dissipated in resistor R and (e) input power factor.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, f = 50 Hz, E = 100 v, a = 35°
as per calculation in example 6.5, q1 = 20.70°
Therefore, q2 = 180° – 20.70° = 159.3°
(a) The average charging current at firing angle a is
q
1 2 Vm sin w t - E
I av =
2p a
Ú R
d (w t ) where, Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 = 310.2 V
1
= [Vm (cos a - cos q 2 ) - E (q 2 - a )] where, a = 35∞ = 0.61055 rad
2p R
1
= [ 2 ¥ 220(cos 35 - cos 159.29) - 100(2.778 - 0.61055)] A = 10.428 A
2p ¥ 5
(b) Power supplied to battery is Pdc = EIdc = EIav = 100 ¥ 10.428 Watt = 1042.8 Watt
(c) The rms current flows through battery is Irms and it is given by
1
1 È 2 1 2 ˘2
I rms = (V + E 2
)(q - a ) - V (sin 2q - 2 sin 2a ) - 2V E (cos a - cos q )
2p R ÍÎ
2 2 m 2 ˙
2 ˚
È 1 1
= ÍÎ(220 + 100 )(2.778 - 0.61055) - 2 220 (sin(2 ¥ 159.29) - 2 sin(2 ¥ 35))
2 2 2
2p ¥ 5
- 2 ¥ 310.2 ¥ 100(cos 35 - cos 159.29) ]2
1
= 22.4628 A
2
(d) Power dissipated in resistor I rms R = 22.46282 ¥ 5 = 2522.88 Watt
Pdc + I rms
2
R 1042.8 + 2522.88
(e) Input power factor is = = = 0.7215 lagging
VI rms 220 ¥ 22.4628
Example 6.7 The voltage across secondary winding of a single phase transformer is 200 v, 50 Hz and the
transformer deliver power to resistive load of R = 2 W through a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. If
the firing angle of thyristor is 90°, calculate (a) average dc output voltage, (b) average dc output current, (c)
rms output voltage, (d) rms output current, (e) form factor, (f) voltage ripple factor, (g) rectification efficiency,
(h) transformer utilization factor and (i) PIv of thyristor.
Solution
Given: V = 200, f = 50 Hz, R = 2 W, a = 90°
(a) The average output voltage is equal to
2V 2 ¥ 200
VO = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 90) = 45.038 V
2p 2p
Vo 45.038
(b) average dc output current is I o = = A = 22.519 A
R 2
(c) The rms value of output voltage is
1 1
V È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ 2 200 È 1 Ê p 1 ˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í p ËÁ p - a + 2 sin 2a ¯˜ ˙ = Í p ËÁ p - 2 + 2 sin(2 ¥ 90)¯˜ ˙ = 100 V
2Î ˚ 2 Î ˚
Vrms 100
(d) rms output current I rms = = = 50 A
R 2
(e) The form factor is equal to
Vrms 100
FF = = = 2.22
Vav 45.038
(f) The voltage ripple factor of load current is
RF = FF 2 - 1 = (2.22)2 - 1 = 1.982
(e) The dc output power is equal to
Pdc = Vdc ¥ I dc = Vo ¥ I o = 45.038 ¥ 22.519 Watt = 1014.21 Watt
Pac = Vrms ¥ I rms = 100 ¥ 50 = 5000 Watt
Pdc 1014.21
rectification efficiency ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 20.28%
Pac 5000
(f) The volt ampere rating of transformer is
va = VIrms = 200 ¥ 50 va
Transformer utilization factor is
Power delivered to load Pdc 1014.21
TUF = = = = 0.1014
Input VA VA 200 ¥ 50
(g) The peak inverse voltage of thyristor is
PIV = 2V = 2 ¥ 200 V = 282.84 V
6.7 sIngle-Phase half-Wave controlled converters

WIth RLE load
a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RLE load is depicted in Fig. 6.18. actually the output
voltage of a half-wave rectifier circuit is connected to dc motor as armature of dc motor is represented
by resistance R, inductance L and back emf (E). This circuit operation is similar to Fig. 6.15.
If the input voltage Vs is greater than back emf or
battery voltage (E), thyristor is forward biased. When
a gate pulse is applied between gate and cathode,
thyristor T1 will be turned ON. The minimum value
of firing angle is a = q1. The angle a = q1 can be
computed from the equation
2V sin q1 = E
Ê E ˆ
or q1 = sin -1 Á
Ë 2V ˜¯
Fig. 6.18 Single-phase half-wave controlled
When the firing angle is a < q1, the voltage E is rectifier with RE load
greater than input voltage and thyristor T1 is reverse
biased and it will not be turned ON. In the same way maximum firing angle of thyristor T1 is q2
= p – q1. The input voltages, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current
waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.19.
Fig. 6.19 Input voltage, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current waveforms
at wt = a > q1
The voltage equation for the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.18 when thyristor T1 is ON is
di
2V sin w t = L o + Rio + E at a £ w t £ b
dt
The solution of the above equation consists of steady state component current and transient
component current. The output current io can be expressed as
2V E - Rt
io (t ) = is + it = sin(w t - f ) - + Ae L (6.5)
Z R
2V E
The steady state component current is is (t ) = sin(w t - f ) - and the transient component
Z R
current is it (t ) = Ae - L t
R
a
at wt = a, t = and current io = 0, Eq. (6.5) can be written as
w
2V E -Ra
0= sin(a - f ) - + Ae L w
Z R
ÈE 2V ˘ Ra
or A=Í - sin(a - f )˙ ¥ e L w
ÎR Z ˚
2V È Ra
- Rt ˘ EÈ Ra
- Rt ˘
i (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e e L ˚ - Î1 - e ◊ e L ˚
Lw Lw
Z R
or 2V È - wRL (w t - a ) ˘ EÈ - wRL (w t - a ) ˘
i (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚ - Î1 - e ˚
Z R
or 2V È - tan f ˘
wt - a
EÈ - tan f ˘
wt - a
i (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚ - Î1 - e ˚ for a £ w t £ b
Z R
w L
Where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 , and tan f =
R
1 b Vm sin w t - E
I av = Ú d (w t )
2p a R
1
= [Vm (cos a - cos b ) - E (b - a )]
2p R
The average output voltage across load is
1
Vav = VO = I o R + E = [V (cos a - cos b ) - E (b - a )] + E
2p m
Example 6.8 a single-phase half-wave converter with RLE load is connected to 230 v, 50 Hz ac supply.
When R is 5 W, L is 2.5 mH, E = 125 v and firing angle of Scr is a = 45°, determine (a) the circuit turn off
time if load current is zero at 210°, (b) average charging current when a = 45° and (c) average output voltage
Solution
Given: V = 230 v, f = 50 Hz, E = 125 v, R = 5 W, L = 2.5 mH and a = 45°
The minimum angle at which thyristor will be turned ON is a = q1
Ê E ˆ Ê 125 ˆ
q1 = sin -1 Á = sin -1 Á = 22.60∞
Ë 2V ˜¯ Ë 2 ¥ 230 ˜¯
The angle at which thyristor will be turned OFF is b = 210°.

(a) as the firing angle of Scr is a = 45°,
Scr will conducts for b – a = 210° – 45° = 165° = 2.878 rad
2p - (b - a ) 2p - 2.878
Then the circuit turn OFF time is tc = = = 10.83 ms
w 2p ¥ 50
(b) The average charging current when a = 45°
1
I av = [V (cos a - cos b ) - E (b - a )]
2p R m
1
= [ 2 ¥ 230(cos 45 - cos 210) - 125 ¥ 2.878] = 4.82 A
2p ¥ 5
(c) The average output voltage across load is
Vav = VO = I o R + E = 4.82 ¥ 5 + 125 = 149.1 V
6.8 sIngle-Phase full-Wave-controlled rectIfIers

usIng centre taP transforMer
Figure 6.20 shows the single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer. Due to
use of center tap transformer, the circuit configuration is same as the single-phase full-wave uncontrolled
rectifier, but Scrs are used in place of diodes.
as Scr cathodes are commonly connected, single gate drive circuit is required to turn ON Scrs.
The gate drives circuit can be operated from single dc power supply and no isolation circuit is required,
but the Scrs have twice of the peak supply voltage 2 2V .
Fig. 6.20 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer
The input ac supply voltage is applied across the primary winding of the transformer. The centre
tap of secondary winding is used as ground or zero reference voltage. The voltage between the centre
tap of transformer and either end of the secondary winding is half of the secondary winding voltage.
6.9 sIngle-Phase full-Wave controlled rectIfIer

usIng centre taP transforMer WIth r load
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, the thyristor T1 is forward biased and the thyristor
T 2 is reverse bias. as soon as a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor T1 at wt = a, T1 conducts as it
is in ON state and the thyristor T2 is in OFF state and current flows through load resistance R and T1
as shown in Fig. 6.21.
Fig. 6.21 (a) and (b) Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with R load
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding have been reversed.
The thyristor T2 is forward biased and the thyristor T1 is reverse biased. as trigger pulse is applied
at wt = p + a, the thyristor T2 conducts as it is in ON state and the thyristor T1 is in OFF state and
current flows through load resistance R and thyristor T2 as shown in Fig. 6.22.
Hence the current flows through load in the same direction for positive as well as negative half cycle
of supply voltage. consequently, the output voltage across the load resistance is full-wave rectified
dc voltage. Thyristor T1 conducts from wt = a to wt = p and thyristor T2 conducts from wt = p + a to
wt = 2p. The input voltage, triggering pulses, output voltage, output current, voltage across thyristors
are depicted in Fig. 6.22.
The average or dc output voltage is
1p
Vo = Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
pa
2V
=
(1 + cos a )
p
If a = 0, the average output voltage is
2V 2 2V
(1 + cos 0) =
p p
If a = p, the average output voltage is
2V
(1 + cos p ) = 0
2p
Fig. 6.22 Input voltage, gate pulse, output voltage, voltage across thyristor and load current waveforms
at firing angle a for single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer
with R load
2 2V
Therefore, the dc output voltage can be varied from to 0
p
when firing angle varies from a = 0 to a = p as depicted in Fig. 6.23.
The average or dc load current is
Vo 2V
I o = I av = = (1 + cos a )
R pR
Since the current waveform is similar to the output voltage waveform, Fig. 6.23 Firing angle vs output
this converter operates in first quadrant only as shown in Fig. 6.24. voltage
The rms output voltage is

1 1
È1 p ˘2 È 1 p ˘2
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1 1
ÈV 2 p ˘2 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
=Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙ = 2V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p a ˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
The rms output current is

1
V 2V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
R R ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 ˚
The form factor is

1
V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 2V
FF = rms = 2V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙ (1 + cos a )
Vav Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚ p
The load ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1
The dc output power is Pdc = VavIav = VoIo
2V 2V 2V 2
= (1 + cos a ) ¥ (1 + cos a ) = 2 (1 + cos a )2
p pR p R
The ac output power is Pdc = VrmsIrms
1 1
È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 2V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= 2V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙ ¥ Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚ R ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 ˚
2V 2 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ V ÈÊ
2
1 ˆ˘
= Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ = ÍÁ p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
R ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 ˚ p R ÎË ˚
The rms value of transformer secondary current is

1
I 2V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms-transformer = rms = Á p - a + sin 2a ˜
2 2 R ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
The va rating of transformer is

va = 2vrms Irms-transformer
1
2V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
=2¥V ¥ Í 2p ÁË p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
2R Î ˚ Fig. 6.24 Quadrant operation of
1 single phase full wave
2V 2 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ˘ 2
controlled rectifier
= Í ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ using centre tap
R Î 2p 2 ˚
transformer with R load
The transformer utilisation factor (TUF) is

1
P 2V 2 2V 2 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
TUF = dc = 2 (1 + cos a )2 Á p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
VA p R R ÍÎ 2p Ë 2 ˚
2(1 + cos a )2
= 1
È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
p Íp Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Î Ë 2 ¯˚

usIng centre taP transforMer WIth RL load
Figure 6.25 shows the single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer at RL
load. In the positive half cycle of supply voltage, the thyristor T1 is forward biased and the thyristor
T 2 is reverse biased. When a gate pulse is applied to the thyristor T1 at wt = a, T1 becomes ON and
the thyristor T2 is in OFF state and current flows through RL load and T1 as depicted in Fig. 6.26.
Fig. 6.25 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RL load
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, the polarities of secondary winding have been
reversed. Though the voltage across thyristor T1 is negative, thyristor T1 will not be OFF due to
inductive load. When a trigger pulse is applied to the thyristor T2 at wt = p + a, the thyristor T2
conducts and the thyristor T1 will be in OFF state and current flows through RL load and T2 as shown
in Fig. 6.26.
Fig. 6.26 Voltage and current waveforms in discontinuous load current
The load current may be continuous or discontinuous depending upon the inductive load. When
the inductance value is very large, the load current will be continuous and each thyristor conducts for
180° duration. For a complete cycle, thyristor T1 conducts from wt = a to wt = p + a and thyristor
T2 conducts from wt = p + a to wt = 2p + a. voltage and current waveforms for continuous mode
operation are depicted in Fig. 6.27.
If the inductance value is low, the load current will be discontinuous and each thyristor conducts for
less than 180° duration. In a complete cycle, thyristor T1 conducts from wt = a to wt = b and thyristor
T2 conducts from wt = p + a to wt = p + b. voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous mode
operation are shown in Fig. 6.26.
6.10.1 discontinuous load current

For discontinuous load current, each thyristor conducts for less than 180° duration and the average
output voltage is
1b
pa
2V
= (cos a - cos b )
p
Fig. 6.27 Voltage and current waveforms in continuous load current

Vo
I o = I av =
R
2V
= (cos a - cos b )
pR
1 1
È1 b ˘2 È 1 b ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t ) 2 dw t ˙ = Í Ú 2V 2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1 1
ÈV 2 b ˘ 2 ÈV 2 1
b ˘2
=Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ d w t ˙ = Í w t - sin 2w t ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp 2 a˚
{ }
1
È1 1 ˆ ˘2
= V Í ( b - a ) + (sin 2a - sin 2b ) ˜¯ ˙
Îp 2 ˚
{ }
1
V V È1 1 ˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = Í (b - a ) + (sin 2a - sin 2 b ) ˜¯ ˙
R R Îp 2 ˚
V
The form factor is FF = rms
Vav
The load ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1

2V 2V 2V 2
= (cos a - cos b ) ¥ (cos a - cos b ) = 2 (cos a - cos b )2
p pR p R
The ac output power is Pac = VrmsIrms
I
The rms value of transformer secondary current is I rms-transformer = rms
2
The va rating of transformer is va=2v Irms-transformer
Pdc
The transformer utilisation factor (TUF) is TUF =
VA
6.10.2 continuous load current
For continuous mode operation, each thyristor conducts for
180° duration and the average output voltage is
1 p +a
p a
2 2V
= cos a
p
2 2V
When a = 0, the average output voltage is . If a = p/2,
p
the average output voltage is 0 and if a = p, the average output
2 2V
voltage is – . Therefore, the dc output voltage can be
p
2 2V 2 2V Fig. 6.28 Firing angle vs output voltage
varied from to – when firing angle varies from
p p
a = 0 to a = p as depicted in Fig. 6.28.
2 2V 2 2V
Since the load current is always positive and output voltage can be varied from to – ,
p p
this converter operates in first and fourth quadrant only as shown in Fig. 6.29.

1 1
È 1 p +a ˘ 2 È 1 p +a ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t ) 2 dw t ˙ = Í Ú 2V 2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1 1
p +a ˘ 2
ÈV 2 p + a ˘ 2 ÈV 2 1
=Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ d w t ˙ = Í w t - sin 2w t ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp 2 a ˚
=V
The voltage equation for the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.25, is
di
2V sin w t = L o + Rio for a £ w t £ p + a
dt
where V is the rms input voltage and output current is io.
Fig. 6.29 Quadrant operation of
single-phase full-wave
2V - Rt controlled rectifier us-
io (t ) =
sin(w t - f ) + Ae L (6.6) ing centre tap trans-
Z
former with RL load
at wt = a and wt = p + a, current io = Io, Eq. (6.6) can be written as
2V -Ra 2V - R (p + a )
Io = sin(a - f ) + Ae L w and I o = sin(p + a - f ) + Ae L w
Z Z
after solving above equation, we get
2V 2V 2 sin(f - a ) - (wtant -fa )
io (t ) = sin(w t - f ) + e
Z Z - p
1 - e tan f

usIng centre taP transforMer WIth RL load
and free WheelIng dIode
Figure 6.30 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RL load
and free wheeling diode. In single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier, the conduction period of Scr
depends upon firing angle a and the phase angle f. Due to RL load, the conduction of Scr continues
in the negative half cycle of supply voltage. The load current may be continuous or discontinuous
depending upon the load impedance.
Fig. 6.30 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RL load and free wheeling diode
When a free wheeling diode is connected across RL load of single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier
using centre tap transformer, this converter works as a semi-converter or half-controlled converter.
The switching of thyristors T1 and T2 and free wheeling diode DF for discontinuous load current are
depicted in Fig. 6.31. During the positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased
and triggering pulse is applied at wt = a. Then thyristor T1 is turned ON at wt = a and conducts upto
wt = p. at wt = p, the diode DF becomes forward biased as cathode is negative with respect to anode
and conducts. as a result, the load current flows through diode DF and RL load from wt = p to wt =
b for discontinuous load current. at wt = b, diode DF becomes OFF as load current reduces to zero.
Fig. 6.31 Switching of thyristors T1 and T2 and free wheeling diode for discontinuous load current
In the negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T2 is forward biased and triggering pulse is
applied at wt = p + a. Then thyristor T2 becomes turned on at wt = p + a and conducts up to wt = 2p.
at wt = 2p, the diode DF becomes forward biased and conducts. consequently, the load current
flows through diode DF and RL load from wt = 2p to wt = p + b for discontinuous load current. at
wt = p + b, diode DF becomes OFF as load current reduces to zero. The voltage and current waveforms
in discontinuous load current is depicted in Fig. 6.32. Similarly, Fig. 6.33 shows the voltage and current
waveforms in continuous load current.
Fig. 6.32 Voltage and current waveforms in discontinuous load current
The average output voltage is
1p 2V
Vo = Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = (1 + cos a )
pa p
Vo 2V
I o = I av = = (1 + cos a )
R pR
Fig. 6.33 Voltage and current waveforms in continuous load current
6.12 sIngle-Phase full-Wave controlled

rectIfIer usIng centre taP transforMer
WIth RLE load
Figure 6.34 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier with RLE load. This circuit operates just
like half-wave controlled rectifier with RLE load, but the only difference is that the load current flows
in both positive as well as negative half cycle of the supply voltage. The load current depends upon
the firing angle of thyristors, inductive load and the ratio of battery voltage to transformer secondary
voltage. The input voltage, gate pulse, and load current waveforms wt = a are illustrated in Fig. 6.35.
Fig. 6.34 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RLE load
The minimum value of firing angle of thyristor is amin, then

2V sin a min = E at w t = a min
Ê E ˆ
a min = sin -1 Á
Ë 2V ˜¯
or
The maximum firing angle is amax = p – amin
Fig. 6.35 Input voltage, gate pulse, and load current waveforms wt = a where q1 = amin and q2 = amax
Example 6.9 a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer is fed from a 230 v,
50 Hz ac source and it is connected a resistive load R = 10 W. Determine (a) the output voltage, (b) form factor,
(c) ripple factor, (d) efficiency, (e) transformer utilisation factor at a = 30°. Turn ratio of transformer is 1:1.
Solution
p
Given: a = 30∞ = 30 ¥ = 0.523 rad
180
as turn ratio of transformer is 1:1, the rms voltage between centre tap and other terminal of transformer second-
ary is V = 230/2 = 115 v.
(a) The average or dc output voltage is
1p 2V 2 ¥ 115
Vo = Vav = Ú
pa
2V sin w t ◊ dw t =
p
(1 + cos a ) =
p
(1 + cos 30∞) = 96.63 V
(b) The rms output voltage is

1 1
È1 p ˘2 È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ = 2V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
1
È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= 2 ¥ 115 Í Á p - 0.523 + sin(2 ¥ 30)˜ ˙ = 113.32 V
Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
The form factor is
V 113.32
FF = rms = = 1.172
Vav 96.63
(c) The load ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = (1.172)2 - 1 = 0.6112
Vo 96.63
(d) The dc output current is I o = = = 9.663 A
R 10
V 113.32
rms output current I rms = rms = = 11.332 A
R 10
The dc output power is Pdc = Vo I o = 96.63 ¥ 9.663 Watt = 933.73 Watt
The ac output power is Pac = Vrms I rms = 113.32 ¥ 11.332 Watt = 1284.142 Watt
P 933.73
rectifier efficiency is h = dc ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 72.71%
Pac 1284.142
(e) The rms value of transformer secondary current is
I 11.332
I rms-transformer = rms = A = 5.666 A
2 2
The va rating of transformer is
va = 2vIrms-transformer = 2 ¥ 115 ¥ 5.666 = 1303.18 va
The transformer utilisation factor (TUF) is
Pdc 933.73
TUF = = = 0.7165
VA 1303.18
Example 6.10 The peak forward voltage rating of thyristors is 1200 v and average ON-state current rating
is 50 a in a single-phase mid-point full converter and single-phase bridge converter. Determine the power rating
of converters which can handle properly. The factor of safety is 2.5.
Solution
The maximum voltage across thyristor which is used in a single phase mid-point full converter is 2Vm
1200
Therefore this converter can be designed for a maximum voltage of = 240 V
2 ¥ 2.5
The maximum power output of single phase mid-point full converter is

2Vm 2 ¥ 240
cos a ¥ ITav = cos 0 ¥ 50 = 7643.31 Watt as a = 0° and ITav = 50 a
p p
In a single-phase bridge converter, each thyristor can able to withstand at the maximum voltage of Vm
1200
Therefore this converter can be designed for a maximum voltage of = 480 V
2.5
The maximum power output of a single phase bridge converter is
2Vm 2 ¥ 480
cos a ¥ ITav = cos 0 ¥ 50 = 15286.624 Watt as a = 0∞ and ITav = 50 A
p p
6.13 sIngle-Phase full-Wave controlled BrIdge

rectIfIer
Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier is extensively used in various industrial applications.
This converter circuit provide unidirectional current with both positive and negative voltage polarity
depending upon the firing angle of Scrs. Hence this converter can operate as a controlled rectifier or
an inverter. Since a single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier consists of four Scrs, the gate
drive circuit will be more complex and expensive. This circuit has relatively poor form factor and
input power factor. To improve the output voltage and current form factor, a free wheeling diode is
connected across diode DF. Whenever the output voltage tries to become negative, the diode DF across
load becomes forward bias and clamp the load voltage to zero. consequently, this circuit can not be
able to operate in the inverter mode. When two Scrs of a single-phase fully controlled converter are
replaced by two diodes, the fully converter becomes half-controlled converters. The classification of
single-phase controlled bridge rectifier is depicted in Fig. 6.36.
Fig. 6.36 Classification of single-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier
6.14 sIngle-Phase fully controlled BrIdge rectIfIer

WIth R load
Figure 6.37 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier which consists of four thyristors
and R load. The operation of this circuit is similar to a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using
centre tap transformer and R load. In the bridge circuit, diagonally pair of Scrs (T1 and T2 or T3 and
T4) are conduct and line commutated simultaneously.
Fig. 6.37 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with R load
In the positive half cycle of supply voltage, Scrs T1 and T2 are forward biased. as soon as any
triggering pulse is applied to T1 and T2 simultaneously at wt = a, Scrs T1 and T2 will be turned ON
and conduct during a £ £ wt £ 2p. Then current flows through T1, T2 and R as depicted in Fig. 6.38.
Fig. 6.38 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with R load
During the negative half cycle of input voltage, Scrs T3 and T4 are forward biased. If any triggering
pulse is applied to T3 and T4 simultaneously at wt = p + a, Scrs T3 and T4 can be turned ON and
conduct during p + a £ wt £ 2p. Subsequently current flows through T3 and T4 and R as shown in
Fig. 6.38.

WIth RL load
a single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier which consists of four thyristors and RL load is
depicted in Fig. 6.39. In the positive half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1 and T2 are forward
biased and operate in the forward blocking sate. When the firing pulse is applied to T1 and T2 at wt
= a, both thyristors are turned ON simultaneously and input or supply voltage is applied across RL
load. Subsequently, the load current flows though T1, T2 and RL load. Due to inductive load thyristor
T1 and T2 will conduct beyond wt = p.
Fig. 6.39 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RL load
During the negative half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased and operate
in the forward blocking sate. as soon as the firing pulse is applied to T3 and T4 at wt = p + a, both
thyristors are turned ON simultaneously and input or supply voltage is applied across RL load. as a
result, the load current flows though T3, T4 and RL load. Since the load is inductive, thyristor T3 and
T4 will conduct beyond wt = 2p. This converter circuit operates in continuous mode and discontinuous
mode. The voltage and current waveforms of single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier with
RL load are depicted in Fig. 6.40.

For continuous load current, the average output voltage is
1 p +a 2 2V
Vo = Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = p cos a
p a
Vo 2 2V
I o = I av = = cos a
R pR
Fig. 6.40 The voltage and current waveforms for continuous load current

1 1
È 1 p +a ˘ 2 È 1 p +a ˘2
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1
ÈV 2 p +a ˘2
=Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙ =V
Î 2p a ˚
The form factor is
Vrms 2 2V p
FF = =V cos a =
Vav p 2 2 cos a
1/2
È 2 ˘
The load ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = Í p - 1˙
2
Î 8 cos a ˚

For discontinuous load current, the voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.41.
1b
pa
2V
= (cos a - cos b )
p
Vo
I o = I av =
R
2V
= (cos a - cos b )
pR
Fig. 6.41 The voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous load current
{ }
1 1
È1 b ˘2 È1 1 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ = 2V Í (b - a ) + (sin 2a - sin 2 b ) ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp 2 ˚
{ }
1
V 2V È 1 1 ˘2
I rms = rms = Í (b - a ) + (sin 2a - sin 2b ) ˙
R R Îp 2 ˚

WIth free WheelIng dIode Df and RL load
Figure 6.42 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier which consists of four thyristors,
RL load and free wheeling diode DF. During the positive half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T1
and T2 are forward biased and the firing pulse is applied to T1 and T2 at wt = a. Then both thyristors
are turned ON at the same time and input or supply voltage is applied across RL load. afterward,
the load current flows though T1, T2 and RL load. as load is inductive, the low current continuously
flows after wt = p. This load current flows through DF as thyristors T1 and T2 are turned OFF due to
reverse bias after wt = p and thyristor current is below the holding current.
Fig. 6.42 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RL load and free wheeling diode DF
In the negative half-cycle of supply voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased and operate in
the forward blocking sate. When the firing pulse is applied to T3 and T4 at wt = p + a, both thyristors
are turned ON simultaneously and input voltage is applied across RL load. consequently, the load
current flows though T3, T4 and RL load. Due to inductive load, the load current continuously flows
after wt = 2p. again this load current flows through DF as thyristors T3 and T4 are turned OFF due to
reverse bias after wt = 2p and thyristor current is less than the holding current. This converter circuit
operates in continuous mode and discontinuous mode. The voltage and current waveforms are depicted
in Figs. 6.43 and 6.44.
6.17 sIngle-Phase full-Wave controlled BrIdge

rectIfIer WIth RLE
Figure 6.45 shows the circuit configuration of a single-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with
resistance inductance and a back emf. This circuit extensively used in speed control of separately
excited dc motor. Thyristors T1 and T2 are turned on together while T3 and T4 are turned on 180° after
Fig. 6.43 The voltage and current waveforms for continuous load current
T1 and T2. Hence the load current flows through either T1 and T2 or T3 and T4. It is never possible
for this converter that neither T1 and T3 nor T2 and T4 conduct simultaneously. When T1 and T2 are
forward biased during positive half cycle of input voltage and a gate pulse is applied to them, T1 and
T2 will be turned ON. at the same time, a negative voltage is applied across T3 and T4 and they are in
OFF state. In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, T3 and T4 are forward biased and a gate pulse
is applied to them. Then T3 and T4 will be turned on and T1 and T2 will be turned OFF immediately
due to reverse biased.
This circuit can operate in either continuous or discontinuous mode. The load current flows io through
T1 and T2 or T3 and T4. Sometime the load current io becomes zero in between the firing of T1 and T3
and T2 and T4. While the load current is zero, all four thyristors must be in OFF state. consequently,
this converter operates in the discontinuous conduction mode.
Fig. 6.44 The voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous load current
Fig. 6.45 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RLE load

The voltage and current wave forms for discontinuous current mode operation are shown in Fig. 6.46.
In discontinuous current mode operation, the load current io is zero for certain time interval. During
Fig. 6.46 Voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous mode operation
this time interval, none of T1, T2, T3 and T4 conducts. Scrs T1 and T2 are triggered when input voltage
is greater than E. Therefore Scr conducts from amin and the load current io starts rising from zero
and continues to increase till wt = p – amin. after wt = p – amin, the output voltage vo falls below the
back emf E and io starts to decrease. at wt = b, the current io becomes zero. Then io remains zero till
wt = p + amin where T3 and T4 are triggered simultaneously. Therefore, none of the thyristors conduct
during b £ wt £ p + amin and the output voltage is vo = E as depicted in Fig. 6.46.
The minimum firing angle can be determined
2V sin a min = E
Ê E ˆ
or a min = sin -1 Á
Ë 2V ˜¯
The voltage equation of the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.46 is
di0
2V sin w t = L + Ri0 + E at a £ w t £ b
dt
and io = 0 at wt = 0
The output current can be expressed as

2V È - atan- wf t ˘ EÈ tan f ˘
a - wt
io (t ) = Îsin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e ˚ - Î1 - e ˚ at a £ w t £ b
Z R
wL
Where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 and tan f =
R
2V È - atan- wf t sin q f ˘
t -a
- wtan
or io (t ) = Ísin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f )e - (1 - e )˙
Z Î cos f ˚
where, 2V sin q = E,and R = Z cos f
at wt = b, io = 0. Then we can write
È a-b
- tan f sin q -
b -a
˘
Ísin(b - f ) - sin(a - f )e - (1 - e tan f )˙ = 0 (6.7)
Î cos f ˚
For given value of f, a and q, we can determine the value of b by solving Eq. (6.7).
The average output voltage Vo is
p +a
1 Èb ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú E ◊ d (w t )˙ where, p £ b £ p + a
p ÎÍa b ˚˙
p +a
1 Èb ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin q ◊ d (w t )˙ where, 2V sin q = E
p ÍÎa b ˙˚
2V
= [(cos a - cos b ) + sin q (p - b + a )]
p
The average current is
Vo - E Vo - 2V sin q
IO = =
R Z cos f
2V 2V sin q
= [(cos a - cos b ) + sin q (p - b + a )] -
p Z cos f Z cos f
2V
= [(cos a - cos b ) + sin q (a - b )]
p Z cos f
as the average output voltage and current depends on the value of b, the performance of the single-
phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with RLE load is affected by b. Figure 6.47 shows the boundary
between continuous and discontinuous conduction.

In continuous load current mode operation, the load current io is always greater than zero and the
converter is said to operate in the continuous conduction mode. In this mode of operation, T1 and T2
and T3 and T4 conducts for alternate half cycle of the input voltage (180° duration). The minimum
firing angle converter is a min = sin -1 ÊÁ
E ˆ
.
Ë 2V ˜¯
Fig. 6.47 Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction
assume that at wt = 0, T3 and T4 was conducting. at wt = a, thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered and
turned on commutating T3 and T4 immediately. Then T1 and T2 conduct for a £ b £ p + a. at wt = p
+ a, thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered and turned on commutating T1 and T2 immediately. Therefore,
T3 and T4 will conduct for p + a £ b £ 2 p + a. The conduction period of Scrs is depicted in Fig.
6.48. The voltage and current waveforms of single-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with RLE
load is shown in Fig. 6.48.
di
2V sin w t = L 0 + Ri0 + E at a £ w t £ p + a
dt
È 2V sin q ˘ t -a
- wtan
io (t ) =Ísin(w t - f ) - - Ie f
at a £ w t £ p + a
Î Z cos f ˙˚
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 , tan f = , 2V sin q = E, and R = Z cos f
R
Fig. 6.48 Voltage and current waveforms for continuous mode operation
at steady state condition, io |wt = a = io |wt = p + a = Io. Using the boundary condition, we get
2V È sin q 2 sin(f - a ) - wtant -fa ˘

io (t ) = Ísin(w t - f ) - + e ˙
Z Í cos f - p
Î 1 - e tan f ˚˙
1 Èp + a ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙ where, p £ w t £ p + a
pÎ a ˚
2 2V
= cos a
p
The average current is IO = =
R Z cos f
6.17.3 Performance analysis of single-Phase full converter

When the inductive load is very high, the load current is continuous and its ripple content is negligible
as depicted Fig. 6.49. Then the input current i can be expressed as
i = Io for p £ wt £ p + a
i = –Io for p + a £ wt £ 2p + a
The above input current can be expressed in Fourier series form as given below.
•
i(t ) = ao + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
n = 1,2,3
2p + a p +a 2p + a
1 1 1
ao = Ú i ◊ d (w t ) = 2p Ú I o ◊ d (w t ) - 2p Ú I o ◊ d (w t ) = 0
2p a a p +a
1 2p + a 1 p +a 1 2p + a
an = Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) - Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p a p a p p +a
4Io
=- sin na for n = 1, 3, 5, º
np
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6 …
1 2p + a 1 p +a 1 2p + a
bn = Ú o I ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú oI ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) - Ú I o ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p a p a p p +a
4Io
= cos na for n = 1, 3, 5, º
np
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6 …
The input current can be expressed as
•
i (t ) = Â 2 I n sin(nw t + fn )
n = 1,3,5,7
1 2 1 a
where, I n = [ an + bn2 ] 2 and fn = tan -1 n
2 bn
1
1 ÈÊ 4 I o ˆ ˘ 2 2Io
2 2 2
1 2 2 21 ˆ Ê 4Io
Therefore, I n = [ an + bn ] = ÍÁ - sin na ˜ + Á cos na ˜ ˙ =
2 2 ÎË np ¯ Ë np ¯ ˚ np
a
and fn = tan -1 n = - na
bn
2 2Io
The rms value of the fundamental current is I1 =
The rms value of input current is p
1
È 1 p +a ˘2
I rms = Í Ú I o2 dw t ˙ = I o
Îp a ˚
Displacement factor is DF = cos f1 = cos(–a) = cos a
Fig. 6.49 Voltage and current waveforms for single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier at high
inductive load
I1 2 2
current distortion factor CDF = = = 0.90032
I rms p
2 2
Power factor PF = CDF ¥ DF = cos a
p
1 1
È 2 ˘2 È 2 ˘2
Harmonic factor is HF = ÍÊ I rms ˆ - 1˙ = ÍÊ p ˆ - 1˙ = 0.483
Á ˜ Á ˜
ÍÎË I1 ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎË 2 2 ¯ ˙˚
active input power is
Pi = rms value of input voltage ¥ rms fundamental component of input current ¥ displacement factor
2 2Io 2 2VI o
= V ¥ I1 ¥ cos a = V ¥ ¥ cos a = cos a
p p
reactive power input is

2 2Io 2 2VI o
Qi = V ¥ I1 ¥ sin a = V ¥ ¥ sin a = sin a
p p
6.17.4 Inverter Mode operation of single-Phase full converter

The average dc output voltage of a single-phase full converter in continuous conduction mode is
2 2V
Vo = cos a
p
p
If the firing angle is a < , the dc output voltage is positive. as the current flows in one direction
2 p p
and it’s magnitude is always positive, power P = VOIO > 0 for a < . When the firing angle is a > ,
2 2
the dc output voltage is negative. Hence the power flow is negative or P = VO IO < 0. Then power back
to ac supply from load and the converter can be operated as an inverter by increasing the firing angle
p
a beyond (a > p/2). Figure 6.50 shows the waveforms of the inverter operating mode.
2
Fig. 6.50 Voltage and current waveforms in inverter mode operation with continuous conduction
Example 6.11 a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter with RL load is supplied from 220 v,
50 Hz ac supply. If the firing angle is 45°, determine (a) average output voltage, (b) displacement factor, (c) input
power factor and (d) harmonic factor.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, a = 45°
(a) The average output voltage is
p +a
1 2 2V 2 2 ¥ 220
Vo = Vav =
p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t =
p
cos a =
p
cos 45 = 140.10 V
a
(b) Displacement factor is DF = cos f1 = cos(–a) = cos a = cos 45 = 0.707
I1 2 2
(c) current distortion factor CDF = = = 0.90032
I rms p
2 2
Power factor PF = CDF ¥ DF = cos a = 0.90032 ¥ 0.707 = 0.6365
p
1 1
È I 2 ˘2 È p ˆ 2 ˘2
(d) Harmonic factor is HF = ÍÊ rms ˆ - 1˙ = ÍÁÊ ˜ - 1˙ = 0.483
Á ˜
ÎÍË I1 ¯ ˚˙ ÎÍË 2 2 ¯ ˚˙
Example 6.12 a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter with RLE load is supplied from 230 v, 50 Hz
ac supply. The average load current is 5 a which is constant over the working range. Determine the firing angle
for (a) E = 100 v (b) E = –100 v. assume R = 4 W and L = 5 mL.
Solution
Given: V = 230 v, f = 50 Hz, Io = 5 a, and E = 100 v
at firing angle a the average output voltage is
p +a
1 2 2V
Vo = Vav =
p
cos a
a
V -E
(a) When E = 100 v, The average current is I o = o
R
Vo - 100
or 5=
4
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 230
or Vo = 120 = cos a = cos a
p p
120p
Then cos a = = 0.579
2 2 ¥ 230
or a = 54.59°
(b) If E = –100 v, Vo = IoR + E = 5 ¥ 4 – 100 = –80 v
2 2V
or Vo = I o R + E = cos a = –80 v
p
2 2 ¥ 230
Therefore, cos a = –80
p
-80p
or cos a = = –0.386
2 2 ¥ 230
Then the firing angle is a = 112.718°
Example 6.13 a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected with RLE load where R = 5 W,
L = 4 mL and E = 120 v. This converter circuit is supplied from 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply. calculate the average
value of load current when the firing angle a = 60°.
Solution
Given: V = 230 v, f = 50 Hz, and E = 120 v
p +a
1 2 2V 2 2 ¥ 220
Vo = Vav =
p
cos a =
p
cos 60 = 99.07 V
a
V - E 99.07 - 50
The average current is I o = o = a = 9.81 a
R 5
Example 6.14 a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to RLE load with R = 5 W,
L = 6 mL and E = 60 v. This converter is supplied from 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply. (a) Determine the average load
current at a = 45°. (b) In the bridge circuit, one thyristor is open circuited due to fault. at this condition what
will be the average load current.
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, f = 50 Hz, a = 45°, R = 5 W, L = 6 mL and E = 60 v
(a) When all four thyristors are healthy, the average output voltage at firing angle a is
p +a
1 2 2V
Vo = Vav =
p
cos a
a
2 2 ¥ 220
= cos 45 = 140.10 V
p
V - E 140.10 - 60
as E = 60 v, the average current is I o = o = A = 16.02 A
R 5
(b) When one thyristor is open circuited due to fault in the bridge circuit, the average output voltage at firing
angle a is
p +a
1 2V
Vo = Vav =
2p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t =
p
cos a
a
2 ¥ 220
= cos 45 = 70.05 V
p
Vo - E 70.05 - 60
Since E = 60 v, the average current is I o = = A = 2.01 A
R 5
Example 6.15 a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to RLE load and it is supplied
from 220 v, 50 Hz ac supply. The average load current is 7.5 a which is constant over the working range.
Determine the firing angle for (a) E = 110 v (b) E = –110 v. assume R = 5 W and L = 5 mL. Specify which
source is delivering power to load in case (a) and (b). When the output current is constant, determine the input
power factor for both cases (a) and (b).
Solution
Given: V = 220 v, f = 50 Hz, Io = 7.5 a, and E = 110 v
p +a
1 2 2V
Vo = Vav =
p
cos a
a
Single-PhaSe Controlled
reCtifierS
Vo - E
(a) When E = 110 V, The average current is I o =
R
Vo - 110
or 7.5 =
5
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 220
or Vo = 147.5 = cos a = cos a
p p
147.5p
Then cos a = = 0.744
2 2 ¥ 220
or a = 41.89°
Since a is less than 90°, power flows from ac source to dc load
(b) If E = –110 V, Vo = IoR + E = 7.5 ¥ 5 – 110 = –72.5 V
2 2V
or Vo = I o R + E = cos a = –72.5 V
p
2 2 ¥ 220
Therefore, cos a = –72.5
p
- 72.5p
or cos a = = –0.3659
2 2 ¥ 220
Since a is greater than 90°, power flows from dc load to ac source.
(c) Since the load current is constant, the rms value of load current is Irms = Io = 7.5 A
2
We know that VI rms cos f = EI o + I o R
EI o + I o2 R 110 ¥ 7.5 + 7.52 ¥ 5

At a = 41.89∞, cos f = = = 0.67 lag
VI rms 220 ¥ 7.5
EI o - I o2 R 110 ¥ 7.5 - 7.52 ¥ 5

At a = 111.463∞, cos f = = = 0.329 lag
VI rms 220 ¥ 7.5
Example 6.16 A single-phase bridge controlled rectifier consists of a thyristor and three diodes and it is
supplied by 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. If the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, determine the average output current
and power delivered to battery when RLE load consists of R = 4 W, L = 5 mH, and E = 120 V. Assume current
is constant.
Solution
If the firing angle of thyristor is a, during the positive half cycle of supply voltage thyristor conducts from a to
p only. During the negative half cycle of supply voltage two diodes conduct from p to 2p.
The average output voltage across load is equal to
1 Èp 2p ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙
2p ÎÍa p ˚˙
2V 2 ¥ 220
= (3 + cos a ) = (3 + cos 30∞)V = 191.50 V
2p 2p
Vo - E 191.50 - 120
The average output load current is I o = = A = 17.875 A
R 4
Power delivered to battery = EIo = 120 ¥ 17.875 = 2145 Watt
Example 6.17 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and
fed to a load which consists of R = 12 W and large inductance so that the load current is constant. If the firing
angle is 45°, calculate (a) average output voltage, (b) average output current, (c) average current of thyristor,
(d) rms current of thyristor and (e) power factor.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 12 WA and a = 45°
(a) At firing angle a the average output voltage is
p +a
1 2 2V
Vo = Vav =
p
cos a
a
2 2 ¥ 220
= cos 45 = 140.1 V
p
Vo 140.1
(b) The average current is I o = = = 11.675 A
R 12
I 11.675
(c) The average current of thyristor is ITav = o = = 5.8375 A
2 2
I 11.675
(d) The rms current of thyristor is ITrms = o = = 8.256 A
2 2
(e) rms value of source current Irms = Io = 11.675 A
DC output is Pdc = Vo I o = 140.1 ¥ 11.675 = 1635.66 Watt
Vo I o 140.1 ¥ 11.675
Power factor cos f = = = 0.641 lag
VI rms 220 ¥ 11.675
Example 6.18 In the above example, if the source inductance is about 1.4 mH, find the average output
voltage, overlap angle and power factor.
Solution
The average output voltage is equal to
2 2V w L
Vo = cos a - o s I o
p p
2 2 ¥ 220 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 10 -3
= cos 45 - ¥ 11.675 = 138.4655 V
p p
2V
Average load current I o = [cos a - cos(a + m )]
w Ls
2 ¥ 220
or 11.675 = [cos 45 - cos(45 + m )]
2p ¥ 50 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 10 -3
or 11.675 = 707.64[cos 45 - cos(45 + m )]
The overlap angle m = 1.32°
VI 138.4655 ¥ 11.675
The power factor cos f = o o = = 0.629 lag
VI rms 220 ¥ 11.675
Example 6.19 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from a 220 V, 50 Hz single-phase
supply and operates in the continuous conduction mode at a firing angle a = 45°. If the load resistance and
inductances are 5 W and 20 mH respectively, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) average output load
current, (c) third harmonic load current as a percentage of the average load current.
Solution
(a) The average dc output voltage is
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 220
Voav = cos a = cos 45 = 140.106 V
p p
(b) Average output load current is
V 140.106
I oav = oav = = 28.08 A
R 5
(c) The dc voltage waveform is periodic over half the input cycle. From the Fourier series analysis of output
voltage, we obtain
vo = Voav + SVan cos 2 nw t + Vbn sin 2w t
and 2p 2 2V È cos(2 n + 1)a cos(2 n - 1)a ˘

p Ú0 o
Van = v cos 2 nw t ◊ dw t = -
p ÎÍ 2 n + 1 2 n - 1 ˚˙
2p 2 2V È sin(2 n + 1)a sin(2 n - 1)a ˘
p Ú0 o
Vbn = v sin 2 nw t ◊ dw t = -
p ÍÎ 2 n + 1 2 n - 1 ˙˚
2 2 ¥ 220 È cos(2 ¥ 3 + 1) ¥ 45 cos(2 ¥ 3 - 1) ¥ 45 ˘
Va 3 = Í - ˙ = 48.036 V
p Î 2 ¥ 3 +1 2 ¥ 3 -1 ˚
2 2 ¥ 220 È sin(2 ¥ 3 + 1) ¥ 45 sin(2 ¥ 3 - 1) ¥ 45 ˘
Vb3 = Í - ˙ = 8.004 V
p Î 2 ¥ 3 +1 2 ¥ 3-1 ˚
Third harmonic impedance is
Z 3 = R 2 + (2p fL )2 = 52 + (2p ¥ 50 ¥ 3 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 -3 )2 = 19.49 W
Third harmonic rms voltage is
Va23 + Vb23 48.0362 + 8.0042
V3rms = = = 34.44 V
2 2
Third harmonic current
V 34.44
I 3rms = 3rms = = 1.767 A
Z3 19.49
Example 6.20 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz. A load of
R = 10 W is connected in series with a large inductance and load current is ripple free. If the firing angle of
converter is 60°, determine different performance parameters of the converter.
Solution
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 220
The output voltage Vo = cos a = cos 60 V = 99.08 V
p p
V 99.08
Load current I o = o = = 9.908 A
R 10
DC power output Po = VoIo = 99.08 ¥ 9.908 = 981.68 Watt
RMS value of load current Irms = Io = 9.908 A
AC power = Pac = VIrms = 220 ¥ 9.908 = 2179.76 Watt
Pdc Po 981.68
Rectification efficiency = h = = = = 45.03%
Pac Pac 2179.76
V 220
Form factor (FF) = = = 2.22
Vo 99.08
Voltage ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 2.222 - 1 = 1.982
Since the load current is ripple free, current ripple factor CRF = 0
2 2 2 2
RMS value of fundamental current = I1 = I = ¥ 9.908 = 8.924 A
p o p
f1 = –a = –60°
Displacement factor DF = cos f1 = cos(-a ) = cos a = cos 60 = 0.5
I 8.924
Current distortion factor CDF = 1 = = 0.9006
I rms 9.908
Power factor = PF = CDF ¥ DF = 0.9006 ¥ 0.5 = 0.4503
Active power input = VI1 cos a = 220 ¥ 8.924 ¥ cos 60 = 981.64 Watt
Reactive power input = VI1 sin a = 220 ¥ 8.924 ¥ sin 60 = 1700.25 VAR
6.18 Single-PhaSe half-Controlled Bridge reCtifier

with R load
When two thyristors of full converter are replaced by diodes as shown in Fig. 6.51, the new converter
circuit is known as half-controlled bridge rectifier. There are different types of half controlled bridge
rectifier such as asymmetrical configurations (common cathode, common anode) and asymmetrical
configurations. But the common cathode symmetrical type half bridge converter is most commonly
used as a single triggering circuit can be used to turn ON both thyristors T1 and T3 as depicted in
Fig. 6.51(a).
Fig. 6.51 Single-phase half controlled bridge rectifier (a) common-cathode, (b) common anode and
(c) asymmetrical
In the positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 is forward biased and operates in forward
blocking state. As soon as a triggering pulse is applied at wt = a, the thyristor T1 becomes ON and
supply voltage is connected across resistance. Then current flows though T1 and D2. At wt = p, the
thyristor T1 is reverse biased and it is turned OFF.
During the negative half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T3 is forward biased. When a triggering
pulse is applied at wt = p + a, the thyristor T3 becomes ON and supply voltage is applied across
resistance. Subsequently current flows though T3 and D4. At wt = 2p, the thyristor T3 is reverse biased
and it is turned OFF. The voltage and current wave forms are depicted in Fig. 6.52.
1p 2V
Vo = Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = (1 + cos a )
pa p
Fig. 6.52 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase half controlled bridge rectifier with R load

V 2V
I o = I av = o = (1 + cos a )
R pR
1 1 1
È1 p ˘2 È 1 p ˘ 2 ÈV 2 p ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ = Í Ú 2V 2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1
È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Îp Ë 2 ¯˚
1
V È1 ˘2
The rms output current is I rms = rms = Í ÊÁ p - a + sin 2a ˆ˜ ˙
V 1
R R Îp Ë 2 ¯˚
1
È1 ˘2
The form factor is FF = rms = V Í ÊÁ p - a + sin 2a ˆ˜ ˙
V 1 2V
(1 + cos a )
Vav Îp Ë 2 ¯˚ p
1
È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
p
Í ËÁ p - a + sin 2a ˜
¯ ˙˚
=Î
2
2(1 + cos a )
1
È Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
Í p Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Ë 2 ¯
The load ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = Í - 1˙
2
ÎÍ 2(1 + cos a ) ˙˚
2V 2V 2V 2
= (1 + cos a ) ¥ (1 + cos a ) = 2 (1 + cos a )2
p pR p R
The ac output power is Pac = Vrms Irms
1 1
È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2 V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙ ¥ Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Îp Ë 2 ¯˚ R Îp Ë 2 ¯˚
V2 È1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘ V ÈÊ
2
1 ˆ˘
= Í ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙ = ÍÁ p - a + 2 sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
R Îp 2 ˚ p R ÎË ˚

with RL load
The common cathode, common anode and asymmetrical configurations of single-phase half-wave
controlled bridge rectifier with RL are depicted in Fig. 6.53(a), (b) and (c) respectively. Due to presence
of inductance, the load current will flows at the end of each half cycle of input voltage.
During the positive half cycle of input voltage, thyristor T1 conducts and load current flows through
T1 and D2 from wt = a to wt = p in Fig. 6.53(a). After wt = p, the input voltage becomes negative
passes through zero crossing and diode D4 comes into conduction commutating diode D2. Then load
current flows though T1 and diode D4 and it decays exponentially. As soon as thyristor T3 is triggered
Fig. 6.53 Single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with RL load (a) common-cathode, (b) common anode
and (c) asymmetrical configuration
in the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 will be turned OFF. Then load current flows
though T3 and D4 from wt = p + a to wt = 2p. After wt = 2p, the input voltage becomes positive passes
through zero crossing and diode D2 comes into conduction commutating diode D4. Subsequently, the
load current flows though T3 and D2 and it again decays exponentially. After that the cycle operation
will be repetitive after triggering T1. Figure 6.54 shows the switching of thyristors T1, T3, and diodes
D2 and D4. This circuit can able to operate in continuous and discontinuous mode. Voltage and current
waveforms for continuous load current mode operation is depicted in Figs. 6.55 and 6.56 shows the
voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous load current.
1p 2V
Vo = Vav = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = p (1 + cos a )
pa
Vo 2V
I o = I av = = (1 + cos a )
R pR
Fig. 6.54 Switching of thyristors T1, T3, and diodes D2 and D4 (a) a £ wt £ p (b) p £ wt £ p + a
(c) p + a £ wt £ 2p and (d) 2p £ wt £ 2p + a
Fig. 6.55 Voltage and current waveforms for continuous load current
Fig. 6.56 Voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous load current

1 1
È1 p ˘2 È 1 p ˘2
Îp a ˚ Îp a ˚
1
ÈV 2 p ˘2
=Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p a ˚
1
È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
= 2V Í Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
1
Vrms 2V È 1 Ê 1 ˆ ˘2
The rms output current is I rms = = Í ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
R R Î 2p 2 ˚

with RLE
Figure 6.57 shows the circuit configuration of a single-phase half controlled bridge rectifier with
resistance (R), inductance (L) and a back emf (E). In this circuit, load current flows through either T1
or T3 and any one diode of D2 and D4. If the firing of SCRs is a, in the positive half cycle of input
voltage T1 and D2 conduct during a £ wt £ p. Similarly, in the negative half cycle of input voltage
T3 and D4 conduct during p + a £ wt £ 2p. Whenever T1 or T3 is in ON state and the output voltages
tend to negative, T1 and D4 and T3 and D2 conduct. T1 and D4 conducts during p £ wt £ p + a and T3
and D2 conducts during 2p £ wt £ 2p + a. Figure 6.58 shows the conduction of thyristors and diodes.
This circuit can be operating in continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode. In
continuous conduction mode, the load current is always positive and two devices must be conduct.
During discontinuous conduction mode, the load current will be zero for certain time and none of the
four devices conduct.
Fig. 6.57 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RLE load
6.20.1 Continuous load Current

During continuous load current mode operation, the load current io is always greater than zero and
the converter is said to operate in the continuous conduction mode. In this mode of operation, diode
D2 and D4 conduct for the positive and negative half cycle of input voltage respectively. T1 starts
conduction when a firing pulse is applied in positive half cycle of input voltage and conducts till T3 is
fired in the negative half cycle. The voltage and current waveforms of a single-phase half-controlled
converter with RLE load are depicted in Fig. 6.58.
Fig. 6.58 Voltage and current waveforms for continuous mode operation

1 Èp ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙ where, a £ w t £ p
p Îa ˚
2V
= (1 + cos a )
p
The average current is IO = = as 2V sin q = E
R R
2V 2V sin q
= (1 + cos a ) -
pR R
2V
= (1 + cos a - p sin q )
pR
The voltage equation of the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.58 can be expressed as
di
2V sin w t = L 0 + Ri0 + E at a £ w t £ p
dt
where, V is the rms voltage and output current is io.
2V È sin q ˘ wt - a
- tan f
io (t ) = Ísin(w t - f ) - - Ie at a £ w t £ p
Z Î cos f ˙˚
wL
R
At wt = a, current io |w t = a =
2V È sin q ˘
Ísin(a - f ) - cos f ˙ - I
Z Î ˚
At wt = p, current io |w t = p =
2V È sin q ˘ - ptan- fa
Ísin(p - f ) - cos f ˙ - Ie
Z Î ˚
During p £ wt £ p + a, the voltage equation is
di
0 = L 0 + Ri0 + E at p £ w t £ p + a
dt
The current can be expressed as
2V sin q È - wtan f ˘
t -p t -a
- wtan
io (t ) = - Î1 - e ˚ - io |w t = p e
f
Z cos f
After substituting the value of io |wt = p in the above equation, we get
2V È wt - p
- tan f sin q ˘ wt - a
- tan f
io (t ) = Ísin f ◊ e - + I e
Z Î cos f ˙˚ 1
At w t = p + a , io |w t = p + a =
2V È - tana f sin q ˘ - p
Ísin f ◊ e - ˙
cos f ˚
+ I1e tan f
Z Î
2V È sin(f - a ) + sin f ◊ e - tana f ˘

At steady state condition, io |w t = a = io |w t = p + a , I1 = Í ˙
Z Í - p
1 - e tan f ˙
Î ˚
Using the boundary condition, we get
È - wt - a ˘
2V Í - tana f e tan f sin q ˙
io (t ) = {sin(f - a ) + sin f e } + sin(w t - f ) - for a £ w t £ p
Z Í -
1 - e tan f
p
cos f ˙
Î ˚
and
È - wt - a wt - p ˘
2V Í - tana f e tan f - tan f sin q ˙
io (t ) = {sin(f - a ) + sin f e } + sin f e - for p £ w t £ p + a
Z Í -
- tanp f cos f ˙
Î 1 e ˚
6.20.2 discontinuous load Current

The voltage and current wave forms for discontinuous current mode operation are shown in Fig. 6.59.
In discontinuous current mode operation, the load current io is zero for certain time period. During this
time interval, none of thyristors and diodes conducts. When SCR T1 is triggered at wt = a and output
voltage is larger than E, the load current io starts from zero and continues to increase till wt = p – q
where output voltage is equal to E. After wt = p – q, the output voltage vo falls below the back emf E
and io starts to decrease. At wt = b, io becomes zero before T3 is triggered at wt = p + a. Therefore, none
of the devices conduct during b £ wt £ p + a and the output voltage is vo = E as shown in Fig. 6.59.
The output voltage is
vo = 2V sin w t for a £ wt £ p
vo = 0 for p £ wt £ b
vo = E for b £ wt £ p + a
p +a p +a
1 Èp ˘ 1 Èp ˘
Vo = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú Edw t ˙ = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin q dw t ˙
p ÍÎa b ˙˚ p ÍÎa b ˙˚
2V
= [1 + cos a + (p + a - b )sin q ] as 2V sin q = E
p
V - E Vo - 2V sin q
The average current is IO = o =
R R
di0
2V sin w t = L + Ri0 + E at a £ w t £ p
dt
and io = 0 at wt = a
2V È sin q ˘ t -a
- wtan
io (t ) = Ísin(w t - f ) - cos f ˙ + I o e
f
at a £ w t £ p
Z Î ˚
Fig. 6.59 Voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous mode operation
wL
R
At wt = a, io = 0. Then we can write
2V È sin q ˘ - atan- fa
0= Ísin(a - f ) - + I e
Z Î cos f ˙˚ o
2V È sin q ˘
or Io = Ísin(f - a ) + cos f ˙
Z Î ˚
After substituting the value of Io, we obtain
2V È sin q ˘ 2V È sin q ˘ - wtant -fa
io (t ) = Ísin(w t - f ) - cos f ˙ + Z Ísin(f - a ) + cos f ˙ e
Z Î ˚ Î ˚
The voltage equation during p £ wt £ b is

di0
0=L + Ri0 + E
dt
After solving the equation, we get
2V sin q - wt - p
io = - + I1e tan f
Z cos f
2V sin q -p -p
At w t = p , io |w t = p = - + I1e tan f
Z cos f
2V È sin q ˘ 2V È sin q ˘ - ptan- fa
= Ísin(p - f ) - cos f ˙ + Z Ísin(f - a ) + cos f ˙ e
Z Î ˚ Î ˚
Then current I1 is equal to
2V 2V È sin q ˘ - ptan- fa
I1 =sin f + sin(f - a ) + e
Z Z ÍÎ cos f ˙˚
È 2V sin q ˘ - wtant -fa 2V -
wt - p
2V sin q
io (t ) =
Ísin(f - a ) + cos f ˙ e + sin f e tan f -
Î Z ˚ Z Z cos f
At wt = b, io = 0 and then we can write
È sin q ˘ - btan- fa 2V -
b -p
2V sin q
Ísin(f - a ) + cos f ˙ e + sin f e tan f -
cos f
=0 (6.7)
Î ˚ Z Z
For given value of f, a and q, we can determine the value of b by solving Eq. (6.7).
6.20.3 Performance analysis of Single-Phase half Bridge or

Semi-converter Converter
While the inductive load is very high, the load current is continuous and its ripple content is negligible
as depicted Fig. 6.60. Then the input current i can be expressed as
i = Io for a £ wt £ p
i = –Io for p + a £ wt £ 2p
i=0 otherwise
The above input current can be expressed in Fourier series form as given below.
•
i(t ) = ao + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
n =1,2,3
2p + a p 2p
1 1 1
ao = Ú i ◊ d (w t ) = 2p Ú I o ◊ d (w t ) - 2p Ú I o ◊ d (w t ) = 0
2p a a p +a
2p p 2p
1 1 1
an = Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) = p Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) - p Ú I o ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p a a p +a
2I
= - o sin na for n = 1, 3, 5,
np
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6
1 2p 1p 1 2p
bn = Ú I o ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú I o ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) - Ú I ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p a pa p p +a o
2Io
= (1 + cos na ) for n = 1, 3, 5,
np
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6
Fig. 6.60 Voltage and current waveforms for Single phase full wave controlled bridge rectifier at high
inductive load
The input current can be expressed as

•
i (t ) = Â 2 I n sin(nw t + fn )
n = 1,3,5,7
1 2 1 a
where In = [ an + bn2 ] 2 and fn = tan -1 n
2 bn
Therefore,
1
1 ÈÊ 2 I o ˆ ˘ 2I
2 2 2
1 2 1 ˆ Ê 2I 1
In = [ an + bn2 ] 2 = ÍÁ - sin na ˜ + Á o (1 + cos na )˜ ˙ = o (1 + cos na ) 2
2 2 ÎË np ¯ Ë np ¯ ˚ np
na 2 2Io na
Since 1 + cos na = 2 cos2 ,I = cos
2 n np 2
Ê na na ˆ
2 sin cos
an -1 Ê
-1 sin na ˆ -1 Á 2 2 ˜ = - na
and fn = tan = tan Á - = tan Á -
bn Ë 1 + cos na ˜¯ 2 na
˜ 2
ÁË 2 cos ˜¯
2
After substituting the value of In and fn, the input current is
• • 2 2Io na Ê na ˆ
i (t ) = Â 2 I n sin(nw t + fn ) = Â 2 cos sin Á nw t -
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5,7 n = 1,3,5,7 np 2 2 ¯
•4Io na Ê na ˆ
= Â cos sin Á nw t -
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5,7 np 2 2 ¯
2I 1
The rms value of the fundamental current is I1 = o (1 + cos a ) 2
p
1
na 2I2 1 2I Ê a ˆ 2 2 2Io a
Since 1 + cos na = 2 cos , I1 = o (1 + cos a ) 2 = o Á 2 cos2 ˜ = cos
2 p p Ë 2 ¯ p 2
The rms value of input current is
1 1
È1 p ˘2 Èp - a ˘ 2
I rms = Í Ú I o2 dw t ˙ = I o Í
Îp a ˚ Î p ˙˚
Displacement factor is DF = cos f1 = cos ÊÁ - ˆ˜ = cos

a a
Ë 2¯ 2
a
1
2 2 cos
Current distortion factor CDF =
I1 2 2Io a Èp - a ˘ 2 2
= cos Io Í =
I rms p 2 Î p ˙˚ p (p - a )
Power factor
a 2a
2 2 cos
a 2 2 cos 2 2
PF = CDF ¥ DF = 2 ¥ cos = = (1 + cos a )
p (p - a ) 2 p (p - a ) p (p - a )
1 1
È ˘2 È ˘2
2 2 1
Harmonic factor is HF = ÍÊ I rms ˆ - 1˙ = ÍÁÊ 1 ˜ˆ - 1˙ = È p (p - a ) - 1˘

2
Á
ÎÍË I1 ¯
˜ Ë
˚˙ Î CDF
¯ ˚ ÍÍ 8 cos2 a ˙
˙
1 Î 2 ˚
È p (p - a ) ˘ 2
=Í - 1˙
Î 4(1 + cos a ) ˚
Active input power is

Pi = rms value of input voltage ¥ rms fundamental component of input current ¥ displacement factor
a 2 2Io a a 2Io 2VI o
= V ¥ I1 ¥ cos
=V ¥ cos ¥ cos = V ¥ (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos a )
2 p 2 2 p p
Reactive power input is
a 2 2Io a a 2VI o
Qi = V ¥ I1 ¥ sin = V ¥ sin ¥ cos = sin a
2 p 2 2 p
Example 6.21 A single-phase semi-converter is supplied by 200 V, 50 Hz and it is connected with a RLE
load where R = 15 W, E = 80 V and L is very large so that the load current is ripple free. Determine (a) average
output voltage, (b) average output current, (c) average and rms value of thyristor current, (d) average and rms
value of diode current, (e) circuit turn-OFF time at a = 35°.
Solution
(a) The average output voltage of single-phase semi-converter is
2V 2 ¥ 200
Vo = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 35) = 163.83 V
p p
(b) We know that Vo = E + IoR
V - E 163.83 - 80
Average output current I o = o = = 5.588 A
R 15
1
(c) Average value of thyristor current is ITav = I o = 0.5 ¥ 5.588 = 2.794 A
2
I 5.588
rms value of thyristor current is ITrms = o = = 3.951 A
2 2
(d) Average value of diode current is equal to average value of thyristor current and rms value of diode current
is equal to rms value of thyristor current.
IDav = ITav = 2.794 A
IDrms = ITrms = 3.951 A
p
p- ¥ 35
p -a 180
(e) Circuit turn-off time is tc = = = 8.055 ms
w 2p ¥ 50
Example 6.22 A single-phase semi-converter is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz. A load of R = 10 W is connected

in series with a large inductance and load current is ripple free. If the firing angle of converter is 60°, determine
different performance parameters of the converter.
Solution
2V 2 ¥ 220
The output voltage Vo = (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 60) V = 148.62 V
p p
V 148.62
Load current I o = o = = 14.862 A
R 10
DC power output Po = Vo I o = 148.62 ¥ 14.862 = 2208.79 Watt
As the load current is ripple free, RMS value of load current Irms = Io = 14.862 A
È1 sin 2a ˆ ˘
RMS output voltage Vrms = V Í ÊÁ p - a + ˜
Îp Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
È1 p sin 2 ¥ 60 ˆ ˘
As a = 60∞ = , Vrms = V Í ÊÁ p - +
p
Ë ˜¯ ˙ = 177 V
3 Îp 3 2 ˚
AC power = Pac = Vrms I rms = 177 ¥ 14.862 = 2630.57 Watt
Pdc Po 2208.79
Rectification efficiency = h = = = = 83.96%
Pac Pac 2630.57
Vrms 177
Form factor FF = = = 1.1909
Vo 148.62
Voltage ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 1.19092 - 1 = 0.646
Since the load current is ripple free, current ripple factor CRF = 0
2I
RMS value of fundamental current = I1 = o 1 + cos a o
p
2 ¥ 14.862
= 1 + cos 60 = 11.593 A
p
Displacement factor DF = cos f1 = cos ÊÁ - ˆ˜ = cos = cos = 0.866
a a 60
Ë 2¯ 2 2
a 60
2 2 cos 2 2 cos
Current distortion factor CDF = 2 = 2 = 0.9554
p (p - a ) Ê p ˆ
p Áp - ˜
Ë 3¯
Power factor = PF = CDF ¥ DF = 0.9554 ¥ 0.866 = 0.8273
a 60
Active power input = VI1 cos = 220 ¥ 11.593 ¥ cos = 2208.76 Watt
2 2
a 60
Reactive power input = VI1 sin = 220 ¥ 11.593 ¥ sin = 1275.23 VAR
2 2
6.21 Single-PhaSe full-wave Controlled

reCtifier uSing Centre taP tranSformer with
tranSformer leakage induCtanCe and R-L load
Figure 6.61 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RL
load and leakage inductance. Due to presence of transformer leakage inductance, current can not
be transferred from one thyristor to other thyristor instantaneously, but a finite time is required for
commutation process. During the commutation interval (m), current in one thyristor decreases gradually
and current in other thyristor increases simultaneously. Hence, a short circuit occurs in the transformer
secondary winding and leakage inductance.
Fig. 6.61 Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer with RL load and leakage inductance
The leakage inductance is represented by LC and the loads current is constant and ripple free due
to high inductive load. Initially SCR T2 was in conduction state and current i2 flows though it. At
wt = a, T1 is triggered. When the transformer leakage inductance is zero, SCRs T2 can be commutated
as soon as T1 is turned ON and input current polarity can be changed immediately. Since leakage
inductance has a finite value, the commutation of T2 can not be done instantaneously and thus input
current polarity can not be changed immediately. Therefore, for certain time interval SCRs T1 and
T2 continue to conduct. This time interval is called commutation overlap (m). During this overlap
period current of T2 decreases gradually, but current of T1 increases progressively. In this time period,
the load current freewheels through SCRs and output becomes zero. Hence the input current starts
changing polarity as current of T2 decreases slowly and current of T1 increases gradually. At the end
of overlap period, current of T2 is zero and T2 will be turned OFF. Then T1 conduct and load current
flows through T1 and RL load. Again the above operation will be repeated at wt = p + a where T1 will
be commutated and T2 starts to conduct. The voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.62.
Fig. 6.62 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase full wave controlled rectifier using center tap
transformer with leakage inductance
Average voltage drop across leakage inductance is

1 a +m 2V
VLC = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = [cos a - cos(a + m )] = 2 f LC I o
p a p
Then 2p fLC I o w LC I o
cos(a + m ) = cos a - = cos a - as w = 2p f
2V 2V
2V
At no load average output voltage is Vo = cos a
p
Due to load current Io, the average output voltage is equal to
2V 2 2V 2V
Vo = cos a - VLC = cos a - [cos a - cos(a + m )]
p p p
2V
= [cos a + cos(a + m )]
p
w LC I o
After substituting the value of cos(a + m ) = cos a - in the above equation, we obtain
2V
2V 2 2V w LC
Vo = [cos a + cos(a + m )] = cos a - I
p p p o
6.22 effeCt of SourCe induCtanCe in PerformanCe

of Single-PhaSe full wave Controlled Bridge
reCtifier with RL load
In Section 6.15, the analysis of single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RL load was done
assuming negligible source inductance. Actually all ac-to-dc converters are supplied from transformers.
Usually the series impedance of transformer can not be neglected. Therefore series impedance must
be present in any converter circuits. Generally, this impedance is inductive with negligible resistive
component. Due to presence of source inductance, the output voltage of a converter will not be
remaining constant and input current waveform will be changed significantly.
Figure 6.63 shows a single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with source inductance and
RL load. Assume that the converter operates in the continuous conduction mode and the load current
is constant and ripple free.
Fig. 6.63 Single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with source inductance and RL load
Initially SCRs T3 and T4 are in conduction state and load current flows through T3, T4 and RL
load. At wt = a, T1 and T2 are triggered. If the source inductance is zero, SCRs T3 and T4 can be
commutated as soon as T1 and T2 are turned ON and input current polarity can be changed instantly.
As source inductance is present, the commutation of T3 and T4 will not be done immediately and hence
input current polarity can not be changed instantly. Consequently, for certain time interval all four
SCRs continue to conduct. This time interval is called commutation overlap (m). During this overlap
period current of T3 and T4 will be decreased gradually, but current of T1 and T2 will be increased
progressively. In this time period, the load current freewheels through all four SCRs and output becomes
zero. Correspondingly, the input current starts changing polarity as current of T3 and T4 decreases
slowly and current of T1 and T2 increases gradually. At the end of overlap period, current of T3 and T4
becomes zero and SCRs T3 and T4 will be turned OFF. Then T1 and T2 conduct and load current flows
through T1, T2 and RL load. The above process will be repeated at wt = p + a where T1 and T2 will
be commutated and T3 and T4 start to conduct. Figure 6.64 shows the voltage and current waveforms.
Fig. 6.64 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with source inductance
Figure 6.65 shows the equivalent circuit of

converter during overlap period. The voltage
equation is
di
vi = LC for a £ w t £ a + m
dt
Where, vi = 2V sin w t and i is the input current
2V
or di = sin w t ◊ dt
L
After integrating the above equation, we obtain Fig. 6.65 Equivalent circuit during overlap period
2V
i=- cos w t + C
w LC
2V 2V
At w t = a , iat ◊w t = a = - I o . Then - I o = -
cos a + C or C = cos a - I o
w LC w LC
After substituting the value of C, we get
2V
i= (cos a - cos w t ) - I o
w LC
At wt = a + m, iat ◊ wt = a + m = Io. Then we can write
2V
Io = [cos a - cos(a + m )] - I o
w LC
2w LC
or [cos a - cos(a + m )] = Io
V
2w LC
or cos(a + m ) = cos a - Io
V
Average output voltage is
1 a +p 2V
Vo = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t = p [ - cos(a + p ) + cos(a + m )]
p a +m
2V
= [cos a + cos(a + m )]
p
2w LC
After substituting the value of cos(a + m ) = cos a - I o in the above equation, we get
V
2V 2 2V 2w LC
Vo = [cos a + cos(a + m )] = cos a - Io
p p p
The most simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.63 is a dc
voltage source in series with commutation resistance (RC) as
depicted in Fig. 6.66. The open-circuit voltage of the circuit
is the average dc output voltage of single-phase full waved
2w LC
controlled rectifier. The magnitude of RC is RC = .
p Fig. 6.66 Equivalent circuit of single-phase
This resistance is used to represent the voltage drop across full-wave controlled rectifier with
commutation resistance. source inductance
Example 6.23 A single-phase full-converter is used to deliver a constant load current. If the overlap angle
is 10° for zero degree firing angle of converter, determine the overlap angle when firing angle is (i) a = 30°,
(ii) 45° and (iii) 60°.
Solution
2V
The dc load current is I o = [cos a - cos(a + m )]
w LC
For firing angle a1, the overlap angle is m1
2V 2V
Therefore, I o = [cos a - cos(a + m )] = [cos a1 - cos(a1 + m1 )]
w LC w LC
For a = 0°, m = 10°
[cos a1 - cos(a1 + m1 )] = [cos a - cos(a + m )] = [cos 0 - cos(0 + 10)] = 0.01519
or cos(a1 + m1 ) = cos a1 - 0.01519
(i) For a = 30∞, cos(a1 + m1 ) = cos a1 - 0.01519 as a1 = a = 30°
or cos(30 + m1 ) = cos 30 - 0.01519 = 0.8508
or m1 = cos-1 (0.8508) - 30 = 1.6973∞
(ii) For a = 45∞, cos(a 2 + m2 ) = cos a 2 - 0.01519 as a2 = a = 45°
or cos(45 + m2 ) = cos 45 - 0.01519 = 0.6919
or m2 = cos-1 (0.6919) - 45 = 1.2179∞
(iii) For a = 60∞, cos(a 3 + m3 ) = cos a 3 - 0.01519 as a3 = a = 60°
or cos(60 + m3 ) = cos 60 - 0.01519 = 0.4848
or m3 = cos-1 (0.4848) - 60 = 1.0006∞
6.23 dual ConverterS

One quadrant converters are those converters in which the output voltage and output current have
same polarity during the entire firing angle control range. One quadrant converters are known as first
quadrant converters. The power flow in first quadrant converters is from source to load.
Two quadrant converters are those converters in which converter acts as controlled rectifier
when the output voltage and output current have same polarity during the firing angle control range
p
0 £ a £ and converter acts as an inverter when the output voltage and output current have opposite
2
p
polarity during the firing angle control range, £ a £ p . Two quadrant converters operate in the first
2
quadrant and fourth quadrant. In the first quadrant,
power flows from source to load and in the fourth
quadrant power flows from load to source.
Semi-converters are single quadrant (I-quadrant)
converters. It means that the output voltage across
load and load current have same polarity over the
entire firing angle range as depicted in Fig. 6.67.
In this figure, Vo is the average dc output voltage
and Io is the average dc output current. In semi-
converter, Vo and Io are positive and this converter
operates in rectifier mode and power flows from
ac source to dc load. Fig.6.67 Four quadrant operation of converters
Full converters are two quadrant (I-quadrant and IV-quadrant) converters. In a full converter, the
direction of current can not be reverse due to unidirectional property of thyristor but the polarity of
output voltage can be reversed as depicted in Fig. 6.67. A full converter can operate in the first quadrant
as a controlled rectifier where Vo (VDC) and Io (IDC) are positive and firing angle varies in the control
p
range 0 £ a £ . It can also be operated in the fourth quadrant as a controlled rectifier where Vo is
2
p
negative and Io is positive and firing angle varies in the control range £ a £ p . In the first quadrant,
2
power flows from ac supply to dc load and in the fourth quadrant power flows from load to ac source.
dc motors are operated in four quadrants such as forward motoring, forward regeneration, reverse
motoring and reverse regeneration. For such operation, four quadrant converters are required. Dual
converters are used as four quadrant converters. Dual converters are those converters in which two
fully controlled converters are connected in back to back to the load circuit as depicted in Fig. 6.68(a)
and four quadrant operation of dual converter is given in Fig. 6.68(b).
Fig. 6.68 (a) Dual converter and (b) Four quadrant operation of dual converter
6.23.1 operating Principle of ideal dual Converter

The basic operating principle of dual converter can be explained using the most simplified equivalent
circuit diagram of the dc circuit as illustrated in Fig. 6.69. This circuit consists of two ideal two
quadrant converters such as converter-1 and converter-2, two diodes such as D1 and D2 and load. It
is clear from Fig. 6.69 that two ideal two quadrant converters are assumed to be controllable direct
voltage sources connected in series with the diodes.
For analysis of dual converter, it is assumed that dual converters are made by ideal full converters
and there is no ripple in the output voltage. Therefore, these converters generate pure dc output voltage
without any ac ripple at the dc terminals. The current can flow in either direction through diodes D1
and D2 which represents the unidirectional current flow of converters. The firing angle of converters
are controlled by the control voltage VC.
Vo1 and Vo2 are the average output voltages of converter-1 and converter-2 respectively. These
output voltages are equal in magnitude but they are of opposite polarity. These can drive the current
Fig. 6.69 Equivalent circuit of an ideal dual converter
in opposite directions through load. Consequently, whenever one converter operates as a controlled
rectifier, the other converter operates as an inverter. The converter working as a rectifier is called as
positive group converter and the converter working as an inverter is known as negative group converter.
The average output voltage of converter-1 is Vo1 = Vmax cos a1
The average output voltage of converter-1 is Vo2 = Vmax cos a2
2 2V
For a single full converter, Vmax =
p
For an ideal converter Vo = Vo1 = –Vo2
Therefore, Vmax cos a1 = –Vmax cos a2
or cos a1 = - cos a 2 = cos(180 - a 2 )
or a1 = 180 - a 2 or a1 + a 2 = 180
The variation of output voltage with firing angle for
the two converters is depicted in Fig. 6.70. The firing
angles a1 and a2 are varied in such a way that always
a1 + a2 = 180.
6.23.2 Practical dual Converter

The firing angles a1 and a2 are controlled in such a
way that always a1 + a2 = 180 and the average output
Fig. 6.70 Variation of terminal voltage for an
voltage of converter-1 and converter-2 are equal but
ideal dual converter with firing angle
opposite polarity. One converter operates as a rectifier
with a firing angle a1 and the other converter operates as an inverter with firing angle a2 = 180 – a1.
Subsequently, the output voltage of converter-1 is equal to the output voltage of converter-2 though
instantaneous output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 are out of phase in a practical dual converter. Therefore, there
is a voltage difference when two converters are interconnected, a large circulating current flow between
two converters but not through load. This circulating current can be limited to a specified value by
inserting a reactor between two converters. The circulating current can be avoided by providing the
trigger pulses. There are two operating modes of a practical dual converter such as non-circulating
current mode and circulating current mode.
6.23.3 non-circulating Current mode dual Converter

In non-circulating current mode dual converter, only one converter operates at a time which alone
carries the entire load current. Only this converter receives the firing pulses from the triggering circuit.
The other converter remains blocked from conduction by removing the triggering pulses to that
converter. Hence only one converter is in operation at a time and the other converter is idle. As there
is no circulating current flow, reactor is not required. The circuit diagram of non-circulating current
dual converter is shown in Fig. 6.71.
Fig. 6.71 (a) Non-circulating current mode dual converter with a load (b) Non-circulating current mode dual
converter with DC motor
If converter-1 is operating and is supplying the load current, converter-2 will be in the blocking
state. In order to block the converter-1 from conduction and switch on the converter-2, it is required
to commutate the thyristors of converter-1 either by removing the firing pulses to its thyristors or by
increasing the firing angle of converter-1 to the maximum value such that its firing pulses are being
blocked. Subsequently, the load current would decays to zero. As the triggering pulses are applied to
the thyristors of converter 2, converter-2 gets switched on. Thus the converter-2 is in the operating
mode and converter-1 remains idle. Now the load current builds up in the opposite direction. So long
as converter-2 is in operation, converter-1 will be in idle since firing pulses are withdrawn from this
converter. During changeover from one converter to other converter, a delay time of about 10 to 20
ms must be ensured between the instants at which converter-1 is in the OFF state and converter-2 is in
the ON state. This delay time ensures the reliable commutation of thyristors present in the converter-1.
If the thyristors of converter-2 are triggered before turn off of the thyristors of converter-1, a large
circulating current would flow between the two converters which is a undesirable condition.
In non-circulating current dual converter, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous. The
control circuit of dual converter is designed in such a way that the performance of non-circulating
current dual converter is satisfactory during continuous or discontinuous load current.
6.23.4 Circulating Current mode dual Converter

In circulating current mode dual converter, two converters are in the operating condition when one
converter operates in the controlled rectifier mode and other operates in the inverting mode. In this
converter, a rector is inserted in between converter-1 and converter-2. The rector is used to limit the
amplitude of circulating current to a specified value. Figure 6.72 shows the circulating current mode
dual converter. The voltage waveforms of a single-phase dual converter is illustrated in Fig. 6.73.
Fig. 6.72 Circulating current mode dual converter
The firing angles of two converters are adjusted in such a manner that a1 + a2 = 180° is always
satisfied. For example, if the firing angle of converter-1 is a1 = 45° then the firing angle of converter-2
is a2 = 135°. In this case converter-1 operates as a controlled rectifier but the converter-2 operates
as an inverter. The output voltage at the terminals of both converters has the same average output
voltage. The instantaneous value of output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 are not similar as depicted in Fig. 6.74.
Consequently, a large circulating current flows between the two converters. To limit the circulating
current, a reactor must be introduced between converter-1 and converter-2.
The load current can be reversed by interchanging the role of two converters. Then converter-1
should operate as an inverter and converter-2 should operate as rectifier. Therefore, the firing angle
of converter-1 is greater than 90° and the firing angle of converter-2 is less than 90°. However the
Fig. 6.73 Voltage waveforms of a single-phase dual converter
equation a1 + a2 = 180° must be satisfied. The normal time delay 10 to 20 ms is not required in this
converter. Consequently the operation of this type of dual converter is faster.
The disadvantages of dual converters are given below:
1. A reactor is used to limit the circulating current and the size and cost of this reactor is significantly
high at high power levels.
2. The efficiency and power factor of dual converters are low due to the losses occurred by the
circulating current.
3. Circulating current gives rise to more losses in the dual converters.
4. Since the converters have to handle load and circulating current, the current rating of thyristors
used in dual converters must be high.
Though the dual converters have the above disadvantages, a dual converter with circulating current
mode dual converter is preferred when the load current is to be reversed frequently and whenever a
fast response four-quadrant operation is required.
Example 6.24 A single-phase dual converter is supplied from a 220 V, 50 Hz ac source and it is connected to
a load of R = 20 W. The value of current limiting reactor is L = 0.08H. If the firing angle of converter-1 a1 = 45°,
determine (a) firing angle of converter-2 (b) Average value of load voltage (b) peak value of circulating current
and (c) peak currents of both converters.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 20 W, L = 0.08H and a1 = 45°
We know that a1 + a2 = 180°
The firing angle of converter-2 is a 2 = 180∞ - a1 = 180∞ - 45∞ = 135∞
p - a1
Average value of load voltage is 1 2 2V
Vo =
p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) =
p
cos a1
a1
2 2 ¥ 220
= cos 45 = 140.106 V
p
The value of circulating current is
a1 / w
1 2Vm
ic =
L Ú 2Vm sin w t ◊ dt =
wL
[cos w t - cos a1 ]
t
The maximum value of circulating current occurs at cos wt = 1
2V 2 2 ¥ 220
icp = m [1 - cos a1 ] = [1 - cos 45] = 7.254 A
wL 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.08
Vm 2V 2 ¥ 220
The peak value of load current iop = = = = 15.556 A
R R 20
Peak value of current in converter-1 = icp + iop = 7.254 + 15.556 = 22.81 A
Peak value of current in converter-2 = icp = 7.254 A
Summary
d The controlled rectifier circuit is used to convert ac input voltage into variable dc voltage. Electrical power
flows from the ac input to the dc output during rectifier mode operation and power flows from load to ac
input in inverter mode operation.
d Classification of controlled rectifiers based on their number of phases, the type of devices used, and circuit
topology are incorporated in this chapter.
d The operation of different single-phase controlled rectifiers with resistive (R), inductive (L), and back emf
(E) type loads explained in detail.
d The mode of operation (continuous or discontinuous) of the converter depend on load parameters and firing
angle. In the continuous conduction mode, the load voltage depends only on the firing angle.
d The operation of converters in the discontinuous and continuous conduction mode of operation is discussed
in this chapter.
d Single-phase half-wave fully controlled converters always operate in the discontinuous conduction mode.
Single phase fully controlled bridge converters are extensively used for dc motor drives.
d Determination of the performance parameters of single-phase converters from the input voltage, output
voltage and current waveforms has been discussed.
d The effect of transformer leakage inductance (LC) in performance of single-phase full wave controlled
rectifier using center tap transformer is explained briefly. The effect of source inductance in performance of
single-phase full wave controlled rectifier also incorporated in this chapter.
d The operation of singlephase dual converter is explained in detail.
6.1 A single-phase one pulse controlled rectifier with RE load is supplied through 200 sin 314t. If the back
emf E = 100 V, the range of firing angle is
(a) 30° to 150° (b) 40° to 140° (c) 30° to 180° (d) 60° to 120°
6.2 In a half-wave rectifier circuit with R load, the average output voltage at firing angle a is ______ when
input voltage is 2V sin w t .
2V 2V
(a) VO = (1 - cos a ) (b) VO = (1 + cos a )
2p 2p
2V 2V
(c) VO = (1 + cos a ) (d) VO = cos a
p p
6.3 In a single-phase half-wave controller rectifier with RL load, the free wheeling diode is connected across
load. The extinction angle b is greater than p. When the firing angle is a, the conduction period of
thyristor and free wheeling diode are
(a) p £ wt £ b and a £ wt £ p (b) 0 £ wt £ p and p £ wt £ b
(c) a £ wt £ p and p £ wt £ b (d) a £ wt £ p and 2p £ wt £ b
6.4 In a single-phase full bridge converter, the average dc output voltage is equal to
p +a
1p 1
p aÚ Ú
(a) Vo = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t (b) Vo = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
p 0
2p + a p +a
1 1
(c) Vo =
p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t (d) Vo =
p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
a a
6.5 In a single-phase semi-converter, the average dc output voltage is equal to
p +a
1p 1
(a) Vo =
p aÚ
2V sin w t ◊ dw t (b) Vo =
p Ú 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
0
2p + a p +a
1 1
p aÚ p aÚ
(c) Vo = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t (d) Vo = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
6.6 When a single-phase full converter operates in continuous conduction mode, each thyristor conducts for
______ duration
(a) p (b) 2p (c) p – a (d) p + a
6.7 If a single-phase full converter operates in discontinuous conduction mode and extinction angle b is
greater than p, each thyristor conducts for ______ duration
(a) p (b) b – a (c) p – a (d) p + a
6.8 In a single-phase full converter with R load, peak output voltage is 300 V and average output voltage is
100 V. Then the firing angle of the converter is
(a) 57.3° (b) 67.3° (c) 87.3° (d) 97.3°
6.9 If a single-phase semi converter operates in continuous conduction mode, each thyristor conducts for
______duration
(a) p (b) a (c) p – a (d) p + a
6.10 A freewheeling diode is connected across RL load to provide
(a) power factor improvement (b) reduce utilization factor
(c) first turn on (d) slow turn off
6.11 A single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier operates as an inverter when the firing angle in the range
______
(a) 0° £ a £ 90° (b) 90° < a £ 180° (c) 30° £ a £ 90° (d) 60° < a £ 180°
6.12 In a single-phase full converter, if the load current is Io which is ripple free, the average thyristor current
is
I
(a) Io (b) I o (c) o (d) I o
2 3 4
6.13 In a single-phase full converter with source inductance and inductive load, the output voltage during
overlap is equal
(a) source voltage (b) source voltage –voltage drop in inductance
(c) zero (d) source voltage +voltage drop in inductance
6.14 Which rectifier requires two diodes and two SCRs?
(a) Half-wave controlled rectifier (b) Full-wave controlled bridge rectifier
(c) Half controlled bridge rectifier (d) Semi-converter
6.15 Which rectifier requires four diodes?
(a) Half-wave controlled rectifier (b) Full-wave controlled bridge rectifier
(c) Half controlled bridge rectifier (d) Semi-converter
6.16 Which circuit requires one SCR?
(a) Half-wave controlled rectifier
(b) Full-wave controlled rectifier circuit using center tap transformer
(c) Half controlled bridge rectifier
(d) Semi-converter
6.17 In a controlled rectifier, the load current depends on
(a) firing angle and type of load (b) firing angle only (c) type of load only
6.18 In a single-phase full converter, a is the firing angle and b is extinction angle and load current is
discontinuous when
(a) (b – a) < p (b) (b – a) > p (c) (b – a) + p
6.19 Active input power of single-phase full converter at firing angle a is
2 2VI o 2 2VI o 2VI o 2VI o
(a) cos a (b) sin a (c) cos a (d) sin a
p p p p
6.20 Reactive power input of single-phase full converter at firing angle a is
2 2VI o 2 2VI o 2VI o 2VI o
(a) cos a (b) sin a (c) cos a (d) sin a
p p p p
6.21 At firing angle a, the average dc output voltage of a single-phase full wave controlled rectifier with
transformer leakage inductance is
2 2V 2w LC 2 2V w LC
(a) cos a - Io (b) cos a - I
p p p p o
(c) cos a + Io (d) cos a + I
p p p p o
6.22 At firing angle a, the average dc output voltage of a single-phase full controlled bridge rectifier with
source inductance is
(a) cos a - Io (b) cos a - I
p p p p o
(c) cos a + Io (d) cos a + I
p p p p o
6.23 In a single-phase half wave rectifier circuit with RL load and a free wheeling diode across the load
and extinction angle b is greater than p. If the firing angle of thyristor is a, then thyristor conducts for
______ duration and free wheeling diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) p – a, b – p (b) p – a, b (c) a – p, p – b (d) p – a, p – b
6.24 In discontinuous conduction of semi-converter and extinction angle b > p, in a single-phase semi-
converter, each thyristor conducts for ______
(a) 0° (b) p – a (c) a (d) a + p
6.25 In a single-phase half wave rectifier circuit with RL load and a free wheeling diode across the load and
extinction angle b is less than p. If the firing angle of thyristor is a, then thyristor conducts for ______
duration and free wheeling diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) p – a, b – p (b) b – a, 0 (c) a – p, p – b (d) p – a, p – b
6.26 In discontinuous conduction of semi-converter and extinction angle b > p, in a single-phase semi-
converter, freewheeling diode conducts for ______
(a) 0° (b) b – p (c) a (d) a + p
6.27 In a single-phase full converter with resistive load and firing angle a, the load current is zero for ______
duration and non-zero for ______ duration.
(a) p – a, a (b) a, p – a (c) p + a, a (d) a, p + a
6.28 In continuous conduction of single-phase semi-converter, freewheeling diode conducts for ______
(a) 0° (b) b – p (c) a (d) a + p
6.29 A single-phase half wave rectifier circuit generates ______ number of pulses of load current and ______
number of pulses of output voltage during one cycle of supply voltage.
(a) one, one (b) one, two (c) two, one (d) two, two
6.30 In discontinuous conduction of semi-converter and extinction angle b < p, in a single-phase semi-
converter, each thyristor conducts for ______
(a) b (b) b – p (c) a (d) a + p
6.31 In continuous conduction of a single-phase semi-converter, each thyristor conducts for
(a) p – a (b) p + a (c) b (d) a
6.32 In discontinuous conduction of semi-converter and extinction angle b < p, in a single-phase semiconverter,
freewheeling diode conducts for ______
(a) 0° (b) b – p (c) a (d) a + p
fill in the Blanks

6.1 Single-phase fully controlled converters are obtained by replacing the diodes of an uncontrolled
converter with ______.
6.2 In a single-phase fully controlled converter the output voltage can be controlled by controlling the
______ of the thyristors.
6.3 Single-phase fully controlled half wave converters always operate in the ______ conduction mode.
6.4 Depending on the load condition and the firing angle a fully controlled bridge converter can operate
either in the ______ conduction mode or in the ______ conduction mode.
6.5 In the continuous conduction mode the load voltage depends only on the ______ and not on load
parameters.
6.6 The fully controlled bridge converter can operate as an inverter if firing angle ______.
6.7 In the continuous conduction mode at least ______ thyristors conduct always.
6.8 The input displacement factor of a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter during continuous
conduction mode operation is equal to the cosine of the ______.
6.9 In the inverter mode of operation of full controlled bridge converter power flows from the ______ to the
______.
6.10 In the rectifier mode of operation of full controlled bridge converter power flows from the ______ to the
______.
6.11 If the firing angle of a single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is same, the load voltage in the
discontinuous conduction mode is ______ than the load voltage in continuous conduction mode of
operation.
6.12 In the ______ conduction mode the load current remains zero for a part of the input cycle.
review Questions
6.1 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load. Discuss its
working principle.
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average dc load current (iii) rms output voltage
(iv) rms load current (v) Ripple factor (vi) Regulation
(vii) Efficiency
6.2 (a) What is phase angle controlled technique? Explain the operation of single-phase angle controlled
rectifier. Derive the expression for average dc output voltage.
(b) Write the applications of phase controlled rectifiers.
6.3 A single-phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit feeds power to a resistive load. Draw the waveforms
for input voltage, output voltage, load current and voltage across a thyristor for a specified firing angle a.
6.4 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load.
2V
(b) Prove that average dc output voltage is VO = (cos a - cos b ) where, V is rms input voltage, a
2p
is firing angle and b is extinction angle.
(c) Find the expression for rms output voltage.
(d) Determine (i) the firing angle to ensure no transient current and (ii) the firing angle for the maxi-
mum transient.
6.5 (a) Determine the output voltage of a single-phase half-wave controlled converter with RL load and
free wheeling diode at the firing angle a.
(b) Write the advantages of free wheeling diode in single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL
load.
6.6 (a) A dc battery is charged through a resistance R from a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier.
Derive an expression for the average value of charging current in terms of Vm, E, R and firing angle a.
(b) Derive an expression for the rms value of charging current in terms of Vm, E, R and firing angle a.
(c) Determine (i) the power delivered to battery, (ii) rectifier efficiency and (iii) input power factor.
6.7 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RLE load. Discuss its
working principle.
1
(b) Prove that the average charging current is I av = [Vm (cos a – cos b) – E(b – a)]
2p R
6.8 Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer
with R load and find
(a) dc output voltage (b) average d.c. load current (c) rms output voltage
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor (g) efficiency
6.9 What are the different modes of operation of single-phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap
transformer with RL load? Draw voltage and current waveform in each operating mode.
6.10 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single-phase full wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer
with RL load and free wheeling diode.
2V
(b) Prove that the average output voltage at firing angle a is Vo = (1 + cos a )
p
6.11 Explain how a free-wheeling diode improves power factor in a converter.
6.12 Assume that a single-phase full controlled rectifier is connected to RLE load. If the converter operates in
discontinuous mode, draw the input voltage, output voltage, load current and supply current wave-from
when (i) extinction angle b < p and (ii) extinction angle b > p
6.13 A single-phase semi-converter is connected to RLE load. If the converter operates with discontinuous
load current, draw the input voltage, output voltage, load current, supply current and freewheeling diode
current wave-from when (a) extinction angle b < p and (b) extinction angle b > p.
6.14 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single-phase bridge converter with R load. Discuss its working principle.
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters:
(i) dc output voltage (ii) average dc load current (iii) rms output voltage
6.15 Assume that a single-phase semi converter provides a constant load current I. Determine the following
performance parameters:
(a) Displacement factor, (b) Distortion factor, (c) Input power factor,
(d) Ripple factor, (e) Active and reactive power inputs.
6.16 (a) Compare between semi converter and full converter.
(b) Compare between half-controlled converter and full controlled converter.
6.17 How a single-phase full converter operates as an inverter.
6.18 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with R load. Discuss its
working principle.
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms for single-phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with R
Load. Determine the following parameters:
(iv) rms load current (v) Ripple factor
6.19 (a) What is the effect of leakage inductance in single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using center
tap transformer with RL load?
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms
2 2V w LC
(c) Prove that the average dc output voltage is Vo = cos a - I
p p o
6.20 (a) What is the effect of source inductance in single-phase full-wave controlled bridge rectifier with RL
load?
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms
(c) Prove that the average dc output voltage is
2V 2 2V 2w LC
Vo = [cos a + cos(a + m )] = cos a - Io
p p p
6.21 A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load is shown in Fig. 6.5 and it is fed from a 230
V, 50 Hz ac supply. When R = 15 W and a = 30°, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) rms
output voltage, (c) form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) rectification efficiency, (f) TUF and (g) peak inverse
voltage of thyristor.
6.22 A single-phase 220 V, 1.5 kW heater is connected a half-wave controlled rectifier and it fed from a 220
V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the power absorbed by the heater when the firing angle is (a) a = 45° and
(b) a = 60°.
6.23 A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load is supplied from a 230 V, 50 Hz ac source. When
average dc output voltage is 50% of maximum possible average dc output voltage, determine (a) firing
angle of thyristor, (b) average dc output voltage, (c) rms output voltage, (d) average and rms output
current and (e) average and rms current of thyristor. Assume R = 10 W.
6.24 A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is connected across a RL load and feeds from a 220 V,
50 Hz ac supply. When R = 10 W and L = 0.025 H, determine (a) the firing angle to ensure no transient
current and (b) the firing angle for the maximum transient.
6.25 A 80 V battery is charged through a resistor R as depicted in Fig. 6.15. When the charger circuit is fed
from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and R is 10 W, compute (a) the minimum angle at which thyristor will
be turned ON, (b) the angle at which thyristor will be turned OFF, (c) maximum conduction period of
thyristor, (d) average charging current when a = 45°, (e) power supplied to battery , (f) power dissipated
in resistor R and (g) input power factor.
6.26 A single-phase half-wave converter with RLE load is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. When R is
5 W, L is 3 mH, E = 110 V and firing angle of SCR is a = 60°, determine (a) the circuit turn-OFF time if
load current is zero at 210°, (b) average charging current when a = 40° and (c) average output voltage.
6.27 A single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier using centre tap transformer is fed from a 220 V, 50 Hz ac
source and it is connected a resistive load R = 20 W. Determine (a) the output voltage, (b) form factor,
(c) ripple factor, (d) efficiency, (e) transformer utilisation factor at a = 40°. Turn ratio of transformer is 1:1.
6.28 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter with RL load is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
If the firing angle is 60°, determine (a) average output voltage, (b) displacement factor , (c) input power
factor and (d) harmonic factor.
6.29 A single-phase fully controlled converter with RLE load is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The
average load current is 6 which is constant over the working range. Determine the firing angle for
(a) E = 100 V (b) E = –100 V. Assume R = 5 W and L = 4 mL.
6.30 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected with RLE load where R = 10 W, L = 5 mL
and E = 100 V. This converter circuit is supplied from 230 V, 5 0 Hz ac supply. Calculate the average value
of load current when the firing angle a = 45°.
6.31 A 120 V battery is charged through a resistor R as depicted in Fig. 6.34. When the charger circuit is fed
from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and R is 5 W. If thyristor is triggered at a = 30° in every positive cycle,
compute (a) average charging current, (b) power supplied to battery, (c) rms value of load current,
(d) power dissipated in resistor R, (e) input power factor.
6.32 The voltage across secondary winding of a single-phase transformer is 210 V, 50 Hz and the transformer
deliver power to resistive load of R = 2.5 W through a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. If the
firing angle of thyristor is 60°, calculate (a) average dc output voltage, (b) average dc output current,
(c) rms output voltage, (d) rms output current, (e) form factor, (f) voltage ripple factor, (g) rectification
efficiency, (h) transformer utilisation factor (i) PIV of thyristor.
6.33 The peak forward voltage rating of thyristors is 1000 V and average on-state current rating is 50 A in a
single-phase mid-point full converter and single-phase bridge converter. Determine the power rating of
converters which can handle properly. The factor of safety is 2.
6.34 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter with RL load is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
If the firing angle is 30°, determine (a) average output voltage, (b) displacement factor, (c) input power
factor and (d) harmonic factor.
6.35 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter with RLE load is supplied from 210 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
The average load current is 6 A which is constant over the working range. Determine the firing angle for
(a) E = 100 V and (b) E = –100 V. Assume R = 5 W and L = 5 mL.
6.36 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected with RLE load where R = 6 W, L = 4 mL
and E = 100 V. This converter circuit is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Calculate the average
value of load current when the firing angle a = 45°.
6.37 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to RLE load with R = 5 W, L = 5 mL and
E = 80 V. This converter is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply. (a) Determine the average load current
at a = 45°. (b) In the bridge circuit, one thyristor is open circuited due to fault. At this condition what
will be the average load current.
6.38 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to RLE load and it is supplied from 230 V,
50 Hz ac supply. The average load current is 7.5 A which is constant over the working range. Determine
the firing angle for (a) E = 110 V and (b) E = –110 V. Assume R = 5 W and L = 3 mL. Specify which
source is delivering power to load in cases (a) and (b). When the output current is constant, determine
the input power factor for both cases (a) and (b).
6.39 A single-phase bridge controlled rectifier consists of a thyristor and three diodes and it is supplied by
220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. If the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, determine the average output current and
power delivered to battery when RLE load consists of R = 4 W, L = 4 mH, and E = 100 V. Assume current
is constant.
6.40 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from 200 V, 50 Hz ac supply and fed to a
load which consists of R = 10 W and large inductance so that the load current is constant. If the firing
angle is 45°, calculate (a) average output voltage, (b) average output current, (c) average current of
thyristor, (d) rms current of thyristor and power factor.
6.41 In the above question, if the source inductance is about 1.5 mH, find the average output voltage, overlap
angle and power factor.
6.42 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is supplied from a 210 V, 50 Hz single-phase supply
and operates in the continuous conduction mode at a firing angle a = 35°. If the load resistance and
inductances are 5 W and 25 mH respectively, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) average output
load current, (c) third harmonic load current as a percentage of the average load current.
6.43 A single-phase fully controlled bridge converter is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz. A load of R = 12 W is
connected in series with a large inductance and load current is ripple free. If the firing angle of converter
is 60°, determine different performance parameters of the converter.
6.44 A single-phase semi-converter is supplied by 210 V, 50 Hz and it is connected with a RLE load where
R = 15 W, E = 90 V and L is very large so that the load current is ripple free. Determine (a) average output
voltage, (b) average output current, (c) average and rms value of thyristor current, (d) average and rms
value of diode current and (e) circuit turn-OFF time at a = 35°.
6.45 A single-phase semi-converter is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz. A load of R = 10 W is connected in series
with a large inductance and load current is ripple free. If the firing angle of converter is 45°, determine
different performance parameters of the converter.
6.46 A single-phase full-converter is used to deliver a constant load current. If the overlap angle is 15° for
zero degree firing angle of converter, determine the overlap angle when firing angle is (a) a = 30°,
(b) 45°, (c) 60°.
6.47 A single-phase dual converter is supplied from a 200 V, 50 Hz ac source and it is connected to a load of
R = 10 W. The value of current limiting reactor is L = 0.08H. If the firing angle of converter-1 a1 = 45°,
determine (a) firing angle of converter-2, (b) average value of load voltage, (c) peak value of circulating
current and (b) peak currents of both converters.
6.48 Draw the circuit diagram of a dual converter and explain the basic operating principle of a dual converter.
6.49 What are the types of dual converter? Explain any one type dual converter in detail.
6.50 With a neat circuit diagram describe the circulating mode dual converter. Draw the voltage waveforms
of dual converter.
6.51 Derive the expression for the peak value of circulating current. Write the disadvantage of circulating
mode dual converter.
6.52 Compare non-circulating mode dual converter and circulating mode dual converter.

6.1 (a) 6.2 (b) 6.3 (c) 6.4 (d) 6.5 (a) 6.6 (a) 6.7 (b)
6.8 (c) 6.9 (c) 6.10 (a) 6.11 (b) 6.12 (b) 6.13 (c) 6.14 (c)
6.15 (b) 6.16 (a) 6.17 (a) 6.18 (a) 6.19 (a) 6.20 (b) 6.21 (b)
6.22 (b) 6.23 (a) 6.24 (b) 6.25 (b) 6.26 (b) 6.27 (a) 6.28 (c)
6.29 (a) 6.30 (b) 6.31 (a) 6.32 (a)

6.1 thyristors 6.2 firing delay angle a 6.3 Discontinuous 6.4 continuous, discontinuous
Ê pˆ
6.5 firing angle 6.6 Á a > ˜ 6.7 Two 6.8 firing angle
Ë 2¯
6.9 dc side, ac side 6.10 ac source, dc side 6.11 greater 6.12 discontinuous
Three-Phase
UnconTrolled recTifiers
7
7.1 IntroductIon
Single-phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in low to medium power
applications as dc power supply in different electronics equipments. The single-phase
uncontrolled rectifiers can able to handle up to 15 KW as high KVA transformers are
required for a specified dc output power. Where single-phase rectifiers are not suitable,
three-phase uncontrolled rectifiers are used for above 15 KW and high power applications
such as
1. Power supply of electrical machines
2. High voltage dc transmission
3. dc motor drives
4. Radio transmitters
5. TV transmitters
6. Power supply of telephone exchange
7. Electronics equipments
Three-phase uncontrolled rectifiers are known as polyphase rectifiers. Harmonics and
ripple in output voltage are more in single-phase rectifiers. Since less harmonics and
less ripple voltage exist in three phase rectifier, three-phase and multiphase (polyphase)
uncontrolled rectifiers can be used for high power applications with high voltage and
current rating. In high power applications, three-phase rectifiers are preferred over single
phase rectifier due to the following advantages:
1. High dc output voltage
2. Less ripple in output current
3. High input power factor
4. High transformer utilization factor (TUF)
5. Size of filter is low due to high ripple frequency
Three-phase rectifiers can convert a three phase ac supply into a fixed dc voltage as
shown in Fig. 7.1. There are two types of three phase uncontrolled rectifiers such as
half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers and full-wave bridge rectifiers. The classification of
three phase uncontrolled rectifier is depicted in Fig. 7.2.
Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 377
Fig. 7.1 Block diagram of three-phase rectifier
Fig. 7.2 Classification of three-phase rectifiers
In this chapter, operating principle and analysis of three-phase rectifiers are discussed in detail. The
comparative performance of different three phase rectifiers is given in Section 7.9. During analysis of
rectifier circuits, assume transformer and diodes are ideal one. The forward voltage drop across diode
and reverse diode current are zero. In the analysis of three-phase rectifier circuits, it is assumed that
transformer has zero resistance and zero leakage inductance.
7.2 three-Phase half-Wave rectIfIer

Figure 7.3 shows a three-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load. Actually this circuit consists of
three single-phase half-wave rectifier. Therefore this circuit is also known as three-phase Star rectifier.
The diode in R or Y or B phase conducts when the voltage on the particular phase is higher than that
on the other two phases.
Fig. 7.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with load

Fig. 7.4 Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with R load
Three phase voltages are

VRN = 2V sin w t = Vm sin w t
VYN = 2V sin(w t - 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t - 2p /3)
VBN = 2V sin(w t + 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t + 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t - 4p /3)
The vector diagram of VRN, VYN and VBN is depicted in Fig. 7.3(b). Three-phase half-wave rectifier
circuit with R load is depicted in Fig. 7.4. The voltage and current waveforms of a three phase half-
wave rectifiers are depicted in Fig. 7.5. For diode D1 in R phase, VRN is greater than VYN and VBN
p 5p p 5p 2p
from w t = to w t = . Hence diode D1 is forward biased during to and conducts for
6 6 6 6 3
2p
duration. Similarly D2 and D3 are also conducts for duration as depicted in Fig. 7.5. Hence, diode
3
5p 3p 2p
D2 is forward biased during w t = to w t = and conducts for duration. Subsequently diode
6 2 3
3p 13p 2p
D3 is also forward biased during w t = to w t = and conducts for duration.
2 6 3
The three-phase centre-tap rectifier uses the neutral connection of the supply as the return path
for the load.
For this circuit, the average dc output voltage is
1 5p /6 Vm 5p /6
Vav = Vo = Ú V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = 2p /3 [ - cos w t ]p /6
2p /3 p /6 m
5p /6
Vm È 5p p˘ 3 3 3 3
= - cos + cos ˙ = Vm = V = 0.827Vm
2p /3 ÍÎ 6 6 ˚p /6 p 2 2p m
1 1
È 1 5p /6 2 2 ˘ 2 È Vm2 5p /6 1 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú m V sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p /3 p /6 ˚ Î 2p /3 p /6 2 ˚
1 1
È 3V 2 Ê 1 ˆ
5p /6 ˘ 2
È 3V 2 Ê 5p p 1 10p 1 2p ˆ ˘
2
= Í m Á w t - sin 2w t ˜ ˙ =Í mÁ - - sin + sin ˜ ˙

Î 4p Ë 2 ¯ p /6 ˚ Î 4p Ë 6 6 2 6 2 6 ¯˚
1
È 3 Êp 3ˆ˘
2
= Vm Í Á + ˜ = 0.8406Vm
˙
Î 2p Ë 3 4 ¯˚
Fig. 7.5 Voltage and current waveforms of three phase half-wave rectifier with R load

V 0.827Vm
I av = I o = o =
R R
The dc output power is
(0.827Vm )2 0.683Vm2
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o = =
R R
V 0.8406Vm
The rms value of load current is I rms = rms =
R R
The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is
2 (0.8406Vm )2 0.7066Vm2
Pac = I rms R= 2
=
R R
Rectification efficiency is
Pdc 0.683Vm2 / R
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 96.66%
Pac 0.7066Vm2 / R
Vrms 0.8406Vm
Form factor is FF = = = 1.01
Vav 0.827Vm
Ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 0.1821
The rms current in each phase (winding) of the transformer secondary is
1
È 1 5p /6 ˘2 Vm
I rms(transformer) = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙ = 0.4853 I m where, I m =
Î 2p p /6 ˚ R
The VA rating of transformer is
Vm
VA = 3Vrms ¥ I rms(transformer) = 3 ¥ ¥ 0.4853I m
2
Vm2 V
= 1.029Vm I m = 1.029 as I m = m
R R
Pdc 0.683Vm2 / R
TUF = = = 0.663
VA 1.029Vm2 / R
As there are three pulses in a complete cycle of supply voltage, the pulse frequency of output is fo = 3 f
. The peak inverse voltage diode is available when diode is in the non-conducting state. When D1 is
in non-conducting state, the voltage across diode D1 is VR - VY or VR - VB . The VR - VY = VRY is the
line voltage which is equal to 3 times phase voltage. Therefore, peak inverse voltage of each diode
is 3Vm . The disadvantages of this rectifier are (i) high ripple factor and (ii) dc magnetisation current
in transformer secondary. From the above analysis, the following observations are made:
1. Each diode conducts for 120° duration.
2. During one cycle of input voltage, there are three pulses of output voltage.
3. Current flow in transformer secondary is unidirectional. dc current exists in the secondary
winding. Therefore, transformer core gets saturated leading to more iron losses and the
efficiency is reduced.
Example 7.1 A three-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 10 W. Calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current,
(d) dc output power, (e) rms load current, (f) ac power supplied and (g) rectification efficiency.
Solution
VL 400
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 230.94 and R = 10 W
3 3
Maximum phase voltage is Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 230.94 = 326.54 V

1 5p /6 V
2p /3 pÚ/6 m
Vav = Vo = V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = m [ - cos w t ]p5p/6/6
2p /3
3 3
= V = 0.827Vm = 0.827 ¥ 326.54 = 270.05 V
2p m
1
È 1 5p /6 2 2 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙
ÎÍ 2p /3 p /6 ˚˙
1
È 3 Êp 3ˆ˘
2
= Vm Í Á + ˜ = 0.8406 ¥ 326.54 = 274.489 V

˙
Î 2p Ë 3 4 ¯ ˚
(c) The average output current is
V 270.05
I av = I o = o = = 27.005 A
R 10
(d) The dc output power is
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o = 270.05 ¥ 27.005 Watt = 7292.7 Watt
Vrms 274.489
(e) The rms value of load current is I rms = = = 27.4489
R 10
(f) The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is
2
Pac = I rms R = 27.44892 ¥ 10 = 7534.42 Watt
(g) Rectification efficiency is
Pdc 7292.7
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 96.79%
Pac 7534.42
Example 7.2 A three-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f ac supply and it is connected with a R load.
Determine (a) form factor, (b) ripple factor and (c) TUF.
Solution
Assume that the maximum phase voltage is Vm.
The average dc output voltage is Vo = 0.827Vm
The rms value of output voltage is Vrms = 0.8406Vm
Vrms 0.8406Vm
(a) Form factor is FF = = = 1.01
Vav 0.827Vm
(b) Ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 0.1821

(c) The rms current in each phase of the transformer secondary is
1
È 1 5p /6 ˘2 V Vm
I rms(transformer) = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙ = 0.4853 I m = 0.4853 m when I m =
ÎÍ 2p p /6 ˚˙ R R
0.827Vm 0.683Vm2
Pdc = Vo I o = 0.827Vm ¥ =
R R

Vm Vm Vm V2
VA = 3Vrms ¥ I rms(transformer) = 3 ¥ ¥ 0.4853I m = 3 ¥ ¥ 0.4853 = 1.029 m
2 2 R R
Pdc 0.683Vm2 / R
TUF = = = 0.663
VA 1.029Vm2 / R
7.3 sIx-Phase half-Wave rectIfIer

The problems of three-phase half-wave rectifier can be removed up to certain extend by six-phase full-
wave rectifier. Figure 7.6 shows a six-phase rectifier circuit. The six-phase voltages can be obtained in
the secondary by using a canter-tapped arrangement on a Star connected three-phase winding and the
vector diagram of six phase voltages is shown in Fig. 7.7. There are six diodes in a six-phase rectifier.
When a particular phase voltage is higher than other phases, diodes on the particular phase conducts.
This rectifier is also known as three-phase full-wave rectifier. Figure 7.8 shows the output voltage
and current waveforms. This rectifier circuit is also called as three-phase mid point six-pulse rectifier.
Fig. 7.6 Six-phase half-wave rectifier

It is clear from Fig. 7.8 that each diode conducts for p/3 or 60°
duration. Current flows through one diode at a time. Therefore,
average current is low but the ratio between maximum current
to average current in the diodes is high. Hence the utilisation of
transformer secondary is poor. The dc currents in the secondary
of the six-phase Star rectifier can be cancelled in the secondary
windings and core saturation is not encountered.
1 2p /3 V Fig. 7.7 Vector diagram of six-phase
Vav = Vo = Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = m [ - cos w t ]p2p/3/3 voltages
2p /6 p /3 2p /6
2p /3
Vm È p 2p ˘ 61
= Í - cos + cos ˙ = Vm = 0.955Vm
2p /6 Î 3 3 ˚p /3 p2
Fig. 7.8 Voltage and current waveforms of six-phase half-wave rectifier


1 1
È 1 2p /3 2 2 ˘ 2 È Vm2 2p /3 1 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú m V sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p /6 p /3 ˚ Î 2p /6 p /3 2 ˚
1 1
È V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
5p /6 ˘ 2
È V 2 Ê 2p p 1 2p 1 p ˆ˘
2
= Í m Á w t - sin 2w t ˜ ˙ =Í m Á - - sin + sin ˜ ˙

ÍÎ 2p /6 Ë 2 2 ¯ p /6 ˙ Î 2p /6 Ë 6
˚ 6 2 6 2 6¯˚
1
È 6 Êp 3ˆ˘
2
= Vm Í Á + ˜ ˙ = 0.956Vm
Î 2p Ë 6 4 ¯˚
Vrms 0.956Vm
Vdc 0.955Vm
The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = (1.001)2 - 1 = 0.045

V 0.955Vm
I av = I o = o =
R R
V 0.956Vm
I rms = rms =
R R
The rms current in each winding of the transformer secondary is
1
È 1 2p /3 ˘2 1 Êp 3ˆ
I rms(transformer) = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙ = I m ÁË + ˜ = 0.39I m
Î 2p p /3 ˚ 2p 6 4 ¯
Vm
Where, Im =
R
The output power of rectifier is
(0.955Vm )2 V2
Pdc = Vav I av = Vo I o = = 0.912 m
R R
The input ac power to transformer secondary is
2 2
2 Ê 0.956Vm ˆ Vm
Pac = I rms R=Á ˜ R = 0.913
Ë R ¯ R
Pdc 0.912Vm2 / R
Efficiency of rectifier is h = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100 = 99.79%
Pac 0.913Vm2 / R
In is clear from Fig. 7.8 that there are six pulses in the output voltage for a complete cycle of input
voltage. Therefore, ripple frequency is six times of fundamental frequency (fo = 6f )
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of six-phase half-wave rectifier is same as the PIV of three-phase
half-wave rectifier. PIV = 3Vm
The VA rating of transformer is VA = 6Vrms(transformer) I rms(transformer)

Vm 0.39Vm V2
= 6 ¥ = 1.654 m
2 R R
The transformer utilisation factor is
Pdc 0.912Vm2 / R
TUF = = = 0.551
VA 1.654Vm2 / R
From the above analysis,
1. It is clear that the quality of output voltage is better as compared to three-phase half-wave
rectifier due to low ripple factor (RF = 0.045 = 4.5%) and form factor is close to unity (FF = 1.001).
2. As output frequency is equal to 6f, the filter size will be reduced.
3. The disadvantages of six-phase half-wave rectifier is low transformer utilisation factor
compared to three phase half-wave rectifier.
Example 7.3 A six-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 5 W. Calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current,
(d) rms load current, (e) dc output power, (f) ac power supplied and (g) rectification efficiency.
Solution
VL 440
3 3
Maximum phase voltage is Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 254.04 = 359.21 V
1 2p /3 V
Vo = Ú
2p /6 p /3
Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = m [ - cos w t ]p2p/3/3
2p /6
= 0.955Vm = 0.955 ¥ 359.21 V = 343.05 V
1 1
È 1 2p /3 2 2 ˘ 2 È V 2 2p /3 1 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í m Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
ÎÍ 2p /6 p /3 ˚˙ ÎÍ 2p /6 p /3 2 ˚˙
1
È 6 Êp 3ˆ˘
2
= Vm Í Á + ˜ ˙ = 0.956Vm = 0.956 ¥ 359.21 V = 343.40 V

Î 2p Ë 6 4 ¯˚
(c) The average output current is
V 343.05
I av = I o = o = = 68.61 A
R 5
(d) The rms output current is
V 343.40
I rms = rms = = 68.68 A
R 5
(e) Output power is
Pdc = Vo I o = 343.05 ¥ 68.61 = 23.536 kW
(f) The input ac power to transformer secondary is
2
Pac = I rms R = 68.682 ¥ 5 = 23.584 kw
Pdc 23.536
(g) Efficiency of rectifier is h = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100 = 99.79%
Pac 23.584
7.4 MultIPhase rectIfIer

2p
In a three-phase half-wave rectifier, each phase conducts for 120° or radian of a cycle of 360° (2p
3
2p
radians). For a six-phase half-wave rectifier, each phase conducts for 60° or radian of a cycle of
6
360° (2p radians). Therefore in a m phase half-wave rectifier, each phase as well as each diode would
2p
conduct for radian and the number of output voltage pulses p will be equal to number of phases
m
m. Figure 7.9 shows the output voltage wave from for m-phase half-wave diode rectifier where a diode
p p p p
conducts from - to or from - to .
m m p p
Fig. 7.9 Output voltage wave from for m-phase half-wave diode rectifier
Assume that the instantaneous phase voltage is v = Vm cos w t = 2V cos w t where, Vm is the maximum
phase voltage and V is rms phase voltage.
p p
Since each diode conducts from - to as depicted in Fig. 7.9, the average output voltage is
equal to m m
1 p /m
Vo = Ú V cos w t ◊ d (w t )
2p / m -p / m m
m p
= Vm sin
p m
1
È 1 p /m 2 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú m (V cos w t ) d (w t ) ˙
Î 2p / m -p / m ˚
1
È m Vm2 p /m ˘2
=Í Ú (1 + cos 2w t )d (w t )˙
Î 2p 2 -p / m ˚
1
Èm Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘ 2
= Vm Í Á + sin ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë m 2 m ¯˚
Vm
Maximum value of load current is I m =
R
Average value of diode current is
p /m
1 I p
ID = Ú I m cos w t ◊ d (w t ) = p sin m
m
2p -p / m
The rms value of diode current is

1 1
È 1 p /m ˘2 È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘ 2
I Drms = Í Ú ( I m cos w t )d (w t )˙ = I m Í 2p ÁË m + 2 sin m ˜¯ ˙
Î 2p -p / m ˚ Î ˚
The output voltage of a m phase rectifier can be represented by Fourier series. To find the constants
p p
of the Fourier series, we have to integrate from - to . Then constants an and bn are computed
by the following expressions: m m
1 p /m
an = Ú V cos w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ dw t
p / m -p / m m
È Ê (n - 1)p ˆ Ê (n + 1)p ˆ ˘
mVm Í ÁË m ˜¯
sin Á
Ë m ˜¯ ˙
sin
= Í + ˙
p ÎÍ n -1 n +1 ˚˙
È Ê (n - 1)p ˆ Ê (n + 1)p ˆ ˘
mVm Í (n + 1)sin ÁË m ˜¯ + (n - 1)sin ÁË m ˜¯ ˙
= Í ˙
p ÍÎ n2 - 1 ˙˚
After simplification, the above equation can be written as
2 mVm È np p np p˘
an = Í n sin cos - cos sin ˙
p (n - 1) Î
2
m m m m˚
bn = 0
ao m p m p
The dc component is Vdc = = Vm sin = Vm sin
2 p m p m
The Fourier series of output voltage is equal to
1 •
Vo (t ) = a0 + Â an cos nw t
2 n = 6,12,18
After substituting the value of an, the output voltage can be expressed by
m pÈ • 2 np ˘
Vo (t ) = Vm sin Í1 - Â 2
cos cos nw t ˙
p m Î n = m,2 m,3m n - 1 m ˚
Example 7.4 A three phase mid-point six-pulse rectifier is connected to a load of 10 W at dc voltage 200 V.
Determine the ratings of diodes and the three-phase transformer.
Solution
The average dc output voltage is Vo = 0.955Vm where the maximum phase voltage is Vm.
200
Vo = 0.955Vm = 200, therefore Vm = = 209.424 V
0.955
V 209.424
Maximum value of load current is I m = m = = 20.9424 A
R 10
Average value of diode current is

p /m
1 Im p I p
I D _ av =
2p Ú I m cos w t ◊ d (w t ) =
p
sin = m sin
m p 6
as m = 6
-p / m
20.9424 p
= sin = 3.3347 A
p 6
The rms value of diode current is
1 1
È 1 p /m ˘2 È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘ 2
I D _ rms = Í Ú ( I m cos w t )d (w t )˙ = I m ÍÎ 2p ÁË m + 2 sin m ˜¯ ˙˚
ÎÍ 2p -p / m ˚˙
1
È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘ 2
= I m Í Á + sin ˜ ˙ = 0.3902 I m = 0.3902 ¥ 20.9424 = 8.172 A
Ë
Î 2p 6 2 6 ¯˚
PIV of each diode is 2Vm = 2 ¥ 209.424 = 418.848 V
The rms current in each phase of the transformer secondary is
1
È 1 2p /3 ˘2 1 Êp 3ˆ Vm
I rms(transformer) = Í Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˙ = I m ÁË + ˜¯ = 0.39I m where, I m =
ÎÍ 2p p /3 ˚˙ 2p 6 4 R
Vm 0.39Vm V2
VA = 6Vrms(transformer) I rms(transformer) = 6 ¥ = 1.654 m
2 R R
2
209.424
= 1.654 ¥ = 7254.18 VA
10
7.5 three-Phase double star rectIfIer WIth Inter-

Phase transforMer
Figure 7.10 shows a three-phase double Star rectifier with inter-phase transformer R load. This circuit
consists of two three-phase Star rectifier with neutral points interconnected through an inter-phase
reactor (IPT). The functions of IPT are:
1. The inter-phase reactor can be used to isolate two distinct three-phase rectifying system and
maintain a potential difference at a minimum excitation current.
2. A single load can be connected to two distinct three-phase rectifying system.
The polarities of secondary windings in the inter-connected system are reversed as depicted in
Fig. 7.10. When the output voltage of one three-phase rectifier unit is minimum, the output voltage
of other rectifier unit is maximum. Therefore, the output voltage is average of Vo1 and Vo2. The ripple
frequency of output voltage is six times of fundamental frequency. Hence a filter size is reduced.
In a balanced circuit, the output currents of two three-phase Star rectifier units flowing in the
opposite directions in the inter-phase transformer winding can not generate dc magnetization current.
In the same way, the dc magnetization currents in the secondary windings of two three phase Star
rectifier units can cancel each other. Due to symmetry of the secondary circuits, the sum of three
primary current will be equal to zero at all times.
The advantages of three-phase double Star rectifier with inter-phase transformer and R load are:
1. Each of the six phase conducts for one third of the time period (120°) instead of one sixth of the
time period (60°). Hence the utilization factor of transformer will be high.
2. This circuit has low ripple voltage, low peak inverse voltage and high rectifier efficiency.
Fig. 7.10 Three-phase double Star rectifier with inter-phase transformer
The behaviour of circuit can be explained with the help of vector

diagram as depicted in Fig. 7.11. There are two independent systems
which can operate separately. There is 60° phase shift between
rectifier-I and rectifier-II. When neutrals N and N ¢ are connected
directly, there is no potential difference between N and N ¢ and the
complete system works as a six-phase half-wave rectifier and each
phase conducts for 60° duration. The output voltage wave from is
depicted in Fig. 7.12.
7.6 three-Phase brIdge rectIfIer

Three-phase bridge rectifier are extensively used in high power Fig. 7.11 Vector diagram three-
applications since transformer utilization factor is high. Figure phase double Star
7.13 shows a three-phase bridge rectifier circuit with R load. In this rectifier with inter-
circuit, diodes are numbered in order of conduction sequence and phase reactor (IPT)
each diode conducts for 2p/3 duration. The conduction sequences of diodes are D1 D2, D2 D3, D3 D4,
D4 D5, D5, D6, D6 D1. The vector diagram three-phase voltages and line voltages are shown in Fig.
7.14. The voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase bridge rectifier circuit are depicted in Fig.
7.15. In this circuit, the combination of Star or delta connected primary and secondary windings are
symmetrical.
Assume Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage. The instantaneous phase voltages are
VRN = Vm sin w t , VYN = Vm sin(w t - 120∞) and VBN = Vm sin(w t - 240∞).
Fig. 7.12 Output voltage waveform of three-phase double Star rectifier with inter-phase transformer and R load
Then the line-to-line voltages lead the phase voltage by 30° and the instantaneous line voltages are
as follows:
VRY = 3Vm sin(w t + 30∞), VYB = 3Vm sin(w t - 90∞) and VBR = 3Vm sin(w t - 210∞)
Fig. 7.13 Three-phase bridge rectifier
Fig. 7.14 Vector diagram of phase and line voltages

1 p /2
Vav = Vo = Ú 3Vm sin(w t + 30∞) ◊ d (w t + 30∞)
2p /6 p /6
1 p /2
Assuming q = wt + 30°, we can write Vo = Ú 3Vm sin q ◊ dq
2p /6 p /6
3 3 3 3
= Vm = V = 1.654Vm
p p m
The average voltage of output voltage can also be determined by the following ways:
1. Consider any sinusoidal voltage waveform and integrate it from 60° to 120°.
Fig. 7.15 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase bridge rectifier

Then the average dc output voltage is

1 2p /3
Vav = Vo = Ú 3Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t )
2p /6 p /3
3Vm
= [ - cos w t ]p2p/3/3
2p /6
2p /3
3Vm È p 2p ˘ 3 3 3 3
= ÍÎ- cos 3 + cos 3 ˙˚ = Vm = V = 1.654Vm
2p /6 p /3 p p m
2. Consider any cosine voltage waveform and integrate it from –30° left of its peak value to 30°
right of its peak value.
p
1 6
Vav = Vo = Ú 3Vm cos w t ◊ d (w t )
2p /6 - p
6
3 3 3 3
= Vm = V = 1.654Vm
p p m
1 1
È 1 2p /3 2 2 ˘ 2 È Vm2 2p /3 1 ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú m 3V sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p /6 p /3 ˚ Î p /9 p /3 2 ˚
1 1
È V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
5p /6 ˘ 2
È V 2 Ê 2p p 1 2p 1 p ˆ˘
2
= Í m Á w t - sin 2w t ˜ ˙ =Í m Á - - sin + sin ˜ ˙

ÎÍ p /9 Ë 2 2 ¯ p /6 ˚˙ Î p /9 Ë 6 6 2 6 2 6¯˚
1
È3 9 3 ˆ ˘2
= Vm Í + ˜¯ ˙ = 1.655Vm
ÎÍ 2 4p ˚˙
V 1.654Vm
I av = I o = o =
R R
(1.654Vm )2 2.735Vm2
R R
V 1.655Vm
The rms value of load current is I rms = rms =
R R
The ac power output of the transformer secondary is
2 (1.655Vm )2 2.739Vm2
Pac = I rms R= =
R2 R
Pdc 2.735Vm2 / R
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 99.85%
Pac 2.739Vm2 / R
Vrms 1.655Vm
Vav 1.654Vm

In this circuit, each secondary of the transformer conducts for 240° duration. The current for forward
path duration is 120° and return path duration is 120°. Then the rms current of each transformer
secondary winding is
1
È 1 2p /3 2 2 ˘2
I rms(transformer) = Í Ú m I sin w t ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p /4 p /3 ˚
1
È 2 ˘2
Í 1 2p /3 Ê 3Vm ˆ 3Vm
˜ sin w t ◊ dw t ˙
2
= as I m =
ÍÎ 2p /4 pÚ/3 Ë R ¯
Á
˙˚ R
1
È 6V 2 2p /3
1 ˘2 3Vm 2 Êp 3ˆ
= Í m2 Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙ = ÁË + ˜
ÍÎ p R p /3 2 ˙˚ R p 6 4 ¯
2 Êp 3ˆ 1.351Vm
= ImÁË + ˜¯ = 0.78 I m =
p 6 4 R
Vm 1.351Vm 2.866Vm2 Vm
VA = 3Vrms(trasformer) I rms(transformer) = 3 ¥ = as Vrms(trasformer) =
2 R R 2
Pdc 2.735Vm2 / R
Transformer utilisation factor is TUF = = = 0.954
VA 2.866Vm2 / R
Since each diode conducts for 120° duration, the rms current flows though each diode is
1Êp 3ˆ 1.732Vm
ID = Im ÁË + ˜ = 0.552 I m where, I m =
p 6 4 ¯ R
The output voltage of a three phase bridge rectifier can be represented by Fourier series. The instantaneous
output voltage can be expressed as
m pÈ • 2 np ˘
Vo (t ) = Vm sin Í1 - Â 2
cos cos nwt ˙ where, m = 6
p m Î n = m,2 m,3m n - 1 q ˚
È 2 2 ˘
or Vo (t ) = 0.9549Vm Í1 + cos 6w t - cos 12w t + ˙
Î 35 143 ˚
The dc output voltage is slightly lower than the peak line voltage, but it is about 2.34 times the rms
phase voltage. The peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM) rating of each diode is 1.05 times the dc
output voltage. The peak repetitive forward current (IFRM) rating of each diode is 0.579 times the dc
output current. Consequently, three phase bridge rectifier is very efficient and extensively used where
dc voltage and current requirements are high. Usually, any additional filter circuit is not required as
the output ripple voltage is only about 4%. If filter is required in some applications, the size of the
filter is relatively small as the ripple frequency is increased to six times the input frequency.
Example 7.5 A three-phase bridge rectifier is used to charge a 200 V battery when the input voltage of
rectifier is three phase, 220 V, 50 Hz. When the current limiting resistance is 10 W and the load is free from
ripples. Calculate (a) power input to battery, (b) power loss across limiting resistance, (c) displacement factor,
(d) current distortion factor, (e) input power factor, (f) harmonic factor and (g) VA rating of transformer. Assume
transformer utilisation factor is 0.9541.
Solution
220
Line voltage VL = 200 V and phase voltage is VPh = = 127.02
3
The maximum value of phase voltage is Vm = 2VPh = 2 ¥ 127.02 = 179.63 V
1 2p /3 3Vm
Vo = Ú
2p /6 p /3
3Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) =
2p /6
[ - cos w t ]p2p/3/3
3 3
= V = 1.654Vm = 1.654 ¥ 179.63 V = 297.11 V
p m
V - 200 297.11 - 200
Average value of battery charging current I o = o = = 9.711 A
R 10
(a) Power input to battery EI o = 200 ¥ 9.711 = 1942.2 Watt
(b) Power loss across limiting resistance I o2 R = 9.7112 ¥ 10 = 943.03 Watt
Assume that the load current is ripple free. Then transformer secondary current is is constant. Since the
positive and negative half cycle of transfer secondary current is is identical, average value of is current is
zero. The fundamental component of is can be determined by Fourier series as given below.
2 5p /6 2 5p /6
an = Ú
p p /6
I o cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) and bn =
p pÚ/6 o
I sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
2 5p /6 2 I Ê 5p pˆ
p pÚ/6 o
Then a1 = I cos w t ◊ d (w t ) = o Á sin - sin ˜ = 0
p Ë 6 6¯
2 5p /6 2I Ê 5p p ˆ 2 3I o
p pÚ/6 o
b1 = I sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = o Á - cos + cos ˜ =
p Ë 6 6¯ p
The fundamental component of transformer secondary current is
a1 2 3I o 2 3I o
is1 = a12 + b12 – tan -1 = –0∞ = sin w t as f1 = 0
b1 p p
(c) Displacement factor is DF = cos f1 = cos 0 = 1
1 2 3I o
(d) The rms value of Is1 is = ¥
2 p
1
È I 2 ¥ 2p ˘ 2 2
The rms value of source current is I s = Í o ˙ = I
Î p ¥ 3 ˚ 3 o
I s1 2 3I o 3 3
Current distortion factor is CDF = = ¥ = = 0.9954
Is 2p 2Io p
(e) Input power factor is pf = CDF ¥ DF = 0.9554 ¥ 1 = 0.9554
2 2
ÊI ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
(f) Harmonic factor is HF = Á s ˜ - 1 = Á - 1 = 0.309
Ë I s1 ¯ Ë 0.9954 ˜¯
(g) VA rating of transformer is

Pdc Pdc
VA = as TUF =
TUF VA
Power delivered to load is
Pdc = EI o + I o2 R = 1942.2 + 943.03 = 2885.23 Watt and assume that TUF is equal to 0.9541.
Pd 2885.23
Then VA = = = 3024 VA
TUF 0.9541
Example 7.6 A three-phase full-wave rectifier delivers power to a highly inductive load with ripple free
current of 90 A. If the supply voltage is three phase, 440 V, 50 Hz, determine the ratings of diodes.
Solution
I 90
Average current flow through each diode is I D -av = o = = 30 A
rms current rating of diode is 3 3
1/2
Ê 2 2p /3 ˆ
I D - rms = Á
Ë 2p
Ú I m2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˜
¯
= 0.582 I m = 0.582 ¥ 90 = 52.38 A
p /3
Peak inverse voltage of each diode is PIV = Vm = 2 ¥ 440 = 622.25 V
Example 7.7 A three-phase bridge rectifier supplies a highly inductive load and the average load current is
120 A and the ripple content is negligible. Calculate the rating each diode if the line to neutral voltage of a Y
connected supply is 130 V at 50 Hz.
Solution
I 120
The average dc current flows through each diode is I D _ av = o = = 40 A
3 3
The rms current flows through each diode is
1/2
Ê 1 p 2 ˆ Io 120
I D _ rms = Á Ú
Ë 2p p /3
Io d ◊ wt˜
¯
=
3
=
3
= 69.284 A
The PIV of each diode is PIV = 3Vm = 3 ¥ 2 ¥ 130 = 318.42 V
7.7 sIx-Phase serIes brIdge rectIfIers

Figure 7.16 shows a six-phase series bridge rectifier. In this circuit, the Star and Delta connected
secondary windings have p/6 (30°) displacement between their output voltages. If a Star-connected
Star and Delta connected bridge rectifier are connected in series, the output voltage ripple frequency
is twelve times of the fundamental frequency (fo = 12f ). The ripple of combined output voltage is
about 1% whereas the ripple of each individual bridge rectifier is about 4%. The voltage waveforms of
(a) voltage across Star connected secondary (phase voltage) (b) line voltages of Star connected
secondary (c) Vo1 six pulse output voltage of bridge – I (d) line voltages of Delta connected secondary
(e) Vo2 six pulse output voltage of bridge – II and (f) twelve pulse output voltage of six-phase series
bridge rectifier are depicted in Fig. 7.17.
Fig. 7.16 Six-phase series bridge rectifier or three-phase twelve-pulse full bridge rectifier
Assume that Vm* is the peak voltage of the Delta connected secondary. Then the peak voltage between
the lines of Star connected secondary is Vm* . The peak voltage across the load is Vp which is equal to
Vp = 2Vm* ¥ cos(p /12) = 1.932Vm* as there is p/6 phase shift between the delta and Star secondary.
Assume that Vm* = 1.73Vm and Vm is the maximum phase voltage of Star connected secondary.
In this circuit, the average dc output voltage is equal to
1 7 p /12 Vp
Vav = Vo = Ú Vp sin wt ◊ d ( wt ) = [ - cos wt ]75 pp /12
/12
p /12 5 p /12 p /12
Vp È 7p 5p ˘ 12 3 - 1
= Í - cos + cos ˙ = Vp = 0.98862Vp
p /12 Î 12 12 ˚ p 2 2
1 1
È 1 7p /12 2 2 ˘ 2 È Vp2 7p /12 1 ˘2

Vrms = Í Ú Vp sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í 2p /12 Ú 2 (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Î 2p /12 5p /12 ˚ ÍÎ 5p /12 ˙˚
1 1
È Vp2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
7p /12 ˘ 2 È Vp2 Ê 7p 5p 1 14p 1 10p ˆ ˘ 2
=Í Á w t - sin 2w t ˜¯ ˙ =Í Á - - sin + sin ˜˙
ÎÍ 2p /12 Ë 2 2 ˙ ÎÍ 2p /12 Ë 24 12 2
5p /12 ˚ 12 2 12 ¯ ˚˙
1
È 12 Ê p 1 ˆ ˘ 2
= Vp Í Á + ˜ ˙ = 0.98867Vp
Î 2p Ë 12 4 ¯ ˚
V 0.98862Vp
I av = I o = o =
R R
Fig. 7.17 Waveforms of (a) voltage across Star connected secondary (phase voltage), (b) line voltages of Star
connected secondary, (c) Vo1 six pulse output voltage of bridge-I, (d) line voltages of delta connected
secondary, (e) Vo2 six pulse output voltage of bridge-II, and (f) twelve pulse output voltage of six-
phase series bridge rectifier

(0.98862Vp )2 0.97736Vp2
R R
V 0.98867Vp
The rms value of lad current is I rms = rms =
R R
The ac power output is the transformer secondary is
2
(0.98867Vp )2 0.97746Vp2
Pac = I rms R= =
R2 R
Pdc 0.97736Vp2 / R
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 99.98%
Pac 0.97746Vp2 / R
Vrms 0.98867Vp
Vav 0.98862Vp

The rms current in each transformer secondary winding is
4 Ê p 1ˆ
I rms(transformer) = I m
Á + ˜ = 0.807 I m where, I m = Vp / R
p Ë 12 4 ¯
The rms current through each diode is
2 Ê p 1ˆ
I rms(transformer) = I m Á + ˜ = 0.57I m
p Ë 12 4 ¯
Example 7.8 A six-phase series bridge rectifier is depicted in Fig. 7.16 where the dc output voltage is 400
V and R = 10 W. Determine (a) Vp (b) Vrms (c) Iav (d) Pdc (e) Pac (f) h.
Solution
(a) Vav = V0 = 400 V = 0.98862Vp
400
Vp = V = 404.604 V
0.98862
(b) Vrms = 0.98867Vp = 0.98867 ¥ 404.604 = 400.02
Vav 400
(c) I av = = = 40 A
R 10
(d) Pdc = Vdc I dc = 400 ¥ 40 = 16000 Watt
(0.98867Vp )2 (0.98867 ¥ 404.604)2

(e) Pac = = = 16001.58 Watt
R 10
P 16000
(f) h = dc ¥ 100% = ¥ 100 = 99.99%
Pac 16001.58
7.8 sIx-Phase Parallel brIdge rectIfIer

Usually six-phase series bridge rectifiers are used for high output voltage applications. But for high
output current applications, six-phase parallel bridge rectifiers are used. Figure 7.18 shows a six-phase
parallel bridge rectifier with an inter-phase transformer. The output voltage of bridge-I is Vo1 and the
output voltage of bridge-II is Vo2. The output voltage across load is the average of the rectified output
voltages Vo1 and Vo2. The output ripple frequency of six-phase parallel bridge rectifiers is 12 times
of fundamental frequency as depicted in Fig. 7.19. Normally filter circuit is not required. When the
circuit is a balanced one, the output current of two three phase units will not generate dc magnetisation
current.
Fig. 7.18 Six-phase parallel bridge rectifier or three-phase twelve-pulse full-bridge rectifier
Fig. 7.19 Voltage waveforms of the six-phase bridge rectifier with inter-phase transformer
7.9 coMParatIve PerforMance of dIfferent three

Phase rectIfIers
The comparative performance of different three phase rectifiers is given in Table 7.1.
Parameters Three-phase half wave Six-phase half-wave Three-phase bridge 12 pulse
or three-pulse rectifier or six-pulse rectifier rectifier (six-pulse rectifier) rectifier
Average dc out- 0.955Vm 1.654Vm 0.98862Vp
3 3
put voltage Vav Vm Vp = 3.342Vm
2p
Rms output volt- 0.8406Vm 0.956Vm 1.655Vm 0.98867Vp
age Vrms
Form factor (FF) 1.01 1.001 1.0006 1.00005
Voltage ripple 0.1821 = 18.21% 0.045 = 4.5% 0.034 = 3.4% 0.01= 1%
factor (RF)
Efficiency (h) 96.66% 99.79% 99.85% 99.98%
TUF 0.663 0.551 0.954
PIV of Diode 2Vm
3Vm 3Vm
summary
d Three phase uncontrolled rectifiers are used for higher power applications with high voltage and high
current rating.
d The operation of three phase half wave rectifier, six-phase half wave rectifier, multiphase rectifier, three-
phase double Star rectifier, three phase bridge rectifier, six phase series bridge rectifiers and six phase
parallel bridge rectifiers are discussed elaborately.
d The comparative performance of different three phase rectifiers is incorporated in this chapter.
7.1 In a three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier each diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
7.2 The dc output voltage of a three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is
1 5p /6 1 5p /6
2p /3 pÚ/6 m 2p /6 pÚ/6 m
(a) V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b) V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
1 5p /3 1 5p /3
2p /3 pÚ/3 m 2p /6 pÚ/3 m
(c) V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d) V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
7.3 The frequency of output voltage of a three phase half wave uncontrolled rectifier is
(a) fo = f (b) fo = 3f (c) fo = 6f (d) fo = 12f
7.4 The peak inverse voltage of each diode of a three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is
(a) 3Em (b) 2 Em (c) Em (d) E
7.5 In a six-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier each diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
7.6 The dc output voltage of a six-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is
1 5p /6 1 2p /3
2p /3 pÚ/6 m 2p /6 pÚ/3 m
(a) V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b) V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
1 5p /6 1 2p /3
2p /6 pÚ/6 m 2p /3 pÚ/3 m
(c) V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d) V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
7.7 The frequency of output voltage of a six-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is

7.8 The peak inverse voltage of each diode of a six-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is
(a) 3Em (b) 2 Em (c) 2Em (d) E
7.9 In a three-phase bridge rectifier each diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
7.10 The dc output voltage of a three-phase bridge rectifier is
1 2p /3 1 5p /6
2p /6 pÚ/3 2p /6 pÚ/6 m
(a) 3Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b) V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
1 5p /3 1 5p /3
(c) Ú
2p /3 p /3
Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d)
2p /6 pÚ/3 m
V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
7.11 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier is

7.12 In a three-phase double Star rectifier, each diode conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
7.13 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase double Star rectifier is
7.14 An inter-phase transformer is used in three-phase double Start rectifier
(a) to provide a common load to both rectifiers (b) to isolate both systems
(c) for both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
7.15 The dc output voltage of three-phase half-wave rectifier and three-phase six-pulse rectifier are ______
and ______ respectively.
3 3Vm 6Vm 3 3Vm 3 3Vm 3Vm 3Vm 6Vm 3 3Vm
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) ,
2p 2p 2p 2p 2p 2p 2p 2p
7.16 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase 12 pulse rectifier is
7.17 The number of pulse of a three phase 12 pulse rectifier is
(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 9 (d) 12
(a) RF of three-pulse rectifier is 4.3% (b) h of three-pulse rectifier is 99.82%
(c) TUF of three-pulse rectifier is 0.6644 (d) FF is 1.001
7.19 The voltage ripple factor of a twelve-pulse rectifier is
(a) 1.023% (b) 4.27% (c) 4.3% (d) 18.26%
7.20 Form factor of a three-phase half-wave rectifier is
(a) 1.0165 (b) 1.001 (c) 1.0005 (d) 1.00005
7.21 Ripple factor of a twelve-pulse rectifier is
(a) 1.0165 (b) 1.001 (c) 1.0005 (d) 1.00005
fill in the Blanks

7.1 In a three-phase three-pulse diode rectifier, each diode conducts for ______ duration.
7.2 In a three-phase half-wave rectifier, peak inverse voltage across each diode is PIV = ______.
7.3 TUF of a three-phase three-pulse rectifier is ______.
7.4 For a three-phase half-wave rectifier, current in the transformer secondary is ______.
7.5 In three-phase mid-point six-pulse diode rectifier, each diode conducts for ______ duration.
7.6 In a six-phase diode rectifier, the peak inverse voltage across each diode is ______.
7.7 Ripple factor of a three-phase three-pulse rectifier is ______ and ripple factor of 6 phase 6 pulse rectifier
is ______.
7.8 TUF of six-phase six-pulse rectifier is ______ as compared to TUF of a three-phase three-pulse rectifier.
7.9 The average output voltage of a m-phase rectifier is ______ and each diode conducts from ______.
7.10 In three-phase bridge rectifier, the positive group of diodes are ______ and the negative group diodes are
______.
7.11 In three-phase bridge rectifier, each diode conducts for ______ duration.
7.12 Form factor of a three-phase bridge rectifier is ______.
7.13 Peak inverse voltage across each diode in three-phase bridge rectifier is _______.
7.14 A three-phase 12-pulse rectifier consists of ______ diodes.
7.15 The quality of dc output voltage ______ significantly with three-phase twelve pulse rectifier.
review Questions
7.1 Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier and explain its operating
principle with voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters:
(d) rms load current (e) Ripple factor (f) TUF (g) Efficiency
7.2 (a) Why are three-phase rectifiers preferred over single-phase rectifiers?
(b) Give a list of applications of three phase rectifiers.
7.3 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase mid point six-pulse diode rectifier with R load. Discuss
its working principle.
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average dc load current (iii) rms output voltage (iv) rms load current
(v) Form factor (v) Ripple factor (vi) Efficiency (vii) TUF
7.4 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase bridge with R load. Discuss its working principle.
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average dc load current (iii) rms output voltage (iv) rms load current
(v) Form factor (vi) Ripple factor (vii) Efficiency (viii) TUF
7.5 (a) What is multiphase rectifier? What are the advantages of multiphase rectifiers?
(b) Derive the average output voltage and rms output voltage of a multiphase rectifier.
7.6 (a) What are the advantages of three-phase bridge rectifier over three-phase mid point six-pulse rectifier?
(b) For a three-phase q pulse diode rectifier, prove the following expressions:
q p
Average dc output voltage is Vav = Vm sin and
p q
Ê q Êp 1 2p ˆ ˆ
rms output voltage Vrms = Vm Á + sin ˜ ˜ where, Vm is maximum phase voltage.
Ë 2p ËÁ q 2 q ¯¯
7.7 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase double Star rectifier with inter-phase transformer.
Discuss its working principle.
(b) Draw the voltage and current waveforms.
7.8 (a) Describe a three-phase 12-pulse diode rectifier with circuit diagram and waveforms.
(b) Derive expressions for average and rms values of output voltage. Determine form factor and
voltage ripple factor.
7.9 A three-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with a R
load of 5 W. Calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) Average output current,
(d) rms load current, (e) dc output power, (f) ac power supplied and (g) Rectification efficiency.
7.10 A three-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f ac supply and it is connected with a R load. Determine
(a) form factor, (b) ripple factor and (c) TUF
7.11 A three-phase step-down Delta-Star transformer with per phase turn ratio 100 is fed from a 3f, 11 kV,
50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with three-phase half-wave rectifier. When R is equal to 10 W,
determine (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current, (d) rms load
current, (e) power delivered to load, (f) maximum value of load current, (g) average and (h) rms value
of diode current.
7.12 A three-phase Star rectifier is connected with a purely R load. Calculate (a) dc output voltage,
(b) rms value of output voltage, (c) form factor, (FF) (d) ripple factor (RF), (e) efficiency, (f) transformer
utilisation factor, (g) PIV of each diode and (h) peak current through diode. Assume the current flow
through R is 30 A and output dc voltage 120 V.
7.13 The output voltage waveform of a three-phase half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 7.5. Determine the rms
value of the dominant harmonics and their frequencies if Vm = 220 V and fundamental frequency f = 50 Hz.
7.14 A six-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with a R
load of 10 W. Calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current,
(d) rms load current, (e) dc output power, (f) ac power supplied and (g) rectification efficiency.
7.15 A six-phase half-wave rectifier is fed from a 3f ac supply and it is connected with a R load as depicted
in Fig. 7.6. Determine (a) form factor, (b) ripple factor and (c) TUF.
7.16 A three-phase step-down delta-Star transformer with per phase turn ratio 10 is fed from a 3f, 1000 V, 50
Hz ac supply and it is connected with six-phase half-wave rectifier. When R is equal to 5 W, determine
(a) maximum load current, (b) dc output voltage, (c) rms value of output voltage, (d) average output
current, (e) rms load current, (f) power delivered to load, (g) maximum value of load current, (h) average
and rms value of diode current.
7.17 The output voltage waveform of a six-phase rectifier is shown in Fig. 7.8. Determine the rms value of
the dominant harmonics and their frequencies if Vm = 230 V and fundamental frequency f = 50 Hz.
7.18 A three-phase mid-point six-pulse rectifier is connected to a load of 5 W at dc voltage 220 V. Determine
the ratings of diodes and the three-phase transformer.
7.19 A three-phase bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 7.13 and it provides 230 V dc output voltage across
load resistance R = 10 W. Find the rating each diode and delta-Star transformer. Assume transformer
utilisation factor is 0.9541.
7.20 A three-phase bridge rectifier is used to charge a 220 V battery when the input voltage of rectifier is
three phase, 240 V, 50 Hz. When the current limiting resistance is 10 W and the load is free from ripples.
Calculate (a) power input to battery, (b) power loss across limiting resistance (c) displacement factor,
(d) current distortion factor, (e) input power factor, (f) harmonic factor and (g) VA rating of transformer.
Assume transformer utilisation factor is 0.9541.
7.21 A three-phase bridge rectifier is connected to a purely resistive load R = 15 W. Compute (a) efficiency,
(b) form factor, (c) ripple factor, (d) transformer utilisation factor, (f) peak inverse voltage of each diode,
(g) average current through diode and (h) peak current through diode. Assume dc output voltage is 220 V.
7.22 A three-phase full-wave rectifier delivers power to a highly inductive load with ripple free current of 120
A. If the supply voltage is three phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, determine the ratings of diodes.
7.23 A three-phase bridge rectifier supplies a highly inductive load and the average load current is 90 A
and the ripple content is negligible. Calculate the rating each diode if the line to neutral voltage of a Y
connected supply is 120 V at 50 Hz.
7.24 A six-phase series bridge rectifier is depicted in Fig. 7.16 where the dc output voltage is 440 V and
R = 10 W. Determine (a) Vp, (b) Vrms, (c) Iav, (d) Pdc, (e) Pac and (f) h.

7.1 (c) 7.2 (a) 7.3 (b) 7.4 (a) 7.5 (d) 7.6 (b) 7.7 (c)
7.8 (c) 7.9 (c) 7.10 (a) 7.11 (c) 7.12 (c) 7.13 (c) 7.14 (c)
7.15 (a) 7.16 (d) 7.17 (d) 7.18 (c) 7.19 (a) 7.20 (a) 7.21 (d)

7.1 120° 7.7 18.26% and 4.3% 7.11 120°
7.2 3Vm 7.8 poor 7.12 1.0009
7.3 0.6644 7.13 3Vm
7.9 Vm m sin p , - p to p
7.4 unidirectional p m m m 7.14 12
7.5 60° 7.15 Improved
7.10 (D1, D3, D5), (D2, D4, D6)
7.6 2Vm
Three-Phase ConTrolled
reCTifiers
8
8.1 IntroductIon
In a single-phase controlled rectifier, output voltage can be varied from maximum to
zero when the firing angle increases progressively. The harmonics in the output voltage
increases significantly with increasing firing angle. Hence filter circuit is required. The
amplitude of harmonics in three-phase controlled rectifiers is comparatively low with
respect to single-phase rectifier. The ripple voltage at output decreases with increasing
number of pulses in a complete cycle. Actually three pulses, six-pulses, 12-pulses and
24 pulses rectifiers are used depending upon the requirement. When the firing angle of
three-phase rectifier is controlled, the output voltage will be variable. Then the three-
phase controlled rectifier can be used to provide variable dc voltage to
1. Electrical dc machines,
2. Electronics equipments,
3. HVDC power system,
4. DC motor drives, etc.
Essentially, the three-phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power
applications. The advantages of three-phase controlled rectifiers compared to single-phase
controlled rectifiers are as follows:
1. The output voltage has less ripple and is more smoother than single-phase
controlled rectifier output voltage.
2. The size of filter used in three-phase controlled rectifier is reduced.
3. Rectification efficiency is high.
4. Transformer utilisation factor is high.
There are different types of three-phase controlled rectifier as depicted in Fig. 8.1
In this chapter, the operating principle and analysis of three-phase controlled rectifiers
are discussed in detail. In the analysis of controlled rectifier circuits, we assume that
transformer, thyristors and diodes are ideal one. The forward voltage drop across diode and
thyristors are zero and the transformer has zero resistance and zero leakage inductance.
Fig. 8.1 Classification of three-phase controlled rectifiers
8.2 three-Phase half-Wave controlled rectIfIer

Figure 8.2 shows a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier which consists of a three-phase transformer
with delta connected primary and star connected secondary, three SCRs and resistive R load. During
analysis of this circuit, we assume that inductance of transformer is negligible and on state voltage
across each SCR is also negligible.
Fig. 8.2 Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load
Actually this circuit consists of three single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. Whenever a particular
phase voltage is higher than other two phase voltages, the SCR of the corresponding phase will be
forward biased and conducts as soon as the triggering pulse is applied. The simplified representation
of three single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is depicted in Fig. 8.3. This converter is also known
as three phase three-pulse converter or three-phase M-3 converter.
Fig. 8.3 (a) Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier (b) Equivalent representation of three phase half-wave
controlled rectifier
Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 407
Three phase voltages are

VRN = 2V sin w t = Vm sin w t
VYN = 2V sin(w t - 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t - 2p /3)
VBN = 2V sin(w t + 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t + 2p /3) = Vm sin(w t - 4p /3)
where, Vm is maximum phase voltage and V is rms phase voltage.
The vector diagram of VRN, VYN and VBN is depicted in
Fig. 8.4.
With resistive load, three-phase half-wave controlled
rectifier operates in two different modes of conduction
such as
1. Continuous conduction mode when firing angle a
is less than 30°.
2. Discontinuous conduction mode when firing angle
a is greater than 30°.
Figure 8.5 shows the voltage and current waveforms of
three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier when SCR is
p Fig. 8.4 Vector diagram VRN, VYN and VBN
fired at w t = with firing angle a = 0. If any firing
6 p
pulse is applied in between wt = 0 and w t = , thyristor T1 will not be conduct as it is reverse biased.
6
p
When thyristor T1 is turned on at w t = + a , the R phase voltage VRN is applied across the load
6
5p 5p
until the thyristor T2 is fired at w t = + a . Since thyristor T2 is turned ON at w t = + a , thyristor
6 6
T1 will be reverse biased and turned OFF and the Y phase voltage VYN is applied across the load until
9p 9p
the thyristor T3 is fired at w t = + a . As thyristor T3 is turned ON at w t = + a , thyristor T2
6 6
will be reverse biased and turned OFF and then B phase voltage VBN is applied across the load until
13p
the thyristor T1 is fired at w t = + a . Subsequently, the cycle will be repeated and each thyristor
6
2p
conducts for duration when the firing angle a is less than 30°(a < 30°). The equivalent switching
3
representation of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier during
5p p
(a) + a ≥ wt ≥ + a
6 6
9p 5p
(b) + a ≥ wt ≥ + a and
6 6
13p 9p
(c) + a ≥ wt ≥ +a
6 6
are depicted in Fig. 8.6(a), (b) and (c) respectively. The sequence of triggering pulse of thyristors T1,
T2 and T2 at firing angle a = 30° and the output voltage are depicted in Fig. 8.7.
Fig. 8.5 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load
(a) Phase voltages VRN , VYN , VBN , (b) Output voltage at firing angle a = 0, (c) Phase currents IRN ,
IYN , IBN (d) Voltage across thyristor T1
Fig. 8.6 Equivalent switching representation of three phase half-wave controlled rectifier during
5p p 9p 5p 13p 9p
(a) + a ≥ wt ≥ + a , (b) + a ≥ wt ≥ + a and (c) + a ≥ wt ≥ +a
6 6 6 6 6 6
8.2.1 continuous load current with R load when firing

angle a < 30°
In continuous conduction mode, the load current is continuous in nature. When firing angle a is less
than 30° and each thyristor conducts for 120° duration, the output Vo is shown in Fig. 8.8.
5p
+a 5p
1 6 V +a
Vav = Vdc = Vo = Ú Vm sin w t.d (w t ) = m [ - cos w t ]p6
2p /3 p 2p /3 +a
+a 6
6
Vm È Ê 5p ˆ Êp ˆ˘
= - cos Á + a ˜ + cos Á + a ˜ ˙
2p /3 ÍÎ Ë 6 ¯ Ë6 ¯˚
3 3 3 3
= Vmcos a = V cos a = 0.827Vm cos a (8.1)
p 2 2p m
where, Vm is the maximum phase voltage and a is the firing angle.
Fig. 8.7 Waveforms of three phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load (a) Phase voltages VRN,
VYN, VBN, (b) Gate pulse of thyristor T1, (c) Gate pulse of thyristor T2, (d) Gate pulse of thyristor T3,
(e) Output voltage at firing angle a = 30°

1 1
È 5p
+a ˘2 È 5p
+a ˘2
Í 1 6 ˙ Í V 2 6
1 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t.dw t ˙ = Í 2p /3 Ú 2 (1 - cos2w t ).dw t ˙
2 2 m
Í 2p /3 p ˙ Í p ˙
+a +a
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1
È 5p
+a ˘ 2
Í 3Vm 2 Ê 1 ˆ 6 ˙
= w t - sin 2w t
Í 4p ËÁ 2 ¯˜ p +a ˙
ÍÎ 6 ˙˚
1
È 3V 2 Ê 5p p 1 Ê 10p ˆ 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
=Í m Á + a - - a - sin Á + 2a ˜ + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÎÍ 4p Ë 6 6 2 Ë 6 ¯ 2 Ë 6 ¯ ¯ ˚˙
1
È 3 Êp 3 ˆ ˘2
= Vm Í Á + cos2a ˜ ˙ (8.2)
ÍÎ 2p Ë 3 4 ¯ ˙˚
Fig. 8.8 (a) Phase voltages VRN, VYN, VBN (b) Output voltage of three-phase half-wave converter at firing angle
a < 30°
Vrms
The output voltage form factor is FF =
Vdc
The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1
Average load current is
Vo 3 3 Vm V
Io == cos a = 0.827 m cos a
R 2p R R
(0.827Vm )2 0.683Vm2
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o = cos a = cos a
R R
The rms value of load current is
1
V V È 3 Êp 3 ˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = m Í Á + cos2a ˜ ˙
R R ÎÍ 2p Ë 3 4 ¯ ˚˙
The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is Pac = I rms

2
R
Pdc
Rectification efficiency is h = ¥ 100%
Pac
I rms
The current through the transformer secondary is I rms-transfor-secondary =
3
The VA rating of the transformer secondary is VA = 3VI rms-transformer-secondary
Pdc
Transformer utilisation factor is TUF =
VA
8.2.2 discontinuous load current with R load when

firing angle a > 30°
If the firing angle a > 30°, the output voltage wave from will be discontinuous and the conduction
angle of each thyristor is less than 120°. Therefore, the load current will be discontinuous and its value
will be zero for certain duration. Figure 8.9 shows the output voltage waveform during discontinuous
p
mode of operation at a = 60∞ = .
3
p p p p
When the firing pulse is applied to SCR T1 at w t = + a = + = , thyristor T1 is turned ON
6 6 3 2
p p
at w t = + a = and the R phase voltage VRN is applied across the load up to wt = p. Consequently
6 2
p p
SCR T1 conducts from w t = to wt = p and the conduction period of T1 is equal to 90∞ = . Since
2 2
5p
no thyristors conduct from wt = p to w t = + a , the output voltage across R load is zero. As
6
5p 5p p 7p
triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at w t = +a = + = , thyristor T2 will be turned
6 6 3 6
5p 7p
ON at w t = +a = = 210∞ and continuously conducts up to 300°. Since thyristor T2 is turned
6 6
9p 9p p 11p
OFF from 300° to w t = +a = + = , the output voltage during this period is also zero.
6 6 3 6
9p 11p
After application of triggering pulse to thyristor T3 at w t = +a = = 330∞ , thyristor T3 is turned
6 6
9p
on at w t = + a = 330∞ , and then B phase voltage VBN is applied across the load up to 420°. Again
6
output voltage is zero from 420° to 450°. After that the above cycle will be repeated and each thyristor
Fig. 8.9 (a) Phase voltages VRN, VYN, VBN (b) Output voltage of three-phase half-wave converter at firing angle
a > 30° (a = 60°)
conducts for 90° duration. Hence, when the firing angle is a > 30°, conduction angle of each thyristor
is less than 2p duration.
3
1 p V
Vm sin w t.d (w t ) = m [- cos w t ]p
p
Vav = Vo = Ú
2p /3 p 2p /3 +a
+a 6
6
Vm È Êp ˆ ˘ 3V È Êp ˆ˘
= Í - cos p + cos Á + a ˜ ˙ = m Í1 + cos ÁË 6 + a ˜¯ ˙
2p /3 Î Ë 6 ¯ ˚ 2p Î ˚
where, Vm is the maximum phase voltage and a is the firing angle .
1 1
È ˘2 È ˘2
Í 1 p 2 2 ˙ Í Vm2 p 1 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t.dw t ˙ = Í 2p /3 Ú 2 (1 - cos2w t ).dw t ˙
Í 2p /3 p ˙ Í p ˙
+a +a
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1
È 2 p ˘2
Í 3Vm Ê 1 ˆ ˙
= w t - sin 2w t ˜
Í 4p ÁË 2 ¯ p +a ˙
ÎÍ 6 ˚˙
1
È 3V 2 Ê p 1 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
= Í m Á p - - a - sin 2p + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÎÍ 4p Ë 6 2 2 Ë 6 ¯ ¯ ˚˙
1 1
È 3V 2 Ê 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2 3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
=Í mÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙ = ÍÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 4p Ë 6 2 Ë 6 ¯ ¯ ˙˚ 2 p ÎË 6 2 Ë 6 ¯¯˚
Vo 3Vm È Êp ˆ˘
Io = = 1 + cos Á + a ˜ ˙
R 2p R ÎÍ Ë6 ¯˚
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o
1
V 3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = ÍÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
R 2 p R ÎË 6 2 Ë 6 ¯¯˚
The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is Pac = I rms

2
R
Pdc
Rectification efficiency is h = ¥ 100%
Pac
Example 8.1 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is
connected with a R load of 10 W. When the firing angle of thyristor is 20°, calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b)
r.m.s value of output voltage, (c) output voltage form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) average output current, (f) rms
load current, (g) dc output power, (h) ac power supplied and (i) rectification efficiency and TUF.
Solution
VL 440
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 254.04 V , R = 10 W and firing angle a = 20°
3 3
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 254.04 V = 359.21 V
Since firing angle a is less than 30°, the output voltage as well as load current will be continuous.
(a) Then the average dc output voltage is equal to
5p
+a
6
1
Vdc = Vo =
2p / 3 Ú Vm sin w t.d (w t )
p
+a
6
3 3
= V cos a = 0.827Vm cos a = 0.827 ¥ 359.21 ¥ cos20 = 279.15 V
2p m
1
È 5p
+a ˘2
Í 1 6 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t.dw t ˙
2 2
Í 2p /3 p ˙
+a
Î 6 ˚
1 1
È 3 Êp 3 ˆ ˘2 È 3 ÏÔ p 3 ¸Ô˘ 2
= Vm Í Á + cos2a ˜ ˙ = 359.21 ¥ Í Ì + cos(2 ¥ 20) ˝˙ = 291.48 V
ÍÎ 2p Ë 3 4 ¯ ˙˚ ÍÎ 2p ÔÓ 3 4 Ô˛˙˚
(c) The output voltage form factor is
Vrms 291.48
FF = = = 1.0441
Vdc 279.15
(d) The ripple factor is
RF = FF 2 - 1 = 1.04412 - 1 = 0.30
(e) Average load current is
Vo 279.15
Io = = = 27.915 A
R 10
(f) The rms value of load current is
Vrms 291.48
I rms = = = 29.148 A
R 10
(g) The dc output power is
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o = 279.15 ¥ 27.915 = 7792.47 Watt
(h) The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is
Pac = I rms
2
R = 29.1482 ¥ 10 = 8696.05 Watt
(i) Rectification efficiency is

P 7792.47
h = dc ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 89.60%
Pac 8696.05
The current through the transformer secondary is
I 29.148
I rms-transfor-secondary = rms = = 16.82 A
3 3
The VA rating of the transformer secondary is
VA = 3VI rms-transformer-secondary = 3 ¥ 254.04 ¥ 16.82 = 12825.79 VA
Pdc 7792.47
Transformer utilisation factor is TUF = = = 0.6075
VA 12825.79
Example 8.2 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is connected to a 3f, 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it
is also connected with a resistive load of 5 W. If the firing angle of thyristor is 60°, calculate (a) dc output voltage,
(b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current, (d) rms load current and (e) TUF.
Solution
Given: Phase voltage is V = VL = 220 = 127.02 V , R = 5 W and firing angle a = 60°
3 3
Since firing angle a is greater than 30°, the output voltage as well as load current will be discontinuous.
(a) Then the average dc output voltage is
1 p
2p /3 p Ú m
Vav = Vo = V sin w t.d (w t )
+a
6
3Vm È Êp ˆ˘
= 1 + cos Á + a ˜ ˙
2p ÍÎ Ë6 ¯˚
3 ¥ 179.60 p
=
2p
[1 + cos(30 + 60)] as
6
= 30∞ and a = 60∞
= 85.796 V
1
È ˘2 1
Í 1 p 2 2 ˙ È 3Vm2 Ê 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t.dw t ˙ = Í 4p ËÁ 6 - a + 2 sin ÁË 6 + 2a ˜¯ ¯˜ ˙
Í 2p /3 p +a ˙ ÎÍ ˚˙
Î 6 ˚
1
3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
= ÍÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
2 p ÎË 6 2 Ë 6 ¯¯ ˚
1
3 ¥ 179.60 ÈÊ 5p 2p 1 ˆ ˘2 2p 2p
= ÍËÁ 6 - 6 + 2 sin(60 + 2 ¥ 60)¯˜ ˙ as = 60∞ and a = 60∞ =
2 p Î ˚ 6 6
= 137.807 V
(c) Average load current is
Vo 85.796
Io = = = 17.1592 A
R 5
(d) The rms value of load current is

V 137.807
I rms = rms = = 27.5614 A
R 5
(e) The dc output power is
The current through the transformer secondary is
I 27.5614
I rms-transfor-secondary = rms = = 15.913 A
3 3
The VA rating of the transformer secondary is
VA = 3VI rms-transformer-secondary = 3 ¥ 127.02 ¥ 15.913 = 6063.80 VA
P 1472.19
TUF = dc = = 0.2427
VA 6063.80
Example 8.3 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is
connected with a R load of 10 W. When the average dc output voltage is equal to 60% of the maximum dc output
voltage, determine (a) the firing angle of thyristor, (b) dc output voltage and (c) rms value of output voltage.
Solution
VL
400
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 230.94 V , and R = 10 W
3 3
(a) At firing angle a, the average dc output voltage is
5p
+a
6
1
Vdc = Vo =
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t )
p
+a
6
3 3
= V cos a = 0.827Vm cos a
2p m
When a = 0°, maximum dc output voltage is Vdc|max = 0.827Vm
Since the average dc output voltage is equal to 60% of the maximum dc output voltage,
Vdc = 0.827Vm cos a = 0.6Vdc|max = 0.6 ¥ 0.827Vm
or, cos a = 0.6
The firing angle a is cos–1 0.6 = 53.13°
Since the firing angle a is greater than 30°, the output voltage can not be computed from above equations.
Since a > 30°, voltage as well as load current will be discontinuous.
1 p
2p /3 p Ú m
Vav = Vo = V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
+a
6
3Vm È Êp ˆ˘
= Í1 + cos ÁË 6 + a ˜¯ ˙ = 0.6 ¥ 0.827Vm
2p Î ˚
0.6 ¥ 0.827 ¥ 2p
or 1 + cos(30 + a ) = = 1.0387
3
-1
or 30 + a = cos (0.0387) = 87.78
(b) Subsequently, the average dc output voltage is
1 p
2p /3 p Ú m
Vav = Vo = V sin w t ◊ d (w t )
+a
6
3Vm È Êp ˆ˘
= 1 + cos Á + a ˜ ˙
2p ÍÎ Ë6 ¯˚
3 ¥ 326.54 p
=
2p
[1 + cos(30 + 57.78)] as
6
= 30∞ and a = 57.78∞
= 162.02 V
1
È ˘2 1
Í 1 p 2 2 ˙ È 3Vm2 Ê 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í 4p ÁË 6 - a + 2 sin ÁË 6 + 2a ˜¯ ˜¯ ˙
Í 2p /3 p +a ˙ ÎÍ ˚˙
Î 6 ˚
1
3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
= ÍÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
2 p ÎË 6 2 Ë 6 ¯¯ ˚
1
3 ¥ 326.54 ÈÊ 5p 57.78 ¥ p 1 ˆ ˘2
= ÍÁË 6 - 180 + 2 sin(60 + 2 ¥ 57.78)˜¯ ˙
2 p Î ˚
2p 53.13 ¥ p
as = 60∞ and a = 53.13∞ =
6 180
= 204.825 V
8.3 three-Phase half-Wave controlled rectIfIer

WIth Rl load
Figure 8.10 shows a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load. Assume that the load
inductance L is very large so that the load current Io is continuous and constant. When the firing angle
a < 30°, the average dc output voltage and rms output voltage will be same as Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2)
respectively. If the firing angle a varies with in the range of 30° < a < 90° and 90° < a < 180°, the
three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier behaves differently as explained below:
Fig. 8.10 Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load

8.3.1 operation of converter When a varies Within 30° and 90°

(30° < a < 90°)
Operation of converter when a = 45° Assume that the firing angle of thyristors is a = 45°.
The voltage and current waveforms for this converter is depicted in Fig. 8.11. It is clear from Fig.
8.11 that each thyristor conducts for 120° duration. Hence thyristor T1 conducts from 30° + a (75°)
to 150° + a (195°), T2 conducts from 150° + a (195°) to 270° + a (315°) and T3 conducts from 270°
+ a (315°) to 390° + a (435°) as a = 45°.
At wt = 180° or p, the R phase voltage VRN becomes zero, but the current IRN is not zero as
thyristor T1 continuously conduct until the firing pulse is applied to T2 at 150° + a (195°). Hence the
output voltage is negative during 150° + a > wt > 180°. As soon as thyristor T2 is turned on at wt
= 150° + a (195°), the output voltage will be equal to the Y phase voltage VYN and the load current
shifts from T1 to T2. When thyristor T1 conducts, the forward voltage drop across T1 is about zero.
At wt = 150° + a, thyristor T1 is reverse biased and the amplitude of reverse bias voltage is equal to
VRN - VYN = Vm sin(150 + a ) - Vm sin(150 + a - 120) as depicted in Fig. 8.11. Similarly, the reverse-biased
voltage and forward blocking voltage across thyristor T1 can be computed at different wt in the range
of 435° ≥ wt ≥ 195° as given below.
1. T1 is ON from wt = 30° + a (75°) to wt = 150° + a (195°), voltage across T1 is 0 V.
2. T2 is ON from wt = 150° + a (195°) to wt = 270° + a (315°), voltage across T1 is VRN – VYN.
wt Voltage across T1
w t = 195∞ VRN - VYN = Vm sin195 - Vm sin(195 - 120) = Vm sin195 - Vm sin 75 = -1.2247Vm
w t = 210∞ VRN - VYN = Vm sin 210 - Vm sin(210 - 120) = Vm sin 210 - Vm sin 90 = -1.5Vm
w t = 240∞ VRN - VYN = Vm sin 240 - Vm sin(240 - 120) = Vm sin 240 - Vm sin120 = -1.732Vm
3. T3 is ON from wt = 270° + a (315°) to wt = 390° + a (435°), voltage across T1 is VRN – VBN

wt Voltage across T1
w t = 315∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 315 - Vm sin(315 - 240) = Vm sin 315 - Vm sin 75 = -1.673Vm
w t = 330∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin(330 - 240) = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin 90 = -1.5Vm
w t = 360∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 360 - Vm sin(360 - 240) = Vm sin 360 - Vm sin120 = -0.866Vm
w t = 390∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 390 - Vm sin(390 - 240) = Vm sin 390 - Vm sin150 = 0
w t = 420∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 420 - Vm sin(420 - 240) = Vm sin 420 - Vm sin180 = 0.866Vm
w t = 435∞ VRN - VBN = Vm sin 435 - Vm sin(435 - 240) = Vm sin 435 - Vm sin195 = -1.2247Vm
Fig. 8.11 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-controlled converter with RL load at a = 45°
The average and rms values of output voltages of three-phase half-wave converter with highly
inductive load and firing angle varies in the range 30° < a < 90°, will be as follows
5p
+a 5p
1 6 Vm +a
Vav = Vdc = Vo =
2p /3
Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) =
2p /3
[ - cos w t ]p6
+a
p
+a 6
6
3 3
2p m
where, Vm is the maximum phase voltage and a is the firing angle.
1 1
È 5p
+a ˘2 È 5p
+a ˘2
Í 1 6 ˙ Í V 2 6
1 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í 2p /3 Ú 2 (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
2 2 m
Í 2p /3 p +a ˙ Í p
+a ˙
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1
È 3 Êp 3 ˆ ˘2
= Vm Í Á + cos2a ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2p Ë 3 4 ¯ ˙˚
Operation of converter when a = 60° When the firing angle of thyristors is a = 60°, the
voltage and current waveforms for this converter are depicted in Fig. 8.12. It is clear from Fig. 8.12
that each thyristor conducts for 120° duration. Hence thyristor T1 conducts from 30° + a (90°) to
150° + a (210°), T2 conducts from 150° + a (210°) to 270° + a (330°) and T3 conducts from 270° +
a (330°) to 390° + a (450°).
At wt = 180° or p, the R phase voltage VRN becomes zero, but the current IRN is not zero as
thyristor T1 continuously conduct until the firing pulse is applied to T2 at 150° + a. Therefore, the
output voltage is negative during 150° + a > wt > 180°. As soon as thyristor T2 is turned ON at wt
= 150° + a (210°), the output voltage will be equal to the Y phase voltage VYN and the load current
shifts from T1 to T2. When thyristor T1 conducts, the forward voltage drop across T1 is about zero.
At wt = 150° + a, thyristor T1 is reverse biased and the amplitude of reverse bias voltage is equal to
VRN - VYN = Vm sin(150 + a ) - Vm sin(150 + a - 120) = Vm sin 210 - Vm sin 90 = -1.5Vm . Similarly, the
reverse-biased voltage across at different wt in the range of 390∞ + a > w t > 150∞ + a can be computed.
T1 is ON from wt = 30° + a (90°) to wt = 150° + a (210°), voltage across T1 is 0 V
T2 is ON from wt = 150° + a (210°) to wt = 270° + a (330°), voltage across T1 is VRN – VYN
At wt = 150° + a = 210°,
VRN - VYN = Vm sin(150 + a ) - Vm sin(150 + a - 120) = Vm sin 210 - Vm sin 90 = -1.5Vm
At w t = 240∞, VRN - VYN = Vm sin 240 - Vm sin(240 - 120) = -1.732Vm
At w t = 270∞, VRN - VYN = Vm sin 270 - Vm sin(270 - 120) = -1.5Vm
At wt = 330°, the amplitude of reverse bias voltage across T1 is equal to
VRN - VYN = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin(330 - 120) = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin 210 = 0
T3 is ON from wt = 270° + a (330°) to wt = 390° + a (450°), voltage across T1 is VRN – VBN
and VRN - VBN = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin(330 - 240) = Vm sin 330 - Vm sin 90 = -1.5Vm
VRN - VBN = Vm sin 390 - Vm sin(390 - 240) = Vm sin 390 - Vm sin150 = 0
VRN - VBN = Vm sin 450 - Vm sin(450 - 240) = Vm sin 450 - Vm sin 330 = 1.5Vm
Fig. 8.12 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-wave converter with RL load at a = 60°
8.3.2 operation of converter when a varies within

90° < a < 180°
Assume that the firing angle of thyristors is a = 120° and the load Io is continuous and ripple free due
to highly inductive load. The voltage and current waveforms for this converter at a = 120° is shown
in Fig. 8.13. It is clear from Fig. 8.13 that each thyristor conducts for 120° duration and the output
voltage is positive for small duration and it is negative for large duration. Consequently, the average
dc output voltage is negative.
In this converter, thyristor T1 conducts from 30° + a to 150° + a, T2 conducts from 150° + a to 270°
+ a and T3 conducts from 270° + a to 390° + a. Since a = 120°, the conduction period for T1 is from
150° to 270°, T2 conducts from 270° to 390° and the conduction period for T3 is from 390° to 510°.
3 3
As the average dc output voltage is Vo = V cos a and the firing angle a is greater than 90°,
2p m
Vo is negative. Since each thyristor conducts for 120°, average thyristor current is
120∞ I
IT -average = ¥ I o = o and
360∞ 3
rms value of thyristor current is
1
È 120∞ 2 ˘ 2 I o
IT -rms = Í ¥ Io ˙ =
Î 360∞ ˚ 3
Figure 8.14 shows the voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-controlled converter with
RL load at a = 165°.
In this converter, the transformer windings have to carry dc current which is very harmful to the
transformer. This problem can be solved using delta-zigzag connection as depicted in Fig. 8.15. It is
clear from Fig. 8.15 that load current Io enters the neutral N of the secondary zigzag which divides
I I
equally in the three half-windings. Each half-winding a, b, c carries o load current. The current o
3 3
flows through other half windings b1, c1, a1 and thyristors T1, T2, T3 and RL load.
Fig. 8.15 Three-phase half-controlled converter with RL load is supplied from a delta-zigzag transformer
In zigzag winding, each phase winding is divided into two halves such as a, a1; b, b1; c, c1 and
Io
current flows through each half in opposite direction as depicted in Fig. 8.15. As each half of the
3
secondary windings caries dc current in opposite direction, the magnetic effects due to dc currents
cancel each other. Consequently, the core flux, core loss and the temperature rise of transformer are
not affected. Therefore, three-phase half-controlled converter can be used for energizing a dc load
through delta-zigzag transformer.
Example 8.4 A three-phase three pulse controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it
is connected with a R load of 10 W. If the average dc output voltage is equal to 90% of the maximum dc output
voltage, determine (a) the firing angle of thyristor, (b) dc output voltage, (c) rms value of output voltage and
(d) rectification efficiency.
Solution
VL 220
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 127.02 V , and R = 10 W
3 3
5p
+a
6
1
Vdc = Vo =
p
+a
6
3 3
2p m
When a = 0°, maximum dc output voltage is Vdc|max = 0.827Vm
Since the average dc output voltage is equal to 90% of the maximum dc output voltage,
Vdc = 0.827Vm cos a = 0.9Vdc|max = 0.9 ¥ 0.827Vm
or cos a = 0.9
The firing angle a is cos-1 0.9 = 25.84∞
Since the firing angle a is less than 30°, the output voltage can be computed from above equations.
(b) Therefore, the average dc output voltage is

3 3
Vav = V cos a = 0.827Vm cos a = 0.827 ¥ 179.63 ¥ 0.9 = 133.69 V
2p m
1
È 5p
+a ˘2 1
Í 1 6 ˙ È 3 Êp 3 ˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Vm Í 2p ÁË 3 + 4 cos2a ˜¯ ˙ as a = 25.84∞
2 2
Í 2p /3 p +a ˙ ÎÍ ˚˙
Î 6 ˚
1
È 3 ÏÔ p 3 ¸Ô˘ 2
= 179.63 ¥ Í Ì + cos(2 ¥ 25.84) ˝˙ = 142.37 V
ÍÎ 2p ÔÓ 3 4 Ô˛˙˚
(d) Average load current is
Vo 133.69
Io = = = 13.369 A
R 10
Vrms 142.37
I rms = = = 14.237 A
R 10
The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is
Pac = I rms
2
R = 14.2372 ¥ 10 = 2026.92 Watt
Pdc 1787.30
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 88.17%
Pac 2026.92
Example 8.5 A three-phase three pulse controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it
is connected with a constant current load of 40 A. The voltage drop across each thyristor is 1.5 V. (a) Determine
the dc output voltage at firing angle of 60° and 45°, (b) Calculate the average and rms current rating and PIV of
thyristors and (c) Determine the average power dissipated in each thyristor.
Solution
Given: Phase voltage is V = VL = 440 = 254.04 V , VT = 1.5 V and R = 10 W
3 3
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 254.04 = 359.21 V
5p
+a
6
1
Vdc = Vo =
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) - VT
p
+a
6
3 3
= V cos a - VT = 0.827Vm cos a - VT
2p m
At a = 60∞, Vo = 0.827Vm cos a - VT = 0.827 ¥ 359.21cos60 - 1.5 V = 147.03 V
At a = 45∞, Vo = 0.827Vm cos a - VT = 0.827 ¥ 359.21cos 45 - 1.5 V = 208.557 V
I o 40
(b) Average current rating of SCR is IT av = = = 13.333 A
3 3
I 40
rms current rating of SCR is IT -rms = o = = 23.094 A
3 3
PIV of thyristor is 3Vm = 3 ¥ 359.21 = 622.15 V
(c) Average power dissipated in each SCR is IT av ¥ VT = 13.333 ¥ 1.5 = 19.9995 Watt
Example 8.6 A 150 V battery is charged using three phases half-wave rectifier as depicted in Fig. 8.16. The
input phase voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz and the firing angle of thyristors is 30°. Determine the average current flows
through the battery. Draw the charging voltage and charging current waveforms.
Fig. 8.16
Solution
Phase voltage V = 220 V and maximum phase voltage is Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 = 311.1269 V
At w t = 30∞ + a = 30∞ + 30∞ = 60∞ , thyristor T1 starts to conduct and input voltage is applied to the
battery. After that thyristor T1 will conduct up to a voltage 150 V and it will turned OFF when
Vm sin b = 150
Ê 150 ˆ
or 311.1269 ¥ sin b = 150 or b = sin –1 Á = 90 + (90 - 28.82) = 151.13∞
Ë 311.1269 ˜¯
As b must be greater than 90°.
The KVL equation of the circuit during conduction of thyristor is
Vm sin w t - E = io R
The average current flow through thyristor is
b
3 Vm sin wt - E 3V 3E
◊ d wt = m [- cos wt ] p - ( b - a - 30∞)
b
Io =
2p
Ú R 2 p R a + 2 pR
p 6
a+
6
3Vm 3E
= Ècos ( a + 30∞) - cos b˚˘ - ( b - a - 30∞)
2pR Î 2pR
After substituting the value of Vm, b and a in the above equation, we obtain
3Vm 3E
Io = ÈÎcos (a + 30∞) - cos b ˘˚ - (b - a - 30∞)
2p R 2p R
3 ¥ 311.1269 3 ¥ 150
= ÈÎcos (30∞ + 30∞) - cos (151.13∞)˘˚ - (151.13∞ - 30∞ - 30∞)
2p ¥ 10 2p ¥ 10
= 9.0554 A
The charging voltage and charging current waveforms are depicted in Fig. 8.17.
Fig. 8.17 Charging voltage and charging current waveforms
8.3.3 three-Phase half-Wave controlled rectifier With

Rl load and free Wheeling diode
Figure 8.18 shows a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and free wheeling diode
DF. When the load inductance L is very large, the load current Io is continuous and constant. If the
firing angle a < 30°, each thyristor conducts for 120° duration and free wheeling diode does not come
in the conduction. When the firing angle a > 30°, each thyristor conducts for less than 120° duration
and free wheeling diode comes into conduction.
Fig. 8.18 Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and free wheeling diode
Assume the firing angle is a = 60°. When the firing pulse is applied to thyristor T1, thyristor T1
starts conduction at wt = 30° + a = 90° and continuously conducts up to wt = p = 180°. At wt = p, the
R phase voltage VRN becomes zero and tends to negative. Subsequently thyristor T1 will be turned OFF
and freewheeling diode DF will be forward biased and starts conducting. Therefore, the freewheeling
diode conducts from wt = p to wt = 150° + a (210°) at which thyristor T2 is turned ON. In the
2p 5p
same way, when VYN become negative at w t = p + = , the freewheeling diode again conducts.
3 3
Figure 8.19 shows the voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier
with RL load and free wheeling diode DF. It is clear from Fig. 8.19 that each thyristor conducts for
150° – a and the free wheeling diode conducts for a – 30° duration.
Fig. 8.19 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-controlled converter with RL load free wheeling
diode at a = 60°

1 p Vm
Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = 2p /3 [- cos w t ]p +a
p
Vav = Vo =
2p /3 p
+a 6
6
3Vm È Ê p ˆ˘
= Í1 + cos Á a + ˜ ˙
2p Î Ë 6¯˚
1 1
È ˘2 È ˘2
Í 1 p 2 2 ˙ Í Vm2 p 1 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í 2p /3 Ú 2 (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Í 2p /3 p ˙ Í p ˙
+a +a
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1
È 2 p ˘2
Í 3Vm Ê 1 ˆ ˙
= w t - sin 2w t ˜
Í 4p ÁË 2 ¯ p +a ˙
ÎÍ 6 ˚˙
1
È 3V 2 Ê p 1 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
= Í m Á p - - a - sin 2p + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 4p Ë 6 2 2 Ë 6 ¯ ¯ ˙˚
1 1
È 3V 2 Ê 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2 3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
=Í mÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙ = ÍÁ - a + sin Á + 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÎÍ 4p Ë 6 2 Ë 6 ¯ ¯ ˚˙ 2 p ÎË 6 2 Ë 6 ¯¯˚
Thyristor average current is

5p
-a I È 5p ˘
IT -average = 6 Io = o Í - a ˙
2p 2p Î 6 ˚
Thyristor rms current is
1
È 5p ˘2 1
Í 6 -a 2˙ È 1 Ê 5p ˆ ˘2
IT -rms = Í Io ˙ = Io Í Á - a˜ ˙
Í 2p ˙ Î 2p Ë 6 ¯˚
Î ˚
Freewheeling diode average current is
p
a-
6 I = 3I o È p˘
I DF-average = Ía - 6 ˙
2p /3 o 2p Î ˚
Freewheeling diode rms current is
1
È p ˘2 1
Ía - 6 2 ˙ È 3 Ê p ˆ ˘2
I DF-rms = Í Io ˙ = Io Í Á a - ˜ ˙
Í 2p /3 ˙ Î 2p Ë 6¯˚
Î ˚
Operation of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with rl load and free wheel-
ing diode when a = 60° Assume that the firing angle of thyristors is a = 60°. The voltage
and current waveforms for this converter is depicted in Fig. 8.19. It is clear from Fig. 8.19 that each
thyristor conducts for 150° – a duration. Hence thyristor T1 conducts from wt = 30° + a (90°) to wt
= 90° + (150° – a) = 240° – 60° = 180°, free wheeling diode conducts for a – 30 = 60 – 30 = 30°
duration from wt = 180° to wt = 210°. Thyristor T2 starts conduction from wt = 150° + a (210°) to
wt = 300°. Again free wheeling diode conducts for a – 30 = 60 – 30 = 30° duration from wt = 300°
to wt = 330°. After that T3 conducts from wt = 270° + a (330°) to wt = 410°.
Example 8.7 A three-phase three pulse controlled rectifier with free wheeling diode DF is fed from a 3f,
400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with a constant current load of 90 A at firing angle of 45°. Determine
(a) the dc output voltage, (b) rms output voltage, (c) the average and rms current of thyristors and (d) the average
and rms current of free-wheeling diode.
Solution
VL 400
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 230.94 V
3 3
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 230.94 = 326.598 V
p
1 V
Vm sin wt ◊ d ( wt ) = m [- cos wt ]p as a = 45∞
p
Vav = Vo =
2 p /3 p
Ú 2 p /3 +a
+a 6
6
3Vm È Ê p ˆ ˘ 3 ¥ 326.598 È Ê p pˆ˘

= Í1 + cos ËÁ a + 6 ¯˜ ˙ = Í1 + cos Á + ˜ ˙ = 196.398 V
2p Î ˚ 2p Î Ë 4 6¯˚
1
È ˘2 1
Í 1 p 2 2 ˙ 3Vm ÈÊ 5p 1 Ê 2p ˆˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = ÍÁ - a + sin Á
2 Ë 6
+ 2a ˜ ˜ ˙
¯¯ ˚
Í 2p /3 p +a ˙ 2 p ÎË 6
Î 6 ˚
1
3 ¥ 326.598 ÈÊ 5p p 1 Ê 2p p ˆˆ ˘2
= ÍÁ - + sin Á + 2 ¥ ˜ ˜ ˙ = 230.285 V
2 p ÎË 6 4 2 Ë 6 4 ¯¯ ˚
(c) Thyristor average current is
5p
-a I È 5p ˘ 90 È 5p p ˘
IT -average = 6 Io = o Í - a ˙ = Í - ˙ = 26.25 A
2p 2p Î 6 ˚ 2p Î 6 4 ˚
Thyristor rms current is
1
È 5p ˘2 1 1
Í 6 -a 2˙ È 1 Ê 5p ˆ ˘2 È 1 Ê 5p p ˆ ˘ 2
IT -rms = Í Io ˙ = Io Í Á - a ˜ ˙ = 90 Í Á - ˜ ˙ = 48.60 A
Î 2p ˚ Î 2p Ë 6 ¯˚ Î 2p Ë 6 4 ¯ ˚
(d) Freewheeling diode average current is
p
a-
I DF-average = 6 I = 3I o Èa - p ˘ = 3 ¥ 90 È p - p ˘ = 11.259 A
2p /3 o 2p ÍÎ 6 ˙˚ 2p ÍÎ 4 6 ˙˚
Freewheeling diode rms current is

1
È p ˘2 1 1
Ía - 6 2 ˙ È 3 Ê p ˆ ˘2 È 3 Ê p p ˆ ˘2
I DF-rms = Í I o ˙ = I o Í Á a - ˜ ˙ = 90 Í Á - ˜ ˙ = 31.83 A
Í 2p /3 ˙ Î 2p Ë 6¯˚ Î 2p Ë 4 6 ¯ ˚
Î ˚
8.4 sIx-Pulse or sIx-Phase half-Wave controlled

rectIfIer
A three-phase converter with higher n umber of pulses can generate large output voltage with least
ripple current. Therefore, six-pulse and 12-pulse converters are developed. It is also possible to develop
18 pulse and twenty four pulse ac-to-dc converter. But six-pulse converters are most widely used for
different industrial applications as the six-pulse converters have the following advantages over three
pulse converters:
1. In six-pulse converter, commutation is very easy.
2. Distortion on the ac supply is reduced drastically due to the reduction in lower order harmonics.
3. The value of inductance which is connected in series is considerably low.
The six-pulse converters can be implemented in the following ways:
1. Six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit.
2. Six-pulse mid-point converter with interphase transformers.
3. Six-pulse bridge converter.
Figure 8.20 shows a six-pulse or six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit. The six-phase
voltages can be obtained in the secondary by using a centre-tapped arrangement on a star connected
Fig. 8.20 Six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier

three-phase winding and the vector diagram

of six-phase voltages is shown in Fig. 8.21.
There are six thyristors in a six-phase controlled
rectifier. When a particular phase voltage
is higher than other phases, thyristor on the
particular phase conducts. Figure 8.22 shows
the output voltage and current waveforms.
When the inductance is very large, the load
current Io is continuous and constant. It is clear
from Fig. 8.22 that each thyristor conducts
for p/3 or 60° duration and current flows
through one thyristor at a time. As a result
average current is low but the ratio between
maximum current to average current in the Fig. 8.21 Vector diagram of six-phase voltages
thyristors is high. Consequently the utilisation
of transformer secondary is poor. The dc currents in the secondary of the six-phase star rectifier can
be cancelled in the secondary windings and core saturation is not encountered.
Figure 8.23 shows the output voltage waveforms of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at a
= 30° and a = 60°.
2p
+a 2p
1 3 Vm +a
Vav = Vdc = Vo =
2p /6
Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) =
2p /6
[ - cos w t ]p3
+a
p
+a 3
3
Vm È Ê 2p ˆ Êp ˆ ˘ 3V
= - cos Á + a ˜ + cos Á + a ˜ ˙ = m cos a
2p /6 ÍÎ Ë 3 ¯ Ë3 ¯˚ p

1 1
È 2p
+a ˘2 È 2p
+a ˘2
Í 1 3 ˙ Í V 2 3
1 ˙
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Í
2 2 m
Ú (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ dw t ˙
Í 2p /6 p +a ˙ Í 2p /6 p +a 2 ˙
Î 3 ˚ Î 3 ˚
1
È 2 2p
+a ˘ 2
Í Vm Ê 1 1 ˆ 3 ˙
= w t - sin 2w t ˜
Í 2p /6 ÁË 2 2 ¯ p +a ˙
ÍÎ 3 ˙˚
1
È V 2 Ê 2p p 1 Ê 2p ˆ 1 Êp ˆˆ ˘2
=Í m Á - - sin 2 Á + a ˜ + sin 2 Á + a ˜ ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2p /6 Ë 6 6 2 Ë 3 ¯ 2 Ë3 ¯ ¯ ˙˚
1
È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p ˆ 1 Êp ˆˆ ˘2
= Vm Í Á - sin 2 Á + a ˜ + sin 2 Á + a ˜ ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë 6 2 Ë 3 ¯ 2 Ë 3 ¯¯ ˚
Fig. 8.22 Voltage and current waveforms of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at a = 0°
Fig. 8.23 Output voltage waveforms of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at a = 30° and a = 60°
Vrms
Form factor is FF =
Vdc
The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1

Vo 3Vm
I av = I o = = cos a
R pR
1
V V È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p ˆ 1 Êp ˆˆ ˘2
I rms = rms = m Í Á - sin 2 Á + a ˜ + sin 2 Á + a ˜ ˜ ˙
R R Î 2p Ë 6 2 Ë 3 ¯ 2 Ë3 ¯¯ ˚
The output power of rectifier is Pdc = Vav I av = Vo I o

The input ac power to transformer secondary is Pac = I rms
2
R
Pdc
Efficiency of rectifier is h = ¥ 100%
Pac
It is clear from Figs. 8.22 and 8.23 that there are six-pulses in the output voltage for a complete
cycle of input voltage. Therefore, the ripple frequency is six times of fundamental frequency ( fo = 6f ).
The minimum order of the harmonics present is six times the supply frequency. Subsequently the
value of required smoothing inductance is smaller compared to the required inductance of three-pulse
converter. When the load is resistive, this converter operates in two different modes namely continuous
conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode depending on the value of firing angle a. The
ranges of firing angle for different modes are
p
1. Continuous conduction mode 0 £ a £
3
p 2p
2. Discontinuous conduction mode £ a £
3 3
Example 8.8 A six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is
connected with a R load of 5 W. If the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, determine (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms
value of output voltage, (c) form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) average output current, (f) rms load current, (g) dc
output power, (h) ac power supplied and (i) rectification efficiency.
Solution
VL 440
3 3
2p
+a 2p
3 +a
1 Vm
Vav = Vdc = Vo =
2p /6 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) =
2p /6
[ - cos w t ]p3
+a
p
+a 3
3
3Vm 3 ¥ 359.21
= cos a = cos30 = 297.21 V
p p
1
È 2p
+a ˘2 1
Í 1 3 ˙ È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p ˆ 1 Êp ˆˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˙ = Vm Í 2p ÁË 6 - 2 sin 2 ÁË 3 + a ˜¯ + 2 sin 2 ÁË 3 + a ˜¯ ˜¯ ˙
2 2
Í 2p /6 p +a ˙ Î ˚
Î 3 ˚
1
È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p p ˆ 1 Ê p p ˆˆ ˘2
= 359.21 Í Á - sin 2 Á + ˜ + sin 2 Á + ˜ ˜ ˙ = 343.359 V
Î 2p Ë 6 2 Ë 3 6 ¯ 2 Ë 3 6 ¯¯˚
Vrms 343.359
(c) Form factor is FF = = = 1.1552
Vdc 297.21
(d) The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 1.15522 - 1 = 0.5873

(e) The average output current is
Vo 297.21
I av = I o = = = 59.442 A
R 5
(f) The rms output current is
Vrms 343.359
I rms = = = 68.67 A
R 5
(g) The output power of rectifier is Pdc = Vav I av = Vo I o = 297.21 ¥ 59.442 = 17666.75 Watt
(h) The input ac power to transformer secondary is Pac = I rms

2
R = 68.672 ¥ 5 = 23577.84 Watt
Pdc 17666.75
(i) Efficiency of rectifier is h = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 74.929%
Pac 23577.84
Example 8.9 A six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f ac supply and it is connected with
a R load with firing angle 45°. Determine (a) form factor and (b) voltage ripple factor.
Solution
Assume maximum phase voltage is Vm.
2p
+a 2p
3 +a
1 Vm
Vav = Vdc = Vo =
2 p /6
Ú Vm sin wt ◊ d ( wt ) =
2 p /6
[ - cos wt ]p3
+a
p 3
+a
3
3Vm 3 ¥ Vm
= cos a = cos 45 = 0.6755Vm
p p
1
È 2p
+a ˘2 1
Í 1 3 ˙ È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p ˆ 1 Êp ˆˆ ˘2
Vrms = Í Ú Vm sin wt ◊ d wt ˙ = Vm Í 2 p ÁË 6 - 2 sin 2 ÁË 3 + a˜¯ + 2 sin 2 ÁË 3 + a˜¯ ˜¯ ˙
2 2
Í 2 p /6 p + a ˙ Î ˚
Î 3 ˚
1
È 6 Êp 1 Ê 2p p ˆ 1 Ê p p ˆˆ ˘2
= Vm Í Á - sin 2 Á + ˜ + sin 2 Á + ˜ ˜ ˙ = 0.7072Vm
Î 2p Ë 6 2 Ë 3 4¯ 2 Ë 3 4¯¯˚
Vrms 0.7072Vm
(a) Form factor is FF = = = 1.0469
Vdc 0.6755Vm
(b) The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1 = 1.04692 - 1 = 0.3098
8.5 MultI-Phase controlled rectIfIer

2p
In a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier, each phase conducts for 120° or radian of a cycle
3
of 360°(2p radians). But in a six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier, each phase conducts for 60° or
2p
radian of a cycle of 360°(2p radians). Consequently in a m-phase half-wave controlled rectifier,
6
2p
each phase as well as each thyristor would conduct for radian and the number of output voltage
m
pulses p will be equal to number of phases m. Figure 8.24 shows the output voltage wave from for
Êp ˆ p
m-phase half-wave controlled rectifier where a thyristor conducts from - Á - a ˜ to + a or from
Ëm ¯ m
Êp ˆ p
- Á - a ˜ to + a .
Ëp ¯ p
Fig. 8.24 Output voltage wave from for m-phase half-wave diode rectifier
Assume that the instantaneous phase voltage is v = Vm cos w t = 2V cos w t

Êp ˆ
+a ˜
ËÁ m ¯
1
Vo = Ú Vm cos w t ◊ d (w t )
2p /m Êp ˆ
-Á - a ˜
Ëm ¯
m p
= Vm sin cos a
p m
For a six-pulse converter, average output voltage is
6 p 3V
V6_av = Vm sin cos a = m cos a
p 6 p
In case of a twelve-pulse converter, average output voltage is
12 p
V12_av = Vm sin cos a = 0.98816Vm cos a
p 12
1
È p
+a ˘2
Í 1 m ˙
Vrms = Í Ú (Vm cos w t )d (w t )˙
Í 2p /m -Ê p - a ˆ ˙
ÁË ˜¯
ÎÍ m ˚˙
1
È p
+a ˘2
Í m Vm2 m ˙
=Í Ú (1 + cos2w t )d (w t )˙
Í 2p 2 Êp ˆ
-Á - a ˜
˙
ÍÎ Ëm ¯ ˙˚
1
Èm Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
= Vm Í Á + sin cos2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë m 2 m ¯˚
For a six-pulse converter, rms output voltage is

1
È 6 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
V6_rms = Vm Í Á + sin cos2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë 6 2 6 ¯˚
In case of a twelve-pulse converter, rms output voltage is
1
È 12 Ê p 1 2p ˆ ˘2
V12_rms = Vm Í Á + sin cos2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë 12 2 12 ¯˚
Maximum value of load current is
V
Im = m
R
Average value of thyristor current is
p
+a
1 m Im p
ITav = Ú I m cos w t ◊ d (w t ) = sin cos a
2p Êp ˆ p m
-Á - a ˜
Ëm ¯
The rms value of thyristor current is

1
È p
+a ˘2 1
Í 1 m ˙ È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
IT rms = Í Ú ( I m cos w t )d (w t )˙ = I m Í 2p ÁË m + 2 sin m cos2a ˜¯ ˙
Í 2p Êp ˆ
-Á - a ˜
˙ Î ˚
ÎÍ Ëm ¯ ˚˙
Example 8.10 A three-phase step-down delta-star transformer with per phase turn ratio 5 is fed from a 3f, 1000
V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier . When R is equal to 10 W and
a = 30°, determine (a) maximum load current, (b) dc output voltage, (c) rms value of output voltage, (d) average
output current, (e) rms load current, (f) power delivered to load, (g) average and rms value of thyristor current.
Solution
1000
Given: Phase voltage secondary voltage is V = = 200 V and R = 10 W and a = 30°
5
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 200 V = 282.84 V
Vm 282.84
(a) Maximum value of load current I m = = = 28.284 A
R 10
(b) For a six-pulse converter, average output voltage is
6 p 3V 3 ¥ 282.84
V6_av = Vm sin cos a = m cos a = cos30 = 234.025 V
p 6 p p
(c) rms output voltage is
1 1
È 6 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2 È 6 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
V6_rms = Vm Í Á + sin cos2a ˜ ˙ = 282.84 Í Á + sin cos(2 ¥ 30)˜ ˙
Î 2p Ë 6 2 6 ¯˚ Î 2p Ë 6 2 6 ¯˚
= 237.795 V
(d) The average output current is

Vo V6_av 234.025
I av = I o = = = = 23.4025 A
R R 10
(e) The rms output current is
Vrms V6_rms 237.795
I rms = = = = 23.7795 A
R R 10
(f) Power delivered to load is
Pdc = Vo I o = 234.025 ¥ 23.4025 = 5076.77 W
(g) Average value of thyristor current is
p
+a
m
1 Im p I p
ITav =
2p Ú I m cos w t ◊ d (w t ) =
p
sin cos a = m sin cos a
m p 6
as m = 6
Êp ˆ
-Á - a ˜
Ëm ¯
28.284 p
= sin cos30 A = 3.90 A
p 6
1
È p
+a ˘2 1
Í 1 m ˙ È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
IT rms = Í
Í 2p
Ú ( I m cos w t )d (w t )˙˙ = I m Í 2p ÁË m + 2 sin m cos2a ˜¯ ˙ as m = 6
Êp ˆ Î ˚
ÍÎ -Á - a ˜ ˙˚
Ëm ¯
1 1
È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2 È 1 Êp 1 2p ˆ ˘2
= I m Í Á + sin cos2a ˜ ˙ = 28.284 Í Á + sin cos(2 ¥ 30)˜ ˙ = 9.707 A
Î 2p Ë 6 2 6 ¯ ˚ Î 2p Ë 6 2 6 ¯˚
8.6 three-Phase full-controlled BrIdge rectIfIer

The three-phase fully controlled bridge converter is most extensively used power electronic converter
in the medium to high power applications. The three-phase converters are preferred whenever high
power is required in dc power supply of electrical drives as well as power system. The three-phase
fully controlled rectifier can provide controllable dc output voltage in a single unit. Actually the
dc output voltage is controlled by controlling the conduction period of each thyristor. Since phase
controlled technique is used to control the firing angle of thyristor, this converter is also known as
phase controlled converters or line commutated converters. As thyristors can block voltage in positive
as well as negative directions, it is possible to get the reverse polarity dc output voltage and hence
the power can feed back to ac supply from dc side. In this operating condition, the converter can be
operating in inverter mode.
8.6.1 three-Phase full-controlled Bridge rectifier With Rl load

Figure 8.25 shows a three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit with RL load. In this circuit,
thyristors are numbered in order of conduction sequence and each thyristor conducts for 2p/3 (120°)
duration. The conduction sequences of thyristors are T1 T2, T2 T3, T3 T4, T4 T5, T5 T6, and T6 T1. The
Fig. 8.25 Three-phase controlled bridge rectifier
Fig. 8.26 Vector diagram of phase and line voltages
vector diagram three-phase voltages and line voltages are shown in Fig. 8.26. The voltage and current
waveforms of a three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit at a = 0° are depicted in Fig. 8.27.
During analysis of three-phase full converter, we assume that the combination of star or delta connected
primary and secondary windings are symmetrical. Three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier are
extensively used high power applications since transformer utilisation factor is high.
At any operating condition, at least one thyristor from the upper group (T1, T3, T5) and one thyristor
from the lower group (T2, T4, T6) must be conduct. It is clear from Fig. 8.27 each thyristor conducts
for 120° and the thyristors are fired in the sequence T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T1 with 60° interval between
each firing. As a result, thyristors on the same phase leg are fired at 180° interval and thyristors on the
same phase leg can not conduct simultaneously. In continuous conduction mode of operation, there are
six possible conduction mode of operations such as T1 T2, T2 T3, T3 T4, T4 T5, T5 T6, and T6 T1. Each
conduction mode has 60° conduction period. Table 8.1 shows the conduction table indicating voltage
across different devices. The phasor diagram of line voltages are depicted in Fig. 8.28.
Fig. 8.27 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier at firing angle a = 0°
Table 8.1 Conduction mode of operation of thyristors and

voltage across devices
Conduction mode of operation
Voltage T1T2 T2T3 T3T4 T4T5 T5T6 T6T1
across
devices
VT1 0 Vab Vab Vac Vac 0
VT2 0 0 Vac Vac Vbc Vbc
VT3 Vba 0 0 Vbc Vbc Vba
VT4 Vca Vca 0 0 Vba Vba
VT5 Vca Vcb Vcb 0 0 Vca Fig. 8.28 Phasor diagram of line voltages
VT6 Vcb Vcb Vab Vab 0 0
V0 Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab
At the end of conduction of T5 and T6 thyristors, thyristor T1 must be fired. When line voltage VRY is
greater than other line voltages and firing pulse is applied to thyristor T1, T1 will be turned ON and it
conducts with the combination thyristor T6 and it also conducts until T3 is fired.
Assume that Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage. The instantaneous phase voltages are
VRN = Vm sin w t ,
VYN = Vm sin (w t - 120∞) and
VBN = Vm sin (w t - 240∞).
Then the line to line voltages lead the phase voltage by 30° and the instantaneous line voltages are
as follows:
VRY = 3Vm sin (w t + 30∞),
VYB = 3Vm sin (w t - 90∞) and
VBR = 3Vm sin (w t - 210∞)
The average dc output voltage is two times of the average of the upper part or lower part of the curve.
Considering the upper part of the curve, the average dc output voltage for this circuit, is
5p
+a 5p
1 6 3V +a
Vav = Vo = 2 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = p [- cos w t ]p6+ a
m
2p /3 p
+a 6
6
È Ê 5p
3Vm ˆ Êp ˆ˘
=- Ícos ÁË 6 + a ˜¯ - cos ÁË 6 + a ˜¯ ˙
pÎ ˚
È Ê 5p p ˆ Ê 5p p ˆ˘
3Vm Í +a + +a +a - -a ˙
Á 6 6 ˜ Á 6 6 ˜
=- Í2sin Á ˜ sin Á ˜˙
p Í 2 2
Á ˜ Á ˜˙
ÎÍ Ë ¯ Ë ¯ ˙˚
3V È Êp ˆ Ê 2p ˆ ˘ 3V 3 3 3
= - m Í2sin Á + a ˜ sin Á ˜ ˙ = - m (-2 cos a ) = V cos a
p Î Ë2 ¯ Ë 6 ¯˚ p 2 p m
p p
+a +a
32 32 Ê pˆ 3 3
or Vav = Vo = Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) = Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) = V cos a
pp pp Ë 6 ¯ p m
+a +a
6 6
1 1
È p +a ˘ 2 È p +a ˘2
Í3 2 ˙ Í3 2 2Ê pˆ ˙
Vrms = Í Ú VRY ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ dw t ˙
2 2
p p Ë 6 ¯
Í p +a ˙ Í p +a ˙
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1 1
È p
+a ˘2 È p
+a ˘ 2
Í 9V 2 2 1Ï Ê pˆ¸ ˙ 2
Í 9Vm Ï1 1 Ê p ˆ ¸2 ˙
=Í m Ú 2Ì 1 - cos2 ÁË w t + ˝ ◊ dw t = Ì w t - sin 2 Á w t + ˜ ˝
Í p p Ó 6 ˜¯ ˛ ˙
˙
Í p
Ó 2 4 Ë 6 ¯ ˛ p +a ˙
Î 6
+a
˚ ÎÍ 6 ˙˚
1
È 9V 2 1 Ê p p 2
ˆ 9V 1 Ê Êp pˆ Êp p ˆˆ ˘2
= Í m Á + a - - a ˜ - m Á sin 2 Á + a + ˜ - sin 2 Á + a + ˜ ˜ ˙
ÍÎ p 2 Ë 2 6 ¯ p 4Ë Ë2 6¯ Ë6 6 ¯ ¯ ˙˚
1
È 9V 2 1 p 9Vm2 1 ˘2
=Í m - (sin(240 + 2a ) - sin(120 + 2a ))˙
ÎÍ p 2 3 p 4 ˚˙
1
È 9V 2 1 p 9Vm2 1 Ê Ê 240 + 2a + 120 + 2a ˆ Ê 240 + 2a - 120 - 2a ˆ ˆ ˘ 2
=Í m - 2 cos Á sin ˙
ÎÍ p 2 3 p 4Ë Á Ë 2 ¯˜ ËÁ 2 ¯˜ ¯˜ ˙˚
1
È 9V 2 1 p 9Vm2 1 ˘2
=Í m - (2 cos(180 + 2 a)sin 60)˙
ÎÍ p 2 3 p 4 ˚˙
1
È 9V 2 1 p 9Vm2 1 3 ˘2
=Í m + 2 cos 2 a ˙
ÎÍ p 2 3 p 4 2 ˙˚
1
È1 3 3 ˘2
= 3Vm Í + cos 2 a˙
Î 2 4p ˚
Vrms
Form factor is FF =
Vav
Ripple factor is RF = FF 2 - 1
Vo
I av = I o =
R
Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o

V
I rms = rms
R
The ac power output is the transformer secondary is
Pac = I rms
2
R
P
h = dc ¥ 100%
Pac
It is clear from Fig. 8.27 that the source current for phase A is Io for 120° for every 180° duration.
Since the current Io is constant, the rms value of source current is
1
È120∞ ˘2 2
IR = Í ¥ I o2 ˙ = I
Î180∞ ˚ 3 o
As each thyristor for 120° for every 360° duration, the rms value of thyristor current is
1
È 120∞ ˘2 1
I Thyristor = Í ¥ I o2 ˙ = I
Î 360∞ ˚ 3 o
The output voltage waveform of a three-phase bridge converter at firing angle a = 60° and a = 90°
are depicted in Figs. 8.29 and 8.30 respectively. The output voltage waveforms of three-phase fully
controlled bridge rectifier with RL load at firing angle a = 120° is shown in Fig. 8.31.
Fig. 8.29 Output voltage waveforms of three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with RL load at firing
angle a = 60°
angle a = 90°
From the above waveforms, can state that

1. The output voltage waveforms for a = 0°, a = 30° and a = 60° of three-phase fully controlled
bridge rectifier with RL load will be same as the waveforms for a = 0°, a = 30° and a = 60° of
three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with R load.
2. If firing angle a > 60°, the output voltage waveforms of three-phase fully controlled bridge
rectifier with RL load will be different from the output voltage waveforms of three-phase fully
controlled bridge rectifier with R load.
3. At a = 90°, the average output voltage is equal to zero as the area under the positive and the
negative cycle are equal.
4. If firing angle a < 90°, the average output voltage is positive. When firing angle a > 90°, the
average output voltage is negative.
5. The maximum value of a is 180°.
6. Since the frequency of input voltage is 50 Hz and the output voltage waveforms have six-pulse,
the ripple frequency is 300 Hz at any value of a.
Three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier can be able to operate in two modes such as rectifier
mode and inverter mode of operation.
rectifier mode of operation (a < 90°) During the rectifier mode of operation,
1. the average output voltage is positive.
angle a = 120°
2. the thyristor current waveforms are rectangular of 120° duration.

3. PIV rating of thyristor is 3Vm .
4. the three-phase supply currents are phase shifted by 120° and the thyristor currents are phase
shifted by 60°.
5. the load current waveform is continuous. For highly inductive load, the load current is ripple
free. Hence the average, rms and peak values of load current are equal to Io.
6. since the values of Vo and Io are positive, power output is positive and power can flow from
supply to load.
Inverter mode of operation (a > 90°) During the inverter mode of operation,
1. the average output voltage is negative.
2. the thyristor current waveforms are rectangular of 120° duration.
3. PIV rating of thyristor is 3Vm .
4. the three-phase supply currents are phase shifted by 120° and the thyristor currents are phase
shifted by 60°.
5. the load current waveform is continuous. For highly inductive load, the load current is ripple
free. Hence the average, rms and peak values of load current are equal to Io.
6. as the value of Vo is negative but the value of Io is positive, power output is negative and power
can flow from dc load side to supply.
Analysis of output voltage The output voltage waveform can be written as

• •
vo = Vo + Â Van cos6nw t + Â Vbn sin 6nw t
n =1,2,3.... n =1,2,3....
At firing angle a, the average dc output voltage is

3 3
Vo = V cos a
p m
p p
+a +a
6 3 6 3
Van = Ú vo cos6 nw t ◊ dw t = Ú 3Vm sin (w t + 30∞) cos6 nw t ◊ dw t
p a p a
3 3 È cos(6 n + 1)a cos(6 n - 1)a ˘

= V -
p m ÎÍ 6 n + 1 6 n - 1 ˚˙
p p
+a +a
6 3 6 3
Vbn = Ú vo sin 6 nw t ◊ dw t = Ú 3Vm sin (w t + 30∞) sin 6nw t ◊ dw t
p a p a
3 3 È sin(6 n + 1)a sin(6 n - 1)a ˘

= V -
p m ÍÎ 6 n + 1 6 n - 1 ˙˚
Performance analysis of three phase full converter The output voltage, load current and
input current waveforms are shown in Fig. 8.32. During analysis of converter, we assume that load
current is continuous and constant. The instantaneous input current of a phase can be expressed by
Fourier series as given below.
• •
is (t ) = a0 + Â an cos nw t + Â bn sin nw t
n =1,2,3,4..... n =1,2,3,4....
5p 11p
+a +a
2p 6 6
1 1 1
where, ao = Ú is (t ) dw t = Ú I o dw t - Ú I o dt = 0
2p 0 2p p 2p 7p
+a +a
6 6
p 5p 7p
Since the source current is for phase R is positive from + a to + a and is negative from +a
6 6 6
11p
to + a and average value ao = 0.
6
1 2p
an = Ú i (t )cos nw tdt
p 0 s
5p 11p
+a +a
1 6 1 6
= Ú I o cos nw tdt - Ú I o cos nw tdt
p p p 7p
+a +a
6 6
Io È +a ˘
5p 11p
+a
= Ísin nw t p6 - sin nw t 7p6 ˙
np Í +a +a ˙
Î 6 6 ˚
4Io np
=- sin sin na for n = 1, 3, 5, 7 º
np 3
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6, 8 º
Fig. 8.32 Output voltage, load current and input current waveforms
4Io p 4I 3
At n = 1, a1 = - sin sin a = - o sin a
p 3 p 2
1 2p
bn = Ú i (t )sin nw tdw t
p 0 s
5p 11p
+a +a
1 6 1 6
= Ú I o sin nw tdw t - Ú I o sin nw tdw t
p p p 7p
+a +a
6 6
Io È +a ˘
5p 11p
+a
= Í(- cos nw t ) p6 - (- cos nw t ) 7p6 ˙
np Í +a +a ˙
Î 6 6 ˚
4Io np
= sin cos na for n = 1, 3, 5, 7 º
np 3
=0 for n = 2, 4, 6, 8 º
4Io p 4I 3
At n = 1, b1 = sin cos a = o cos a
p 3 p 2
cn = an2 + bn2
1/2
ÈÊ 4 I np
2
ˆ Ê 4Io np ˆ ˘
2
= ÍÁ - o
sin sin n a˜ + Á sin cos n a˜ ˙
ÍÎË n p 3 ¯ Ë np 3 ¯ ˙
˚
4Io np -1 È an ˘ -1
= sin and qn = tan Í ˙ = tan ( - tan n a) = - n a
np 3 Î bn ˚
The source current can be expressed as
•
is (t ) = Â cn sin(nw t + q n )
n = 1,3,5,7...
• 4Io np
= Â sin sin(nw t - na )
n = 1,3,5,7... np 3
The rms value of nth order harmonic is
4Io np
I sn = sin
2 np 3
The rms value of first-order harmonic is
4Iop 4I 3 6
I s1 = sin = o = I
2p 3 2p 2 p o
The rms value of input current is
1/2
È 5p + a ˘
Í1 6 ˙ 2
I s rms = Í Ú I o dw t ˙ = I o
2
Íp p +a ˙ 3
Î 6 ˚
DF = cos f1 = cos(-a ) = cos a
I s1 6 1 3 3
CDF = = Io ¥ =
Is p Io 2 p
3 3
Power factor PF = DF ¥ CDF = cos a ¥ = cos a
p p
È 1 ˘
1/2 ÈÊ p ˆ 2 ˘
HF = Í - 1˙ = ÍÁ ˜ - 1˙
ÍÎË 3 ¯
2
Î CDF ˚ ˙˚
Active power input is
VL 6
Pi = 3Vs I s1 cos f1 = 3 I o cos a
3 p
VL 6
Qi = 3Vs I s1 sin f1 = 3 I o sin a
3 p
Example 8.11 A three-phase full converter is used to charge a 200 V battery from a 220 V, 50 H ac supply
as depicted in Fig. 8.33. Assume the internal resistance of battery is 0.5 W and a inductance is connected in series
with a battery so that the 10 A constant charging current flows. (a) Determine the firing angle of converter and
the input power factor. (b) If power flows from battery to ac side, what will be the firing angle of converter?
Fig. 8.33
Solution
VL 220
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 127.02 ,
3 3
Battery voltage E = 200 V and internal resistance of battery rinternal = 0.5 W
The charging current Io = 10 A
(a) The output voltage of the converter when it is charging the 200 V battery is equal to
Vo = E + I orinternal = 200 + 10 ¥ 0.5 = 205 V
p p
+a +a
3 2
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 3
Vav = Vo =
p
Ú VRY ◊ d ( wt ) =
p
Ú 3Vm sin Á wt + ˜ ◊ d ( wt ) =
Ë 6¯ p
Vm cos a
p p
+a +a
6 6
= 1.6548Vm cos a = 1.6548 ¥ 179.63cos a = 205 V
Therefore firing angle is a = cos-1 ÁÊ ˆ

205
= 46.39∞
Ë 1.6548 ¥ 179.63 ˜¯
rms value of supply current is
1/2 1/2
È 1 2p ˘ È1 2p ˘
I s = Í I o2 = Í 102 = 8.164 A
Îp 3 ˙˚ Îp 3 ˙˚
Po = EI o + I o2rinternal = 200 ¥ 10 + 102 ¥ 0.5 = 2050 Watt
We know that
3VI cos f = Po
Po 2050
Then power factor is cos f = = = 0.6589 lag
3VI 3 ¥ 220 ¥ 8.164
(b) If the battery is used to deliver power to ac side, the output voltage converter is
Vo = E - I orinternal = 200 - 10 ¥ 0.5 = 195 V
The output voltage will be negative.
p p
+a +a
32 32 Ê pˆ 3 3
Vav = Vo =
pp Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) =
p pÚ
3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) =
Ë 6¯ p m
V cos a
+a +a
6 6
= 1.6548Vm cos a = 1.6548 ¥ 179.63cos a = -195 V
Therefore, firing angle is a = cos-1 ÊÁ - ˆ

195
= 130.99∞
Ë 1.6548 ¥ 179.63 ˜¯
Example 8.12 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from a delta-star transformer and it is connected
to a RL load with ripple free current 15 A at firing angle 45°. It is fed from 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply, determine
rectification efficiency, transformer utilisation factor and input power factor.
Solution
VL 440
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 254.04 V ,
3 3
The current Io = 15 A ripple free
p p
+a +a
3 2
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 3
Vav = Vo =
p
Ú VRY ◊ d ( wt ) =
p
Ú 3Vm sin Á wt + ˜ ◊ d ( wt ) =
Ë 6¯ p
Vm cos a
p p
+a +a
6 6
= 1.6548Vm cos a = 1.6548 ¥ 359.26 ¥ cos 45 = 420.37 V as a = 45∞
At firing angle a, the rms value of output voltage is equal to
1 1
È1 3 3 ˘2 È1 3 3 ˘2
Vrms = 3Vm Í + cos2a ˙ = 3 ¥ 359.26 Í + cos(2 ¥ 45)˙ = 440.05 V
ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚ ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚
DC power output Pdc = Vo I o = 420.37 ¥ 15 Watt = 6305.55 Watt

AC power Pac = Vrms I o = 440.05 ¥ 15 Watt = 6600.75 Watt
Pdc 6305.55
Rectification efficiency is h = ¥ 100% = ¥ 100 = 95.52%
Pac 6600.75
2 2
rms value of source current I s rms = I o = 15 = 12.245 A
3 3
440
Input VA = 3VIsrms = 3 ¥ ¥ 12.245 = 9332.15 VA
3
Pdc 6305.55
TUF = = = 0.6756
Input VA 9332.15
Pac 6600.75
Input power factor is PF = = = 0.7073 lag
Input VA 9332.15
Example 8.13 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and is connected to a
RLE load with ripple free load current. If R = 10 W, E = 250 V and inductance is very large, determine the power
delivered to load and input power factor at firing angle (a) a = 45°, (b) a = 60° and (c) firing angle advance of 75°.
Solution
VL 440
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 254.04 V ,
3 3
p p
+a +a
32 32 Ê pˆ 3 3
Vav = Vo =
pp Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) =
p pÚ
3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) =
Ë 6¯ p m
V cos a
+a +a
6 6
= 1.6548Vm cos a
(a) At a = 45°, the average dc output voltage is
Vo = 1.6548Vm cos a = 1.6548 ¥ 359.26 ¥ cos 45 = 420.377 V
The output voltage Vo = E + I o R
Vo - E 420.377 - 250
The load current is I o = = A = 17.037 A
R 10
The power delivered to load is
Pdc = EI o + I o2 R = 250 ¥ 17.037 + 17.0372 ¥ 10 = 7161.84 Watt
2 2
rms value of source current I s rms = I o = 17.037 = 13.91 A
3 3
440
3
1 1
È1 3 3 ˘2 È1 3 3 ˘2
ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚ ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚
AC power Pac = Vrms I o = 440.05 ¥ 13.91 Watt = 6121.09 Watt

Pac 6121.09
Input VA 10601.089
(b) At a = 60°, the average dc output voltage is
Vo = 1.6548Vm cos a = 1.6548 ¥ 359.26 ¥ cos60 = 297.25 V
The output voltage Vo = E + I o R
Vo - E 297.25 - 250
The load current is I o = = A = 4.725 A
R 10
The power delivered to load is
Pdc = EI o + I o2 R = 250 ¥ 4.725 + 4.7252 ¥ 10 = 1404.50 Watt
2 2
Rms value of source current I s rms = I o = 4.725 = 3.8579 A
3 3
440
3
1 1
È1 3 3 ˘2 È1 3 3 ˘2
ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚ ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚
Ac power Pac = Vrms I o = 336.90 ¥ 3.8579 Watt = 1299.72 Watt
Pac 1299.72
Input VA 2940.18
(c) Firing angle advance of 75° means a = 180 – 75 = 105°
The dc output voltage
Vo = 1.6548 ¥ 359.26 ¥ cos105 = -153.86 V
As output voltage is negative, the converter operates as inverter. Therefore, polarity of emf E is reversed.
The KVL equation is
Vo = - E + I o R
or -153.86 = -250 + I o ¥ 10
250 - 153.86
Load current I o = = 9.614 A
10
Power delivered by battery from dc side to ac source
P = EI o - I o2 R = 250 ¥ 9.614 - 9.6142 ¥ 10 = 1479.21 Watt
2 2
rms value of source current I s rms = I o = 9.614 = 7.849 A
3 3
440
Input VA = 3 VIsrms = 3 ¥ ¥ 7.849 = 5981.91 VA
3
Power delivered to ac source from battery 1479.21
Input VA 5981.91
Example 8.14 A three-phase full bridge converter provides a ripple free load current of 15 A with a firing
angle of 30°. The input voltage of the converter is three-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz.
(a) Derive the expression of source current by Fourier series
(b) Determine DF, CDF, HF and PF
(c) Find the active and reactive input power
Solution
(a) The source current can be expressed by Fourier series as
•
is (t ) = Â cn sin (nw t + q n )
n = 1,3,5,7...
• 4Io np
= Â sin sin (nw t - na )
n = 1,3,5,7... np 3
•
4 ¥ 15 np
= Â np
sin sin (nw t - n ¥ 30) as I o = 15 and a = 30∞
3
n = 1,3,5,7...
60 p
I s1 = sin sin (w t - 30) = 16.548sin (w t - 30)
p 3
60 3p
I s3 = sin sin (3w t - 90) = 0
3p 3
60 5p
I s5 = sin sin (5w t - 150) = -3.309sin (5w t - 150)
5p 3
60 7p
I s7 = sin sin (7w t - 310) = 2.364sin (7w t - 310)
7p 3
I s = 16.548sin (w t - 30) - 3.309sin (5w t - 150) + 2.364sin (7w t - 310) +
(b) DF = cos f1 = cos( -a ) = cos a = cos30 = 0.866
I s1 6 1 3 3
CDF = = Io ¥ = = 0.9554
Is p Io 2 p
1/2
È 1 ˘
1/2 ÈÊ p ˆ 2 ˘
HF = Í - 1˙ = ÍÁ ˜ - 1˙ = 0.309
Î
2
˚ Ë ¯
CDF ÎÍ 3 ˚˙
3 3
Power factor PF = DF ¥ CDF = cos a ¥ = cos a = 0.9554 ¥ 0.866 = 0.8273 lag
p p
(c) Active power input is
VL 6 400 6
Pi = 3Vs I s1 cos f1 = 3 I o cos a = 3 15cos30 = 7019.77 Watt
3 p 3 p
VL 6 400 6
Qi = 3Vs I s1 sin f1 = 3 I o sin a = 3 15sin 30 = 4052.866 VAR
3 p 3 p
8.6.2 three-Phase full-controlled Bridge rectifier with R load

Figure 8.34 shows a three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit with R load. In this circuit,
thyristors are numbered in order of conduction sequence and each thyristor conducts for 2p/3 (120°)
Fig. 8.34 Three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load
duration. The conduction sequences of thyristors are T1 T2, T2 T3, T3 T4, T4 T5, T5 T6, and T6 T1. The
vector diagram three phase voltages and line voltages are shown in Fig. 8.26. The voltage and current
waveforms of a three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit at a = 0° are depicted in Fig. 8.35.
During analysis of three-phase full converter, we assume that the combination of star or delta connected
primary and secondary windings are symmetrical. Three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier are
extensively used high power applications since transformer utilisation factor is high.
To explain the operating principal of a three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit with R
load, we should assume the following points:
1. Each thyristor can be triggered at a firing angle a.
2. Each switching device conducts for 120° duration.
3. Thyristors must be trigger in the sequence T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6.
4. The phase shift between the triggering of two adjacent thyristors is 60°.
5. There are six pairs of conduction of thyristors such as T1 T2, T2 T3, T3 T4, T4 T5, T5 T6, and T6 T1.
6. Each thyristor conducts in pair of two thyristors and the conduction period of each thyristor is 60°.
7. The peak inverse voltage across each thyristor is 3Vm .
The waveforms of input voltage and output voltage of three-phase fully controlled rectifier with
R load are depicted in Fig. 8.36. From Fig. 8.36, it is clear that the converter operates in two modes
such as continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode.
Continuous conduction mode ÊÁ 0 £ a £ ˆ˜

p
When the firing angle a is within the range
Ë 3¯
p
0£a £ , the line voltage VRY is applied across load as thyristors T6 T1 conduct for 60°duration.
3
After that VRB is applied across load as T6 becomes turned OFF due to natural commutation and T1 T2
conduct for 60°duration. Subsequently, other thyristors will be turned OFF and turned ON sequentially.
We get a continuous output voltage across load.
Discontinuous conduction mode ÊÁ £ a £ ˆ˜

p 2p
If the firing angle a is within the range
Ë3 3¯
p 2p , the line voltage V is applied across load up to p as thyristors T T conducts from
£a £ RY 6 1
3 3
p
w t = + a to wt = p. At wt = p, both thyristors will be turned OFF. Subsequently the output voltage
6
across load is zero for certain period. After that VRB is applied across load as T1 T2 are turned ON by
applying triggering pulses and conduct for certain duration as depicted in Fig. 8.36. Hence, the output
voltage across load is discontinuous.
Fig. 8.35 Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier with resistive load
a = 0°
Fig. 8.36 Waveforms for input voltage and output voltage of three-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier
with resistive load at a = 0°, a = 30°, a = 60° and a = 90°
Continuous conduction mode For 0 £ a £ p , the average dc output voltage for this circuit is
3
p
+a
3 2
Vav = Vo = Ú VRY ◊ d (w t )
pp
+a
6
p p
+a +a
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 3 È Ê p ˆ˘2
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) = Vm Í- cos Á w t + ˜ ˙
pp Ë 6¯ p Î Ë 6 ¯ ˚ p +a
+a 6
6
3 3
= V cos a
p m
Average load current is equal to

Vav
I av =
R
Discontinuous conduction mode For p £ a £ 2p , the average dc output voltage for this
circuit is 3 3
5p
3 6
Vav = Vo = Ú VRY ◊ d (w t )
pp
+a
6
5p 5p
3 6 Ê pˆ 3 3 È Ê p ˆ˘ 6
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) = V - cos Á w t + ˜ ˙
pp Ë 6¯ p m ÍÎ Ë 6 ¯ ˚ p +a
+a 6
6
3 3 È Ê p ˆ˘
= Vm Í1 + cos Á a + ˜ ˙
p Î Ë 3¯˚
At a = 120°, Vav = 0. Therefore, maximum firing angle amax = 120°

Average load current is equal to
Vav
I av =
R
Example 8.15 A three-phase full converter is connected to a load resistance of 5 W and it is supplied from a
220 V, 50 H ac supply. If the firing angle of thyristor is a = 30°, determine (a) average output voltage, (b) average
output current, (c) rms output voltage and (d) rms output current.
Solution
VL 220
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 127.02 ,
3 3
(a) At firing angle a ÊÁ 0 £ a £ ˆ˜ , the average dc output voltage is

p
Ë 3¯
p p
+a +a
3 2
3 2
Ê pˆ
Vav = Vo =
p
Ú VRY ◊ d ( wt ) =
p
Ú 3Vm sin Á wt + ˜ ◊ d ( wt )
Ë 6¯
p p
+a +a
6 6
3 3 3 3
= Vm cos a = ¥ 179.63 ¥ cos30 V = 257.4239 V as a = 30°
p p
(b) Average output current is
Vav 257.4239
I av = = = 51.48 A
R 5
(c) At firing angle a, the rms output voltage is

1
È1 3 3 ˘2
Vrms = 3Vm Í + cos2a ˙
ÎÍ 2 4p ˚˙
1
È1 3 3 ˘2
= 3 ¥ 179.63 Í + cos(2 ¥ 30)˙ = 261.57 V
ÍÎ 2 4p ˙˚
(d) rms output current is
Vrms 261.57
I rms = = = 52.31 A
R 5
Example 8.16 A three-phase full converter is connected to a load resistance of 10 W. If the firing angle of
thyristor is a = 30°, three phase converter feeds 4 kW power to a resistive load. Determine the amplitude of
maximum per phase input voltage.
Solution
(a) At firing angle a ÊÁ 0 £ a £ ˆ˜ , the rms output voltage is
p
Ë 3¯
1
È1 3 3 ˘2
Vrms = 3Vm Í + cos2 a˙
ÍÎ 2 4 p ˙˚
1
È1 3 3 ˘2
= 3 ¥ Vm Í + cos(2 ¥ 30)˙ = 1.456Vm as a = 30∞
ÎÍ 2 4 p ˚˙
Vrms 1.456Vm
rms output current is I rms = =
R R
2
Ê 1.456Vm ˆ 2.1199 2
2
Power output is I rms R=Á R= Vm = 4000 Watt
Ë R ˜¯ R
2.1199 2
or Vm = 4000 as R = 10 W
10
4000 ¥ 10
The amplitude of maximum per phase input voltage is Vm = V = 137.363 V
2.1199
8.7 three-Phase seMIconverter

Three-phase fully controlled converters are extensively used in many industrial applications where
power regeneration from the dc side is required. This converter can able to handle high power with in
a certain limit of harmonics. But the cost of three-phase fully controlled converters is high due to the
use of six thyristors and their associated complex control circuit. The complexity of control circuit can
be reduced when the top group or the bottom group thyristors of three-phase converters are replaced by
diodes. If three thyristors are replaced by three diodes, the circuit complexity is drastically reduced and
at the same time it prevents negative voltage appearing at the output at any time. Hence the converter
can not able to operate in regeneration or inverter mode. This converter is known as three-phase half
controlled converter or three-phase semiconverter or three-phase half controlled bridge converter.
The three-phase half controlled converter has the following advantages over a three-phase fully
controlled converter:
1. For the same firing angle, the three-phase half-controlled converter has lower input displacement
factor compared to a fully controlled converter.
2. The range of continuous conduction mode operation of converter is increased.
But the three-phase half controlled converter has one disadvantage, the output voltage is periodic
over one third of the input cycle where the output voltage of three-phase fully controlled converter is
periodic over one sixth of the input cycle. Subsequently, both input and output harmonics are of lower
frequency and the size of filter is large. Though the circuit configuration of three phase half controlled
converter is simpler compared to three-phase full converter, the circuit analysis is reasonably more
difficult. In this section, the operating principle and analysis of a three-phase half controlled converter
are discussed elaborately.
Figure 8.37 shows the three-phase half-controlled converter which is connected to a RL load.
During continuous conduction mode, only one thyristor from the top group and only one diode from
the bottom group are conducted at a time. Just like three-phase full converter, both devices from the
same leg cannot conduct at the same instant. Table 8.2 shows the conduction mode of operation and
voltage across devices.
Fig. 8.37 Three-phase half-controlled converter with a RL load
Table 8.2 Conduction mode of operation of thyristors and voltage across devices
Conduction mode of operation
Voltage across T1D2 D2T3 T3D4 D4T5 T5D6 D6T1
devices
VT1 0 Vab Vab Vac Vac 0
VD2 0 0 Vac Vac Vbc Vbc
VT3 Vba 0 0 Vbc Vbc Vba
VD4 Vca Vca 0 0 Vba Vba
VT5 Vca Vcb Vcb 0 0 Vca
VD6 Vcb Vcb Vab Vab 0 0
V0 Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab
Assume that Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage. The instantaneous phase voltages are:
VRN = Vm sin w t ,
VYN = Vm sin(w t - 120∞) and
VBN = Vm sin(w t - 240∞).
Then the line to line voltages lead the phase voltage by 30° and the instantaneous line voltages are
as follows:
VRY = 3Vm sin (w t + 30∞), VRY = Vab
VYB = 3Vm sin (w t - 90∞), VYB = Vbc and
VBR = 3Vm sin (w t - 210∞) VBR = Vca
When diode D2 is forward biased and conducting, the voltage across diode D2 is zero. While diode
D2 is reverse biased and not conducting, the voltage across diode D2 is either VRB or VYB. The firing
sequence of thyristors is T1, T3 and T5. Figure 8.38 shows the waveforms for input voltage, output
voltage, and output current at different firing angle. The firing angle a can be varied in the range 0 £
p 7p
a £ p. Thyristor T1 is forward biased during the interval £ wt £ . When the thyristor T1 is fired
6 6
p
at w t = + a with firing angle a, thyristor T1 and diode D2 conduct and the line to line voltage VRB
6
5p
is applied across the load. thyristor T1 continuously conduct until thyristor T2 is fired at w t = +a .
6
p
If firing angle a £ , the output voltage is continuous and free wheeling diode DF does not conduct.
3
p
When firing angle a ≥ , the output voltage is discontinuous and free wheeling diode conducts.
3
p
For a £ , the average output voltage is equal to
3
p 5p
+a
3 2 3 6
Vav = Vo = Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) + Ú VRB ◊ d (w t )
2p p 2p p
+a
6 2
p 5p
+a
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 6
Ê 7p ˆ
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) - Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p Ë 6¯ 2p p Ë 6 ¯
+a
6 2
p 5p
+a
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 6
Ê pˆ
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p Ë 6 ¯ 2p p Ë 6¯
+a
6 2
È p 5p
+a ˘
=
3 3Vm ÍÏ- cos Ê w t + p ˆ ¸ 2 + Ï- cos Ê w t - p ˆ ¸ 6 ˙
2p ÍÌ ÁË ˝ Ì
6 ˜¯ ˛ p + a Ó ÁË ˝
6 ˜¯ ˛ p ˙
Ó
ÎÍ 6 2 ˚˙
3 3Vm È Ê p ˆ 2p p Ê 2p ˆ˘
= cos + a ˜ - cos + cos - cos Á + a˜ ˙
2p ÎÍ ËÁ 3 ¯ 3 3 Ë 3 ¯˚
3 3Vm È Êp ˆ Ê 2p ˆ˘
= 1 + cos Á + a ˜ - cos Á + a˜ ˙
2p ÍÎ Ë3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯˚
3 3Vm
= (1 + cos a )
2p
Fig. 8.38 Input voltage, output voltage and output current waveforms of a three-phase semi-converter at
different firing angle with RL load
p
For a ≥ , the average output voltage is equal to
3
7p 7p
3 6 3 6
Ê pˆ
Vav = Vo = Ú VRB ◊ d (w t ) = Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p 2p p Ë 6¯
+a +a
6 6
7p
3 3Vm È Ê p ˆ˘ 6 3 3Vm
= Í- cos ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ ˙ p = 2p [cos a - cos180]
2p Î ˚ +a
6
3 3Vm
= [1 + cos a ]
2p
In this way, for both cases, the average output voltage at firing angle a is same
p
For a £ , the rms output voltage is equal to
3
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 3 2 3 6 ˙
Vrms = Vo rms =Í Ú VRY ◊ d (w t) + 2p Ú
2
VRB ◊ d (w t)˙
2
Í 2p p
+a
p ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È p Ï 5p + a ¸
2 ˘
Í 3 2 Ê Ê ˆ p ˆ
2
3 Ô 6
Ê 7p ˆ Ô ˙
=Í Ú ÁË 3Vm sinÁË w t + 6 ˜¯ ˜¯ ◊d(w t) - Ì Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ˝ ◊d(w t)˙
Í 2p p 2p Ô p Ë 6 ¯Ô ˙
+a
ÍÎ 6 Ó 2 ˛ ˙˚
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 3 2
2Ê ˆ p 3 6
2Ê pˆ ˙
=Í Ú 3Vm sin ÁË w t + 6 ˜¯ ◊ d (w t) + 2p Ú
2
3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t)˙
2
Ë 6¯
Í 2p p
+a
p ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 9V 2 2 Ï Ê ˆ p ¸ 2 6
9Vm Ê pˆ ˙
=Í m Ú Ì1 - cos2 ÁË w t + 6 ˜¯ ˝ ◊ d (w t) + 4p Ú {1 - cos2 Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t)˙
Ë 6¯
Í 4p p Ó
+a
˛ p ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È 2 p 5p
+a ˘
Ï Ê p ˆ ¸2 9Vm2 Ï Ê pˆ¸
= ÍÍ m ˙
9V 1 1 6
Ìw t - sin 2 ÁË w t + ˝ + Ìw t - sin 2 Á w t - ˜ ˝
4p Ó 2 6 ˜¯ ˛p + a 4p Ó 2 Ë 6 ¯ ˛p ˙
ÍÎ 6 2 ˙˚
1/2 1/2
È 9V 2 ÏÔ 2p ¸˘ ÈÏÔ 2 ¸˘
(1 + cos2a )Ô˝˙ (1 + cos2a )Ô˝˙
3 3V 3
=Í m Ì + = m ÍÌ +
ÎÍ 4p ÓÔ 3 2 ˛Ô˚˙ 2 ÎÍÓÔ 3 2p ˛Ô˚˙
p
For a ≥ , the rms output voltage is equal to
3
1/2 1/2
È 7p ˘ È 7p
2 ˘
Í 3 6 ˙ Í 3 6 Ê Ê ˆp ˆ ˙
Vrms = Vo rms =Í 2
Ú VRB . d (w t)˙ =Í Ú ÁË 3Vm sin ÁË w t - 6 ¯˜ ˜¯ ◊ d (w t)˙
Í 2p p
+a ˙ Í 2p p
+a ˙
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1/2
È 7p ˘
Í 3 6
2Ê pˆ ˙
=Í Ú 3Vm sin ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ ◊d (w t)˙
2
Í 2p p
+a ˙
Î 6 ˚
1/2
È 7p ˘
Í 9V 2 6 Ï Ê pˆ¸ ˙
=Í m Ú Ì1 - cos2ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ ˝ ◊d (w t)˙
Í 4p p
+a
Ó ˛ ˙
Î 6 ˚
1/2
È 2 7p ˘
Ï Ê pˆ¸ 6
= ÍÍ m ˙
9V 1
Ìw t - sin 2 ÁË w t - ˜¯ ˝ p ˙
4p Ó 2 6 ˛ +a ˙
ÍÎ 6 ˚
1/2
È 9V 2 Ï 7p p 1 Ê 7p p ˆ 1 Êp p ˆ ¸˘
= Í m Ì - - a - sin 2 Á - ˜ + sin 2 Á + a - ˜ ˝˙
ÎÍ 4p Ó 6 6 2 Ë 6 6¯ 2 Ë6 6 ¯ ˛˚˙
1/2 1/2
È 9V 2 Ï 1 ¸˘ 3V È1 Ï 1 ¸˘
= Í m Ìp - a + sin 2a ˝˙ = m Í p Ìp - a + 2 sin 2a ˝˙
ÎÍ 4p Ó 2 ˛˚˙ 2 Î Ó ˛˚
If firing angle a £ 60°, thyristors and diodes conduct for 120°duration. When the firing angle
a ≥ 60°, thyristors and diodes conduct for 180° – a duration.
For a £ 60°: Rms current ratings of thyristor and diode are:
I o_rms I o_rms
IT_rms = and I D_rms =
3 3
Average current ratings of thyristor and diode are
I o_av I o_av
IT_av = and I D_av =
3 3
For a ≥ 60°: Rms current ratings of thyristor and diode are:
I o_rms I o_rms
IT_rms = and I D_rms =
3 3
Average current ratings of thyristor and diode are:
I o_av I o_av
IT_av = and I D_av =
3 3
Example 8.17 A three-phase semiconverter is connected to a RL load with R = 10 W. If the firing angle of
thyristors is 45° and it fed power of 5 kW. Determine the maximum amplitude of per phase input voltage.
Solution
If firing angle a is less than 60°, for any value of a the rms output voltage is
1/2 1/2
È ÔÏ 2 Ô¸ ˘ È ÔÏ 2 ¸˘
(1 + cos(2 ¥ 45))˝Ô˙
3Vm 3 3Vm 3
Vrms = ÍÌ + (1 + cos2 a)˝ ˙ = ÍÌ +
ÎÍ ÓÔ 3 2 p
2 ˛Ô ˚˙ 2 ÎÍ ÓÔ 3 2 p ˛Ô ˚˙
= 1.4562Vm as a = 45∞
Vrms 1.4562Vm
R R
2
Ê 1.4562Vm ˆ 2.1205 2
2
Power output is I rms R=Á ˜¯ R = R Vm = 5000 Watt
Ë R
2.1205 2
or Vm = 5000 as R = 10 W
10
5000 ¥ 10
2.1205
Example 8.18 A three-phase semiconverter is connected to a RL load with of 10 W. If the firing angle of
thyristors is 75° and it fed power of 5 kW. Determine the maximum amplitude of per phase input voltage.
Solution
If firing angle a is greater than 60°, for any value of a the rms output voltage is
1/2 1/2
È1 Ï
3Vm 1 ¸˘ 3Vm È1 Ï 75 ¥ p 1 ¸˘
Vrms = Í p Ì p - a + 2 sin 2 a˝ ˙ = Í p Ì p - 180 + 2 sin (2 ¥ 75)˝ ˙
Î Ó
2 ˛˚ 2 Î Ó ˛˚
= 1.2213Vm as a = 75∞
Vrms 1.2213Vm
R R
2
Ê 1.2213Vm ˆ 1.4915 2
2
Power output is I rms R=Á ˜¯ R = R Vm = 5000 Watt
Ë R
1.4951 2
or Vm = 5000 as R = 10 W
10
5000 ¥ 10
1.4951
Example 8.19 A three-phase semi converter is used to charge a 200 V battery from a 220 V, 50 H ac supply
as depicted in Fig. 8.39. Assume the internal resistance of battery is 0.5 W and an inductance is connected in
series with a battery so that the 10 A constant charging current flows. Determine the firing angle of converter,
conduction period of each thyristor and the input power factor.
Fig. 8.39
Solution
VL 220
Given: Phase voltage is V = = = 127.02 V,
3 3
Battery voltage E = 200 V and internal resistance of battery rinternal = 0.5 W
The charging current Io = 10 A
The output voltage of the converter when it is charging the 200 V battery is equal to
Vo = E + I orinternal = 200 + 10 ¥ 0.5 = 205 V
3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ 179.63
Vav = Vo = (1 + cos a) = (1 + cos a) = 205 V
2p 2p
or 148.628(1 + cos a ) = 205
205
or cos a = - 1 = 0.379
148.628
Therefore, firing angle is a = cos-1 (0.379) = 67.71∞
For a ≥ 60°, the conduction period of each thyristor is 180° – a duration. As a = 67.71°, the conduction
period of each thyristor is equal to 180∞ - a = 180∞ - 67.71∞ = 112.29∞ duration.
For constant load current of 10 A, the supply current is of square wave of amplitude 10 A. Since iR flows
for 112.29° over every half cycle of 180°. The rms value of supply current is equal to
1/2 1/2
È 1 112.29 ¥ p ˘ È1 112.29 ¥ p ˘
I R rms = Í I o2 ˙ = Í 102 ˙ = 7.898 A
Îp 180 ˚ Îp 180 ˚
Po = EI o + I o2rinternal = 200 ¥ 10 + 102 ¥ 0.5 = 2050 Watt
We know that
3VI cos f = Po
Then power factor is cos f = Po = 2050

= 0.681 lag
3VI 3 ¥ 220 ¥ 7.898
8.7.1 operation with r load

Figure 8.40 shows the voltage and current waveforms of a three phase semiconverter. The output
voltage waveforms at firing angle a = 0°, a = 30° and a = 90° are depicted in Fig. 8.40. It is clear
from Fig. 8.40 that
1. If firing angle a = 0°, the output voltage waveform consists of six-pulse within a cycle of input
voltage.
2. If firing angle a = 30°, the output voltage waveform has only three pulse within a cycle of input
voltage. Subsequently, this converter is known as three-pulse converter.
3. If firing angle a > 60°, the output voltage waveform becomes zero after every pulse for a = 60°
and a > 60°, it will remain zero for a finite time. Consequently, the output voltage waveform
will be discontinuous.
4. If firing angle a £ 60°, each device conducts for 120° duration. When firing angle a ≥ 60°, each
device conducts for 180° – a duration.
Fig. 8.40 Input voltage, output voltage and output current waveforms of a three-phase semi-converter at
different firing angle with R load
8.7.2 expression of output voltage of semi-converter

With R load
Average output voltage For a £ p , the average output voltage is equal to

3
p 5p
+a
3 2 3 6
Vav = Vo = Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) + Ú VRB ◊ d (w t )
2p p 2p p
+a
6 2
p 5p
+a
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 6
Ê 7p ˆ
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) - Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p Ë 6¯ 2p p Ë 6 ¯
+a
6 2
p 5p
+a
3 2
Ê pˆ 3 6
Ê pˆ
= Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p Ë 6¯ 2p p Ë 6¯
+a
6 2
È p 5p
+a ˘
3 3Vm ÍÏ Ê p ˆ ¸2 Ï Ê pˆ¸ 6 ˙
= Ì - cos w t + ˝ + Ì - cos w t - ˝
2p ÍÓ ËÁ 6 ¯˜ ˛ p + a Ó ËÁ 6 ¯˜ ˛ p ˙
ÍÎ 6 2 ˙˚
3 3Vm È Ê p ˆ 2p p Ê 2p ˆ˘
= cos + a ˜ - cos + cos - cos Á + a˜ ˙
2p ÎÍ ËÁ 3 ¯ 3 3 Ë 3 ¯˚
3 3Vm È Êp ˆ Ê 2p ˆ˘
= Í1 + cos Á + a ˜ - cos Á + a˜ ˙
2p Î Ë3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯˚
3 3Vm
= (1 + cos a )
2p
p
For a ≥ , the average output voltage is equal to
3
7p 7p
3 6 3 6
Ê pˆ
Vav = Vo = Ú VRB ◊ d (w t ) = Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )
2p p 2p p Ë 6¯
+a +a
6 6
7p
3 3Vm È Ê p ˆ˘ 6 3 3Vm
=
2p Í- cos ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ ˙ p = 2p [cos a - cos180 ]
Î ˚ +a
6
3 3Vm
=
2p
[1 + cos a ]
In this way, for both the cases, the average output voltage at firing angle a is same.
rMS output voltage For a £ p , the rms output voltage is equal to
3
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 3 2 2 3 6 ˙
Vrms = Vo rms = Í Ú VRY ◊ d (w t ) + 2p Ú VRB ◊ d (w t )˙
2
2p
Í p +a p ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È p
2
5p
+a 2 ˘
Í 3 2 Ê Ê p ˆˆ 3 6 Ï Ê 7p ˆ ¸ ˙
=Í Ú Á 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ˜ ◊d(w t) - Ú Ì 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ˝ ◊d(w t)˙
Ë 6 ¯¯ Ë 6 ¯˛
Í 2p p + a Ë 2p p Ó ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 3 2 Ê p ˆ 3 6
2Ê pˆ ˙
=Í Ú 3Vm sin Á w t + ˜ ◊ d (w t ) +
2 2
Ú 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t )˙
2
Ë ¯ Ë ¯
Í 2p p + a 6 2p p 6 ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È p 5p
+a ˘
Í 9V 2 2
Ï Ê pˆ¸ 9V 2 6
Ï Ê pˆ¸ ˙
= Í m Ú Ì1 - cos 2Á w t + ˜ ˝ ◊ d(w t) + m Ú Ì1 - cos 2Á w t - ˜ ˝ ◊ d(w t)˙
4p Ó Ë 6 ¯ ˛ 4p p Ó Ë 6 ¯ ˛
Í p
+a ˙
Î 6 2 ˚
1/2
È 2 p 5p
+a ˘
Í 9Vm Ï 1 Ê p ˆ ¸2 9Vm2 Ï 1 Ê pˆ¸ 6 ˙
=Í Ìw t - sin 2 Á w t + ˜ ˝ + Ìw t - sin 2 Á w t - ˜ ˝ ˙
4p Ó 2 Ë 6 ¯ ˛p + a 4p Ó 2 Ë 6 ¯ ˛p
ÍÎ 6 2 ˙˚
1/2 1/2
È 9V 2 ÔÏ 2p ¸˘ ÈÔÏ 2 ¸˘
(1 + cos 2a )˝Ô˙ (1 + cos 2a )˝Ô˙
3 3V 3
=Í m Ì + = m ÍÌ +
ÍÎ 4p ÔÓ 3 2 Ô˛˙˚ 2 ÍÎÔÓ 3 2p Ô˛˙˚
p
For a ≥ , the rms output voltage is equal to
3
1/2 1/2
È 7p ˘ È 7p
2 ˘
Í 3 6 2 ˙ Í 3 6 Ê Ê p ˆˆ ˙
Vrms = Vo rms = Í Ú VRB ◊ d (w t )˙ = Í Ú Á 3Vm sin Á w t - ˜ ˜ ◊ d (w t )˙
Ë 6 ¯¯
Í 2p p + a ˙ Í 2p p + a Ë ˙
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1/2 1/2
È 7p ˘ È 7p ˘
Í 3 6
Ê pˆ ˙ Í 9V 2 6
Ï Ê pˆ¸ ˙
=Í Ú 3Vm2 sin 2 Á w t - ˜ ◊ d (w t)˙ = Í m Ú Ì1 - cos 2Á w t - ˜ ˝ ◊ d (w t)˙
Ë ¯ Ë ¯
Í 2p p + a 6 ˙ Í 4p p + a Ó 6 ˛ ˙
Î 6 ˚ Î 6 ˚
1/2
È 2 7p ˘
Í 9Vm Ï 1 Ê pˆ¸ 6 ˙
=Í Ìw t - sin 2 Á w t - ˜ ˝
4p Ó 2 Ë 6 ¯ ˛p + a ˙
ÍÎ 6 ˙˚
1/2
È 9V 2 Ï 7p p 1 Ê 7p p ˆ 1 Êp p ˆ ¸˘
=Í m Ì - - a - sin 2 Á - ˜ + sin 2 Á + a - ˜ ˝˙
ÎÍ 4p Ó6 6 2 Ë 6 6¯ 2 Ë6 6 ¯ ˛˚˙
1/2
È 9V 2 Ï 1 ¸˘ 3V È 1 Ï 1 ¸˘
1/2
=Í m Ìp - a + sin 2a ˝˙ = m Í Ìp - a + sin 2a ˝˙
ÍÎ 4p Ó 2 ˛˙˚ 2 Îp Ó 2 ˛˚
If firing angle a £ 60°, thyristors and diodes conduct for 120° duration. When the firing angle
a ≥ 60°, thyristors and diodes conduct for 180° – a duration.
For a £ 60°: Rms current ratings of thyristor and diode are:
I I
IT_rms = o_rms and I D_rms = o_rms
3 3
I I
IT_av = o_av and I D_av = o_av
3 3
For a ≥ 60°: Rms current ratings of thyristor and diode are:

I I
IT_rms = o_rms and I D_rms = o_rms
3 3
I I
IT_av = o_av and I D_av = o_av
3 3
8.8 effect of source IMPedance on the PerforMance

of three-Phase full BrIdge converters
Figure 8.41 shows a three-phase full bridge converter with a source inductance Ls in each line. During
analysis of this converter, we assume that the load current Io is constant and ripple free.
The conduction of thyristors at firing angle a = 0°
and overlap angle m = 0° are depicted in Fig. 8.41. It
is clear from Fig. 8.41 that thyristors, T5, T6 conducts
up to wt = 30°. Thyristors T1 and T6 conduct from wt
= 30° to wt = 90° (60° duration). After that T1 and
T2 conduct from wt = 90° to wt = 150°. Similarly,
other thyristor pairs conduct sequentially and each
pair conducts for 60° duration. It is also revealed
from Fig. 8.41 that only two thyristors conduct at a Fig. 8.41 Three-phase full bridge converter with
time, one from the positive (upper) group and other a source inductance Ls in each line
from the negative (lower) group.
Due to presence of source inductance Ls, there will be overlap of conduction of thyristors as load
current Io will be shared by two thyristors and one conduction thyristor is going towards commutation
process and one incoming thyristor is going towards conduction process. Assume thyristors, T5 and
T6 conduct up to wt = 30°. At wt = 30°, incoming thyristors T1 is going towards conduction process
and outgoing thyristor T5 is going towards commutation (turn-OFF) process. Both thyristors T1 and
T5 are belonging to positive group. Since thyristor T1 is triggered at wt = 30°, current through T5 starts
decaying but the current through T1 starts to build up. Hence, during the overlap angle m, load current
is shared by thyristors T1 and T5. At wt = 30° + m, current through thyristor T5 becomes zero and full
load current flows through thyristor T1. Consequently, during 30° £ wt £ 30° + m three thyristors T5,
T6 and T1 conduct. At wt = 30° + m, only T1 from upper group conduct with T6. Thus, when a positive
group thyristor is going towards commutation, three thyristors conduct with two from the positive
group and one from negative group.
Similarly at wt = 90°, incoming thyristors T2 is going towards conduction process and outgoing
thyristor T6 is going towards commutation (turn OFF) process. Both thyristors T2 and T6 are belong
to negative group. As thyristor T2 is triggered at wt = 90°, current through T6 starts decaying but the
current through T2 starts to build up. Therefore during the overlap angle m, load current is shared by
thyristors T2 and T6. At wt = 90° + m, current through thyristor T6 becomes zero and full load current
flows through thyristor T2. As a result during 90° £ wt £ 90° + m, three thyristors T1, T6 and T2 conduct.
At wt = 90° + m, only T2 from lower group conduct with T1. Hence, when a negative group thyristor is
going towards commutation, three thyristors conduct with two from the negative group and one from
positive group. The conduction of thyristors due to overlap will be as follows:
T5-T6, T5-T6-T1, T1-T6, T1-T6-T2, T1-T2, T1-T2-T3, T2-T3, T2-T3-T4, T3-T4, T3-T4-T5, T4-T5, T4-T5-T6, T5-T6
It is clear from above sequence that three thyristors and two thyristors conduct alternatively. In Fig.
8.42, there are six shaded areas with six commutations per cycle of input voltage.
When thyristor T5 is going towards commutation and T1 starts conduction, current will be transferred
from T5 to T1, the output voltage is equal the average of corresponding phase voltage VY and VB of the
VR + VB
positive group. Therefore, the output voltage follows the curve for positive group during 30°
2
£ wt £ 30° + m. During commutation of T6 and T2 starts conduction, the output voltage follows the
VY + VB
curve for negative group during 90° £ wt £ 90° + m. Similarly, when thyristor T1 is going
2
towards commutation and T3 starts conduction, current will be transferred from T1 to T3 and the output
V +V
voltage follows the curve R Y for positive group during 150° £ wt £ 150° + m.
2
Due to the presence of source inductance Ls, the average dc output voltage can be reduced. The
amplitude of fall in reduced output voltage is directly proportional to the triangular area a-b-c as
Fig. 8.42 Voltage and current waveforms of a three phase full bridge converter with overlap
The amplitude of fall in reduced output voltage is equal to

3m 3 m di
Ú v ◊ d (w t ) = Ú L ◊ d (w t )
p0 L p 0 s dt
m
Io
3L w di 3w Ls 3w L
= s Ú w ◊ dt = Ú di = p I o
s
p 0 dt p 0
The output voltage of three-phase fully controlled bridge converter with no overlap (m = 0) is
3 3Vm
Vav = Vo = cos a
p
The output voltage of three-phase fully controlled bridge converter with over lap angle m is
3 3Vm 3w Ls 3 3Vm
Vav _ with m = Vo_with m = cos a - I = cos a - RC I o
p p o p
3w Ls
where, RC = is commutation resistance
p
The current Io for a three-phase fully controlled bridge converter is
3Vm
Io =
2w Ls
[cos a - cos(a + m )]
After substituting the value of Io in the output voltage equation with overlap angle m is equal to
3 3Vm 3w Ls 3Vm
Vav _ with m = Vo_with m =
p
cos a -
p 2w Ls
3 3Vm 3 3Vm
=
p
cos a -
2p
3 3Vm
= [cos a + cos(a + m )]
2p
3 3Vm
If the overlap angle m = 0, the output voltage is Vav = Vo = cos a
p
The output voltage for a three-phase full converter for similar way of representation of single phase
full converter is
3 3Vm 3w Ls
Vo = cos(a + m ) + I
p p o
The voltage regulation of a three-phase full converter due to source inductance is equal to
3w Ls I o 1 2p f Ls I o
¥ =
p Vo -at-no-load 3Vm cos a
Example 8.20 A three-phase full bridge converter is connected to a load with ripple free current Io. When
source inductance Ls is connected in each line, prove that the load is equal to
3Vm
Io =
2w Ls
Solution
Figure 8.43 shows a equivalent circuit of a three-phase full converter when thyristors T1, T5 and T6 are conduct-
ing. Thyristor T1 is turned on at a = 0°, current flow in T5 starts to decay where as current in T1 starts to increase
from zero. The overlap angle is m.
Fig. 8.43 Equivalent circuit of a three-phase full converter when thyristors T1, T5 and T6 are conducting
KVL equation in the loop a-b-c-d-a is expressed by

di1 di
VR - Ls = VB - Ls 5
dt dt
È di di ˘
or VR - VB = Ls Í 1 - 5 ˙ (8.1)
Î dt dt ˚
VR = Vm sin w t and VB = Vm sin (w t - 240∞) = Vm sin(w t + 120∞)
VR - VY = Vm sin w t - Vm sin (w t + 120∞)
= Vm [sin w t - sin (w t + 120∞)] = 3Vm sin (w t - 30∞)
After substituting the value of (VR – VY) in Eq. (8.1), we obtain
È di1 di5 ˘ 3Vm
Í dt - dt ˙ = L sin (w t - 30∞) (8.2)
Î ˚ s
During the overlap period, the sum of current flows through T1 and T5 is equal to zero
i1 + i5 = I o
di1 di5 dI o
or + = =0 as Io is constant
dt dt dt
di1 di5
or + =0 (8.3)
dt dt
After adding Eqs. (8.2) and (8.3), we get
di1 3Vm
= sin (w t - 30∞)
dt 2 Ls
At wt = 30° + a, i1 = 0. At wt = 30° + a + m, i1 = I1 = Io.

Êp ˆ
Io ÁË 6 + a + m ˜¯ w
3Vm
Ú di = Ú sin (w t - 30∞) ◊ dt
0 Êp ˆ
2 Ls
+a˜ w
ËÁ 6 ¯
Êp ˆ
+ a + m˜ w
3Vm È Ê p ˆ ˘ËÁ 6 ¯ 3Vm
=
2w Ls Í- sin ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ ˙Ê p ˆ =
2w Ls
Î ˚Á + a ˜ v
Ë6 ¯
3Vm
Hence, it is proved that I o = [cos a - cos(a + m )] when source inductance Ls is connected in each line of
2w Ls
a three-phase full bridge converter and load current Io is ripple free.
Example 8.21 A three-phase M-3 converter is supplied from a three phase, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is
connected to a load RLE with ripple free current of 20 A. If R = 2 W, E = 250 V, (a) determine the firing angle
for inverter mode operation and (b) when a source inductance of 5 mH is connected in each line, determine the
firing angle and overlap angle of inverter.
Solution
VL 440
(a) Phase voltage is V = = = 254.04 V ,
3 3
When the converter working as an inverter, the average output voltage of converter is
Vav = Vo = - E + I o R
3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ 359.26
We know Vav = Vo = cos a = cos a
2p 2p
3 3 ¥ 359.26
Therefore, cos a = - 250 + 20 ¥ 2 = - 210
2p
Ê 210 ¥ 2p ˆ
The firing angle for inverter mode operation is a = cos-1 Á - = 134.94∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 359.26 ˜¯
(b) The voltage drop in average output voltage due to source inductance is
3w Ls 3 ¥ 2p f ¥ Ls
I = I o = 3 f Ls I o = 3 ¥ 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 20 = 15 V
2p o 2p
3 3 ¥ 359.26
Then cos a - 15 = - 250 + 20 ¥ 2 = - 210 V
2p
3 3 ¥ 359.26
or cos a = -195 V
2p
Ê 195 ¥ 2p ˆ
The firing angle for inverter mode operation is a = cos-1 Á - = 130.99∞
For a three-phase converter Ë 3 3 ¥ 359.26 ˜¯
2w Ls
cos(a + m ) = cos a - Io
Vml
2 ¥ 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -3
= cos130.99 - 20 = - 0.7568 = cos139.18
3 ¥ 359.26
Therefore, 130.99 + m = 139.18 or m = 8.19°
Example 8.22 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from a 220 V per phase, 50 Hz ac supply. It is
connected to a RLE load with ripple free 15 A dc current. When E = 250 V, R = 2 W, determine (a) firing angle
of converter and (b) overlap angle of converter. Assume Ls = 5 mH
Solution
(a) Phase voltage is V = 200 V,
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 V = 311.12 V
When the converter working as controlled rectifier, the average output voltage of converter is
Vav = Vo = E + I o R 250 + 15 ¥ 2 = 280 V
3 3Vm 3w Ls 3 3 ¥ 311.12 3 ¥ 2p f Ls
We know Vav = Vo = cos a - I = cos a - Io
p p o p p
3 3 ¥ 311.12 3 ¥ 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -3
Therefore, cos a - ¥ 15 = 250 + 15 ¥ 2
p p
3 3 ¥ 311.12
cos a = 250 + 15 ¥ 2 + 22.5 = 302.5
p
Ê 302.5 ¥ p ˆ
The firing angle for rectifier mode operation is a = cos-1 Á = 54.015∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 311.12 ˜¯
(b) The output voltage of converter is
3 3Vm 3w Ls
Vo = cos(a + m ) + I
p p o
3 3 ¥ 311.12 3 ¥ 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -3
280 = cos(54.015 + m ) + ¥ 15
p p
or cos(54.015 + m ) = cos(59.88)
The overlap angle of converter m = 59.88 - 54.015 = 5.865∞
8.9 tWelve-Pulse converters

The three-phase fully controlled bridge converters are extensively used in the medium to moderately
high power applications. Usually low frequency harmonics (sixth in dc side, fifth and seventh in ac
side) voltage and currents are generated by the 6 pulse bridge converter. Therefore, these converters
may be connected in series and parallel combination in order to increase the voltage and current rating
of converter respectively. When the converters are controlled properly, the lower order harmonics can
be eliminated from both input and output side. Hence a higher number pulse converter is developed.
In very high power applications such as high voltage dc (HVDC) transmission systems, higher number
pulse converters are used.
Figure 8.44 shows the series connection of two six-pulse converters. In this circuit, the star and
delta connected secondary windings have p/6(30°) displacement between their output voltages. If a
star connected and a delta connected bridge rectifier are connected in series, the output voltage ripple
frequency is twelve times of the fundamental frequency ( fo = 12f ). Converter-I and converter-II are
identical in construction and they have same firing angle a. The input ac supplies have same amplitude
but they are phase displaced by an angle f. The output voltage of converter-I is
3 3Vm • •
Vo1 = cos a + Â Van cos6nw t + Â Vbn sin 6nw t
p n = 1,2,3,4,5... n = 1,2,3,4,5,...
The output voltage of converter-II is

3 3Vm • •
Vo 2 = cos a + Â Van cos6n (w t - f ) + Â Vbn sin 6n (w t - f )
p n = 1,2,3,4,5... n = 1,2,3,4,5,...
Fig. 8.44 Series connection of six-pulse converters
The output voltage of twelve-pulse converter is equal to
Vo = Vo1 + Vo 2
6 3Vm •
= cos a + 2 Â cos3nf [Van cos3n (2w t - f ) + Vbn sin 3n (2w t - f )]
p n = 1,2,3,4,5...
If cos 3nf = 0, then the corresponding nth harmonic may disappear.

If f = 30°, cos 3nf = 0 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4
6 3Vm •
Then Vo = cos a + 2 Â [Vam cos12mw t + Vbm sin12mw t ]
p m = 1,2,3,4,5...
Hence, the frequency of harmonics present in output voltage of a 12-pulse converter are:
12f, 24f, 36f … and the ac input current contains the harmonic frequency 11f, 13f, 23f, 35f, …
Usually six-phase series bridge controlled rectifiers are used for high output voltage applications.
But for high output current applications, six-phase parallel bridge controlled rectifiers are used.
Figure 8.45 shows the parallel connections of two six-pulse bridge controlled rectifiers with an inter-
phase transformer. The output voltage of converter-I is Vo1 and The output voltage of converter-II is
Vo2. The output voltage across load is the average of the rectified output voltages Vo1 and Vo2. The
output ripple frequency of six-phase parallel bridge controlled rectifiers is 12 times of fundamental
frequency. Normally filter circuit is not required .When the circuit is a balanced one, the output current
of two three phase units will not generate dc magnetisation current.
Fig. 8.45 Parallel connection of two six-pulse converters
8.10 three-Phase dual converters

A three-phase fully controlled converter can
provide both positive and negative voltage
but it cannot supply current in both directions.
In some applications such as four quadrant
operation of dc motor, only a three-phase
fully controlled converter can provide required
control features. This problem can be solved
by connecting two three-phase fully controlled
converters in antiparallel. In Fig. 8.46, the
converter-1 supplies positive load current
whereas the converter-2 supplies the negative
load current. The converter-1 operates in the
first and fourth quadrant but the converter-2 Fig. 8.46 Four quadrant operation of converters
operates in second and third quadrant. In this way, two converters can operate together in all four
quadrants. This combined converter is known as dual converter.
Full converters operate as two quadrant (I-quadrant and IV-quadrant) converters. In a full converter,
the direction of current can not be reverse due to unidirectional property of thyristor but the polarity
of output voltage can be reversed as depicted in Fig. 8.46. A full converter can operate in the first
quadrant as a controlled rectifier where Vo (VDC) and Io (IDC) are positive and firing angle varies in the
p
control range 0 £ a £ . It can also operate in the fourth quadrant as a controlled rectifier where Vo is
2
p
negative and Io is positive and firing angle varies in the control range £ a £ p . In the first quadrant,
2
power flows from ac supply to dc load and in the fourth quadrant power flows from load to ac source.
DC motors are operated in four quadrants such as forward motoring, forward regeneration, reverse
motoring and reverse regeneration. For such operation, four quadrant converters are required. Dual
converters are used as four quadrant converters. Dual converters are those converters in which two
fully controlled converters are connected in back to back to the load circuit as depicted in Figure
8.47(a) and four quadrant operation of dual converter is given in Fig. 8.47(b).
Fig. 8.47 (a) Dual converter using three phase full converters and (b) Four quadrant operation of dual converter
8.10.1 operating Principle of Ideal dual converter

The basic operating principle of dual converter can be explained using the most simplified equivalent
circuit diagram of the dc circuit as illustrated in Fig. 8.48. This circuit consists of two ideal two
quadrant converters such as converter-1 and converter-2, two diodes such as D1 and D2 and load. It
is clear from Fig. 8.48 that two ideal two quadrant converters are assumed to be controllable direct
voltage sources connected in series with the diodes.
For analysis of dual converter, it is assumed that dual converters are made by ideal full converters
and there is no ripple in the output voltage. Therefore, these converters generate pure dc output voltage
without any ac ripple at the dc terminals. The current can flow in either direction through diodes D1
and D2 which represents the unidirectional current flow of converters. The firing angle of converters
are controlled by the control voltage VC.
Vo1 and Vo2 are the average output voltages of converter-1 and converter-2 respectively. These
output voltages are equal in magnitude but they are of opposite polarity. These can drive the current
in opposite directions through load. Subsequently, whenever one converter operates as a controlled
Fig. 8.48 The equivalent circuit of an ideal dual converter
rectifier, the other converter operates as an inverter. The converter working as a rectifier is called as
positive group converter and the converter working as an inverter is known as negative group converter.
The average output voltage of converter-1 is
Vo1 = Vmax cos a1
The average output voltage of converter-2 is
Vo2 = Vmax cos a2
3 3Vm
For a three-phase full converter, Vmax =
p
For an ideal converter Vo = Vo1 = –Vo2
Therefore, Vmax cos a1 = -Vmax cos a 2
or cos a1 = - cos a 2 = cos(180 - a 2 )
or a1 = 180 - a 2 or, a1 + a 2 = 180
The variation of output voltage with firing angle for
the two converters is depicted in Fig. 8.49. The firing
angles a1 and a2 are varied in such a way that a1 +a2
= 180 always.
Fig. 8.49 Variation of terminal voltage for an
ideal dual converter with firing angle
8.10.2 Practical dual converter
The firing angles a1 and a2 are controlled in such a way that a1 + a2 = 180° always and the average
output voltage of converter-1 and converter-2 are equal but opposite polarity. One converter operates
as a rectifier with a firing angle a1 and the other converter operates as an inverter with firing angle
a2 = 180° – a1. Subsequently, the output voltage of converter-1 is equal to the output voltage of
converter-2, though instantaneous output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 are out of phase in a practical dual
converter. Therefore, there is a voltage difference when two converters are interconnected, a large
circulating current flows between two converters but not through load. This circulating current can
be limited to a specified value by inserting a reactor between two converters. The circulating current
can be avoided by providing the trigger pulses. There are two operating modes of a practical dual
converter such as non-circulating current mode and circulating current mode.
Non-circulating Current Mode Dual Converter In non-circulating current mode dual

converter, only one converter operates at a time which alone carries the entire load current. Only this
converter receives the firing pulses from the triggering circuit. The other converter remains blocked
from conduction by removing the triggering pulses to that converter. Hence, only one converter is
in operation at a time and the other converter is idle. As there is no circulating current flow, reactor
is not required. The circuit diagram of non-circulating current dual converter is shown in Fig. 8.50.
Fig. 8.50 Non-circulating current mode dual converter
If converter-1 is operating and is supplying the load current, converter-2 will be in the blocking
state. In order to block the converter-1 from conduction and switch on the converter-2, it is required
to commutate the thyristors of converter-1 either by removing the firing pulses to its thyristors or by
increasing the firing angle of converter-1 to the maximum value such that its firing pulses are being
blocked. Afterwards, the load current would decays to zero. As the triggering pulses are applied to
the thyristors of converter 2, converter-2 gets switched on. Thus the converter-2 is in the operating
mode and converter-1 remains idle. Now the load current builds up in the opposite direction. So long
as converter-2 is in operation, converter-1 will be in idle since firing pulses are withdrawn from this
converter. During changeover from one converter to other converter, a delay time of about 10 to 20
ms must be ensured between the instants at which converter-1 is in the OFF state and converter-2 is in
the ON state. This delay time ensures the reliable commutation of thyristors present in the converter-1.
If the thyristors of converter-2 are triggered before turn OFF of the thyristors of converter-1, a large
circulating current would flow between the two converters which is a undesirable condition.
In non-circulating current dual converter, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous. The
control circuit of dual converter is designed in such a way that the performance of non-circulating
current dual converter is satisfactory during continuous or discontinuous load current.
Circulating Current Mode Dual Converter In circulating current mode dual converter, two
converters are in the operating condition when one converter operates in the controlled rectifier mode
and other operates in the inverting mode. In this converter, a rector is inserted in between converter-1
and converter-2. The rector is used to limit the amplitude of circulating current to a specified value.
Figure 8.51 shows the circulating current mode dual converter. The voltage waveforms of a three-phase
dual converter is illustrated in Fig. 8.52 at a1 = 60° and a2 = 120°.
Fig. 8.51 The circulating current mode dual converter
The firing angles of two converters are adjusted in such a manner that a1 + a2 = 180° is always
satisfied. For example, if the firing angle of converter-1 is a1 = 60° then the firing angle of converter-2
is a2 = 120°. In this case converter-1 operates as a controlled rectifier but the converter-2 operates
as an inverter. The output voltage at the terminals of both converters has the same average output
voltage. The instantaneous value of output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 are not similar as depicted in Fig. 8.52.
Consequently, a large circulating current flows between the two converters. To limit the circulating
current, a reactor must be introduced between converter-1 and converter-2.
The load current can be reversed by interchanging the role of two converters. Then converter-1
should operate as an inverter and converter-2 should operate as rectifier. Therefore, the firing angle
of converter-1 is greater than 90° and the firing angle of converter-2 is less than 90°. However the
equation a1 + a2 = 180° must be satisfied. The normal time delay 10 to 20 ms is not required in this
converter. Consequently, the operation of this type of dual converter is faster.
Circulating current of dual converter When the firing angle a1 < 90°, converter-1 operates
as a rectifier and it carries circulating current and load current. Since the load current is Io and the
circulating current is ic, the current flows from converter–1 is I1 = Io + ic.
As the firing angle a2 > 90°, converter-2 operates as an inverter and it carries circulating current
ic only. Then current flows from converter –2 is I2 = ic.
p 2p
During + a1 < w t £ + a1 , the output voltages of converters are as follows:
3 3
Output voltage of converter-1 is Vo1 = VRY and output voltage of converter-2 is Vo2 = VRB.
The voltage across reactor is Vr = Vo1 - Vo 2 = VRY - VYB
We know that VRY = 3Vm sin w t and VYB = 3Vm sin (w t - 120)
Therefore, Vr = Vo1 - Vo 2 = VRY - VYB = 3Vm sin (w t + 30)
The amplitude of circulating current ic is the time integral of reactor voltage Vr and it is expressed by
Fig. 8.52 Voltage waveforms of a three-phase dual converter with a1 = 60° and a2 = 120°
t t
1 3Vm
ic = Ú Vr ◊ dt = Ú sin (w t + 30) ◊ dt
L Êp ˆ L Êp ˆ
ÁË + a1 ˜¯ w ÁË + a1 ˜¯ w
3 3
3Vm w t
= Ú sin (w t + 30) ◊ dw t
wL Êp ˆ
+ a1 ˜
ËÁ 3 ¯
3Vm È Ê p ˆ˘
or ic = Í- sin a1 - cos ÁË w t + 6 ˜¯ ˙
wL Î ˚
It is clear from above equation that the magnitude of circulating current depends upon the firing angle
5p
a1 and wt. At any value of firing angle, the peak value of circulating current occurs at w t = . The
peak value of circulating current is 6
3Vm
ic max = [1 - sin a1 ]
wL
3Vm
If a1 = 0, the peak value of current is ic max = where, Vm is the maximum phase voltage.
wL
The disadvantages of dual converters are given below:

1. A reactor is used to limit the circulating current and the size and cost of this reactor is significantly
high at high power levels.
2. The efficiency and power factor of dual converters are low due to the losses occurred by the
circulating current.
3. Circulating current gives rise to more losses in the dual converters.
4. Since the converters have to handle load and circulating current, the current rating of thyristors
used in dual converters must be high.
Though the dual converters have the above disadvantages, a dual converter with circulating current
mode dual converter is preferred when the load current is to be reversed frequently and whenever a
fast response four-quadrant operation is required.
Example 8.23 A three-phase dual converter operates in the circulating current mode when per phase rms
voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz and L = 20 mH with firing angle a1 = 45°. (a) Find the expression of circulating current.
(b) Determine the peak value of circulating current.
Solution
Given Vm = 2 V = 2 ¥ 220 V, f = 50 Hz, L = 20 mH
(a) The circulating current is equal to
3Vm È Ê pˆ˘
ic = Í - sin a1 - cos ÁË wt + 6 ˜¯ ˙
wL Î ˚
3 2 ¥ 220 È Ê pˆ˘
= -3 Í - sin 45 - cos ÁË wt + 6 ˜¯ ˙ as a1 = 45∞
2 p ¥ 50 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 Î ˚
3 2 ¥ 220 È Ê pˆ˘
= -3 Í - sin 45 - cos ËÁ wt + 6 ¯˜ ˙
2 p ¥ 50 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 Î ˚
È Ê pˆ˘
= 148.62 Í - sin 45 - cos Á wt + ˜ ˙
Î Ë 6¯˚
(b) The peak value of circulating current is
3Vm 3 2 ¥ 220
ic max = [1 - sin a1 ] = [1 - sin 45] = 43.529 A
wL 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 -3
summary
d The operation of different three phase controlled rectifiers with resistive (R), inductive (L) and back emf (E)
type loads are explained in detail.
d The continuous and discontinuous modes of operation of three phase converters depend on load parameters
and firing angle. The operation of converters in continuous and discontinuous mode of operation is discussed
in this chapter.
d The effect of source impedance on the performance of three phase full bridge converters is explained briefly.
d The operation of three phase dual converters is explained in detail.
8.1 In a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier each thyristor conducts for ______ duration
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
8.2 The dc output voltage of a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at firing angle a is
5p /6 + a 5p /6 + a
1 1
(a)
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b)
p /6 + a p /6 + a
5p /3 + a 5p /3 + a
1 1
(c)
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d)
p /3 + a p /3 + a
8.3 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is

8.4 The peak inverse voltage of each diode of a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
(a) 3Em (b) 2 Em (c) Em (d) E
8.5 In a six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier each thyristor conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
8.6 The dc output voltage of a six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
5p /6 + a 2p /3 + a
1 1
(a)
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b)
p /6 + a p /3 + a
5p /6 + a 2p /3 + a
1 1
(c)
2p /6 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d)
p /6 + a p /3 + a
8.7 The frequency of output voltage of a six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is

8.8 The peak inverse voltage of each diode of a six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
(a) 3Em (b) 2 Em (c) Em (d) E
8.9 In a three-phase bridge converter each thyristor conducts for ______ duration.
(a) 180° (b) 150° (c) 120° (d) 60°
8.10 The dc output voltage of a three-phase full-wave bridge converter is
2p /3 + a 5p /6 + a
1 1
(a)
2p /6 Ú 3Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (b)
p /3 + a p /6 + a
5p /3 + a 5p /3 + a
1 1
(c)
2p /3 Ú Vm sin w t ◊ d (w t ) (d)
p /3 + a p /3 + a
8.11 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase fully controlled bridge converter is
8.12 At firing angle a, the dc output voltage of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier and three-phase
six-pulse controlled rectifier are __________ and _________ respectively.
3 3Vm 3V 3 3Vm 3 3Vm
(a) cos a , m cos a (b) cos a , cos a
2p p 2p 2p
3Vm 3V 6Vm 3 3Vm
(c) cos a , m cos a (d) cos a , cos a
2p 2p 2p 2p
8.13 The frequency of output voltage of a three-phase 12-pulse controlled rectifier is

8.14 The number of pulse of a three-phase 12-pulse controlled rectifier is
(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 9 (d) 12
8.15 At firing angle a (a > 30°), the dc output voltage of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
3Vm
(a) 3 3Vm cos a (b) cos a (c) 3 3Vm cos a (d) 3 3Vm cos2a
p 2p 2p 2p
8.16 At firing angle a (a > 30°), the dc output voltage of three phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
(a) 3Vm È Êp ˆ˘ (b) 3Vm È Êp ˆ˘

2p Í1 + cos ÁË 6 + a ˜¯ ˙ 2p Í1 + cos ÁË 6 - a ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚ Î ˚
3 3Vm
(c) cos a (d) 3 3Vm cos2a
2p 2p
8.17 At firing angle a, the dc output voltage of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is
3 3Vm 3Vm 3 3Vm 3Vm
(a) cos a (b) cos a (c) cos a (d) cos a
p 2p 2p p
8.18 A three-phase full bridge converter operates as an inverter, if firing angle
(a) a > 30° (b) a > 45° (c) a > 60° (d) a > 90°
8.19 A three-phase full bridge converter operates as a rectifier, if firing angle
(a) a > 90° (b) a > 120° (c) a > 150° (d) a < 90°
8.20 At firing angle a, the dc output voltage of three-phase full bridge converter is
3 3Vm 3Vm 3 3Vm 3Vm
(a) cos a (b) cos a (c) cos a (d) cos a
p 2p 2p p
8.21 At firing angle a, the dc output voltage of three-phase semi-converter is
3 3Vm 3 3Vm 3 3Vm 3Vm
(a) cos a (b) (1+ cos a ) (c) cos a (d) cos a
p 2p 2p p
8.22 A converter can operate in both three-pulse and six-pulse mode
(a) three-phase semi-converter (b) three-phase full bridge converter
(c) one-phase full converter (d) three-phase half-wave converter
8.23 The effect of source inductance on the performance of three-phase full converter is to
(a) reduce the average dc output voltage (b) reduce the ripples in the load current
(c) obtain discontinuous current (d) increase the load current
8.24 For four quadrant operation,
(a) two full converters are connected in parallel
(b) two full converters are connected in series
(c) two full converters are connected back to back
(d) two semi-converters are connected back to back
8.25 In a three-phase full converter, the output voltage pulsates at a frequency of
(a) 6f (b) 3f (c) 2f (d) f
8.26 In a circulating current type of dual converter, the voltage across reactor is
(a) triangular wave (b) sine wave
(c) pulsating wave (d) alternating triangular wave (approx)
fill in the Blanks

8.1 In a three-phase three-pulse half-controlled rectifier with RL load, each thyristor conducts for
_____________ duration.
8.2 A three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter) cannot able to operate in _____ mode.
8.3 A three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter), thyristors conduct just like a __________
rectifier and diode conduct just like _________ rectifier.
8.4 In a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier, peak inverse voltage across each thyristor is PIV =
_______.
8.5 For a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier, current in the transformer secondary is __________.
8.6 In three-phase mid-point six-pulse controlled rectifier, each thyristor conducts for _______ duration.
8.7 A three-phase fully controlled bridge converter has_______ number of pulses.
8.8 In a three-phase fully controlled bridge converter each thyristor conducts for _______ duration.
8.9 In a six-phase controlled rectifier, the peak inverse voltage across each thyristor is ______.
8.10 The input ac current of a three-phase fully controlled converter consists of _______harmonics only.
8.11 A three-phase fully controlled converter operates in rectifier mode during firing angle_____.
8.12 A three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter) consists of three thyristors and ___________.
8.13 A three-phase 12-pulse controlled rectifier consists of _________________ thyristor.
8.14 The quality of dc output voltage _____________ significantly with three-phase 12-pulse controlled
rectifier.
8.15 Due to the presence of source inductance in each line of the three-phase full converter, commutation is
not ____________________.
8.16 The duration of overlap angle depends on the value of _______ and ______.
8.17 Three-phase fully controlled bridge converter can develop by replacing six diodes of an uncontrolled
rectifier by _______.
8.18 A three-phase fully controlled converter operates in inverter mode during firing angle_____.
8.19 If a three-phase fully bridge converter operates in continuous conduction, there will be ________
different conduction modes.
8.20 The PIV across each thyristor of a three-phase fully controlled bridge converter is equal to ________.
8.21 A three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter) has ___________ conduction modes.
8.22 The three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter) operate in ______ mode only.
8.23 In a three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter), each thyristor conduct for ______duration
and each diode conduct for _______ duration.
8.24 The output voltage and current of a three-phase half controlled converter consists of ________harmonics
of fundamental frequency ac supply.
8.25 The input current of three phase half-controlled converter contain ______harmonics only.
8.26 The output voltage of three-phase converter with firing angle a and commutation angle m is ___________.
8.27 In a three-phase fully controlled converter ______ thyristors conduct during the overlap period and the
overlap angle is about ______.
8.28 The average output voltage of a ac-to-dc converter decreases due to _______.
8.29 In a three-phase converter, the commutation resistance is _______.
8.30 In the dc equivalent circuit representation of a converter, ac source inductance is represented as
____________.
8.31 The commutation overlap angle generates _______ in the input ac supply voltage.
8.32 In a three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter), the output voltage waveform is periodic over
____________ of input ac supply voltage cycle.
8.33 The output voltage waveform of a three-phase half-controlled converter (semiconverter), for a < 60° and
for a > 60° are __________ but the value of average output voltage is ___________.
review Questions
8.1 (a) What are the advantages of three-phase controlled rectifier over single-phase controlled rectifier?
(b) Give a list of applications of a three-phase controller rectifiers.
8.2 What are the types of three-phase controlled rectifiers? Write the detail classification of three-phase
controlled converters.
8.3 Draw the circuit diagram of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with RL load and explain its
operating principle with voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters for RL
load with firing angle a = 30°:
(a) dc output voltage (b) Average dc load current (c) rms output voltage (d) rms load current
(e) Ripple factor (f) TUF (g) Efficiency
8.4 Draw the circuit diagram of three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with R load and explain its
operating principle with voltage and current waveforms. Determine the following parameters for R load
with firing angle a = 60°:
(a) dc output voltage (b) Average dc load current (c) rms output voltage (d) rms load current
(e) Ripple factor (f) TUF (g) Efficiency
8.5 A three-phase converter is fed to a RLE load and draw the output voltage and current waveforms. Derive
the expression of current flow through load.
8.6 (a) Why are three-phase controlled rectifiers preferred over single-phase controlled rectifiers?
(b) Give a list of applications of three-phase controlled rectifiers.
8.7 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase mid point six-pulse controlled rectifier with R load.
Discuss its working principle.
(iv) rms load current (v) Form factor (vi) Ripple factor
(vii) Efficiency (vii) TUF
8.8 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase bridge converter with R load. Discuss its working principle.
(i) dc output voltage (ii) Average dc load current
(iii) rms output voltage (iv) rms load current
8.9 Draw the circuit diagram of a three phase bridge converter with RL load. Explain its working principle
at a = 30°.
8.10 (a) What is multiphase controlled rectifier? What are the advantages of multiphase controlled rectifiers?
(b) Derive the average output voltage and rms output voltage of a multiphase controlled rectifier.
8.11 What are the advantages of three-phase bridge controlled rectifier over three-phase mid point six-pulse
controlled rectifier?
8.12 A three-phase full converter is connected to a R load. Prove that the average output voltage across load is
3 3Vm p
Vo = cos a for 0 £ a £
p 3
3 3VmÈ Ê p ˆ˘ p 2p
and Vo = Í1 + cos ÁË a + 3 ˜¯ ˙ for 3 £ a £ 3
p Î ˚
where, Vm is the maximum phase voltage.
8.13 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase semiconverter with RL load. Explain its working prin-
ciple with voltage and current waveforms at a = 30°.
(b) Explain whether freewheeling diode comes into play or not.
(c) Derive the expression for average output voltage.
8.14 Prove that the performance of three-phase full converter is effected by the source inductance Ls. Prove
2w Ls
that cos(a + m ) = cos a - I
Vml o
8.15 Discuss how two three-phase full converters can be connected back to back to make a circulating current
type dual converter. Discuss its operation with the help of voltage waveforms across (a) converter-1 and
converter-2, (b) load and (c) reactor. Assume a1 = 0°.
8.16 Derive an expression for the circulating current in terms of input voltage, reactor inductance, and firing
angle for three-phase dual converter.
8.17 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 10 W.When the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, calculate (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms
value of output voltage, (c) output voltage form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) average output current, (f)
rms load current, (g) dc output power, (h) ac power supplied and (i) rectification efficiency and TUF.
8.18 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is connected to a 3f, 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is also
connected with a resistive load of 5 W. If the firing angle of thyristor is 45°, calculate (a) dc output
voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average output current, (d) rms load current and (e) TUF.
8.19 A three-phase step-down delta-star transformer with per phase turn ratio 100 is fed from a 3f, 11 kV, 50
Hz ac supply and it is connected with three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier. When R is equal to 10
W and firing angle is 15°, determine (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms value of output voltage, (c) average
output current, (d) rms load current, (e) power delivered to load and (f) maximum value of load current.
8.20 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 10 W.When the average dc output voltage is equal to 65% of the maximum dc output
voltage, determine (a) the firing angle of thyristor, (b) dc output voltage and (c) rms value of output voltage.
8.21 A three-phase three-pulse controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 7.5 W. If the average dc output voltage is equal to 90% of the maximum dc output
voltage, determine (a) the firing angle of thyristor, (b) dc output voltage, (c) rms value of output voltage
and (d) rectification efficiency.
8.22 A three-phase three-pulse controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a constant current load of 40 A. The voltage drop across each thyristor is 2 V. (a) Determine the dc
output voltage at firing angle of 60° and 45°. (b) Calculate the average and rms current rating and PIV
of thyristors. (c) Determine the average power dissipated in each thyristor.
8.23 A 150 V battery is charged using three
phases half-wave rectifier as depicted
in Fig. 8.53. The input phase voltage
is 230 V, 50 Hz and the firing angle of
thyristors is 30°. Determine the average
current flows through the battery. Draw
the charging voltage and charging
current waveforms.
8.24 A three-phase three-pulse controlled
rectifier with free wheeling diode DF is Fig. 8.53
fed from a 3f, 420 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected with a constant current load of 90 A at firing
angle of 45°. Determine (a) the dc output voltage, (b) rms output voltage, (c) the average and rms current
of thyristors, (d) the average and rms current of free-wheeling diode.
8.25 A six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
with a R load of 5 W. If the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, determine (a) dc output voltage, (b) rms
value of output voltage, (c) form factor, (d) ripple factor, (e) average output current, (f) rms load current,
(g) dc output power, (h) ac power supplied and (i) rectification efficiency.
8.26 A six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is fed from a 3f ac supply and it is connected with a R load
with firing angle 60°. Determine (a) form factor and (b) voltage ripple factor.
8.27 A three-phase step-down delta-star transformer with per phase turn ratio 5 is fed from a 3f, 1000 V, 50
Hz ac supply and it is connected with six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier . When R is equal to 8 W
and a = 30°, determine (a) maximum load current, (b) dc output voltage, (c) rms value of output voltage,
(d) average output current, (e) rms load current, (f) power delivered to load and (g) average and rms
value of thyristor current.
8.28 A three-phase full converter is used to charge a 200 V battery from a 230 V, 50 H ac supply as depicted in
Fig. 8.54. Assume the internal resistance of battery is 0.5 W and an inductance is connected in series with
a battery so that the 10 A constant charging current flows. (a) Determine the firing angle of converter
and the input power factor. (b) If power flows from battery to ac side, what will be the firing angle of
converter?
Fig. 8.54
8.29 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from a delta-star transformer and it is connected to a RL
load with ripple free current 18 A at firing angle 45°. It is fed from 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply, determine
rectification efficiency, transformer utilisation factor and input power factor.
8.30 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and is connected to a RLE load
with ripple free load current. If R = 10 W, E = 250 V and inductance is very large, determine the power
delivered to load input power factor at firing angle (a) a = 45° and (b) a = 60° and (c) firing angle
advance of 75°.
8.31 A three-phase full bridge converter provides a ripple free load current of 17 A with a firing angle of 30°.
The input voltage of the converter is three-phase, 410 V, 50 Hz.
(a) Derive the expression of source current by Fourier series. (b) Determine DF, CDF, HF and PF.
(c) Find the active and reactive input power.
8.32 A three-phase full converter is connected to a load resistance of 5 W and it is supplied from a 230 V, 50
H ac supply. If the firing angle of thyristor is a = 30°, determine (a) average output voltage, (b) average
output current, (c) rms output voltage and (d) rms output current.
8.33 A three-phase full converter is connected to a load resistance of 7.5 W. If the firing angle of thyristor is a
= 30°, three phase converter feeds 4 kW power to a resistive load. Determine the amplitude of maximum
per phase input voltage.
8.34 A three-phase semiconverter is connected to a RL load with R = 10 W. If the firing angle of thyristors is
60° and it fed power of 5 kW. Determine the maximum amplitude of per phase input voltage.
8.35 A three-phase semiconverter is connected to a RL load with of 10 W. If the firing angle of thyristors is
70° and it fed power of 5 kW. Determine the maximum amplitude of per phase input voltage.
8.36 A three phase semi converter is used to charge a 200 V battery from a 230 V, 50 H ac supply as depicted
in Fig. 8.55. Assume the internal resistance of battery is 0.5 W and an inductance is connected in series
with a battery so that the 10 A constant charging current flows. Determine the firing angle of converter,
conduction period of each thyristor and the input power factor.
Fig. 8.55
8.37 A three-phase full bridge converter is connected to a load with ripple free current Lo. When source
inductance Ls is connected in each line, prove that the load is equal to
3Vm
Io =
2w Ls
8.38 A three-phase M-3 converter is supplied from a three-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is connected
to a load RLE with ripple free current of 20 A. If R = 2 W, E = 250 V, (a) determine the firing angle for
inverter mode operation. (b) When a source inductance of 5 mH is connected in each line, determine the
firing angle and overlap angle of inverter.
8.39 A three-phase full bridge converter is fed from a 230 V per phase, 50 Hz ac supply. It is connected to
a RLE load with ripple free 15 A dc current. When E = 250 V, R = 2 W, determine (a) firing angle of
converter and (b) overlap angle of converter.
8.40 A three-phase dual converter operates in the circulating current mode when per phase rms voltage is
230 V, 50 Hz and L = 20 mH with firing angle a1 = 45°. (a) Find the expression of circulating current.
(b) Determine the peak value of circulating current.

8.1 (c) 8.2 (a) 8.3 (b) 8.4 (a) 8.5 (d) 8.6 (b) 8.7 (c)
8.8 (c) 8.9 (c) 8.10 (b) 8.11 (c) 8.12 (a) 8.13 (d) 8.14 (d)
8.15 (c) 8.16 (a) 8.17 (d) 8.18 (d) 8.19 (d) 8.20 (a) 8.21 (b)
8.22 (a) 8.23 (a) 8.24 (c) 8.25 (a) 8.26 (d)

8.1 120° 8.14 improved
3 3Vm
8.2 inverter 8.15 instantaneous 8.26 = cos a - RC I o
8.3 controlled, uncontrolled 8.16 source inductance, load p
8.4 3Vm current 8.27 three, 6 to 10 degree
8.5 unidirectional 8.17 six thyristors 8.28 commutation overlap
8.6 60° 8.18 a > 90° 8.29 3wLs
8.19 six RC =
8.7 six p
8.8 120° 8.20 3Vm 8.30 commutation resistance
8.9 2Vm 8.21 six 8.31 notches
8.10 odd 8.22 rectifier 8.32 one third
8.11 a £ 90° 8.23 120°, 120° 8.33 (different, same)
8.12 three diodes 8.24 triplen
8.13 12 8.25 even
AC VoltAge Controllers
And CyCloConVerters
9
9.1 IntroductIon
Conventionally power flow through ac system can be controlled by adding series impedance
in system. Due to additional series impedance, there will be the unwanted voltage drop
across the impedance and some power is also dissipated in this impedance. Usually,
auto-transformers or variacs are used to control the voltage across load but this method is
inefficient. Nowadays silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are used in ac voltage controller.
ac voltage controller using SCRs is also equivalent to an auto transformer. This method is
very efficient than the previous one. Basically, ac voltage controller’s operating principle
is that it can block the unwanted power flow rather than dissipate at the control device.
Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) have capability to flow current in one direction
only. When two SCRs are connected back to back, it is possible to flow current in bi-
directional. Hence combination of two SCRs can be used as bi-directional switch in
ac circuits. The ac-to-ac converters receive electric power from fixed voltage ac utility
system and convert it into variable voltage ac system. Actually, ac-to-ac converters are
used to vary the RMS output voltage at load at constant frequency and these converters
are called as ac voltage controllers or ac voltage regulators.
When ac-to-ac converters receive power at fixed frequency voltage and converts
into another ac system at different frequency with variable voltage, these converters
are known as cycloconverters.
In cycloconverter, there is no
intermediate converter stage.
The control strategies of ac
voltage controllers are ON-
OFF control or Integral Cycle
Control and Phase control. The
detail classification of ac voltage
controllers is shown in Fig. 9.1.
Semiconductor switches such as
thyristors or triacs are used in ac
Fig. 9.1 Classification of ac voltage controllers
voltage controllers. As ac voltage controllers are phase controlled, thyristors or triacs are natural or line
commutated and there is no requirement of commutation circuit. But the disadvantage of ac voltage
controller is the introduction of harmonics in the ac supply voltage and output voltage across load.
Usually ac voltage controllers are used in lighting control system, temperature and heating control
system, speed control of induction motors and on line tap changing of transformers, etc. Generally, the
cycloconverters are suitable in the area of high-power low speed induction motor drives applications.
This is specially used in cement mills, rolling mills. In this chapter, the operation of different types
of ac controllers are explained elaborately.
9.2 Integral cycle control

The circuit diagram of ON-OFF or Integral Cycle ac voltage controller is depicted in
Fig. 9.2. Figure 9.2(a) is the anti-parallel (back to back or inverse parallel) connection of two thyristors.
When the thyristor is forward biased, thyristor T1 is to be gated and conducts for current in positive
direction. T2 must be gated during negative half cycle and conduct. The current flows in negative
direction. Gate pulse ig1 is applied between K1 and G1 for thyristor T1. Gate pulse ig2 is applied for
thyristor T2 between K2 and G2. The ac voltage controller using triac is illustrated in Fig. 9.2(b). In
this circuit, Triac is bi-directional switch and it can be conduct during positive as well as negative
half cycle of supply voltage. Gate pulse of a triac is applied through ig. Since semiconductor switches
such as thyristors or triacs are switched on at the zero crossing of the input voltage and turn-OFF at
zero current, this type of ac voltage controller is called zero-voltage switching ac voltage controller.
This controller is also know as burst-firing or cycle selection or cycle syncopation. The supply of
harmonics and radio frequency interference are very low in this controller.
Fig. 9.2 ON-OFF or integral cycle ac voltage Controller (a) using two thyristors, (b) using TRIAC and
(c) equivalent circuit using switch
The equivalent circuit of ac voltage controller is shown in Fig. 9.2(c). In this circuit, the switch is
ON for integral number of half cycles (n) and the switch is OFF for integral number of half cycles
(m). When the switch is ON, output voltage across load is the input supply voltage. If the switch
is OFF, output voltage across load is 0. This method is known as integral cycle control, where the
output voltage is function of ‘n’ and ‘m’. In this case, switches are ON in every half-cycle. The current
waveform has less distortion compared to phase control. This type of converters is used in some fields
where load time constant is large. For example, temperature control system as heating time constant
is large. The output voltage waveform of integral cycle control is shown in Fig. 9.3.
AC Voltage Controllers and Cycloconverters 493
The RMS value of output voltage Vo is

1/2
È n 1p ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 d (w t )˙
În + m p 0 ˚
1/2
È n 1p ˘
=V Í Ú (1 - cos2w t ) d (w t )˙
În + m p 0 ˚ Fig. 9.3 Output voltage waveform of integral cycle
control ac voltage controller
Then Vo can be expressed as
n
Vo = V
n+m
n
or Vo = V K where, K = is the duty cycle, V = RMS input voltage
n+m
In case resistive load, the RMS value of load current, IL is
Vo V K
IL = = where R is load resistance
R R
Power output for resistive load, Po can be expressed as
Vo2 V 2 K n V2
Po = = =
R R n+m R
Vo
The Input Power = V ◊
R
Output Power Vo ¥ Vo /R Vo
Power factor = = =
Input Power V ¥ Vo /R V
n
= = K
n+m
Each thyristor conducts for 180° duration for each half cycle of ‘n’ integral number of half cycles,
average current flows through thyristor, IA is
n 1 1p
IA = Ú 2V sin w td (w t )
n + m 2p R 0
n 1 p
= Ú 2V sin w td (w t )
n + m 2p R 0
n Im K ◊ Im 2V
= = where, I m =
n+m p p R
RMS current flow through thyristor, IRMS is

1/2
È n 1 p 2 ˘ n Im K ◊ Im
I RMS = Í Ú I m sin 2 w t ◊ d (w t )˙ = =
Î n + m 2p 0 ˚ n+m 2 2
Example 9.1 In a furnace the heating resistance is 20 W which connected to 230 V, 50 Hz ac

through a integral cycle control ac controller. Assume the switch is ON for four half cycles and OFF
for two half cycles. Determine the following parameters: (a) Output voltage, (b) Power factor and
(c) RMS value of load current
Solution
Given: resistance R is 20 W, Voltage V = 230 V, n = 4 and m = 2
n 4
The output voltage is Vo = V = 230 = 187.94 V
n+m 4+2
n 4
Power factor = = = 0.818
n+m 4+2
Vo 187.94
RMS value of load current = I L = = A = 9.397 A
R 20
Example 9.2 A single-phase voltage controller is controlled by integral cycle control. Its input voltage is
230 V, 50 Hz ac. Assume it is ON for three half cycles and OFF for two half cycles and resistance R is 10 W.
Determine the following parameters: (a) RMS output voltage, (b) Power output, (c) Power input, (d) Power factor
and (e) average and RMS value of thyristor current
Solution
Given: Resistance R is 10 W, Voltage V = 230 V, n = 3 and m = 2
n 3
(a) The RMS output voltage is Vo = V = 230 = 178.15 V
n+m 3+2
(b) Power output for resistive load, Po can be expressed as
Vo2 (178.15)2
Po = = = 3173.74 Watt
R 10
Vo 178.15
(c) The Input Power = V ◊ = 230 ¥ = 4097.45 Watt
R 10
n 3
(d) Power factor = = = 0.774
n+m 3+2
(e) Average current flow through thyristor, IA is
n Im 3 Im 2V 2 ¥ 230
IA = = where, I m = = = 32.522 A
n+m p 3+2 p R 10
3 32.522
= ¥ A = 6.214 A
5 p
n Im 3 32.522
I RMS = = A = 12.597 A
n+m 2 3+2 2
Example 9.3 The resistance of 230 V, 5.5 kW furnace is 15 W and the furnace is controlled by integral cycle
control. Determine (a) the duty ratio for power output is equal to 50% input power and power factor in this duty
ratio and (b) the duty ratio for output voltage is equal to 50% rated voltage and power factor in this duty ratio.
Solution
Given: Resistance R is 15 W, Voltage V = 230 V
(a) The output voltage Vo is equal to
n
Vo = V K where, K = is the duty cycle, V = RMS input voltage
n+m
Power output across load Po can be expressed as
Vo2 V 2 K V2
Po == = Pi K where, Pi = = rated power input
R R R
Duty ratio K = Po = 0.5Pi = 0.5 as Po = 0.5Pi
Pi Pi
Power factor = K = 0.5 = 0.707
(b) The output voltage Vo is equal to
Vo = V K
or Vo2 = V 2 K
Vo2 (0.5V )2 0.25V 2
Duty ratio K = = = = 0.25 as Vo = 0.5 V
2
V V2 V2
Power factor = K = 0.25 = 0.5
Example 9.4 A single-phase ac voltage controller is controlled by brust-firing control. It is used for heating a
load of R = 5 W with input voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz ac. For a load power of 5 kW, find the following parameters:
(a) Duty cycle (b) input power factor (c) average and RMS value of thyristor current
Solution
Given: Resistance R is 5 W, Voltage V = 230 V,
n
(a) The output voltage Vo = V K where, K = is the duty cycle, V = RMS input voltage
n+m
Power output across load Po can be expressed as
Vo2 V 2 K
Po = =
R R
Po ¥ R 5 ¥ 103 ¥ 5
Duty ratio K = = = 0.4725 as Po = 5 kW
V2 2302
(b) Input power factor = K = 0.4725 = 0.6873
(c) Average current flow through thyristor, IA is
Im 2V 2 ¥ 230
IA = K where, I m = = = 65.053 A
p R 5
0.4725 ¥ 65.053
= A = 9.78 A
p
Im 65.053
I RMS = K = 0.4725 ¥ A = 22.3582 A
2 2
9.3 Phase-controlled sIngle-Phase ac Voltage

controller
Figure 9.4(c) shows the circuit diagram using two diodes and two SCRs. This circuit consists of two
switching modules. Each switching module has a SCR and an anti-parallel diode. The current flows
in positive direction through T1 and D2, but the current flow in negative direction through T2 and D1.
This circuit provides a common cathode connection for simplifying the gating circuit and it is very
convenient from control point of view. As the current flow through two devices a thyristor and a diode,
the power loss increases as forward voltage drop across two device more than Figs. 9.4(a) and (b).
Fig. 9.4 Single-phase ac voltage controllers (a) Full wave using two anti-parallel (back to back or inverse par-
allel) connection of two thyristors (b) full wave with Triac (c) full wave using two thyristors and two
diodes (d) full wave using one thyristor and four diodes (e) half wave using one thyristor and one diode
Figure 9.4(d) shows an alternative circuit for single phase controlled ac voltage controller which
consists of four diodes and one thyristor. Positive current flows through diodes D1 and D2 and thyristor
T1. Negative current flows through D3 and D4 and thyristor T1. So, the current flows through thyristor
T1 in positive as well as negative direction. At any time current flows through three devices and power
loss will be more than power loss of Fig. 9.4(c).
The triac is a low power semiconductor device and it is used in voltage control circuits such as
light dimmers, speed control for fan motors, etc. The advantages and disadvantages of the triac with
reaspect to thyristor are given below:
Advantages
1. Triacs are triggered during both positive and negative half cycle of supply voltage by applying
trigger pulse at the gate terminal.
2. A triac requires a single heat sink of slightly larger size, but anti-parallel thyristor pair needs two
heat sinks of slightly smaller sizes as the clearance total space required is more for thyristors.
Disadvantages
dv
1. Triac has low rating as compared to thyristor.
dt
2. Usually Triacs are available in lower rating as compared to thyristors.
3. As a triac can be triggered in both direction (positive and negative half cycle), a trigger circuit
for triac requires cautious consideration.
4. The reliability of triac is lower than that of thyristor.
9.4 sIngle-Phase half-WaVe

ac Voltage controller
WIth r load
The single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller with R
load is depicted in Fig. 9.5. This circuit consists of one
thyristor T1 in antiparallel with one diode D1. During
the positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1
is forward biased and it is turned ON at the firing
angle a and conducts up to p. In the negative half
Fig. 9.5 Single-phase half-wave ac voltage
cycle of supply voltage, diode D1 is forward biased
controller with R load
and it conducts for p duration (from p to 2p).
Therefore, the power flow through load is
controlled by varying the firing angle a of T1
in the positive half cycle of supply voltage
only. Hence the control range is limited and
it is applicable only for low power resistive
loads such as heating and lighting. As only the
positive half cycle is controlled for single-phase
half-wave ac voltage controller, this circuit is
also called single-phase unidirectional voltage
controller.
When the thyristor T1 is turned ON at the
firing angle a, the voltage across load is Vm sin
V sin a
a and current flow through load is m .
R
The thyristor is turned OFF at wt = p. In the
negative half cycle, the diode D1 is forward
biased and conducts from wt = p to 2p. Figure
9.6 shows the voltage and current waveforms
of single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller
with R load.
Assume the supply (input) voltage is
VS = 2V sin w t Fig. 9.6 Voltage and current waveforms of single
phase half wave ac voltage controller with R load
RMS output voltage across load at firing angle a

1/2
È 1 ÏÔp 2p ¸Ô˘
Vo = Í Ì Ú ( 2V sin w t ) ◊ d (w t ) + Ú ( 2V sin w t ) ◊ d (w t ) ˝˙
2 2
ÎÍ 2p ÔÓa p Ô˛˚˙
1/2
È V 2 ÏÔp 2p
Ô¸˘
= Í Ì Ú (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ d (w t ) + Ú (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ d (w t ) ˝˙
ÎÍ p ÔÓa p ˛Ô˚˙
1/2 1/2
È a sin 2a ˘ È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= V Í1 - + = V Í Á 2p - a + ˜
Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
V
It is clear from the above equation that RMS output voltage can be controlled from V to by
changing firing angle a from 0° to 180°. 2
V
Io = o
R
The power output at R is
Vo Vo2 V 2 È a sin 2a ˘ V 2 È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
Pout_ac = Vo I o = Vo ¥ = = 1 -
Í 2p + = Í 2p ÁË 2p - a + 2 ˜¯ ˙
R R R Î 4p ˙˚ R Î ˚
ac power input is
1/2 1/2
Vo V 2 È a sin 2a ˘ V2 È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
Pin_ac = V ¥ I o = V ¥ = Í1 - 2p + 4p ˙ = Í 2p ÁË 2p - a + 2 ˜¯ ˙
R R Î ˚ R Î ˚
Input power factor is
1/2 1/2
Pout_ac È a sin 2a ˘ È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Á 2p - a +
Pin_ac Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1 Èp 2p ˘ 2V 2p 2V
Vav = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙ = - cos w t a = (cos a - 1)
2p Îa p ˚ 2p 2p
2V
It is clear from the above equation that average output voltage can be controlled from 0 to – by
changing firing angle a from 0° to 180°. p
Example 9.5 A single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 10 W with an
input voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, find the RMS output voltage, power
output at load, input power factor and average value of output voltage.
Solution
p
Given: V = 220 V, R = 10 W, a = 30∞ =
6

1/2 1/2
Vo = V Í1 - + = V Í Á 2p - a +
Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 30) ˆ ˘
= 220 ¥ Í Á 2p - + ˜¯ ˙ = 218.40 V
Î 2p Ë 6 2 ˚
Vo2 218.402
Pout_ac = Vo I o = = Watt = 4769.856 Watt
R 10
1/2 1/2
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Á 2p - a +
Pin_ac Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 30) ˆ ˘
= Í Á 2p - + ˜¯ ˙ = 0.992
Î 2p Ë 6 2 ˚
2V 2 ¥ 220
Vav = (cos a - 1) = (cos30 - 1) = - 6.63 V
2p 2p
Example 9.6 A single-phase unidirectional ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 20 W with
an input voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz. If the firing angle of thyristor is 90°, determine (a) the RMS value of output
voltage, (b) power delivered to load, (c) input power factor and average, (d) average value of thyristor current
and (e) average value of diode current.
Solution
p
Given: V = 230 V, R = 20 W, a = 90∞ =
2
(a) RMS output voltage across load at firing angle a
1/2 1/2
Vo = V Í1 - + = V Í Á 2p - a +
Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 90) ˆ ˘
= 230 ¥ Í Á 2p - + = 199.185 V
Î 2p Ë 2 2 ¯˜ ˚˙
(b) The power delivered to load is
Vo2 199.1852
R 20
(c) Input power factor is
1/2 1/2
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Á 2p - a +
Pin_ac Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 90) ˆ ˘
= Í Á 2p - + = 0.866
Î 2p Ë 2 2 ¯˜ ˚˙
(d) The average value of thyristor current

1 Èp ˘ 2V p
IT av = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙ = - cos w t a
2p R ÍÎa ˙˚ 2p R
2V 2 ¥ 230
= (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos90) = 2.587 A
2p R 2p ¥ 20
(e) The average value of diode current
1 È 2p ˘ 2V 2p 2V 2 ¥ 230
ID av = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙ = - cos w t p = - =- = - 5.174 A
2p R ÍÎ p ˙˚ 2p R pR p ¥ 20
Example 9.7 A single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 5 W with an
input voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz. If the firing angle of thyristor is 45°, determine (a) the RMS output voltage,
(b) power delivered to load, (c) input power factor and (d) average value of input current voltage.
Solution
p
Given: V = 230 V, R = 5 W, a = 45∞ =
4
1/2 1/2
Vo = V Í1 - + = V Í Á 2p - a +
Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˆ ˘
= 230 ¥ Í Á 2p - + ˜¯ ˙ = 224.72 V
Î 2p Ë 4 2 ˚
(b) The power delivered to load R is
Vo2 224.722
R 5
(c) Input power factor is
1/2 1/2
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Á 2p - a +
Pin_ac Î 2p 4p ˙˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˆ ˘
= Í Á 2p - + ˜¯ ˙ = 0.977
Î 2p Ë 4 2 ˚
(d) The average value of output voltage is
2V 2 ¥ 230
Vav = (cos a - 1) = (cos 45 - 1) = - 15.1679 V
2p 2p
Average input current is equal to
Vav 15.1679
I av = =- = - 3.033 A
R 5
9.5 sIngle-Phase full-WaVe ac Voltage controller

WIth R load
Figure 9.7 shows the single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller where the SCR T1 is gated at a and
SCR T2 is also gated at p + a. During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 is forward
biased and it is turned ON at the firing angle a. Then T1

starts conduction and it conducts from a to p. Just after
p, thyristor T1 is reverse biased and it is turned OFF.
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor
T2 is forward biased and it is turned ON at the firing
angle p + a. Consequently, T2 conducts from p + a to
2p. Immediately after 2p, thyristor T2 is reverse biased
and it is turned OFF.
The power flow is controlled through voltage control
in alternative half-cycles. When T1 is conducting, other
thryristor T2 is reverse biased by the voltage drop across
the turn on SCR T1. Similarly, if T2 is conducting, Fig. 9.7 The single-phase full-wave ac voltage
other thryristor T1 is reverse biased by the voltage drop controller with R load
across the turn on SCR T2. Figure 9.8 shows
the voltage and current waveforms for single
phase ac voltage controller with resistive load.
Single-phase full-wave ac voltage controllers
are commonly used for the speed control of
single-phase induction motor control, domestic
heating and lighting loads.
Assume the supply (input) voltage is
VS = 2V sin w t
1/2
È1 p ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 ◊ d (w t )˙
Îp a ˚
1/2
ÈV 2 p ˘
= Í Ú (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ d (w t )˙
ÍÎ p a ˙˚
1/2
È a sin 2a ˘
= V Í1 - +
Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2
È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= V Í Áp - a +
Îp Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
It is clear from the above equation that RMS Fig. 9.8 Voltage and current waveforms for single
phase ac voltage controller with R load
output voltage can be controlled from V to 0
by changing firing angle a from 0° to 180°.
The rms value of current through load R is
1/2
Vo V È a sin 2a ˘
Io = = Í1 - +
R RÎ p 2p ˙˚
1/2
V È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= Á p -a +
Í
R Îp Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
The power output at load resistance R is

Vo Vo2 V 2 È a sin 2a ˘
Pout_ac = Vo I o = Vo ¥ = = 1- +
R R R ÍÎ p 2p ˙˚
V2 È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= Í p ÁË p - a + 2 ˜¯ ˙
R Î ˚
ac power input is equal to
1/2 1/2
Vo V 2 È a sin 2a ˘ V2 È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
Pin_ac = V ¥ I o = V ¥ = Í1 - p + 2p ˙ = Á p -a +
R R Î ˚
Í
R Îp Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚

1/2 1/2
Pout_ac È a sin 2a ˘ È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Áp - a +
Pin_ac Î p 2p ˙˚ Îp Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
The average value of output voltage over any complete cycle is zero, but the half cycle average value
of output voltage always exists. The average value of output voltage for half cycle duration is given by
1p 2V
Vav = Ú 2V sin(w t )d (w t ) = (1 + cos a )
pa p
When the firing angle a is changed from 0° to 180°, average output voltage can be controlled from
2V
to 0.
p
The half cycle average current is
Vav 2V
I av = = (1 + cos a )
R pR
9.5.1 harmonic analysis of output Voltage and Input current

The output voltage can be expressed by the Fourier series:
1 •
vo = ao + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
2 n = 1,3,5....
2p
where, a = 1 v (w t )d (w t )
o Ú
p 0 o
1 2p
an = Ú v (w t ) ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0 o
1 2p
bn = Ú v (w t ) ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0 o
ao/2 is average vale of vo. Due to resistive load, the output voltage is equal to input voltage during a
to p and p + a to 2p. Due to half wave symmetry,
1 Èp 2p ˘
ao = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t ) d (w t ) + Ú ( 2V sin w t ) d (w t )˙ = 0
2 2
p ÎÍa p +a ˚˙
1 2p
an = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0
1p 1 2p
= Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
pa p p +a
2 2V p 2V p
=
p a
Ú sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) =
p a
Ú [sin (n + 1) w t - sin (n - 1) w t ]◊ d (w t )
2V È cos(n + 1) a - 1 cos(n - 1) a - 1 ˘
= - when n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
p ÎÍ n +1 n -1 ˙
˚
=0 when n = 2,4,6º
2p
1
bn = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p 0
1p 1 2p
= Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
p0 p p +a
2 2V p 2V p
=
p a
Ú sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) =
p a
Ú [cos(n - 1) w t - cos(n + 1) w t ] d (w t )
2V È sin (n + 1) a sin (n - 1)a ˘
= - when n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
p ÎÍ n + 1 n - 1 ˚˙
=0 when n = 2,4,6º
th
The RMS value of n harmonic of output voltage is
1/2
È a 2 + bn2 ˘ Êa ˆ
Vn = Í n ˙ and phase angle fn = tan -1 n
Î 2 ˚ ÁË b ˜¯
n
•
Then output voltage can be expressed as vo (w t ) = Â 2Vn sin (nw t + fn )
n = 1,3,5....
The fundamental components of the output voltage are

1p
a1 = Ú 2V sin w t cos w t ◊ dw t
pa
2V cos2a - 1 2V
= = (cos2a - 1)
p 2 2p
1p
b1 = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ dw t
pa
2V Ê 1 ˆ 2V
=
p ÁË
p - a + sin 2a ˜ =
2 ¯ 2p
[2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]
After combining a1 and b1, we can determine the fundamental component of the output voltage V1
1/2 1/2
and È a 2 + b12 ˘ V ÈÊ cos2a - 1ˆ 2 Ê 1 ˆ ˘
2
V1 = Í 1 ˙ = ÍÁ +
˜¯ ÁË p - a + sin 2a ˜¯ ˙
ÎÍ 2 ˚˙ p Ë
ÎÍ 2 2 ˚˙
Ê cos2a - 1 ˆ
f1 = tan -1 Á
Ë 2(p - a ) + sin 2a ˜¯
When the voltage and current waveforms
are sinusoidal and have same frequency, active
power, reactive power and power factor can be
determined by using standard equations. In case
of power electronics circuits, static switches
such as power diode, SCRs, Triac, transistors,
MOSFETs, etc., are switched ON and OFF in
some duration of a cycle. Therefore, the voltage
and current waveforms are non-sinusoidal and the
standard equations to determine power and power
factor will not be valid. Hence harmonic analysis
is needed to find out the harmonic contents
of the voltage and current. For non-sinusoidal
voltage and current waveforms, displacement
power factor, distortion factor and total harmonic
distortion (THD) are commonly used. The
amplitude of harmonic voltages V1, V3, V5 and Fig. 9.9 Amplitude of harmonic voltages V1, V3, V5
V7 in per unit with respect to firing angle a for and V7 in per unit with respect to firing
R load is shown in Fig. 9.9. angle for R load
Displacement power factor Displacement power factor is the cosine of angle f1 which is angle
between input voltage and fundamental component of the current.
DPF = cosf1
Distortion factor It is the ratio of fundamental component of current, I1 to total input current, I.
I1
DF =
I
Input power factor It is the ratio between average power input and the RMS value of the ap-
parent power input. When V = input voltage, I = Input current, V1 = fundamental component of the
input voltage, I1 = fundamental component of the input current, f1 = the phase angle between V and
I1, the input power factor is
V1I1 cos f1 I1
PF = = cos f1 = DF ¥ DPF Assume V = V1
VI I
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) This is the ratio of all the harmonic terms (except funda-
mental) to the fundamental component of current I1 as given below.
2
I 22 + I 32 + I 42 + I 52 .... I 2 - I12 ÊIˆ
THD = = = Á ˜ - 1 as I 2 = I12 + I 22 + I 32 + 
I1 I1 Ë I1 ¯
Ripple factor It is the ratio of RMS values of all harmonic terms to the average value of current
Iav. The ripple factor can be expressed as
I 2 - I12
RF =
I av
Power input In sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal voltage and current, power input into a system can
be determined by
2p
1
Pav = Ú v(w t )i(w t )d (w t )
2p 0
After substituting the voltage and current values (non-sinusoidal) in the above expression, we get
1 2p
ÔÈÏ •
Ô ¸Ï ¸ ˘
Pav =
2p
Ú ÍÌVdc + Â 2Vn sin (nw t + q n )˝ Ì I dc + Â 2 I n sin (nw t + fn )˝ d (w t )˙
0 ÎÍÔÓ n =1 Ô˛ Ó ˛ ˚˙
2p •
1
= Vdc I dc +
2p
Ú Â Vn I n ÎÈcos(q n - fn ) - cos(2nw t + q n + fn )˚˘◊ d (w t )
0 n =1
1 •
= Vdc I dc + Â Vn I n cos(q n - fn )2p
2p n =1
•
= Vdc I dc + Â Vn I n cosy n where, y n = q n - fn
n =1
= Vdc I dc + V1 I1 cos y 1 + V2 I 2 cos y 2 + V3 I 3 cos y 3 + ......... + Vn I n cos y n
Example 9.8 A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 5 W with an
input voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristor is 60°, determine the rms output voltage, power
output at load and input power factor.
Solution
p
Given: V = 230 V, R = 5 W, a = 60∞ =
3
1/2
È1 p ˘ È a sin 2a ˘
1/2
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2◊ d (w t )˙ = V Í1 - +
p
ÎÍ a ˚˙ Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2 1/2
È1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘ È 1 ÏÊ p ˆ sin (2 ¥ 60) ¸˘
= V Í Ì(p - a ) + ˝˙ = 230 ¥ Í ÌÁ p - ˜ + ˝˙ = 206.20 V
Î Ó
p 2 ˛˚ p
Î Ó Ë 3¯ 2 ˛˚
Vo2 206.22
Pout_ac = Vo I o = = = 8503.688 Watt
R 5
ac power input is
Vo 206.2
Pin_ac = V ¥ I o = V ¥ = 230 ¥ = 9485.2 Watt
R 5

1/2 1/2
Pac È a sin 2a ˘ È1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
pf = = Í1 - + = Í Ì(p - a ) + ˝
P Î p 2p ˙˚ Î Ó
p 2 ˛˙˚
1/2
È 1 ÏÊ p ˆ sin (2 ¥ 60) ¸˘
= Í ÌÁ p - ˜ + ˝˙ = 0.8965
p
Î Ó Ë 3¯ 2 ˛˚
Example 9.9 A single phase full wave ac voltage controller has a load of 5 W and the input voltage is
230 V with 50 Hz. If the load power is 5 kW, determine (a) firing angle of thyristors, (b) input power factor and
(c) rms output voltage
Solution
Given: V = 230 V, R = 5 W,
(a) At firing angle a, the rms output voltage across load is
1/2
1/2
È1 Ï
1/2
sin 2a ¸ ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2◊ d (w t )˙ = V Í1 - + = V Í Ì(p - a ) + ˝
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ Î p 2p ˙˚ Î Ó
p 2 ˛ ˙˚
Pout_ac = Vo I o
Vo2 V 2 È 1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
= = Ì(p - a ) + ˝ = 5000 Watt
R R ÍÎ p Ó 2 ˛˙˚
2302 È 1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
or Ì(p - a ) + ˝ = 5000
5 ÍÎ p Ó 2 ˛˙˚
a sin 2a ˘ 5000 ¥ 5
or ÈÍ1 - + = = 0.4725
Î p 2p ˙˚ 2302
a sin 2a
or - = 1 - 0.4725 = 0.5275
p 2p
sin 2a
or a - = 1.657
2
The solution of the above equation is a = 92.5°
Therefore, the firing angle of thyristors is a = 92.5° = 1.615 rad
(b) Input power factor is
1/2 1/2
Pac È a sin 2a ˘ È 1.615 sin (2 ¥ 92.5) ˘
pf = = 1- + = Í1 - + = 0.6871 lag
P ÍÎ p 2p ˙˚ Î p 2p ˙
˚
1/2
(c) rms output voltage È1 p ˘ È a sin 2a ˘
1/2
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2
È 1.615 sin (2 ¥ 92.5) ˘
= 230 ¥ Í1 - + ˙ V = 158.03 V
Î p 2p ˚
Example 9.10 A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R =10 W with an
input voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristors is 45°, determine (a) power output at load,
(b) average value of thyristor current and (c) rms value of thyristor current.
Solution
p
Given: V = 230 V, R = 10 W, a = 45∞ =
4
1/2
1/2
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2
È1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
= V Í Ì(p - a ) + ˝˙
Î Ó
p 2 ˛˚
1/2
È 1 ÏÊ p ˆ sin (2 ¥ 45) ¸˘
= 230 ¥ Í ÌÁ p - ˜ + ˝˙ = 219.301 V
p
Î Ó Ë 4¯ 2 ˛˚
V 2 219.3012
Pout_ac = Vo I o = o = = 4809.29 Watt
R 10
(b) Average thyristor current is equal to
1 p
2p R aÚ
I av_T = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
2V 2 ¥ 230
= (1 + cos a ) = (1 + cos 45) = 8.836 A
2p R 2p ¥ 10
(c) rms value of thyristor current is equal to
1/2
È pÊ 2 ˘ 1/2
1 2V sin w t ˆ V È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
I rms_T = Í Ú Á ˜ ◊ dw t ˙ = Í Á p - a + 2 ˜¯ ˙
Í 2p a Ë R ¯ ˙ 2R Îp Ë ˚
Î ˚
1/2
230 È 1 Ê p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˆ ˘
= Í Áp - 4 + = 15.506 A
2 ¥ 10 Î p Ë 2 ¯˜ ˙˚
Example 9.11 A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 5 W with an
input voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz. Determine (a) the maximum value of average thyristor current, (b) the maximum
value of rms thyristor current, (c) the minimum circuit turn-OFF time for the firing angle a, (d) the ratio of third
di
harmonic voltage to fundamental voltage at a = 45°, (e) the maximum value of of thyristor and (f) peak
inverse voltage of thyristor. dt
Solution
p
Given: V = 220 V, R = 5 W, and a = 45∞ =
4
(a) Average thyristor current is equal to
1 p
2p R aÚ
I av_T = 2V sin w t ◊ dw t
2V
= (1 + cos a ) As a = 0, average thyristor current is maximum
2p R
2 ¥ 220
= I av_T (max) = (1 + cos0) = 19.81 A
2p ¥ 5
(b) rms thyristor current at firing angle a

1/2
È 1 p 2V ˘ 2V È a sin 2a ˘
1/2
I rms_T = Í Ú ( sin w t )2◊ d (w t )˙ = Í1 - p + 2p ˙
ÍÎ 2p a R ˙˚ 2R Î ˚
1/2
V È1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
= Í Ì(p - a ) + 2 ˝˙ At a = 0, rms thyristor current is maximum
2R Îp Ó ˛˚
1/2
V È1 Ï sin (2 ¥ 0) ¸˘ V 220
I rms_T (max) = Í p Ì(p - 0) + ˝˙ = = = 31.1173 A
2R Î Ó 2 ˛˚ 2R 2 ¥5
(c) The minimum circuit turn-off time for the firing angle a
p p p
t turn-off =
= = = 0.01 sec
w 2p f 2p ¥ 50
(d) The ratio of third harmonic voltage to fundamental voltage at a = 45°
1 2p
p Ú0
an = 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
2V È cos(n + 1) a - 1 cos(n - 1) a - 1 ˘
= Í - ˙ when n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
p Î n +1 n -1 ˚
1 2p
p Ú0
bn = 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
2V È sin (n + 1) a sin (n - 1) a ˘
=
Í - when n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
p Î n +1 n - 1 ˙˚
For third harmonic voltage at a = 45°
2V È cos(3 + 1) ¥ 45 - 1 cos(3 - 1) ¥ 45 - 1 ˘
a3 = Í - ˙=0
p Î 3 +1 3 -1 ˚
2V È sin (3 + 1) ¥ 45 sin (3 - 1) ¥ 45 ˘ V
b3 = Í - ˙=
p Î 3 +1 3 -1 ˚ 2p
1/2
È a 2 + b2 ˘ b V 1
V3 = Í 3 3 ˙ = 3 = = 0.1592 V
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ 2 2p 2
The fundamental components of the output voltage are
1p
a1 = Ú 2V sin w t cos w t ◊ dw t
pa
2V cos2a - 1 2V
= = (cos2a - 1)
p 2 2p
1p
b1 = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ dw t
pa
2V È 1 ˘ 2V
Í=
p - a + sin a ˙ = (2(p - a ) + sin 2a )
p Î 2 ˚ 2p
After combining a1 and b1, we can determine the fundamental component of the output voltage V1
1/2 1/2
È a 2 + b2 ˘ V ÈÊ cos2a - 1ˆ 2 Ê 1 ˆ ˘
2
V1 = Í 1 1 ˙ = ÍÁ ˜ + Á p - a + sin 2a ˜ ˙
ÎÍ 2 ˚˙ p Ë ¯ Ë ¯ ˙
ÎÍ 2 2 ˚
For fundamental frequency voltage at a = 45°

1/2
V ÈÊ cos2 ¥ 45 - 1ˆ 2 Ê p 1 ˆ ˘
2
V1_at_45∞ = ÍÁ +
˜¯ ÁË p - + sin (2 ¥ 45)˜¯ ˙ = 0.428 V
p ÍÎË 2 4 2 ˙˚
The ratio of third harmonic voltage to fundamental voltage at a = 45° is
V3 0.1592V
= = 0.3719
V1 0.428V
V di
(e) Due to sudden rise of current from 0 to m sin a at firing angle a, the maximum value of of thyristor
is infinite. R dt
(f) Peak inverse voltage of thyristor PIV = Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 = 311.08 V
9.6 sIngle-Phase ac Voltage controller WIth resIstIVe

and InductIVe load
The circuit diagram of a single phase ac voltage
controller with resistive-inductive (R-L) load is shown
in Fig. 9.10. During the interval 0 to p, thyristor T1 is
forward biased. At wt = a, T1 is triggered and io = iT1
starts building up through the load. At wt = p, the load
and source voltage are equal to zero but the current is
not zero because of the presence of inductance in load
circuit. Then thyristor T1 will continue to conduct until
its current falls to zero at wt = b. The angle b is called
the extinction angle. Therefore, load is subjected to the
source voltage from angle a to b. At wt = b when io
zero, T1 is turned OFF as it is already reverse biased. Fig. 9.10 Single-phase ac voltage controller
After commutation of T1 at b, a voltage of magnitude with resistive-inductive (RL) load
- 2V sin b at once appears as a reverse bias across T1 and as a forward bias across T2. From b to
p + a, no current exists in the power circuit. Thyristor T2 is turned ON at wt = p + a, current io =
iT2 starts building up in reverse direction through the load. The value of (p + a) is greater than b. At
wt = 2p, Vs and Vo are zero but iT2 = io is not zero. At wt = (p + a + g), iT2 = 0 and T2 turned OFF
because it is already reverse biased.
Figure 9.11 shows the voltage and current waveforms with RL load. Due to presence of inductance
in load, the load current does not reduce to zero at wt = p. Hence the thryristor current does not reduce
to zero at wt = p and the conduction has extended to the extinction angle b. Then conduction angle of
each thyristor is g = b – a which depends on firing angle a and the load impedance angle f.
At wt = (a + g), the current through thyristor T1 becomes zero and turned OFF by the thyristor T2
which is forward biased. As soon as the gate pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at wt = (p + a), it becomes
turned ON and continue to conduct up to wt = (p + a + g).
At wt = (p + a + g), current through thyristor T2 is zero and T2 is turned OFF as it is reverse
bias by the voltage Vm sin (p + a + g). As T2 is turned OFF, Vm sin (p + a + g) voltage appears as
a forward bias across T1. It is clear from Fig. 9.11 that no current exists in the power circuit during
b < wt < p + a and p + a + g < wt < 2p + a. At (2p + a), T1 is again turned ON and current starts
building up as before.
Assume input voltage VS = 2V sin w t
Now derive the expression for load current io

and extinction angle b
For a £ wt £ b, apply KVL on the circuit and
we get
dio
2V sin w t = Rio + L a £ wt £ b
dt
The solution of the above equation is output
current io which can be expressed as
R
2V - t
io = sin(w t - f ) + Ae L (9.1)
Z
wL
where, Z = R 2 + (w L )2 and f = tan -1
R
At wt = a, load current io = 0.
Ra
2V -
Then 0= sin(a - f ) + Ae L w
Z
Ra
2V
Therefore A=- sin (a - f ) e L w
Z
Fig. 9.11 Voltage and current waveforms of single
After substituting the value of A in eq. (9.1), the
phase ac voltage controller with RL load
output current can be expressed as
2V È (a - w t ) ˘
R
io = Ísin (w t - f ) - sin (a - f ) e w L ˙ where, a £ w t £ b , and a ≥ f
Z Í ˙˚
Î
a -wt ˘
2V ÈÍ wL
or io = sin (w t - f ) - sin (a - f ) e tan f ˙ where, tan f =
Z Í ˙ R
Î ˚
At wt = b, load current io(b) = 0.

The value of b can be determined from the expression io(b) = 0
a -b
tan f
Therefore, sin (b - f ) - sin (a - f ) e =0
The value of extinction angle b can be computed by graph as shown in Fig. 9.12 and the variation
of conduction angle g with respect to a and f is depicted in Fig. 9.13.
The RMS value of output voltage is
1/2 1/2
È1 b ˘ ÈV 2 b ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2◊ d (w t )˙ =Í Ú (1 - cos2w t ) ◊ d (w t )˙
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ ÍÎ p a ˙˚
1/2
È1 Ê 1 1 ˆ˘
= V Í Á b - a + sin 2a - sin 2b ˜ ˙
Îp Ë 2 2 ¯˚
Fig. 9.12 The variation of extinction angle b with respect to a and f
Fig. 9.13 The variation of conduction angle b with respect to a and f
The RMS value of load current

1/2
È1 b ˘
I o_rms = Í Ú {io (w t )} d (w t )˙
2
ÎÍ p a ˚˙
1/2
È bÏ Ê a -wt ˆ ¸
2 ˘
Í 1 Ô 2V tan f Ô ˙
=Í ÚÌ Á sin (w t - f ) - sin (a - f ) e ˜ ˝ d (w t )˙
p Z ËÁ ¯˜ ˛Ô
Í a ÓÔ ˙
Î ˚
The rms output current is the combination of the rms value of both thyristor currents. If the rms value
of each thyristor is Irms_T, we can write
1/2
I o_rms = ÈÎ I rms_
2 2 ˘
T + I rms_T ˚ = 2 I rms_T
The average value of thyristor current is
2V È (a - w t ) ˘
R
1 b
I av_T = Ú i dw t as io = Ísin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f ) e L
w ˙
2p a o Z Í ˙˚
Î
2V b È (a - w t ) ˘
R
= Ú Ísin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f ) e wL ˙ dw t
2p Z a Í ˙˚
Î
9.6.1 harmonic analysis of output Voltage and Input current

The output voltage can be expressed by the Fourier series:
1 •
vo = ao + Â (an cos nw t + bn sin nw t )
2 n
1 2p
where ao = Ú v (w t )d (w t )
p 0 o
2b
an = Ú v (w t ) ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
pa o
2b
bn = Ú v (w t ) ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
pa o
ao/2 is average vale of vo. The output voltage is equal to input voltage during a to b and p + a to p
1 2p
+ a + g. Due to half-wave symmetry, ao = Ú v (w t )d (w t ) = 0
p 0 o
2b
an = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
pa
2V b
=
p a
Ú [sin(1 - n)w t + sin(1 + n)w t ] d (w t )
2V È cos(1 - n)a - cos(1 - n) b cos(1 + n)a - cos(1 + n)b ˘
= +
p ÎÍ 1- n 1+ n ˙
˚
When, n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
2b
bn = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )
pa
2V b
=
p a
Ú [cos(1 - n)w t - cos(1 + n)w t ] d (w t )
2V È sin(1 - n) b - sin(1 - n)a sin(1 + n)b - sin(1 + n)a ˘
= +
p ÎÍ 1- n 1+ n ˙
˚
When, n π 1 and n = 3,5,7º
Fundamental components of voltage are

2b 2V b
a1 = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos w t . d (w t ) = Ú sin(2w t )d (w t )
pa p a
2b 2V b
and b1 = Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t ) = Ú (1 - cos2w t )d (w t )
pa p a
Therefore,
2V
a1 = (cos2a - cos2b )
2p
2V Ê 1 1 ˆ
b1 = b - a + sin 2a - sin 2 b ˜
p ÁË 2 2 ¯
The rms value of nth harmonic of output voltage is
1/2
È a 2 + bn2 ˘ Êa ˆ
Vn = Í n ˙ and phase angle fn = tan -1 Á n ˜
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ Ë bn ¯
•
Then output voltage can be expressed as vo (w t ) = Â 2Vn sin(nw t + fn )
The load current is n = 1,3,5....
•
io(w t ) = Â 2 I n sin (nw t + fn - q n )
n = 1,3,5
Êa ˆ
where, fn = tan -1 Á n ˜ ,
Ë bn ¯
Load impedance Z = R + (nw L ) –q n
2 2
Ê nw L ˆ
q n = tan -1 Á and
Ë R ˜¯
1
È(an2 + bn2 )/2 ˘ 2
In = Î ˚
Z
9.7 ac Voltage controllers

WIth Purely InductIVe
load
When a purely inductive load is connected to a single-
phase ac voltage controlleras depicted in Fig. 9.14, the
p
output voltage can be controlled during wt from to p
2
p
only as f = 90°. Then range of firing angle is £ a £ p . The Fig. 9.14 Single-phase ac voltage controller
2 with purely inductive load
waveforms of voltage and current are shown in

Fig. 9.15. This circuit is also known as thyristor
controlled inductor or thyristor controlled
reactor. In ac power system, it is commonly
called static VAR compensation. This unit draws
lagging reactive current from utility system;
hence there will be excessive voltage drops
which adversely affect on stability of system.
When the load is resistive and inductive, the
current flows through load is
2V È (a - w t ) ˘
R
io = Ísin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f ) e w L ˙
Z Í ˙˚
Î
(a - w t ) ˘
2V ÈÍ
= sin(w t - f ) - sin(a - f ) e tan j ˙
Z Í ˙
Î ˚
In case of purely inductive load,
p
| Z | = w L, and f = 90∞ =
2
Then the load current is equal to
a - wt ˘
2V ÈÍ Ê pˆ Ê pˆ
io (w t ) = sin Á w t - ˜ - sin Á a - ˜ e tan (p /2) ˙
wL Í Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ ˙
Î ˚ Fig. 9.15 Voltage and current waveform of single
2V phase ac voltage controller with purely
= (cos a - cos w t ) inductive load
wL
Assume the load current is discontinuous and at w t = b , io (b ) = 0 .
Then, io (b ) = cos a - cos b = 0
So, b = 2p – a
The fundamental components of load currents are
b b
2 2
p aÚ o
a1 = i (w t ) ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t ) and b1 = Ú io (w t ) ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )
pa
After substituting the value of io(wt), we obtain
b
2 2V
p aÚ w L
a1 = (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t )
2 2V È 1Ï 1 ¸˘
= cos a (sin b - sin a ) - Ì( b - a ) + (sin 2 b - sin 2a ) ˝˙
pw L ÍÎ 2Ó 2 ˛˚
2V
= [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] when b = 2p - a
pw L
b
2 2V
p aÚ w L
b1 = (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )
2V
= [ - cos 2a + cos 2 b - 4 cos a (cos b - cos a )]
2pw L
=0 when b = 2p - a
Therefore, rms value of the fundamental component of current is

1/2
È a 2 + b2 ˘ V
I1 = Í 1 1 ˙ = [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]
Î 2 ˚ pw L
In the same way, the other harmonics components are expressed as
b
2 2V
p aÚ w L
an = (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )
2V È 2 2
= {sin (n + 1) a - sin (n + 1) b} - {sin (n - 1) a - sin (n - 1) b}
2pw L ÎÍ n + 1 n -1
4 cos a ˘
- (- sin nb + sin na )˙
n ˚
when n π 1 and n = 3, 5, 7...
b
2 2V
p aÚ w L
bn = (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )
2V È 2 2
= {- cos(n + 1) a + cos( n + 1)b} - {- cos( n - 1) a + cos( n - 1)b}
2pw L ÍÎ n + 1 n -1
4 cos a ˘
- (cos nb - cos na )˙
n ˚
when n π 1 and n = 3, 5, 7...
The rms value of line current and load current are as follows:
1/2
È1 b ˘ 2V
I = I o = Í Ú I m 2 (cos a - cos w t )2 d (w t )˙ , where I m =
ÎÍ p a ˚˙ wL
1/2
È 1 2p -a ˘
= Im Í Ú (cos2 a + cos2 w t - 2 cos a cos w t )d (w t )˙
ÎÍ p a ˚˙
{ }
1/2
È1 3 ˘
= I m Í (p - a )(1 + 2 cos2 a ) + sin 2a ˙
Îp 2 ˚
Example 9.12 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and connected to
R-L load. When R = 5 W and |wL| = 4 W, determine (a) the range of firing angle, (b) maximum value of rms
load current, (c) maximum power and power factor at maximum power output, (d) maximum average thyristor
di
current, (e) maximum rms thyristor current and (f) maximum value of o .
dt
Solution
(a) The minimum value of firing angle amin = load phase angle
Ê wL ˆ Ê 4ˆ
f = tan -| Á = tan -| Á ˜ = 36.659∞
Ë R ˜¯ Ë 5¯
The maximum possible value of firing angle amax = 180°
The range of firing angle is 36.659° £ a £ 180°
(b) When a = f, the maximum value of rms load current occurs as the ac voltage controller behaves just like
load is directly connected to the ac supply.
The maximum value of rms load current is

V 220
Io = = = 34.358 A
R + (w L )
2 2
52 + 42
(c) The maximum power output is I o2 R = 34.3582 ¥ 5 = 1180.47 Watt

I o2 R I o R 34.356 ¥ 5
The power factor = = = = 0.7808 (lag)
VI o V 220
(d) When a = f, thyristor conduction angle is g = 180° = p. Then the maximum average thyristor current is
equal to
p +a
1 2V
I avT =
2p
Ú Z
sin (w t - f )dw t
a
2V 2 ¥ 220
= = A as V = 220 and Z = R 2 + (w L )2 = 52 + 42 = 15.46 A
pZ p 5 +4
2 2
(e) The maximum rms thyristor current is equal to

1/2 1/2
È p +a Ï ¸
2 ˘ È p +a Ï ¸
2 ˘
1 2V 1 2V
I rmsT = Í Ú Ì sin (w t - f ) ˝ dw t ˙ =Í Ú Ì sin (w t - a ) ˝ dw t ˙ as a = f
ÎÍ 2p a Ó Z ˛ ˚˙ ÎÍ 2p a Ó Z ˛ ˚˙
2V 2 ¥ 220
= = A as V = 220 and Z = R 2 + (w L )2 = 52 + 42 = 24.295 A
2Z 2 5 +4
2 2
dio dio 2V 2V
(f) The value of is equal to = w cos (w t - f ) as io = sin(w t - f )
dt dt Z Z
di
The maximum value of o occurs at cos(wt – f) = 1
dt
2V 2 ¥ 220
Then dio max = w= ¥ 2p ¥ 50 = 15271.16 A /sec
dt Z 52 + 42
Example 9.13 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and connected to L
load only. If |wL| = 4 W, determine (a) the control range of firing angle, (b) maximum value of rms load current,
di
(c) maximum average thyristor current, (d) maximum rms thyristor current and (e) maximum value of o .
dt
Solution
(a) The minimum value of firing angle amin = Load phase angle
Ê wL ˆ Ê 4ˆ
f = tan -1 Á = tan -1 Á ˜ = 90∞
Ë R ˜¯ Ë 0¯
The maximum possible value of firing angle amax = 180°
The range of firing angle is 90° £ a £ 180°
(b) When a = f = 90°, the maximum value of rms load current occurs as the ac voltage controller behaves
just like load is directly connected to the ac supply.
The maximum value of rms load current is
V 230
Io = = = 57.5 A
2
(w L ) 42
(d) When a = f, thyristor conduction angle is g = 180° = p. Then the maximum average thyristor current is
equal to
p +a
1 2V
I avT =
2p Ú Z
sin (w t - f ) dw t
a
2V 2 ¥ 230
= = A as V = 230 and Z = (w L )2 = 4 2
pZ p 42
= 25.87 A
(e) The maximum rms thyristor current is equal to
1/2
È 1 p + a Ï 2V ¸
2 ˘
I rmsT = Í Ú Ì sin (w t - f ) ˝ d w t ˙
ÍÎ 2p a Ó Z ˛ ˙˚
1/2
È 1 p +a Ï 2V ¸
2 ˘
=Í Ú Ì sin(w t - a )˝ d w t ˙ as a = f
ÎÍ 2p a Ó Z ˛ ˚˙
2V 2 ¥ 230
= = A as V = 230 V and Z = (w L )2 = 42
2Z 2 42
= 40.658 A
dio
(f) The value of is equal to
dt
dio 2V 2V
= w cos (w t - f ) as io = sin (w t - f )
dt Z Z
di
The maximum value of o occurs at cos (wt – f) = 1
dt
2V 2 ¥ 230
Then dio max = w= ¥ 2p ¥ 50 = 25556.859 A /sec
dt Z 42
Example 9.14 Figure 9.16 shows a two

stage sequence ac voltage controller. Draw the
output voltage and current waveforms. Derive
the rms output voltage, load current, rms current
of thyristors and transformer rating.
Solution
Thyristors T1 and T3 are forward biased during the
positive half cycle of input voltage. Assume that
the firing pulses are applied to T3 at wt = 0, 2p,
4p, 6p… and the firing pulses are applied to T1 at
wt = a, 2p + a, 4p + a, 6p + a…. Then the
conduction period of thyristors are given below:
For T3:
0 < w t £ a , 2p < w t £ 2p + a , 4p < w t £ 4p + a ... Fig. 9.16
For T1: a < w t £ p , 2p + a < w t £ 3p , 4p + a < w t £ 5p ...

Similarly thyristors T2 and T4 are forward biased during the negative half cycle of input voltage. Assume that the
firing pulses are applied to T4 at wt = p, 3p, 5p, 7p… and the firing pulses are applied to T2 at wt = p + a, 3p +
a, 5p + a, 7p + a…. Then the conduction period of thyristors are given below:
For T4: p < w t £ p + a , 3p < w t £ 3p + a , 5p < w t £ 5p + a ...

For T2: p + a < w t £ 2p , 3p + a < w t £ 4p , 5p + a < w t £ 6p ...
The output voltage and current waveform of two stage sequence ac voltage controller are depicted in Fig. 9.17.
Fig. 9.17 Output voltage and current waveforms

Assume that v1 = 2V sin w t = Vm sin w t , v2 = 2V sin w t = Vm sin w t
Then v1 + v2 = 2 2V sin w t = 2Vm sin w t

The rms output voltage across load is equal to
1/2 1/2
È 1 ÏÔa p
Ô¸˘ È 1 ÏÔa p
Ô¸˘
Vorms = Í Ì Ú v12 dw t + Ú (v1 + v2 )2 dw t ˝˙ = Í Ì Ú Vm2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t + Ú (2Vm )2 sin 2 w t ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÎÍ p ÓÔ 0 a ˛Ô˚˙ ÎÍ p ÓÔ 0 a ˛Ô˚˙
1/2
È 1 ÏÔ V 2 a 4V 2 p Ô¸˘
= Í Ì m Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t + m Ú (1 - cos 2 w t ) ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÎÍ p ÓÔ 2 0 2 a ˛Ô˚˙
{ } { }
1/2
ÈV 2 sin 2a 2V 2 sin 2a ˘
=Í m a- + m p -a + ˙
Îp 2 p 2 ˚

Vorms
I orms =
R
The rms value of current for thyristor T3 and T4 is
1/2 1/2
È 1 ÏÔa Ê v ˆ 2 ¸Ô˘ È 1 ÏÔa 2 2 Ô¸˘
I orms _ T 3 = Í Ì Ú Á 1 ˜ dw t ˝˙ =Í 2 ÌÚ m
V sin w t ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÍÎ 2p ÓÔ 0 Ë R ¯ ˛Ô˙˚ ÎÍ 2p R ÓÔ 0 ˛Ô˙˚
{ } { }
1/2 1/2
È 1 ÔÏ Vm
2a
Ô¸˘ È V 2 sin 2a ˘ Vm È 1 sin 2a ˘
1/2
=Í 2 Ì Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˝˙ =Í m 2 a- ˙ = Í a- ˙
ÍÎ 2p R ÔÓ 2 0 Ô˛˙˚ Î 4p R 2 ˚ 2R Îp 2 ˚
The rms value of current for thyristor T1 and T2 is
1/2 1/2
È 1 ÏÔp Ê v + v ˆ 2 ¸Ô˘ È 1 ÏÔp 2 2 ¸Ô˘
I orms _ T 1 = Í Ì Ú ÁË 1 2 ˜¯ dw t ˝˙ =Í Ì Ú 4Vm sin w t ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÍÎ 2p ÔÓa R Ô˛˙˚ ÎÍ 2p R
2
ÔÓa Ô˛˚˙
1/2
È 1 ÏÔ 2 p ¸Ô˘
=Í 2 Ì2Vm Ú (1 - cos 2w t ) ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÍÎ 2p R ÔÓ a Ô˛˙˚
1/2 1/2
ÈV 2 Ï sin 2a ¸˘ Vm È 1 Ï sin 2a ¸˘
= Í m 2 Ìp - a + ˝˙ = Í Ìp - a + ˝˙
ÎÍ p R Ó 2 ˛˚˙ R Îp Ó 2 ˛˚
rms current rating of upper secondary of transformer is
I1 = 2 I rms _ T 1
rms current rating of lower secondary of transformer is
I 3 = [( 2 I rms _ T 1 )2 + ( 2 I rms _ T 2 )2 ]1/2
When the voltage rating of upper and lower secondary windings of transformers are equal to V, the transformer
rating is
V ( I1 + I 2 ) VA.
Example 9.15 A two-stage sequence ac voltage controller is connected to a resistive load of 10 W. The input ac
voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz and turn ratio is 1:1:1. If the firing angle of upper thyristors are 45°, determine (a) rms
output voltage, (b) rms output current, (c) VA rating of transformer and (d) input power factor.
Solution
p
Given: V = 220 V, Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 220 = 311.12 V, R = 10 W, a = 45∞ =
4
(a) rms output voltage is
{ } { }
1/2
Vorms = Í m a - + m p -a + ˙
Î p 2 p 2 ˚
{ } { }
1/2
È 311.122 p sin (2 ¥ 45) 2 ¥ 311.122 p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˘
=Í - + p- + ˙
Î p 4 2 p 4 2 ˚
= 429.89 V
(b) rms current of T3
{ } { }
1/2 1/2
Vm È 1 sin 2a ˘ 311.12 È 1 p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˘
I rms_T 3 = a- = - = 4.686 A
2 R ÍÎ p 2 ˙
˚ 2 ¥ 10 ÍÎ p 4 2 ˙
˚
rms current of T1
{ } { }
1/2 1/2
Vm È 1 sin 2a ˘ 311.12 È 1 p sin (2 ¥ 45) ˘
I rms _ T 1 = p -a + = p- + = 29.66 A
R ÍÎ p 2 ˙
˚ 10 ÍÎ p 4 2 ˙
˚
(c) rms current rating of upper secondary of transformer is
I1 = 2 I rms_T 1 = 2 ¥ 29.66 = 41.94 A
I 3 = [( 2 I rms _ T 1 )2 + ( 2 I rms _ T 2 )2 ]1/2
= [( 2 ¥ 29.66)2 + ( 2 ¥ 4.686)2 ]1/2 = 42.459 A
VA rating of the transformer is
V ( I1 + I 2 ) VA = 220(41.94 + 42.459) = 18567.78 VA
2
Vorms 429.892
(d) Output power Po = = = 18480.54 Watt
R 10
Po 18480.54
Input power factor cos f = = = 0.995 lagging
VA 18567.78
Example 9.16 A two-stage sequence ac voltage controller is connected to a resistive load of 10 W. The input
ac voltage is 200 V, 50 Hz. Turn ratio from primary to each secondary of transformer is unity. If the firing angle
of upper thyristors are 30°, determine (a) rms output voltage, (b) rms output current, (c) VA rating of transformer
and (d) input power factor.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, Vm = 2V = 2 ¥ 200 = 282.84 V, R = 10 W, a = 30∞ = p
6
(a) rms output voltage is
{ } { }
1/2
Vorms = Í m a - + m p -a + ˙
Îp 2 p 2 ˚
{ }
1/2
È 282.842 Ï p sin (2 ¥ 30) ¸ 2 ¥ 282.842 p sin(2 ¥ 30) ˘
=Í Ì - ˝+ p- + ˙
ÎÍ p Ó 6 2 ˛ p 6 2 ˙˚
= 379.10 V
(b) rms current of T3
{ } { }
1/2 1/2
Vm È1 sin 2a ˘ 282.84 È 1 p sin (2 ¥ 30) ˘
I rms_T 3 = Íp a - 2 ˙ = Íp 6 - ˙
2R Î ˚ 2 ¥ 10 Î 2 ˚
= 2.398 A
rms current of T1
{ } { }
1/2 1/2
Vm È 1 sin 2a ˘ 282.84 È 1 p sin (2 ¥ 30) ˘
I rms_T 1 = p -a + ˙ = 10 Í p p - 6 +
R ÍÎ p 2 ˚ Î 2 ˙
˚
= 27.874 A
(c) rms current rating of upper secondary of transformer is
I1 = 2 I rms_T 1 = 2 ¥ 27.874 = 39.41 A
I 3 = [( 2 I rms_T 1 )2 + ( 2 I rms _ T 2 )2 ]1/2
= [( 2 ¥ 27.874)2 + ( 2 ¥ 2.398)2 ]1/2 = 39.55 A
VA rating of the transformer is
V ( I1 + I 2 ) VA = 200(39.41 + 39.55) = 15792 VA
2
Voms 379.102
(d) Output power Po = = = 14371.68 Watt t
R 10
P 14371.68
Input power factor cos f = o = = 0.910 lagging
VA 15792
9.8 three-Phase ac Voltage controller

When single-phase ac voltage controllers are used in high power load applications, the distorted
waveform of line current creates the unbalance in three phase line current. Usually, this unbalance
line current flows through neutral which must be always avoided. Therefore, three phase ac voltage
controllers should be used in high power applications in place of single phase ac voltage controllers.
There are different circuit configurations of three phase Ac voltage controllers as shown in Fig. 9.18.
Figures 9.18(a) and (b) are most commonly used for D and Υ connected loads respectively. In both
the cases, only line current flows and there is no neutral current and at least two SCRs of different
phases must be conduct.
In Fig. 9.18(c) and (d), three single-phase ac controllers are connected in Υ and D respectively. Each
SCR can independently control the output voltage across load. Figure 9.18(c) is only suitable for low
power ac voltage controller as third harmonic current is present in the system due to a large neutral
current and this third harmonic current must be restricted in line current. The analysis of single-phase
Fig. 9.18 Different configurations of three phase ac voltage controller

ac voltage controller can be used in these cases. In case of Fig. 9.18(b) and (d), the six terminals of
loads must be available.
The other types of ac voltage controller are not commonly used. In Fig. 9.18(g) is unidirectional
control (positive half cycle only) due to one SCR and one diode per phase. The output voltages
waveforms are asymmetric and even harmonics are present in the line current. The presence of
harmonics in line current is undesirable.
9.9 delta-connected thyrIstor and load confIguratIon

Figure 9.19 shows a three-phase ac voltage
controller, which is the delta connection of three
single-phase ac voltage controllers. The conduction
of each phase thyristors is independent of the other
phase. The load voltages as well as load current
are independent of other phases. The line current
is computed as sum of two phase currents as given
below.
iA = iAB + iAC
iB = iBC + iBA Fig. 9.19 Delta-connected three-phase ac voltage
iC = iCA + iCB controller
where, line currents are iA, iB and iC and phase currents are iAB, iBC and iCA.
The waveforms for delta connected three phase ac voltage controller at firing angle a = 120° and
a = 60° are depicted in Figs. 9.20 and 9.21 respectively.
Assume that the instantaneous line to line voltages are
v AB = 2VL sin w t where, VL is the rms line to line voltage
Ê 2p ˆ
vBC = 2VL sin Á w t - ˜
Ë 3¯
Ê 2p ˆ
vCA = 2VL sin Á w t + ˜
Ë 3¯
The rms value of output voltage of phase AB is
1/2 1/2
È 1 2p ˘ È 2 p ˘
VAB = Í Ú v 2AB . dw t ˙ = Í Ú 2VL2 sin 2 w t .dw t ˙
Î 2p a ˚ Î 2p a ˚
1/2 1/2
È a sin 2a ˘ È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= VL Í1 - + = VL Í Á p - a + ˜
Î p 2p ˙˚ Îp Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
Similarly, the rms value of the voltage across phase BC and CA will be as follows:
1/2
È a sin 2a ˘
VBC = VL Í1 - + and
Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2
È a sin 2a ˘
VCA = VL Í1 - +
Î p 2p ˙˚
Fig. 9.20 Waveforms of delta connected ac voltage controller at a = 120°

Fig. 9.21 Waveforms of delta-connected three-phase ac voltage controller at a = 60°

The rms value of the current is

1/2
È1 p 2 ˘ v AB
I AB = Í Ú iAB (w t ) d (w t )˙ Assume iAB =
Îp a ˚ R
1/2
VAB VL È a sin 2a ˘
= = ÍÎ1 - p + 2p ˙˚
R R
9.10 delta-connected R load confIguratIon of

three Phase ac Voltage controller
Figure 9.22 shows the three-phase ac voltage controller
with delta connected resistive load. In this circuit
configuration, two thyristors of two different phases
must be conduct for current flows through load.
When a current flows through one resistor R which is
connected between A¢ and B¢, the half of this current
must be flow through other two resistances as these
series connected resistances are connected in parallel
with the resistance between A¢ and B¢. Waveforms of
delta connected R load configuration of three phase ac
voltage controller at a = 120° are depicted in Fig. 9.23.
For the current flow through resistance connected
between A¢ and B¢, thyristor pair T1–T4 and T3–T6 Fig. 9.22 Three-phase ac voltage controller with
will conduct. When thyristors T1, T4, T3 and T6 are delta-connected resistive load
conducting, the output voltage can be expressed as
1/2
È a sin 2a ˘
VA¢B¢ = VL Í1 - + and
Î p 2p ˙˚
1/2
VA¢B¢ VL È a sin 2a ˘
VA¢C ¢ = VC ¢B¢ = = ÍÎ1 - p + 2p ˙˚
2 2
The line currents are given by
VA¢B¢ - VC ¢A¢
iA = iA¢B¢ - iC ¢A¢ =
R
VB¢C ¢ - VA¢B¢
iB = iB¢C ¢ - iA¢B¢ =
R
VC ¢A¢ - VB¢C ¢
iC = iC ¢A¢ - iB¢C ¢ =
R
where, phase currents are iA¢B¢, iB¢C¢ and iC¢A¢ and line currents are iA, iB, and iC.
Similarly, for the current flow through resistance connected between B¢ and C¢, thyristor pair T3–T6
and T2–T5 will conduct. When thyristors T3, T6, T2 and T5 are conducting, the output voltage can be
expressed as
1/2 1/2
È a sin 2a ˘ VB¢C ¢ VL È a sin 2a ˘
VB¢C ¢ = VL Í1 - + and VB¢A¢ = VA¢C ¢ = = ÍÎ1 - p + 2p ˙˚
Î p 2p ˙˚ 2 2
Fig. 9.23 Waveforms of delta-connected R load configuration of three phase ac voltage controller at a = 120°
Using the Fig. 9.23, the rms output voltage across A¢ and B¢ at firing angle a = 120° is computed by
the following expression:
1/2
È1 ÏÔp /3 Ê -V ˆ 2 2p /3
Ê -V ˆ
2 p ¸˘
Ô
VA¢B¢ =Í Ì Ú ÁË CA ˜¯ dw t + Ú ÁË BC ˜¯ dw t + Ú
2
VAB ◊ dw t ˝˙
ÍÎ p ÓÔ 0 2 p /3 2 2p /3 ˛Ô˙˚
where, VAB = 2VL sin w t
Ê 2p ˆ
VBC = 2VL sin Á w t - ˜
Ë 3¯
Ê 2p ˆ
VCA = 2VL sin Á w t + ˜ and VL is the rms line to line voltage
Ë 3¯
9.11 three-Phase ac Voltage Controller With Υ

connected R load
In a three-phase system, the phase voltages have same voltage with 120° phase shift. The phase
voltages VA, VB and VC are equal to
v A = 2V sin w t
Ê 2p ˆ
vB = 2V sin Á w t - ˜
Ë 3¯
Ê 2p ˆ
vC = 2V sin Á w t + ˜ where V is the rms phase voltage
Ë 3¯
In a start connected system, the line voltages are 3 times
of phase voltages and there 120° phase shift between two line
voltages. The line voltages VAB, VBC and VCA are equal to
Ê pˆ
v AB = 6V sin Á w t + ˜
Ë 6¯
Ê pˆ
vBC = 6V sin Á w t - ˜
Ë 2¯
Ê 7p ˆ
vCA = 6V sin Á w t - ˜
Ë 6 ¯
Fig. 9.24 Phasor diagram of three
The phasor diagram of a three-phase system is depicted in phase voltages : VA, VB, VC,
Fig. 9.24. VAB, VBC, and VCA
Figure 9.25 shows a three-phase ac voltage controller with Y connected R load. In this ac voltage
controller, two or three thyristors of different phases must be conduct at a time. Therefore, single pulse
gate signal cannot be used to turn on SCR. Actually, a train of gate trigger signal is used for the whole
conduction period. In R load, thyristor conduction starts at wt = 30° and its conduction stop at wt =
180°. Range of firing angle is 150° only
0° £ a £ 150°
To get a balanced line current, the thyristors must

be triggered symmetrically. Triggering sequence will
be a, a + 120°, a + 240° for thyristor T1, T3 and T5
respectively. Thyristors T2, T4 and T6 are triggered at
a + 180°, a + 300°, a + 420° respectively. Depending
upon the value of firing angle, the operation of
converter can be divided into three different modes
of operation
Mode I 0° £ a £ 60°
Mode II 60° £ a £ 90°
Mode III 90° £ a £ 150° Fig. 9.25 Three-phase ac voltage controllers with
Mode I (0° £ a £ 60°) When firing angle of Y connected R load
thyristors a = 0°, three thyristors of different phases always conduct and the load voltage is equal
to the phase voltage. If a increases, two or three thyristors will conduct depending upon the circuit
parameters. The load voltage is equal to the phase voltage or the half of the voltage 1/2VAB or 1/2VAC.
The RMS value of output voltage at firing angle a is equal to
1/2
È 2 ÏÔp /3 a + p /3
Êv ˆ
2 2p /3 a + 2p /3
v AC p ¸Ô ˘
Vo = Í Ì Ú v 2A d (w t ) + Ú Á AB ˜ d (w t ) + Ú v 2A d (w t ) + Ú d (w t ) + Ú v 2A d (w t )˝ ˙
ÍÎ p ÓÔ a a
Ë 2 ¯ a + p /3 2p /3 2 a + 2p /3 Ô˛ ˙˚
where, v A = 2V sin w t and

Ê pˆ
v AB = 6 sin Á w t + ˜
Ë 6¯
1/2
È1 Ê p a sin 2a ˆ ˘
or Vo = VL Í ÁË - + ˜ where VL = 6V
Îp 3 2 4 ¯ ˙˚
The gate trigger pulses for thyristors T1, T2, T3, T4 , T5 and T6 for firing angle a = 60° and the output
voltage waveform at a = 60° are shown in Fig. 9.26.
Mode II (60° £ a £ 90°) In this mode, two thyristors of different phases always conduct and the
load voltage is always equal to half of the line voltage, i.e., 1/2 VAB or 1/2 VAC. The rms value of
output voltage of phase A is equal to
1/2
È 2 a + p /3 Ï 6V ¸
2 ˘
Ê p ˆ
Vo = Í Ú Ì sin Á w t + ˜ ˝ d (w t ) ˙
ÍÎ p a Ó 2 Ë 6¯˛ ˙˚
p
For simplification, if the reference of sine functions will be changed by and accordingly the limit
p 6
of integration will also be changed by . After simplification, we can write
6
1/2
È a+
p
2 ˘
Í2 Ï 6V
2 ¸ ˙
Vo = Í Ú ÓÌ 2 sin w t ˛˝ d (w t )˙
Íp a+
p ˙
Î 6 ˚
Fig. 9.26 Waveform of three-phase ac voltage controller at a = 60°

1/2
È 1 Êp 3 3 ˆ˘
or Vo = VL Í ÁË + sin 2a + cos 2a ˜ ˙ where VL = 6 V
Î 2p 3 4 4 ¯˚
Mode III (90° £ a £ 150°) In this case, two thyristors of different phases always conduct and
sometimes none of the thyristors conduct. When firing angle a is grater than 150°, two thyristors will
not conduct simultaneously. Hence the output voltage is equal to half of the line voltage or zero. Then
output voltage is discontinuous and two voltage pulse will be available in each half cycle.
In this mode, the rms value of load voltage of phase A is
1/2
È 2 5p /6 Ê 6V 2 ˘
Í Ê p ˆˆ ˙
Vo = Ú Á sin Á w t + ˜ ˜ d (w t )
ÎÍ p a Ë 2 Ë 6 ¯¯ ˚˙
p
For simplification, if the reference of sine functions will be changed by and accordingly the limit
6
p
of integration will also be changed by . After simplification, we can write
6
1/2
È2 p Ï 6V ¸
2 ˘
Vo = Í Ú ÓÌ 2 sin w t ˛˝ d (w t )˙˙
Íp p
a+
ÎÍ 6 ˚˙
1/2
or È 1 Ê 5p 1 3 ˆ˘ where VL = 6 V
Vo = VL Í ÁË - a + sin 2a + cos 2a ˜ ˙
Î 2p 6 4 4 ¯˚
The gate trigger pulses for thyristors T1, T2, T3, T4 , T5 and T6 for firing angle a = 120° and the output
voltage waveform at a = 120° are shown in Fig. 9.27.
9.12 aPPlIcatIons of ac Voltage controller

AC voltage controllers are commonly used in electronic tap changing, ac chopper regulators and pulse
width modulation control of PWM ac chopper. In this section, the operating principle of tap changing
and ac chopper regulators are discussed in detail.
9.12.1 tap changer

The output voltages are non-sinusoidal for voltage control of ac voltage controller. These voltages
become discontinuous with increasing firing angle and contain higher-order harmonics. Usually, in
power system conventional tap-changer switching arrangement is used to control the output voltage
across load. In conventional tap-changer, the output voltage is controlled in steps. To get smooth
voltage control, now days conventional tap-changers are replaced by electronic tap changers. Figure
9.28 shows a single-phase electronic tap changer which consists of one transformer and four thyristors.
When the thyristors T3 and T4 are switched ON with the firing angle a = 0° and closed, the output
voltage is equal to V2. Whenever thyristors T3 and T4 are OFF and T1 and T2 are ON, the output voltage
is equal to V1 + V2. The gate trigger pulses for thyristirs T1, T2, T3, T4 and the output voltage waveform
are shown in Fig. 9.29. When V = V1 + V2 and V2 = xV, the rms output voltage can be expressed as
Fig. 9.27 Waveform of three-phase ac voltage controller at a = 120°

Fig. 9.28 Single-phase electronic tap changer
Fig. 9.29 Gate trigger pulses for thyristirs T1, T2, T3, T4 and the output voltage waveform
1/2 1/2
È a sin 2a ˘ È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
Vo = xV Í1 - + = xV Í ÁË p - a + ˜
Î p 2p ˙˚ Îp 2 ¯ ˙˚
where V = V1 + V2 and x < 1
The output Vo will be between xV and V when thyristor T3 and T4 are switched with zero firing angle
and thyristor T1 and T2 are switched with firing angle a.
For a resistive load, the harmonics of the output voltage can be determined by Fourier series as
given below.
2p
1
an = Ú v(w t ) cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) assume v(w t ) = Vo (w t )
p 0
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú 2V2 sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2 (V1 + V2 ) sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
As V2 = xV and V1 + V2 = V
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú x 2 V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2 V sin w t ◊ cos nw t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
2 È sin (n + 1) a sin (n - 1) a ˘
= (1 - x ) V Í -
p Î n +1 n - 1 ˙˚
1 2p
Similarly, bn = Ú v(w t ) sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) assume v(wt) = Vo(wt)
p 0
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú 2V2 sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2(V1 + V2 ) sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú x 2V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2 V sin w t ◊ sin nw t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
2 È cos (n + 1) a cos (n - 1) a ˘ 2V Ê 1 1 ˆ
= (1 - x ) V Í - ˙ - -
p Î n +1 n -1 ˚ p Ë n + 1 n - 1¯˜
Á
The values of fundamental component are

1 2p
a1 = Ú v(w t )cos w t ◊ d (w t )
p 0
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú 2V2 sin w t ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2(V1 + V2 ) sin w t ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
After substituting V2 = xV and V1 + V2 = V in the above equation, we get
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú x 2V sin w t ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
2V
=
2p
[(1 - x)(sin 2a - 2a ) + 2p ]
1 2p
b1 = Ú v(w t ) sin w t ◊ d (w t )
p 0
2 Èa p ˘
= Í Ú 2V2 sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2(V1 + V2 ) sin w t ◊ sin w t ¥ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
After substituting V2 = xV and V1 + V2 = V in the above equation, we obtain
2 Èa p ˘
= ÍÚ x 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t ) + Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙
p Î0 a ˚
2
= (1 - x ) V (cos 2a - 1)
2p
Therefore, the rms value of output voltage is

1/2
È1 ÏÔa p ¸Ô˘
Vo = Í Ì Ú ( 2V2 sin w t ) d (w t ) + Ú ( 2(V1 + V2 ) sin w t ) d (w t ) ˝˙
2 2
ÎÍ p ÓÔ 0 a ˛Ô˚˙
1/2
È 1 ÏÔa p
Ô¸˘
or Vo = Í Ì Ú ( x 2V sin w t )2 d (w t ) + Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 d (w t ) ˝˙
ÎÍ p ÔÓ 0 a ˛Ô˚˙
1/2
È 1 ˘
= V Í {(1 - x 2 ) sin 2a + 2p}˙
Î 2p ˚
The power factor is equal to
1/2
V È 1 ˘
power factor = O = Í {(1 - x 2 )(sin 2a - 2a ) + 2p}˙
V Î 2p ˚
9.12.2 ac chopper
AC chopper-type ac voltage controller is
not commonly used as gate commutation
devices such as GTOs, MOSFET, IGBT and
forced commutated thyristor are required. In
a thyristor-based ac chopper circuit, forced
commutation technique is used. Figure 9.30
shows an ac chopper circuit which consists of
four thyistors. T1 and T2 are main thyristors
and T1A and T2A are auxiliary thyristors.
The triggering pulses of T1, T2, T1A and
T2A and the output voltage waveform of ac
chopper are shown in Fig. 9.31. To generate
Fig. 9.30 ac chopper using thyristors
Fig. 9.31 Gate pulses of T1, T2, T1A and T2A and output voltage waveform of ac chopper
a symmetric voltage waveform, thyristor T1 must be conduct from wt = a to wt = p – a and thyristor

T2 must be conduct from wt = p + a to wt = 2p – a.
1/2 1/2
È 1 p -a ˘ È1 ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 ◊ d (w t )˙ or Vo = V Í (p - 2a + sin 2a )˙
ÍÎ p a ˙˚ Îp ˚
The values of the fundamental component of output voltage V1 can be determined from the following
equations:
2 È 2p - a ˘
a1 = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t )˙
p ÍÎ a ˙˚
p -a
2V È 1 ˘
= Í cos 2w t ˙ =0
p Î2 ˚a
2 È 2p - a ˘
Similarly, b1 = Í Ú 2V sin w t ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )˙
p ÎÍ a ˚˙
p -a
2V È 1 ˘ 2V
= Íw t - 2 sin 2w t ˙ = (p - 2a + sin 2a )
p Î ˚a p
1/2
È a 2 + b12 ˘ È1 sin 2a ˘
1/2
As V1 = Í 1 , we can find V1 = V Í (p - 2a ) +
˙
Î 2 ˚ Î p p ˙˚
Power factor with resistive load is equal to
1/2
Vo È 1 sin 2a ˘
power factor =
= Í (p - 2a ) +
V Îp p ˙˚
For RL load, the current can be expressed by
V
i(w t ) = Èsin (w t - j ) - sin (a - j ) e atan-wjt ˘
Z Î ˚
Example 9.17 A single-phase electronic tap changer as shown in Fig. 9.28 is feeding from a 230 V, 50 Hz ac
supply and is connected with a load of R = 10 W and the turns ratio from primary winding to each secondary
winding is unity. If the firing angle of upper thyristors is 45°, determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms
value of current of upper thyristors, (c) rms value of current of lower thyristors, (d) VA rating of transformer
and (e) power factor.
Solution
Given: R = 10 W, V = 230 V and a = 45∞ = p radian
4
(a) rms value of output voltage is
1/2
È 1 ÏÔa p
Ô¸˘
Vo = Í Ì Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 ◊ dw t + Ú 4( 2V sin w t )2 ◊ dw t ˝˙
p
ÎÍ ÓÔ 0 a ˛Ô˚˙
1/2
ÈV 2 Ê sin 2a ˆ 4V 2 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
=Í Áa - ˜+ Áp - a + ˜˙
Îp Ë 2 ¯ p Ë 2 ¯˚
1/2
È 230 2 Ê p sin 2 ¥ 45 ˆ 4 ¥ 230 2 Ê p sin 2 ¥ 45 ˆ ˘
=Í Á - ˜ + ÁË p - + ˜¯ ˙ = 444.0413 V
Î p Ë 4 2 ¯ p 4 2 ˚
(b) rms value of current of upper thyristors
1/2
ÏÔ 1 p ¸Ô
2 Ú
IT 1 = Ì 4( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˝
ÔÓ 2p R a Ô˛
1/2
2V È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= Í p ÁË p - a + 2 ˜¯ ˙
R Î ˚
1/2
2 ¥ 230 È1 Ê p sin 2 ¥ 45 ˆ ˘
= Í p ÁË p - 4 + ˜¯ ˙ = 31.013 A
10 Î 2 ˚
(c) rms value of current of lower thyristors

1/2
ÏÔ 1 a ¸Ô
2 Ú
IT 31 = Ì ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˝
ÔÓ 2p R 0 Ô˛
1/2
2V È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
= a-
2 R ÎÍ p ËÁ 2 ¯˜ ˚˙
1/2
2 ¥ 230 È 1 Ê p sin 2 ¥ 45 ˆ ˘
= Í p ÁË 4 - ˜¯ ˙ = 4.9036 A
2 ¥ 10 Î 2 ˚
(d) The rms current rating of upper secondary winding is
I1 = 2 IT 1 = 2 ¥ 31.013 A = 43.859 A
The rms current rating of lower secondary winding is
I 3 = [( 2 IT 1 )2 + ( 2 IT 3 )2 ]1/2 = [( 2 ¥ 31.013)2 + ( 2 ¥ 4.9036)2 ]1/2
= 44.4038 A
VA rating of transformer = V(I1 + I3) = 230(43.859 + 44.4038) VA = 20300.44 VA
Vo2 444.04132
(e) Power output = = = 19717.2676 Watt
R 10
Power output 19717.2676
Power factor = = = 0.9712 (lagging)
VA rating of transformer 20300.44
9.13 cycloconVerter
Usually ac voltage controllers are used to generate the variable amplitude of ac output voltage at the
same frequency of input voltage. In ac voltage controller, the harmonic content is high especially
at low output voltage range. Generally the ac variable output voltage at variable frequency can be
generated by using two stage converters such as controlled rectifier (fixed ac to variable dc converter)
and inverter (variable dc to variable ac at variable frequency). But cycloconverter can be used to
eliminate the requirement of one or more intermediate converters. Actually cycloconverter is a direct
frequency converter or frequency changer which converts ac power at fixed frequency to ac power at
variable frequency by fixed ac to variable ac conversion. Therefore, cycloconverter is also called as
one-stage frequency changer.
Frequency converter converts one frequency to another frequency or fixed frequency ac input to
variable frequency output. Frequency converter is known as cycloconverter. Generally, the output
frequency of cycloconverter is always less than input frequency. In cycloconverter frequency changes
in steps. Usually cycloconverter is a SCR based converter with natural or line commutation.
It is used in very high power applications up to several MW. Application areas are very high power
low-speed induction motor drive, low-frequency three phase/single phase induction or traction motor
drives. To reduce harmonic current and to improve efficiency and power factor, cycloconverter based
on forced-commutation devices are used. Sometimes, cycloconverters are used to control the output
frequency. When the output voltage frequency is greater than input voltage frequency, it is called as
step-up cycloconverter. In general, cycloconverter are classified as
1. Step-down cycloconverter
2. Step-up cycloconverter
1. Step-down cycloconverter In step-down cycloconverter, the output frequency fo is less than

the supply (input) frequency fs, i.e., fo < fs. The step down cycloconverters are naturally commutated
and the output frequency is limited to a value that is a fraction of input frequency. Therefore, these
type of cycloconverters are commonly used in low speed ac motor drives up to 15 MW with frequen-
cies from 0 to 20 Hz.
2. Step-up cycloconverter In step-up cycloconverter, the output frequency fo is greater than the
supply (input) frequency fs, i.e., fo > fs. The step-up cycloconverters are forced commutated and the
output frequency is limited to a value that is a multiple of input frequency. Fast switching devices and
microprocessors are used to in step-up cycloconverters to implement advanced conversion strategies.
The step-up cycloconverters are also known as forced commutated direct frequency changers.
Depending upon the phases, there are three types of cycloconverters such as
1. Single-phase to single-phase cycloconverters
2. Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters
3. Three-phase to three-phase cycloconverters
The single phase to single phase cycloconverters are two types namely
1. Mid-point-type cycloconverters
2. Bridge -type cycloconverters
Applications of cycloconverters are
1. Speed control of very high power ac drives
2. Very high power low-speed induction motor drive
3. Low-frequency three phase/single phase induction or traction motor drives.
4. Static VAR compensation
5. Industrial heating
In this section, principle of operation of single phase to single-phase step-up and step-down
cycloconverters, three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters and three-phase to three-phase
cycloconverters are explained in detail.
9.14 sIngle-Phase to sIngle-Phase steP-uP

cycloconVerters
There are two types single-phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverters such as mid-point
type cycloconverters and bridge-type cycloconverters. The step-up cycloconverters requires
forced commutation for thyristors. In this section, the operating principle of both mid-point-type
cycloconverters and bridge type cycloconverters are discussed. Assume load is purely resistive.
9.14.1 Mid-point-type single-phase to single-phase

step-up cycloconverters
Figure 9.32 shows the circuit diagram of a single-phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter mid
point type with R load. This circuit consists of a single-phase transformer with the mid point of the
secondary winding and four thyristors. Two of these thyristors T1 and T2 constitute the positive (P)
group and thyristors T3 and T4 form the negative (N) group. The load is connected between the mid
point O and the terminal C. The positive direction for output voltage Vo and output current Io are shown
in Fig. 9.32. The output voltage Vo and output

current Io are reversed in negative direction.
MODE I During the positive half cycle of
supply voltage, A is positive with respect to
B and thyristors T1 and T4 are forward biased
from wt = 0 to wt = p. When the triggering
pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at wt = 0, it will
be turned ON. Then load voltage follows the
positive envelope of the supply voltage and
the load current starts to flow in the positive
direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
Fig. 9.32 Single-phase step-up cycloconverter mid-point
At the instant wt1, thyristor T1 is turned OFF type with R load
by forced commutation and gate signal is applied to thyristors T4 which is already forward biased
during positive half cycle of supply voltage. As soon as T4 is turned ON, the output voltage traces
the negative half cycle of the input voltage. Then load current flows in the negative direction through
the following path:
O - Load - C - T4 - B
At the time wt2, thyristor T4 is turned OFF by forced commutation and gate signal is applied to thyristors
T1. Since T1 is again turned ON, the output voltage follows the positive half cycle of the input voltage.
Subsequently, the load current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
The above process will continue for the positive half cycle of input voltage, i.e., up to wt = p and
the output voltage switched alternately between positive and negative envelopes at high frequency.
MODE II In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyristors
T2 and T3 are forward biased from wt = p to wt = 2p. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor
T2 at wt = p, it will be turned ON and the output voltage traces positive envelope of the input voltage.
Then current flows in the positive direction through the following path:
A - T2 - C - Load - O
At the instant wt5, thyristor T2 is turned OFF by forced commutation and gate signal is applied to
thyristors T3. Whenever T3 is turned ON, the output voltage traces the negative envelope of the input
voltage. Then load current flows in the negative direction through the following path:
O - Load - C - T3 - B
The above process will continue for the negative half cycle of input voltage from wt = p to wt = 2p
and the output voltage switched alternately between positive and negative envelopes at high frequency.
Therefore, output voltage frequency fo is greater than input frequency fs. It is clear from Fig. 9.33 that
the output frequency is four times of supply frequency, i.e.,
fo = 4fs
Fig. 9.33 Waveforms of step-up cycloconverters
9.14.2 Bridge-type Cycloconverters

Figure 9.34 shows the circuit diagram of a single-phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter bridge
type with R load. This circuit consists of eight thyristors. Four of these thyristors TP1, TP2, TP3, and TP4
constitute the positive (P) group and thyristors TN1, TN2, TN3, and TN4 form the negative (N) group. The
load is connected between P and Q. The positive direction for output voltage Vo and output current Io
are shown in Fig. 9.34. The output voltage Vo and output current Io are reversed in negative direction.
Fig. 9.34 Single-phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter bridge type with R load
AC VoltAge Controllers
And CyCloConVerters
MODE I During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, A is positive with respect to B and thy-
ristors TP1, TP2, TN1, and TN2 are forward biased from wt = 0 to wt = p. When the triggering pulses
are applied to thyristors TP1 and TP2 at wt = 0, these devices will be turned ON. Then load voltage
follows the positive envelope of the supply voltage and the load current starts to flow in the positive
direction through the following path
A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
At the instant wt1, thyristors TP1 and TP2 are turned OFF by forced commutation and gate signals are
applied to thyristors TN1, and TN2. As soon as TN1, and TN2 is turned ON, the output voltage traces the
negative half cycle of the input voltage. Then load current flows in the negative direction through the
following path
A - TN 1 - Q - Load - P - TN 2 - B
At the time wt2, thyristors TN1, and TN2 are turned OFF by forced commutation and gate signals are
applied to thyristors TP1 and TP2. Since TP1 and TP2 are again turned ON, the output voltage follows
the positive half cycle of the input voltage. Subsequently, the load current starts to flow in the positive
direction through the following path:
A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
The above process will continue for the positive half cycle of input voltage, i.e., up to wt = p and
the output voltage switched alternately between positive and negative envelopes at high frequency.
Fig. 9.35 Waveforms of step-up cycloconverters

MODE II In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyris-
tors TP3, TP4, TN3, and TN4 are forward biased from wt = p to wt = 2p. When the triggering pulses are
applied to thyristors TP3 and TP4 at wt = p, these devices will be turned ON and the output voltage
traces positive envelope of the input voltage. Then current flows in the positive direction through the
following path:
B - TP 3 - P - Load - Q - TP 4 - A
At the instant wt5, thyristors TP3 and TP4 are turned OFF by forced commutation and gate signals
are applied to thyristors TN3 and TN4 As TN3 and TN4 are turned ON, the output voltage traces the
negative envelope of the input voltage. Then load current flows in the negative direction through the
following path:
B - TN 3 - Q - Load - P - TN 4 - A
The above process will continue for the negative half cycle of input voltage from wt = p to wt = 2p
and the output voltage switched alternately between positive and negative envelopes at high frequency.
Therefore output voltage frequency fo is greater than input frequency fs. It is clear from Fig. 9.35 that
the output frequency is four times of supply frequency, i.e.,
fo = 4fs
9.15 Single-PhaSe to Single-PhaSe SteP-Down

CyCloConverterS
There are two types single-phase to single-phase step-down cycloconverters such as mid-point type
cycloconverters and bridge type cycloconverters. In step-down cycloconverters, thyristors are naturally
commuted. In this section, both mid-point type cycloconverters and bridge-type cycloconverters are
discussed.
9.15.1 Mid-point-type Cycloconverters

Figure 9.36 shows the circuit diagram of
a single-phase to single-phase step-down
cycloconverter mid point type with R load.
The natural or line commutation is provide by
the ac supply in this converter. The triggering
pulses of thyristors, conduction period of
thyristors and output voltage waveform for
resistive load are depicted in Fig. 9.37.
Mode I (0 £ wt £ 2p) During the positive
half cycle of supply voltage, A is positive
with respect to B and thyristors T1 and T4 are
forward biased. When the triggering pulse is
applied to thyristor T1 at wt = a, it will be Fig. 9.36 Single-phase to single-phase step-down
turned ON and the current starts to flow in the cycloconverter mid point type with R load
positive direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
1
Fig. 9.37 Gate pulses of thyristors and output voltage waveform when fo = fs
2
At wt = p, the input voltage becomes zero. Accordingly the load current at that instant is zero and
thyristor T1 is turned OFF.
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyristors T2 and T3
are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at wt = p + a, it will be turned
on and the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
B - T2 - C - Load - O
At wt = 2p, the input voltage becomes zero. Therefore, the load current at that instant is zero and
thyristor T2 is turned off.
After that the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T4 at wt = 2p + a, it will be turned ON due
to forward bias and the current starts to flow in the negative direction through the following path:
O - Load - C - T4 - B
At the instant wt = 3p, the input voltage becomes zero. Consequently the load current is zero and
thyristor T4 is turned OFF.
Mode II (2p £ wt £ 4p) At wt = 3p + a, the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T3 and it will
be turned ON due to forward bias. Then the current starts to flow in the negative direction through
the following path:
O - Load - C - T3 - A
At wt = 4p, the input voltage becomes zero. As a result, the load current is zero and thyristor T3 is
turned OFF.
After that the above sequence of operations will be repeated to get the output voltage as shown in
Ê 1 ˆ
Fig. 9.37 when the output frequency is half of the input frequency Á fo = fs ˜ . If the output frequency
Ë 2 ¯
1
is one third of the input frequency fo = fs , the triggering gate pulses for thyristors, conduction period
3
of thyristors and output voltage waveform are depicted in Fig. 9.38.
1
Fig. 9.38 Gate pulses of thyristors and output voltage waveform for R load when fo = fs
3
It is clear from Fig. 9.38 that the output voltage waveform consists of three positive and three
negative half cycles. Then the rms value of output voltage is equal to
1/2
È1 p ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ where V is the rms input voltage
Îp a ˚
1/2
È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
or Vo = V Í Á p - a + ˜
Îp Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
9.15.2 Mid-point-type Cycloconverters with RL load

Figure 9.39 shows the circuit diagram of
a single-phase to single-phase step-down
cycloconverter mid point type with RL load.
The natural or line commutation is provide
by the ac supply in this converter. This
cycloconverter operates in two modes such
as continuous load current and discontinuous
load current
Discontinuous load current mode
The triggering pulses of thyristors, conduc-
tion period of thyristors and output voltage
waveform for resistive-inductive (RL) load
are depicted in Fig. 9.40. Fig. 9.39 Single phase to single-phase step-down cyclo-
In the positive half cycle of supply converter mid point type with RL load
voltage, A is positive with respect to B and
thyristors T1 and T4 are forward biased. As soon as the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at wt =
a, it will be turned ON and the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
At wt = p, the input voltage becomes zero. But load current is not zero at wt = p due to presence
of inductive load. The conduction of thyristor can be extended to b with the conduction angle g = b
– a. Hence the load current is zero wt = b and thyristor T1 is naturally commutated and turned OFF.
During the period b £ wt £ p + a, the load current is zero and it becomes discontinuous.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyristors T2
and T3 are forward biased. Whenever the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at wt = p + a, it
will be turned ON and the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
B - T2 - C - Load - O
At wt = 2p, thyristor T2 will not be turned OFF. Due to presence of inductance, the conduction of
thyristor T2 will be extended. At wt = p + a + g , the load current becomes zero and thyristor T2 is
naturally commuted and turned OFF. The load current is zero during the period p + a + g £ w t £ 2p + a .
At wt = 2p + a, the triggering pulse is again applied to thyristor T1 and it will be turned ON due
to forward bias. Then the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
1
Fig. 9.40 Gate pulses of thyristors and output voltage waveform for R-L load when fo = fs and discontinu-
ous current 3
The load current is zero at wt = 2p + a + g and thyristor T1 is turned OFF. Then load current is zero
during the period 2p + a + g £ w t £ 3p + a .
After that wt = 3p + a, the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T3 and it will be turned ON due
to forward bias. Then the current starts to flow in the negative direction through the following path:
O - Load - C - T3 - A
Due to the presence of inductance, thyristor T3 will not be turned OFF at wt = 4p and it will conduct up
to wt = 3p + a + g. Therefore, the load current is zero at wt = 3p + a + g and thyristor T3 is turned OFF.
At the instant wt = 4p + a, the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T4 and it will be turned ON
due to forward bias and the current starts to flow in the negative direction through the following path:
O - Load - C - T4 - B
The load current becomes zero at wt = 3p + a + g and thyristor T4 is turned OFF.

At wt = 5p + a, the triggering pulse is again applied to thyristor T3 and it will be turned ON due
to forward bias. Then the current starts to flow in the negative direction through the following path:
O - Load - C - T3 - A
The load current is zero at wt = 4p + a + g and thyristor T3 is turned OFF.

After that the above sequence of operations will be repeated to get the output voltage and
discontinuous current as shown in Fig. 9.40 when the output frequency is one-third of the input
1
frequency fo = fs .
3
Continuous load current mode The triggering pulses of thyristors, conduction period of
thyristors and output voltage waveform for resistive-inductive (RL) load are depicted in Fig. 9.41.
Fig. 9.41 Gate pulses of thyristors, output voltage and output current waveforms for R-L load when
1
fo = fs and continuous current
4
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, A is positive with respect to B and thyristors T1
and T4 are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at wt = a, it will be
turned ON and the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
A - T1 - C - Load - O
At wt = p, the input voltage becomes zero and after wt = p thyristor T1 is not reverse biased due to
inductive load. But load current is not zero at wt = p due to presence of inductive load. If load is highly
inductive, the conduction of thyristor can be extended upto wt = p + a with the conduction angle g = p.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyristors T2
and T3 are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T2 at wt = p + a, it will
be turned ON and thyristor T1 is turned OFF due to reverse biased. Then the current starts to flow in
the positive direction through the following path:
B - T2 - C - Load - O
At wt = 2p, thyristor T2 will not be turned OFF. Due to presence of inductance, the conduction of
thyristor T2 will be extended up to wt = 2p + a with the conduction angle g = p. Since thyristor T1
and T2 conduct for 180° duration, the load current is continuous. Similarly, thyristors T1, T2, T3 and
T4 are sequentially turned on and each thyrsistor conducts for 180° duration. The instant of gate pulse,
conduction period of thyristors are given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Conduction of thyristors

Thyrisor Instant of Conduction Conduction Path of
gate pulses region angle current flow
wt = a a £ wt £ p + a g =p
T1 A - T1 - C - Load - O
w t = 2p + a 2p + a £ w t £ 3p + a g =p
wt = p + a p + a £ w t £ 2p + a g =p
T2 B - T2 - C - Load - O
w t = 3p + a 3p + a £ w t £ 4p + a g =p
w t = 5p + a 5p + a £ w t £ 6p + a g =p
T3 O - Load - C - T3 - A
w t = 7p + a 7p + a £ w t £ 8p + a g =p
w t = 4p + a 4p + a £ w t £ 5p + a g =p
T4 O - Load - C - T4 - B
w t = 6p + a 6p + a £ w t £ 7p + a g =p
9.15.3 Bridge-type Cycloconverters

Figure 9.42 shows the circuit diagram of a single-phase to single-phase step-down cycloconverter bridge
type with RL load. The natural or line commutation is provided by the ac supply in this converter.
This cycloconverter operates in two modes such as continuous load current and discontinuous load
current. The simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 9.42 is shown in Fig. 9.43.
Discontinuous load current mode The triggering pulses of thyristors, conduction period of
thyristors and output voltage waveform for resistive load are depicted in Fig. 9.44.
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, A is positive with respect to B and thyristors TP1,
TP2, TN1, and TN2 are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristors TP1, and TP2
at wt = a, these devices will be turned ON and the current starts to flow in the positive direction
through the following path:
A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
At wt = p, the input voltage becomes zero but load current is not zero due to presence of inductive
load. The conduction of thyristors TP1, and TP2 can be extended to b with the conduction angle
Fig. 9.42 Single-phase to single-phase step-down cycloconverter bridge type with RL load
g = b – a. Thus the load current is zero at wt = b and
thyristors TP1, and TP2 are naturally commutated and
turned OFF. During the period b £ wt £ p + a, the load
current is zero and it becomes discontinuous.
In the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is
positive with respect to A and thyristors TP3, TP4, TN3,
and TN4 are forward biased. Whenever the triggering
pulse is applied to thyristors TP3 and TP4 at wt = p + a,
these devices will be turned ON and the current starts to
flow in the positive direction through the following path:
B - TP 3 - P - Load - Q - TP 4 - A
At wt = 2p, thyristors TP3 and TP4 will not be turned
OFF. Due to presence of inductance, the conduction of
thyristor TP3 and TP4 will be extended. At wt = p + a
+ g the load current becomes is zero and thyristor TP3 Fig. 9.43 Simplified equivalent circuit of
and TP4 are naturally commuted and turned OFF. The Fig. 9.42
load current is zero during the period p + a + g £ wt
£ 2p + a.
Since thyristor TP1, and TP2 and TP3 and TP4 conduct for g duration where g < 180°, the load current
is discontinuous. In the same way, thyristors TN1, and TN2 and TN3 and TN4 are sequentially turned ON
and each thyristor conducts for g duration. The instant of gate pulse, conduction period of thyristors
are given in Table 9.2.

Thyristors Instant of Conduction region Conduction Path of current flow
gate pulses angle
g = b - a and
wt = a a £ wt £ b
TP1, and TP2 g < 180∞ A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
w t = 2p + a 2p + a £ w t £ 2p + g
g and g < 180∞
TP3 and TP4 wt = p + a p + a £ wt £ p + g g and g < 180∞ B - TP 3 - P - Load - Q - TP 4 - A
TN1 and TN2 w t = 4p + a 4p + a £ w t £ 4p + g g and g < 180∞ A - TN 1 - Q - Load - P - TN 2 - B

w t = 3p + a 3p + a £ w t £ 3p + g g and g < 180∞
TN3 and TN4 B - TN 3 - Q - Load - P - TN 4 - A
w t = 5p + a 5p + a £ w t £ 5p + g g and g < 180∞
1
Fig. 9.44 Gate pulses of thyristors and output voltage waveform for RL load when fo = fs and discontinu-
ous current 3
Continuous load current mode The triggering pulses of thyristors, conduction period of
thyristors and output voltage waveform for resistive-inductive (RL) load are depicted in Fig. 9.45.
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, A is positive with respect to B and thyristors TP1,
TP2, TN1, and TN2 are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristors TP1 and TP2
at wt = a, these devices will be turned ON and the current starts to buildup in the positive direction
through the following path
A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
At wt = p, the input voltage becomes zero and after wt = p thyristors TP1 and TP2 are not reverse
biased due to inductive load. However load current is not zero at wt = p due to presence of inductive
load. If load is highly inductive, the conduction of thyristor can be extended up to wt = p + a with
the conduction angle g = p.
1
Fig. 9.45 Gate pulses of thyristors and output voltage waveform for R-L load when fo = fs and continuous current
4
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, B is positive with respect to A and thyristors TP3,
TP4, TN3, and TN4 are forward biased. When the triggering pulse is applied to thyristor TP3 and TP4 at
wt = p + a, these devices will be turned ON and thyristors TP1 and TP2 are turned OFF due to reverse
biased. Then the current starts to flow in the positive direction through the following path:
B - TP 3 - P - Load - Q - TP 4 - A
At wt = 2p, thyristors TP3 and TP4 will not be turned OFF. Due to presence of inductance, the
conduction of thyristors TP3 and TP4 will be extended up to wt = 2p + a with the conduction angle
g = p. Since thyristors TP1 and TP2 and TP3 and TP4 conducts for 180° duration, the load current is
continuous. Similarly, thyristors TN1 and TN2 and TN3 and TP4 are sequentially turned ON and each
thyrsistor conducts for 180° duration. The instant of gate pulse, conduction period of thyristors are
given in Table 9.3.
Thyristors Instant of Conduction region Conduction Path of current flow

gate pulses angle
wt = a a £ wt £ p + a g =p
TP1, and TP2 A - TP1 - P - Load - Q - TP 2 - B
w t = 2p + a 2p + a £ w t £ 3p + a g =p
wt = p + a p + a £ w t £ 2p + a g =p
TP3 and TP4 B - TP 3 - P - Load - Q - TP 4 - A
w t = 3p + a 3p + a £ w t £ 4p + a g =p
w t = 4p + a 4p + a £ w t £ 5p + a g =p
TN1 and TN2 A - TN 1 - Q - Load - P - TN 2 - B
w t = 6p + a 6p + a £ w t £ 7p + a g =p
w t = 7p + a 7p + a £ w t £ 8p + a g =p
TN3 and TP4 B - TN 3 - Q - Load - P - TN 4 - A
w t = 5p + a 5p + a £ w t £ 6p + a g =p
Example 9.18 A single-phase bridge cycloconverter is fed from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and a load of 20 W
is connected with the cycloconverter. The frequency of output voltage is half of the input frequency. If the firing
angle a = 90°, determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of load current, (c) rms current of each
thyristor and (d) input power factor
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, R = 20 w and a = 90°
(a) rms value of output voltage
1/2
È1 p ˘
Vo = Í Ú ( 2V sin w t )2 dw t ˙ where V is the rms input voltage
ÎÍ p a ˚˙
1/2
È1 sin 2a ˆ ˘
or Vo = V Í ÊÁ p - a + ˜
Î p Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
1/2
È1 Ê p sin 2 ¥ 90 ˆ ˘
= 220 ¥ Í Á p - + = 155.56 V
Îp Ë 2 2 ¯˜ ˚˙
Vo 155.56
(b) rms value of load current is I o = = A = 7.778 A
R 20
Io 7.778
(c) rms value of current for each converter is I oP = = A = 5.499 A
2 2
I oP
7.778
rms current of each thyristor is I oT = = A = 3.889 A
2 2
(d) Input VA is VIo = 220 ¥ 7.778 VA = 1711.16 VA
Power output is I o2 R = 7.7782 ¥ 20 Watt = 1209.94 Watt
power output 1209.94

Input power factor = = = 0.707 (lagging)
input VA 1711.16
9.16 three-PhaSe to Single-PhaSe CyCloConverter

Single-phase to single-phase cycloconverters are commonly used in low power industrial applications
but these converters are not suitable for medium and high power applications. Therefore, three-phase
to single-phase cycloconverters are developed for medium and high power applications. There are two
types of three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters such as
1. Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters using two three-phase half-wave converters
2. Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters using two three-phase bridge converters
Figure 9.46 shows a three-phase to single-phase
cycloconverter circuit using two three-phase
half-wave converters. This circuit consists of two
converter groups such as positive group converter
and negative group converter. Each group consists
of three thyristors as shown in Fig. 9.47. This circuit
operates as three phase half-wave cycloconverter.
During the positive half-cycle of output voltage,
SCRs T1, T2, and T3 will conduct and in the negative
half-cycle of output voltage, SCRs T4, T5, and T6 will
conduct. Each SCR will conduct for 120° duration Fig. 9.46 Three-phase to single-phase cyclocon-
of the input voltage as SCR will conduct only when verter circuit using two three-phase
anode voltage is greater than cathode voltage or the half-wave converters
device is forward biased. The positive half-cycle of
output voltage is controlled by firing SCRs T1, T2, and T3. The negative half-cycle of output voltage
is controlled by firing SCRs T4, T5, and T6.
Fig. 9.47 Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter circuit using two three-phase half-wave converters
Figure 9.48 shows the output voltage waveform of three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter circuit
using two three-phase half-wave converters. The positive group converter generates positive output
voltage and the negative group converter generates negative output voltage. For resistive load, the
current waveform will be similar to output voltage waveform. Since the output voltage is not purely
Fig. 9.48 Output voltage waveform at firing angle aP
sinusoidal, the output voltage contains harmonics. Hence the power factor will be low with increasing
the delay angle.
Figure 9.49 shows a three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter circuit using two three-phase bridge
converters. This circuit consists of two converter groups such as positive group converter and negative
group converter. Each group consists of six thyristors. This circuit operates as three-phase full-wave
cycloconverter. During the positive half-cycle of output voltage, SCRs TP1, TP2, TP3, TP4, TP5, and
TP6 will conduct and in the negative half-cycle of output voltage, SCRs TN1, TN2, TN3, TN4, TN5, and
TN6 will conduct. Each SCR will conduct for 120° duration of the input voltage as SCR will conduct
only when anode voltage is greater than cathode voltage or the device is forward biased. The positive
half-cycle of output voltage is controlled by firing SCRs TP1, TP2, TP3, TP4, TP5, and TP6. The negative
half-cycle of output voltage is controlled by firing TN1, TN2, TN3, TN4, TN5, and TN6.
Fig. 9.49 Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter circuit using two three-phase bridge converters
Figure 9.50 shows an output voltage waveform of 10 Hz. The positive converter operates for the
positive half period of output voltage and it acts as a normal three-phase bridge controlled rectifier
Fig. 9.50 Output voltage waveform at firing angle aP and aN
with the delay angle of aP. The negative converter operates for the negative half period of output
voltage and it also acts as a normal three-phase bridge controlled rectifier with the delay angle of aN.
The sum of aP and aN is 180°, i.e.,
aP + aN = 180°
Since the output voltage is not purely sinusoidal, the output voltage contains harmonics. Hence the
power factor will be low with increasing the delay angle. To improve the performance of three-phase
to single-phase cycloconverters and to get nearly sinusoidal output voltage, the delay angle of thyristors
will be varied as per requirement.
When phase angle control is applied in three-phase to single-phase cyclcoconverter, very good
voltage control is possible. Thyristors can be turned ON in such delay angles, the fundamental output
voltage or current for resistive load will be nearly sinusoidal. Actually, the delay angles are varied in
each half cycle to get the desired sinusoidal output voltage. Hence the harmonics of the output voltage
can be minimised. The delay angle of SCRs may be computed after comparing a cosine control signal
at supply frequency with a sinusoidal reference voltage at output frequency.
To convert three-phase ac supply at frequency fs into a single-phase ac supply at lower frequency
(fo < fs), the firing angle of three thyristors of three-phase half wave converter can be varied progressively
in steps. Therefore, a special gating circuit must be designed to introduce progressive firing angle
delay. Figure 9.51 shows the output voltage waveform for a three-phase half-wave cycloconverter and
mean output voltage waveforms. It is clear from Fig. 9.51 that there are eight half cycles of supply
frequency in positive half period of mean output voltage. As a result, the output frequency is equal to
1
fo = f where fs is the supply frequency
8 s
Fig. 9.51 Output voltage and mean output voltage waveforms for a three-phase half-wave cycloconverter
The magnitude of progressive change in firing angle is given by

Reduction factor in frequency ¥ 120°
output frequency
where, Reduction factor in frequency =
input frequency
fo 1
Since the reduction factor is = , the progressive step variation in the firing angle is
fs 8
1
¥ 120∞ = 15∞
8
The firing angle at point A is 90°. Then the firing angle at point B is 90° – 15° = 75°. Similarly, the
firing angle at point C is 75 – 15 = 60°, at point D is 60° – 15° = 45°, at point E is 45° – 15° = 30°,
at point F is 30 – 15° = 15°, and at point G is 15° – 15° = 0°.
Hence a small delay in firing angle is introduced at B, C, D, E, F, and G. At point A, firing angle
a = 90° and the mean output voltage is zero. At point G, the firing angle a = 0° and the mean output
voltage is maximum. Therefore, the mean output can be expressed by
Vo = Vdo cos a
where Vdo is the maximum output voltage and a is delay angle.
After the point G, the firing angle is again progressively increased, firing angle at point H is 0° +
15° = 15°, at point I is 15° + 15° = 30°, at point J is 30° + 15° = 45°, at point K is 45° + 15° = 60°,
at point L is 60° + 15° = 75°, and at point M is 75° + 15° = 90°. At point G, the firing angle a = 0°
and the mean output voltage is maximum. As the firing angle is progressively increased, at point M
a = 90° and the mean output voltage is zero. The firing angle at point A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K,
L and M are given below
at A, a = 90∞ at B, a = 75∞ at C , a = 60∞ at D, a = 45∞ at E, a = 30∞
at F , a = 15∞ at G, a = 0∞ at H , a = 15∞ at I , a = 30∞ at J , a = 45∞
at K , a = 60∞ at L, a = 75∞ at M , a = 90∞
Figure 9.52 shows a complete of low frequency output voltage waveform which contains fundamental
frequency (mean) output voltage and harmonics components and the mean output current waveform.
Each half cycle of low frequency output voltage has eight half cycle of supply frequency. During the
positive half cycle of low frequency output voltage, current flows through positive (P) group converter.
Similarly, negative group (N) converter allow to flow of current during the negative half cycle of low
frequency output voltage. This cycloconverter can able to provide current ant any power factor load.
In Fig. 9.52, the mean current is lagging from mean output voltage.
In a thyristor converter circuit, current can flow in one direction only. Therefore, to flow the current
in both direction during one complete cycle of load current, two three-phase half wave converters
(positive group converter and negative group converter) are used as shown in Fig. 9.53. The positive
group converter allows to flow current during positive half cycle of low frequency output current.
Similarly, the negative group converter allows to flow current during negative half cycle of low
frequency output current.
Fig. 9.52 A complete of low frequency output voltage and current waveform for a three-phase half-wave
cycloconverter
Fig. 9.53 Three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using three-phase half-wave converters

It is clear from Fig. 9.52 that the mean current is negative for certain duration and it is also positive
for certain duration though the mean output voltage is positive. When the output current is positive, the
positive group converter works. At this condition, the positive group converter works as rectifier when
the output voltage is positive. The positive group converter acts as inverter when the output voltage is
negative. When the output current is negative, the negative group converter conducts. Therefore, the
negative group converter works as rectifier when the output voltage is negative and acts as inverter
when the output voltage is positive. Consequently, the output voltage and current have same polarity
for rectifier operation and opposite polarity for inverter operation as depicted in Fig. 9.52.
In a dual converter, two phase controlled converter are connected in anti-parallel. Both the converters
can be controlled simultaneously to generate the required output voltage. The output voltage of the
two converters has the same average voltage, but at the same instant, output voltage is different as
the output voltage waveforms are function of time. Therefore, there is a net potential difference in
output voltage between two converters. Due to a net voltage, a circulating current flows in the two
converters just like dual converters. The circulating current can be limited by removing the gating
signal from the idle converter or by inserting an inter group reactor between positive and negative
group converters as shown in Fig. 9.47. If the average values of output voltage of two converters are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, the sum of the firing angles is 180°. When aN and aP are the
firing angle of positive and negative group converters respectively, aN + aP = 180°.
9.17 three-PhaSe to three-PhaSe CyCloConverter

To get three-phase low frequency output voltage, three sets of three-phase to single-phase half-wave
cycloconverter circuits are inter connected as shown in Fig. 9.53. Each phase of the three-phase
output must be 120° phase shifted. Since each three-phase to single-phase half-wave cycloconverter
circuit requires six SCRs, a total of 18 thyristors are required to develop a three-phase to three-phase
cycloconverter using three-phase half-wave converters as depicted in Fig. 9.54.
Fig. 9.54 Three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using three-phase half-wave converters
Figure 9.55 shows a three-phase to three-phase cycloconverters using 36 thyristors. This circuit is
also called as six-pulse three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter. In this circuit, each phase consists
of a three-phase dual converter with two inter group reactors (IGR). Figure 9.55 shows a six-pulse
three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using 36 thyristors when load phases are not interconnected.
In case load is connected in star or delta, each phase group must be supplied separately from three
secondary windings. Figure 9.56 shows a three-phase bridge cycloconverter using 36 thyristors
when load is connected in star. The amplitude of output voltage in a three-phase bridge converter
Fig. 9.55 Six pulse three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using 36 thyristors when load phases are
not interconnected
Fig. 9.56 Six pulse three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using 36 thyristors when load phases are
not interconnected
cycloconverter (Fig. 9.56) is double of the amplitude of output voltage in a three-phase half-wave
converter cycloconverter. If same rating thyristors are used in both cyccloconverters, the total VA rating
of three-phase bridge converter cycloconverter is double of that of three-phase half-wave converter
cycloconverter. The three-phase bridge converter cycloconverter provides a smooth variation of output
voltage, but the control circuit is very expensive due to complexity.
9.18 outPut voltage of a CyCloConverter

In a three-phase half-wave converter, each
phase conducts for 120° or 2p radians of

3
cycle of 2p radians. Similarly, in a m-phase
half-wave converter, each phase conducts for

360∞ or 2p radians of cycle of 2p radians.
m m
Figure 9.57 shows the output voltage of a Fig. 9.57 Output voltage of a m-phase half-wave con-
verter with firing angle a
m-phase half-wave converter with firing angle
a. Assume OO¢ is the time origin at which supply voltage is maximum.
The instantaneous value of phase voltage is
v = Vm cos w t = 2V cos w t
where Vm is maximum phase voltage and V is rms phase voltage.
p p
At firing angle a = 0°, the switching device, i.e., thyristor conducts from - to . Then for
m m
p p
firing angle a, the switching device conducts from - + a to + a . Therefore, the average value
of output voltage is equal to m m
p
+a
1 m
Vo = Ú Vm cos w t ◊ dw t
2p / m p
- +a
m
Ê mˆ Êpˆ
or Vo = Vm Á ˜ sin Á ˜ cos a
Ëp¯ Ë m¯
When firing angle a = 0°, the average value of output voltage is
Ê mˆ Êpˆ Ê mˆ Êpˆ
Vo|at ◊a = 0∞ = Vm Á ˜ sin Á ˜ cos 0 = Vm Á ˜ sin Á ˜ as cos0 = 1
Ëp¯ Ë m¯ Ëp¯ Ë m¯
Ê mˆ Êpˆ
= 2V Á ˜ sin Á ˜
Ëp¯ Ë m¯
The fundamental rms value per phase is equal to
VOat a = 0 1 Ê mˆ Êpˆ
Vorms = = 2V Á ˜ sin Á ˜
2 2 Ëp¯ Ë m¯
Ê mˆ Êpˆ
or, Vorms = V ÁË ˜¯ sin ÁË ˜¯ where V is the phase voltage.
p m
Example 9.19 In a three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters, a three-pulse positive group converter and
a three-pulse negative group converter are used. Each converter is fed from a delta/star transformer with turn
ratio 1:1. If the input ac supply voltage is 440 V, 50 Hz, R = 1 W and |wL| = 2 W, calculate (a) rms output voltage,
(b) rms output current and (c) output power. Due to commutation overlap and thyristor turn-OFF timing, the firing
angle in the inversion mode does not greater than 160°.
Solution
(a) Per phase input voltage of transformer is 440 V
Per phase input voltage to converter is 440 V
Voltage reduction factor is r = cos(180 – 160) = cos 20°
In a three-phase three-pulse converter, m = 3 and the rms value of fundamental voltage is
Ê mˆ Êpˆ Ê 3ˆ Êpˆ
Vorms = rV Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = cos 20∞ ¥ 440 ¥ Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = 342.105 V
Ëp¯ Ë m¯ Ëp¯ Ë 3¯
Ê wL ˆ Ê 2ˆ
(b) Load impedance is Z = R 2 + (w L )2 – tan -1 Á = 12 + (2)2 – tan -1 Á ˜ = 2.236–63.43∞
Ë R ˜¯ Ë 1¯
Rms output current is
Vorms 342.105
I orms = = = 152.998– - 63.43∞
Z 2.236–63.43∞
(c) Output power is
I o 2rms R = 152.9982 ¥ 1 = 23408.38 Watt
Example 9.20 In a three-phase to single-phase cycloconverters, a three-pulse positive group converter and
a three-pulse negative group converter are used. Each converter is fed from a delta/star transformer with turn
ratio 2:1. If the input ac supply voltage is 400 V, 50 Hz, R = 2.5 W and |wL| = 2 W, calculate (a) rms output voltage,
(b) rms output current and (c) output power. Due to commutation overlap and thyristor turn-OFF timing, the firing
angle in the inversion mode does not greater than 160°.
Solution
(a) Per phase input voltage of transformer is 400 V
400
Per phase input voltage to converter is Vph = = 200 V
2
Voltage reduction factor is r = cos(180 – 160) = cos 20°
In a three-phase three-pulse converter, m = 3 and the rms value of fundamental voltage is
Ê mˆ Ê p ˆ Ê 3ˆ Êp ˆ
Vorms = rV Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = cos 20∞ ¥ 200 ¥ Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = 155.502 V
Ë p ¯ Ë m¯ Ëp ¯ Ë 3¯
Ê wL ˆ Ê 2 ˆ
(b) Load impedance is Z = R 2 + (w L )2 – tan -1 Á = 2.52 + (2)2 – tan -1 Á = 3.201–38.659∞
Ë R ˜¯ Ë 2.5 ˜¯
Rms output current is

V 155.502
I orms = orms = = 48.579–- 38.659∞
Z 3.201–38.659∞
(c) Output power is
I o 2rms R = 48.5792 ¥ 1 = 5899.79 Watt
Example 9.21 A six-pulse cycloconverter is supplied from a 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is delivering
50 A to a single-phase resistive load. The source inductance is 1.5 mH. Determine the output voltage at firing
angle (a) a = 0° and (b) a = 45°.
Solution
(a) For a = 0°, peak value of output voltage for a three pulse converter is
Vo = 2V Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = 2 ¥ 440 Á ˜ sin Á ˜ = 514.783 V
Ë p ¯ Ë m¯ Ëp ¯ Ë 3¯
Voltage reduction due to source inductance is
3w Ls 3 ¥ 2p ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10 -3
Io = ¥ 50 = 0.45 V
p p
The peak value of output voltage is
Vo max = 514.783 - 0.45 = 514.333 V
V 514.333
The rms value of output voltage is o max = = 363.74 V
2 2
(b) For a = 45°, peak value of output voltage for a three-pulse converter is
Vo - at _ a = 2V Á ˜ sin Á ˜ cos a = 2 ¥ 440 Á ˜ sin Á ˜ cos 45∞ = 364 V
Ë p ¯ Ë m¯ Ëp ¯ Ë 3¯
Voltage reduction due to source inductance is
3w Ls 3 ¥ 2p ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10 -3
Io = ¥ 50 = 0.45 V
p p
The peak value of output voltage is
Vo max = 364 - 0.45 = 363.55 V
V 363.55
The rms value of output voltage is o max = = 257.107 V
2 2
summary
d AC voltage controllers control the magnitude of output voltage from a fixed voltage ac source. The voltage
magnitude can be controlled by on-off (Integral Cycle) control or phase angle control.
d Integral cycle control single phase ac voltage controller, phase controlled single phase and three phase ac
voltage controllers with R load and RL load are discussed elaborately.
d Application of ac voltage controller in tap changer and ac chopper are incorporated in this chapter.
d Cycloconverter is a direct frequency converter or frequency changer which converts ac power at
fixed frequency to ac power at variable frequency, single phase to single phase step-up and step-down
cycloconverters, three phase to single phase cycloconverters, three phase to three phase cycloconverters are
explained in detail.
9.1 Phase controlled single-phase ac voltage controller converts
(a) fixed frequency ac voltage to variable frequency ac voltage
(b) fixed frequency ac voltage to fixed frequency variable ac voltage
(c) variable frequency ac voltage to fixed frequency ac voltage
(d) variable frequency ac voltage to variable frequency ac voltage
9.2 When an induction motor and a heater are supplied from a phase controlled single-phase ac voltage controllers,
(a) only fundamental component of output voltage and current is useful in induction motor but funda-
mental and harmonics are useful in heater
(b) fundamental and harmonics are useful in induction motor but only fundamental component of out-
put voltage and current is useful in heater
(c) both fundamental and harmonics are useful in induction motor and heater
(d) only harmonics are useful in induction motor and heater
9.3 In an integral cycle ac voltage controller, the switch is ON for n number of half cycles and the switch is
OFF for m number of half cycles. The output voltage is equal to
n+m n-m n n
(a) Vo = V (b) Vo = V (c) Vo = V (d) Vo = V
n n n-m n+m
9.4 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from a voltage source 200 2 sin 314t and is connected to a
load resistance of R. When the firing angle of ac voltage controller is 90°, the power output to load is
2002 (200 2)2 (200 2)2
(a) (b) (c) 2002R (d)
2R R R2
9.5 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from a voltage source 200 sin 314t and is connected to a load
resistance of 10 W. When the firing angle of ac voltage controller is 90°, the power output to load in Watt is
(a) 1000 (b) 750 (c) 500 (d) 250
In a furnace the heating resistance is 20 W which connected to 230 V, 50 Hz ac through a integral cycle
control ac controller. Assume the switch is ON for four half cycles and OFF for two half cycles.
9.6 Output voltage is equal to
(a) 100 V (b) 125 V (c) 150 V (d) 188 V
9.7 Power factor is
(a) 0.81 leading (b) 0.81 lagging (c) 0.71 leading (d) 0.71 lagging
9.8 RMS value of load current
(a) 9.4 A (b) 8.4 A (c) 7.4 A (d) 6.4 A
9.9 A single phase voltage controller is used for controlling the power flow from 230 V, 50 Hz source into a
load consisting of R = 5 W and wl = 3W. The load current will be maximum at the firing angle a =
Ê 3ˆ
(a) 0° (b) tan -1 Á ˜ (c) 90° (d) 180°
Ë 4¯
9.10 Average value of output voltage of half-wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
2V 2V 2V
(a) 0 (b) (cos a - 1) (c) (cos a + 1) (d) (cos a - 1)
2p 2p p
9.11 Average value of output voltage of full wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
2V 2V 2V
(a) 0 (b)(cos a - 1) (c) (cos a + 1) (d) (cos a - 1)
2p 2p p
9.12 RMS value of output voltage of half-wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
1/2 1/2
È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘ È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
(a) V Í ÁË 2p + a + ˜ ÁË p - a + ˜
2 ¯ ˙˚
(b) V Í
Î 2p Î 2p 2 ¯ ˙˚
1/2 1/2
È1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘ È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
(c) V Í ÁË 2p - a + ˜ (d) V Í ÁË 2p - a + ˜
Îp 2 ¯ ˙˚ Î 2p 2 ¯ ˙˚
9.13 Power factor of half-wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
1/2 1/2
È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘ È 1 Ê sin 2a ˆ ˘
ÁË 2p - a + ˜ (b) Í Á p - a +
2 ˜¯ ˙˚
(a) Í
Î 2p 2 ¯ ˙˚ Î 2p Ë
1/2 1/2
(c) Í Á 2p - a + (d) Í ÁË 2p + a + ˜
Îp Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚ Î 2p 2 ¯ ˙˚
9.14 RMS value of output voltage of full-wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
1/2 1/2
(a) V Í ÁË p - a + ˜ (b) V Í ÁË p - a + ˜
Îp 2 ¯ ˙˚ Î 2p 2 ¯ ˙˚
1/2 1/2
(c) V ÍÈ 1 ÁÊ 2p - a + sin 2a ˜ˆ ˙˘ (d) V ÍÈ 1 ÁÊ 2p - a + sin 2a ˜ˆ ˙˘
Îp Ë 2 ¯˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
9.15 Power factor of half-wave ac voltage controller at firing angle a is equal to
1/2 1/2
(a) ÈÍ 1 ÊÁ p - a + sin 2a ˆ˜ ˘˙ (b) ÈÍ 1 ÊÁ p - a + sin 2a ˆ˜ ˘˙
Îp Ë 2 ¯˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
1/2 1/2
(c) ÍÈ 1 ÁÊ 2p - a + sin 2a ˜ˆ ˙˘ (d) ÍÈ 1 ÁÊ 2p - a + sin 2a ˜ˆ ˙˘
Îp Ë 2 ¯ ˚ Î 2p Ë 2 ¯˚
9.16 In a single-phase voltage controller with RL load, ac output power can be controlled when
(a) firing angle a > load phase angle f and conduction angle g = 180°
(b) firing angle a < load phase angle f and conduction angle g = 180°
(c) firing angle a > load phase angle f and conduction angle a < f
(d) firing angle a < load phase angle f and conduction angle g < 180°
9.17 A single-phase ac voltage controller using two thyristors in antiparallel can be operated as a half-wave
controlled rectifier when
(a) load is R and pulse gating is used (b) load is R and continuous gating is used
(c) load is RL, pulse gating is used and a < f (d) load is RL and continuous gating is used
9.18 In a single-phase ac voltage controller, firing angle a, extinction angle b and conduction angle g are
related as
(a) g = b + a (b) g = b - a (c) a + b + g = 0 (d) b = g - a
9.19 In a single-phase ac voltage controller with RL load, the ac output power can be controlled if
(a) a > f and g = 180° (b) a > f and g < 180° (c) a < f and g = 180° (d) a < f and g < 180°
9.20 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from a 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and is connected with a load
of R = 4 W and L = 3 mH. The control range of firing angle is equal to
(a) 13.26∞ < a < 180∞ (b) 0∞ < a < 180∞ (c) 13.26∞ < a < 90∞ (b) 0∞ < a < 90∞
9.21 In a single-phase ac voltage controller with purely inductive load, the control range of firing angle is
(a) 0∞ < a < 180∞ (b) 90∞ < a < 180∞ (b) 0∞ < a < 90∞ (d) 45∞ < a < 90∞
9.22 Integral cycle control ac voltage controller is suitable for
(a) loads with high time constants and limited range control (b) very fast in control action
(c) loads with very small time constants (d) R load
9.23 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer.
9.24 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) I-4, II-1, III-2, IV-3 (b) I-4, II-1, III-3, IV-2
(c) I-1, II-4, III-2, IV-3 (d) I-4, II-2, III-1, IV-3
9.25 A cycloconverter can convert power from

(a) low frequency to high frequency
(b) high frequency to low frequency
(c) supply frequency to variable frequency which is fraction of supply frequency
9.26 Cycloconverter is a frequency converter from
(a) Higher to lower frequency with two stage conversion
(b) Higher to lower frequency with one stage conversion
(c) Lower to higher frequency with two stage conversion
(d) Lower to higher frequency with one stage conversion
9.27 Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Natural commutation is used in both step-up and step-down cycloconverters
(b) Forced commutation is used in both step-up and step-down cycloconverters
(c) Natural commutation is used in step-down cycloconvertes and Forced commutation is used in
(d) Forced commutation is used in step-down cycloconvertes and Natural commutation is used in
9.28 To generate approximately sinusoidal output voltage,
(a) in a single phase to single-phase cycloconverters, firing angle may be varied
(b) in a single phase to single-phase cycloconverters, firing angle may be constant
(c) in a three phase to single-phase cycloconverters, firing angle may be varied
(d) in a three phase to single phase cycloconverters, firing angle may be constant
9.29 A single phase to single-phase cycloconverter using bridge converter requires
(a) 4 SCRs (b) 8 SCRs (c) 6 SCRs (d) 18 SCRs
9.30 A three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter using three-phase bridge converter requires
9.31 A three phase to single-phase cycloconverter using three-phase half-wave converter requires
9.32 A three phase to three-phase cycloconverter using three-phase half-wave converter requires
9.33 A three phase to three-phase cycloconverter using three-phase bridge-wave converter requires
9.34 Three phase to three-phase cycloconverters using 18 thyristors and 36 thyristors have the same voltage
and current ratings for thyristors. Then the ratio of VA rating of 36 thyristors to that 18 thyristors is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 8
9.35 If aN and aP are the firing angle of positive and negative group converters respectively, then
(a) a N + a P = 180∞ (b) a N + a P > 180∞
(c) a N + a P < 180∞ (d) a N + a P = 360∞
(a) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
A. Controlled rectifier 1. Induction heating

B. Cycloconverter 2. Electric car
C. Chopper 3. Rolling mill drive
D. Inverter 4. Aircraft power supply
(a) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B (b) 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A
(c) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D (d) 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
(a) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1 (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
A. Controlled rectifier 1. Solar cells

B. Cycloconverter 2. Ceiling fan drive
C. Voltage controller 3. High power ac drive
D. Inverter 4. Magnet power supply
(a) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2 (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
(c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 (d) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
A. Controlled rectifier 1. Illumination control

B. Chopper 2. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
C. Voltage controller 3. Fork-lift truck
D. Inverter 4. Hydrogen production
9.41 For a single-phase ac voltage controller, match List I with List II and select the correct answer.
(a) 1-D, 2-C, 3-A, 4-B (b) 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A (c) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D (d) 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
1. R Load
2. R-L load with a > f
3. L load with a > f
4. R-L load with a < f
(a) 1-B, 2-D, 3-A, 4-C (b) 1-B, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A (c) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D (d) 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
Fill in the Blanks

9.1 AC voltage controller using SCRs is also equivalent to an ______.
9.2 In ac voltage controllers, thyristors or triacs are ______ commutated.
9.3 The control strategies of ac voltage controllers are ______ and ______.
9.4 AC voltage controllers are used in ______.

9.5 In ac voltage controllers, the control range of firing angle is ______.
9.6 A single phase ac voltage controller with purely inductive load is commonly used as ______.
9.7 The single-phase ac voltage controller which consists of one thyristor T1 in antiparallel with one diode
D1 is called single phase ______ .
9.8 Cycloconverter is known as ______.
9.9 In step-down cycloconverter, the output frequency fo is ______ than the supply (input) frequency fs.
9.10 In step-up cycloconverter, the output frequency fo is ______ than the supply (input) frequency fs
9.11 When aN and aP are the firing angle of positive and negative group converters respectively, aN + aP =.
9.12 The output voltage of a m-phase half wave converter with firing angle a is ______.
9.13 AC voltage controllers are used to convert ______ frequency alternating voltage directly to variable
output voltage at ______ frequency.
9.14 A single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller consists of one ______ and one ______ in antiparallel.
9.15 A single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller consists of two thyristors connected in ______.
9.16 A three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter using three sets of three-phase half-wave circuits employing
a total no. of ______ thyristors.
9.17 A converter circuit which convertes input power from one frequency to output power at different
frequency is called ______.
9.18 A single phase to single-phase cycloconverter using bridge circuits can be developed by employing a
total no of ______ thyristors.
9.19 A single phase to single-phase cycloconverter using mid-point circuits can be developed by employing
a total number of ______ thyristors.
9.20 Three phase to single-phase cycloconverter using two sets of three-phase half circuits can be developed
using ______ thyristors.
9.21 Three phase to three-phase using three sets of six-pulse converters can be made by using ______
thyristors.
9.22 If there is an overlap angle m, the firing angle of inverting mode converter in cycloconverter is ______.
9.23 The fundamental rms value of output voltage of a cycloconverter is equal ______.
review Questions
9.1 What is ac voltage controller? What are the types of ac voltage controller?
9.2 (a) What is integral cycle control? Derive the expression for rms output voltage of integral cycle ac
voltage controller.
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of integral cycle control or ON-OFF control?
(c) Write applications of integral cycle ac voltage controller.
9.3 (a) What is phase controlled single phase ac voltage controller?
(b) What are the different circuit configurations of phase controlled single phase ac voltage controller?
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of phase control?
9.4 (a) Draw the single phase unidirectional ac voltage controller with R load and explain its working prin-
ciple with waveforms
(b) Derive the expression for rms output voltage of unidirectional ac voltage controller.
9.5 (a) Draw the single-phase bidirectional ac voltage controller with R load and explain its working prin-
ciple with waveforms.
(b) Derive the expression for rms output voltage of bidirectional ac voltage controller.
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of unidirectional and bidirectional ac voltage control-
lers? Which one of these is preferred and why?
9.6 Explain the working principle of burst firing for a single-phase ac voltage controller. Derive an expression
for the rms value of output voltage.
9.7 Define power factor. Derive an expression for power factor of a bidirectional ac voltage controllers with
R load.
9.8 What is extinction angle? What is the effect of load inductance on the performance of ac voltage controller?
9.9 Explain the working principle of single-phase ac voltage controller with purely inductive load.
9.10 Discuss the operation of single phase bidirectional ac voltage controller with RL load when (i) a > f and
(ii) a < f. Under what condition the conduction angle g = 180°
9.11 What are the different circuit configurations of phase controlled three-phase ac voltage controller?
9.12 What are the advantages and disadvantages of delta connected converters?
9.13 Draw the circuit diagram of delta connected three-phase ac voltage controller and explain its working
principle with waveforms.
9.14 Draw the circuit diagram of delta connected R load configuration of three-phase ac voltage controller
and explain its working principle with waveforms.
9.15 Draw the circuit diagram of three-phase ac voltage controller with Y load and explain its working
principle with waveforms.
9.16 What is the control range of the firing angle of three-phase bidirectional controllers?
9.17 What is electronic tap changer? What is ac chopper?
9.18 Discuss the operation of a two-stage sequence control of voltage controllers with R load.
9.19 What is cycloconverter? What are the types of cycloconverters?
9.20 What are the advantages and disadvantages of cycloconverters?
9.21 Explain the operating principle of single phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter using bridge
converters. Mention the conduction of various thyristors in the waveforms.
9.22 Discuss the operating principle of single phase to single-phase step-down cycloconverter using bridge
converters. Mention the conduction of various thyristors in the waveforms.
9.23 What are the applications of cycloconverters?
9.24 Explain the operating principle of mid-point-type single phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter.
Mention the conduction of various thyristors in the waveforms.
9.25 Discuss the operating principle of mid-point-type single phase to single-phase step-down cycloconverter.
Mention the conduction of various thyristors in the waveforms.
9.26 (a) Describe the operating principle of three phase to single-phase cycloconverter using three-phase
half-wave converter. Mention the conduction of various thyristors in the waveforms.
(b) Derive the average output voltage of a m phase cycloconverter.
9.27 In a furnace the heating resistance is 10 W which connected to 230 V, 50 Hz ac through a integral
cycle control ac controller. Assume the switch is ON for three half cycles and OFF for two half cycles.
Determine the following parameters:
(a) Output voltage (b) Power factor (c) RMS value of load current
9.28 A single-phase voltage controller is controlled by integral cycle control. Its input voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz
ac. Assume it is ON for five half cycles and OFF for three half cycles and resistance R is 5 W. Determine
the following parameters:
(a) RMS output voltage (b) Power output (c) Power input
(d) Power factor (e) average and RMS value of thyristor current
9.29 The resistance of 220 V, 5.5 kW furnace is 10 W and the furnace is controlled by integral cycle control.
Determine
(a) the duty ratio for power output is equal to 60% input power and power factor in this duty ratio
(b) the duty ratio for output voltage is equal to 60% rated voltage and power factor in this duty ratio.
9.30 A single-phase ac voltage controller is controlled by brust-firing control. It is used for heating a load of R
= 10 W with input voltage is 220 V, 50 Hz ac. For a load power of 5 kW, find the following parameters:
(a) the duty cycle (b) input power factor (c) average and RMS value of thyristor current
9.31 A single-phase half wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 15 W with an input voltage
of 230 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristor is 30°, find the RMS output voltage, power output at
load, input power factor and average value of output voltage.
9.32 A single phase unidirectional ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 20 W with an input
voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz. If the firing angle of thyristor is 90°, determine (a) the RMS value of output
voltage, (b) power delivered to load, (c) input power factor and average, (d) average value of thyristor
current and (e) average value of diode current.
9.33 A single-phase full wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 5 W with an input voltage
of 220 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristor is 45°, determine the rms output voltage, power
output at load and input power factor.
9.34 A single-phase full wave ac voltage controller has a load of 15 W and the input voltage is 230 V with 50
Hz. If the load power is 5 kW, determine (a) firing angle of thyristors, (b) input power factor and (c) rms
output voltage.
9.35 A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 10 W with an input
voltage of 220 V, 50 Hz. When the firing angle of thyristors is 30°, determine (a) power output at load,
(b) average value of thyristor current and (c) rms value of thyristor current.
9.36 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and connected to RL load.
When R = 4 W and |wL| = 4 W, determine (a) the range of firing angle, (b) maximum value of rms
load current, (c) maximum power and power factor at maximum power output, (d) maximum average
di
thyristor current, (e) maximum rms thyristor current and (f) maximum value of o
dt
9.37 A single-phase ac voltage controller is fed from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply and connected to L load only. If
|wL| = 3 W, determine (a) the control range of firing angle, (b) maximum value of rms load current, (c)
di
maximum average thyristor current, (d) maximum rms thyristor current and (e) maximum value of o .
dt
9.38 A single-phase electronic tap changer as shown in Fig. 9.32 is feeding from a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply
and is connected with a load of R = 20 W and the turns ratio from primary winding to each secondary
winding is unity. If the firing angle of upper thyristors is 25°, determine (a) rms value of output voltage,
(b) rms value of current of upper thyristors, (c) rms value of current of lower thyristors, (d) VA rating of
transformer and (e) power factor.
9.39 A single-phase bridge cycloconverter is fed from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply and a load of 10 W is connected
with the cycloconverter. The frequency of output voltage is half of the input frequency. If the firing angle
a = 60°, determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of load current, (c) rms current of each
thyristor and (d) input power factor.
9.40 A single-phase half-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 7.5 W with an input
voltage of 200 V, 50 Hz. If the firing angle of thyristor is 60°, determine (a) the RMS output voltage,
(b) power delivered to load, (c) input power factor and (d) average value of input current voltage.
9.41 A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is connected with a load of R = 10 W with an input voltage
of 230 V, 50 Hz. Determine (a) the maximum value of average thyristor current, (b) the maximum value
of rms thyristor current, (c) the minimum circuit turn-OFF time for the firing angle a, (d) the ratio of
di
third harmonic voltage to fundamental voltage at a = 45°, (e) the maximum value of of thyristor and
(f) peak inverse voltage of thyristor. dt
9.42 Figure 9.62 shows a converter circuit. Draw the output voltage and current waveforms for the following
conditions:
(a) thyristor T1 is fired at wt = a, 2p + a, 4p + a, 6p + a…
(b) thyristor T2 is fired at w t = 0, 2p , 4p , 6p ......
(c) thyristor T1 is fired at wt = a, 2p + a, 4p + a, 6p + a… and thyristor T2 is fired at w t = 0, 2p , 4p , 6p ......
Assume the value of R = 5 W
9.43 A two-stage sequence ac voltage controller is connected to a resistive load of 20 W. The input ac voltage
is 230 V, 50 Hz and turn ratio is 1:1:1. If the firing angle of upper thyristors are 60°, determine (a) rms
output voltage, (b) rms output current, (c) VA rating of transformer and (d) input power factor.
9.44 A two-stage sequence ac voltage controller is connected to a resistive load of 10 W. The input ac voltage
is 220 V, 50 Hz. Turn ratio from primary to each secondary of transformer is unity. If the firing angle
of upper thyristors is 45°, determine (a) rms output voltage, (b) rms output current, (c) VA rating of
transformer and (d) input power factor.
9.45 In a three phase to single-phase cycloconverters, a three-pulse positive group converter and a three-pulse
negative group converter are used. Each converter is fed from a delta/star transformer with turn ratio 1:1.
If the input ac supply voltage is 400 V, 50 Hz, R = 1.5 W and |wL| = 2W, calculate (a) rms output voltage,
(b) rms output current and (c) output power.
Due to commutation overlap and thyristor turn-OFF timing, the firing angle in the inversion mode does
not greater than 160°.
9.46 In a three phase to single-phase cycloconverters, a three-pulse positive group converter and a three-pulse
negative group converter are used. Each converter is fed from a delta/star transformer with turn ratio 2:1.
If the input ac supply voltage is 440 V, 50 Hz, R = 3 W and |wL| = 2 W, calculate (a) rms output voltage,
(b) rms output current and (c) output power.
Due to commutation overlap and thyristor turn-OFF timing, the firing angle in the inversion mode does
not greater than 160°.
9.47 A six pulse cycloconverter is supplied from a 400 V, 50 Hz ac supply and it is delivering 50 A to a single-
phase resistive load. The source inductance is 1.5 mH. Determine the output voltage at firing angle
(a) a = 0° and (b) a = 45°.

9.1 (b) 9.2 (a) 9.3 (d) 9.4 (a) 9.5 (a) 9.6 (d) 9.7 (b)
9.8 (a) 9.9 (a) 9.10 (b) 9.11 (a) 9.12 (d) 9.13 (a) 9.14 (a)
9.15 (a) 9.16 (c) 9.17 (c) 9.18 (b) 9.19 (b) 9.20 (a) 9.21 (b)
9.22 (a) 9.23 (d) 9.24 (a) 9.25 (c) 9.26 (b) 9.27 (c) 9.28 (c)
9.29 (b) 9.30 (d) 9.31 (c) 9.32 (a) 9.33 (b) 9.34 (b) 9.35 (a)
9.36 (a) 9.37 (a) 9.38 (d) 9.39 (a) 9.40 (a) 9.41 (a) 9.42 (a)

9.1 auto transformer 9.2 natural or line
9.3 ON-OFF control or Integral Cycle Control, Phase control
9.4 lighting, temperature, heating and speed control of induction motors
9.5 f < a < 180° 9.6 static VAR compensation 9.7 unidirectional voltage controller
9.8 one-stage frequency changer 9.9 less 9.10 greater
Ê mˆ Ê p ˆ
9.11 180° 9.12 Vo = Vm Á ˜ sin Á ˜ cos a 9.13 fixed, same
Ë p ¯ Ë m¯
9.14 thyristor, diode 9.15 antiparallel 9.16 18
9.17 cycloconverter 9.18 8 9.19 4
9.20 6 9.21 36 9.22 180° – m
Ê mˆ Ê p ˆ
9.23 Vorms = V Á ˜ sin Á ˜
Ë p ¯ Ë m¯
where V is the phase voltage
DC-to-DC Converters
(Choppers)
10
10.1 IntroductIon
Variable voltage dc supply is widely used in electric tractions, trolley cars, golf carts,
electric vehicles, switch mode power supply (SMPS), solar photovoltaic (PV) cell-based
power generation etc. The variable voltage dc supply can be obtained either from fixed
ac supply or from dc supply. The controlled rectifiers can be used to generate variable
voltage dc supply from fixed as source. To obtain a variable dc voltage from a fixed
dc supply, dc to dc converters can be used. Therefore, dc-to-dc converters can convert
a fixed dc voltage into variable dc. This converter is also called a chopper. Generally,
dc-to-dc converters are classified as
1. Step-down chopper
2. Step-up chopper
The basic operating principle of dc-to-dc converter can be represented by
Fig. 10.1. Here, the input voltage is fixed dc voltage and a chopping of supply voltage
is available at the output of dc to dc converter by the switching ON and OFF of any
semiconductor switch. When the semiconductor switch is ON, output voltage is equal to
input voltage. While the semiconductor switch is OFF, output voltage is zero. Hence, a
pulse output voltage is applied to load and the average dc output voltage is controlled by
controlling the ON and OFF times of switch. If the output voltage of a dc-to-dc converter
is less than input voltage, this converter circuit is called as step-down chopper. Whenever
the output voltage of a dc-to-dc converter is greater than input voltage, this converter
circuit is called a step-up chopper.
Fig. 10.1 Block diagram of dc-to-dc converter

The circuit configuration and operating principle of both step-down chopper and step-up chopper
are explained in this chapter. The static semiconductor devices such as thyristors (SCRs), power BJTs,
power MOSFETs and IGBTs are used in the chopper circuit. Usually, the dc-to-dc converters using
thyristors are used for high power applications. The circuit configuration and operating principle of
different choppers using thyristors (SCRs) are also discussed. The linear dc-to-dc converter using
power BJT are used in low power applications. Pulse width modulated dc-to-dc converters are used
in medium level power applications. In this chapter, multiphase choppers and switch mode dc-to-dc
converters such buck, boost, buck-boost and cuk converters are also discussed.
10.2 operatIng prIncIple of dc-to-dc converter

Figure 10.2 shows a circuit diagram of step-down chopper. This circuit consists of a switch (S), a diode
(D), a R-L load. When the switch is ON, the output voltage is equal to input voltage. When switch is
OFF, the power diode operates in the freewheeling mode and the inductor L filters the ripples in load
current. This chopper circuit operates in two different modes such as
1. Mode – I during 0 £ t £ TON and
2. Mode – II during TON £ t £ T
In this circuit, input voltage is fixed and the average output voltage can be controlled by varying the
ON time and OFF time of semiconductor switch. The switching devices may be thyristors (SCRs),
power BJTs, power MOSFETs and IGBTs, etc.
Mode – I (0 £ t £ TON) The gating signal of semicon-
ductor switch S is shown in Fig. 10.3. When the switch S is
closed, the output load current Io start to build up exponen-
tially due to inductance L.
Mode – II (TON £ t £ T) During this mode, switch S is
OFF, diode D is ON and provides a free wheeling path and
current Io starts to decrease.
The voltage and current waveforms Vi, Vo, Io, and ID are
depicted in Fig. 10.3. The average output voltage is equal to Fig. 10.2 Step-down chopper circuit
TON
Vo = Vi
TON + TOFF
where, TON is ON time period of the switch
TOFF is OFF time period of the switch
Vi is the input voltage = V
TON
or Vo = V
T
= TON fV = DV (10.1)
where, T = TON + TOFF is total time period
1
f = is frequency of switching or chopping frequency
T
DC-to-DC Converters (Choppers) 577
Fig. 10.3 Voltage and current waveforms of step-down chopper circuit

Vav V
I av = =D◊
R R
The rms value of the output voltage is
1/2 1/2
È1 T ˘ È 1 TON ˘
Vrms = Í Ú vo2 (t )dt ˙ = Í Ú V 2 dt ˙ = D◊V
T
Î 0 ˚ ÍÎ T 0 ˙˚
RMS load current is
Vrms DV
I rms = =
R R
10.3 control StrategIeS

From the Eq. (10.1), it is clear that the output voltage is directly proportional to the duty cycle. The
output voltage of dc-to-dc converter can be controlled in two different ways such as
1. Time ratio control
2. Current limit control
10.3.1 time ratio control

In the time ratio control method, the ON time period of the switch can be controlled keeping the total
time period constant. This technique is known as pulse width modulation (PWM).The other method of
time ratio control is that either TON or TOFF is kept constant and the total time period T will be varied.
This method is called as frequency modulation. Figure 10.4 shows the waveforms of PWM control
and waveforms of frequency modulation technique is depicted in Fig. 10.5.
Pulse width modulation or constant frequency system In pulse width modulation control
of chopper, the ON time of switch is varied but the total time period is constant. With the variation
of ON time, the average output voltage can be varied as
TON T
Vav = V = ON V where, T = TON + TOFF is constant
TON + TOFF T
1 T 1
In Fig. 10.4(a), the ON time TON = T and duty ratio D = ON = . Then the output voltage is equal
2 T 2
TON V
to Vav = V= .
T 2
1 T 1
In Fig. 10.4(b), the ON time TON = T and duty ratio D = ON = . Subsequently, the output voltage
4 T 4
TON V TON
is Vav = V = . In this control scheme, duty cycle D = can be varied from zero to unity.
T 4 T
Accordingly, the output voltage can also be varied from zero to supply voltage V.
Fig. 10.4 Pulse width modulation control of chopper
Frequency modulation or variable frequency system In frequency modulation control

of chopper, the chopping frequency f or the total time period T is varied. The frequency variation is
possible in two ways such as
1 1
1. ON time TON is kept constant and OFF time TOFF is variable as f = =
T TON + TOFF
2. OFF time TOFF is kept constant and ON time TON is variable
When the ON time of switch is constant but the total time period is varied, the average output voltage is
TON
Vav = V = TON fV where, T = TON Y TOFF and f are variable
T
Figure 10.5 shows the frequency modulation of chopper with ON time constant TON. In
1 TON 1
Fig. 10.5(a), the ON time TON = T and duty ratio D = = . Then the output voltage is equal
4 T 4
TON V
to Vav = V= .
T 4
1 TON 1
In Fig. 10.5(b), the ON time TON = T and duty ratio D = = . Subsequently, the output
2 T 2
TON V TON
voltage is Vav = V = . In this control scheme, duty cycle D = can be varied by varying
T 2 T
total time period.
Fig. 10.5 Frequency modulation of chopper with on-time constant TON
Figure 10.6 shows the frequency modulation of chopper with OFF-time constant TOFF. When the
OFF-time of switch is constant and ON-time of switch is variable, the total time period is also variable.
Subsequently, the average output voltage is
T
Vav = ON V = TON fV where, T = TON Y TOFF and f are variable
T
1 T 1
In Fig. 10.6(a), the on time TON = T and duty ratio D = ON = . Then the output voltage is equal
3 T 3
to Vav = T V
ON
V= .
T 3
1 T 1
In Fig. 10.6(b), the ON time TON = T and duty ratio D = ON = . Subsequently, the output voltage
2 T 2
TON V TON
is Vav = V = . Since duty cycle D = can be varied from zero to unity, the output voltage
T 2 T
can be varied from zero to the supply voltage V.
The frequency modulation of chopper has the following disadvantages over pulse width modulation
of chopper:
1. Since the chopping frequency must be varied in wide range to control the output voltage in
frequency modulation of chopper, the filter design is relatively difficult for wide frequency
variation.
Fig. 10.6 Frequency modulation of chopper with OFF-time constant TOFF
2. If the OFF-time of switch is large in frequency modulation of chopper, the load current will be
discontinuous.
3. To control the duty ratio D, the frequency variation should be very wide. Consequently, the
interference on telephone lines may be occurred.
10.3.2 current limit control

In some dc-to-dc converters, it is necessary to keep the output load current constant. For this, the ON
time period and OFF time period of dc chopper must be controlled in such a way that the switch is
ON when Io is less than Imin and the switch becomes OFF if Io is greater than Imax. Hence the load
current can be varied with in Imin and Imax.
Figure 10.7 shows the current limit control of chopper. The switching frequency of chopper circuit
can be controlled by proper setting of maximum output current Imax and minimum output current Imin.
The ripple current is equal to
DI = Imax – Imin
Fig. 10.7 Current limit control of chopper
To reduce the amplitude of ripple current, the switching frequency will be high and subsequently
the switching loss will be high.
Example 10.1 A dc-to-dc converter as shown in Fig. 10.2 has a resistive load of 10 W and input voltage of
200 V. If the switching frequency is 1 kHz and duty cycle is 60%, determine
(a) average output voltage and current
(b) rms output voltage and current
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, R = 10 W, f = 1 kHz, D = 60% = 0.6
(a) Average output voltage is Vav = DV = 0.6 ¥ 200 = 120 V
V V 200
I av = av = D ◊ = 0.6 ¥ = 12 A
R R 10
(b) rms output voltage is Vrms = DV = 0.6 ¥ 200 = 154.9193 V
rms load current is
Vrms 154.9193
I rms = = = 15.491 A
R 10
Example 10.2 In a step-down chopper, input voltage is 220 V and average output voltage is 140 V.
If the switching frequency is 1 kHz, determine the on time and off time of switch in each cycle.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, Vav = 140 V, f = 1 kHz
TON
Vav = DV = V = TON fV
T
V 140
or, on time of switch TON = av = sec = 0.6363 ms
fV 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 220
1 1
OFF time of switch is TOFF = T - TON = - TON = sec - 0.6363 ms = 0.3637 ms
f 1 ¥ 103
Example 10.3 A 100 V dc chopper operates using current limit control (CLC) strategy, the maximum value
of load current is 250 A and the lower limit of current is 50 A. The ON-time and OFF-time of chopper are 20
ms and 30 ms respectively. Determine (a) the limit of current pulsation, (b) chopping frequency, (c) duty cycle
and (d) output voltage.
Solution
Given: V = 100 V, Imax = 250 A, Imin = 50 A, TON = 20 ms and TOFF = 30 ms
(a) The limit of current pulsation is DI = Imax – Imin = 250 – 50 = 200 A
1 1 1
(b) Chopping frequency is f = = = = 20 Hz
TON + TOFF 20 ms + 30 ms 50 ¥ 10 -3
TON 20 ms
(c) Duty cycle is D = = = 0.4
TON + TOFF 20 ms + 30 ms
(d) Output voltage is Vo = DV = 0.4 ¥ 100 = 40 V

Example 10.4 A chopper circuit as shown in Fig. 10.2 has input voltage of 220 V, and a resistive load of 10 W.
When thyristor is used as a switch, the voltage across thyristor is about 2 V during on condition. If the duty cycle is
0.8, switching frequency is 1 kHz, determine (a) average output voltage (b) average output current, (c) rms output
voltage, (d) rms output current, (e) average thyristor current, (f) rms thyristor current and (g) efficiency of chopper.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, R = 10 W, VS(ON) = 2 V, f = 1 kHz, D = 0.8
(a) Average output voltage is
Vav = D(V - VS (ON) ) = 0.8 ¥ (220 - 2) = 174.4 V
(b) Average load current is
V 174.4
I av = av = = 17.44 A
R 10
(c) rms output voltage is Vrms = D (V - VS (ON) ) = 0.8 ¥ (220 - 2) = 194.9851 V
(d) rms load current is
V 194.9851
I rms = rms = = 19.498 A
R 10
(e) Average thyristor current is equal to average load current = 17.44 A
(f) rms thyristor current is equal to rms load current = 19.498 A
(g) Power output to load is
2
Vrms (194.985)2
PO = = = 3801.91 Watt
R 10
Power input to converter is Pi = VIav = 220 ¥ 17.44 Watt = 3836.8 Watt
P 3801.91
Efficiency of chopper is h = O ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 99.09%
Pi 3836.8
Example 10.5 A step-down chopper has a load resistance of 20 W and input dc voltage is 200 V. When the
chopper switch is ON, the voltage across semiconductor switch is 2 V. If the chopping frequency is 1.5 kHz and
duty ratio is 40%, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) rms output voltage and (c) efficiency of chopper.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, R = 20 W, f = 1.5 kHz, a = D = 40% = 0.4, VS(ON) = 2 V
Vav = a (V - VS (ON) ) = D(V - VS (ON) ) = 0.4(200 - 2) = 79.2 V
(b) rms output voltage is
Vrms = a (V - VS (ON) ) = D (V - VS (ON) ) = 0.4 (200 - 2) = 125.22 V
(c) Power output to resistive load is
2
Vrms 125.222
Po = = = 784 Watt
R 20
V 79.2
Average load current is I av = av = = 3.96 A
R 20
Power input to chopper is
Pi = VI av = 200 ¥ 3.96 = 792 Watt
Efficiency of chopper is
Po 784
h= ¥ 100% = ¥ 100% = 98.98%
Pi 792
10.4 operatIng prIncIple of Step-up chopper

Figure 10.8 shows a circuit diagram of step-up
chopper which consists of a dc supply, inductance
L, switch S, diode D and load. When the switch
S is ON, a large inductance L is connected across
the source voltage V. Then current flows through
inductance and energy stored with in inductance
during on-period of switch S. When the switch
S is OFF, the current through inductance will Fig. 10.8 Step-up chopper
not be zero instantaneously. Subsequently, this current starts
to decrease and flows through diode D and load during
off-period of switch S. As the current tends to decrease, the
polarity of induced emf across L is reversed as shown in
Figs. 10.9(a) and (b). Consequently, the output voltage across
load is given by
di
Vo = V + L and
dt
the energy stored in the inductor L is released to the load. The
value of L is comparative high so that ripple current in the
output should be less. Since the output voltage Vo is greater
than the input voltage (Vo > V), this type of chopper circuit is
called step-up chopper.
Fig. 10.9 (a) Equivalent circuit of
When the switch S is ON, the current through inductance L
Fig. 10.8 when S is ON
increases from Imin to Imax and the energy input to inductor from (b) Equivalent circuit of
source during TON time. If the output current varies linearly, Fig. 10.8 when S is OFF
the energy stored within the inductor is equal to
Win = Voltage across L ¥ Average current through L ¥ TON
ÊI +I ˆ ÊI +I ˆ
= V ¥ Á min max ˜ ¥ TON = Á min max ˜ V ◊ TON
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 ¯
When the switch S is OFF, the current though inductance L decreases from Imax to Imin and the
stored energy in inductor L is released to load during TOFF time. The voltage across L is vL = Vo – V
as vL – Vo + V = 0. Assume that the output current varies linearly; then the energy released by the
inductor is equal to
Wout = Voltage across L ¥ Average current through L ¥ TOFF
ÊI +I ˆ ÊI +I ˆ
= (VO - V ) ¥ Á min max ˜ ¥ TOFF = Á min max ˜ (VO - V ) ◊ TOFF
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2 ¯
If the system is lossless, the energy stored in the inductor Win is equal to the energy released by
the inductor Wout.
Therefore, Win = Wout
Ê I min + I max ˆ Ê I min + I max ˆ
or ÁË ˜¯ V ◊ TON = ÁË ˜¯ (VO - V ) ◊ TOFF
2 2
or V ◊ TON = (VO - V ) ◊ TOFF

or VO TOFF = V (TON + TOFF ) as TON + TOFF = T and TOFF = T - TON
T T 1 T
or VO = V= V= V where, duty cycle D = ON
TOFF T - TON 1- D T
If D = 0 and switch is always OFF, output voltage is Vo = V. When D = 1 and switch is always
ON, output voltage Vo = µ as shown in Fig. 10.11. Practically duty cycle is greater than 0 and less
than unity (0 < D < 1) and output voltage is always greater than input voltage V. Hence this circuit
behaves as step-up chopper and used in regenerative breaking of dc motor. Figure 10.10 shows the
voltage and current waveforms of step-up chopper.
Fig. 10.10 Voltage and current waveforms of step-up chopper
Fig. 10.11 Variation of output voltage with Duty ratio (D)

Example 10.6 A dc to dc step-up converter as shown in Fig. 10.8 has a resistive load of 10 W and input voltage
of 220 V. If the switching frequency is 1 kHz and duty cycle is 50%, determine average output voltage and current.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, R = 10 W, f = 1 kHz, D = 50% = 0.5
1 1
Average output voltage is VO = V= ¥ 220 = 440 V
1- D 1 - 0.5
VO 440
IO = = = 44 A
R 10
Example 10.7 A step-up chopper has input voltage of 200 V and output voltage of 400 V. If the conduction
time of switch is 150 ms, what is pulse width of output voltage? If the pulse width of output voltage become one
fourth for constant frequency operation, compute the new average value of output voltage.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, VO = 400 V, TON = 150 ms
1 1
VO = V= ¥ 200 = 400 V
1- D 1- D
TON 200
Therefore, D = =1- = 0.5
T 400
Then TON = DT = 0.5T = 150 ms
TON 150
or T= = = 300 ms
D 0.5
The pulse width of output voltage is
TOFF = T - TON = (300 - 150)ms = 150 ms
When the pulse width of output voltage become one fourth for constant frequency operation, the OFF time is
1 1
¢ = ¥ TOFF = ¥ 150 ms = 37.5 ms
TOFF
4 4
¢ = T - TOFF
Due to constant frequency operation, TON ¢ = (300 - 37.7) ms = 262.5 ms
¢
TON 262.5
Therefore, new duty cycle D ¢ = = = 0.875
T 300
The new average value of output voltage
1 1
VO¢ = V= ¥ 200 = 1600 V
1 - D¢ 1 - 0.875
Example 10.8 A step-up chopper has input voltage of 210 V and output voltage of 550 V. (a) If the conduction
time of switch is 100 ms, determine the pulse width of output voltage. (b) If the pulse width of output voltage
becomes one half for constant frequency operation, find the new average value of output voltage.
Solution
Given: V = 210 V, VO = 550 V, TON = 100 ms

1 1
VO = V= ¥ 210 = 550 V
1- D 1- D
TON 210
Therefore, D = =1- = 0.618
T 550
Then TON = DT = 0.618T = 100 ms
TON 100
or T= = = 161.81 ms
D 0.618
The pulse width of output voltage is
TOFF = T - TON = (161.81 - 100) ms = 61.81 ms
(b) If the pulse width of output voltage becomes one half for constant frequency operation, the new off time
1 1
¢ =
is TOFF ¥ TOFF = ¥ 61.81 ms = 30.905 ms
2 2
As the chopper operate at constant frequency,
¢ = T - TOFF
TON ¢ = (161.81 - 30.905) ms = 130.905 ms
¢
TON 130.905
Hence, the new duty cycle is D ¢ = = = 0.809
T 161.81
The new average value of output voltage is equal to
1 1
VO¢ = V= ¥ 210 = 1099.47 V
1 - D¢ 1 - 0.809
10.5 claSSIfIcatIon of dc-to-dc converterS or

chopperS
dc-to-dc converters or choppers are classified according to input and output voltage levels, according
to commutation methods, according to direction of output voltage and current.
1. According to input and output voltage levels, choppers are classified as
(a) Step-down chopper
(b) Step-up chopper
2. According to commutation methods, choppers are classified as
(a) Voltage commutated chopper
(b) Current commutated chopper
(c) Load commutated chopper
3. Depending upon the direction of load current and voltage, dc to dc converters or choppers are
classified as
(a) Class A Chopper
(b) Class B Chopper
(c) Class C Chopper
(d) Class D Chopper
(e) Class E Chopper
10.5.1 class a chopper or first-Quadrant chopper

Figure 10.12 shows a class A chopper. When the
switch S is ON, output voltage Vo is equal to input
voltage V and current flows through load as shown
in Fig. 10.12. When the switch S is OFF, output
voltage Vo is equal to zero but current flows through
load in the same direction through free wheeling
diode D. The average output voltage and current
are always positive. Since both output voltage and
current are positive, the chopper operates in the
first quadrant as shown in Fig. 10.12(b). Therefore,
this converter is called first quadrant chopper.
Fig. 10.12 (a) Class A chopper (b) First quadrant
Since the power is always flow from source to load
operation of chopper
and the output voltage is less than or equal to input
voltage with 0 £ D £ 1, this chopper is also called step-down chopper.
10.5.2 class B chopper or Second-Quadrant chopper

Figure 10.13 shows a class B chopper which consists
of dc supply, diode D, switch S and a load RLE or
dc motor. When the switch S is ON, output voltage
Vo is equal to zero, but the current flows through
inductance due to load voltage E. The energy is stored
in the inductance L during TON. When the switch S is
di
OFF, output voltage Vo is equal to E + L which
dt
is greater than input voltage V. As the diode D is
Fig. 10.13 (a) Class B chopper (b) Second
forward biased and starts to conduct, power will flow
quadrant operation of chopper
from load to source. Whenever switch S is ON or
OFF, current flows out from load. Therefore current is negative. As output voltage is always positive
and current is negative, the chopper operates in the second quadrant as shown in Fig. 10.13(b). So,
this converter is known as second quadrant chopper. Since the output voltage is greater than input
voltage, this type of chopper circuit is called step-up chopper.
10.5.3 class c chopper or two-Quadrant type a chopper

This type of chopper circuit is a combination of
both class A and class B choppers. Figure 10.14
shows a class C chopper which consists of dc
supply, two diodes D1 and D2, two switches S1 and
S2 and a load RLE. Switch S1 and diode D1 act as
class A chopper but Switch S2 and diode D2 act
as class B chopper. The output voltage is always
positive but the load current may be positive or
negative. Therefore, this type of chopper circuit
operates in both the first and second quadrant and Fig. 10.14 (a) Class C chopper (b) Two quadrant
is called two quadrant chopper. operation of chopper
10.5.4 class d chopper or two Quadrant type B chopper

Figure 10.15 shows a class D type chopper.
When switches S1 and S2 are ON, the output
voltage is equal to input voltage. When both
switches S1 and S2 are OFF and diodes D1
and D1 are ON, the output voltage is equal to
input voltage with reverse polarity. The average
output voltage is positive when duty ratio is
greater than 0.5 or turn-ON time of chopper is
greater than turn-OFF time. But, the average
output voltage is negative when duty ratio is
less than 0.5 or turn-OFF time of chopper is
greater than turn-ON time. The average output
Fig. 10.15 (a) Class D chopper and (b) Two quadrant
voltage can be expressed as operation of chopper
TON - TOFF
Vo = V
T
1
If TON = TOFF, duty ratio D = = 0.5 and output voltage is zero.
2
1
When TON > TOFF, duty ratio D > > 0.5 and output voltage is positive.
2
1
If TON < TOFF, duty ratio D < < 0.5 and output voltage is negative.
2
Though the output voltage is either positive or negative depending on the value duty ratio, the load
current is always positive. Therefore this type of chopper circuit is a dual converter and operates in
both the first and fourth quadrant as depicted in Fig. 10.15(b).
Example 10.9 Draw the output voltage, output current, current through switches and source current waveforms
for class D or two quadrant type B choppers when (i) TON > TOFF (ii) TOFF > TON. Assume load is inductive.
Solution
Figure 10.16 shows the output voltage Vo, output current Io, current through switches and source current IS wave-
forms for class D or two quadrant type B choppers when TON > TOFF.
Figure 10.17 shows the output voltage Vo, output current Io, current through switches and source current IS
waveforms for class D or two quadrant type B choppers when TOFF > TON.
10.5.5 class e chopper or four Quadrant chopper

Figure 10.18 shows a Class E chopper which consists of a dc supply, four switches S1, S2, S3, S4 and
four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4 and RLE load. This chopper operates in four quadrants as explained below.
First Quadrant During first quadrant operation of chopper, switch S1 will be operated when
switch S4 is kept ON, switch S3 is OFF. When switch S1 and S4 are ON, the output voltage is equal to
input voltage and load current flows from source to load. Since both the output voltage and current
are positive, this chopper circuit operates in first quadrant. When the switch S1 is OFF, current flows
Fig. 10.16 Voltage and current waveforms when TON > TOFF
through switch S4, diode D2 and load. Hence the type E chopper can be used as step-down chopper
in the first quadrant operation.
Second quadrant In second quadrant operation of chopper, switch S2 will be operated when
switches S1, S3 and S4 are kept OFF. When switch S2 is ON, current flows through switch S2, diode
D4, and load in reverse direction. Energy stores in the inductance during switch S2 is ON. When switch
di
S2 is OFF, current flows from load to source through diodes D1 and D2 since E + L is greater than
dt
input voltage V. As the output voltage is positive and current is negative, this chopper circuit operates in
second quadrant. In the second quadrant operation, the type E chopper can be used as step-up chopper.
Third quadrant During third quadrant operation of chopper, switch S3 will be operated when
switch S1 is kept OFF, switch S2 is kept ON. The polarity of E will be reversed in this operating
mode. When switch S3 is ON, the output voltage is equal to input voltage with reverse polarity and
load current is negative. Since both the output voltage and current are negative, this chopper circuit
operates in third quadrant. When the switch S3 is OFF, current flows through switch S2, diode D4 and
load. Therefore, the type E chopper can be used as step-down chopper in the third quadrant operation.
Fig. 10.17 Voltage and current waveforms when TOFF > TON
Fig. 10.18 (a) Class E chopper and (b) Four quadrant operation of chopper
Fourth quadrant In fourth quadrant operation of class –E chopper, switch S4 will be operated
when other switches S1, S2 and S3 are kept OFF. The polarity of E is depicted in Fig. 10.18. When
switch S4 is ON, current flows through switch S4, diode D2, and load. Energy stores in the inductance
during switch S4 is ON. When switch S4 is OFF, current flows from load to source through diodes D2
and D3. Since the output voltage is negative but current is positive, this chopper circuit operates in
fourth quadrant. In the fourth quadrant operation, the type E chopper can be used as step-up chopper.
The conduction of semiconductor switching devices in the four quadrants is depicted in Fig. 10.19.
Fig. 10.19 Operation of semiconductor switching devices in the four quadrants
10.6 Steady-State analySIS of Step-down chopper

In a step-down or buck converter, the output voltage can be controlled from zero to maximum input
voltage. This converter is also known as step-down converter. Figure 10.20 shows the block diagram
of step-down converter. This circuit consists of a dc supply, a switch S, a diode D, inductor L and load.
When the power semiconductor switch is ON, input dc supply voltage is applied to the load. During
this period, the inductor L stores energy. When the switch is OFF, free wheeling diode conducts and
stored energy of inductance is transferred through free wheeling diode.
Fig. 10.20 (a) Step-down chopper with RLE load (b) Equivalent circuit when S is ON (c) Equivalent circuit
when S is OFF
This circuit operates in two different modes such as

1. Continuous mode of operation
2. Discontinuous mode of operation
Continuous mode of operation In this mode of operation, the switch S will be turned ON
before the inductor current becomes zero. Figure 10.21 shows the voltage and current waveforms.
Fig. 10.21 Voltage and current waveforms with continuous load current
Discontinuous mode of operation The switch S will be turned ON after the inductor current
becomes zero. The voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 10.22.
Fig. 10.22 Voltage and current waveforms with discontinuous load current
The switching frequency of the chopper will be about natural frequency wo of the LC filter, the
output voltage may be higher than input voltage which will discussed in resonant converter.
Assumptions For analysis of this circuit, the following assumptions have been made:
1. The semiconductor switching device is ideal and switching loss is zero
2. The output voltage is constant as capacitance value is large
3. Rate of rise and fall of current through inductor is linear.
10.6.1 continuous Mode of operation

1 È ON ˘
T
1T T
Vav =Ú vo (t )dt = Í Ú Vdt + Ú 0 ◊ dt ˙
T0 T ÍÎ 0 TON ˙˚
T T
= ON V = DV where, duty ratio D = ON
T T
V V
I av = av = D ◊
R R
The rms value of the output voltage is
1/2 1/2
È1 T ˘ È 1 TON ˘
Vrms = Í Ú vo2 (t )dt ˙ = Í Ú V 2 dt ˙ = D◊V
ÎT 0 ˚ ÍÎ T 0 ˙˚
2
Vrms - Vav2
The ripple factor is RF =
Vav
DV 2 - D 2V 2 D - D2
= =
DV D
The power input to the chopper is equal to
TON
1 V2 T V2 V2
Pi = Ú dt = ON =D
T 0 R T R R
The effective input resistance is

V V R
Ri = = =
I av V D
D
R
Therefore, the effective input resistance of
converter is variable as it is function of duty
ratio D. The variation of input resistance with
respect to duty ratio is illustrated in Fig. 10.23.
When the switch is ON, the differential
equation is
di
V = Ri + L = E
dt Fig. 10.23 Variation of effective input resistance with
for 0 £ t £ TON duty ratio D
At t = 0, the initial value of current is Imin

After solving the differential equation, the load current can be expressed as
- Rt
i(t ) = I min e L +
V-E
R
- Rt
1- e L (
for 0 £ t £ TON )
At t = TON, the value of load current is Imax
- RT
I max = I min e L ON +
V-E
R
- RT
1 - e L ON ( ) (10.2)
When the switch is OFF, the differential equation is
di
0 = Ri + L = E for TON £ t £ T
dt
At t = TON, the initial value of current is Imax
After solving the above differential equation, the load current can be expressed as
-R E -R
(
i(t ¢ ) = I max e L t ¢ - 1 - e L t ¢ where t ¢ = t – TON for TON £ t £ T
R
)
At t = TON, t ¢ = t – TON = TON – TON = 0,
At t = T, t ¢ = T – TON = TON – TOFF – TON = TOFF, and the value of current is Imin
Therefore
-R E
R
-R
I min = I max e L TOFF - 1 - e L TOFF ( ) (10.3)
L
Since = t is time constant, Eqs. (10.2) and (10.3) can be written as
R
-
I max = I min e t +
T
V-E
R
ON
1- e t
-
T
( ON
)
= I min e
T
- t V ON
-
T
+ 1- e t - 1- e t
R
E
R
(
-
T ON
) ( ON
) (10.4)
I min = I max e
-
TOFF
t
-
E
R
-
1- e t(
T OFF
)
= I max e
-
T - TON
t
E
- 1- e t
R
-
(
T - TON
) (10.5)
After substituting the value of Imin in Eq. (10.4), we obtain

-
T ON V
(
-
I max = I min e t + 1 - e t - 1 - e t
R
T
E
R
-
ONT
) ( ON
)
= I max e
- t
T -T T
- ON
ON E -
T -T
(-
T
e t - 1- e t e t + 1- e t - 1- e t
R
V
R
-
T
E
R
ON
-
T
) ON
( ON
) ( ON
)
or -T E
(
-
T - T
-
T
I max - I max e t = - 1 - e t e t + 1 - e t - 1 - e t
R
V
R
ON
-
T
) E
R
ON
-
T
( ON
) ( ON
)
or - Tt
I max - I max e = - e
E - Tt
R
E - Tt V
ON
+ e + 1- e
R R
T
- t E E - Tt
- + e
R R
( ON
) ON
or ( - T
) V
I max 1 - e t = 1 - e t - + e t
R
(-
T
E E -
R R
ON
)
T
or ( - T
) V
I max 1 - e t = 1 - e t - 1 - e t
R
(-
TON
E
R
-T
) ( )
or I max =
(
V 1- e t
-
TON
)-E
(
R 1 - e - Tt ) R
After substituting the value of Imax in Eq. (10.5), we get

-
T -T
E
I min = I max e t - 1 - e t
R
-
T -T ON
( ON
)
=
Ê
Á V 1- e t
-
T
-
(ˆ
E ˜ - T -tT
e -
E
1 - e
ON
T -T
- t ) ON
( ON
)
ÁË R 1 - e - Tt R ˜¯ ( R )
=
V 1- e t ( -
TON
)e TON
t
-
E - T -tT
e
E E -T -T
- + e t
ON ON
R 1 - e - Tt ( ) e
T
t R R R
=
V e -1 E( -
TON
t )
R e Tt - 1 (R )
When the switch S is continuously ON, the minimum current Imin is equal to Imax. The value of current is
V-E
I min = I max =
R
Amplitude of ripple current at steady state At steady state condition, the amplitude of
ripple current is
D = Imax – Imin (10.6)
After substituting the value of Imax and Imin in Eq. (10.6), we get
DI =
(
V 1- e t
-
TON
) - E - V (e TON
t
-1 )+E
(
R 1 - e - Tt ) R R e -1 ( T
t ) R
or DI =
(
V 1- e t
-
TON
) - V (e TON
t
-1 ) = V (1 - e ) - V e (1 - e ) -
TON
t
TON
t
-
TON
t
(
R 1 - e - Tt ) (
R e Tt - 1 ) (
R 1 - e - Tt ) (
R e Tt 1 - e - Tt )
=
È (
-
V Í 1- e t
T ON
) - (1 - e ) e -
TON
t
TON - T
t
˘ È
˙ = V Í 1- e
T
- t
( ON
) - (1 - e ) e -
TON
t
TON - T
t
˘
˙
Î (
R Í 1 - e- Tt ) (1 - e ) - Tt ˙ RÍ
˚ Î (1 - e ) - Tt ˙
˚
=
È ( -
T
V Í 1- e t 1- e t ˙
T -T
˘ ON
)( ON
) (10.7)
RÍ
Î
-T
1- e t ( ˙
˚ )
It is clear from Eq. (10.7), the amplitude ripple current is independent of E.
Since TON = DT and T – TON = (1 – D)T, the ripple current is equal to
D I = I max - I min =
È -
T
V Í 1- e t 1- e
T
( ON
)( ON
t
-T
) ˘˙ = V ÈÍ (1 - e ) (1 - e
- DT
t
- (1 -t
D )T
) ˘˙
RÍ
Î
-T
1- e t ( ) ˙
˚
RÍ
Î (1 - e ) - Tt ˙
˚
The per unit ripple current is
DI
=
È
Í ( - DT
1- e t 1- e t )(
- (1 - DT )T ˘
˙ =
È
Í
) - DT
(
- (1 - D ) T
1- e t - e t + e t ˙
-T ˘
) (10.8)
V /R Í
Î
-T
1- e t( )˙ Í
˚ Î
-T
1- e t ( ˙
˚ )
The ripple current is maximum, if the differentiation of Eq. (10.8) with respect to D is equal to zero.
Ê DI ˆ ÈÊ - DT Ê Tˆ - (1 - D )T ÊTˆ ˆ˘
dÁ
Ë V / R ¯˜ Í ËÁ 0 - e ¥ Á - ˜ - e t ¥ Á ˜ + 0˜ ˙
t
Ë t¯ Ët¯ ¯
Therefore, =0=Í ˙
dD Í
Î (1 - e
- Tt
) ˙
˚
T - DTt T - (1 -tD )T
or e - e =0
t t
- DT - (1 - D ) T T
Therefore, e t - e t = 0 as π0
t
DT (1 - D)T 1
Then = or, D = 1 – D or, D = = 0.5
t t 2
Hence the ripple in load current is maximum when duty cycle D = 5 as shown in Fig. 10.24.
The value of maximum ripple current at D = 0.5 is equal to
D I max =
( )( ) (
V ÍÈ 1 - e t 1 - e t ˙˘ V ÍÈ 1 - e t 1 - e t
- 0.5T - 0.5T
=
- 0.5T
)( - 0.5T
) ˙˘
RÍ
Î 1 ( - e
- Tt
) ˚ Î ( )(
˙ R Í 1 + e - 0.5t T 1 - e - 0.5t T ) ˚˙
È
V 1- e
= Í
( )
- 0.5t T ˘
˙ = V tanh T
Î ( )
R Í 1 + e - 0.5t T ˙ R
˚
4t
T
Fig. 10.24 Per unit ripple current as a function of and D
t
1 L T R
As T = and t = , =
f R 4t 4 fL
Hence, D I max = V tanh T = V tanh R

R 4t R 4 fL
R R
Since 4fL >> R, tanh @
4 fL 4 fL
Therefore, the maximum value of ripple current is
V R V R V
D I max = tanh = ¥ =
R 4 fL R 4 fL 4 fL
It is clear from above expression that the maximum value of ripple current is inversely proportional
to the chopping frequency f and inductance L.
Limit of continuous conduction In step-down chopper, the ON-time TON is reduced and
OFF-time TOFF increases for constant chopping period T, the amplitude of load current reduces. If
the ON-time is low and OFF-time is large, load current becomes zero for certain duration. Then the
chopper circuit operates in discontinuous mode. The limit of continuous conduction is reached when
Imin = 0. The value of duty cycle for continuous conduction is obtained from
I min =
V e t -1 E( TON
- =0
)
R e Tt - 1( R )
or
(e TON
t
-1 )= E =m
(e T
t
-1 ) V
or e
TON
t (
- 1 = m et - 1
T
)
Fig. 10.25 Limit of continuous conduction
or e
TON
t (
= 1 + m et - 1 )
T
or TON = t ◊ ln ÎÈ1 + m (e
T
t )
- 1 ˚˘
Then duty cycle D ¢ =

TON t
T T
(
= ◊ ln ÎÈ1 + m e t - 1 ˚˘
T
)
If
t
T
t
T
(T
)
= 1 and m = 0.5, D ¢ = ◊ ln ÎÈ1 + m e t - 1 ˚˘ = 1 ◊ ln[1 + 0.5(e1 - 1)] = 0.6201
If
t
T
t
T
( T
)
= 2 and m = 0.4, D ¢ = ◊ ln ÈÎ1 + m e t - 1 ˘˚ = 2 ◊ ln[1 + 0.4(e1.5 - 1)] = 0.4614
Fourier analysis of output voltage The output voltage is periodic in nature and it is inde-
pendent of load circuit parameters. By using Fourier series, the output voltage can be expressed as
•
vo = VO + Â vn
n =1
TON
where, VO is the average output voltage and VO = V = DV
T
And vn is the value of nth harmonic voltage and it can be expressed by
2V
vn = sin np D ◊ sin(nw t + q n )
np
sin 2p nD Ê cos p nD ˆ
where, q n = tan -1 = tan -1 Á
1 - cos 2p nD Ë sin p nD ˜¯
The amplitude of harmonics voltages depends on the order of harmonics n and duty cycle D. The
maximum value of nth order harmonic voltage is equal to
2V
vn = assuming sin npD = 1
np
The rms value of harmonic voltage is
2V
np 2
If Zn is the load impedance at harmonic frequency nf and it’s value is Z n = R 2 + (nw L )2 .
The harmonic current in the load is
v vn
in = n =
Zn R + (nw L )2
2
v 2V 2V
For negligible load resistance R = 0, the current in = n = 2 as vn =
nw L n pw L np
V
Therefore, in µ
n2
10.6.2 discontinuous Mode of operation
When the OFF time of switch is large, the load current will be discontinuous as it becomes zero at
t = tx. The time tx is called extinction time which is measured from t = 0 as shown in Fig. 10.22. The
value of tx can be computed as given below.
When the switch is ON, the differential equation is
di
V = Ri + L + E for 0 £ t £ TON
dt
At t = TON, the initial value of current is Imin.
After solving the differential equation, the load current can be expressed as
-Rt
i(t ) = I min e L +
V-E
R
-Rt
1 - e L for 0 £ t £ TON ( )
Due to discontinuous conduction, the minimum value of current Imin = 0. At t = TON, the value of
load current is Imax
I max =
V-E
R
- RT
1 - e L ON ( ) (10.9)
When the switch is OFF, the differential equation is

di
0 = Ri + L + E for TON £ t £ T
dt
At t = TON, the initial value of current is Imax
After solving the above differential equation, the load current can be expressed as
- R t¢ E - R t¢
(
i(t ¢ ) = I max e L - 1 - e L where, t ¢ = t - TON and TON £ t £ T
R
)
At t = tx, t ¢ = tx – TON and i(t ¢) = 0
E
Therefore, i(t ¢ ) = 0 = I max e - L (t x - TON ) -
R
R - R (t - T )
1 - e L x ON ( )
After substituting the value of I max =
V-E
R
-RT
(
1 - e L ON in the above equation we obtain )
0=
V-E
R
-RT
( - R (t - T ) E
)
- R (t - T )
1 - e L ON e L x ON - 1 - e L x ON
R
( )
or (
E 1- e
- RL ( t x - TON )
)e R (t
L x
- TON )
= (V - E ) 1 - e( - RL TON
)
or
R (t
eL x
(V - E )
- TON )
E
- RT
-1=
1 - e L ON ( )
or
R (t - T )
e L x ON = 1 +
(V - E )
E
- RT
1 - e L ON ( )
After taking log on both sides, we get
or
R
L
È (V - E )
(t x - TON ) = ln Í1 +
Î E
- RT
1 - e L ON ˙
˘
˚
( )
Therefore,
È (V - E )
t x = TON + t a ln Í1 +
Î E
- RT ˘
1 - e L ON ˙ as t a =
˚
L
R
( )
The average value of output voltage during discontinuous load current as shown in Fig. 10.22 is equal to
1T
Vav = Ú v (t )dt
T0 o
1 È ON ˘
T tx T
= Í Ú Vdt + Ú 0 ◊ dt + Ú Edt ˙
T ÎÍ 0 TON tx ˚˙
TON T - tx
= V+ E
T T
Ê t ˆ T
or Vav = DV + Á 1 - x ˜ E where, duty ratio D = ON
Ë T¯ T
Example 10.10 A dc-to-dc step-down converter circuit with R load has input voltage of 200 V, and a resistive
load of 5 W. If the duty cycle is 40%, switching frequency is 1 kHz, determine (a) average output voltage, (b)
rms output voltage, and (c) ripple factor
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, R = 5 W, f = 1 kHz, D = 40% = 0.4
Vav = DV = 0.4 ¥ 200 = 80 V
(b) RMS output voltage is Vrms = DV = 0.4 ¥ 200 = 126.491 V

(c) The ripple factor is
2
Vrms - Vav2 D - D2 0.4 - 0.42
RF = = = = 1.2247
Vav D 0.4
Example 10.11 Prove that the critical inductance of the filter in a step-down chopper circuit is
Vo2 (V- Vo )
L= where, Vo is output voltage, V is input voltage, Po is output power and f is chopping frequency.
2 fVPo
Solution
For the critical inductance L of the filter, load current starts from 0 when the semiconductor switch is ON for
TON duration and it reaches at a maximum value Imax. When the switch is OFF for TOFF duration, the load current
falls from Imax to 0 at t = T.
As the load current varies from 0 to Imax during TON and current falls from Imax to zero during TOFF and the
rate of increase or decrease is linear, the average value of output load current is equal to
1 1 1 1
I o (TON + TOFF ) = I oT = I maxTON + I maxTOFF = I max (TON + TOFF ) = I maxT
2 2 2 2
1
Therefore, I oT = I maxT or, Imax = 2Io
2
Since filter inductor L is connected in series with load, the input voltage is equal to
di
V = Vo + L
dt
I max
or V = Vo + L
TON
2Io
or V = Vo + L as Imax = 2Io
TON
V - Vo
Therefore, L = TON (i)
2Io
Since the average output voltage is Vo = Vf TON and output power is equal to Po = VoIo,
Vo Po
TON = and I o =
Vf Vo
After substituting the value of TON and Io in the above equation, we obtain
Vo2 (V - Vo )
L=
2 fVPo
Example 10.12 Prove that the critical inductance in the load circuit of a step-down chopper is directly
proportional to x(1 – x) where x is the duty cycle.
Solution
The critical inductance of a step-down chopper is
V - Vo
L= TON (ii)
2Io
We know that TON = DT and Vo = DV
After substituting the value of TON and Vo in Eq. (ii), we obtain
V - Vo V - DV V (1 - D)DT
L= TON = ¥ DT =
2Io 2Io 2Io
V (1 - x ) xT VT
= = (1 - x ) x as D = x is the duty cycle
2Io 2Io
or L µ (1 – x)x
VT
Therefore, the critical inductance is directly proportional to x(1 – x) as is constant.
2Io
Example 10.13 A dc-to-dc converter is connected to a 150 V dc source with an inductive load R = 10 W and
L = 10 mH. A free wheeling diode is also connected across load. Assume the load current varies from 10 A to
15 A. Find the time ratio of dc to dc converter.
Solution
Given: V = 150 V, Imax = 15 A, Imin = 10 A, R = 10 W
I max + I min 15 + 10
Average value of load current is IO = = = 12.5 A
2 2
V 150
The maximum value of load current = = = 15 A
R 10
Average value of output voltage is
V ¥ IO 150 ¥ 12.5
Vav = = = 125 V
Maximum value of load current 15
TON
We know that Vav = V
T
TON Vav 125
Then = = = 0.8333
T V 150
TON TON y T
= = = 0.8333 as the time ratio of dc to dc converter is y = ON
T TON + TOFF y + 1 TOFF
0.8333
or y= = 4.998
1 - 0.8333
Example 10.14 A step-down chopper with RLE load as shown in Fig. 10.20 has continuous constant load
current. Determine the maximum value of average thyristor current rating. Assume that switch S is thyristor.
Solution
Average output voltage is Vav = DV
As the load current is continuous and constant, the value of load current is
Vav - E
IO =
R
The current flow through thyristor is shown in Fig. 10.26. The average value of thyristor current is equal to
TON V -E DV - E D 2V - DE
IT = IO = D av = D◊ = (iii)
T R R R
dIT
For maximum value of IT , =0
dD
dIT 2 DV - E
Therefore, = =0
dD R
E
Then duty ratio is D =
2V
After substituting the value of D in Eq. (iii), we get
D 2V - DE 1 ÈÊ E ˆ Ê Eˆ ˘ E
2 2
IT = = ÍÁ ˜ V - Á ˜ E ˙ =
R R ÎË 2V ¯ Ë 2V ¯ ˚ 4VR
Fig. 10.26 Waveforms of Vo, Io and IT
Example 10.15 A step-down chopper with RLE load as shown in Fig. 10.20 has input voltage of 200 V,
R=2 ohms, L = 10 mH, E = 50 V, TON = 500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
(a) Determine whether load current is continuous or discontinuous,
(b) Find the value of average load current,
(c) Calculate the maximum and minimum value of load current,
(d) Draw the load current, free wheeling diode current and current through switch and
(e) Ripple current
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, R = 2 ohms, L = 10 mH, E = 50 V, TON = 500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
L 10 ¥ 10 -3
= 0.25 , duty cycle D = TON = 500 ms = 0.5
E 50
ta = = = 5 ms and m = =
R 2 V 200 T 1000 ms
TON 500 ms 500 ¥ 10 -6 T 1000 ms 1000 ¥ 10 -6
= = = 0.1 and = = = 0.2
t 5 ms 5 ¥ 10 -3 t 5 ms 5 ¥ 10 -3
È Ê 1000 ¥ 10-6 ˆ ˘
t
T
È T
˘
(a) Duty cycle D ¢ = ◊ ln Î1 + m e - 1 ˚ =
t (
5 ¥ 10 -3
1000 ¥ 10 -6
)
◊ ln Î1 + 0.25 ÁË e 5 ¥ 10 - 1˜¯ ˙˚ = 0.2693
Í -3
Actual duty cycle D = 0.5 is greater than D ¢ = 0.2693, load current is continuous.
(b) The value of average load current is
Vav - E DV - E 0.5 ¥ 200 - 50
Io = = = = 25 A
R R 2
(c) The maximum value of load current is
I max =
(
V 1- e t
-
TON
) - E = 200 (1 - e - 0.1
)
-
50
= 27.5096 A
(
R 1 - e - Tt ) R 2 (1 - e - 0.2
) 2
The minimum value of load current is
I min =
( TON
- =
)
V e t - 1 E 200 (e0.1 - 1) 50
- = 22.4998 A
(
R e Tt - 1 R )
2 (e0.2 - 1) 2
(d) The load current, free wheeling diode current and current through switch are depicted in Fig. 10.27
(e) The ripple current is equal to
D I = I max - I min = 27.5096 - 22.4998 = 5.0098 A
Fig. 10.27
Example 10.16 Figure 10.28 shows a type A chopper with LE

load. This chopper circuit has input voltage of 400 V, L = 0.05 H
and constant E. When the duty cycle is 0.4, determine the chopping
frequency to limit the load ripple current to 15 A.
Solution
Given: V = 400 V, L = 0.05 H, Imax = 15 A, and D = 0.4
Figure 10.29 shows the output voltage and current waveform.
Vav = DV = 0.4 ¥ 400 = 160 V
Fig. 10.28
Since average value of voltage drop across L is zero,
E = Vav = DV = 160 V
When the switch is ON, the voltage across inductance L is (V – E)
The volt time area applied to inductance L during TON is equal to
(V - E )TON = (400 - 160)TON (i)
During 0 £ t £ TON, the current through inductance L increases from Imin to Imax and the volt-time area across
L is equal to
TON TON I max
di
Ú vL dt = Ú L dt = Ú Ldi = L ( I max - I min ) = L ¥ D I (ii) as (Imax – Imin) = DI
0 0 dt I min
The value of Eq. (i) should be equal to the value of Eq. (ii)
Therefore, (400 – 160)TON = LDI
L DI 0.05 ¥ 15
or TON = = sec = 3.125 ms
400 - 160 240
TON T
Duty ratio D = and T = ON
T D
The frequency of chopper is
1 D 0.4
f = = = = 128 Hz
T TON 3.125 ¥ 10 - 3
Fig. 10.29
Example 10.17 A type A chopper feed to an RLE load. Prove that the maximum value of rms current rating
3/2
of freewheeling diode is 0.385 ÊÁ 1 - ˆ˜
V E
when load current is ripple free.
R Ë V¯
Solution
If the duty cycle of chopper is D, the output voltage is Vo = Vav = DV = aV as D = a.
Vo - E aV - E
The load current is I o = =
R R
When the chopper switch is in OFF state, the load current flows through freewheeling diode. The rms value of
freewheeling diode current is equal to
1/2
TOFF Ê T ˆ aV - E (i)
I DF = I o = Á 1 - ON ˜ I o = (1 - a )1/2
T Ë T ¯ R
V 1/2 E 1/2
= a (1 - a ) - (1 - a )
R R
V 2 E
= (a - a ) - (1 - a )1/2
3 1/2
R R
dI DF
The rms value of freewheeling diode current is maximum when =0
da
2
dI DF V 1 2a - 3a E1 1
Therefore, =0= +
da R 2 a2 - a3 R 2 1 - a
2a - 3a 2 1
or V = -E
2
a -a 3 1-a
E
or 3a - 2 =
V
1È E˘
or a = Í2 + ˙
3Î V˚
After substituting the value of a in Eq. (i), we obtain
1Ê Eˆ
1/2 Á 2 + ˜¯ V - E
I DF = (1 - a ) 1/2 aV - E È 1 Ê Eˆ˘
= Í1 - Á 2 + ˜ ˙ 3Ë V
R Î 3 Ë V ¯˚ R
1/2
1 È1 1 E ˘ 2V - 2 E
= -
R ÍÎ 3 3 V ˙˚ 3
1/2 1/2
1 1 È E˘ 2V È E˘ V 2 È E˘ È E˘
= 1- ÍÎ1 - V ˙˚ = R Í1 - ˙ ÍÎ1 - V ˙˚
R 3 ÍÎ V ˙˚ 3 3 3Î V˚
3/2 3/2
V 2 È E˘ VÊ Eˆ
= 1- = 0.385 Á 1 - ˜¯
R 3 3 ÍÎ V ˙˚ RË V
Example 10.18 A step-up chopper is used to provide 500 V from a 200 V dc input voltage. If the blocking
period of thyristor is 90 ms, what is the conduction period of thyristor?
Solution
TON + TOFF
The output voltage is Vav = V
TOFF
TON + 90
or 500 = 200
90
500
Therefore, TON = ¥ 90 - 90 = 135 ms
200
Example 10.19 A type A copper operates at 1 kHz from 200 V dc supply and it is connected to a RL load.
The load time constant is 5 ms and the load resistance is 15 W. Determine the average load current and the
amplitude of current ripple for mean value of output voltage of 60 V. Find the maximum value and minimum
value of load current.
Solution
L
The load time constant is = 5 ms and load resistance R = 15 W
R
Therefore, L = 5 ¥ 10 - 3 ¥ R = 5 ¥ 10 - 3 ¥ 15 = 75 mH
1 1
The time period T = = = 1 ms
f 1 ¥ 103
The average output voltage Vav = DV
Vav 60
or D= = = 0.3
V 200
The ON period of switch is TON = DT = 0.3 ¥ 1 ms = 0.3 ms and the OFF period of switch is
TOFF = T - TON = 1 ms - 0.3 ms = 0.7 ms
During on period of switch, current increases from Imin to Imax. We assume that the rate of increment is linear.
I -I
Therefore, V - Vo = L max min
TON
(V - Vo )TON (V - DV )TON
or I max - I min = = as Vav = Vo = DV
L L
V VÊ T ˆ
or I max - I min = (1 - D)TON = Á 1 - ON ˜ TON
L L Ë T ¯
During the OFF period of switch, the amplitude of ripple current is
Vo 60
D I = I max - I min = TOFF = ¥ 0.7 ¥ 10 - 3 = 0.56 A
L 75 ¥ 10 - 3
as Vo = DV = 0.3 ¥ 200 = 60 V
I +I V 60
The average load current is I o = max min = o = A=4A
2 R 15
1 1
The maximum value of load current is I max = I o + D I = 4 + ¥ 0.56 = 4.28 A
2 2
1 1
The minimum value of load current is I min = I o - D I = 4 - ¥ 0.56 = 3.72 A
2 2
Example 10.20 The speed of separately excited dc motor is controlled by a class A chopper and the motor
operates at below rated speed. The armature resistance is Ra = 0.25 W and inductance is La = 25 mH. The dc
input voltage is V = 200 V, the motor constant is k = 0.1 V/rpm. When motor operates at constant load torque
with an average load current of 40 A, determine (a) the range of speed control and (b) the range of duty cycle.
Solution
Given: Ra = 0.25 W, La = 215 mH, V = 200 V, k = 0.1 V/rpm, Io = 40 A
(a) The minimum speed of motor is zero. The back emf at zero speed Eb = 0.
We know that Vo = Vav = DV = Eb + I a Ra
I a Ra 40 ¥ 0.25
As Eb = 0, D = = = 0.05
V 200
The maximum duty cycle is D = 1
Then DV = Eb + I a Ra and Eb = DV - I a Ra = 200 - 40 ¥ 0.25 = 190 V
As the motor constant is k = 0.1 V/rpm, the operating speed of motor is

E 190
N= b = = 1900 rpm
k 0.1
The range of speed control is 0 £ N £ 1900 rpm
(b) The range of duty cycle is 0.05 £ D £ 1.
Example 10.21 In a battery operated chopper fed dc drive, the maximum possible value of accelerating
current is 425 A, the lower limit of current pulsation is 180 A. The ON period of switch is 14 ms and OFF period
of switch is 11 ms and the time constant is 63.5 ms. Find (a) the higher limit of current pulsation, (b) chopping
frequency and (c) duty cycle. Assume battery voltage V = 200 V and R = 0.1 W.
Solution
Given: Imax = 425 A, lower limit of current pulsation is DI = 180 A, TON = 14 ms, TOFF = 11 ms, ta = t = 63.5 ms
(a) The minimum value of current is Imin = Imax – DI = 425 – 180 = 245 A
The maximum current is equal to
I max = I min e
-V-E
R
TON
t
+
T
- ON
1- e t ( )
or 425 = 245
- 63.5
14
+
V-E
R
- 14
1 - e 63.5( )
V-E
or = [(425 - 245 ¥ 0.80214)]/(1 - 0.80214) = 1154.72
R
As V = 200 V and R = 0.1 W, the back emf is E = 200 – 1154.72 ¥ 0.1 = 84.528
TON = 14 ms for the higher current pulsation. Here the duty ratio is
TON 14
D= = = 0.56
TON + TOFF 14 + 11
The current pulsation will be highest at D = 0.5, therefore TON = 14 ms and TOFF = 14 ms.
T
- OFF E
¢ = I max e t - 1 - e t
We know that I min
R
T
- OFF
( )
or ¢ = 425e
I min
84.528
- 63.5
14
0.1
-
- 14
( )
1 - e 63.5 = 173.66 A
The higher limit of current pulsation is D I max = I max - I min

¢ = 425 - 173.66 = 251.34 A
1 1 1
(b) Chopping frequency f = = = = 35.714 Hz
T TON + TOFF 14 ms + 14 ms
TON 14
(c) Duty cycle is D = = = 0.5
TON + TON 14 + 14
Example 10.22 A chopper controlled separately excited dc motor is operated by a dc battery. When dc motor
operates at full rating, V = 72 V, I = 200 A and N = 2500 rpm. The current pulsation is maintained in between
180 A and 230 A. Determine (a) chopping frequency and (b) duty cycle when armature resistance Ra = 0.045 W,
armature inductance La = 7 mH, battery resistance Rb = 0.055 W and speed = 100 rpm.
Solution
Given: V = 72 V, I = 200 A, N = 2500 rpm, Ra = 0.045 W, La = 7 mH, Rb = 0.065 W
For a separately excited dc motor Vo = Eb + IaRa
As back emf Eb = kN, Va = kN + IaRa or 72 = k ¥ 2500 + 200 ¥ 0.045
72 - 200 ¥ 0.045
Then k = = 0.0252 V/rpm
2500
When the motor operate at 1000 rpm, the back emf is equal to
Eb = kN = 0.0252 ¥ 1000 = 25.2 V
La 7 mH
Time constant t = = = 0.070 s
Ra + Rb (0.045 + 0.055)W
The maximum current is equal to
I max = I min e
-
TON
t
+
V - Eb
R
T
(
- ON
)
1 - e t where, R = Ra + Rb = 0.045 + 0.055 = 0.1 W
As I max = 230 A, I min = 180 A, 230 = 180e

-
TON
t
+
72 - 25.2
0.1
T
(
- ON
1- e t )
TON
-
or 230 = 180 x + 468(1 - x ) as x = e t
468 - 230
or x= = 0.826
468 - 180
TON
TON -
Therefore, x = e - t = 0.826 = e 0.07
The ON time of chopper is TON = 0.01338 s
TOFF
E
The minimum current I min = I max e - t - 1 - e - t
R
TOFF
( )
or
T
- OFF
180 = 230e t -
25.2
0.1
T
- OFF
1- e t ( )
TOFF
-
or 180 = 230 y - 252(1 - y) as y = e t
180 + 252
Therefore, y = = 0.8962
230 + 252
TOFF TOFF
-
Therefore, y = e - t = 0.8962 = e 0.07
The OFF time of chopper is TOFF = 0.00767 s
1 1
(a) The chopping frequency is f = = = 47.50 Hz
TON + TOFF 0.01338 + 0.00767
TON 0.01338
(b) Duty ratio D = = = 0.6356
TON + TOFF 0.02105
Example 10.23 Figure 10.30 shows a chopper

circuit where the semiconductor switch is ideal, V is
the input voltage and Vo is the load emf. Prove that
this circuit can be operating either as a step-down or
a step-up chopper.
Solution
When switch S is closed, V is applied to inductance
L and current increases from Imin to Imax during TON
time. The voltage across inductance L is
di
VL = L Fig. 10.30
dt
I max - I min
or VL = L
TON
DI
If Imax – Imin = DI, VL = L or, DI ◊ L = VLTON (i)
TON
When switch S is opened, current flows through L, Vo and diode D and the decreases from Imax to Imin during
TOFF time.
I max - I min DI
Then Vo = L =L
TOFF TOFF
or DI ◊ L = VoTOFF (ii)
As per Eqs. (i) and (ii), we obtain
DI ◊ L = VLTON = VoTOFF
TON TON TON / T D T
or Vo = VL ◊ = VL ◊ = VL ◊ = VL as D = ON
TOFF T - TON 1 - (TON / T ) 1- D T
D
As Vo = VL , this circuit operates as step-down chopper when D < 0.5. If D > 0.5, this circuit operates as
1- D
step-up chopper.
Example 10.24 The switching frequency of chopper as shown in Fig. 10.31(a) is 1 kHz. This chopper circuit
is operated at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction. If the current waveform follows the Fig.
10.31(b), determine the on time of chopper and the value of peak current.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, Vo = 500 V, L = 150 mH
When switch S is closed, V is applied to inductance L and current increases from 0 to Imax during TON time. The
voltage across inductance L is
di
VL = L
dt
I max
or VL = L
TON
or I max ◊ L = VLTON (i)

Fig. 10.31 (a) Chopper circuit and (b) Switching signal and inductor current
When switch S is opened, current flows through L, Vo and diode D and the decreases from Imax to 0 during TOFF
time.
I max
Then Vo = L
TOFF
or I max L = VoTOFF (ii)

As per Eqs. (i) and (ii), we obtain
VLTON = VoTOFF
TON TON TON / T D T

or Vo = VL ◊ = VL ◊ = VL ◊ = VL as D = ON
TOFF T - TON 1 - (TON / T ) 1- D T
D
or Vo = VL
1- D
D
or 500 = 200 as VL = 200 V, Vo = 500 V
1- D
The duty ratio D = 0.7142
If f = 1 kHz, T = 1 ms, TON = DT = 0.7142 ¥ 1 = 0.7142 ms
VLTON 200 ¥ 0.7142 ¥ 10 - 3
The maximum value of current is I max = = A = 0.9522 A
L 150 ¥ 10 - 3
10.7 non-ISolated dc-to-dc converterS (chopperS)

In an non-isolated dc to dc converters or choppers, the load impedance is directly connected with the
input dc voltage. As the load is not electrically isolated from input dc supply, these converters are
simple in construction and commonly used in different industrial applications as variable voltage dc
supply. These converters are also called switch mode dc supply or switch mode dc to dc converters.
There are different circuit configurations available for dc-to-dc converter without isolation, but the
following four circuit configurations are most commonly used:
1. Buck converter
2. Boost converter
3. Buck-Boost converters
4. Cuk converters
10.7.1 Buck converter

Figure 10.32 shows the circuit topology of buck
converter which consists of a switch S, a diode DF,
inductor L, capacitor C and load. In this converter,
the output voltage can be controlled from zero to the
maximum input dc voltage V by varying the duty cycle
of switch S. Therefore, this circuit is also called step-
down chopper.
Fig. 10.32 The circuit diagram of buck
High frequency semiconductor switches such as
converter
MOSFET and IGBT are generally used in buck
converter. When the switch S is ON, energy is stored with in the inductor L. When the switch S is
OFF, the stored energy of inductor is transferred to capacitor C through freewheeling diode DF. This
circuit operates in two different operating modes such as
1. Continuous conduction mode
2. Discontinuous conduction mode
In continuous conduction mode of operation, the switch S must be turned on before the inductor current
iL reaches zero. But in case of discontinuous conduction mode of operation, the switch S must be
turned ON after the inductor current iL becomes zero. In this section, both the continuous conduction
mode and discontinuous conduction mode of buck converters are explained in detail.
Assumptions The following assumptions are required to simplify the circuit analysis:
1. All semiconductor switches are ideal and there is no switching loss with in devices
2. The current through inductor L increases and decreases linearly. Therefore, the rate of change
di di
of current is constant and the voltage across inductor VL = L is constant
dt dt
3. Since the value of capacitor is large, the output voltage is constant.
Continuous conduction mode Figure 10.33 shows the voltage and current waveforms of buck
converter during continuous conduction mode of operation. When the switch S is ON, the voltage
across free wheeling diode is V and the output voltage is Vo. Then the voltage across inductor is
Fig. 10.33 Voltage and current waveforms of buck converter in continuous conduction mode
diL
VL = L = V - Vo where, iL current flows through inductor L
dt
During the ON-period TON, the inductor current iL increases from Imin to Imax linearly. Therefore, the
changes in inductor current is given by
di V - Vo di V - Vo
D I = I max - I min = L ¥ TON = TON where L =
dt L dt L
LD I
\ TON =
V - Vo
When the switch S is OFF, the free wheeling diode conducts and the voltage across DF is zero and
the negative output voltage appears across inductor. Therefore, the voltage across inductor is equal to
di
VL = L L = - Vo where, iL current flows through inductor L
dt
During the OFF-period TOFF, the inductor current iL decreases from Imax to Imin linearly. Consequently,
the changes in inductor current is expressed by
di -V di -V
-D I = I min - I max = L ¥ TOFF = o TOFF where, L = o during TOFF
dt L dt L
\ L D I
TOFF =
Vo
1 1
The switching frequency f = =
T TON + TOFF
After substituting the value of TON and TOFF in the above equation, we obtain
1 1 V (V - Vo )
f = = = o
TON + TOFF L D I L D I VL D I
+
V - Vo Vo
The amplitude of ripple current is
V (V - Vo )
DI = o
Vf L
Since the duty cycle varies in between zero and unity and the output voltage is Vo = DV, the amplitude
of ripple current is equal to
V (V - Vo ) D(1 - D)V
DI = o =
Vf L fL
If the average value of load current is Io, the maximum and minimum value of inductor current are
given by
1 1
I max = I o + D I and I min = I o - D I
2 2
Applying the Kirchhoff’s current law, we obtain the inductor current
I L = IC + I o
Assume that the load ripple current DIo is very small and it is neglected. Then DIL = DIC
T T T
The average capacitor current, which flows for ON + OFF = duration is
DI 2 2 2
IC =
4
1
VC = Ú IC dt + VC (t = 0)
C
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage across capacitor is
1 T /2 D I D IT DI
DVC = VC - VC (t = 0) = Ú dt = = (10.10)
C 0 4 8C 8 fC
After substituting the value of DI in Eq. (10.10), we obtain
DI V (V - Vo ) Vo (V - Vo )
DVC = = o as D I =
8 fC 8 LC f 2V Vf L
DI D(1 - D)V D(1 - D)V
or DVC = = as D I =
8 fC 8 LCf 2 fL
The condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage, the inductor ripple current DI
will be two times of average inductor current Io and it is represented by DI = 2Io
D(1 - D)V DV DV
DI = = 2Io = 2 as I o =
fL R R
Then the critical inductance value is equal to
(1 - D) R
L=
2f
When VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage is DVC = 2Vo
DI D(1 - D)V D(1 - D)V
As DVC = = 2
, = 2Vo = 2 DV
8 fC 8 LCf 8 LCf 2
Then the critical capacitance value is equal to
1- D
C=
16 Lf 2
Discontinuous conduction mode In discontinuous conduction mode of operation, initially
di
inductor current iL is zero. When the switch S is ON, the voltage across inductor is VL = L L = V - Vo
dt
In the TON period, the inductor current iL increases from 0 to Imax linearly and the changes in
inductor current is given by
di V - Vo LD I
D I = I max = L ¥ TON = TON \ TON =
dt L V - Vo
The average load current is
D I V - Vo V - Vo
Io = = TON as D I = TON
2 2L L
V - Vo V - Vo TON
or Io = T = T
2 L ON 2L T
V - Vo (V - Vo )D T 1
= DT = as D = ON and T =
2L 2 fL T f
Due to discontinuous iL current, a dead time td is shown in Fig. 10.34. During dead time td, the inductor
current is zero. Then fall time of inductor current is equal to
T - TON - t d
diL
When the switch S is OFF, the voltage across inductor is VL = L = - Vo
dt
In the time period T – TON – td, the inductor current iL decreases from Imax to zero linearly and the
changes in inductor current is equal to
di -V
-D I = 0 - I max = L ¥ (T - TON - t d ) = o (T - TON - td )
dt L
V
or D I = o (T - TON - t d )
L
Fig. 10.34 Voltage and current waveforms of buck converter in discontinuous conduction mode
The ratio of output voltage to input voltage is equal to

Vo D
=
Vi t
1- d
T
If the load current is continuous, td = 0 and the average value of load current is equal to inductor
current (Io = IL).
Example 10.25 A buck converter has input voltage of 220 V and it operates at 500 Hz. The average load
current is 50 A. The load resistance is 2 W. Determine the value of inductance to limit the maximum peak to peak
ripple current through inductor to 10%. Find the value of inductance for maximum ripple current.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, f = 500 Hz, Io = 50 A, R = 2 W, DI = 10% of Io
The output voltage Vo = IoR = 50 ¥ 2 = 100 V
Vo 100
The duty ratio is D = = = 0.4545
V 220
The amplitude of ripple current through inductor is DI = 10% of Io = 0.1 ¥ 50 = 5 A
Vo (V - Vo ) D(1 - D)V
We know that D I = =
VfL fL
D(1 - D)V 0.4545(1 - 0.4545)
or L= = = 0.0991 mH
f DI 500 ¥ 5
For maximum ripple current, duty ratio of buck converter is D = 0.5.
Then the value of inductance is
D(1 - D)V 0.5(1 - 0.5)
L= = = 0.1 mH
f DI 500 ¥ 5
Example 10.26 A buck converter has input voltage of 15 V and the required average output voltage is 6 V at
R = 400 W and the peak to peak output ripple voltage is 20 mV. If it operates at 20 kHz and peak to peak ripple
current of inductor is 0.75 A, determine (a) duty cycle ratio, (b) filter inductance L, (c) filter capacitance C and
(d) critical values of L and C.
Solution
Given: V = 15 V, Vo = 6 V, R = 400 W, DVC = 20 mV, f = 20 kHz, DI = 0.75 A
V 6
(a) As Vo = DV, duty cycle ratio is D = o = = 0.4
V 15
D(1 - D)V 0.4(1 - 0.4) ¥ 15
(b) L = = = 0.24 mH
f DI 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.75
DI DI 0.75
(c) As DVC = ,C = = = 234.375 mF
8 fC 8 f DVC 8 ¥ 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 - 3
(d) The critical inductance value is equal to
(1 - D) R (1 - 0.4) ¥ 400
L= = = 6 mH
2f 2 ¥ 20 ¥ 103
The critical capacitance value is equal to
1- D 1 - 0.4
C= = = 0.0156 mF
16 Lf 2 16 ¥ 6 ¥ 10 - 3 ¥ (20 ¥ 103 )2
10.7.2 BooSt converter

The circuit topology of boost converter is depicted in
Fig. 10.35. This circuit consists of a inductor L, switch
S, diode D, capacitor C and load. In this converter, the
output voltage can be above the input dc voltage V by
varying the duty cycle of switch S. So, this circuit is
also called step-up chopper.
When the switch S is ON, energy is stored with
in the inductor L and inductor current iL from certain Fig. 10.35 Circuit diagram of boost converter
minimum value to maximum value. The voltage across
inductor L is equal to input voltage. Since diode D is OFF, the output voltage Vo is the voltage across
capacitor. As the capacitor value is large, the load current is constant. Figure 10.36 shows the equivalent
circuit diagram of Fig. 10.35 during TON period.
Fig. 10.36 (a) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.35 when switch S is ON and (b) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.35
when switch S is OFF
diL
When the switch S is turned OFF at t = TON, a negative voltage VL = L is developed across
dt
inductor L. Consequently, the voltage across switch will be V + VL which is greater than input voltage
V. Then the stored energy of inductor is transferred to capacitor C through diode D and the inductor
current decreases linearly. During this period, not only the stored energy of inductor flows but also
the energy flows from dc source to load. The equivalent circuit diagram of Fig. 10.35(b) during TOFF
period is illustrated in Fig. 10.36(b).
The boost circuit operates in two different operating modes such as
1. continuous conduction mode
2. discontinuous conduction mode
In continuous conduction mode of operation, the switch S must be turned ON before the inductor
current iL reaches zero. On the other hand, the switch S must be turned ON after the inductor current
iL becomes zero in discontinuous conduction mode of operation. In this section, both the continuous
conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode of boost converters are discussed elaborately.
Continuous conduction mode Figure 10.37 shows the voltage and current waveforms of boost
converter during continuous conduction mode of operation. When the switch S is ON, the voltage
across the switch S is zero and the voltage across inductor is
di
VL = L L = V where, iL current flows through inductor L
dt
Then the output voltage is Vo which the voltage is across capacitor C.
The polarities of inductor voltage VL and output voltage Vo are depicted in Fig. 10.36.
During the ON-period TON, the inductor current iL increases from Imin to Imax linearly. Hence, the
changes in inductor current is given by
di V
D I = I max - I min = L ¥ TON = TON (10.11)
dt L
diL V
where, =
dt L
LD I
\ TON =
V
When the switch S is OFF, the diode conducts and the (Vo – V) voltage appears across inductor L.
In the OFF-period TOFF, the inductor current iL decreases from Imax to Imin linearly. Accordingly, the
changes in inductor current is expressed by
Fig. 10.37 Voltage and current waveforms of a boost converter in continuous mode
diL -(Vo - V ) di -(Vo - V )

-D I = I min - I max = ¥ TOFF = TOFF where, L = during TOFF
dt L dt L
(V - V )
or DI = o TOFF (10.12)
L
LD I
\ TOFF =
Vo - V
From Eqs. (10.11) and (10.12), we get
V (V - V )
D I = TON = o TOFF
L L
or V ◊ TON = (Vo - V )TOFF

V ◊ TON + V ◊ TOFF TON + TOFF T

or Vo = = V= V
TOFF TOFF T - TON
V
or Vo = (10.13)
1- D
It is clear from Eq. (10.13) that if duty cycle D varies from zero to unity, the output voltage will be
equal or greater than input voltage (Vo ≥ V)
Since all semiconductor switches are ideal and lossless, the power input to converter Pi is equal to
the power output from converter Po.
Therefore, Pi = Po
V I
or VI = Vo I o = I o or, I = o
1- D 1- D
1 1
T TON + TOFF
1 1 V (Vo - V )
f = = =
TON + TOFF L D I LD I Vo L D I
+
V Vo - V
Then amplitude of ripple current is
V (Vo - V )
DI =
Vo fL
V Ê Vˆ
or DI = 1- ˜
fL ÁË Vo ¯
V V VD
As Vo = , DI = [1 - (1 - D)] =
1- D fL fL
When the chopper switch S is ON, the capacitor supplies the load current for TON duration. The average
capacitor current during TON duration is IC = Io and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage across capacitor is
TON
1 I T
DVC = VC - VC (t = 0) = Ú I o dt = C
o ON
(10.14)
C 0
V Vo - V TON
When know that Vo = . Then D = =
1- D Vo T
Vo - V V -V
or TON = ◊T = o
Vo f Vo
After substituting the value of TON in Eq. (10.14), we obtain
I T I V -V
DVC = o ON = o o
C C f Vo
I o Vo - V I o D V Vo - V
or DVC = = as Vo = and D =
C f Vo fC 1- D Vo
VD V V V
DI = = 2Io = 2 as I o = o =
fL (1 - D) R R (1 - D) R
VD V
or =2
fL (1 - D) R
D(1 - D) R
L=
2f
When VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage is DVC = Vo
I V - V Io D Io D
As DVC = o o = , = 2Vo = 2 I o R as Vo = I o R
C f Vo fC fC
Then the critical capacitance value is equal to
D I D
C= as o = 2 I o R
2 fR fC
Discontinuous conduction mode In discontinuous conduction mode of operation, inductor

current iL is discontinuous as shown in Fig. 10.38. During dead time td, the inductor current is zero.
Therefore, the fall time of inductor current is equal to
TOFF - t d = T - TON - t d
Fig. 10.38 Voltage and current waveforms of a boost converter in discontinuous mode
V (V - V )
and ripple current D I = TON = o (TOFF - t d )
L L
or VTON = (Vo - V )(TOFF - t d )
td
Vo 1-
or = T
V td
1- D -
T
Example 10.27 A boost converter has input voltage of 12 V and it operates at 25 kHz. When the duty cycle
is 0.25, L = 150 mH, C = 147 mH and average load current is 1.5 A, determine the average output voltage, peak
to peak ripple current through inductor.
Solution
Given: V = 12 V, f = 2 kHz, D = 0.25, L = 150 mH, C = 147 mF
V 12
We know that Vo = = = 16 V
1 - D 1 - 0.25
The amplitude of ripple current through inductor is
V VD 12 ¥ 0.25
DI = [1 - (1 - D)] = = = 0.8 A
fL fL 25 ¥ 103 ¥ 150 ¥ 10 - 6
Example 10.28 A boost converter has input voltage of 5 V and it operates at 20 kHz. When the average
output voltage Vo = 10 V, the average load current Io = 0.8 A, L = 100 mH, and C = 147 mF, determine (a) duty
cycle, (b) ripple current of inductor DI, (c) the maximum current flows through inductor Imax, (d) ripple voltage
across capacitor and (e) critical values of L and C.
Solution
Given: V = 5 V, f = 20 kHz, Vo = 10 V, L = 100 mH, C = 147 mF
V V - V 10 - 5
(a) Output voltage Vo = . Then D = o = = 0.5
1- D Vo 10
(b) The amplitude of ripple current through inductor is
V VD 5 ¥ 0.5
DI = [1 - (1 - D)] = = = 1.25 A
fL fL 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 100 ¥ 10 - 6
Io 0.8
(c) Inductor current I = = = 1.6 A
1 - D 1 - 0.5
DI 1.25
The maximum current flows through inductor I max = I + = 1.6 + A = 2.225 A
2 2
I V - V Io D 0.8 ¥ 0.5
(d) Ripple voltage across capacitor DVC = o o = = = 136.05 mV
C f Vo fC 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 147 ¥ 10 - 6
V 10
(e) R = o = = 12.5 W
I o 0.8
The critical inductance value is equal to
D(1 - D) R 0.5(1 - 0.5) ¥ 12.5
L= = = 78.125 mH
2f 2 ¥ 20 ¥ 103

D 0.5
C= = = 1 mF
2 f R 2 ¥ 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 12.5
10.7.3 Buck-Boost converter

Figure 10.39 shows the circuit topology of buck-
boost dc-to-dc converter which consists of a switch
S, inductor L, diode D, capacitor C and load. In this
converter, the output voltage can be controlled by
varying the duty cycle of switch S. When duty cycle
is less than 50%, the output voltage will be less
than input voltage and this converter acts as buck
Fig. 10.39 Circuit diagram of buck-boost
converter. When duty cycle is greater than 50%, the converter
output voltage will be more than input voltage and this
converter works as boost converter. Therefore, this circuit is also called buck-boost-down converter.
When the switch S is ON, energy is stored with in the inductor L. When the switch S is turned
OFF at t = TON, the inductor current decreases and negative voltage is generated across inductor L.
The stored energy of inductor is transferred to capacitor C and load through diode D. This circuit
operates in two different operating modes such as
1. continuous conduction mode
2. discontinuous conduction mode
In continuous conduction mode of operation, the switch S must be turned ON before the inductor
current iL becomes zero. However, in case of discontinuous conduction mode of operation, the switch
S must be turned ON after the inductor current iL reaches zero. In this section, both the continuous
conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode of buck converters are explained in detail.
Continuous conduction mode The voltage and current waveforms of buck-boost converter
during continuous conduction mode of operation is shown in Fig. 10.40. If the switch S is ON, the
voltage across inductor is
di
VL = L L = V where, iL current flows through inductor L
dt
During the ON-period TON, the inductor current iL increases from Imin to Imax linearly. As a result, the
changes in inductor current is equal to
di V
D I = I max - I min = L ¥ TON = TON (10.15)
dt L
di V
where, L =
dt L
LD I
\ TON =
V
When the switch S is OFF, the voltage across inductor is negative and its value is –Vo. Therefore, the
voltage across inductor is equal to
diL
VL = L = - Vo where, iL current flows through inductor L
dt
Fig. 10.40 Voltage and current waveforms of a buck-boost converter in continuous mode
In the OFF-period TOFF, the inductor current iL decreases from Imax to Imin linearly. So, the changes in
inductor current is expressed by
di -V
D I = L ¥ TOFF = o TOFF (10.16)
dt L
di -V
where, L = o during TOFF
dt L
LD I
\ TOFF = -
Vo
Using equation (10.15) and (10.16), we get
V -V
D I = TON = o TOFF
L L
TON T /T D
or Vo = - V = - ON V =- V (10.17)
TOFF TOFF / T 1- D
TON T
as D = and OFF = 1 - D
T T
It is clear from Eq. (10.17) that this circuit acts as buck converter when duty cycle D < 0.5 and
output voltage is less than input voltage (Vo < V). This circuit can also operate as boost converter when
duty cycle D > 0.5 and output voltage is greater than input voltage (Vo > V).
Assume that all semiconductor switching devices are ideal and lossless. Then the power input to
converter Pi is equal to the power output from converter Po.
Therefore, Pi = Po
D D
or VI = Vo I o = - VI o or, I = - Io
1- D 1- D
1 1
T TON + TOFF
1 1 VoV
f = = =
TON + TOFF L D I L D I L D I (Vo - V )
-
V Vo
VoV VD Vo
DI = = as =D
fL (Vo - V ) fL Vo - V
When the chopper switch S is ON, the capacitor supplies the load current for TON duration. The
average discharging current of capacitor during TON duration is IC = Io and the peak-to-peak ripple
voltage across capacitor is
TON
1 I T
DVC = VC - VC (t = 0) = Ú I o dt = C
o ON (10.18)
C 0
Since Vo = - D V , D = Vo = TON
1- D Vo - V T
Vo Vo
or TON = T=
Vo - V f (Vo - V )
After substituting the value of TON in Eq. (10.18), we obtain
I oTON I o Vo I D Vo
DVC = = = o since D =
C C f (Vo - V ) fC Vo - V
VD DV V
DI = = 2Io = 2 as I o = o
fL (1 - D) R R
VD DV
or =2
fL (1 - D) R
(1 - D) R
L=
2f
When VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage is DVC = 2Vo
I oTON I o Vo I D Io D
As DVC = = = o , = 2Vo = 2 I o R
C C f (Vo - V ) fC fC
Therefore, the critical capacitance value is equal to
D
C=
2 fR
Discontinuous conduction mode During discontinuous conduction mode of operation, induc-

tor current iL is discontinuous as shown in Fig. 10.41. The inductor current reaches zero at t = T – td.
During dead time td, the inductor current is zero. Therefore, the fall time of inductor current is equal to
TOFF - t d = T - TON - t d
V V
and ripple current D I = TON = - o (TOFF - t d )
L L
or VTON = -Vo (TOFF - t d )
Vo TON D
or =- =-
V TOFF - t d td
1- D -
T
Example 10.29 A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 24 V and it operates at 30 kHz. When the duty
cycle is 0.4, L = 500 mH, C = 147 mF and average load current is 1 A, determine the average output voltage, peak
to peak ripple current through inductor.
Solution
D 0.4
We know that Vo = - V =- ¥ 24 = - 16 V
1- D 1 - 0.4
VoV VD 24 ¥ 0.4
DI = = = = 0.64 A
fL (Vo - V ) fL 30 ¥ 103 ¥ 500 ¥ 10 - 6
Fig. 10.41 Voltage and current waveforms of a buck-boost converter in discontinuous mode
Example 10.30 A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 15 V. The duty cycle is 0.25 and it operates at
20 kHz. When L = 250 mH, C = 220 mF and average load current is 1.5 A, determine (a) average output voltage,
(b) peak-to-peak output voltage ripple, (c) peak-to-peak ripple current through inductor, (d) maximum current
flows through switch and (e) the critical values of L and C.
Solution
D
(a) We know that Vo = - V
1- D
0.25
Therefore Vo = - ¥ 15 = - 5 V
1 - 0.25
Io D 1.5 ¥ 0.25
(b) The peak-to-peak output voltage ripple DVC = = = 85.227 mV
fC 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 220 ¥ 10 - 6
VD 15 ¥ 0.25
(c) Peak-to-peak ripple current through inductor D I = = = 0.75 A
fL 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 250 ¥ 10 - 6
D 0.25
(d) Average current I = Io = ¥ 1.5 = 0.5 A
1- D 1 - 0.25
I DI 0.5 0.75
Maximum current flows through switch is I max = + = + = 2.375 A
D 2 0.25 2
-Vo 5
(e) R = = = 3.333 W
Io 1.5
(f) The critical inductance value is equal to
(1 - D) R (1 - 0.25) ¥ 3.333
L= = 62.493 mH
2f 2 ¥ 20 ¥ 103
D 0.25
C= = = 1.875 mF
2 fR 2 ¥ 20 ¥ 103 ¥ 3.333
10.7.4 cuK converters

In CUK converter, the energy can be
transferred from source to load during ON-
time TON and OFF-time TOFF of switching.
Figure 10.42 shows a CUK converter which
consists of two inductors L1 and L2, two
capacitors C1 and C2, a switch S, diode D
and load. In this converter, the output voltage
Fig. 10.42 Circuit diagram of CUK converter
may be more or less than the input dc voltage
V by varying the duty cycle of switch S. Therefore, this converter circuit operates in both buck and
boost converter. In this converter, capacitors are used as energy storing device.
Figure 10.43(a) shows the equivalent circuit diagram of Fig. 10.42 during TON period. When the
switch S is ON, energy is stored with in the inductor L1 and inductor current iL1 from certain minimum
value IL1min to maximum value IL1max. The voltage across inductor L1 is equal to input voltage V.
The inductor voltage is given by
di
VL1 = L1 L1 = V where, iL1 current flows through inductor L1
dt
The output voltage is Vo which is the voltage across capacitor C2. The polarities of inductor voltage
VL and output voltage Vo are depicted in Fig. 10.43. Figure 10.44 shows voltage and current waveforms
of a CUK converter. During the ON-period TON, the inductor current iL1 increases from IL1min to IL1max
linearly. Consequently, the changes in inductor current is given by
di V
D I L1 = I L1max - I L1min = L ¥ TON = TON (10.19)
dt L1
di V
where, L1 =
dt L1
L1 D I L1
\ TON =
V
Fig. 10.43 (a) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.42 when switch S is ON and (b) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.42
when switch S is OFF
Fig. 10.44 Voltage and current waveforms of a CUK converter

When the switch S is OFF, the inductor current iL1 decreases from IL1max to IL1min. The voltage across
inductor is
-D I L1
VL1 = - (VC1 - V ) = L1
TOFF
L1 D I L1
\ TOFF =
VC1 - V
V V -V
Therefore, D I L1 = T = C1 TOFF
L1 ON L1
or V ◊ TON = (VC1 - V )TOFF
V
or VC1 =
1- D
In the same way, the inductor current iL2 increases from IL2min to IL2max linearly during the ON-period
TON of switch. The voltage across inductor is VL2 = VC1 – Vo. So the changes in inductor current is
given by
di V - Vo
D I L 2 = I L 2max - I L 2min = L 2 ¥ TON = C1 TON (10.20)
dt L2
diL 2 VC1 - Vo
where, =
dt L2
L2 D I L 2
\ TON =
VC1 - Vo
When the switch S is OFF, the inductor current iL1 falls from IL2max to IL2min. The voltage across
inductor is
-D I L 2
VL 2 = - Vo = L2
TOFF
L2 D I L 2
\ TOFF =
Vo
VC1 - Vo V
D IL2 = TON = o TOFF
L2 L2
or (VC1 - Vo ) ◊ TON = VoTOFF
Vo
or VC1 =
D
V V
As VC1 = and VC1 = o , the output voltage is equal to
1- D D
D
Vo = V (10.21)
1- D
It is clear from Eq. (10.21) that if duty cycle D is greater than 50%, this converter acts as boost
converter. When duty cycle D is less than 50%, this converter acts as buck converter. Since all
semiconductor switches are ideal and lossless, the power input to converter Pi is equal to the power
output from converter Po.
Therefore, Pi = Po
D D
or VI = Vo I o = VI o or, I = Io
1- D 1- D
1 1
T TON + TOFF
1 1 L2 D I L 2 L2 D I L 2
f = = as TON = and TOFF =
TON + TOFF L2 D I L 2 L2 D I L 2 VC1 - Vo Vo
+
VC1 - Vo Vo
Then amplitude of ripple current is
V (V + Vo )
D I L 2 = o C1
VC1 fL2
After substituting the value of VC1 and Vo, we obtain
DV
D IL2 =
fL2
Example 10.31 Assume that a CUK converter operates at 30 kHz to get an output voltage 150 V when the dc
input voltage is about 24 V. Find the duty ratio and the voltage across switch during OFF-period.
Solution
Given: f = 30 kHz, Vo = 150 V, V = 24 V
D D
We know that Vo = V or 150 = 24
1- D 1- D
Vo 150
or D= = = 0.862
Vo + V 150 + 24
The voltage across switch during OFF-period is
V 24
VC1 = = = 173.91 V
1 - D 1 - 0.862
10.8 ISolated dc-to-dc converterS (chopperS)

In several industrial applications, dc voltage of different voltage levels with respect to ground such
as +5 V, –5 V, +6 V, –6 V, +9 V, –9 V, +10 V, –10 V, +12 V, –12 V are required. These different
voltage levels should be available from independent of dc supply. The electrical isolation between
the dc source and load is used to provide protection. Transformers are used for electrical isolation. If
normal silicon steel core transformers are used, there will be high hysteresis loss due to high switching
frequency of dc-to-dc converters and the wide hysteresis-loop. Therefore, ferrite-core transformer is
used for electrical isolation to reduce hysteresis loss with narrow hysteresis-loop. Figure 10.45 shows
a circuit diagram for isolated dc-to-dc converter. This circuit generates two voltages Vo1 and Vo2. The
Fig. 10.45 Circuit diagram for isolated dc-to-dc converter
amplitude of output voltage depends upon the turn ratio of isolating transformers. These converters
can be act as step-up, step-down, buck, boost, buck-boost converters. This type of isolated dc to dc
converter is known as switch mode power supply (SMPS). The advantages and disadvantages of SMPS
are given below:
Advantages of SMPS
1. Due to high frequency operation, SMPS has smaller size, less weight and high efficiency
compared to conventional linear dc power supply.
2. The output voltage of SMPS is less sensitive with respect to input voltage variation.
Disadvantages of SMPS
1. SMPS generates both the electromagnetic and radio frequency interference due to high
switching frequency.
2. SMPS has high ripple in output voltage and its regulation is bad.
3. To reduce radio frequency noise, filter circuit should be used on both input and output of SMPS
The most commonly used isolated dc to dc converters are:
1. Fly-back converter
2. Forward converter
3. Push-pull converter
4. Half bridge converter
5. Full-bridge converter
In this section, the operating principle of fly-back converters, forward converters, push-pull converters,
half bridge and full-bridge converters are explained in detail.
10.8.1 fly-back converter

Figure 10.46 shows a circuit topology of an isolated fly-back converter which consists of a dc supply,
switch S, transformer, diode D, capacitor C and a load. When the switch S is ON, the input dc voltage
V is directly applied to the primary winding of transformer. Subsequently a voltage is induced in the
Fig. 10.46 (a) Circuit topology of an isolated fly-back converter, (b) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.46(a) when
S is ON, (c) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.46(a) when S is OFF and (d) actual circuit of an isolated
fly-back converter
secondary winding but the polarity of induced voltage in secondary winding is opposite of primary
winding voltage. Due to reverse polarity, diode D is reverse biased and current will not flow through
secondary winding. Hence the primary winding of transformer stores the magnetic energy.
When the switch S is OFF, a negative voltage is induced in the secondary winding as current
decreases. Then diode D is forward biased and conducts. The stored energy is transferred to load.
Fig. 10.47 shows the voltage and current waveforms of an isolated fly back converter.
When the switch S is ON, the voltage across the primary winding of transformer is
V1 = V - VS (ON)
where, V is the dc supply voltage, VS(ON) is the voltage across switch S when it is ON.
Then the voltage induced in the secondary winding of transformer is
N2 N
V2 = V = 2 [V - VS (ON) ]
N1 1 N1
where, N1 and N2 are number of turns of primary and secondary winding respectively.
When the switch S is OFF, the voltage across the secondary winding of transformer is
V2 = VD + VC
Where, VD is the voltage across diode D, VC is the voltage across capacitor C and VC = Vo
Therefore, V2 = VD + Vo and output voltage is equal to Vo = V2 – VD
Fig. 10.47 Voltage and current waveforms of an isolated fly back converter
The reflected voltage induced in the primary winding is

N1
V1(reflected) = V2 and
N2
N2
V2 = V
N1 1(reflected)
Figure 10.48 shows the voltage waveform across the primary winding of transformer. The volt time
area during TON is equal to the volt time area during TOFF
Fig. 10.48 The voltage waveform across the primary winding of transformer
Therefore, [V – VS(ON)]TON = V1(reflected)TOFF

TON
or V1(reflected) = [V - VS (ON) ]
TOFF
D
or V1(reflected) = [V - VS (ON) ]
1- D
The output voltage is equal to
Vo = V2 – VD (10.22)
After substituting the value of V2 in Eq. (10.22), we obtain
N2 N2
Vo = V - VD as V2 = V
N1 1(reflected) N1 1(reflected)
N2 D
or Vo = [V - VS (ON) ] - VD
N1 1 - D
The maximum voltage across switch is
N1
VS (ON)max = V + V1(reflected) = V + V
N2 o
The energy stored in the primary winding of transformer is
1
WP = LP I12 where, I1 = Im1
2
LP is the inductance of primary winding and I1 is the rms value of current of primary winding
Average power output to load is
1
PO = fLP I12
2
When the switch is ON, the current through the primary winding of transformer increases linearly.
Then the voltage across of primary winding is
I f D
V = LP m1 = LP I m1 as TON =
TON D f
DV 2P
or LP I m1 = and I m1 = O
f VD
As per energy conservation, input power is equal to output power
Pi = ViIi = Po = VoIo
or ViIi = VoIo
or VIi = VoIo as Vi = V
The average input current is
VI P DVI m1 DI m1 DVI m1
Ii = o o = O = = as PO = and I i = I m (av)
V V 2V 2 2
The rms value of primary winding current is
D
I1(rms) = I m1
3
The ripple voltage is inversely proportional to the time constant RC and the per unit ripple voltage is
DVo TON
=
Vo RC
10.8.2 forward converters

Figure 10.49 shows the circuit topology of a forward converter which consist of an isolating transformer
with three windings such as primary winding, secondary winding and feed back winding, switch S,
three diodes D1, D2 and DF, inductor L, capacitor C and load. The energy can be transferred from dc
supply to load when the switch is ON. Therefore, this converter circuit is called forward converters.
Fig. 10.49 Circuit topology of an isolated forward converter

When the switch S is ON, the input dc voltage V is directly applied to the primary winding of
transformer and a voltage is induced in the secondary winding. The polarity of induced voltage in
secondary winding is same as primary winding voltage as depicted in Fig. 10.49. Subsequently, diode
D1 is forward biased and conducts. The energy from dc supply is transferred to load through diode
D1 and inductor L stores the energy. During TON the energy is also stored with in the magnetic field
of transformer. As diode DF is reverse biased, it will be turned OFF.
When the switch S is turned OFF, the current through primary winding starts to fall and a negative
voltage is induced across primary winding. The induced voltage in the feedback winding is reversed.
As the voltage across the feed back winding is greater than the input voltage, diode DF is forward
biased and conducts. The energy stored in the common magnetic field of transformer is feedback to
the supply. As diode D1 becomes reverse biased, it will be turned OFF. During TOFF diode D2 conducts
and the energy stored in inductor L is transferred to load. When the voltage across feedback winding
becomes supply voltage V, the diode DF stops conduction and all energy stored in the common magnetic
field of transformer is feedback to the supply.
Figure 10.50 shows the voltage waveforms of an isolated forward converter.
Fig. 10.50 Voltage waveforms of primary winding and feedback winding
When the switch S is ON, the induced voltage across the secondary winding of transformer is
N N
V2 = 2 V1 = 2 V as V1 = V
N1 N1
where, N1 and N2 are the number of turns of primary and secondary winding of transformer. As diode
D1 conducts, the voltage across inductance L is
N
VL = V2 - Vo = 2 V - Vo during 0 £ t £ TON
N1
When the switch S is OFF, the diode D2 conducts and the inductor voltage
VL = –Vo during TON £ t £ T
We know that the energy stored in an inductor over a cycle is zero.
T
Therefore, Ú VL dt = 0
0
TON T
or Ú VL dt = Ú VL dt
0 TON
È N2 ˘
or Í N V - Vo ˙ TON = - Vo (T - TON )
Î 1 ˚
The output voltage of forward converter is expressed by
N
Vo = 2 DV
N1
The open circuit voltage across the switch is
Ê N ˆ
VS (OC ) = Á 1 + 1 ˜ V
Ë N3 ¯
where, N3 is the number of turns of feedback winding of transformer.
N1
When = 1, the maximum voltage across switch is 2V.
N3
10.8.3 push-pull converters

Figure 10.51 shows the circuit topology of push-pull converter which consists of a transformer with mid
points on both primary and secondary windings, two switches S1 and S2, two diodes D1, D2, inductor
L, capacitor C, load and a rectifier circuit. LC circuit is used as output filter.
When the switch S1 is ON, the input voltage V is applied to lower half of the primary winding of
transformer. Then V1 = V.
There will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary winding of
transformer. The induced voltage is equal to
N2 N
V2 = V1 = 2 V as V1 = V
N1 N1
Fig. 10.51 Circuit topology of push-pull converter

The diode D1 is forward biased due to upper half of secondary winding of transformer and conducts.
Then the output voltage is given by
N N
Vo = V2 = 2 V1 = 2 V
N1 N1
When the switch S2 is turned ON, the input voltage –V is applied to upper half of the primary winding
of transformer. Then V1 = –V.
Accordingly, there will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary
winding of transformer. The induced voltage in lower half of secondary winding of transformer is
equal to
N N
V2 = 2 V1 = - 2 V as V1 = - V
N1 N1
The diode D2 is forward biased due to voltage of lower half of secondary winding of transformer and
conducts. Then the output voltage is given by
N2
Vo = V
N1
Since the voltage of primary winding swings from +V to –V, each switch must be able to withstand
at 2V. Therefore, this converter is only suitable for low voltage applications.
10.8.4 half-Bridge converter

Figure 10.52 shows the circuit configuration of half-bridge converter which consists of a rectifier, two
capacitors C1 and C2, two switches S1 and S2, a transformer with mid-point on the secondary winding,
two diodes D1 and D2, inductor L, capacitor C and load. LC circuit is used as output filter.
Fig. 10.52 Half bridge dc-to-dc converter

The capacitors C1 and C2 have equal value so that the voltage across each capacitor is equal to
V
. When the switch S1 is ON, the voltage across capacitor C1 is applied to the primary winding of
2 V
transformer. Then V1 = .
2
There will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary winding of
transformer. The induced voltage in each half of secondary winding is given by
N N V V
V2 = 2 V1 = 2 as V1 =
N1 N1 2 2
Since the diode D1 is forward biased due to voltage of upper half of secondary winding of transformer
and conducts, the output voltage is equal to
N2 N V
Vo = V2 = V = 2
N1 1 N1 2
V
When the switch S2 is turned ON, a reverse voltage of - is applied to the primary winding of
2
V
transformer. Then V1 = - .
2
Consequently, there will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary
equal to
N N V V
V2 = 2 V1 = - 2 as V1 = -
N1 N1 2 2
Since the diode D2 is forward biased due to voltage of lower half of secondary winding of transformer
N V
Vo = 2
N1 2
V V
As the voltage of primary winding swings from + to - , the each switch must be able to
2 2
withstand at V. Therefore, the half bridge converter is preferred over push-pull converter for high
voltage applications.
10.8.5 full-Bridge converter

The circuit configuration of full-bridge converter is shown in Fig. 10.53. This circuit consists of a
rectifier, four switches S1, S2, S3 and S4, a transformer with mid-point on the secondary winding, two
diodes D1 and D2, inductor L, capacitor C and load. The LC circuit is used as output filter.
When the switch S1 and S2 are turned ON and switches S3 and S4 are in OFF, the voltage V is
applied to the primary winding of transformer. Then V1 = V.
Subsequently, there will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary
winding of transformer. The induced voltage in each half of secondary winding is expressed by
N2 N
V2 = V1 = 2 V as V1 = V
N1 N1
Fig. 10.53 Full-bridge dc-to-dc converter
As the diode D1 is forward biased due to voltage of upper half of secondary winding of transformer
N2 N
Vo = V2 = V1 = 2 V
N1 N1
When the switch S3 and S4 are turned ON and switches S1 and S2 are in OFF, a reverse voltage of –V
is applied to the primary winding of transformer. Then V1 = –V.
Accordingly, there will be an induced voltage across both lower half and upper half of secondary
equal to
N N
V2 = 2 V1 = - 2 V as V1 = - V
N1 N1
Since the diode D2 is forward biased due to voltage of lower half of secondary winding of transformer
N
Vo = 2 V
N1
As the voltage of primary winding swings from +V to –V, the each switch must be able to withstand
at V. As the full-bridge converter operates with minimum voltage and current stress on switches, these
converters are preferred over half bridge for high power applications.
10.9 voltage or IMpulSe coMMutated chopper

In voltage commutation, a conducting thyristor is switched OFF or commutated when a large reverse
voltage is applied across the thyristor for a certain period of time. The time duration should be more
than the thyristor recovery time tq. Usually the reverse voltage is applied through a previously charged
capacitor. When the reverse voltage is suddenly applied across the conducting thyristor, the anode
current becomes zero and thyristor will be turned

OFF. This chopper is also known as impulse
commutated chopper or parallel capacitor turn-
OFF chopper. Generally these chopper circuits
are used in high power circuits. This circuit is also
called oscillation chopper.
Figure 10.54 shows the circuit topology of
voltage commutated chopper which consists of two
thyristors such as main thyristor T1 and auxiliary
thyristor TA, free wheeling diode DF, RLE load
and a commutation circuit. The commutation is
formed by capacitor C, diode D, inductor L and
auxiliary thyristor TA. The resistance RC is used to
Fig. 10.54 Circuit topology of voltage commutated
charge the capacitor. For analysis the operation of
chopper
the chopper, following assumptions are required:
1. All semiconductor switching devices are ideal. The voltage drop across each device is zero and
the loss is zero.
2. The load current is constant during the entire commutation period.
3. The inductor L should operate in linear region and there is no saturation.
Before starting the operation of chopper, the switch S will be ON and the capacitor C will be
charged to input voltage V with polarity as shown in Fig. 10.54. The chopper circuit should operate
in the following modes as given below.
Mode I (0 < t < t1) At t = 0, the main thyristor T1 is turned ON. Then load current Io flows from
dc source to load through thyristor T1. The diode D is forward biased and conducts. Then current iC
flows through the following path:
T1 – L – D – C
Subsequently, the capacitor C discharges through the LC resonating circuit. The current through the
thyristor T1 is
iT1 = io + iC
The equivalent circuit of mode-I during 0 < t < t1 is illustrated in Fig. 10.55(a). At t = t1 capacitor C
is recharged to –V with reverse polarity as depicted in Fig. 10.56 and capacitor current becomes zero.
Since current can flow in the forward direction only though diode D, diode will be OFF at t = t1.
Mode II (t1 < t < t2) Just after t = t1, the main thyristor continue its conduction and the load current
Io remains constant and flows from dc source to load through thyristor T1. The equivalent circuit of
mode-II during t1 < t < t2 is illustrated in Fig. 10.55(b).
Mode III (t2 < t < t3) At t = t2, a triggering pulse is applied to auxiliary thyristor TA and it is turned
on to commutated the main thyristor T1. As soon as TA is turned ON, the capacitor voltage is applied
across T1 and the load voltage is suddenly increased from V to V + VC or 2V as VC = V. After that the
output voltage decreases linearly as capacitor C discharges. The load current Io flows through capacitor
C and thyristor TA. Then current iC flows through the following path:
C – TA – LOAD
The capacitor recharges to +V. At t = t3, the output voltage is equal to zero as shown in Fig. 10.56.
The equivalent circuit of mode-III during t2 < t < t3 is illustrated in Fig. 10.55(c).
Fig. 10.55(a) Equivalent circuit in Mode I during Fig. 10.55(b) Equivalent circuit in Mode II
0 < t < t1 during t1 < t < t2
Fig. 10.55(c) Equivalent circuit in Mode III during Fig. 10.55(d) Equivalent circuit in Mode IV during
t2 < t < t3 t3 < t < t4
Mode IV (t3 < t < t4): When the capacitor C is slightly over charged than V, the current through
the capacitor becomes zero. Due to load commutation, thyristor TA will be turned OFF. Now all
semiconductor switches are in OFF condition and the load current Io flows through free wheeling
diode DF as shown in Fig. 10.56. The equivalent circuit of mode-IV during t3 < t < t4 is illustrated
in Fig. 10.55(d).
After that the switching cycle will be repeated from Modes I to IV. Figure 10.56 shows the voltage
and current waveforms of voltage commutated chopper.
10.9.1 design of commutating capacitance C and

commutating Inductance L
In the mode I, the capacitor current iC flows though inductance L and diode D. The KVL equation
for the loop T1 – L – D – C is
di 1
L C + Ú iC dt = 0
dt C
Fig. 10.56 Voltage and current waveforms of voltage commutated chopper
At t = 0, iC = 0 and VC = V. Then the capacitor current can be expressed as

V
iC = sin w O t and the capacitor voltage is equal to
L /C
VC = V cos wot for 0 £ wot £ p
1 C
where, w O = , and the maximum capacitor current is iC max = V
LC L
At t = t1, current iC = 0 and wot1 = p
p
Therefore, t1 = = p LC
wo
For proper commutation, iCmax should be less than or equal to the load current Io
C
Therefore, V £ I o as iC max £ Io
L
2 2
ÊVˆ L ÊVˆ
ÁË I ˜¯ £ C ÁË I ˜¯ C £ L
or or
o o
For constant load during t2 < t < t3, the value of capacitor should be such that
dQ V
Io = =C
dt tC
where, tC is the turn-OFF time of commutation circuit. The value of tC must be greater than thyristor
turn-OFF time tq and the value of C is given by
I I
C = o tC = o (tq + Dt ) as tC = tq + D t
V V
It is clear from Fig. 10.57, the load voltage is V at t = 0 and after t = 0 voltage increases from V to
2V. At t = t2, load voltage is 2V. Subsequently, the load voltage decreases and reaches to 0 V at t = t3.
Therefore, average load or output voltage is equal to
1
Vt2 + 2V (t3 - t2 ) ◊
2 V V
Vo = = (t2 + (t3 - t2 )) = [TON + (t3 - t2 )] (10.23)
T T T
In the time interval, (t3 – t2), the voltage across capacitor changes from –V to +V and the total change
in voltage across capacitor is 2V.
2V 2CV
Therefore, I o = C or, t3 - t2 =
t3 - t 2 Io
2CV
After substituting the value of t3 - t2 = in Eq. (10.23), we obtain
Io
V V È 2CV ˘ ¢
TON
Vo = [TON + (t3 - t2 )] = ÍTON + I ˙ = V ◊ T
T T Î o ˚
È 2CV ˘
¢ = ÍTON +
as TON is known as an effective ON period.
Î I o ˙˚
p
The minimum ON period of chopper is equal to t1 = = p LC
wo
t
The minimum duty cycle is a min = 1 = p f LC
T
1 2V ¥ 2tc
The minimum load or output voltage is Vo|min = a minV + = a minV + 2 f Vtc (10.24)
2 T
After substituting the value of amin in Eq. (10.24), we get

Vo|min = a minV + 2 fVtc = p f LCV + 2 fVtc = V (p f LC + 2 ftc )
T - 2tc
The maximum ON period of chopper is equal to a max = = (1 - 2 ftc ) )
The maximum load or output voltage is T
1 2V ¥ 2tc
Vo|min = a maxV + = a maxV + 2 fVtc (10.25)
2 T
After substituting the value of amax in equation (10.25), we obtain
Vo|max = a maxV + 2 fVtc = (1 - 2 ftc )V + 2 fVtc = V
Example 10.32 A battery operated electric car is operated by voltage commuted chopper. The battery voltage
is 20 V, starting current is 5 A and thyristor turn-OFF time is 20 ms. Determine the commutating inductor L and
commutating capacitor C.
Solution
Given: V = 20 V, Io = 5 A, tq = 20 ms
The turn-OFF time of circuit is tc = tq + Dt = (20 + 20) ms = 40 ms
Io I 5
The value of C is C = tC = o (tq + Dt ) = (20 + 20)mF = 10 mF
V V 20
2 2
ÊVˆ Ê 20 ˆ
The value of inductance L is L ≥ Á ˜ C = Á ˜ ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 6 = 160 mH
Ë o¯
I Ë 5¯
Example 10.33 A voltage commutated chopper has the following parameters:

V = 200 V, RLE load parameters (R = 0.5 W L = 4 mH, E = 50 V)
The commutation circuit parameters are: L = 25 mH, C = 50 mF, TON = 500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
If the load current is 60 A, determine (a) effective ON time of chopper, (b) the peak current flows
through T1 and TA, (c) turn-OFF time of T1 and TA and (d) total commutation interval.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, R = 0.5 W, L = 4 mH, E = 50 V, L = 25 mH, C = 50 mF, TON = 500 ms, T = 1000 ms, Io = 60 A
È 2CV ˘ 2 ¥ 50 ¥ 200
¢ = ÍTON +
(a) The effective ON period of chopper is TON ˙ = 500 ms + ms = 833.33 ms
Î I o ˚ 60
C 50
(b) The peak current through T1 is IT 1max = I o + V = 60 + 200 = 342.842 A
L 25
CV 50 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 200
(c) The turn-OFF time of T1 is tc = = s = 166.667 ms
Io 60
p p
The turn-OFF time of TA is tc1 = LC = 25 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 - 6 = 55.558 ms
2 2
(d) Total commutation interval is 2tc = 2 ¥ 166.667 = 333.334 ms
Example 10.34 A voltage commutated (impulse commutated) chopper is connected to an inductive load with
a load current of 100 A. If input voltage V = 200 V, chopping frequency is 250 Hz, turn-OFF time of thyristor
is 20 ms, peak current through main thyristor is 1.5 times of constant load current, determine (a) the value of
commutating components L and C and (b) minimum and maximum output voltage. Assume safety factor is 2.
Solution
Given: Io = 100 A, V = 200 V, f = 250 Hz, tq = 20 ms
(a) As the safety factor is 2, the turn-OFF time of commutation circuit for main thyristor is
tc = 2tq = 2 ¥ 20 ms = 40 ms
Io 100
The value of C is C = tC = ¥ 40 mF = 20 mF
V 200
2 2
ÊVˆ Ê 200 ˆ -6
The value of inductance L is L ≥ Á ˜ C = ÁË ˜ ¥ 20 ¥ 10 = 80 mH
Ë Io ¯ 100 ¯
(b) The minimum value of duty cycle is a min = p f LC = p ¥ 250 80 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.0314

-6
The minimum output voltage is Vo|min = a minV + 2 fVtc = 0.0314 ¥ 200 + 2 ¥ 250 ¥ 200 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 = 10.28 V
The maximum output voltage is Vo max = V = 200 V
10.10 load coMMutated chopper

Figure 10.57 shows a load commutated chopper circuit. This circuit consists of four thyristors T1, T2,
T3, T4, a commutating capacitor C, free wheeling diode DF and a load. In this circuit, thyristor T1 and
T2 work at a time where as thyristors T3 and T4 also work simultaneously. The load current Io is shared
by either T1 and T2 or T3 and T4 alternatively. When T1 and T2 are conducting, thyristors T1 and T2
are behave as main thyristors and T3, T4 and C are act as commutation components. Similarly, if T3
and T4 are conduction, T1, T2 and C act as commutation components. When T1, T2, T3 and T4 are not
conducting, the load current flows through the freewheeling diode.
Fig. 10.57 Load Commuted Chopper Circuit
For load commutated chopper circuit analysis, we assume that capacitor C is initially charged to V
with upper plate negative and lower plate positive as depicted in Fig. 10.57. This circuit operates in
three different operating modes which as explained below:
Mode-I When the capacitor C is charged with lower plate positive and upper plate negative, the load
commutated chopper circuit is ready to start operation. At t = 0, firing pulses are applied to T1 and T2
and subsequently thyristors T1 and T2 will be turned on. Fig. 10.58(a) shows the equivalent circuit for
Fig. 10.58 (a) Equivalent circuit during mode I, 0 £ t < t1

mode I. The output voltage across load is Vo = V + VC = V + V = 2V as VC = V. Then load current
flows from dc supply to load through T1, C and T2. At t = 0, VT3 = VT4 = –V. Thyristors T3 and T4 are
reverse biased and they are operating in off state. At t = 0, capacitor C is charged to +V and load cur-
rent flows through capacitor, subsequently capacitor C is charged linearly by constant load current Io.
At t = t1, the capacitor voltage is VC = –V and the load voltage falls from 2 V to 0 as Vo = V – VC = 0.
Mode II At t = t1, capacitor C is slightly overcharged by DV, the upper plate of capacitor is posi-
tively charged and lower plate is negatively charged. Since freewheeling diode is forward biased and
load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to DF, and hence load current flows through freewheeling
diode DF. Until trigger pulses are applied to T3 and T4, VT3 = VT4 = V, VT1 = VT2 = –DV as capacitor
C is overcharged by a small voltage DV. In the time interval t2 – t1, VC = –V, Vo = 0, ic = 0, ifd = Io,
iT1 = iT2 = iT3 = iT4 = 0. Figure 10.58(b) shows the equivalent circuit during mode II.
Fig. 10.58 (b) Equivalent circuit during mode II, t1 £ t < t2

Mode III When triggering pulses are applied to T3 and T4 at t = t2, T3 and T4 are conducting, the
output voltage is Vo = V + VC = 2V as VC = V. Thyristors T1 and T2 are reverse biased by VC and these
devices will be turned off at t = t2. The load current flows through T4, C, T3 and the capacitor C is
charged linearly from –V to +V. The output voltage is 2 V at t2 and it falls from 2 V to zero at t3. At t
= t3, capacitor C is small overcharged, free wheeling diode gets forward biased and load current passes
through freewheeling diode and load. Figure 10.59(c) shows the equivalent circuit during mode III.
The voltage and current waveforms of load commuted chopper is depicted in Fig. 10.59.
Fig. 10.58 (c) Equivalent circuit during mode III, t2 £ t < t3
10.10.1 design of commutation capacitance c

Assume load current Io is constant, capacitor voltage VC changes from –V to V in time interval TON,
i.e., 0 £ t < t1.
The change in voltage is 2 V in the time interval TON and the current Io is expressed by
2V
Io = C
TON
I oTON
Therefore, C =
2V
1 1
The output voltage is Vo = ◊ 2 V ◊ TON ◊ = VTON f
2 T
2VC
Since TON = , the average output voltage is equal to
Io
2VC 2V 2Cf
Vo = VTON f = V ◊ f =
Io Io
The minimum chopping period is Tminimum = TON = Tmin.
Then maximum chopping frequency is
1 1
f max = =
Tmin TON
Fig. 10.59 Voltage and current waveforms of load commuted chopper

The value of capacitor in terms of maximum chopping frequency is given by

I 1
C= o
2V f max
It is clear from Fig. 10.61 that the circuit turn–off time for each thyristor is
1 1 2V CV
tc = TON = C ◊ =
2 2 Io Io
Then total commutation interval is
2CV
TON =
Io
The load commutated chopper has the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
(i) This circuit has the capability of commutation at any amount of load current.
(ii) Commutating inductor is used in this circuit. Hence the size of circuit will not be bulky.
(iii) Since the circuit operates at high frequency in order of kHz, the size of filter is less.
Disadvantages
(i) The peak output voltage is equal to the two times input voltage.
(ii) In high frequency applications, the switching frequency is high and switching losses are more.
Hence, in high power applications, the efficiency is low.
(iii) Freewheeling diode should have high voltage handling capability i.e. 2 V, twice the supply volt-
age.
(iv) The commutation capacitor C should carry full load current at a frequency of half the chopping
frequency.
(v) Always one pair of thyristors will be conducting where as other pair of thyristor will not be
conducting.
Example 10.35 A load commutated chopper fed from 230 V DC supply has a constant load current of 30 A
for a duty cycle of 0.4 and a chopping frequency of 2 kHz, determine (a) the value of commutating capacitance,
(b) average output voltage, (c) circuit turn off time for thyristors and (d) total commutation interval.
Solution
The value of capacitor in terms of maximum chopping frequency is
I 1 30
C= o = = 32.60 mF
2V f max 2 ¥ 230 ¥ 2 ¥ 103
(b) The average output voltage is
T
Vo = VTON f = V ON = 230 ¥ 0.4 = 92 V
T
(c) The circuit turn-off time for each thyristor is
1 1 1 1
tc = TON = DT = ¥ 0.4 ¥ = 100 ms
2 2 2 2 ¥ 103
(d) The total commutation interval is
TON = 200 ms
10.11 current coMMuted chopper

Figure 10.60 shows a current commuted
chopper circuit where T1 is the main
thyristor, TA is the auxiliary thyristor,
capacitor C, inductor L, diodes D1 and
D 2, freewheeling diode D F and the
charging resistance RC.
For current commuted chopper circuit
analysis, we assume that
(i) The load current Io is constant,
(ii) All semiconductor switches T1, TA,
D1, D2, and DF are ideal and
(iii) The charging resistance RC is very
large so that it can be considered as
open circuit during commutation
interval.
Just like voltage commutation chopper,
the energy for current commutation
comes from the stored energy in the Fig. 10.60 Current commuted chopper circuit
capacitor. Initially, capacitor C is charged
to a voltage V so that energy for commutation process is readily available. The capacitor C is charged
to a voltage V through voltage source V, capacitor C and the charging resistor RC. The upper plate
of capacitor is positively charged and lower plate is negatively charged. When the main thyristor T1
is fired at t = 0 so that the output voltage Vo = V and current flows through load is io = I up to t = t1.
Whenever the auxiliary thyristor TA is turned on, the commutation process of main thyristor T1 starts.
The complete commutation process of T1 is divided into following modes as given below:
Mode I Assume thyristor T1 is conducting from t = 0 and at t = t1 triggering pulses are applied
V
to thyristor TA to turn-off thyristor T1. Subsequently, an oscillating current ic = sin w ot flows
wo L
through C, TA and L. During the time interval t1 £ t £ t2, capacitor current ic and capacitor volt-
age vc vary sinusoidally as depicted in Fig. 10.60. When capacitor voltage VC = 0, the current ic is
maximum negative. At t = t2, ic starts to flow in reverse direction, the auxiliary thyristor TA becomes
naturally commutated. At t = t2, the voltage across capacitor is Vc = –V with lower plate positive and
upper plate negative. Since T1 is unaffected, load current Io and output voltage Vo will be constant.
Figure 10.61(a) shows the equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper.
Mode II At t = t2 thyristor TA is turned off, the oscillating current ic flows through C, L, D2 and T1
as depicted in Fig. 10.61(b). Just after t = t2, current ic flows through T1 and not through D1 as D1 is
reverse biased by the small voltage drop across T1. In thyristor T1, current ic flows in opposite to the
load current Io. Therefore, the current flows through thyristor T1 is iT1 = Io – ic. At t = t3, ic becomes
equal to Io. Consequently, iT1 = Io – ic = Io – Io = 0 and the main thyristor T1 will be turned off at t
= t3. As the oscillating current flows through T1 turns it off, it is called current commutated chopper.
During the time interval t2 £ t £ t3, the output voltage across load is V.
Fig. 10.61 (a) The equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper t1 < t < t2
Fig. 10.61 (b) The equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper t2 < t < t3
Mode III At t = t3, thristor T1 is turned off, and the current ic becomes more than load current Io.
Just after t = t3, ic provides the load current Io and the excess current ic – Io flows through diode D1 as
it is conducting. Hence, iD1 = ic – Io. Due to voltage drop across D1, thyristor T1 is reverse biased for
duration tc = t4 – t3. At t = t4, the capacitor voltage VC is greater than V and the freewheeling becomes
conducting, otherwise mode –IV operation starts. During mode III, capacitor current reaches peak
V
value I c max = when VC = 0. After this instant, capacitor voltage reverses. At t = t4, the upper
wo L
plate of capacitor is positive and lower plate of capacitor becomes negative. Figure 10.61(c) shows
the equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper in this operating mode.
Fig. 10.61 (c) The equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper t3 < t < t4
Mode IV At t = t4, the current ic is equal to Io. Consequently, iD1 = ic – Io = 0 and diode D1 is
turned off. Just after t = t4, a constant load current flows through C, L, D2 and load. Subsequently,
the capacitor C is charged linearly to dc input voltage V at t = t5. During the time interval t4 < t < t5,
ic = Io. Since D1 is turned off at t = t4, VT1 = VTA = VC . The output voltage is Vo = V – VC. At t = t5, VC
= V and the output voltage is equal to Vo = V – VC = 0. During the time interval t4 < t < t5, capacitor
voltage increases linearly. Subsequently, the load voltage Vo decreases to zero during this interval.
Figure 10.61(d) shows the equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper in this operating mode.
Mode V At t = t5, the capacitor C is overcharged which is slightly more than input voltage V. Con-
sequently, the free wheeling diode becomes forward biased and starts to conduct. Then load current
Io flows through freewheeling diode DF. The load voltage at t = t5 is equal to zero. Since current ic
is not zero, the capacitor C is still connected to load through C, L, D2 and load. As C is overcharged
when the stored energy of L is transferred to C. At t = t6, ic = 0 and capacitor voltage Vc is more than
V. During the time interval t5 < t < t6, load current is equal to Io = IC + I DF . At t = t6, IC = 0 and Io
= I DF . The commutation process will be completed at t = t6. Figure 10.61(e) shows the equivalent
circuit of current commuted chopper in this operating mode. Current and Voltage waveforms of current
commuted chopper are depicted in Fig. 10.62. The total turn-off time or commutation interval t6 – t1
can be computed by the following method:
Fig. 10.61 (d) The equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper t4 < t < t3
Fig. 10.61 (e) The equivalent circuit of current commuted chopper t5 < t < t < t6
Fig. 10.62 Current and Voltage waveforms of current commuted chopper
10.11.1 total turn-off time or total commutation Interval

The total turn-off time or total commutation interval of current commuted chopper is t6 – t1 and it is
expressed by the following components:
(t6 – t1) = (t6 – t5) + (t5 – t4) + (t4 – t2) + (t2 – t1)
Time interval (t2 – t1) In the time interval (t2 – t1), current waveform ic completes one negative
half cycle of p radians at the oscillating frequency wo.
p
time period of half cycle of oscillating current = (t2 – t1) = = p LC
wo
Time interval (t4 – t2) At t = t2, ic = 0 and at t = t4, ic = Io after passing through its peak. Dur-
ing the time interval (t4 – t2), current ic cover p – p1 radian. The value of (t4 – t2) is expressed by
p - q1
(t4 - t2 ) = = (p - q1 ) LC
wo
Time interval (t5 – t4) At t = t4, the capacitor voltage is VC = V sin (90 – q1). The voltage across
C at t = t5 is VC = V
The increase in voltage across capacitor during time interval (t5 – t4) is V – V sin (90 – q1)
dv
Since i = C and Io is constant,
dt
V - V sin(90 - q1 )
Io = C
t5 - t 4
1 - sin(90 - q1 ) 1 - cos q1
or t5 - t4 = CV = CV
Io Io
Time interval (t6 – t5) During time interval (t6 – t5), the current ic = Io cos wot. It is clear from
p
Fig. 10.62 that (t6 – t5) is equal to radian of a sine wave,
2
p p
(t6 - t5 ) = = LC
2w o 2
(t6 - t1 ) = (t6 - t5 ) + (t5 - t4 ) + (t4 - t2 ) + (t2 - t1 )
p 1 - cos q1
= LC + CV + (p - q1 ) LC + p LC
2 Io
Ê 5p ˆ 1 - cos q1
=Á - q1 ˜ LC + CV
Ë 2 ¯ Io
q1
sin 2
Ê 5p ˆ 2
=Á - q1 ˜ LC + 2CV
Ë 2 ¯ Io
The turn off time of main thyristor is
t4 - t3 = tc = (p - 2q1 ) LC
The turn off time of auxiliary thyristor is
t4 - t2 = tc1 = (p - q1 ) LC
It is clear from Fig. 10.62 that the capacitor voltage is maximum at t = t6. The maximum capacitor
voltage can be determined from VC max = Voltage at t = t5 + Increase in voltage due to the energy
transferred from L to C during time interval (t6 – t5).
1 2
At t = t5, the energy stored in L is LI and t = t6, the total energy stored in L is transferred to C.
2 o
Therefore, voltage across capacitor will be increased due to the transfer of energy from L to C and
1 1
the increase in voltage is equal to VC. As per energy conservation, CVC2 = LI o2
2 2
L
Therefore, VC = I o
C
L
The maximum value of capacitor voltage is VC max = V + VC = V + I o
C
10.11.2 design parameters of current commuted chopper
The value of commutating inductance L and commutating capacitance C are determined from the
following equations:
The peak commutating current IC max must be more than the maximum possible load Io. The
oscillating current in the commutation circuit is equal to
V C
Ic = sin w ot = V sin w ot = I c max sin w ot
wo L L
C
As per design requirement, I c max = V > Io
L
Therefore, the peak commutating current IC max is certain multiple of load current Io.
C
We can write, I c max = V = xI o
L
I c max
or, x= where 1.4 < x < 3
Io
Assume that the turn-off time of main thyristor is tq. The circuit turn-off time tc must be greater than
the turn-off time of main thyristor and tc = tq + Dt.
It clear from Fig. 10.62 that tc = t4 – t3
or wotc = p – 2q1
The load current Io = Ic max sin q1
-1 Ê I ˆ -1 Ê 1 ˆ
Therefore, q1 = sin Á o ˜ = sin ÁË ˜¯
Ë I c max ¯ x
The circuit turn-off time of main thyristor is
1 1 Ê Ê I ˆˆ
tc = (p - 2q1 ) = Á p - 2sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜
wo wo Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯
After substituting the value of wo in the above equation, we get

Ê Ê I ˆˆ 1
tc = LC Á p - 2 sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜ as w o =
Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯ LC
È Ê Ê I ˆˆ ˘
Therefore, C = tc / Í L Á p - 2 sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜ ˙
ÎÍ Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯ ˚˙
C
After substituting the value of C in equation V = xI o , we obtain
L
V tc
◊ = xI o
L p - 2sin -1 (1/ x)
V tc
or L= ◊
xI o p - 2 sin -1 (1/ x)
The value of L is
È Ê Ê I ˆˆ ˘
L = tc / Í C Á p - 2 sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜ ˙
ÎÍ Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯ ˚˙
C
After substituting the value of L in equation V = xI o , we obtain
L
V
(p - 2 sin -1 (1/ x))C = xI o
tc
xI otc
The value of C is C =
V [p - 2 sin -1 (1/ x)]
The value of Ic max and Vc max are the peak ratings of thyristors T1 and TA. The value of charging
resistance Rc is such that the periodic time T ≥ 3CRC.
Example 10.36 In a current commuted chopper, the peak commutating current is twice the maximum possible
load current. The input voltage is 220 V dc and the turn-off time of main thyristor is 20 ms. If the maximum load
current is 150 A, determine (a) the values of commutating components L and C, (b) maximum capacitor voltage
and (c) the peak commutating current.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, tq = 20 ms, Io = 150 A, x = 2
(a) tc = (20 + 20) ms = 40 ms
V tc 220 40 ¥ 10 -6
The value of L is L = ◊ = ◊ = 11.20 mH
xI o p - 2 sin -1 (1/ x) 2 ¥ 150 p - 2 sin -1 (1/2)
xI otc 2 ¥ 150 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 -6
The value of C is C = = = 22.90 mF
V [p - 2 sin -1 (1/ x)] 200[p - 2sin -1 (1/2)]
(b) The maximum value of capacitor voltage is
L 11.20
VC max = V + VC = V + I o = 220 + 150 ¥ = 324.90 V
C 22.90
(c) The peak commutating current is
IC max = xIo = 2 ¥ 50 = 300 A
Example 10.37 In a current commuted chopper, the input voltage is 220 V dc. The commutating components
of chopper are L = 25 mH and C = 40 mF. If the maximum load current is 200 A, determine (a) Turn-off time of
main thyristor, (b) Turn-off time of auxiliary thyristor, (c) Total commutation interval.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, L = 25 mH, C = 40 mF, Io = 200 A
C 40
(a) The peak commutating current is I C max = V = 220 = 278.28 A
L 25
I C max 278.28
Then x = = = 1.391
Io 200
Ê Ê I ˆˆ
Turn-off time of main thyristor tc = LC Á p - 2 sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜
Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯
Ê Ê 200 ˆ ˆ
= 25 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 -6 Á p - 2 sin -1 Á = 48.638 ms
Ë Ë 278.28 ˜¯ ¯˜
Ê I ˆ Ê 1ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
(b) q1 = sin -1 Á o ˜ = sin -1 Á ˜ = sin -1 Á = 45.96∞ °
Ë I c max ¯ Ë x¯ Ë 1.391˜¯
Turn-off time auxiliary thyristor is
Ê Ê I ˆˆ
t4 - t2 = tc1 = (p - q1 ) LC = LC Á p - sin -1 Á o ˜ ˜
Ë Ë I c max ¯ ¯
Ê Ê 200 ˆ ˆ
= 25 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 -6 Á p - sin -1 Á = 74.011 ms
Ë Ë 278.28 ˜¯ ˜¯
(c) Total commutation interval is

q1
sin 2
Ê 5p ˆ 2
t6 - t1 = Á - q1 ˜ LC + 2CV
Ë 2 ¯ Io
45.96∞
sin 2
Ê 5p ˆ
=Á - 45.96∞˜ 25 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 -6 + 2 ¥ 40 ¥ 10 -6 ¥ 220 2
Ë 2 ¯ 200
= 223.085 ms + 13.412 ms = 236.497 ms
10.12 JoneS chopper

Figure 10.63 shows the Jones chopper circuit which consists of main thyristor T1, auxiliary thyristor TA.
The commutation circuit for main thyristor is capacitor C, diode D1, thyristor TA and autotransformer L.
The advantage of using auto transformer is that it can eliminate the commutation failure as the energy
stored in inductor L-L2 slightly enhances the capacitor voltage to a value greater than V and the definite
commutation process occur as inductance L1 and L2 are closely coupled. In this chopper circuit, class
D commutation technique is used. This chopper operates in different modes as given below:
Fig. 10.63 Jones chopper circuit
Mode I We assume that initially the capacitor C is charged to a voltage V and the polarity of capaci-
tor is depicted in Fig. 10.64. When the trigger pulse is applied to main thyristor T1 at t = t1, thyristor
T1 will be turned on, the current follows through the path C-T1-L-L2-D1-C as depicted in Fig. 10.65.
Therefore, the capacitor C will be charged to the opposite polarity with upper plate negatively charged
and lower plate positively charged. Diode D1 is used to prevent further oscillation of L2-C circuit.
The capacitor C should retain its charge till the thyristor T2 gets trigger pulse. If the thyristor T1 is
ON for long time duration, the dc motor operates at steady state speed. The speed of dc motor can be
determined by the dc input voltage and characteristics of dc motor.
Fig. 10.64 Jones chopper circuit in mode I
Mode II At t = t3, the auxiliary thyristor TA is turned on and current starts to flow through TA as
depicted in Fig. 10.65. The path of current flow is C-TA-T1-C.
As the capacitor discharges, thristor T1 will be reverse biased and it will be turned off. Whenever
the capacitor C is recharged, the thyristor TA gets turned off as the current flows below holding current.
When both thyristor T1 and TA are not conducting, the free wheeling diode starts to conduct and load
current flows through the path L-R-M and DF. The electromagnetic torque developed with in motor
is directly proportional to load current. At t = t3, the voltage at lower plate of capacitor C is greater
than V. The time interval t4 – t3 is called as circuit turn-off time. Figure 10.66 shows the voltage and
current waveforms of a Jones Chopper.
Fig. 10.65 Jones chopper circuit in mode II
Fig. 10.66 Voltage and current waveforms of a Jones Chopper

10.12.1 design parameters of Jones chopper

During the turn-off time of thyristor T1, the energy stored in inductance L1 is transferred to capacitor C.
1 1
Therefore, L I 2 = CV 2
2 1O 2 C
VC2 L1
or =
I O2 C
L1
or VC = I o (10.26a)
C
During the turn-off of the thyristor T1, the capacitor voltage will be changed from VC to 0.
The turn-off time of thyristor is
V C
tq = C
Io
After substituting the value of VC in the above equation, we obtain
L1
Io C
tq = C = LC
1
Io
After dividing the equation (1) by V, we get
VC I o L1
=
V V C (10.26b)
V V
If we assume that g = C and Rm = , Eq. (10.26) can be expressed as
V Io
1 L1
g=
Rm C
The voltage across thyristors T1 and T2 is VC = gV
As the value of g increases, the voltage rating of thyristor increases.
Example 10.38 The speed of a separately excited dc is controlled by Jones Chopper. When the input voltage is
100 V dc, turn-off time of thyristor is 20 ms and the current flows through main thyristor is 80 A and conductance
is 4 mho, determine the value of commutating capacitor C and transformer inductances L1 and L2.
Solution
Given: V = 100 V, tq = 20 ms, Io = 80 A, g = 4 mho
V 100
Rm = = = 1.25 W
I o 80
1 L1
We know that g =
Rm C
1 L1 L1
Therefore, 4 = or, = 4 ¥ 1.25 = 5 (1)
1.25 C C
tq = L1C = 20 ms (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we can write

L1
¥ L1C = 5 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 -6
C
or L1 = 100 ¥ 10 -6 = 100 mH
L1 L 100 ¥ 10 -6
As = 5, C = 1 = = 4 mF
C 25 25
Assume L1 = L2 = 100 mH
10.13 Morgan chopper

Figure 10.67 shows the Morgan Chopper which consists of a thyristor, diode D, capacitor C, saturate
reactor SR. The advantage of this circuit is that the cost is very low due to presence of only one
thyristor. The commutating elements of the circuit are capacitor C, saturate reactor (SR) and diode
(D). The characteristics of saturate reactor are different from air core inductor. An air core can take
any amount of flux and the air core inductor never saturates whereas the inductance offered by the
air core inductor is very large and saturate reactor can be saturated for low value of exciting current.
This chopper operates in three different modes as given below:
Fig. 10.67 Morgan Chopper
Mode 0 When the thyristor T1 operates in off state, the capacitor C will be charged to the supply
voltage V. The charging path of capacitor will be V-C-SR-L-M-V as depicted in Fig. 10.68. The induc-
tance offered by the saturable reactor is very low. When the capacitor is charged to V, the charging
will be stopped and the staurable reactor is placed in positive saturation condition.
Mode I When a triggering pulse is applied to thyristor T1 at t = t1, T1 will be turned on. Since T1
is ON, the voltage across capacitor is applied to the satiable reactor and the core flux direction within
SR is changed from positive saturation to negative saturation. When the SR changes from positive
saturation to negative saturation completely, the capacitor C discharges through the path C-T1-SR-C.
Then the LC circuit forms a resonating circuit with a discharging time of T1 Ls C where Ls is the post
saturation inductance. As the discharging time is very small, the capacitor voltage will be reversed
very quickly. Subsequently, the capacitor voltage –V is applied on the saturable reactor in the reverse
direction. Then the core is driven from negative saturation to positive saturation. After certain time
interval, the core flux reaches the positive saturation and the capacitor will discharge the charge in
opposite direction to thyristor T1. Consequently, thyristor T1 will be turned off.
Mode II When the thyristor T1 is turned-off, the free wheeling diode DF will be forward biased due
to the stored energy in the inductor. Subsequently, the load current flows through DF and the load volt-
age is zero. The time required to saturate the core depends on the volt-time integral. The conduction
of thyristor is fixed and it is function of commutating inductance L and capacitance C. The average
output voltage can be controlled by changing the operating frequency. The on time of thyristor T1 is
determined by the time required for the reactor to move from positive saturation to the negative satu-
ration and again back to positive saturation. The voltage and current waveforms in a Morgan chopper
is depicted in Fig. 10.68.
Fig. 10.68 Voltage and current waveforms of a Morgan chopper
10.14 MultIphaSe chopperS

In a multiphase chopper circuit, several choppers are connected in parallel. All the choppers should be
identical and operating with the same frequency and duty cycle. But the turn-on period of switches will
be phase displaced or shifted with respect to each other. Figure 10.69(a) shows a two-phase or biphase
chopper where two choppers are connected in parallel. Similarly, Fig. 10.69(b) shows a three-phase or
triphase chopper which consists of three parallel connected choppers. Figure 10.69(c) shows a m-phase
Fig. 10.69 (a) A two-phase or biphase chopper, (b) A three-phase or triphase chopper, (c) A m-phase chopper
chopper where m choppers are connected in parallel. Each chopper circuit consists of an input filter
with L and C components. In the same way, each chopper should have a separate but identical output
smoothing inductance L1. The resistance R1 is the resistance of the inductive coil. The load will be
either resistive R, or inductive R-L, or RLE, or a dc motor.
A multiphase chopper can be operated in two different modes such as
d In phase operation mode
d Phase shifted operation mode
In the phase operation mode, all parallel connected choppers are turned ON and turned OFF
simultaneously. In case of phase shifted operation mode choppers are not turned ON and turned OFF
simultaneously but the chopping frequency is same.
If the load current is ripple free due to very high inductive load and its value is represented by Io,
the current waveform of a two phase chopper when it operates in phase operation mode is depicted in
Fig. 10.70. I1 current flows through chopper-1 and I2 current flows through chopper-2. The total input
current can be obtained after addition of I1 and I2. Therefore, IT = I1 + I2 = Io. When a multiphase
chopper operates in phase operation mode, it behaves just like a single phase chopper but the current
rating of the switch which is used in multiphase phase chopper will be reduced with respect to single
phase chopper. When a multiphase chopper operates in phase operation mode, it behaves just like a
single phase chopper but the current rating of the switch which is used in multiphase phase chopper
will be reduced with respect to single phase chopper.
Fig. 10.70 Current waveforms of two-phase chopper in phase operation mode
Figure 10.71 shows the current waveform of a two phase chopper when it operates in phase shifted
operation mode. Assume that I1 current flows through chopper -1 and I2 current flows through chopper
-2. The total input current is the addition of I1 and I2. Therefore, IT = I1 + I2.
In Fig. 10.71, the frequency of harmonics in the input current is equal to the switching frequency
of chopper. However, in case of phase shifted operation mode, the frequency of harmonics in the
input current is equal to twice the switching frequency of chopper as depicted in Fig. 10.72. Since
the frequency of harmonics in the input current is two times of chopping frequency, the size of the
filter will be reduced in phase shifted multiphase chopper. For this reason, phase shifted multiphase
chopper is commonly used in industrial applications.
Fig. 10.71 Current waveforms of two-phase chopper in phase shifted operation mode
If the load is less inductive, the ripple must be exist in the output current. When a multiphase
chopper operates in phase operation mode, the ripple in output current will be high as shown in
Fig. 10.72(a). However, the ripple in output current will be less when a multiphase chopper operates
in phase shifted operation mode as depicted in Fig. 10.72(b).
Fig. 10.72 (a) Voltage and current waveforms of a two-phase chopper

Fig. 10.72 (b) Voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase chopper
Multiphase choppers are commonly used in such industrial applications where large load current is
required. The advantages of multiphase choppers with respect to single phase choppers are
d Amplitude of ripple in input current is reduced significantly
d Ripple frequency of input current is increased.
d Size of filer will be reduced
The disadvantages of multiphase choppers with respect to single phase choppers are
d External inductors are used in each phase
d Extra commutation circuits are required
d The control circuit of chopper will be complex
summary
d A dc to dc converter (chopper) is a switch-mode converter which is used to get an adjustable dc output
voltage from a fixed dc power supply.
d DC to DC converters are classified as step-down and step-up chopper. The operating principle and control
strategies of step-down and step-up choppers are discussed elaborately.
d Non-isolated dc to dc converters such as Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost and Cuk converters, voltage or impulse
commutated chopper are incorporated in this chapter.
d Isolated dc to dc converters such as Fly-back converter, Forward converter, Push-Pull converters, half-
bridge and full-bridge converters are explained in detail.
10.1 If a chopper circuit has input voltage of V, TON is on time of switch and f is the chopping frequency, then
the output voltage of chopper is equal to
(a) TON fV (b) TOFF fV (c) TON f/V (d) fV/TON
10.2 The output voltage of dc to dc converter (chopper) can be controlled by
(a) amplitude modulation (b) frequency modulation
(c) pulse width modulation (d) pulse width modulation and frequency modulation
10.3 In pulse width modulation control of a chopper, the following statements are correct:
(i) On time TON is constant and f is varied (ii) On time TON is varied and f is constant
(iii) Off time TOFF is constant and f is varied (iv) Off time TOFF is varied and f is constant
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii) (c) (iii) and (i) (d) (ii) and (iv)
10.4 In a dc-to-dc converter, the input voltage and output voltage waveforms are ________ and ____________
respectively.
(a) continuous, discontinuous (b) continuous, continuous
(c) discontinuous, discontinuous (d) discontinuous, continuous,
10.5 In frequency modulation control of a chopper, the following statements are correct:
(i) On time TON is constant and f is varied
(ii) On time TON is varied and TOFF is constant
(iii) Off time TOFF is constant and f is varied
(iv) Off time TOFF is varied and f is constant
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iii) (c) (iii) and (i) (d) (ii) and (iv)
10.6 When a stepdown copper operates in the continuous conduction mode with a duty cycle D, the ratio of
V
average output voltage to input voltage av is
V
1 D
(a) 1 – D (b) (c) (d) D
1- D 1- D
10.7 If a step-down copper operates in the continuous conduction mode with a duty cycle D, the rms value of
the output voltage is
(a) D◊V (b) DV (c) (1 - D) ◊ V (d) (1 – D)V
10.8 When a step-up copper operates in the continuous conduction mode with a duty cycle D, the ratio of
V
average output voltage to input voltage av is
V
1 D
(a) 1 – D (b) (c) (d) D
1- D 1- D
10.9 If a step-down copper operates in the continuous conduction mode with a duty cycle D, the ripple factor is
D - D2 D2 - D D D
(a) (b) (c) (d)
D D D2 - D D - D2
10.10 The effective input resistance of a step-down chopper is
R R
(a) Ri = (b) Ri = DR (c) Ri = (d) Ri = (1 – D)R
D 1- D
10.11 If a step-down copper operates in the continuous conduction mode, the ripple in load current is maximum
when duty cycle ___________.
(a) D = 0.25 (b) D = 0.5 (c) D = 0.75 (d) D = 1
10.12 A step-down chopper RLE load is operated in the continuous conduction mode with duty ratio D, the
maximum value of ripple current is
V 4 fL V 2 fL
(a) D I max = (b) D I max = (c) D I max = (d) D I max =
4 fL V 2 fL V
10.13 A step-down chopper RLE load is operated in the continuous conduction mode, the limit of continuous
conduction is reached when
(a) I min π 0, D >

t
T
È ( T
˘
◊ ln Î1 + m e t - 1 ˚ ) (b) I min π 0, D =
t
T
È ( T
)˘
◊ ln Î1 + m e t - 1 ˚
(c) I min = 0, D ≥
t
T
È ( T
˘
◊ ln Î1 + m e t - 1 ˚ ) (d) I min = 0, D £
t
T
È ( T
)˘
◊ ln Î1 + m e t + 1 ˚
10.14 A step-down chopper RLE load is operated in the discontinuous conduction mode with duty ratio D, the
extinction time is __________ .
È (V - E )
(a) t x = TON + t a ln Í1 +
Î E
(
- RT ˘
1 - e L ON ˙
˚
) È (V - E )
(b) t x = TOFF + t a ln Í1 +
Î E
- RT
( ˘
1 - e L ON ˙
˚
)
È (V - E )
(c) 0 t x = TON - t a ln Í1 +
Î E
(
- RT ˘
1 - e L ON ˙
˚
) È (V - E )
(d) t x = TOFF - t a ln Í1 +
Î E
- RT
( ˘
1 - e L ON ˙
˚
)
10.15 A step-down chopper RLE load is operated in the discontinuous conduction mode with duty ratio D. If tx
is the extinction time, the average output voltage is
Ê t ˆ Ê t ˆ
(a) Vav = DV + Á 1 - x ˜ E (b) Vav = DV + Á 1 + x ˜ E
Ë T¯ Ë T¯
Ê t ˆ Ê t ˆ
(c) Vav = DV - Á 1 - x ˜ E (d) Vav = DV - Á 1 + x ˜ E
Ë T¯ Ë T¯
10.16 In a type A chopper, V is the input voltage, R is the load resistance and D is the duty ratio. The average
value of output voltage and load current are _____ and _____ respectively.
DV (1 - D)V DV V V
(a) DV , (b) (1 - D)V , (c) DV , (d) ,
R R R 1 - D (1 - D) R
10.17 In a type A chopper, V, R, Io and D are the input voltage, load resistance, load current and duty ratio
respectively. The average and rms value of freewheeling diode currents are
Io Io Io Io
(a) DI o , DI o (b) (1 - D)I o , (1 - D)I o (c) , (d) ,
1- D 1- D D D
10.18 In step-up chopper, input voltage is 200 V and output voltage is 400 V. If the conduction time of
semiconductor switch is 150 ms, the non-conduction time of semiconductor switch is _______.
(a) 150 ms (b) 200 ms (c) 250 ms (d) 300 ms
10.19 A buck converter has input voltage of V, output voltage of Vo, inductance of L and it operates at frequency
f, then the amplitude of ripple current is equal to
Vo (V - Vo )
(a) D I = Vo (V - Vo ) (b) D I = Vo (V + Vo ) (c) D I = Vo (V - Vo ) (d) D I =
VfL VfL fL VL
10.20 If buck converter has input voltage of V, duty ratio D, inductance L and it operates at frequency f, the
amplitude of ripple current is equal to
(a) D I = D(1 - D)V (b) D I = D(1 + D)V (c) D I = D(1 - D) (d) D I = D(1 - D)V
fL fL fL L
10.21 The output voltage of buck-boost converter is equal to
(a) Vo = - D V (b) Vo = D V (c) Vo = DV (d) Vo = DV
1- D 1- D
10.22 In a dc chopper using thyristor, the best performance can be obtained from ________
(a) line commutation (b) voltage commutation (c) current commutation (d) load commutation
10.23 In a _______ chopper output voltage and current are positive.
(a) Type A (b) Type B (c) Type C (d) Type D
10.24 In a _______ chopper output voltage is positive and current is negative
(a) Class A (b) Class B (c) Class C (d) Class D
10.25 In which chopper, the output current remains positive but output voltage is either positive or negative
(a) Class A (b) Class B (c) Class C (d) Class D
10.26 If the duty cycle of a chopper is exactly 50%, the pulse is considered to be a
(a) square wave (b) sine wave (c) low duty cycle (d) high duty cycle
10.27 In a load commutated chopper, during conduction of T1 and T3, the load voltage Vo varies from
(a) V to 0 (b) V to –V (c) 2 V to 0 (d) 2 V to V
10.28 In a load commutated chopper, the free wheeling diode DF conducts only when ________ are not
conducting.
(a) T1, T2, T3, T4 and C (b) T1, T3, and C (c) T2, T4 and C (d) T1, T2, T4 and C
10.29 In a Jones chopper, the turn-off time of thyristor is ________.
V C V I IC
(a) tq = C (b) tq = C o (c) tq = o (d) tq = L1C
Io C VC
10.30 In a Jones chopper,
1 L1 1 C 1
(a) g = (b) g = (c) g = Rm L1 (a) g = LC
Rm C R m L 1 C Rm 1
10.31 In a thyristor-based dc chopper circuit, which type of commutation results the best performance?
(a) Current commutation (b) Load commutation
(c) Voltage commutation (d) All of these
10.32 Match the List I and List II and find the correct matching.
List-I List-II
1. Type –A chopper
A.
2. Type –B chopper
B.
3. Type –C chopper C.
4. Type –D chopper D.
(a) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B (b) 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D
(c) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B (d) 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
10.33 The circuit as shown in Fig. 10.73 is initially in steady
state with thyristor T OFF. When T is turned ON, the
peak current flows through thyristor is equal to
(a) 42 A
(b) 40 A
(c) 22 A
(d) 2 A Fig. 10.73
List-I List -II
1. Voltage Commuted Chopper A.
2. Current Commuted Chopper B.
3. Load Commuted Chopper C.

4. Ideal DC Chopper D.
(a) 1-D, 2-B, 3-A, 4-C (b) 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D
(c) 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A (a) 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A
10.35 The maximum current flows through main thyristor as shown in Fig. 10.74 is ______.
(a) 70.7 A (b) 141.4 A (c) 170.7 A (d) 200 A
Fig. 10.74 Fig. 10.75
10.36 Figure 10.75 shows a current commutated chopper. When T1 is conducting, load current is Io. If TA is
turned ON with the capacitor polarity as shown in Fig. 10.75, capacitor current flows through ______.
(a) Thyristor T1 as it is already conducting
(b) Diode D1 as it provides an easy path
(c) Thyristor T1 as diode D1 is reverse biased by voltage drop across T1
(d) Diode D1 as thyristor T1 is unidirectional device.
Fill in the Blanks

10.1 A ______ is converter which converts fixed dc voltage to variable dc voltage.
10.2 The output voltage of a dc to dc converter is less than input voltage, this converter circuit is
called_________.
10.3 When the output voltage of a dc to dc converter is greater than input voltage, the converter circuit is
known as________
10.4 Switching devices such as ____, ______, _____, and _____ are used in chopper circuit.
10.5 The output voltage of dc to dc converter (chopper) can be controlled by ____ and _____.
10.6 In a chopper with current limit control, the switch is ON when Io is less than _________ and the switch
becomes OFF if Io is greater than ___________.
10.7 The relationship between input and output voltage of a stepdown (buck) converter is _______.
10.8 The relationship between input and output voltage of a step-up (boost) converter is _______.
10.9 The relationship between input and output voltage of a buck-boost converter is _____.
10.10 The relationship between input and output voltage of a cuk converter is _____.
10.11 In case of a step-down chopper, the per unit ripple is maximum when duty ratio is ______
10.12 In a pulse width modulated method of controlling the average output voltage in a chopper, the on-time
TON is ______ and the chopping frequency is _______.
10.13 Isolated dc to dc converters such as buck, boost, buck-boost converters are known as ______________.
10.14 A voltage commutated chopper consists of ______ and _____ diode.
10.15 When a dc to dc step-down converter operates in discontinuous mode and tx extinction time, the average
output voltage is equal to___________.
10.16 In a step-up chopper, duty cycle is greater than ________ and less than______.
10.17 In a step-up chopper, output voltage is always _______ than input voltage and duty cycle is______.
10.18 In a step-down chopper, output voltage is always _______ than input voltage with duty cycle ______.
10.19 A class______ chopper is a four quadrant chopper.
10.20 A class______ chopper is a two quadrant chopper.
10.21 The first quadrant chopper is a class_______ chopper.
10.22 The second quadrant chopper is a class ________chopper.
10.23 The average output voltage in terms of TON, f and V is __________.
10.24 In a step-down chopper with RLE load, the maximum value of ripple is ___________ proportional to the
chopping frequency f and inductance L.
review Questions
10.1 Define chopper. What are the types of chopper? What are the applications of chopper circuit?
10.2 Explain the operating principle of dc chopper with a suitable diagram. Draw the voltage and current
waveforms of chopper. Derive expressions for average output voltage and rms output voltage.
10.3 (a) What are the different control strategies?
(b) Discuss the time ratio control in a dc chopper.
(c) What is frequency modulation? What is pulse width modulation?
(a) Write the disadvantages of frequency modulation of chopper over pulse width modulation?
10.4 State the current limit control? Explain the difference between current limit control and time ratio
control. Why current limit control is preffered over any other control strategies?
10.5 Draw the circuit diagram of step-up chopper and describe its operating principle. Draw the voltage and
current waveforms of step-up chopper. Derive expressions for average output voltage and rms output
voltage. What are the applications of step-up chopper?
10.6 Describe the classifications of chopper or dc-to-dc converter.
(a) Class A Chopper or First Quadrant Chopper (b) Class B Chopper or Second Quadrant Chopper
(c) Class C Chopper or Two Quadrant Type A Chopper
(d) Class D Chopper or Two Quadrant Type B Chopper
(e) Class E Chopper or Four Quadrant Chopper
10.8 In a class A chopper with a RLE load, derive the expressions for the following parameters when it
operates in continuous mode:
(a) Average output voltage, (b) Average load current, (c) rms value of the output voltage,
(d) rms value of the output current, (e) Ripple factor, (f) Effective input resistance,
(g) Imax, (h) Imin, (i) Amplitude of ripple current and (j) Limit of continuous conduction.
10.9 Prove that in a class A chopper with a RLE load, the ripple in load current is maximum when duty cycle
D = 0.5.
10.10 Prove that in a class A chopper with a RLE load, the maximum value of ripple current is D I max = V
4 fL
10.11 If a class A chopper with a RLE load operates in discontinuous mode, derive the expressions for the
(a) Extinction time tx, (b) Average output voltage and (c) Imax
10.12 Describe the continuous and discontinuous modes operation of a type A chopper. What is the limit of
continuous conduction?
10.13 What is multiphase chopper? What are the different operation modes of multiphase chopper?
10.14 Why phase shifted operation of multiphase chopper is preferred over any other operating modes?
10.15 Draw a biphase and a triphase chopper and explain their operating principle with waveforms.
10.16 Describe the voltage commutated chopper with waveforms and equivalent circuits. Write the applications
of voltage commutated chopper.
10.17 What is the effect of chopping frequency on load ripple current?
10.18 What are the performance parameters of a converter?
10.19 What is switch mode power supply? What is the advantage of switch mode power supply? What are the
disadvantages of switch mode power supply?
10.20 Write the advantages and disadvantages of the following converters:
(a) Buck converter (b) Boost converter
(c) Buck-Boost converter and (d) CUK converter
10.21 Write the short notes on the following:
(a) Fly-back converter, (b) Forward converter, (c) Push-pull converter,
(d) Half-bridge converter and (e) Full-bridge converter
10.22 List the various types of SMPS. Describe flyback SMPS with equivalent circuits and waveforms. Derive
expression for output voltage.
10.23 A dc-to-dc converter as shown in Fig. 10.2 has a resistive load of 20 W and input voltage of 200 V. If the
switching frequency is 2 kHz and duty cycle is 40%, determine
(a) average output voltage and current
(b) rms output voltage and current
10.24 In a step-down chopper, input voltage is 220 V and average output voltage is 150 V. If the switching
frequency is 1 kHz, determine the ON time and OFF time of switch in each cycle.
10.25 A chopper circuit as shown in Fig. 10.2 has input voltage of 200 V, and a resistive load of 10 10 W. When
thyristor is used as a switch, the voltage across thyristor is about 2 V during on condition. If the duty
cycle is 0.75, switching frequency is 1 kHz, determine
(a) average output voltage, (b) average output current, (c) rms output voltage,
(d) rms output current, (e) average thyristor current, (f) rms thyristor current and
(g) efficiency of chopper.
10.26 A dc to dc step-up converter as shown in Fig. 10.8 has a resistive load of 5 W and input voltage of 100 V.
If the switching frequency is 1 kHz and duty cycle is 40%, determine average output voltage and current.
10.27 A step-up chopper has input voltage of 220 V and output voltage of 450 V. If the conduction time of
switch is 130 ms, what is pulse width of output voltage? If the pulse width of output voltage become one
fourth for constant frequency operation, compute the new average value of output voltage.
10.28 Draw the output voltage, output current, current through switches and source current waveforms for
class D or two quadrant type B choppers when TON < TOFF. Assume load is inductive
10.29 A dc-to-dc stepdown converter circuit with R load has input voltage of 200 V, and a resistive load of
10 W. If the duty cycle is 70%, switching frequency is 1.5 kHz, determine (a) average output voltage,
(b) rms output voltage, (c) ripple factor and (d) effective input resistance.
10.30 A dc-to-dc converter is connected to a 120 V dc source with an inductive load R = 8 W and L = 10 mH. A
free wheeling diode is also connected across load. Assume the load current varies from 12 A to 16 A.
Determine the time ratio of dc-to-dc converter.
10.31 A stepdown chopper with RLE load has continuous constant load current. Determine the maximum value
of average thyristor current rating. Assume that switch S is thyristor.
10.32 A stepdown chopper with RLE load has input voltage of 220 V, R = 2 ohms, L = 12 mH, E = 55 V, TON =
500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
(a) Determine whether load current is continuous or discontinuous.
(b) Find the value of average load current.
(c) Calculate the maximum and minimum value of load current.
(d) Draw the load current, free wheeling diode current and current through switch.
(e) Ripple current.
10.33 Prove the following equations for a stepdown chopper with RLE load with continuous load current:
(i) I max =
(
V 1- e t
-
TON
)-E (ii) I min =
( TON
V e t -1 E
-
)
(
R 1 - e - Tt ) R (
R e Tt - 1 )R
10.34 A stepdown chopper with RLE load has input voltage of 220 V, R = 2 ohms, L = 12 mH, E = 55 V, TON =
500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
(a) Determine the first, second and third harmonics of load current.
(b) Compute the average value of supply current.
(c) Find power input, power absorbed by load emf and power loss in resistance.
(d) Calculate the rms value of load current.
10.35 A type-A chopper with RLE load has input voltage of 210 V, R = 1 ohms, L = 4.5 mH, E = 62 V, TON = 400
ms, T = 1600 ms. (a) Find whether load current is continuous or discontinuous. (b) Determine the value
of average output voltage and average load current. (c) Calculate the maximum and minimum value of
load current. (d) Draw the load current, free wheeling diode current and current through switch.
10.36 Figure 10.76 shows a type-A chopper with LE load. This
chopper circuit has input voltage of 400 V, L = 0.1 H and
constant E. When the duty cycle is 0.35, determine the
chopping frequency to limit the load ripple current to 10 A.
10.37 A buck converter has input voltage of 210 V and it operates
at 600 Hz. The average load current is 450 A. The load
resistance is 2 W. Determine the value of inductance to limit
the maximum peak to peak ripple current through inductor
to 12%. Find the value of inductance for maximum ripple
current.
10.38 A boost converter has input voltage of 15 V and it operates Fig. 10.76
at 30 kHz. When the duty cycle is 0.3, L = 150 mH, C = 147
mF and average load current is 1.5 A, determine the average output voltage, peak-to-peak ripple current
through inductor.
10.39 A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 24 V and it operates at 25 kHz. When the duty cycle is 0.35,
L = 500 mH, C = 147 mF and average load current is 1 A, determine the average output voltage, peak-to-
peak ripple current through inductor.
10.40 Assume that a CUK converter operates at 30 kHz to get an output voltage 160 V when the dc input
voltage is about 24 V. Find the duty ratio and the voltage across switch during OFF period.
10.41 A stepdown chopper has a load resistance of 20 W and input dc voltage is 220 V. When the chopper
switch is ON, the voltage across semiconductor switch is 2.2 V. If the chopping frequency is 1.5 kHz
and duty ratio is 40%, determine (a) average dc output voltage, (b) rms output voltage and (c) efficiency
of chopper.
10.42 A step-up chopper has input voltage of 200 V and output voltage of 500 V. (a) If the conduction time of
switch is 110 ms, determine the pulse width of output voltage. (b) If the pulse width of output voltage
becomes one half for constant frequency operation, find the new average value of output voltage.
10.43 A stepup chopper is used to provide 550 V from a 200 V dc input voltage. If the blocking period of
thyristor is 80 ms, what is the conduction period of thyristor?
10.44 Show that the critical inductance of the filter in a step-down chopper circuit is
Vo2 (V - Vo )
L=
2 fVPo
where Vo is output voltage, V is input voltage, Po is output power and f is chopping frequency.
10.45 Show that the critical inductance in the load circuit of a stepdown chopper is directly proportional to
x(1 – x) where x is the duty cycle.
10.46 A 120 V dc chopper operates using current limit control (CLC) strategy, the maximum value of load
current is 200 A and the lower limit of current is 50 A. The ON time and OFF time of chopper are 20 ms
and 30 ms respectively. Determine (a) the limit of current pulsation, (b) chopping frequency, (c) duty
cycle and (d) output voltage.
10.47 A type A copper operates at 1 kHz from 220 V dc supply and it is connected to a RL load. The load time
constant is 5 ms and the load resistance is 12 W. Determine the average load current and the amplitude
of current ripple for mean value of output voltage of 60 V. Find the maximum value and minimum value
of load current.
10.48 A type A chopper feed to an RLE load. Prove that the maximum value of rms current rating of freewheeling
3/2
diode is 0.385 V ÊÁ 1 - E ˆ˜ when load current is ripple free.
RË V¯
10.49 The speed of separately excited dc motor is controlled by a class A chopper and the motor operates at
below rated speed. The armature resistance is Ra = 0.3 W and inductance is La = 20 mH. The dc input
voltage is V = 200 V, the motor constant is k = 0.1 V/rpm. When motor operates at constant load torque with
an average load current of 40 A, determine (a) the range of speed control and (b) the range of duty cycle.
10.50 In a battery operated chopper fed dc drive, the maximum possible value of accelerating current is 425 A,
the lower limit of current pulsation is 200 A. The ON period of switch is 14 ms and OFF period of switch
is 11 ms and the time constant is 63.5 ms. Find (a) the higher limit of current pulsation, (b) chopping
frequency and (c) duty cycle. Assume battery voltage V = 220 V and R = 0.1 W.
10.51 A chopper controlled separately excited dc motor is operated by a dc battery. When dc motor operates at
full rating, V = 80 V, I = 200 A and N = 2500 rpm. The current pulsation is maintained in between 180 A
and 230 A. Determine (a) chopping frequency and (b) duty cycle when armature resistance Ra = 0.045 W,
armature inductance La = 7 mH, battery resistance Rb = 0.055 W and speed = 100 rpm.
10.52 The switching frequency of chopper as shown in Fig. 10.77(a) is 1.5 kHz. This chopper circuit is operated
at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction. If the current waveform follows the
Fig. 10.77(b), determine the on time of chopper and the value of peak current.
Fig. 10.77 (a) Chopper circuit and (b) Switching signal and inductor current
10.53 A buck converter has input voltage of 12 V and the required average output voltage is 6 V at R = 400 W and
the peak to peak output ripple voltage is 20 mV. If it operates at 20 kHz and peak to peak ripple current
of inductor is 0.8 A, determine (a) duty cycle ratio, (b) filter inductance L, (c) filter capacitance C and
(d) critical values of L and C.
10.54 A boost converter has input voltage of 5 V and it operates at 25 kHz. When the average output voltage
Vo = 12 V, the average load current Io = 0.8 A, L = 100 mH, and C = 147 mF, determine (a) duty cycle,
(b) ripple current of inductor DI, (c) the maximum current flows through inductor Imax, (d) ripple voltage
across capacitor and (e) critical values of L and C.
10.55 A buck-boost converter has input voltage of 15 V. The duty cycle is 0.3 and it operates at 30 kHz. When
L = 300 mH, C = 220 mF and average load current is 1.5 A, determine (a) average output voltage,
(b) peak-to-peak output voltage ripple, (c) peak-to-peak ripple current through inductor, (d) maximum
current flows through switch and (e) the critical values of L and C.
10.56 A battery operated electric car is operated by voltage commuted chopper. The battery voltage is 22 V,
starting current is 5 A and thyristor turn-OFF time is 15 ms. Determine the commutating inductor L and
commutating capacitor C.
10.57 A voltage commutated chopper has the following parameters:
V = 220 V, RLE load parameters (R = 0.25 W L = 4mH, E = 50 V)
The commutation circuit parameters are: L = 30 mH, C = 50 mF, TON = 500 ms, T = 1000 ms.
If the load current is 60 A, determine (a) effective ON time of chopper, (b) peak current flows through
T1 and TA, (c) turn-OFF time of T1 and TA and (d) total commutation interval.

10.1 (a) 10.2 (d) 10.3 (d) 10.4 (a) 10.5 (a) 10.6 (d) 10.7 (a)
10.8 (b) 10.9 (b) 10.10 (a) 10.11 (b) 10.12 (a) 10.13 (c) 10.14 (a)
10.15 (a) 10.16 (a) 10.17 (b) 10.18 (a) 10.19 (a) 10.20 (a) 10.21 (a)
10.22 (b) 10.23 (a) 10.24 (b) 10.25 (d) 10.26 (a) 10.27 (c) 10.28 (a)
10.29 (d) 10.30 (a) 10.31 (c) 10.32 (a) 10.33 (c) 10.34 (c) 10.35 (c)
10.36 (c)

10.1 chopper 10.2 step-down chopper 10.3 step-up chopper
10.4 thyristors (SCRs), power BJTs, power MOSFETs and IGBTs
10.5 Time ratio control, Current limit control 10.6 Imin, Imax
Ê ˆ 10.9 ÊÁ Vo = - ˆ
1 D
10.7 Vo = DV 10.8 V = V V
ËÁ o 1 - D ¯˜ Ë 1 - D ˜¯
Ê D ˆ
ÁË Vo = 1 - D V ˜¯
10.10 10.11 D = 0.5) 10.12 varied, constant
10.13 switch mode power supply (SMPS)

Ê ˆ
10.15 Á Vav = DV + ÊÁ 1 - x ˆ˜ E ˜
t
10.14 main thyristor T1 , auxiliary thyristor TA, free wheeling
Ë Ë T¯ ¯
10.16 0, unity 10.17 greater, 0 < D < 1 10.18 less, 0 £ D £ 1
10.19 E 10.20 C 10.21 A
10.22 B 10.23 Vo = TON f V 10.24 inversely
Inverters
11
11.1 IntroductIon
An inverter is a converter circuit which is used to convert dc power into ac power at
desired output voltage and frequency. The block diagram representation of inverter is
shown in Fig. 11.1. In an inverter, input is dc voltage, but output is ac at desired voltage
with required frequency. The output voltage may be fixed or variable. Similarly, the
frequency of output voltage is also fixed or variable. Usually the output voltage can be
controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM) technique, gain control of inverter (ac
output voltage/dc input voltage) and controlling modulation index.
Fig. 11.1 Block diagram representation of inverter
Inverters are most commonly used in the following applications:

d Variable speed induction motor drives
d Adjustable speed ac drives
d Induction heating
d Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
d Standby power supply
d HVDC power transmission
d Variable voltage and variable frequency power supply
d Battery operated vehicle drives
The phase controlled or line commutated full converters can operate inverter mode at the
line frequency only. These converters are called line commutated inverters. But the line
commutated inverters require an ac supply which is used for commutation of thyristors,
at the output. Therefore, line commutated inverters can not work as isolated ac voltage
source with variable voltage and variable frequency. When a thyristor-based inverter is
used to provide an isolated ac voltage source, the forced commutation technique must
be used to turn OFF SCRs. Consequently, thyristor-based inverters are costly and bulky. But these
inverters are suitable for high power applications. In low power and moderate power applications, the
gate commutation switching devices such as GTOs, BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs are used in inverter.
In this chapter, the classification of inverters, principle of operation of single-phase and three-phase
inverters with R load and RL load, three-phase bridge inverters, performance parameters of inverters,
different methods of voltage control and harmonic reduction of inverters are discussed in detail. The
operating principles of resonant converters such as series, parallel, series-parallel, quasi-resonant, zero
current and zero-voltage converters are also incorporated in this chapter.
11.2 classIfIcatIon of Inverters

Inverters can be classified depending upon the following factors:
1. Input source
2. Commutation
3. Circuit configuration
4. Wave shape of output voltage
11.2.1 Input source

Based on the nature of input source, inverters are classified as current source inverter (CSI) and voltage
source inverter (VSI).
Current Source Inverter (CSI) In this type

of inverter, a current source with high internal
impedance is used as input of inverter. Figure
11.2 shows the block diagram representation of
current source inverter. In CSI, the supply current
does not change very rapidly, but the load current Fig. 11.2 Block diagram representation of current source
can be controlled by varying dc input voltage of inverter (CSI)
CSI. This inverter is commonly used in very high
power applications such as induction motor drives.
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) In volt-

age source inverter (VSI), a dc voltage source
with very small internal impedance is used as
input of inverter. Figure 11.3 shows the block
diagram representation of voltage source in-
verter. The dc side terminal voltage is constant,
Fig. 11.3 Block diagram representation of voltage source
but the ac side output voltage may be constant
inverter (CSI)
or variable irrespective of load current. The VSI
can be classified as half-bridge VSI and full bridge VSI.
11.2.2 commutation
According to commutation method, inverters may be classified as line commutated inverters and
forced commutated inverters.
Inverters 681
Line commutated inverters Single-phase or three-phase fully controlled converter acts as an

Êp ˆ
inverter when the firing angle a is greater than 90∞ Á radian˜ . This is a voltage source inverter and
Ë2 ¯
the used switching devices such as thyristors are naturally commutated.
Forced commutated inverters In these type of inverters, additional circuits are required for
commutation of thyristors. Depending upon the commutation technique, these inverters are classified
as an auxiliary commutated inverters and complementary commutated inverters.
Auxiliary commutated inverters In case of auxiliary commutated inverters, an auxiliary thy-

ristor must be used to turn OFF a conducting thyristor. For example, modified McMurray inverters or
McMurray inverters are auxiliary commutated inverters.
Complementary commutated inverters In complementary commutated inverters, tightly

couple inductors can be used to turn OFF the other thyristor of a pair. For example, McMurray Bedford
inverters are complementary commutated inverters.
11.2.3 circuit configuration

According to circuit topology or connection of semiconductor switches, inverters can be classified as
series inverters, parallel inverters, half bridge inverters and full bridge inverters.
Series inverters In series inverters, inductor L and capacitor C are connected in series with the
load. In this inverter L and C are used as commutating elements and the performance of inverter
depends on the value of L and C.
Parallel inverters In case of parallel inverters, commutating elements are connected in parallel
with the conducting thyristor.
Half-bridge inverters and full bridge inverters In half-bridge inverters, only one leg of
bridge exists. In case of full bridge inverters, either two legs or three legs are existing for single-phase
or three-phase inverters respectively.
11.2.4 Wave shape of output voltage

In an ideal inverter, output voltage must be purely sinusoidal. But due to switching of semiconductor
devices as per requirement of inverter operation, output voltage is non-sinusoidal and it contains
harmonics. Depending upon the output voltage waveform this inverter can also be classified as square
wave inverters and pulse width modulation inverters.
Square wave inverters A square wave inverter generates a square wave ac output voltage of
constant amplitude. The amplitude of the output voltage of inverter can be controlled by varying the
input dc voltage.
Pulse width modulation inverter In pulse width modulation inverters, the output voltage
contains one or more pulses in each half cycle. By varying the width of these pulses, the amplitude
of output voltage can be controlled though the input dc voltage is constant. There are different control
techniques of pulse width modulation which are explained in Section 11.7.
11.3 Performance Parameters of Inverters

In an ideal inverter, the output voltage must be purely sinusoidal. However, the output voltage of
practical inverters is non-sinusoidal and it contains fundamental components as well as harmonic
components. Usually the performance of an inverter is measured by the following performance
parameters:
Harmonic factor of nth harmonic (HFn) The Harmonic factor is a measure of the individual
harmonic contribution in the output voltage of an inverter. This is defined by the ratio of the rms
voltage of a particular harmonic component to the rms voltage of the fundamental component. It is
represented by
V
HFn = n
V1
where, Vn is rms value of the nth harmonic component and
V1 is rms value of the fundamental component
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) The total harmonic distortion is a measure of closeness in
a shape between the output voltage waveform and its fundamental component. This is defined by the
ratio of the rms value of the total harmonic component of the output voltage to the rms value of the
fundamental component. It is represented by
1/2
È • ˘
Í Â Vn2 ˙
˚ [Vrms - V1 ]
2 2 1/2
THD = Î
n = 2,3,4,5...
V1 V1
where, Vrms is the rms value of output voltage.
Distortion Factor (DF) The distortion factor is used to measure the amount of harmonics that
remains in the output voltage waveform, after the waveform has been subjected to second order
attenuation (divided by n2). The distortion factor is represented by
1/2
È •
ÊV ˆ ˘
2
Í Â Á n2 ˜ ˙
Í n = 2,3,4,5... Ë n ¯ ˚˙
DF = Î
V1
Lowest Order Harmonics (LOH) It is the lowest frequency harmonic with a magnitude greater
than or equal to three percent of the magnitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage.
For higher the frequency of LOH, the distortion will be lower in the current waveform.
11.4 sIngle-Phase half-BrIdge voltage source Inverter

Figure 11.4 shows the circuit configuration of a single-phase half-bridge voltage source inverter (VSI).
Here switches S1 and S2 are power semiconductor switches such as IGBT, BJT, MOSFET, etc. When the
switch is closed, current flows through devices. While switches are opened, current flows through diode.
In this section, the operating principle of half bridge VSI with R and RL load is explained in detail.
Inverters 683
Fig. 11.4 Single-phase half-bridge inverter
11.4.1 single-Phase half-Bridge voltage source Inverter

with R load
The operation of a single-phase half-bridge inverter with R load can be divided into two different
modes such as
Ê Tˆ
1. Mode I Á 0 £ t £ ˜ : Switch S1 conducts and S2, D1, and D2 are in OFF
Ë 2¯
ÊT ˆ
2. Mode II Á £ t £ T ˜ : Switch S2 conducts and S1, D1, and D2 are in OFF
Ë2 ¯
Ê Tˆ T V
1. Mode I ÁË 0 £ t £ ˜¯ When the switch S1 is closed for , i.e., half of the time period, is ap-
2 2 2
V
plied across load and current flows through load is . The switching diagram of mode I is shown in
2R
T
Fig. 11.5(a) and the path of current flow during 0 £ t £ is also shown in Fig. 11.5(a).
2
ÊT ˆ T T
2. Mode II ÁË £ t £ T˜ At t = , switch S1 is opened and switch S2 is closed for duration. Then
2 ¯ 2 2
V V
again - is applied across load and - current will flow through load. The switching diagram
2 2R
T
of mode II is given in Fig. 11.5(b) and the path of current flow during £ t £ T is also depicted in
Fig. 11.5(b). 2
The gating signals of S1 and S2, output voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 11.6. Here
the output voltage waveform is square wave. The current waveform is also similar to output voltage
waveform. During R load, diodes D1 and D2 are not conducting. The frequency of output voltage is
1
f = . The output frequency can be controlled by varying the ON time and OFF time of switches.
T
The operation of half-bridge inverter is represented by Table 11.1.
Fig. 11.5 (a) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.4 in Mode I (b) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.4 in Mode II
Fig. 11.6 (a) ig1, gating signals of switch S1 (b) ig2, gating signals of switch S2 (c) Output voltage Vo
(d) Output current io
Table 11.1 Operation of half-bridge inverter.

Mode Time Load Voltage Load Current Conducting Device
T V V
I 0<t£ S1
2 2 2R
T V V
II £t £T - - S2
2 2 2R
Inverters 685
Figure 11.6(c) shows the output voltage waveform. The average value of output voltage is
1T
Vo(av) =
Ú v (t ) ◊ dt = 0
T0 o
1/2 1/2
È 1 T2 ˘ È 1 T2 Ê V ˆ 2 ˘ V
Vo(rms) = Í Ú vo (t ) ◊ dt = Í T /2 Ú ÁË 2 ˜¯ ◊ dt ˙
2
˙ =
ÍÎ T /2 0 ˙˚ ÎÍ 0 ˚˙ 2
Hence, the rms value of square wave is equal to the peak value.
The output voltage Vo can be expressed using Fourier series as
• •
vo (t ) = Â an cos nwt + Â bn sin nw t
n =1 n =1
2p
1
where, an = Ú vo (t )cos nw t ◊ dw t and
p 0
2p
1
bn =
Ú v (t )sin nw t ◊ dw t
p 0 o
Due to half-wave symmetry, only bn components are present.
2p
Therefore, bn = Ú v (t )sin nw t ◊ dw t
p0 o
2pV V
or bn = Ú sin nw t ◊ dw t as vo (t ) = 2
p02
2V
= where, n = 1, 3, 5...
np
• 2V
vo (t ) = Â sin nw t
n = 1,2,3... np
The rms value of the nth component is

1 2V
Vn = where, n = 1, 3, 5
2 np
The rms value of fundamental component is V1 = 0.45 V
V
Example 11.1 A single-phase half-bridge inverter feeds a resistive load of 5 W. When the voltage is
2
120 V, determine
(a) rms value of the fundamental component of output voltage

(b) the output power
(c) the average and peak current of transistors which are used in inverter
(d) the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of transistors
(e) the lowest order harmonics and the corresponding harmonic factor
(f) third harmonic distortion factor
Solution
V
Given: = 120 V and R = 5 W
2
Therefore, V = 2 ¥ 120 V = 240 V
The output voltage of single phase half bridge inverter is expressed as
•
2V
n = 1,2,3... np
(a) The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage is
1 2V 1 2 ¥ 240 V
V1 = = V = 107.994 V
2 p 2 p
V
(b) The rms value of output voltage is Vo(rms) = = 120 V
2
Vo2(rms) 1202
The output power is equal to Po = = Watt = 2880 Watt
R 5
(c) The current and voltage waveform of inverter is depicted in Fig. 11.7.
V 240
The average current of each transistor = 0.5I s(peak) = 0.5 ¥ = 0.5 ¥ = 12 A
2R 2¥5
V 240
The peak current of each transistor is I s(peak) = = = 24 A
2R 2 ¥ 5
Fig. 11.7 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase half-wave inverter

Inverters 687
V
(d) The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each transistor is equal to 2 ¥ = V = 240 V
2
2V 1 2V 2 ¥ 240
(e) The lowest order harmonics is V3(rms) = ¥ = = = 35.998 V
3p 2 3p 3p
V3(rms) 35.998
The corresponding harmonic factor is HF3 = = = 0.3333
V1(rms) 107.994
(f) Third harmonic distortion factor
2
[Vrms - V12 ]1/2 [1202 - 107.9942 ]1/2
THD = = = 0.4844
V1 107.994
where, Vrms is the rms value of output voltage.
Example 11.2 A single-phase half-bridge inverter has a resistive load of 10 W and the center tap dc input
voltage is 100 V. Determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of fundamental component of output
voltage, (c) first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform, (d) fundamental power consumption in load
and (e) rms power consumed by load.
Solution
V
Given: = 100 V and R = 10 W
2
Therefore, V = 2 ¥ 100 = 200 V
V
(a) The rms value of output voltage is Vo(rms) = = 100 V
2
(b) The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage
1 2V 1 2 ¥ 200
V1 = = = 90.07 V
2 p 2 p
V
(c) Since Vn = 1 , first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform is
n
V 90.07
rms value of third harmonic voltage is V3 = 1 = = 30.023 V
3 3
V 90.07
rms value of fifth harmonic voltage is V5 = 1 = = 18.014 V
5 5
V 90.07
rms value of seventh harmonic voltage is V7 = 1 = = 12.867 V
7 7
V 2 90.072
(d) Fundamental power consumption in load is P1 = 1 = = 811.26 Watt
R 10
Vo2(rms) 1002
(e) rms power consumed by load Prms = = = 1000 Watt
R 10
11.4.2 single-Phase half-Bridge voltage source Inverter

with RL load
For RL load, the output voltage wave form is similar to that with R load but the load current waveform
is different from the load current with resistive load. The output voltage and current waveforms are
illustrated in Fig. 11.8. The operation of a single-phase half-wave inverter with RL load can be divided
into four different modes such as
Fig. 11.8 (a) ig1 gating signals of switch S1, (b) ig2 gating signals of switch S2, (c) Output voltage Vo,
(d) Output current io and (e) Conduction of devices
1. Mode I (0 £ t £ t1 ) : Diode D1 conducts
Ê Tˆ
2. Mode II Á t1 £ t £ ˜ : Switch S1 conducts
Ë 2¯
ÊT ˆ
3. Mode III Á £ t £ t2 ˜ : Diode D2 conducts
Ë2 ¯
4. Mode IV (t2 £ t £ T ) : Switch S2 conducts
1. Mode I (0 £ t £ t1) At t = 0, the gating signal is removed from switch S2 and it becomes OFF.
At this instant the load current is io which is equal to its negative peak value (–Io). Due to inductive
load, the load current can not be reversed instantly and then diode D1 starts to conduct at t = 0. Sub-
V
sequently, the output voltage across load is and the load current io increases form its negative peak
2
value (–Io) as the current cannot reverse instantaneously due to inductive load. Then the load current
flows through diode D1. In the time interval 0 £ t £ t1, the voltage across load is positive, but load
Inverters 689
current is negative. Hence the energy stored in inductance L during previous cycle must be fed back
to dc supply through D1 and the load current decreases slowly. At t = t1, the load current becomes
zero. The switching diagram of mode I is given in Fig. 11.9(a) and the path of current flow during 0 £
t £ t1 is also shown in Fig. 11.9(a).
Ê Tˆ
2. Mode II ÁË t1 £ t £ ˜¯ At the instant t = t1, diode D1 becomes OFF but switch S1 is ON. The
2
T
current starts to flow in positive direction and it reaches its maximum positive peak value Io at t =
2
T
. During the time interval t1 £ t £ , both the output voltage as well as current is positive and energy
2
stored in inductance L. The switching diagram of mode II is shown in Fig. 11.9(b) and the path of
T
current flow during t1 £ t £ is shown in Fig. 11.9(b).
2
Fig. 11.9 (a) Switching diagram of half bridge inverter with R-L Load in mode I (b) Switching diagram of half
bridge inverter with R-L Load in mode II
ÊT ˆ T
3. Mode III ÁË £ t £ t2 ˜ At t = , switch S1 becomes OFF. At this instant, the load current io is
2 ¯ 2
equal to its positive peak value (Io). Due to inductive load, the load current can not be reversed instantly
T V
and then diode D2 starts to conduct at t = . After that the output voltage across load is - and the
2 2
load current io decreases form its positive peak value Io as the current cannot reverse instantaneously
T
due to inductive load. This current flows through diode D2. During the time interval £ t £ t2 , the
2
output voltage is negative but the load current is positive. It decreases slowly and reaches zero at
t = t2. The energy stored in inductance will be released and fed back to dc supply during this period.
Figure 11.10(a) shows the load current flow path through diode D2 and load and the switching diagram
of mode III.
4. Mode IV (t2 £ t £ T) At instant t = t2, diode D2 becomes OFF and switch S2 is ON. The load
current starts to flow in negative direction and it reaches maximum negative –Io at t = T. The switching
diagram of mode IV is shown in Fig. 11.10(b) and the current flow path through S2 and load is also
depicted in Fig. 11.10(b). The operation of half-bridge inverter is represented by Table 11.2.
Table 11.2

V
I 0 £ t £ t1 Negative D1
2
T V
II t1 £ t £ Positive S1
2 2
T V
III £ t £ t2 - Positive D2
2 2
V
IV t2 £ t £ T - Negative S2
2
Fig. 11.10 (a) Switching diagram of half bridge inverter with RL Load in mode III (b) Switching diagram of half
bridge inverter with RL Load in mode IV

V di (t ) T
= io (t ) R + L o for 0 < t £
2 dt 2
Assume that the initial condition is io (t = 0) = - I o . Then the output current can be expressed as
V
io (t ) =
2R
( -t
)-t
1 - e t - Ioe t (11.1)
L
where, t=
R
T Ê Tˆ
Assume at t = , i Á t = ˜ = Io
2 oË 2¯
Then
ÊTˆ V
io Á ˜ =
Ë 2 ¯ 2R
( -T -T
)
1 - e 2t - I o e 2t = I o
or
V
2R
( -T
) (
-T
1 - e 2t = I o 1 + e 2t )
Inverters 691
or Io =
V 1 - e 2t( -T
)
(
2 R 1 + e - 2Tt )
After substituting the value of Io in Eq. (11.1), we get
io (t ) =
V
(
-t
1- e t - )
V 1 - e 2t - tt
e
( -T
)
2R 2 R 1 + e - 2Tt ( )
V Ê 2 - tt ˆ
or io (t ) = 1- e
2 R ÁË 1 + e - 2t ˜¯
T
T
During £ t £ T , the voltage equation can be written as
2
V di (t ¢ ) T
- = io (t ¢ ) R + L o where, t ¢ = t -
2 dt 2
Ê T ˆ
Assume io Á t = ˜ = I o and io (t = T ) = - I o
Ë 2¯
V Ê 2 - ( t - tT / 2) ˆ T
io (t ) = - 1- T e for £t £T
Á -
2 R Ë 1 + e 2t ˜¯ 2
1/2
È 1 T /2 Ê V ˆ 2 ˘ V
Vrms = Í Ú ÁË ˜¯ dt ˙ =
ÍÎ T /2 0 2 ˙˚ 2
Due to half-wave symmetry, only bn components are present
2pV
bn = Ú sin nw t ◊ dw t
p02
2V
= where, n = 1, 3, 5...
np
The rms value of fundamental component is
2V
V1rms = = 0.45 V
2p
The instantaneous load current can be expressed as
• 2V nw L
io (t ) = Â sin(nw t - fn ) and fn = tan -1
n = 1,3,5... np R + (nw L )
2 2 R
where, the impedance offered by the load to the nth harmonic is Z n = R 2 + (nw L )2
The fundamental load current is
2V wL
io1 = sin(w t - f1 ) and f1 = tan -1
p R + (w L )
2 2 R
Example 11.3 A single-phase half-bridge inverter feeds an RL load with R = 10 W and L = 0.1 H. When the
V
voltage is 120 V and the frequency of output voltage is 50 Hz, find
2
(a) The output current for the first two half cycles of output voltage.
(b) Third harmonic distortion factor (THD) of load current.
Solution
V
Given: = 120 V, R = 10 W and L = 0.1 H.
2
Therefore, V = 2 ¥ 120 V = 240 V
Ê Tˆ
(a) For the first or positive half cycles of output voltage Á 0 < t £ ˜ , the output voltage can be expressed as
Ë 2¯
V di (t )
= io (t ) R + L o
2 dt
As io (t = 0) = - I o, io (t ) =
V
2R
( -t
)
-t
1 - e t - I oe t where, t = =
L 0.1
R 10
= 0.01
T Ê Tˆ
At t = , io Á t = ˜ = I o =
V 1 - e 2t ( -T
) where, T =
1 1
=
T
= 0.02 s and = 0.01 s
2 Ë 2 ¯ 2 R 1 + e - 2Tt ( ) f 50 2
V Ê 2 -t ˆ 240 Ê 2 - t ˆ
Then io (t ) = 1- e t = 1- e 0.01 = 12(1 - 1.9999e -100 t )
2 R ÁË 1 + e - 2Tt ˜ 2 ¥ 10 Á
¯ Ë 1+ e
- 2 ¥0.2
0.01
˜
¯
ÊT ˆ
For the second or negative half cycles of output voltage Á £ t £ T ˜ , the output current can be expressed as
Ë2 ¯
V Ê 2 -
( t - T / 2)
ˆ 240 Ê 2 -
( t - T / 2)
ˆ
io (t ) = - 1- e t =- 1- e 0.01
Á -
2 R Ë 1 + e 2tT ˜ Á
2 ¥ 10 Ë 1 + e 2 ¥ 0.01
- 0.2 ˜
¯ ¯
= - 12(1 - 1.9999e -100( t - 0.01) )
(b) The instantaneous load current can be expressed as
•
2V nw L
n = 1,3,5... np R + ( nw L )
2 2 R
The rms value of fundamental current
2V 1 2V
I1 = ¥ =
p R + (2p fL )
2 2 2 p R + (2p fL )2
2
2 ¥ 240
= = 1.6372 A
p 10 + (2p ¥ 50 ¥ 0.1)2
2
Similarly, rms value of third and fifth harmonics current are

2V 2 ¥ 240
I3 = = = 0.001349 A
3p R 2 + (2p ¥ 3 fL )2 3p 102 + (2p ¥ 3 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.1)2
2V 2 ¥ 240
I5 = = = 2.91554 ¥ 10 - 4 A
5p R + (2p ¥ 5 fL )
2 2
5p 10 + (2p ¥ 5 ¥ 50 ¥ 0.1)2
2
THD of load current is

I 32 + I 52 + I 72 + I 92 +  0.0013492 + (2.91554 ¥ 10 - 4 )2 + 
= =
I1 1.6372
= 0.001178
Inverters 693
11.5 sIngle-Phase full BrIdge Inverter

Figures 11.11 and 11.12 show single-phase full bridge inverters which consists of two pairs of controlled
switches (S1, S2, and S3, S4) and two pairs of diodes (D1, D2 and D3, D4). Among these devices, only
one pair of devices conducts simultaneously. When switches S1 and S2 are ON, the output voltage
across load is +V. Similarly, when switches S3 and S4 are ON, the output voltage across load is –V.
Diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 are used as feedback diodes. The load of full bridge inverter will be either
resistive or inductive. The sequence of switching of switches and diodes for R load and RL load are
given below.
For R Load
S1 S2 / S3 S4 / S1 S2 / S3 S4 /...
For RL Load
D1 D2 / S1 S2 / D3 D4 / S3 S4 / D1 D2 / S1 S2 / D3 D4 / S3 S4 /
Fig. 11.11 Single-phase full bridge inverter Fig. 11.12 Single-phase full bridge inverter using BJT
11.5.1 single-Phase full Bridge Inverter with r load

Similar to single-phase half bridge inverter, the operation of a single-phase full bridge inverter with
R load can be divided into two different modes such as
Ê Tˆ
1. Mode I Á 0 £ t £ ˜ : Switches S1 and S2 conduct
Ë 2¯
ÊT ˆ
2. Mode II Á £ t £ T ˜ : Switches S3 and S4 conduct
Ë2 ¯
Ê Tˆ T
1. Mode I ÁË 0 £ t £ ˜¯ In this mode, switches S1 and S2 are closed for , i.e., half of the time
2 2
V
period, and the voltage V is applied across load. Then current flows through load is . The switch-
R
T
ing diagram of mode I is illustrated in Fig. 11.13(a) and the path of current flow during 0 £ t £ is
2
also given in Fig. 11.13(a).
ÊT ˆ T
2. Mode II ÁË £ t £ T ˜¯ At t = , switches S1 and S2 are turned OFF and switches S3 and S4 are
2 2
T V
turned ON for duration. Then again –V is applied across load and - current will flow through
2 R
load. The switching diagram of mode II is shown in Fig. 11.13(b) and the path of current flow during
T
£ t £ T is also depicted in Fig. 11.13(b). At t = T, again S1 and S2 are turned ON and S3 and S4
2
turn OFF and cyclically switches are ON and OFF repeatedly.
Fig. 11.13 (a) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode I and (b) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode II
The gating signals of switches S1, S2, S3 and S4, output voltage and current waveforms are shown
in Fig. 11.14. At this time, the output voltage waveform is a square wave. The current waveform is
also similar to output voltage waveform. During R load, diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are not conducting.
1
The frequency of output voltage is f = . The output frequency can be controlled by varying the
T
ON time and OFF time of switches. The operation of full-bridge inverter with R load is represented
by Table 11.3.
Table 11.3

T V
I 0<t£ V S1 and S2
2 R
T V
II £t £T –V - S3 and S4
2 R
Figure 11.14(c) shows the output voltage waveform. The average value of output voltage is
1T
Vo(av) =
Ú v (t ) ◊ dt = 0
T0 o
1/2 1/2
È 1 T2 ˘ È 1 T2 ˘
Vo(rms) = Í Ú vo (t ) ◊ dt ˙ = Í
2
Ú V 2 ◊ dt ˙ = V
ÍÎ T /2 0 ˙˚ ÍÎ T /2 0 ˙˚
Therefore, the rms value of square wave is equal to the peak value.
• •
vo (t ) = Â an cos nwt + Â bn sin nw t
n =1 n =1
Inverters 695
Fig. 11.14 (a) ig1, ig2 gating signals of switches S1 and S2, (b) ig3, ig4 gating signals of switches S3 and S4
(c) Output voltage Vo, (d) Output current io (e) Conduction of devices
1 2p 1 2p
where an = Ú v ( t )cos nw t ◊ dw t and b = Ú v (t )sin nw t ◊ dw t
p 0 o n
p 0 o
Due to half-wave symmetry, only bn components are present.
2p
Therefore, bn = Ú v (t )sin nw t ◊ dw t
p0 o
2p
or bn = Ú V sin nw t ◊ dw t as vo (t ) = V
p0
4V
= where n = 1, 3, 5…
np
• 4V
n = 1,2,3... np

1 4V
Vn = where, n = 1, 3, 5...
2 np
4V
V1rms = = 0.9 V
2p
Example 11.4 A single-phase full bridge inverter feeds a resistive load of 10 W. When the dc voltage source
is 200 V, determine
Solution
Given: V = 200 V and R = 10 W
The output voltage of single-phase full bridge inverter is expressed as
•
4V
n = 1,2,3... np
(a) The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage is

1 4V 1 4 ¥ 200 V
V1 = = V = 179.9908 V
2 p 2 p
(b) The rms value of output voltage is Vo(rms) = V = 200 V
2002Vo2(rms)
The output power is equal to Po = =
Watt = 8000 Watt
R 5
(c) The current and voltage waveform of inverter is depicted in Fig. 11.15.
V 200
The average current of each transistor = 0.5I s(peak) = 0.5 ¥ = 0.5 ¥ = 10 A
R 10
V 200
The peak current of each transistor is I s(peak) =
= = 20 A
R 10
(d) The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each transistor is equal to V = 200 V
4V 1 4 ¥ 200 1
(e) The lowest order harmonics is V3(rms) = ¥ = ¥ = 59.9969 V
3p 2 3p 2
V3(rms) 59.9969
The corresponding harmonic factor is HF3 = = = 0.3333
V1(rms) 179.9908
(f) Third harmonic distortion factor
2
[Vrms - V12 ]1/2 [2002 - 179.99082 ]1/2
THD = = = 0.48445
V1 179.9908
Inverters 697
Fig. 11.15 Voltage and current waveforms of single-phase half-wave inverter
11.5.2 single-Phase full Bridge Inverter with RL load

The output voltage and current waveforms of full bridge inverter with RL load are given in Fig. 11.16.
Similar to half-bridge inverter with RL load, the full bridge inverter with RL load operates in four
different modes such as
1. Mode I (0 £ t £ t1 ) : Diodes D1 and D2 conduct
Ê Tˆ
2. Mode II Á t1 £ t £ ˜ : Switches S1 and S2 conduct
Ë 2¯
ÊT ˆ
3. Mode III Á £ t £ t2 ˜ : Diode D3 and D4 conduct
Ë2 ¯
4. Mode IV (t2 £ t £ T ) : Switches S3 and S4 conduct
1. Mode I (0 £ t £ t) At t = 0, the gating signals are removed from switch S3 and S4 and these
switches will be turned OFF. At this instant, the load current is io and is equal to its negative peak
value (–Io). Since the load is inductive, the load current cannot be reversed instantly and then diodes
Fig. 11.16 (a) ig1, ig2 gating signals of switches S1 and S2, (b) ig3, ig4 gating signals of switches S3 and S4,
(c) Output voltage Vo, (d) Output current io and (e) Conduction of devices
D1 and D2 starts to conduct at t = 0. Subsequently, the output voltage across load is +V and the load
current io increases from its negative peak value (–Io) as the current cannot reverse instantaneously
due to inductive load. Then the load current flows through diode D1 and D2. During the time interval
0 £ t £ t1, the voltage across load is positive, but load current is negative. Therefore, the energy stored
in inductance L during previous cycle must be fed back to dc supply through feedback diodes D1
and D2 and the load current decreases slowly. At t = t1, the load current becomes zero. The switching
diagram of mode I is shown in Fig. 11.17(a) and the path of current flow during 0 £ t £ t1 is also
depicted in Fig. 11.17(a).
Ê Tˆ
2. Mode II ÁË t1 £ t £ ˜¯ At the instant t = t1, feedback diodes D1 and D2 are turned OFF but switches
2
S1 and S2 are turned ON. Then load current starts to flow in positive direction through switches S1
T T
and S2 and it reaches its maximum positive peak value Io at t = . In the time interval t1 £ t £ ,
2 2
Inverters 699
both the output voltage as well as current is positive and energy stored in inductance L. The switching
T
diagram of mode II is shown in Fig. 11.17(b) and the path of current flow during t1 £ t £ is also
shown in Fig. 11.17(b). 2
Fig. 11.17 (a) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode I, (b) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode II
ÊT ˆ T
3. Mode III ÁË £ t £ t2 ˜¯ At t = , switches S1 and S2 are turned OFF. At this instant, the load
2 2
current is io is equal to its positive peak value (Io). As the load is inductive, the load current cannot
T
be reversed instantly and then diodes D3 and D4 start to conduct at t = . Then the output voltage
2
across load is –V and the load current io decreases form its positive peak value Io as the current cannot
T
reverse instantaneously due to inductive load. During the time interval £ t £ t2 , the output voltage
2
is negative but the load current is positive. The load current decreases gradually and reaches zero at
t = t2. Hence, the energy stored in inductance will be released and fed back to dc source during this
period. Fig. 11.18(a) shows the load current flow path through diodes D3 and D4 and load and the
switching diagram of mode III.
4. Mode IV (t2 £ t £ T) At instant t = t2, diodes D3 and D4 are turned OFF and switches S3 and S4
are turned ON. Then load current starts to flow in negative direction through switches S3 and S4 and it
reaches maximum negative –Io at t = T. The switching diagram of mode IV is shown in Fig. 11.18(b)
and the current flow path through S3, S4 and load is also depicted in Fig. 11.18(b). The operation of
full-bridge inverter is represented by Table 11.4.
Table 11.4 Operation of full bridge inverter

I 0 £ t £ t1 V Negative D1 and D2
T
II t1 £ t £ V Positive S1 and S2
2
T
III £ t £ t2 –V Positive D3 and D4
2
IV t2 £ t £ T –V Negative S3 and S4
Fig. 11.18 (a) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode III, (b) Switching diagram of Fig. 11.11 in mode IV

1/2 1/2
È 1 T2 ˘ È 1 T2 ˘
Vo(rms) = Í Ú vo (t ) ◊ dt ˙ = Í
2
Ú V 2 ◊ dt ˙ = V
ÍÎ T /2 0 ˙˚ ÍÎ T /2 0 ˙˚
Hence, the rms value of square wave is equal to the peak value.
The load current can be expressed as
VÊ 2 - tt ˆ T
io (t ) = 1- T e for 0 £ t £
Á -
R Ë 1 + e 2t ¯˜ 2
and
VÊ 2 - ( t - Tt / 2) ˆ T
io (t ) = - 1- T e for £t £T
Á -
R Ë 1 + e 2t ˜¯ 2
L
where, t=
R
• 4V
n = 1,2,3... np

1 4V
Vn = where, n = 1, 3, 5...
2 np
4V
V1rms = = 0.9 V
2p
The instantaneous load current io can be expressed as
• 4V nw L
n = 1,3,5... np R + ( nw L )
2 2 R
where, Z n = R 2 + (nw L )2 is the impedance offered by the load to the nth harmonic.
The fundamental load current is
4V wL
io1 = sin(w t - f1 ) and f1 = tan -1
p R + (w L )
2 2 R
Inverters 701
Example 11.5 A full bridge inverter has a dc source voltage of 240 V. The inverter supplies a RLC load with
R = 10 W, L = 0.1 H and C = 4.7 mF. The operating frequency of inverter is 500 Hz. Determine (a) rms load
current at fundamental frequency, (b) the rms value of load current, (c) power output, (d) average supply current
ad (e) THD in load current.
Solution
Given: V = 240 V, R = 10 W, L = 0.1 H, C = 4.7 mF and f = 500 Hz
The inductive reactance at fundamental frequency is
X L = 2p fL = 2p ¥ 500 ¥ 0.1 W = 314.2857 W
The capacitive reactance at fundamental frequency is
1 1
XC = = W = 67.6982 W
2p fC 2p ¥ 500 ¥ 4.7 ¥ 10 - 6
The impedance offered to the nth harmonic component is
2
Ê X ˆ
Z n = R 2 + Á nX L - C ˜
Ë n ¯
Therefore, Z1 = R 2 + ( X L - XC )2 = 102 + (314.2857 - 67.698)2 = 246.79 W

2 2
Ê X ˆ Ê 67.698 ˆ
Z 3 = R 2 + Á 3 X L - C ˜ = 102 + Á 3 ¥ 314.2857 - ˜ = 920.3254 W
Ë 3 ¯ Ë 3 ¯
2 2
Ê X ˆ Ê 67.698 ˆ
Z 5 = R 2 + Á 5 X L - C ˜ = 102 + Á 5 ¥ 314.2857 - ˜ = 1557.92 W
Ë 5 ¯ Ë 5 ¯
2 2
Ê X ˆ Ê 67.698 ˆ
Z 7 = R 2 + Á 7 X L - C ˜ = 102 + Á 7 ¥ 314.2857 - ˜ = 2190.3516 W
Ë 7 ¯ Ë 7 ¯
2 2
Ê X ˆ Ê 67.698 ˆ
Z 9 = R 2 + Á 9 X L - C ˜ = 102 + Á 9 ¥ 314.2857 - ˜ = 2821.067 W
Ë 9 ¯ Ë 9 ¯
The rms value of nth harmonic component of output voltage is
0.9V 0.9 ¥ 240 216
Vn = = =
n n n
The rms value of of nth harmonic component of output current is
V 216
In = n =
Z n nZ n
(a) The rms value of load current at fundamental frequency is
V 216 216
I1 = 1 = = A = 0.875 A as V1 = 216 V
Z1 Z1 246.79
216 216 216 216
Similarly, I 3 = = = 0.078233 A, I 5 = = = 0.027729 A,
3Z 3 3 ¥ 920.3254 5Z 5 5 ¥ 1557.92
216 216 216 216

I7 = = = 0.014087 A, I 9 = = = 0.00850 A
7Z 7 7 ¥ 2190.3516 9 Z 9 9 ¥ 2821.067
(b) The rms value of load current is equal to
I = I12 + I 32 + I 52 + I 72 + I 92 + 
= 0.8752 + 0.07822 + 0.02772 + 0.01402 + 0.00852 +  = 0.8790 A

(c) The power output is

Po = I 2 R = 0.8792 ¥ 10 = 7.72 Watt
(d) The average supply current is
P 7.72
I av = o = = 0.032 A
V 240
(e) THD in load current is
I 2 - I12 0.8792 - 0.8752
THD = = = 0.095
I1 0.875
Example 11.6 A single-phase full bridge inverter has a resistive load of 10 W and it is operated from a 120 V
dc input voltage. Determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of fundamental component of output
voltage, (c) first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform, (d) fundamental power consumption in load,
(e) rms power consumed by load and (f) transistor rating.
Solution
(a) The rms value of output voltage is Vo(rms) = V = 120 V
(b) The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage
1 4V 1 4 ¥ 120
V1 = = = 108.09 V
2 p 2 p
V
(c) As Vn = 1 , first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform is
n
V 108.09
3 3
V 108.09
rms value of fifth harmonic voltage is V5 = 1 = = 21.618 V
5 5
V 108.09
rms value of seventh harmonic voltage is V7 = 1 = = 15.441 V
7 7
V 2 108.092
(d) Fundamental power consumption in load is P1 = 1 = = 1168.34 Watt
R 10
Vo2(rms) 1202
(e) rms power consumed by load Prms = = = 1440 Watt
R 10
(f) Transistor rating: Voltage rating VCE ≥ V ≥ 120 V and
V V 12
Current rating IT peak ≥ ≥ 12 A and ITrms ≥ ≥ = 8.485 A
R 2R 2
Example 11.7 A single-phase full bridge inverter is connected to a RL load where R = 10 W and L = 0.2 H.
If the inverter is supplied from 220 V dc source and its output voltage frequency is 50 Hz, determine the expressions
for steady state current for the first two half cycles.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 10 W and L = 0.2 H
T
During the first half cycle, 0 £ t £ , the KVL equation for RL load is
2
dio
V = Rio + L
dt
Inverters 703
Assuming io (t = 0) = 0 , the solution of above equation is

V
io (t ) =
R
-Rt
(
1- e L =
220
10
)
- 10 t
(
1 - e 0.2 = 22(1 - e - 50 t ) )
T
2
Ê Tˆ V
Ë 2¯ R
- RT
At t = , the value of current is io Á t = ˜ = 1 - e 2 L ( )
T T T
During the second half cycle, £ t £ T or 0 £ t ¢ £ where t ¢ = t - the KVL equation for RL load is
2 2 2
dio
-V = Rio + L
dt ¢
Ê Tˆ V
Ë 2¯ R
- RT
( )
Assuming initial condition io Á t = ˜ = 1 - e 2 L , the solution of above equation is
io (t ¢ ) = -
V V
R R
(
- RT - R t¢
+ 2 - e 2L e L ) where, 0 £ t ¢ £
T
2
=-
220 220
10
+
10
-
(
10 ¥ 20 ¥ 10
2 - e 2 ¥ 0.2
-3
)e - 0.2
10 t ¢
= - 22 + 22(2 - e - 0.5 )e - 50 t ¢
T Ê Tˆ
t = , io Á t = ˜ = I o =
V 1 - e 2L( =
- RT
)
220 1 - e 2 ¥ 0.2 (= 22
-
10 ¥ 20 ¥ 10 - 3
(1 - e - 0.5 )
= 5.385 A
)
( )
At
2 Ë 2 ¯ -
R 1 + e 2L(
RT
10
1+ e
)
10 ¥ 20
- 2 ¥ 0.2
¥ 10 -3
(1 + e - 0.5 )
Ê Tˆ
Steady state current for the first half cycle Á 0 £ t £ ˜ is
Ë 2¯
io (t ) = 22(1 - e - 50 t ) - 5.385e - 50 t
Ê Tˆ
Steady state current for the second half cycle Á 0 £ t ¢ £ ˜ is
Ë 2¯
T
io (t ¢ ) = - 22 + 22(2 - e - 0.5 )e - 50 t ¢ + 5.385e - 50 t ¢ where, t ¢ = t –
2
Example 11.8 A single-phase transistorised full bridge inverter has a resistive load of 5 W and it is operated
from a 96 V dc input voltage. Determine (a) total harmonic distortion, (b) distortion factor, (c) harmonic factor
and distortion factor at lowest order harmonic, (d) transistor ratings.
Solution
(a) The rms value of output voltage is Vo(rms) = V = 96 V
The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage
V1rms = 0.9 V = 0.9 ¥ 96 = 86.4 V
rms harmonic voltage is Vn = Vo2(rms) - V1rms

2
= 962 - 86.42 = 41.845 V
Vn 41.845
Total harmonic distortion is TDH = = V = 0.4843
V1rms 86.4
1/2
È • Ê V ˆ2˘
Í Â Á n2 ˜ ˙
Ín = 3,5,7... Ë n ¯ ˚˙
(b) Distortion factor is DF = Î
V1
V1 V 86.4 V 86.4 V 86.4
As Vn = ,V = 1 = = 28.8 V, V5 = 1 = = 17.28 V and V7 = 1 = = 12.34 V
n 3 3 3 5 5 7 7
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ê Vn ˆ Ê V3 ˆ Ê V5 ˆ Ê V7 ˆ Ê 28.8 ˆ Ê 17.28 ˆ Ê 12.34 ˆ
Therefore Â ÁË 2 ˜¯ = ÁË 2 ˜¯ + ÁË 2 ˜¯ + ÁË 2 ˜¯ = ÁË 2 ˜¯ + ÁË 2 ˜¯ + ÁË 2 ˜¯ = 10.7811
n = 3,5,7 n 3 5 7 3 5 7
1/2
È • Ê V ˆ2˘
Í Â Á n2 ˜ ˙
Ín = 3,5,7... Ë n ¯ ˚˙
Then DF = Î
10.7811
= = 0.03800 = 3.8%
V1 86.4
(c) Harmonic factor and distortion factor at lowest order harmonic
V 86.4
3 3
V 28.8
Harmonic factor HF3 = 3rms = = 0.3333 = 33.33%
V1rms 86.4
V3rms 28.8
2 2
Distortion factor DF3 = 3 = 3 = 0.03703 = 3.703%
V1rms 86.4
(f) Transistor rating: Voltage rating VCE ≥ V ≥ 96 V and
V V 19.2
Current rating ITpeak ≥ ≥ 19.2 A and ITrms ≥ ≥ = 13.57 A
R 2R 2
ITpeak 13.57
Average transistor current is ITav = = = 6.785 A
2 2
Example 11.9 A single-phase full bridge inverter is connected to a RC load where R = 10 W and C = 50 mF. If
the inverter is supplied from 220 V dc source and its output voltage frequency is 50 Hz, determine the expressions
for steady state current for the first two half cycles.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 10 W and C = 50 mF.
T
During the first half cycle, 0 £ t £ , the KVL equation for RC load is
2
1
V = Rio + Ú io ◊ dt
dq C
As io = , the above equation can be written as
dt
dq q
V=R +
dt C q (t )
- t - t
Solution of the above equation is q(t ) = CV (1 - e RC ) and VC (t ) = = V (1 - e RC )
C
Then dV (t ) V - t
io (t ) = C C = e RC
dt R t -
- RC
t
10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 -6
Therefore, VC (t ) = V (1 - e ) = 220(1 - e ) = 220(1 - e - 2000 t ) and
V - RCt 220 - 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10- 6
t
io (t ) =
e = e = 22e - 2000 t
R 10
T Ê Tˆ
At t = , the value of current is VC Á t = ˜ = V 1 - e 2 RC
2 Ë 2 ¯
- T
( )
T T T
During the second half cycle, £ t £ T or 0 £ t ¢ £ where t ¢ = t - the KVL equation for RL load is
2 2 2
1
-V = Rio + Ú io dt ¢
C
Inverters 705
dq dq q
As io = , the above equation can be written as -V = R +
dt dt ¢ C
Ê Tˆ
Ë 2¯
- T
( )
Assuming initial condition VC Á t = ˜ = V 1 - e 2 RC , the solution of above equation is
(
q(t ¢ ) = - CV 1 - e
t¢
- RC
) + CV C
Ê T ˆ - RC
ËÁ 2 ¯˜
e
t¢
where, 0 £ t ¢ £
T
2
VC (t ¢ ) =
q (t ¢ )
C
( - t¢
= - V 1 - e RC ) Ê T ˆ - RC
+ VC Á ˜ e
Ë 2¯
t¢
(- T - t¢
= - V + V 2 - e 2 RC e RC )
io (t ¢ ) = C C
dV (t ¢ )
dt
V
(
- T - t¢
= - 2 - e 2 RC e RC
R
)
Ê 20 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ -
( )e - t¢
t¢
Therefore, VC (t ¢ ) = - V + V 2 - e
- 2 TRC - RC Á
= - 220 + 220 Ë 2 - e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 - 6 ˜
¯ e 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10
-6
- 20
= - 220 + 220(2 - e )e - 2000 t ¢
Ê 20 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ -
( ) - t¢
- t¢ 220 Á
Ë 2 - e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ˜¯ e 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 = - 22(2 - e - 20 )e - 2000 t ¢
V - T -6 -6
io (t ¢ ) = - 2 - e 2 RC e RC = -
R 10
20 ¥ 10 - 3
-
- T -6
Ê Tˆ 1 - e 2 RC 1 - e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 1 - e - 20
At VC Á t = ˜ = Vo = V = 220 = 220 ª 220 V
Ë 2¯ - T 20 ¥ 10 - 3
1 + e - 20
1 + e 2 RC - - 6
1 + e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 50 ¥ 10
Steady state voltage for the first half cycle is
VC (t ) = 220(1 - e - 2000 t ) - 220e - 2000 t and
Steady state voltage for the second half cycle is
VC (t ¢ ) = - 220 + 220(2 - e - 20 )e - 2000 t ¢ + 220e - 2000 t ¢
Example 11.10 A single-phase bridge inverter delivers

power to RLC series load with R = 5 W and wL = 10 W.
The time period of output voltage is 0.2 ms. What is the
value of C to obtain load commutation? Assume thyristor
turn-OFF time is 16 ms and circuit turn-off time is 1.5tq.
Assume that load current contains fundamental component
only.
Solution
The value of C should be such that the circuit operates
in underdamped condition with RLC load. Figure 11.19
shows the waveforms of fundamental component voltage
Fig.11.19 Waveforms of fundamental component
and fundamental component current. The current leads
voltage and fundamental component
voltage by an angle f.
current
X - XL
Then tan f = C
R
Since current leads voltage by an angle f, XC > XL
f
must be equal to the circuit turn-OFF time 1.5tq = 1.5 ¥ 16 ¥ 10 - 6 = 24 ms = tc
w
1 1
Frequency f= = = 5 kHz
T 0.2 ¥ 10 - 3
f = w tc = 2p ftc = 2p ¥ 5 ¥ 103 ¥ 24 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.7536 rad = 43.16∞

XC - X L XC - 10
tan f = or, tan 43.16 =
R 5
XC - 10
or 0.9367 = or, XC = 10 + 5 ¥ 0.9367 = 14.6835
5
or 1 1
= 14.6835 or, C = = 216.89 mF
2p ¥ 50 ¥ C 2p ¥ 50 ¥ 14.6835
11.6 three-Phase Inverter

The output of a single-phase inverter is a
non-sinusoidal waveform and it consists of
harmonics component. This is suitable only
for low power industrial applications. When
the more number of switching elements are
used in an inverter, the output waveform
will be non-sinusoidal, but its harmonics
content will be reduced. Hence the output is
nearer to sinusoidal. Therefore, three-phase
inverters are used for high power industrial
applications.
A three-phase inverter can be formed
after combining three half-bridge single
phase inverters in parallel. It consists of
six switching devices (SCRs, power BJTs,
MOSFETs, IGBTs, etc.) and six diodes.
The circuit configuration of a three-phase
inverter is shown in Fig. 11.20(a) and (b).
The load may be connected either in delta
or star. The delta connected load and star
connected load are depicted in Fig. 11.21(a)
and (b) respectively. Fig. 11.20 (a) Three-phase inverter using switches and diodes
The circuit arrangement of inverter as and (b) Three-phase inverter using transistors and
shown in Fig. 11.20 may be operated with diodes
star connected or delta connected load and
the switching devices can be triggered in
two different modes of operation such as
1. 180° conduction mode
2. 120° conduction mode
In this section, the operating principle
of above two modes of an inverter are
discussed elaborately. Fig. 11.21 (a) Delta connected load and (b) Star connected
load
Inverters 707
11.6.1 180° conduction mode

In this mode, each switch conducts for 180° duration in each cycle of the output voltage. Each leg of
three-phase inverter consists of two switches, one is a part of positive group switches and other is a
part of negative group switches. When a positive group switch of a leg conducts for 180° duration,
its corresponding negative group switch of same leg conducts for next 180° duration as one complete
cycle is equal to 360° duration. For example, if the switch S1 of leg 1 is ON for 180° duration during
0° £ wt £ 180°, then the switch S4 of leg 1 is ON for 180° duration during 180° £ wt £ 360°. The
sequence of switching of semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 are depicted in Fig. 11.22. In
this switching scheme, three switches from three different legs are conducted at a time. Hence, two
switches from the same leg are not switched on simultaneously. The one complete cycle of switching
can be operated into six modes and each mode operates only for 60° duration. The different operating
modes are given in Table 11.5. The switching sequence is
Fig. 11.22 Sequence of switching of semiconductor switches
Table 11.5 Operating modes of inverter
Mode Operating duration Conduction of switches

p
Mode-I 0 £ wt £ S1, S6, S5
3
p 2p
Mode-II £ wt £ S1, S6, S2
3 3
2p
Mode-III £ wt £ p S1, S3, S2
3
4p
Mode-IV p £ wt £ S4, S3, S2
3
4p 5p
Mode-V £ wt £ S4, S3, S5
3 3
5p
Mode-VI £ w t £ 2p S4, S6, S5
3
It is clear from Table 11.5 that during each interval, only three switches conducts and two from the
positive group and other one from negative group or vice versa. Assume that the load is connected in
star and the phase voltages are VAN, VBN and VCN. The line to line voltages are VAB, VBC and VCA. The
equivalent circuits of inverter for six different modes are given below:
Ê pˆ p
1. Mode I Á 0 £ w t £ ˜ During mode I, switches S1, S6, and S5 conduct for 0 £ w t £ and the
Ë 3¯ 3
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 11.23.
p
Fig. 11.23 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during 0 £ wt £ when S1, S6 and S5 are closed
3
The current io is given by
V V 2V R
io = = = as R || R =
R || R + R R 3R 2
+R
2
The lines to neutral voltages are
io V 2V
VAN = VCN = R= as io =
2 3 3R
2 2
VNB = io R = V then VBN = - VNB = - V
3 3
Êp 2p ˆ p 2p
2. Mode II ÁË £ wt £ ˜ In mode II, switches S1, S6, and S2 conduct for £ w t £ and the
3 3¯ 3 3
Fig. 11.24 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during p £ wt £ 2p when S1, S6, and S2 are closed
3 3
Inverters 709

V V 2V R
io = = = as R || R =
R + R || R R 3R 2
R+
2
2 2V
VAN = io R = V as io =
3 3R
io V V V
VNB = VNC = R = then VBN = - VNB = - and VCN = - VNC = -
2 3 3 3
Ê 2p ˆ 2p
3. Mode III ÁË £ w t £ p ˜¯ During mode III, switches S1, S3, and S2 conduct for £ w t £ p and
3 3
the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 11.25.
V V 2V R
io = = = as R || R =
R || R + R R 3R 2
+R
2
i V 2V
VAN = VBN = o R = as io =
2 3 3R
2 2
VNC = io R = V then VCN = - VNC = - V
3 3
2p
Fig. 11.25 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during £ wt £ p when S1, S3 and S2 are closed
3
Ê 4p ˆ
Similarly, during mode IV Á p £ w t £ ˜ , the line to neutral voltages are
Ë 3 ¯
V 2V
VAN = VCN = - and VBN = -
3 3
Ê 4p 5p ˆ
In mode V ÁË £ wt £ ˜ , the line to neutral voltages are
3 3¯
2V V
VAN = - and VBN = VCN =
3 3
Ê 5p ˆ
During mode VI Á £ w t £ 2p ˜ , the line to neutral voltages are
Ë 3 ¯
V 2V
VAN = VBN = - and VCN =
3 3
When the lines to neutral voltages are known for a complete cycle, the line-to-line voltages are
computed by using following expressions:
VAB = VAN - VBN
VBC = VBN - VCN
VCA = VCN - VAN
The output phase voltages VAN, VBN, VCN and line voltages VAB, VBC, VCA are depicted in Fig. 11.26.
The instantaneous line voltages can be expressed in Fourier series as they are periodic non-sinusoidal
waveform as given below.
• 4V np Ê np ˆ
v AB = Â cos sin Á nw t + ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 Ë 6 ¯
• 4V np Ê np ˆ
vBC = Â cos sin Á nw t -
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 2¯
4V
• np Ê 5np ˆ
vCA = Â cos sin Á nw t +
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 6 ¯
np
If the triple harmonics (n = 3, 9, 15, …) are zero, cos =0.
6
The rms line to line voltage is expressed by
1/2
È1 2p
3 ˘ È 1 Ê 2p ˆ˘
1/2
VL (rms) = Í Ú V dw t ˙
2
= Í V2 Á - 0˜ ˙
Îp Ë 3 ¯˚
ÎÍ p 0 ˚˙
2
=
V = 0.8165 V
3
The rms value of nth component of the line voltage is given by
4V np
VLn(rms) = cos
2 np 6
The rms value of fundamental component of the line voltage is
4V p
VL1(rms) = cos = 0.7797 V
2p 6
The rms value of phase voltages is
VL (rms) 2
Vph(rms) = = V = 0.4714 V
3 3
The power output of inverter with resistive load is equal to
2
2 V2
Vph(rms)
P=3 =
R 3 R
The rms value of switch current is given by
I ph(rms) Vph(rms) V
I Switch(rms) = = =
2 2R 3R
Inverters 711
Fig. 11.26 Gating signals of S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, line voltages VAB, VBC, VCA and phase voltages VAN, VBN, VCN
Example 11.11 A three-phase bridge inverter is fed from 400 V dc supply. If the semiconductor switches
(transistors) which are used in inverter conducts for 180° duration and the inverter is supplying a star connected
resistive load of 10 W, determine
(a) rms value of per phase voltage and line voltage
(b) rms value of load current
(c) rms value of current flows through transistors
(d) Power delivered to load
(e) Average source current
Solution
Given: V = 400 V, R = 10 W
(a) The rms value of per phase load voltage is
VL (rms) 2
Vph(rms) = = V = 0.4714 V = 0.4714 ¥ 400 V = 188.56 V
3 3
The rms line to line voltage is
2
VL (rms) = V = 0.8165 V = 0.8165 ¥ 400 V = 326.6 V
3
(b) rms value of load current per phase
Vph(rms) 188.56
I ph = = = 18.856 A
R 10
V 400
I rms(transistor) = = = 13.3333 A
3 R 3 ¥ 10
2
Vph(rms) 188.562
PO = 3 =3¥ Watt = 10.6664 kW
R 10
(e) Average source current is
P 10666.4
I av = O = = 26.666 A
V 400
Example 11.12 A three-phase bridge inverter operates in 180° conduction mode and it is operated by a 120 V
dc battery and it is connected with a R load of 5 W. Determine (a) rms line to line output voltage, (b) fundamental
output voltage and (c) distortion factor and harmonic factor of output voltage waveform.
Solution
Given: V = 120 V, conduction of transistor is 180° and R = 5 W
(a) rms line-to-line output voltage
2
VL (rms) = V = 0.8165 V = 0.8165 ¥ 120 = 97.98 V
3
(b) Fundamental output voltage
4V p
VL1(rms) = cos = 0.7797 V = 0.7797 ¥ 120 = 93.564 V
2p 6
(c) Distortion factor is
VL1(rms) 93.564
DF = = = 0.9545
VL (rms) 97.98
Harmonic factor of output voltage waveform
1 1
HF = -1 = - 1 = 0.31256
DF 2 0.95452
Inverters 713
Example 11.13 A three-phase bridge inverter operates is operated by 400 V dc input voltage and it operates
in 180° conduction mode. Find (a) rms value line to line output voltage, (b) rms value line to phase output voltage
and (c) fundamental output voltage in terms of line voltage and phase voltage.
Solution
Given: V = 400 V, and conduction of transistor is 180°
(a) rms line-to-line output voltage is
2
VL (rms) = V = 0.8165 V = 0.8165 ¥ 400 = 326.6 V
3
(b) rms value line-to-phase output voltage is
VL (rms) 0.8165V 0.8165 ¥ 400
VPhase(rms) = = = = 188.568 V
3 3 3
(c) Fundamental output voltage in terms of line voltage
4V p
VL1(rms) = cos = 0.7797 V = 0.7797 ¥ 400 = 311.88 V
2p 6
Fundamental output voltage in terms of phase voltage
VL1(rms) 311.88
VPhase1(rms) = = = 180.069 V
3 3
Example 11.14 A three-phase bridge inverter operates is operated by 240 V dc supply and it operates in
180° conduction mode. When the inverter is connected to a star connected R load with R = 5 W and L = mH and
inverter output frequency fo = 50 Hz, compute (a) instantaneous line-to-line voltage and line current in Fourier
series, (b) rms value line-to-line output voltage, (c) rms value line to phase output voltage and (d) fundamental
output voltage in terms of line voltage and phase voltage.
Solution
Given: V = 240 V, conduction of transistor is 180°, R = 5 W, L = 10 mH and fo = 50 Hz
(a) Instantaneous line-to-line voltage in Fourier series
•
4V np Ê np ˆ
v AB = Â cos sin Á nw t + ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 Ë 6 ¯
np
where, the triple harmonics (n = 3, 9, 15…) are zero, as cos =0.
6
p
w = 2p f = 2p ¥ 50 = 314 and = 30∞
6
4V p Ê p ˆ 4 ¥ 240 p
v AB1 = cos sin Á w t + ˜ = cos sin(314t + 30∞) = 264.772 sin(314t + 30∞)
p 6 Ë 6¯ p 6
4V 5p Ê p ˆ 4 ¥ 240 5p
v AB 5 = cos sin 5 Á w t + ˜ = cos sin 5(314t + 30∞)
5p 6 Ë 6 ¯ 5p 6
= - 52.954 sin 5(314t + 30∞)
4V 7p Ê p ˆ 4 ¥ 240 7p
v AB 7 = cos sin 7 Á w t + ˜ = cos sin 7(314t + 30∞) = - 37.82 sin 7(314t + 30∞)
7p 6 Ë 6¯ 7p 6
4V 11p Ê pˆ
v AB11 = cos sin 11Á w t + ˜
11p 6 Ë 6¯
4 ¥ 240 11p
= cos sin 11(314t + 30∞) = 24.07 sin 11(314t + 30∞)
11p 6
The instantaneous line to line voltage in Fourier series

v AB = 264.772 sin(314t + 30∞) - 52.954 sin 5(314t + 30∞) - 37.82 sin 7(314t + 30∞) 
 + 24.07 sin 11(314t + 30∞) + 
Ê nw L ˆ
Z L = R 2 + (nw L )2 – tan -1 Á
Ë R ˜¯
Ê 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ
Z L1 = 52 + (314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 – tan -1 Á ˜¯ = 5.90–32.21∞
Ë 5
Ê 5 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ
Z L 5 = 52 + (5 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 – tan -1 Á ˜¯ = 16.476–72.33∞
Ë 5
Ê 7 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ
Z L 7 = 52 + (7 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 – tan -1 Á ˜¯ = 22.54–77.18∞
Ë 5
Ê 11 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 ˆ
Z L11 = 52 + (11 ¥ 314 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 – tan -1 Á ˜¯ = 34.9–81.76∞
Ë 5
The instantaneous line to line currents in Fourier series
iAB = 44.87 sin(314t - 2.21∞) - 3.214 sin(5 ¥ 314t + 77.67∞) - 1.6779 sin(7 ¥ 314t + 132.82∞) 
 + 0.689 sin(11 ¥ 314t + 248.24∞) + 
(b) rms line-to-line output voltage
2
VL (rms) =V = 0.8165 V = 0.8165 ¥ 240 = 195.96 V
3
(c) rms value line-to-phase output voltage is
0.8165V 0.8165 ¥ 240
VL (rms)
VPhase(rms) = = = = 113.14 V
3 3 3
(d) Fundamental output voltage in terms of line voltage
4V p
VL1(rms) = cos = 0.7797 V = 0.7797 ¥ 240 = 187.128 V
2p 6
Fundamental output voltage in terms of phase voltage
VL1(rms) 187.128
VPhase1(rms) = = = 108.04 V
3 3
11.6.2 120° conduction mode

In this mode, each switch conducts for 120° duration
in each cycle of the output voltage. Each leg of three
phase inverter consists of two switches, one is a part of Fig. 11.27 Sequence of switching of semi-
conductor switches
positive group switches and other is a part of negative
group switches. The gating signals of switches are given for every 60°. The sequence of switching
of semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 are depicted in Fig. 11.27. In this switching scheme,
only two switches conduct at any instant of time, one from the positive group of switches and the
other from the negative group switches. The one complete cycle of switching can be operated into
six modes and each mode operates only for 60° duration. The different operating modes are given in
Table 11.6. The switching sequence is shown in Fig 11.27.
Inverters 715
Table 11.6 Operating modes of inverter
Mode Operating duration Conduction of switches

p
Mode-I 0 £ wt £ S1, S6
3
p 2p
Mode-II £ wt £ S1, S2
3 3
2p
Mode-III £ wt £ p S3, S2
3
4p
Mode-IV p £ wt £ S3, S4
3
4p 5p
Mode-V £ wt £ S4, S5
3 3
5p
Mode-VI £ w t £ 2p S5, S6
3
It is clear from Table 11.6 that during each interval, only two switches conducts and one from the
positive group and other one from negative group. Assume that the load is connected in star and the
phase voltages are VAN, VBN and VCN. The line-to-line voltages are VAB, VBC and VCA. The equivalent
circuits of inverter for six different modes are given below.
Ê pˆ p
1. Mode I Á 0 £ w t £ ˜ During mode I, switches S1 and S6 conduct for 0 £ w t £ and the equiva-
Ë 3 ¯ 3
lent circuit is shown in Fig. 11.28.
p
Fig. 11.28 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during 0 £ wt £ when S1 and S6 are closed
3
V V
io = =
R + R 2R

V V
VAN = io R = as io =
2 2R
V V
VNB = io R = then VBN = - VNB = - , VCN = 0
2 2
Êp 2p ˆ p 2p
2. Mode II ÁË £ w t £ ˜¯ In mode II, switches S1 and S2 conduct for £ wt £ and the
3 3 3 3
V V R
io = = as R || R =
R + R 2R 2
V 2V
VAN = io R = as io = , and VBN = 0
2 3R
V V
VNC = io R = then VCN = - VNC = -
2 2
p 2p
Fig. 11.29 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during £ wt £ when S1 and S2 are closed
3 3
Ê 2p ˆ 2p
3. Mode III ÁË £ w t £ p ˜ During mode III, switches S3 and S2 conduct for £ w t £ p and the
3 ¯ 3
V V
io = =
R + R 2R
V
VAN = 0, VBN = VNC = io R =
2
V
Then VCN = - VNC = -
2
Inverters 717
2p
Fig. 11.30 Equivalent circuit of Fig. 11.20 during £ wt £ p when S3 and S2 are closed
3
Ê 4p ˆ
Similarly, during mode IV Á p £ w t £ ˜ , S3 and S4 are closed and the line to neutral voltages are
Ë 3 ¯
V V
VAN = - , VBN = and VCN = 0
2 2
Ê 4p 5p ˆ
In mode V ÁË £ wt £ ˜ , S and S4 are closed and the line to neutral voltages are
3 3¯ 5
V V
VAN = - , VBN = 0 and VCN =
2 2
Ê 5p ˆ
During mode VI Á £ w t £ 2p ˜ , S5 and S6 are closed and the line to neutral voltages are
Ë 3 ¯
V V
VAN = 0, VBN = - and VCN =
2 2
As the lines to neutral voltages are known for a complete cycle, the line to line voltages are computed
by using following expressions:
VAB = VAN - VBN , VBC = VBN - VCN and VCA = VCN - VAN
The output phase voltages VAN, VBN, VCN and line voltage VAB, VBC, VCA are shown in Fig. 11.31. The
instantaneous phase voltages can be expressed in Fourier series since these voltages are periodic non-
sinusoidal waveform as given below.
• 2V np Ê np ˆ
v AN = Â cos sin Á nw t + ˜
n = 1,3,5... n p 6 Ë 6 ¯
• 2V np Ê np ˆ
vBN = Â cos sin Á nw t -
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 2¯
• 2V np Ê 5np ˆ
vCN = Â cos sin Á nw t +
Ë ˜
n = 1,3,5... np 6 6 ¯
The Fourier series expression of line voltage waveform VAB is given by
• 3V Ê np ˆ
v AB = Â sin Á nw t +
Ë ˜
n = 6 k ±1 np 3¯
k = 0,1,2,3...
Fig. 11.31 Gating signals of S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, phase voltages VAN, VBN, VCN and line voltages VAB, VBC, VCA
Inverters 719
Similarly, line voltages VBC and VCA are represented by

• 3V Ê p 2p ˆ • 3V Ê pˆ
vBC = Â sin n Á w t + -
Ë ˜ = Â sin n Á w t - ˜
n = 6 k ±1 np 3 3 ¯ n = 6 k ±1 np Ë 3¯
k = 0,1,2,3... k = 0,1,2,3...
• 3V Ê p 2p ˆ • 3V
vCA = Â sin n Á w t - -
Ë ˜ = Â sin n(w t - p )
n = 6 k ±1 np 3 3 ¯ n = 6 k ±1 np
k = 0,1,2,3... k = 0,1,2,3...
The rms value of phase voltage is expressed by

1/2 1/2
È1 2p
3
ÊVˆ
2 ˘ È 1 Ê V ˆ 2 Ê 2p ˆ˘
Vphase(rms) = Í Ú ÁË 2 ˜¯ dw t ˙ =Í Á ˜ Á - 0˜ ˙
ÎÍ p 0 ˚˙ Îp Ë 2 ¯ Ë 3 ¯˚
2V V
= = = 0.4082 V
3 2 6
The rms value of line voltages is
V V
VL (rms) = 3Vph(rms) = 3 ¥ = = 0.707 V
6 2
The rms value of nth component of the line voltage is given by
3V
VLn(rms) =
2 np
The rms value of fundamental component of the line voltage is
3V
VL1(rms) = = 0.6752 V
2p
The power output of inverter is
2
Vph(rms) V2 V
Po = 3 = as Vphase(rms) =
R 2R 6
The rms current flows through switch (transistor) is
I ph(rms) V Vph(rms)
I switch(rms) = = as I phase(rms) =
2 2 3R R
Example 11.15 A three-phase bridge inverter is fed from 600 V dc supply. If the semiconductor switches
(transistors) which are used in inverter conducts for 120° duration and the inverter is supplying a star connected
resistive load of 10 W, determine (a) rms value of per phase voltage and line voltage, (b) rms value of load
current, (c) rms value of current flows through transistors, (d) power delivered to load, (e) average source current.
Solution
Given: V = 600 V, R = 10 W
(a) The rms value of phase voltage is expressed by
V
Vph(rms) = = 0.4082 ¥ 600 = 244.92 V
6
The rms value of line voltages is
VL (rms) = 3Vph(rms) = 3 ¥ 244.92 = 424.21 V
(b) rms value of load current per phase

Vph(rms) 244.92
I ph = = = 24.492 A
R 10
V 600
I rms(transistor) = = = 17.320 A
2 3 R 2 3 ¥ 10
PO = 3I ph(rms)
2
R = 3 ¥ 24.4922 ¥ 10 Watt = 17.9957 kW
(e) Average source current is
P 17995.7
I av = O = = 29.992 A
V 600
Example 11.16 A three-phase bridge inverter operates is operated by dc supply and it operates in 120°
conduction mode, determine (a) input dc voltage for fundamental line voltage of 420 V, (b) rms value line-to-line
output voltage, (c) rms value line-to-phase output voltage and (d) transistor voltage rating.
Solution
Given: Conduction of transistor is 120°, VL1(rms) = 420 V
(a) The rms value of fundamental component of the line voltage is
3V
VL1(rms) = = 0.6752 V = 420
2p
420
Therefore, dc supply is V = V = 622 V
0.6752
(b) rms value line-to-line output voltage is
V V
VL (rms) = 3Vph(rms) = 3 ¥ = = 0.707 V = 0.707 ¥ 622 V = 439.754 V
6 2
(c) rms value line-to-phase output voltage
2V V
Vphase(rms) = = = 0.4082 V = 0.4082 ¥ 622 = 253.90 V
3 2 6
(d) Transistor voltage rating VCEO ≥ 1.5V ≥ 1.5 ¥ 622 = 933 V
11.7 Pulse WIdth modulated Inverters

Usually the output voltage of single-phase inverter is
a square wave. The major drawbacks of square wave
inverters are:
1. Output voltage of inverter is constant and it is
equal to supply voltage V. This output voltage
can not be controlled.
2. Output voltage consists of third harmonic and
other harmonics as shown in Fig. 11.32. The rms
value of nth harmonic component is
4V
Vn = for n = 1, 3, 5, 7...
np 2 Fig. 11.32 Harmonic spectrum of square wave
inverter
Inverters 721
4V V
When n = 1, the rms value of fundamental component is V1 = = 0.9 V . Then the ratio 1 = 0.9 .
The harmonic factor is equal to p 2 V
Vn 1
HFn = = for n = 3, 5, 7, 9...
V1 n
After substituting the values of n, we get
V 1 V 1 V 1
HF3 = 3 = = 0.333, HF5 = 5 = = 0.2, HF7 = 7 = = 0.143,
V1 3 V1 5 V1 7
V9 1 V 1 V 1
HF9 = = = 0.111, HF11 = 11 = = 0.091, HF13 = 13 = = 0.0769
V1 9 V1 11 V1 13
V15 1
and HF15 = = = 0.0666 .
V1 15
To control the output voltage, inverter must be fed from an ac-to-dc converter or dc-to-dc converter.
However, to control output voltage as well as to reduce harmonics in the inverter output voltage, the
pulse width modulation (PWM) technique should be used in inverter. In PWM control, the output
pulse duration is modulated or varied to control the output voltage. There are different methods of
modulations, but the most commonly used modulation techniques in inverter are
1. Single-pulse width modulation (SPWM)
2. Multi-pulse width modulation (MPWM)
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SinPWM)
4. Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
In this section, the above modulation techniques are discussed elaborately.
11.7.1 single-Pulse Width modulation (sPWm)

In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, there
is only one pulse on each half cycle of output
voltage. The width of the pulse should be varied
to control the inverter output voltage. Figure 11.33
shows the gating signals and the output voltage
waveform of a single-phase full-bridge inverter.
The gating signals of switches (BJTs, MOSFETs,
IGBT, Thyristors and GTOs, etc.) are determined
by comparing a reference signal vr and a carrier
signal vc. The maximum amplitude of reference Fig. 11.33 Single-phase full-bridge inverter
and carrier signals are Ar and Ac respectively. The
frequency of reference and carrier signal is same as fundamental frequency of output voltage. The
output voltage can be controlled by controlling the width of pulse d which depends upon the amplitude
modulation index (M). The amplitude modulation index can be determined from the expression
A
M= r
Ac
Fig. 11.34 (a) Carrier signal and reference signal, (b) Gating signals of S1 and S2, (c) Gating signals of S3 and S4
(d) Output voltage of single phase full-bridge inverter with one pulse per half cycle
The angle and time of intersections for reference and carrier signals are
a T
a1 = w t1 or, t1 = 1 = (1 - M ) and
w 4
a2 T
a 2 = w t2 or, t2 = = (1 + M )
w 4
where, T is the time period of signals
The pulse width in angle is d = a 2 - a1
T
The pulse width in time is t2 - t1 = M
2
1/2
È 1 (p 2+ d ) ˘ d
Vo(rms) = Í Ú V 2 dt ˙ = V
Í p (p - d ) ˙ p
Î 2 ˚
When the amplitude of reference signal Ar is varied from 0 to Ac, the pulse width d can be changed
from 0° to 180° or p. Accordingly the rms value of output voltage Vo(rms) can be varied from 0 to V.
The output voltage waveform is depicted in Fig. 11.35. The shape of output voltage is called quasi-
square wave which can be expressed in Fourier series.
Inverters 723
Fig. 11.35 Harmonic profile of single pulse width modulation inverter
Due to half-wave symmetry of output voltage, the even harmonics are absent and only odd bn
components are present. The values of bn are given by
2 (p + d )/2
bn = Ú V sin nw t ◊ dw t
p (p - d )/2
4V np nd
= sin sin where, n = 1, 3, 5...
np 2 2
4V nd
or bn = sin where, n = 1, 5, 9...
np 2
and
4V nd
bn = - sin where, n = 3, 7, 11...
np 2
• 4V np nd
vo = Â sin sin sin nw t where, n = 1, 3, 5 ...
n = 1,3,5.... np 2 2
È d
4V 1 3d 1 5d 1 7d ˘
or vo = ÍÎsin 2 sin w t - 3 sin 2 sin 3w t + 5 sin 2 sin 5w t - 7 sin 2 sin 7w t + ˙˚
p
nd
To eliminate nth harmonic, sin =0
2
nd
or = kp where, k is an integer
2
2 kp 360 k
Therefore, the width of pulse is d = = in degree. To eliminate third harmonic, the
n n
360 k 360
required pulse width is equal to d = = = 120∞ assuming k = 1 and n = 3. The variations
n 3
of fundamental component and other harmonic components and the rms value of output voltage is
The disadvantages of single pulse modulation are as follows:
1. Harmonic content is high.
2. The maximum rms value of fundamental component is only about 90.09% of dc input voltage V.
3. Third harmonic dominate.
Example 11.17 A single-phase PWM inverter is fed from a 220 V dc supply and it is connected to a RL
load with R = 10 W and L = 10 mH. Determine the total harmonic distortion in the load current. Assume width
p
of each pulse is and the output frequency is 50 Hz.
2
Solution
p
Given: V = 220 V, R = 10 W, L = 10 mH, d = = 90∞
2
The rms value of nth harmonic component of the output voltage is
4V nd
Vn = sin
2 np 2
The impedance offered to the nth harmonic current is
Z n = R 2 + (nw L )2
4V d 4 ¥ 220 90
Therefore, V1 = sin = sin = 139.9999 V and
2p 2 2p 2
Z1 = R 2 + (w L )2 = 102 + (2p ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 = 10.482 W

4V 3d 4 ¥ 220 3 ¥ 90
Similarly, V3 = sin = sin = 46.6666 V and
3 2p 2 3 2p 2
Z 3 = R 2 + (3w L )2 = 102 + (2p ¥ 3 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 = 13.744 W

4V 5d 4 ¥ 220 5 ¥ 90
V5 = sin = sin = 27.9999 V and
5 2p 2 5 2p 2
Z 5 = R 2 + (5w L )2 = 102 + (2p ¥ 5 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 = 18.626 W

4V 7d 4 ¥ 220 7 ¥ 90
V7 = sin = sin = 19.9999 V and
7 2p 2 7 2p 2
Z 7 = R 2 + (7w L )2 = 10 2 + (2p ¥ 7 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 = 24.165 W

4V 9d 4 ¥ 220 9 ¥ 90
V9 = sin = sin = 15.5555 V and
9 2p 2 9 2p 2
Z 9 = R 2 + (9w L )2 = 102 + (2p ¥ 9 ¥ 50 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 = 30.00 W

Inverters 725
The harmonics currents are

V1 139.9999 V3 46.6666
I1 = = A = 13.356 A, I3 = = A = 3.3954 A
Z1 10.482 Z 3 13.7444
V5 27.9999 V 19.9999
I5 = = A = 1.503 A, I 7 = 7 = A = 0.8276 A
Z 5 18.626 Z 7 24.165
V9 15.5555
I9 = = A = 0.5185 A
Z9 30.0
The total harmonic distortion in the load current is
I 32 + I 52 + I 72 + I 92 + 
THD =
I1
3.3954 + 1.5032 + 0.82762 + 0.51852 + 
2
= = 0.2874
13.356
11.7.2 multi-Pulse Width modulation (mPWm)

To reduce the harmonic content in output voltage, more than one pulse should be present on each half
cycle of output voltage. The number of output pulses depends on the frequency of carrier signal fc and
reference signal fr. The number pulses (p) per half cycle of output voltage can be determined from
f mf
p= c =
2 fr 2
fc
where, m f = is the frequency modulation ratio.
fr
Hence, the frequency modulation index mf controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is
also called uniform pulse-width modulation (UPWM).
Figures 11.36 and 11.37 show the gating signals and the output voltage waveform of a single phase
full-bridge inverter with single pulse width modulation and multi-pulse width modulation respectively.
È ( pp + d )/2
1/2
˘
2p pd
Vrms = Í Ú V 2 dw t ˙ = V
Í 2p p - d /2 ˙ p
Î (p ) ˚
where, p is number of pulses per half cycle and d is the duration of each pulse.
p 180∞
With the variation of modulation index M from 0 to 1, the pulse width varies from 0 to or
p p
and the rms output voltage varies from 0 to V.
Due to half-wave symmetry of output voltage, the even harmonics are absent and only odd bn
components are present. The values of bn are given by
2p
bn = Ú v sin nw t ◊ dw t
p0 o
2
(g + d )
2
2 pV g +d
or bn = p ¥ Ú V sin nw t ◊ dw t = |cos nw t |g - d2
p (g - d ) np 2
2
Fig. 11.36 (a) Carrier signal and reference signal, (b) Gating signals of S1and S2 , (c) Gating signals of S3 and S4,
(d) Output voltage of single phase full-bridge inverter with two pulse per half cycle
d
where, p is number of pulse per half cycle and g = a m +
2
4 pV nd
Then bn = sin ng sin where, n = 1, 3, 5 ….
np 2
8V nd
In case of p = 2, bn = sin ng sin where, n = 1, 3, 5 ….
np 2
Then output voltage can be expressed by Fourier series as given below.
• 8V nd
vo = Â sin ng sin sin nw t where, n = 1, 3, 5...
n = 1,3,5... np 2
Inverters 727
Fig. 11.37 (a) Carrier signal and reference signal, (b) Gating signals of S1and S2, (c) Gating signals of S3 and S4,
(d) Output voltage of single phase full-bridge inverter with two pulse per half cycle
8V È d 1 3d 1 5d
or vo = ÍÎsin g sin 2 sin w t + 3 sin 3g sin 2 sin 3w t + 5 sin 5g sin 2 sin 5w t
p
1 7d ˘
+ sin 7g sin sin 7w t + ˙
when p=2 7 2 ˚
The amplitude of the nth harmonic voltage is equal to
8V nd
Vn = sin ng sin when p = 2 and n = 1, 3, 5 ...
np 2
It is clear from above equation that the amplitude of the nth harmonic voltage depends on g and d. To
eliminate nth harmonic, sin g = 0 or, ng = p
nd nd
and sin = 0 or, = kp where, k is integer
2 2
p 180∞ 2 kp 360 k
Therefore, g = = and the width of pulse is d = = in degree.
n n n n
The variations of fundamental component and other harmonic components and the rms value of output
voltage is depicted in Fig. 11.38.
Fig. 11.38 Harmonic profile of multi pulse modulation with p = 5
The angle and time of intersections for reference and carrier signals are
a T
a m = w t m or, t m = m = (m - M ) for m = 1, 3, 5, ... 2 p and
w 4p
a T
a m = w t m or, t m = m = (m - 1 + M ) for m = 2, 4, 6, ... 2 p
w 4p
where, T is the time period of signals.
The pulse width in angle is d = a m +1 - a m
T
The pulse width in time is t m +1 - t m = M
2p
Example 11.18 The output voltage of multi-pulse modulation inverter is shown in Fig. 11.39. Determine
(a) the rms value of output voltage, (b) the rms value of fundamental component of output voltage, (c) the total
harmonic distortion.
Fig. 11.39 Output voltage of multi-pulse modulation inverter
Solution
(a) The rms value of output voltage is equal to
1/2
Ê pˆ
2002 ¥
Á 4˜ 1
Vo = Á ˜ = 200 = 141.42 V
p 2
Á ˜
Ë 2 ¯
Inverters 729
Due to half-wave symmetry, only odd harmonics are present in the Fourier series.
4 p /2 4 3p /8
bn =
p 0Ú Vo (t )sin nw t ◊ dw t =
p pÚ/8
200 sin nw t ◊ dw t where, n = 1, 3, 5
4 3p /8 800 ∞
p pÚ/8
Therefore, b1 = 200 sin w t ◊ dw t = [ - cos w t ]67.5
22.5∞
p
800
= [ - cos 67.5 + cos 22.5] = 137.75
p
(b) The rms value of fundamental component of output voltage is
b 137.75
V1 = 1 = = 97.41 V
2 2
(c) The total harmonic distortion is equal to
Vo2 - V12 141.422 - 97.412
THD = = = 1.052
V1 97.41
Example 11.19 A single-phase transistorized half bridge bipolar PWM inverter is operated from a center
tap 96 V dc input voltage. The fundamental output frequency is 50 Hz and the carrier frequency is 1 kHz and
modulation index is 0.75. Determine (a) carrier ratio mf , (b) number of pulses per cycle, (c) fundamental output
voltage, (d) distortion factor of output voltage waveform and (e) harmonic factor of output voltage waveform.
Solution
V
Given: = 96 V , fr = 50 Hz, fc = 1 kHz and m = 0.75
2
f 1000
(a) Carrier ratio mf is m f = c = = 20
fr 50
m f 20
(b) Number of pulses per cycle p = = = 10
2 2
1 V 1
(c) Fundamental output voltage Vo1(rms) = m = ¥ 0.75 ¥ 96 = 50.919 V
2 2 2
Vo1(rms) 50.919
(d) Distortion factor of output voltage waveform DF = = = 0.5304
Vo(rms) 96
1 1
(e) Harmonic factor of output voltage waveform HF = -1 = - 1 = 1.598
DF 2 0.53042
Example 11.20 A single-phase transistorized full bridge bipolar PWM inverter is operated from a 120 V
dc battery and it is connected with a RL load. If the modulation index is 0.9, determine (a) rms output voltage,
(b) fundamental output voltage, (c) distortion factor of output voltage waveform, (d) harmonic factor of output
voltage waveform and (e) gain of inverter.
Solution
Given: V = 120 V and m = 0.9
(a) rms output voltage Vorms = V = 120 V
1 1
(b) Fundamental output voltage Vo1(rms) = mV = ¥ 0.9 ¥ 120 = 76.379 V
2 2
Vo1(rms) 76.379
(c) Distortion factor of output voltage waveform DF = = = 0.6364
Vo(rms) 120
1 1
(d) Harmonic factor of output voltage waveform HF = -1 = - 1 = 1.212
DF 2 0.63642
(e) Gain of inverter is G = 0.707m = 0.707 ¥ 0.9 = 0.6363
11.7.3 sinusoidal Pulse Width modulation

In sinusoidal pulse width modulation, several pulses are used in each half cycle of output voltage but
the width of the pulses is not same as in the case of multiple pulse modulations (uniform pulse width
modulation). But in both sinusoidal pulse width modulation and multiple pulse modulations, the width
of each pulse varies with the amplitude of sine wave reference voltage. In case of sinusoidal pulse width
modulation, the width of the pulse at the centre of the half cycle is maximum and decreases on either
side. The generation of gating signal of switches by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal vr with
a triangular carrier signal vc is depicted in Fig. 11.40. A comparator is used to compare a sinusoidal
reference signal vr with respect to a triangular carrier signal vc. When the amplitude of sinusoidal
reference signal is greater than the amplitude of triangular carrier signal, comparator output is high.
If the amplitude of sinusoidal reference signal is less than the amplitude of triangular carrier signal,
comparator output is low.
Fig. 11.40 Sinusoidal pulse width modulation

Inverters 731
If the frequency of carrier signal is fc and the frequency of sinusoidal reference signal is fr, there
f
are m = c carrier pulses per half cycle. The number of pulses in each half cycle is equal to
2 fr
Ê fc ˆ
ÁË 2 f - 1˜¯ = (m - 1) .
r
A
The modulation index is M = r and it controls the rms output voltage and the harmonic content
Ac
of the output voltage waveform.
When dm is the width of the mth pulse, the rms value of output voltage is
1/2
È 2p d ˘
Vo = V Í Â m ˙
Î m =1 p ˚
From the harmonic analysis of output voltage of sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter, the
following features will be observed:
1. In linear modulation (modulation index is less than 1), the largest amplitudes in the output
voltage are associated with harmonics of order
fc
± 1 or, 2m ±1 where, m in the number of carrier pulses per half cycle.
fr
2. By increasing the number of pulses per half cycle, the order of dominant harmonic frequency
can be increases so that the higher order harmonic frequency signals can be filtered easily
and size of filter is minimized. If m = 5, the 9th and 11th order harmonics will be significant
in the output voltage and these signal can be filtered easily. But with the increase of m, the
switching frequency of semiconductor devices will be increased. Therefore the switching loss
will be more and inverter efficiency will be reduced. During design of inverter, there should be
a compromise state between the filter requirement and inverter efficiency.
In case of over modulation (modulation index is greater than 1), the lower order harmonics will
be present in output signal and pulse width no longer a sine function of the angular position of pulse.
The output voltage waveform of sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter can be expressed by
Fourier series as given below.
vo (t ) = bn sin nw t for n = 1, 3, 5, 7...
2p 4V nd Ï Ê 3d ˆ Ê d ˆ¸
where, bn = Â sin m Ìsin n Á a m + m ˜ - sin n Á p + a m + m ˜ ˝ for n = 1, 3, 5, 7...
Ë
m = 1 np 4 Ó 4 ¯ Ë 4 ¯˛
am T
The angle am = wtm and time t m = = tx + m
w 4( p + 1)
where, tx is computed from the following equations:
4t ( p + 1) Ï Ê T ˆ¸
1- = M sin Ìw Á t x + m ˝ for m = 1, 3, 5, 7 ... 2 p
T Ó Ë 4( p + 1) ¯˜ ˛
4t ( p + 1) Ï Ê T ˆ¸
and = M sin Ìw Á t x + m ˝ for m = 2, 4, 6, ... 2 p
T Ó Ë 4( p + 1) ¯˜ ˛
The width of mth pulse in angle is dm = a m +1 - a m
a m +1 a m
The pulse width in time is t m +1 - t m = -
w w
The variations of fundamental component and other harmonic components and the rms value of
V
output voltage is depicted in Fig. 11.41. The variation of 1 with respect to M is illustrated in Fig.
11.42. V
V1
Fig.11.42 The variation of with respect to M
V
Fig. 11.41 Harmonics of sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation with p = 5
11.7.4 modified sinusoidal Pulse Width modulation

It is clear from output voltage of Fig. 11.43 that the widths of the pulses can not change significantly
with the variation of modulation index at the middle of half cycle due to the characteristics of the sine
p
wave reference signal. When the carrier signal is applied during the fast and last (60∞) interval of
3
Ê p 2p ˆ
each half cycle Á 0 £ w t £ and £ w t £ p ˜ , the width of the pulses will be changed significantly.
Ë 3 3 ¯
This type of modulation is known as modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation.
Due to change in output voltage waveform as shown in Fig. 11.43, the fundamental component is
increased and its harmonics characteristics are improved. As the number of switching of power devices
are reduced, the switching losses are also reduced.
a T
The angle am = wtm and time t m = m = t x + m for m = 1, 3, 5, 7 ... p
w 12( p + 1)
where, tx is computed from the following equations:
12t ( p + 1) Ï Ê T ˆ¸
1- = M sin Ìw Á t x + m ˝ for m = 1, 3, 5, 7 ... p
T Ó Ë 12( p + 1) ¯˜ ˛
12t ( p + 1) Ï Ê T ˆ¸
and = M sin Ìw Á t x + m ˝ for m = 2, 4, 6, ... 2 p
T Ó Ë 12( p + 1) ¯˜ ˛
The width of mth pulse in angle is dm = a m +1 - a m
a m +1 a m
The pulse width in time is t m +1 - t m = -
w w
Inverters 733
Fig. 11.43 Modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter
The variations of fundamental component and other harmonic components and the rms value of
output voltage is depicted in Fig. 11.44.
11.8 resonant converters

When pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques
are used for dc-to-dc and dc-to-ac converters,
the semiconductor switches interrupts the entire
load current during turn-ON and turn-OFF
process. Therefore, these semiconductor switches
are subjected to high switching stresses in the
switch-mode operation and the switching power
loss is considerably high. The other problem of
PWM techniques is that this switching operation
generates electromagnetic interference (EMI) due
di dv
to large and . To maintain low switching
dt dt
loss, fast switching devices should be used in
Fig. 11.44 Harmonics of modified sinusoidal pulse-
switch mode converters. width modulation with p = 5
If the switching frequency is increased in order to reduce the converter size and weight, the power
density should be increased. The switching stress, switching losses and electromagnetic interference
(EMI) are also increased linearly with switching frequency. If a semiconductor switch operates with
snubber circuit in a dc to dc converter, trajectories of voltage across device (vd), current through device
(id) and power loss (pd) are depicted in Fig. 11.45. It is clear from Fig. 11.45 that the switching losses
are significant through the snubber circuit is present across the device.
Fig. 11.45 Trajectories of voltage across device (vd), current through device (id) and power loss (pd) with
snubber circuit
Consequently, to implement high switching frequency in converter circuits, all shortcomings can
be minimized if each semiconductor switch of converter circuit changes its state either from OFF to
ON or ON to OFF when voltage across device becomes zero or current through device is zero. This
type of switching is called zero voltage switching (ZVS) or zero-current switching (ZCS). Figure 11.46
shows trajectories of voltage across device (vd), current though device (id) and power loss (pd) with
ZVS or ZCS. By using the concept of ZVS or ZCS, the switching losses, stress on semiconductor
devices, generation of EMI will be reduced significantly. The converter topologies using the ZVS or
ZCS strategies are called resonant converters. Most of the resonant converters operate satisfactory
using LC resonance circuit.
Fig. 11.46 Trajectories of voltage across device (vd), current though device (id) and power loss (pd) with ZVS
or ZCS
Inverters 735
In a typical resonant converter, the basic operation of switches is to generate square wave ac
waveforms from dc supply and the resonating components (inductor L and capacitor C) are used to
filter the unwanted harmonic components from the square wave. The resonating LC circuit must be
proper tuned at the switching frequency of converter. There are different circuit topologies of resonant
converters. Figure 11.47(a), (b) and (c) show the block diagrams of resonant converters.
Fig. 11.47 Block diagram of resonant converters
The LC circuit does not act as a simple low-pass filter, but it operates in ideally undamped or
highly underdamped oscillation of current and/or voltage. For ideally underdamped condition, R = 0
and the output waveform is sinusoidal. For highly underdamped condition, R π 0 and the current
through R and the voltage across R are approximately sinusoidal. Usually, LC circuits are two types
such series resonant and parallel resonant. When a series LC resonant circuit is used in converter, it
is called series-resonant converters. If a parallel LC resonant circuit is used in converter, it is called
parallel-resonant converters. In this section, both the series-resonant converters and parallel -resonant
converters are discussed elaborately.
11.8.1 undamped series resonant circuits

A undamped series resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 11.48 where V is the
input voltage at time to. The initial current of inductor is IL(0) and the
initial voltage of capacitor is VC(0).
When a current iL flow through the circuit, the KVL equation of the
circuit is Fig. 11.48 An undamped
di dv series resonant
V = Lr L + vC and iL = Cr C circuit
dt dt
The solution of above equations with time is

V - VC (0)
iL (t ) = I L (0) cos w 0 (t - t0 ) + sin w 0 (t - t0 ) for t > to
ZO
1
where, w 0 = 2p f0 = = resonance frequency
Lr Cr
Lr
and characteristic impedance Z 0 = in W
Cr
vC (t ) = V - {V - VC (0)}cos w 0 (t - t0 ) + Z 0 I L (0)sin w 0 (t - t0 ) for t > to
The plot of iL(t) and vC(t) are shown in Fig. 11.49.
11.8.2 highly underdamped series

resonant circuits
Figure 11.50 shows a RLC series resonant circuit where R
is load resistance and Lr and Cr are resonating components
(inductance and capacitance).
The KVL equation of the circuit is Fig. 11.49 iL(t) and vC(t) waveforms of
a undamped series resonant
di 1
V = Ri + Lr + Ú idt circuit
dt Cr
Assume VC(0) = 0 and IL(0) = 0
V
i (t ) = e-xwOt sin w r t
w O Lr
V
or i (t ) = e-a t sin w r t
w O Lr
1 Fig. 11.50 RLC series resonant
where, wo = undamped resonance frequency = circuit
Lr Cr
1 R2
damped frequency is w r = - 2
Lr Cr 4 Lr
R a R R Cr
and xw o = a = or, x = = =
2 Lr w o 2w o Lr 2 Lr
Êa ˆ
vC (t ) = V - (Vo - V )e -a t Á sin w r t + cos w r t ˜
Ë wr ¯
ÈÏ 2 ¸1/2 ˘
or vC (t ) = V - (Vo - V )e -a t ÍÌÔ1 + Ê a ˆ ˝Ô cos(w t + q )˙
ÍÓÔ ÁË w r ˜¯ ˛Ô r
˙
Î ˚
Êaˆ
where, q = tan -1 Á ˜ , Vo = output voltage
Ë wr ¯
Inverters 737
The quality factor Q is equal to

w L 1 Z 1
Q= o r = = o where, Zo = characteristic impedance = w o Lr =
R w oCr R R w oCr
The impedance of RLC circuit is
1
Z (s) = R + sL +
sC
The admittance of RLC circuit is
-1
1 È 1 ˘
Y ( s) = = Í R + sL +
Z ( s) Î sC ˙˚
1 2a s
=
R s + 2a s + w O2
2
where, roots are s1 = –a + jwr and s2 = –a – jwr and w r = w O2 - a 2 = w O 1 - x 2

1
At resonance frequency, s = jw O and Y (s) =
R
The impedance of the circuit is a function
of frequency with Q. When R is constant, at
resonance frequency w = wo, the impedance
becomes pure resistance R. At frequency
wr > wo and wr < wo, Z increases with w as
shown in Fig. 11.51.
The voltage gain of RLC series circuit is
equal to
Vo (s) R
G ( s) = =
V ( s) 1
R + sL + Fig. 11.51 Impedance Z varies with w
sC
Vo ( jw ) R 1
or G( jw ) = = =
V ( jw )
R + jw L - j
1 È w wO ˘
1 + jQ Í -
wC Î wO w ˙˚
1/2
È 1 ˘ w
or | G( jw )| = Í ˙ where, u =
Ê 1ˆ wO
Í1 + Q 2 Á u - ˜ ˙
Î Ë u¯ ˚
The variation of gain of an RLC series circuit is
Figure 11.53 shows a RLC series resonant
circuit with ac input voltage. When a square
wave voltage signal is applied to Fig. 11.53 as
input signal, the output voltage and current wave
forms are depicted in Fig. 11.54.
Fig. 11.52 Gain variation of RLC series circuit

Fig. 11.53 RLC series resonant circuit with square wave input voltage signal
Fig. 11.54 (a) Square wave input voltage and (b) Sinusoidal current signal
11.8.3 Parallel resonant circuit

An undamped parallel resonant circuit is depicted in Fig.
11.55. This circuit is supplied by a dc current I. iL(0) is the
initial current and VC(0) is the capacitor voltage.
The KCL equation of the circuit is
dV
I = iL + Cr C and
dt
Fig. 11.55 An undamped parallel resonant
diL
L = VC circuit
dt
The solution of the above equations are
V (0)
iL (t ) = I + [ I L (0) - I ]cos w 0 (t - t0 ) + C sin w o (t - t0 ) for t > to
ZO
Inverters 739
and the voltage across capacitor is

VC (t ) = Z o [ I - I L (0)]sin w 0 (t - t0 ) + VC (0)cos w o (t - t0 )
1 Lr
where, resonant frequency w 0 = and the characteristic impedance Z o =
Lr Cr Cr
11.8.4 highly underdamped Parallel resonant circuits

The RLC parallel resonant circuit is shown in Fig.
11.56 which is supplied by current I.
R R
The quality factor Q = w o RCr = =
w o Lr Z o
The amplitude of impedance Z is a function
of frequency with Q as a parameter with R is
constant:
s
R◊ Fig. 11.56 Parallel resonant circuit
Qw o
Z ( s) =
s2 s
1+ 2 +
w o Qw o
The gain of RLC parallel circuit is
R / jw Cr
R + 1/ jw Cr 1 1
G( jw ) = = =
R / jw Cr jw L Êwˆ
2
w /w o
jw Lr + 1 - w 2 Lr Cr + r
1- Á ˜ + j
R + 1/ jw Cr R Ë w0 ¯ Q
1
or | G( jw )| =
2
Ê uˆ
(1 - u2 )2 + Á ˜
Ë Q¯
| G( jw )|max = Q at u = 1 or w = w O
The variation of impedance Z with respect to w and the current and output voltage waveforms of a
parallel resonant circuit are depicted in Fig. 11.57.
Fig. 11.57 (a) Impedance Z varies with w and (b) Current and output voltage waveforms
11.8.5 Parallel loaded resonant lc

converters
Figure 11.58 shows a parallel loaded resonant converter. The
operating principle of parallel load resonant LC converter is
similar to the series loaded resonant converters. The voltage
across capacitor appears across the load.
Fig. 11.58 Parallel loaded resonant
The voltage gain of this circuit is
converter
1
G( jw ) = (11.2)
wL
1 - w Lr Cr + j r
2
R
1
Resonant frequency is equal to w o =
Lr Cr
R
and the quality factor Q =
w o Lr
After substituting the value of wo and Q in Eq.
(11.2), we get
1
G( jw ) =
È Ê w ˆ2˘ w
Í1 - Á ˜ ˙ + j Q Fig. 11.59 Frequency response of |G(jw)| for parallel
ÎÍ Ë w o ¯ ˚˙ w o loaded resonant converter
1 w
or | G( jw )| = as m =
È 2 ˘1/2 wo
Ê mˆ
Í(1 - m 2 )2 + Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë Q ¯ ˙˚
w
The plot of voltage gain |G(jw)| with respect to m is shown in Fig. 11.59 where m =
wo
11.9 classIfIcatIon of resonant converters

There are different circuit topologies of resonant converters. The most commonly used resonant
converters are given below.
1. Self-commuted or load commutated resonant converters
2. Zero voltage switching (ZVS)/Zero current switching (ZCS) resonant converters
3. DC link resonant converters
4. AC link resonant converters
In this section, the operating principle of self-commuted or load commutated resonant converters is
discussed.
11.9.1 self-commuted or load commutated resonant converters

In these converters, both series and parallel LC resonating circuits are used. The switching frequency
ws is controlled about resonance frequency wo to control the input power. The series and parallel load
resonating converters can also be classified as
1. Series/parallel resonant converters using unidirectional switches
2. Series/parallel resonant converters using bidirectional switches
Inverters 741
11.9.2 series resonant converters using unidirectional switches

The load resistance R with resonating LC components develops a series RLC underdamped circuit as
shown in Fig. 11.60. The series resonant circuit operates in three operating modes such as mode I, mode
II and mode III. The triggering pulse of thyristors, voltage across capacitors and current waveforms
at three different modes are depicted in Fig. 11.61.
1. Mode I (0 £ t £ t1) When the thyristor T1 is fired and turned
ON, a resonant current flows though T1, L, C and R. The KVL
equation of the circuit is
di 1
V = L + Ri + Ú idt
dt C
d 2i di i(t ) dV
or 0=L 2
+R + as V is constant and =0
dt dt C dt
d 2i R di i(t )
or + + =0
dt 2 L dt LC
i(t ) = c1e( - a + b )t + c2 e( - a -b )t
2
R Ê Rˆ 1
where a = ,b= Á ˜ - , c1 and c2 are constants
2L Ë 2L ¯ LC Fig. 11.60 Series resonant inverter
The resonant frequency is with L1 = L2 = L and
2 C1 = C
1 Ê Rˆ
w r = b = jb = -Á ˜
LC Ë 2 L ¯
R C 1
Where, damping ratio x = and angular underdamped natural frequency w o =
2 L LC
Angular damped resonating frequency is
R R C 1
w r = b = w o 1 - x 2 , and a = a = = = xw o
2 L 2 L LC
V + VC (0) - at
When i(0) = 0 and VC (0) = V , i(t ) = e sin w r t for 0 £ w r t £ p
wr L
2
1 Ê Rˆ
Resonant frequency w r = b = jb = -Á ˜
LC Ë 2 L ¯
di
At the instant t = tm, the current i(t) is maximum and =0
dt
Therefore, w r e - atm cos w r t m - a e - atm sin w r t m = 0
1 w
or tm = tan -1 r
wr a
1t Ê a sin w r t + w r cos w r t ˆ
VC (t ) = Ú i(t )dt - VC (0) = - (V + VC (0))e - at Á ˜¯ + V
C0 Ë wr
p - ap
i(t = t1 ) = 0, t1 = , VC (t1 ) = (V + VC (0))e wr + V
wr
2. Mode II (t1 £ t £ t2) In this operating mode, both the thyristors T1 and T2 are OFF. The current flow
through RLC circuit is i(t) = 0, and voltage across capacitor is VC = VC (t1 ) = VC (t2 ) .
3. Mode III (t2 £ t £ t3) T2 is ON and a reverse resonant current flows through the load. The KVL
equation is
di 1
L + Ri + Ú idt + VC (t2 ) = 0
dt C
Assume i(t2 ) = 0, VC (t = 0) = - VC (t2 ) = - VC (t1 ) = - VC
The solution of the equation is
V (t )
i(t ) = C 1 e -a t sin w r t for t2 £ t £ t3
wr L
The capacitor voltage is
1t
VC (t ) = Ú i(t )dt - VC (t1 ) assuming t2 = 0 and t = t2 + t = t
C0
a sin w r t + w r cos w r t
= - VC (t1 ) ◊ e -a t
wr
In this mode, current i flows during t2 £ t £ t3, and i(t) = 0 at t = t2 and t = t3.
p
Therefore, t3 - t 2 = =t
wr
- ap
At steady state condition, VC (t3 ) = VC (t1 )e wr
For proper operation of series inverter, current i(t = t1) must be zero and thyristor T1 must be turned
OFF before applying the trigger pulse to thyristor T2. If both thyristors T1 and T2 are turned ON at a
time, the dc supply will be short circuit through thyristors. Therefore, a blanking period is required
for thyristors to avoid short circuit. This blanking period (t1 £ t £ t2) is called dead zone. The dead
zone must be greater than the turn-OFF time of thyristors, tq.
Fig. 11.61 Triggering pulse of thyristors, voltage across capacitors and current waveforms of series resonant
inverter
Inverters
Inverters 743
p p
The dead zone is equal to toff = - and toff > tq
wo wr
where, tq is turn-OFF time and wO is the frequency of output voltage.
1 1 2p
The maximum possible output frequency is fmax = = where, Tr = .
Tr + 2tq Ê p ˆ wr
2 Á tq + ˜
Ë wr ¯
Example 11.21 A series resonant RLLC inverter using thyristors has the following parameters:
R = 1 W, Lr = 0.1 mH, Cr = 10 mF and tq = 10 ms
Determine the maximum switching frequency for non-overlap operation of the series resonant inverter.
Solution
Given: R = 1 W, Lr = 0.1 mH, Cr = 10 mF and tq = 10 ms
The resonant frequency is
1 R2 1 12
wr = - = -3 -6
- = 31.23k - rad/s
Lr Cr 4 Lr 2
0.1 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 4 ¥ (0.1 ¥ 10 - 3 )2
w r 31.23 ¥ 103 2p 2p
As w r = 2p fr , fr = = Hz = 4.968 kHz and Tr = = = 0.2012 ms
2p 2p w r 31.23 ¥ 103
The maximum switching frequency is
1 1
fmax = = Hz = 4.5207 kHz
Tr + 2tq 0.2012 ¥ 10 + 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 10 - 6
-3
Example 11.22 A single-phase series resonant RLC inverter delivers power to load with R = 2 W and
XL = 10 W. If the time period is 0.1 ms, find the value of C so that load commutation of thyristor is possible.
Assume thyristor turn-OFF time is 15 ms.
Solution
Given: R = 2 W, XL = 10 W, tq = 15 ms
The time period is equal to
Tr
+ tq = 0.1 ms = 100 ms
2
or Tr = 200 ms - 2tq = 200 ms - 2 ¥ 15 ms = 170 ms
2p 2p 2p
We know that Tr = . Therefore, w r = = = 36.974 k - rad/s
wr Tr 170 ¥ 10 - 6
X 10
As X L = w r L = 10, L = L = = 0.2704 mH
w r 36.974 ¥ 103
The resonant frequency is
1 R2
wr = - 2
Lr Cr 4 Lr
1 R2
or w r2 = - 2
Lr Cr 4 Lr
1
or Cr =
Ê R2 ˆ
Lr Á w r2 + 2 ˜
Ë 4L ¯
1
= = 2.678 mF
-3 Ê 2 22 ˆ
0.2704 ¥ 10 Á 36974 + ˜
Ë 4(0.2704 ¥ 10 - 3 )2 ¯
Example 11.23 Determine the value of inductance of a series resonant RLC inverter when it operates at
frequency 10 kHz and its capacitor value is 1 mF. Assume inverter operates at angular undamped natural frequency
wo.
Solution
Given: fr = 10 kHz, C = 1 mF
1
Angular undamped natural frequency w o = 2p f =
LC
1
or 4p 2 f 2 =
LC
1 1
Therefore, L= = = 0.2535 mH
4p 2 f 2C 4p 2 (10 ¥ 103 )2 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 - 6
Example 11.24 A series resonant RLC inverter using thyristors has the following parameters:
R = 100 W, Lr = 6.0 mH, Cr = 1.2 mF and toff = 0.20 ms
(a) Find the value of output frequency.
(b) If the load resistance varies from 40 W to 140 W, determine the range of output frequency for non-overlap
operation of the series resonant inverter.
Solution
Given: R = 100 W, Lr = 6.0 mH, Cr = 1.2 mF and toff = 0.20 ms
(a) The resonant frequency is
1 R2 1 1002
wr = - 2 = - = 8.3333 k-rad/s
Lr Cr 4 Lr 6.0 ¥ 10 - 3 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 - 6 4 ¥ (6.0 ¥ 10 - 3 )2
w r 8.3333 ¥ 103
As w r = 2p fr , fr =
= Hz = 1.3257 kHz
2p 2p
2p 2p
and Tr = = = 0.7542 ms
w r 8.3333 ¥ 103
The output frequency is
1 1
f= = Hz = 866.40 kHz
Tr + 2tq 0.7542 ¥ 10 - 3 + 2 ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10 - 3
(b) If R = 40 W,
1 R2 1 402
wr = - 2 = -3 -6
- = 11.3038 k-rad/s
Lr Cr 4 Lr 6.0 ¥ 10 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 4 ¥ (6.0 ¥ 10 - 3 )2
2p 2p
Tr = = = 0.556 ms
w r 11.3038 ¥ 103
Inverters 745

1 1
f= = Hz = 1046 Hz
Tr + 2tq 0.556 ¥ 10 - 3 + 2 ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10 - 3
If R = 140 W,
1 R2 1 1402
wr = - 2 = - = 1.6666 k-rad/s
Lr Cr 4 Lr 6.0 ¥ 10 - 3 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 10 - 6 4 ¥ (6.0 ¥ 10 - 3 )2
2p 2p
Tr = = = 3.771 ms
w r 1.6666 ¥ 103
1 1
f= = Hz = 239.75 Hz
Tr + 2tq 3.771 ¥ 10 - 3 + 2 ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10 - 3
Therefore, the range of output frequency is 239.75 Hz < f < 1046 Hz
11.10 Voltage Control of InVerters

Depending on the nature of load, variable ac voltage or variable voltage with variable frequency are
required at the input terminals of load. When the output voltage of inverter is applied to load, the
output voltage of inverter can be controlled to get desired output from the system. There are different
methods to control the output voltage of inverter. The most commonly used control methods are:
1. External control of dc input voltage of inverter
2. External control of ac output voltage of inverter
3. Internal control of inverter
11.10.1 external Control of dc Input Voltage of Inverter

By controlling the dc input voltage of inverter, the output voltage inverter can be controlled. The
different schemes of external control of dc input voltage of inverter is depicted in Fig. 11.62(a), (b),
(c) and (d). In Fig. 11.62(a), the fixed dc voltage is applied to a dc-to-dc converter or chopper to
obtain variable dc voltage. When the variable dc voltage is applied to an inverter through filter, the
controllable ac output voltage can be obtained from inverter.
Fig. 11.62 (a) Input voltage control of using dc-to-dc converter
In Fig. 11.62(b), the ac input voltage is initially converted into a variable ac voltage by using ac
voltage controller and subsequently it converts into dc using an uncontrolled rectifier. In this scheme,
the variable voltage and variable frequency ac output is obtained just after three conversion stages.
Consequently, the efficiency of system is poor and the input power factor is poor at low voltages.
Fig. 11.62 (b) Input voltage control of Inverter using ac voltage controller and uncontrolled rectifier
In Fig. 11.62(c), the variable dc voltage is obtained from a controlled rectifier and then this variable
dc voltage is applied to inverter to get variable ac output voltage from inverter. In this scheme, two
conversion stages are required and the efficiency of the system is better than previous scheme. For
low output voltage, the input power factor is low. Since the output voltage contains low frequency
harmonics, the size of filter is bulky and the system response will be sluggish.
Similarly in Fig. 11.62(d), ac voltage is applied to uncontrolled rectifier to get fixed dc voltage which
is applied to chopper to obtain variable dc voltage. As the chopper operates at very high frequency,
the constant dc voltage is converted into a variable dc voltage at high frequency. Due to very high
frequency, the size of filter is reduced significantly. The fundamental power factor remains unity for
all operating conditions but the system loss increases due to an extra converter.
Fig. 11.62 (c) Input voltage control of inverter using controlled rectifier
Fig. 11.62 (d) Input voltage control of Inverter using uncontrolled rectifier and dc to dc converter
11.10.2 external Control of ac output Voltage of Inverter

The external control of ac output voltage of inverter can be possible by the following methods:
1. AC voltage controller
2. Series-connected inverters
Inverters 747
1. AC voltage controller Figure 11.63

shows the external control of ac output voltage
of inverter using ac voltage controller. In this
method, an ac voltage controller is incorporated
in between the output voltage of inverter and the
load terminals. When the firing angle of thyris-
tors of ac voltage controller is varied, the vari-
able ac voltage will be applied to load terminals. Fig. 11.63 External control of ac output voltage of
Since the harmonics content of output voltage inverter using ac voltage controller
of ac voltage controller is high, this method of
voltage control is not widely used and it is suitable for low power applications only.
2. Series-connected inverters In series connected inverters method of voltage control, two or
more inverters are connected in series. Figure 11.64 shows that the two square wave inverters are
connected in series to get a variable ac output voltage. The output voltage of inverters I and II are
applied to the primary windings of two transformers but the secondary windings of transformers are
connected in series. The output voltage of transformers Vo1 and Vo2 have same magnitude but they have
a phase difference f. The phasor sum of two fundamental voltages Vo1 and Vo2 provides the resultant
fundamental voltage
2 2
Vo = V01 + V02 + 2 ◊ V01 ◊ V02 cos f
Fig. 11.64 Series connection of two inverters and its output voltage Vo = Vo1 + Vo2
Figure 11.65 shows the output voltage waveform of series connected inverters. Since the frequency of
output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 is same, if the phase difference f is zero, the output voltage is Vo = Vo1 + Vo2.
When the phase difference f is p, the output voltage is Vo = Vo1 – Vo2 = 0. As the phase difference
can be varied by changing the firing angle of two inverters, the output voltage can be controlled. The
voltage control using series connected inverters is also called multiple converter control. Since the
harmonics content in the output voltage is large, this method of voltage control is used for low output
voltage levels, i.e., 25% to 30% of the rated voltage.
Fig. 11.65 Output voltage waveforms of series connected inverters (a) Vo1 (b) Vo2 (c) Vo
11.10.3 Internal Control of Inverter

In this method, the voltage control of inverter is possible within the inverter. The most efficient method
of internal control of inverter is pulse-width modulation control.
Pulse-width modulation control In pulse-width modulation control, a fixed dc voltage is

applied to the inverter and a variable ac output voltage can be obtained by controlling the width of
output pulses. In this method, the variable ac output voltage will be available with out any additional
components and the lower order harmonics can be eliminated. Since the higher order harmonics can
filter very easily, the filtering circuit requirement should be minimized. Therefore, pulse-width modu-
lation (PWM) inverters are very popular in industrial applications.
11.11 HarmonIC reduCtIon In output Voltage of InVerter

In most of the industrial applications, the fundamental component of output voltage of inverter is only
useful. But due to presence of harmonics in inverter output voltages, the system performance becomes
Inverters 749
sluggish. Therefore, the harmonics content must be limited with in 5% of its fundamental component
of output voltage. If the harmonic content is more than 5%, filter circuit should be designed as per
requirement and must be inserted in between inverter and load. When the inverter contains high
frequency harmonics, the size will be reduced and cost of filter will be less. If low frequency harmonics
are present within the output voltage of inverter, to eliminate or attenuate low frequency harmonics,
filter size will be bulky and subsequently the cost of filter will be high. Therefore, lower order harmonics
must be eliminated from the inverter output voltage by applying the following techniques:
1. Harmonic Reduction Using PWM Technique
2. Harmonic Reduction by Series Connected Inverters
3. Harmonic Reduction by Stepped Wave Inverters
11.11.1 Harmonic reduction using pWm technique

The lower order harmonics in output voltage of inverter can be eliminated when there are several
pulses per half cycle in output voltage waveform. Figure 11.66 shows an output voltage waveform
of a single phase inverter. It is clear from Fig. 11.66 that ten commutation of thyristors per cycle are
required and the amplitude of voltage varies in between +V and –V. The output voltage waveform is
p
symmetrical at and p.
2
Fig. 11.66 Output voltage waveform of a single phase inverter using PWM technique
After Fourier analysis of output voltage waveform, we can represent the output voltage by the Fourier
series
•
vo = Â bn sin nw t
n = 1,3,5,7...
4V Èa1 a2 p /2 ˘
where bn = Í Ú sin nw t ◊ dw t - Ú sin nw t ◊ dw t + Ú sin nw t ◊ dw t ˙
p ÍÎ 0 a1 a2 ˙˚
4V
or bn = [1 - 2 cos na1 + 2 cos na 2 ]
np
To eliminate the third and fifth harmonics from the output voltage, b3 = 0 and b5 = 0.
4V
Therefore, b3 = [1 - 2 cos 3a1 + 2 cos 3a 2 ] = 0 and
3p
4V
b5 = [1 - 2 cos 5a1 + 2 cos 5a 2 ] = 0
5p
As V π 0, [1 - 2 cos 3a1 + 2 cos 3a 2 ] = 0 and
p p
[1 - 2 cos 5a1 + 2 cos 5a 2 ] = 0 where, 0 < a1 < and a1 < a 2 <
2 2
After solving the above equations, we find a1 = 23.62° (approx) and a2 = 33.30° (approx).
When a1 = 23.62° and a2 = 33.30°, the amplitude of 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th harmonics voltages
are as follows:
4V
b7 = [1 - 2 cos 7a1 + 2 cos 7a 2 ]
7p
4V
= [1 - 2 cos(7 ¥ 23.62) + 2 cos(7 ¥ 33.30)] = 0.3154 V
7p
4V
b9 = [1 - 2 cos 9a1 + 2 cos 9a 2 ]
9p
4V
= [1 - 2 cos(9 ¥ 23.62) + 2 cos(9 ¥ 33.30)] = 0.5198 V
9p
4V
b11 = [1 - 2 cos 11a1 + 2 cos 11a 2 ]
11p
4V
= [1 - 2 cos(11 ¥ 23.62) + 2 cos(11 ¥ 33.30)] = 0.3866 V
11p
4V
b13 = [1 - 2 cos 13a1 + 2 cos 13a 2 ]
13p
4V
= [1 - 2 cos(13 ¥ 23.62) + 2 cos(13 ¥ 33.30)] = 0.0374 V
13p
The amplitude of fundamental component is
4V 4V
b1 = [1 - 2 cos a1 + 2 cos a 2 ] = [1 - 2 cos(23.62) + 2 cos(33.30)] = 1.068 V
p p
11.11.2 Harmonic reduction by series Connected Inverters

Figure 11.67(a) shows the series connection of two inverters and the output voltage waveform is
depicted in Fig. 11.67(b). By using Fourier analysis, the output voltage Vo1 can be expressed as
È4V 1 1 1 1 ˘
Vo1 = ÍÎsin w t + 3 sin 3w t + 5 sin 5w t + 7 sin 7w t + 9 sin 9w t + ˙˚
p
p
Since the output voltage Vo2 is phase shifted by f = , Vo2 can be expressed as
3
4V È Ê pˆ 1 Ê pˆ 1 Ê pˆ
Vo 2 = Ísin Á w t - ˜ + sin 3 Á w t - ˜ + sin 5 Á w t - ˜
p Î Ë 3 ¯ 3 Ë 3 ¯ 5 Ë 3¯
1 Ê pˆ 1 Ê pˆ ˘
+ sin 7 Á w t - ˜ + sin 9 Á w t - ˜ + ˙
7 Ë 3¯ 9 Ë 3¯ ˚
Inverters 751
Fig. 11.67 (a) Harmonic reduction using series connection of inverters and (b) Output voltage waveforms to
eliminate third harmonics
The output voltage is equal to

Vo = Vo1 + Vo 2
È Ê
4 3V pˆ 1 Ê pˆ 1 Ê pˆ ˘
= Ísin ÁË w t - 6 ˜¯ + 5 sin ÁË 5w t - 6 ˜¯ + 7 sin ÁË 7w t - 6 ˜¯ + ˙
pÎ ˚
The summation of the first, third, fifth and seventh harmonics components of voltage are depicted in
Fig. 11.68. The fundamental component of output voltage is 3 times of Vo1 and it lags by 30° from
Vo1. In Fig. 11.68(b) the third harmonic voltage of Vo2 lags by 180° from the third harmonic voltage
of Vo1. Hence, the sum of third harmonic voltages is equal to zero. It is clear from Fig. 11.68 (c) that
the fifth harmonic component of output voltage is 3 times of Vo1(5) and it leads by 30° from Vo1(5).
Similarly the seventh harmonic component of output voltage is 3 times of Vo1(7) and it lags by 30°
p
from Vo1(7). It is clear from above discussion that when f = , the third harmonic component can be
3
eliminated from output voltage.
Fig. 11.68 Addition of fundamental, third, fifth and seventh harmonics voltages
11.11.3 Harmonic reduction

by stepped Wave
Inverters
Figure 11.69 shows the series connection
of two inverters using transformers with
different turn’s ratio. Assume the turn ratio
of transformer-I is 1: 3 and this transformer
is connected to Inverter –I. The turn ratio of
transformer II is 1: 1 and it is connected to
inverter II. The output voltages of inverters
I and II are depicted in Fig. 11.69. Due to
different turn ratio of transformer, the output Fig. 11.69 Harmonic reduction by step wave inverters
Inverters 753
voltage at the secondary winding of transformers will be different. After addition of output voltage
of transformers I and II, we get stepped wave output voltage as depicted in Fig. 11.70. After Fourier
analysis of Fig. 11.70, we find that the amplitude of harmonics voltages depends on the values of
d1, d2, d3, d4 and V. If we choose the width of d1, d2, d3 and d4 properly, third, fifth and seventh
harmonics can be eliminated or attenuated significantly from output voltage. Therefore, when pulses
of different widths and amplitudes are superimposed, a stepped wave output voltage can be obtained
with reduced harmonic content.
Fig. 11.70 The output voltage waveforms of stepped wave inverter
11.12 mcmurray Half-BrIdge InVerter (auxIlIary

Impulse Commuted InVerter)
Figure 11.71 shows the circuit diagram of a McMurray half-bridge Inverter which consists of two main
thyristors T1 and T2, two main diodes D1 and D2 and two auxiliary thyristors TA1 and TA2. In this circuit,
the centre tapped dc supply is used as depicted in Fig. 11.71. As auxiliary thyristors TA1 and TA2 are used
for commutation process of main thyristor T1 and T2 respectively, this circuit is also known as auxiliary
thyristor commuted inverter or auxiliary impulse commuted inverter. The commutating elements of
this inverter circuit are an inductance-capacitance (LC) circuit and two auxiliary thyristors TA1 and
TA2. The main thyristors T1 and T2 are gated

to conduct current to the load during alternate
half cycles. When the load is inductive (R-L),
the feedback diodes D1 and D2 conduct during
part of each half cycle to return power from
the load to the dc supply. The commutation of
main thyristors T1 and T2 is done by auxiliary
thyristors TA1 and TA2 in conjunction with the
capacitor C and the inductor L. To commutate
thyristor T1, auxiliary thyristors TA1 is fired.
For commutation of thyristor T2, auxiliary
thyristors TA2 is fired.
11.12.1 operating principle Fig. 11.71 McMurray half-bridge inverter

Assume that thyristor T1 is conducting and
the load current Io flows through T1 and load. Initially the capacitor C is charged to a voltage which
more than V. The polarity of capacitor voltage is shown in Fig. 11.71. Assume that all other devices
are in OFF-state.
To turn OFF (commutate) thyristor
T1, auxiliary thyristor TA1 is turned ON
by applying trigger pulse. As soon as TA1
starts to conduct, the capacitor C starts to
discharge. The equivalent circuit of the
inverter at this instant is depicted in Fig.
11.72(a) The path of current flow is C+ - L
- T1 - TA1 - C-. The discharge current pulse
through TA1, C and L builds up to exceed the
load current Io assumed to flow from Q to P
through load at this instant.
When the capacitors discharge current
IC is equal to the load current Io, the net
Fig. 11.72 (a) The equivalent circuit of the inverter during
current flow through thyristor T1 becomes
first part of commutating interval
zero. If the commutating impulse current
IC is greater than the load current Io, the net current flow through thyristor T1 is zero, Io current flows
through load and the excess current flows through feedback diode D1. Due to the forward threshold
voltage of D1, thyristor T1 gets turned OFF. The capacitor continues to discharge through diode D1 and
load current flows continuously. After certain time interval, the discharging capacitor C again starts to
recharge in the reverse polarity and it behaves oscillatory in nature due to inductance L.
The capacitor current reaches peak value whenever the voltage across capacitor becomes zero.
After reaching the peak value, the capacitor current IC starts to decay and a charge of reversed polarity
builds up on capacitor C.
At the instant IC is equal to Io after the peak value attainment, thyristor T2 must be triggered. To
control the capacitor voltage, the delay of triggering thyristor T2 with respect to TA1 is maintained.
Whenever thyristor T2 is triggered and turned ON, the discharge current flows through it instead of
flowing through diode D1. Therefore the load current Io should be maintained by load inductance and
charging of capacitor C. A much smaller pulse of current iC will flows from dc supply through the
Inverters 755
path TA1- C- L and T2 to make up the losses

incurred during first pulse and complete the
charge of the capacitor to the initial value
V but polarity of capacitor will be reversed.
When the second pulse is applied to TA1,
it is reverse biased and ceases to conduct.
Then the capacitor C is ready to commutate
thyristor T2 at the end of its conducting half
cycle. Figure 11.72(b) shows the equivalent
circuit of the inverter during second part of
commutating interval.
After completion of charging of capacitor
C (reverse polarity), plate A is positive and
plate B is negative, the net current flows Fig. 11.72 (b) The equivalent circuit of the inverter during
through the thyristor T2 reduces to a zero second part of commutating interval
value and the excess current (IC – Io) flows
through diode D2. For the forward threshold voltage of D2, thyristor T2 will be turned OFF. Since the
load inductance L feeds the energy back to lower half of the source. Due to inductance, current flow
through diode D2 cannot be increased instantaneously from zero to a full load current. As load current
Io flows, current though TA1 reduces to zero and the thyristor TA1 is turned OFF.
The diode D2 continues to conduct until the load current Io becomes zero and thyristor T2 can be
conducted if the gate signal is present and reverse current flows. When the auxiliary thyristor TA2 is
turned ON, thyristor T2 will be turned OFF and the cycle will be repeated. The voltage and current
waveforms of McMurray half-bridge inverter are depicted in Fig. 11.73.
Fig. 11.73 Voltage and current waveforms of McMurray half-bridge inverter

11.13 modIfIed mcmurray Half-BrIdge InVerter

Figure 11.74 shows a modified McMurray half-bridge inverter. This inverter is a current commuted
voltage source inverter. This inverter circuit consists of two main thyristors T1 and T2, two main diodes
D1 and D2, two auxiliary thyristors TA1 and TA2, two auxiliary diodes DA1 and DA2, damping resistor Rd,
inductor L and capacitor C. The three wire dc supply is used and ac load is connected between points
P and Q. The commutation circuit is formed by two auxiliary thyristors TA1 and TA2, two auxiliary
diodes DA1 and DA2, damping resistor Rd, inductor L and capacitor C. The capacitor C is used to
di
provide the required energy for commutating main thyristors. The inductance L is used to limit to
dt
a safe value in main and auxiliary thyristors. Since auxiliary thyristors are used for commutation of
main thyristors, this inverter is called as auxiliary commuted inverter.
Fig. 11.74 Modified McMurray half-bridge inverter
This circuit operates at lagging power factor load. For circuit analysis, the following assumptions are
required:
1. During the commutation interval, the load current remains constant.
2. All semiconductor switches (thyristors and diodes) are ideal
3. Inductor L and capacitor C are ideal and they have no resistance.
Figure 11.75 shows the voltage and current waveforms of a modified McMurray half-bridge inverter.
The complete operation is subdivided into seven different modes which are explained below.
Mode I Assume thyristor T1 operates in conducting state and a constant load current Io flows
through T1, i.e., IT1 = Io. The capacitor C is charged to a voltage V with plate A positive and plate B
is negative due to the commutation of previously conducting thyristor T2. Figure 11.76(a) shows the
equivalent circuit during this mode. When thyrsitor T1 is conducting, the commutation circuit oper-
ates in passive mode.
Mode II Whenever auxiliary thyristors TA1 is triggered at t = 0 to turn-OFF main thyristor T1, the
capacitor current iC starts to build up through resonant circuit whose path is
L+ T1 - TA1 - C - L–.
The voltage drop across the main thyristor T1 can reverse biased diode D1. Consequently, thyristor T1
carries only the capacitor current iC and current does not flow through diode D1. As the load current
Inverters 757
Fig. 11.75 Voltage and current waveforms of a modified McMurray half-bridge inverter
Fig. 11.76 (a) The equivalent circuit during mode-I Fig. 11.76 (b) The equivalent circuit during mode-II
(t < 0) (0 < t < t1) and iC < io
Io is constant, an increase in current iC, there is a decrease in thyristor current as IT 1 = I o - iC . At

t = t1, current iC reaches Io and IT 1 = I o - iC = 0 . Therefore, thyristor T1 will be turned OFF at t = t1.
Figure 11.76(b) shows the equivalent circuit during this mode.
Mode III After t = t1, the discharging

current iC exceeds the load current Io
and the excessive current flows through
diode D1. Hence the diode D1 is called
as energy recovery diode. The voltage
drop across D1 can reverse biases T1 to
bring it to forward blocking mode. At
t = t2, the capacitor current iC reaches the
peak or maximum value IC max whenever
the capacitor voltage VC becomes zero.
After IC max, the capacitor current starts Fig. 11.76 (c) The equivalent circuit during mode-III
to decrease and the capacitor begins (t1 < t < t2) and iC > io
to charge in reverse direction. Figure
11.76(c) shows the equivalent circuit dur-
ing this mode; diode current iD1 = iC - I o .
Mode IV At t = t 2 the capacitor
current i C becomes I o . Then diode
D 1 stops conduction. The constant
load current Io flows through the path
V+ V-
- TA1 - C - L - Load - as the
2 2
auxiliary thyristor TA1 is triggered. Subse-
quently, the load current charges capacitor Fig. 11.76 (d) The equivalent circuit during mode-IV
C linearly with reverse polarity. At t = (t2 < t < t3) and iC = io
t3 voltage VC is greater than V. Figure
11.76(d) shows the equivalent circuit during this mode.
Mode V At t = t3, capacitor voltage VC is slightly greater than V. It is clear from Fig. 11.76 that
diode D2 gets forward biased. As diode D2 starts to conduct, a current starts to flow through diode D2.
The load current flows through the path
V+ V-
- TA1 - C - L - Load -
2 2
The path of current flows through diode D2 is
V- V+
- D2 - Load -
2 2
Just after t = t3, the capacitor current iC begins to
decrease whereas current through the diode D2
starts building up so that the sum of iC and iD2 is
equal to load current Io, i.e., I o = iC + iD 2 .
The input dc voltage V is impressed across the Fig. 11.76 (e) The equivalent circuit during mode-V
resonant circuit through the diode D2. The energy ( t3 < t < t4) and Io = iC + iD2
stored in the inductance L will be transferred to C.
Consequently, capacitor C is overcharged to a peak value Vmax at t = t4. Thyristor T2 does not turned
ON as the reverse bias voltage applied to it by the forward threshold voltage of diode D2. Figure
11.76(e) shows the equivalent circuit during this mode.
Inverters 759
Mode VI At t = t4, current through diode D2 reaches to load current Io and the capacitor discharge
current falls to zero. Auxiliary thyristor TA1 gets turned OFF at the instant t = t4 as the discharging
current tends to reverse.
As the capacitor voltage is greater than the input dc voltage V, capacitor C gets discharged through
the path
C + - Rd - DA1 - V - D2 - L - C -
After t = t4, the current direction gets reversed to that of the previous current direction. Since
the load current Io is constant, by applying KCL at point Q we obtain iD 2 = iC + I o . In this mode of
operation, iD2 > Io
After that the voltage across the capacitor gradually decreases to V as the circuit is usually critically
damped. At t = t5, current iC is equal to zero and VC = –V, iD2 = Io. The voltage drop across Rd and DA1
are applied a reverse bias across TA1. Consequently, the commutation of thyristor TA1 occurs. Figure
11.76(f) shows the equivalent circuit during this mode.
Fig. 11.76 (f) The equivalent circuit during mode-VI ( t4 < t < t5 ) and iD2 > Io
Mode VII As the load current decreases, load current Io = iD2 becomes zero at time t = t6. The
main thyristor T2 is triggered between the time interval t4 – t3, i.e., p LC seconds time delay after
the auxiliary thyristor TA1 is triggered to turned ON. But the auxiliary thyristor TA1 will not be turned
ON at this moment as the reverse bias voltage ap-
plied to it by the voltage drop across diode D2. At t
= t6, current iD2 = 0 and thyristor T2 is not reverse
biased. Consequently, the input dc voltage applied a
forward bias across thyristor T2 and trigger pulse is
already applied to it to turn ON. The load is subjected
to negative voltage through D2 at t = t6 at the instant
of its conduction.
Just after t = t6, capacitor C is charged to voltage
–V and it is ready for next commutation process.
The commutation process from thyristor T2 to D1 is Fig. 11.76(g) The equivalent circuit during mode-
identical to the commutation process from T1 to D2. VII (t5 < t < t6 ) and iC = 0, iD2 = Io
Figure 11.76(g) shows the equivalent circuit during
mode VII.
11.13.1 design of Commutation Circuit Components of modified

mcmurray Half-bridge Inverter
During modes II and III of modified McMurray half-bridge inverter, the circuit parameters inductance
and capacitance only play an important role. The commutation or capacitor current iC during these
two modes is equal to
C
iC = V sin w o t = IC max sin w o t (11.3)
L
C 1
where, IC max = V and w o =
L LC
At t = t1, iC = I o = IC max sin w o t1
1 Ê Io ˆ
or t1 = sin -1
ÁË I ˜
wo C max ¯
It is clear from Fig. 11.77 that
Ê Io ˆ
w o t2 = p - w o t1 = p - sin -1
ÁË I ˜
C max ¯
1 1 È -1 Ê I o ˆ ˘
or t2 = (p - w o t1 ) = Íp - sin Á I ˙
wo wo
ÎÍ Ë C max ˜¯ ˚˙
The circuit turn-OFF time of the main thyristor T1 is equal to
È 1 -1 Ê I o ˆ ˘
tc = t2 - t1 =Íp - 2 sin Á I ˙ (11.4)
ÍÎ wo Ë C max ˜¯ ˙˚
The time tc must be greater than the thyristor turn-OFF time tq. Practically, this condition must be
satisfied by several different combinations of L and C. The current commutation pulse iC provides the
1
required turn-OFF time with the minimum amount of capacitor energy CV 2 .
2
1 p Ê Io ˆ
From Eq. (11.4), we obtain w o tc = - sin -1
ÁË I ˜
2 2 C max ¯
Io Êp w t ˆ w t
or = sin Á - o c ˜ = cos o c
IC max Ë2 2 ¯ 2
IC max w o tc 1
If = x, cos =
Io 2 x
tc Ê 1ˆ 1
or = 2 cos-1 Á ˜ = g( x ) as w o =
LC Ë x ¯ LC
The commutating capacitor must provide the commutating energy
1 1
W = CV 2 = LI o2 (11.5)
2 2
L
After substituting the value of V = IC max in Eq. (11.5), we obtain
C
Inverters 761
1 1 L 1
W = CV 2 = CV ◊ IC max = LC ◊ VIC max
2 2 C 2
tc
Since LC = , the above equation can be written as
-1 Ê
1ˆ
2 cos Á ˜
Ë x¯
1 1 tc
W= LC ◊ VIC max = VIC max
2 2 Ê 1ˆ
2 cos-1 Á ˜
Ë x¯
tc ◊ V ◊ x ◊ I o
or W= as IC max = xI o (11.6)
Ê 1ˆ
4 cos-1 Á ˜
Ë x¯
The product of tcVIo has the dimensions of energy. In normalised form, Eq. (11.6) can be expressed by
W x
= = h( x )
tcVI o Ê 1ˆ
4 cos-1 Á ˜
Ë x¯
Figure 11.77 shows the plotting of h(x) with respect
to x. It is clear from Fig. 11.77 that the normalized
commutation energy h(x) has a minimum value of
0.446 when x = 1.5
Ê 1 ˆ
Subsequently, g( x ) = 2 cos-1 Á ˜ = 1.682
Ë 1.5 ¯
The design of commutation circuit is carried out Fig. 11.77 The plotting of h(x) with respect to x
on the basis of worst operating conditions which
consists of minimum supply voltage Vmin and maximum load current Io max.
C
Then we can write, Vmin = IC max = xI o max = 1.5I o max
L
C 1.5I o max
or = (11.7a)
L Vmin
tc t
We know that LC = = c (11.7b)
g( x ) 1.682
After multiplication of Eqs. (11.7a) and (11.7b), we obtain
1.5I o max ◊ tc tc I o max
C= = 0.892
1.682Vmin Vmin
Equation (11.7a) can be expressed as
L Vmin
= (11.7c)
C 1.5I o max
After multiplication of Eqs. (11.7b) and (11.7c), we get
tcVmin tV
L= = 0.3964 c min
1.682 ¥ 1.5I o max I o max
For critical damping of the resonant circuit which consists of Rd, L and C, the following condition
must be satisfied:
1 Ê Rd ˆ
-Á ˜ =0
LC Ë 2 L ¯
Form the above equation, we can find the value of resistance which provides critical damping and
Rd is equal to
L
Rd = 2
C
11.14 mcmurray full-BrIdge InVerter

Figure 11.78 shows the modified McMurray full-bridge inverter circuit which consists of four main
thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, four main diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4, four auxiliary thyristors TA1, TA2,
TA3 and TA4 and inductance L and capacitance C. The commutation circuit consists of four auxiliary
thyristors TA1, TA2, TA3 and TA4 and inductance L and capacitance C. This circuit operates in four
different modes as explained below.
Fig. 11.78 Modified McMurray full-bridge inverter circuit
Mode I Assume that initially triggering pulses are applied to thyristors T1 and T4 and these thyristors
will be turned ON and conducting. Then a load current Io flows through load and thyristors T1 and
T4. The capacitor C gets charged to the supply voltage V approximately and the polarity of capacitor
voltage is depicted in Fig. 11.79. The load current flows through the following path:
V + - T1 - LOAD - T4 - V -
Mode II In order to turn-OFF the main thyristors T1 and T4, auxiliary thyristors TA1 and TA4 are
triggered. Then discharging current of capacitor follows through the following paths:
C + - T1 - TA1 - L - C - (circuit - 1) and C + - T1 - TA 4 - L - C - (circuit - 2)
Whenever the capacitor discharge current iC is greater than the load current Io, i.e., iC > Io, then the
excess current flows through the diodes D1 and D4. Since the forward threshold voltage of diodes D1
and D4 are applied across thyristors T1 and T4, these thyristors will be turned OFF or force commutated.
Inverters 763
After that thyristors T1 and T4 are turned OFF, the load current does not become zero due to the
presence of inductive load and commutation inductance. The energy trapped in the inductance L is to
be transferred to the capacitance C to maintain the load current in the same direction.
The capacitor current iC should reaches the maximum value iC max when the capacitor voltage VC
becomes zero. After that the capacitor current iC starts to decrease and it is charged with a reverse
polarity.
Mode III When the capacitor current iC is less than load current Io, i.e., iC < Io, diodes D1 and D4
stop conduction and therefore the current flow through diodes become zero. Hence, thyristors T1 and
T4 returns to the forward blocking mode. At this instant, the load current does not become zero due
to presence of commutating inductance L and load. Then the energy trapped in the inductance L will
be transferred to the capacitance C to maintain the load current in the same direction. Subsequently
the load current Io flows through the following path:
L+ - C - LOAD - D3 - TA1 - L- (circuit - 1) and L+ - TA 4 - D2 - LOAD - C - L- (circuit - 2)
The load current flows through the diodes D3 and D2 and the energy back to supply. Then the load
current flows through the following path:
L+ - RL - D3 - V - D2 - L-L
Mode IV In this mode, thyristors T2 and T3 are fired and the load current flows through the path:
V + - T3 - LOAD - T2 - V -
In this mode of operation, the load current direction is reversed to that of the previous mode load current
direction. After that thyristors T2 and T3 will be forced commuted or turned OFF by the turning ON of
the auxiliary thyristors TA3 and TA2 respectively. Then the above processes will be repeated cyclically.
11.15 modIfIed mcmurray full-BrIdge InVerter

Figure 11.79 shows the modified McMurray full-bridge inverter circuit which consists of four main
thyristors T1, T2, T3, and T4, four feedback diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4, four auxiliary thyristors TA1,
TA2, TA3, and TA4, four auxiliary diodes DA1, DA2, DA3, and DA4. It is clear from Fig. 11.80 that the
resistor Rd and the auxiliary diodes DA1, DA2, DA3 and DA4 are incorporated into the basic McMurray
full-bridge inverter. The operating principle of this inverter is explained briefly below.
Fig. 11.79 Modified McMurray full-bridge inverter

Mode I In this mode of operation, thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously and these devices
operate in the conducting state. Then load current flows through the following path:
V + - T1 - LOAD - T2 - V -
Mode II During this mode, the auxiliary thyristors TA1, and TA2 are triggered simultaneously to turn
off the main thyristors T1 and T2.
Mode III In this operating mode, the commutating current Ic in the both circuits flows beyond the
load current Io. Consequently, thyristors T1 and T2 are turned OFF.
In this way, this inverter circuit operates just like McMurray half-bridge inverter.
Example 11.25 For a modified McMurray half-bridge inverter, determine the value of commutating
components L and C for the following parameters:
(a) maximum load current is 100 A, (b) thyristor turn-OFF time tq = 30 ms and (c) Vmin = 200 V
Solution
Given: Io max = 100 A, tq = 30 ms and Vmin = 200 V
The circuit turn-OFF time is always greater than turn-OFF time of thyristors. Assume tc = 1.5tq = 1.5 ¥ 30 ms = 45 ms
The value of C is C= = 0.892
1.682Vmin Vmin
-6
45 ¥ 10 ¥ 100
= 0.892 = 20.07 mF
200
tcVmin tV
The value of L is L= = 0.3964 c min
1.682 ¥ 1.5I o max I o max
45 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 200
= 0.3964 = 35.676 mH
100
Example 11.26 A single-phase modified McMurray full-bridge inverter is fed by 250 V. The dc voltage
varies ±5%. The current during commutation vary from 25 A to 120 A. Determine (a) the value of commutating
components L and C if thyristor turn-OFF time tq = 40 ms, (b) the value of Rd. Assume that the factor of safety
is equal to 2.
Solution
250 ¥ 5
Given: Io max = 120 A, tq = 40 ms and Vmin = 250 - V = 237.5 V
100
(a) The circuit turn-OFF time is always greater than turn-OFF time of thyristors. Assume tc = 2tq = 2 ¥ 40 ms = 80 ms
as the factor of safety is equal to 2.
The value of C is C= = 0.892
1.682Vmin Vmin
-6
80 ¥ 10 ¥ 120
= 0.892 = 36.05 mF
237.5
tcVmin tV
The value of L is L= = 0.3964 c min
1.682 ¥ 1.5I o max I o max
80 ¥ 10 - 6 ¥ 237.5
= 0.3964 = 62.76 mH
120
Inverters 765
(b) The value of resistance is

L 62.76
Rd = 2 =2 = 2.638 W
C 36.05
11.16 mcmurray Bedford Half-BrIdge InVerter

Figure 11.80 shows the McMurray Bedford
half-bridge inverter circuit which consists of
two main thyristors T1 and T2, two feedback
diodes D1 and D2, two inductors L1 and L2, two
capacitors C1 and C2. The commutation circuit
consists of two capacitors C1 and C2 and two
inductors L1 and L2 which are magnetically
coupled. Actually inductors L1 and L2 form
one inductor with a center tap so that Ll = L2
= L. The value of inductance of the centre tap
inductor is about 50 mH. Actually this inductor
is wound on a core with proper air gap so that
it does not provide any saturation. The value
of capacitors C1 and C2 are same, i.e., C1 = C2 Fig. 11.80 Single-phase McMurray Bedford half-
= C. This inverter circuit operates as a voltage bridge inverter circuit
commuted voltage source inverter.
This inverter circuit has less number of thyristors and diodes as compared to modified McMurray
half-bridge inverter, but the number of inductors and capacitors are large. In one branch of this inverter
circuit, two tightly coupled inductors are connected in series with two thyristors. When one thyristor is
turned ON, the other conducting thyristor will be turned OFF. This commutation circuit is also called
complementary commutation. Since complementary commutation is used in this inverter circuit, this
circuit is called complementary commutated inverter. This inverter circuit operates in six different
modes which are explained below.
Mode I (t £ 0) During this mode of operation,
thyristor T1 conducts and load current Io flows from
the upper dc source to load. Since the load current
is constant, the voltage drop across the commutating
di
inductance L1 is negligible as L1 = 0 . As the volt-
dt
age drop across L1 and T1 is equal to zero, the voltage
drop across C1 is zero. The voltage across C2 is V as
the point a is connected to point c through T1 and L1
and the lower plate of capacitor C2 is connected to
point e. Figure 11.81(a) shows the equivalent circuit
of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter for this Fig. 11.81 (a) Equivalent circuit of McMurray
mode. The voltage at nodes b, c and d with respect Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode I
to e is V. (t £ 0)
Mode II At t = 0+, thyristor T2 is triggered to

initiate the commutation of T1. When the thyristor
T2 is turned ON, the point d will be connected to the
point e, i.e., the negative supply voltage terminal.
The voltage across capacitors C1 and C2 cannot be
changed instantaneously and the voltage V will be
applied across L2. Since inductors L1 and L2 are
magnetically coupled, an equal voltage is induced
across inductance L1 with terminal b positive. The
voltage across thyristor T1 is determined by the KVL
equation in the loop a-b-c-d-e. Therefore,
V V Fig. 11.81 (b) Equivalent circuit of McMurray
VT 1 - - +V +V =0 Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode
2 2
II (t = 0+)
So that VT 1 = - V
Figure 11.81(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter for this
mode. It is clear from Fig. 11.81(b) that point b is
positive with respect to a by the voltage V. Hence
thyristor T1 must be subjected to a reverse voltage
of –V and it will be turned off at t > 0+ as shown
in Fig. 11.81(c). The load current Io which flows
through thyristor T1 and inductor L1 is transferred
to L2 and T2 to maintain constant mmf in the centre
tapped inductor and maintain constant flux linkage.
Fig. 11.81 (c) Equivalent circuit of McMurray
The current directions iC1 and iC2 are shown in Fig. Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode II
11.81(c). The KVL equation for the loop C1, C2 and (t > 0+)
V is expressed by
1 1
-V (voltage across C2 ) + V (input voltage) - Ú iC1 ◊ dt + Ú i ◊ dt = 0
C1 C2 C 2
or iC1 = iC2
Therefore, C1 = C2
The KCL equation at node c is expressed by
iC1 + iC 2 = I o + I o
or iC1 = iC 2 = I o
At t = 0+, the current Io flows through capacitor C1 and C2. The half of iC1 flows the load and the half
of iC1 flows through L2. Similarly, half of iC2 flows through the load and the half of iC2 flows through
L2. The capacitor C1 is getting charged from zero voltage and the capacitor C2 is getting discharged
from V at the same rate. Since the capacitor C2 is connected across L2, an oscillating current flows
through C2, L2 and T2. At one fourth of a cycle, the oscillating current increases from initial value Io
to a maximum value of Imax in L2 and T2 and the voltage across C2, i.e., VC2 reduces to zero. At the
instant of one fourth of a cycle, thyristor T2 is triggered, the KCL at node c is expressed by
iC1 + iC 2 = I o + I m
Io is the load current and Im is current flows through L2 and T2.
Inverters 767
Io + Im
As iC1 = iC 2 , iC1 = iC 2 = Fig. 11.81(d) shows the equivalent circuit of McMurray Bedford
2
half-bridge inverter for this mode. The variations of iC1, iC2, iT2 and Io from t = 0 to t = t1 are depicted
in Fig. 11.82. The voltage of node c drops to zero in one-fourth of a cycle of V cos wot. In the same
way, the voltage of node b decreases from 2 V to zero at t = t1, i.e., one fourth of a cycle.
Fig. 11.81 (d) Equivalent circuit of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode II (t < t1)
As thyristor T1 is reversed when voltage of node b falls to V, the commutation time for T1 is tc
as shown in Fig. 11.82. When the circuit consists of C2, L2 and T2, the ringing frequency is equal to
1
wo =
LC
1 2p
The periodic time is equal to To = = = 2p LC
fo w o
To 1
At one-fourth of a cycle t1 = = p LC
4 2
where, L is the inductance of L2 and C is the capacitance of C2.
The circuit turn-OFF time tc is less than one quarter of a cycle.
Therefore, tc < t1
1 1
or tc < p LC as t1 = p LC
2 2
Mode III At t = t1, the capacitor C1 is charged to input dc voltage V and there is no current flow
through C1, i.e., iC1 = 0. Just after one-fourth of a cycle form the instant t = 0 to at t = t1, VC2 = 0
1
and ( I o + I m ) flows through capacitor C2 and it is charged with the bottom plate positive. Conse-
2
quently, diode D2 will be forward biased at t = t1 and the current (Io + Im) is transferred to diode D2.
Subsequently, iC1 = iC2 = 0 after t = t1 but iD2 = (Io + Im). Figure 11.81(e) shows the equivalent circuit
of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter for this mode.
Fig. 11.81 (e) Equivalent circuit of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode III (t = t1)
The stored energy in inductor L2 at t = t1 is dissipated in the circuit which is formed by L2, T2 and
D2. At t = t2, the total energy stored in L2 is completely dissipated. As a result, current iT2 decays to
zero and thyristor T2 will be turned OFF at t = t2. Generally, a small resistance is connected in series
with the diode to dissipate the stored energy of L2 firstly. Since thyristor current iT2 decays from Im at
t = t1 to zero at t = t2, the diode current iD2 decays from iD 2 = ( I o + I m ) at t = t1 to iD2 = io at t = t2.
Actually the load current decreases from Io at t = t1 to iD2 = io at t = t2.
Mode IV Figure 11.81(f) shows the equivalent circuit of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter
for this mode. The current iT2 through L2 and T2 has reduced to zero but a load current io = iD2 flows
through the diode D2 during the time interval t3 – t2.
Fig. 11.81 (f) Equivalent circuit of McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter Mode IV (t > t2)
Mode V In this mode, the load current flows through diode D2 (io = iD2) decays to zero at t = t3
and then its value is reversed. Then diode D2 is blocked. As the voltage drop across D2 does not exist,
Inverters 769
thyristor T2 is reversed biased. Consequently, thyristor T2 is turned ON during the time interval t3 – t2
to carry the load current in reverse direction. The capacitor C1 is charged to the dc input voltage V
and it is ready for commutation the main thyristor T2.
The value of commutating circuit parameters L and C for minimum trapped energy is equal to
Vtq I o max tq
L = 2.35 and C = 2.35
I o max V
where, tq is the thyristor turn-OFF time and Io max is the maximum load current.
Fig. 11.82 Voltage and current waveforms of Mc Murray Bedford inverter

11.17 mcmurray Bedford full-BrIdge InVerter

Figure 11.83 shows a single-phase McMurray Bedford full-bridge inverter circuit which can be made
by connecting two half-bridge inverters. This circuit consists of four main thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4,
four feedback diode D1, D2, D3 and D4, four inductors L1, L2, L3 and L4, and four capacitors C1, C2,
C3 and C4. The working principal of this inverter is similar to that half-bridge inverter. During mode-I,
thyristors T1 and T2 are conducting and load current flows through V -T1-L1-LOAD-L2 and T2. The
voltage across C1 and C2 is zero but capacitor voltage across C3 and C4 are V. For commutation of
thyristors T1 and T2, thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered. Consequently, thyristor T1 and T2 will be reverse
biased by voltage -V and thyristors T1 and T2 are turned OFF. After that, the cycle will be repeated.
Fig. 11.83 McMurray Bedford full-bridge inverter
11.18 Current sourCe InVerter

In a current source inverter (CSI), the current which is supplied from current source is maintained
constant but is adjustable. The magnitude of current is independent of load impedance, but the amplitude
of output voltage and its nature of waveform depends on the load impedance in CSI. The dc input
current to CSI is obtained from a fixed ac voltage source though a bridge rectifier and a chopper or
a controlled rectifier. Usually, the current input to CSI is almost ripple-free as L filter is used before
CSI. A current source inverter converts the dc input current to ac current at inverters output terminals.
The output frequency of CSI depends upon the rate of firing or triggering pulses of thyristors. The
amplitude of ac current can be varied by changing the dc input current.
Since CSI is a constant current system, it is used typically to supply high power factor loads where
impedance will be remain constant or decreases at harmonic frequencies in order to prevent problems
either on switching or with harmonics voltage. An VSI requires feedback diode whereas a CSI does
not require any feedback diode. The commutation circuit of CSI is very simple as it contains only
capacitors. Since semiconductor switches which are used in CSI must be withstand at reverse voltage,
power transistors, power MOSFETs and GTOs can not be used in CSI. Generally current source
inverters are used in the following fields:
1. Synchronous motor starting
2. Induction heating
Inverters 771
3. Lagging VAR compensation

4. Speed control of ac motors (induction motors)
In this section, the operating principle of single phase current source inverter with ideal switches
and a single phase capacitor commutated current source inverter with R load are discussed elaborately.
11.18.1 single-phase Current source Inverter

Figure 11.84 shows a single-phase current source
inverter. For circuit analysis, we assume that all
switching devices are ideal. Thyristor is an ideal switch
and has zero commutation time. Figure 11.85 shows the
current and voltage waveforms of a single-phase current
source inverter. In this inverter circuit, the current source
consists of a dc voltage source V with a large inductance
L in series with it. The high impedance reactor is
connected in series with voltage source to maintain
constant current at the input terminals of current source
inverter (CSI) and a constant dc current I is maintained
at the input terminals of CSI.
When thyristors T1 and T2 are turned ON, the load Fig. 11.84 Single-phase current source
current I flows through the load and is positive. When inverter
thyristors T3 and T4 are turned ON, the load current I flows through load and is negative. The output
current Io is a square wave with amplitude of I. The frequency of current Io can be controlled by
controlling the switching frequency of triggering signals of thyristor pairs T1 and T2 and T3 and T4.
We assume that load consists of a capacitor C. The load current is equal to
dV
io = C o
dt
dVo dVo
Since io is constant, the slope must be constant over each half cycle. The slope is positive
dt dt
T dVo T
during the time interval 0 < t < and the slope is negative during the time interval < t < T .
2 dt 2
The input voltage to the CSI is Vin = Vo when thyristors T1 and T2 conduct. The input voltage to the
CSI is Vin = –Vo when thyristors T3 and T4 conduct. The frequency of output voltage is equal to the
frequency of output current but the frequency of input voltage is two times of frequency of output
voltage as depicted in Fig. 11.85.
The amplitude of dc current I is constant and it is always unidirectional, if the average value of input
voltage is positive, power flows from current source to load. When average value of input voltage is
negative, the power flows from load to source and regenerative action takes place. In ideal case load
current waveform is a square wave but practically the load current waveform is not a square wave as
the rise and fall of current cannot be instantaneous. Since each switching device (thyristor) has finite
commutation time, all practical inverter has finite rise time of current and fall time of current.
Current source inverters can be developed by using forced commutation or load commutation.
Forced commutation is required for lagging power factor load where as load commutation is possible
for leading power factor load.
Fig. 11.85 Voltage and current waveforms of a CSI with ideal switches
11.18.2 single-phase Capacitor Commutated CsI with R load

Current source inverters are load or force commutated. Load commutation is only possible when the
load power factor is leading. Force commutation is possible for lagging load. Figure 11.86 shows
Fig. 11.86 Single-phase capacitor commutated CSI with R load

Inverters 773
a single-phase capacitor commutated CSI with

R load. A dc current source is used to provide
constant current I. A capacitor C is connected in
parallel with the load and is used for storing the
charge for commutation of thyristors. Thyristor
pair T1 and T2 are turned ON by applying the
trigger pulse ig1 and ig2 respectively. Similarly,
Thyristor pair T3 and T4 are turned ON by
Fig. 11.87 Load current waveform
applying the trigger pulse ig3 and ig4 respectively.
The load current waveform is depicted in Fig. 11.87.
T
Circuit analysis Figure 11.88(a) shows the equivalent circuit of CSI during 0 < t < . Assume that
initially the capacitor is charged to a voltage VC = –V1 with 2
capacitor right plate positive and left plate negative. When
thyristors T1 and T2 are gated at t = 0, the capacitor voltage
VC reverse biased the conducting thyristors T3 and T4, then
these thyristors are commutated immediately. Subsequently,
the source current I flows through T1, parallel combination
T
of R and C and T2. In the time interval 0 to , iT 1 = iT 2 = I ,
2
the output current io = I. The capacitor voltage VC changes
from –V1 to + V1 through the charging of capacitor C by Fig. 11.88 (a) Equivalent circuit of CSI
current iC. The output voltage is Vo = VC. The amplitude of T
during 0 < t <
Vo VC 2
current waveform is io = = . The current and voltage
R R
waveforms of single phase CSI with R load is depicted in Fig. 11.89.
T
When triggering pulses are applied to thyristors T3 and T4 at t = , VC = V1 which reverse biased
2
thyristors T1 and T2. Therefore, these thyristors are turned OFF immediately. Subsequently, the source
T
current flows through T3, parallel combination of R, C and T4. During the time interval t = to T,
2
iT3 = IT4 = I and output load current is io = –I. Figure 11.88(b) shows the equivalent circuit of CSI
T
during < t < T .
2
At steady state operation of current source inverter, the voltage and current waveforms are
depicted in Fig. 11.89. At t = 0 the capacitor is charged to voltage –V1, the output voltage is equal
V
to Vo = VC = –V1 and load current io = - 1 = - I1 . During
R
T
t = 0 to t = , capacitor charges from –V1 to +V1. At
2
T Vo VC V1
t = , io = = = = I1 current. The input voltage Vin
2 R R R
T
= Vo during t = 0 to t = , but the input voltage Vin = –Vo
2
T
during t = to t = T. Fig. 11.88 (b) Equivalent circuit of CSI
2 T
during <t <T
2
Fig. 11.89 Current and voltage waveforms of single phase CSI with R load
It is clear from Fig. 11.88(a) that whenever thyristors T1 and T2 are conducting during t = 0 to
T
t = , current iC, io are out from node a and current I is in the node b. The KCL equation at node a
2
and node b are expressed as
I = iC + io or, iC = I - io
T
At time t = 0, current io = –I1. Consequently, iC = I + I1 as io = –I1. At t = , io = I1. Then
i = I – I as i = I 2
C 1 o 1
T
After t = , thyristors T1 and T2 are turned OFF and thyristors T3 and T4 are conducting, but
2
currents iC and io flow in the same direction. Figure 11.88(b) shows the equivalent circuit of CSI
T
during < t < T . The KCL at node a is equal to
2
Inverters 775
io + iC + I = 0
or iC = - I - io
T
At t = , i = I . Therefore, iC = - I - io = - I - I1 = - ( I + I1 ) . At t = T , io = - I1 . Then
2 o 1
iC = - I - io = - I + I1 = - ( I - I1 ) .
The voltage across thyristor T1 is zero when T1 and T2 are ON. When T3 and T4 are turned ON,
T
VT 1 = VT 2 = - VC = - Vo = Vin during < t < T .
2
T
During the time interval 0 < t £ , the equivalent circuit of the CSI is depicted in Fig. 11.88(a). The
2
capacitor is initially charged to a voltage –V1. The KVL equation of the closed path is expressed by
1
Rio - Ú ( I - io )dt + V1 = 0 (11.8)
C
After differentiating Eq. (11.8), we get
dio io I
R + =
dt C C
Ê 1ˆ I
or ÁË Rp + ˜¯ I o =
C C
The complementary function of the solution of above equation is obtained from force-free equation
Ê 1ˆ 1
is Á Rp + ˜ I o = 0 or, p = -
Ë C ¯ RC
- RC
t
Therefore, ICp = Ae
io I
For particular integral, p = 0. Then, =
C C
Therefore, io = I
The complete solution of load current is
io = PI + CF where, PI = particular integral and CF = complementary function
- t
or io = I + Ae RC (11.9)
The load current at t = 0, io = –I1 at steady state condition
Therefore, - I1 = I + A or, A = - ( I + I1 )
- RC
t
io = I - ( I + I1 )e
or (
io = I 1 - e
- RC
t
)- I e 1
- RC
t
for 0 < t £
T
2
(11.10)
T
At t = , current io is equal to I1. Then Eq. (11.10) can be written as
2
( - T
) - T
I1 = I 1 - e 2 RC - I1e 2 RC
Ê 1 - e - 2 TRC ˆ
Therefore, I1 = I Á - T ˜
Ë 1 + e 2 RC ¯
T - T
If T >> RC , >> 1 and e 2 RC = 0, then I1 = I
2 RC
After substituting the value of I1 in Eq. (11.10), we obtain
Ê 1 - e - 2 TRC ˆ - t
io = I 1 - e( - RC
t
) - IÁ - T ˜
e RC
Ë 1 + e 2 RC ¯
Ê e RC ˆ
- t
or io = I Á 1 - 2 - T ˜
Ë 1 + e 2 RC ¯
The output voltage Vo or voltage across capacitor VC is expressed by
Ê e RC ˆ
- t
Vo = VC = io R = IR Á 1 - 2 - T ˜
Ë 1 + e 2 RC ¯
If tc is the turn-OFF time of each thyristor, at t = tc , Vo = VC = io R = 0 .
Ê e RC ˆ
t
- c
Therefore, Vo = VC = io R = IR Á 1 - 2 ˜ =0
ÁË 1 + e 2 RC ˜¯
- T
or e
1
t
- RC
2
c
= (
- T
1 + e 2 RC )
Ê 2 ˆ
or tc = RC ln (11.11)
ÁË 1 + e - 2 TRC ˜¯
The average value of input voltage is

T
22
Vinput = Ú io R ◊ dt
T0
2 2Ê e RC ˆ
T
- t
or Vinput = IR Ú Á 1 - 2 - T ˜
dt
T 0Ë 1 + e 2 RC ¯
È 4 RC Ê 1 - e - 2 TRC ˆ ˘
or Vinput = IR Í1 - Á T ˜
˙
ÍÎ T Ë 1 + e - 2 RC ¯ ˙
˚
If Vinput ◊ I is positive, power delivered to load.
It is observed from Eq. (11.11) that if the inverter frequency is increased, the turn-OFF time tc
which is provided by the circuit decreases. The circuit commutating time toff must be more than the
thyristor turn-OFF time tq for proper operation. Always there is an upper limit to the inverter frequency
beyond which thyristors fails to commutate.
Inverters 777
If the inverter frequency is low and time period

is large, the plot of load current and output voltage
with respect to time is shown in Fig. 11.90. Since
the waveforms are approximately a square wave,
it can be inferred that for low inverter frequencies,
inverter has square-wave output for load current Io
or output voltage Vo.
If the inverter frequency is high and time period
T is small, waveform of Vo or Io is approximately
sine wave. Therefore, at higher inverter frequency,
CSI has sinusoidal wave shape for output load
Fig. 11.90 Output voltage and output current
current or load voltage.
waveforms of a single-phase CSI
T
Square-wave current To get square wave output of the load current, > 5.0
2 RC
2
If tq is the thyristor turn-OFF time, tq = toff = RC ln = RC ln(2) = 0.69 RC
1 + e- 5
tq
or C= (11.12)
0.69 R
T
As = 5, T = 10 RC
2 RC
The maximum inverter frequency is expressed by
1 1
fmax = = (11.13)
T 10 RC
After substituting the value of C in Eq. (11.13), we obtain
1 0.69 R 0.069
fmax = ¥ =
10 R tq tq
Sine-wave current For sinusoidal output load current, the capacitive reactance XC at three times
R
the minimum frequency fmin must be less than
2
R
At 3fmin, XC <
2
1 R
or £
3 ¥ 2p fminC 2
0.106
or C≥
Rfmin
Assuming that the inverter operates at higher frequencies higher fmin in order to obtain the sinusoidal
waveform.
Example 11.27 A single-phase capacitor commutated inverter is operated at 50 Hz output frequency with a
load resistance of 10 W. If the thyristor turn-OFF time is 40 ms, compute (a) the value of commutating capacitor
C for proper thyristor commutation, (b) load current, (c) frequency for reliable commutation and (d) value of
resistance R.
Solution
Given: f = 50 Hz, R = 10 W, tq = 40 ms
(a) If we assume factor of safety is 5, toff = 5tq = 5 ¥ 40 = 200 ms . As f = 50 Hz, T = 20 ms
2
As toff = RC ln = RC ln(2) = 0.69 RC , toff = 0.69 RC
1 + e- 5
Therefore, 200 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.69 ¥ 10 ¥ C
The value of C is C = 28.98 mF
Ê 1 - e - 2 TRC ˆ 20 ¥ 10 - 3
-
- RC
T
2 ¥ 10 ¥ 28.98 ¥ 10 - 6
(b) We know that I1 = I Á ˜ and e =e = e - 34.50
ÁË 1 + e - 2 TRC ˜¯
Ê 1 - e - 34.50 ˆ
Then load current I1 = I Á ˜ªI
Ë 1 + e - 34.50 ¯
(c) For reliable operation is toff ≥ 1.5tq ≥ 1.5 ¥ 40 = 60 ms
Ê 2 ˆ
We know that tc = RC ln
Á - 2 TRC ˜
Ë1+ e ¯
Ê 2 ˆ
or 60 ¥ 10 - 6 = 10 ¥ 28.98 ¥ 10 - 6 ln
Á - T ˜
ÁË 1 + e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 28.98 ¥ 10- 6 ¯˜
Ê 2 ˆ 60
or ln = = 0.207
Á - T ˜ 289.8
ËÁ 1 + e 2 ¥ 10 ¥ 28.98 ¥ 10 ¯˜
-6
Then T = 271.472 ms
1 1
The frequency for reliable commutation is f = = = 3683.62 Hz
T 271.472 ¥ 10 - 6
(c) For successful commutation toff ≥ 1.5tq ≥ 1.5 ¥ 40 = 60 ms
As toff = 0.69 RC , 60 ¥ 10 - 6 = 0.69 ¥ R ¥ 28.98 ¥ 10 - 6
Value of resistance is R = 3 W
11.19 ComparIson BetWeen Voltage sourCe InVerter

and Current sourCe InVerter
The comparison between voltage source inverter and current source inverter is given in Table 11.7.
Table 11.7 Comparison between voltage source inverter and current source inverter
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Current Source Inverter (CSI)

Polarity of dc input voltage is unidirectional. Polarity of dc input current is unidirectional
Polarity of dc current changes with dc power flow. Polarity of dc voltage changes with dc power flow.
In VSI, input voltage is maintained constant, but the In CSI, input current is maintained constant, but the
current may not be constant. voltage may not be constant.
DC large capacitance maintains dc voltage constant. DC large smoothing reactor maintains dc current con-
stant.
Contd.
Inverters 779
In VSI, the misfiring of switching devices creates short In CSI, input current is maintained constant and the
circuit across source. This is severe problem. short circuit across the source due to misfiring of
switching devices is not a severe problem.
In VSI, amplitude of output voltage does not depends In CSI, amplitude of output current does not depends
on the load, but amplitude of output current depends on the load, but amplitude of output voltage depends
on the load. on the load.
The commutation circuits of thyristors in VSI are com- The commutation circuits of thyristors in CSI are com-
paratively complex with respect to CSI. paratively simpler than that in VSI.
In VSI, freewheeling diodes are required to handle re- CSI can be able to handle reactive or regenerative load
active power load. without freewheeling diodes. Therefore, freewheeling
diodes are not required.
In VSI, the fault current contributed by the converter to In CSI, the fault current contributed by the converter
a dc line fault can not be limited by control action since to a dc line fault can be limited by control action and
diodes in the converter will feed into the fault. minimized by the large dc smoothing reactor.
summary
d An inverter is a converter circuit which is used to convert dc power into ac power at desired output voltage
and frequency.
d Inverters can provide single-phase and three-phase ac voltages from a fixed or variable dc voltage.
d The classification of inverters is explained in this chapter. The circuit configuration and operating principle
of single-phase and three-phase inverters with R and RL load are discussed elaborately.
d The pulse width modulation inverters are also incorporated in this chapter. Resonant converters and Mc
Murray Full-bridge inverters are explained in detail.
11.1 In a voltage source inverter (VSI),
(a) the output voltage waveform Vo does not depend on load impedance ZL but load current waveform
Io depends on load impedance ZL
(b) the output voltage waveform Vo depends on load impedance ZL but load current waveform Io does
not depend on load impedance ZL
(c) both Vo and Io waveforms depend on load impedance ZL
(d) both Vo and Io waveforms do not depend on load impedance ZL
11.2 In a current source inverter(CSI),
(a) the output voltage waveform Vo does not depend on load impedance ZL but load current waveform
Io depends on load impedance ZL
(b) the output voltage waveform Vo depends on load impedance ZL but load current waveform Io does
not depend on load impedance ZL
(c) both Vo and Io waveforms depend on load impedance ZL
(d) both Vo and Io waveforms do not depend on load impedance ZL
V
11.3 If the amplitude of output voltage of a single-phase half-bridge inverter is and the output power is PO,
2
then the output voltage and output power of a single-phase half-bridge inverter are ______ and ______
respectively
V V
(a) , PO (b) , 4 PO (c) V, PO (d) V, 4PO
2 2
11.4 A single-phase full-bridge voltage source inverter operates with R load, the nature of output current
is ______
(a) square wave (b) sine wave (c) triangular wave (d) pulse wave
11.5 A single-phase full-bridge inverter can operate in load commutation mode when the load consists
of ______
(a) RLC under damped (b) RLC critically damped
(c) RLC over damped (d) RL or RC load
11.6 A single-phase full-bridge voltage source inverter operates with RL load, the nature of output current
is ______
11.7 A single phase full-bridge inverter delivers power to a series connected RLC load with R = 2 W, jwL
1
= j8W. The load commutation is feasible in inverter operation when is equal to ______
jwC
(a) zero W (b) 6 W (c) 8 W (d) 10 W
11.8 When a three-phase voltage source inverter
as shown in Fig. 11.91 operates in 180°
conduction mode, the sequence of conduction
of switches in the first two steps, beginning
with the initiation of switch S1, are ______ and
______ respectively.
(a) S1, S6, S5 and S1, S6, S2
(b) S1, S6, S2 and S1, S6, S5
(c) S1, S6, S5 and S1, S3, S2
(d) S1, S3, S2 and S1, S6, S2
11.9 When a three-phase voltage source inverter as
Fig. 11.91
shown in Fig. 11.92 operates in 120° conduction
mode, the sequence of conduction of switches in the first two steps, beginning with the initiation of
switch S1, are ______ and ______ respectively.
(a) S1, S6 and S1, S2 (b) S1, S2 and S1, S6
(c) S1, S6 and S3, S2 (d) S1, S2 and S1, S4
11.10 In single-phase half-bridge inverter, the rms value of fundamental component of output voltage is
______.
(a) V1rms = 0.45 V (b) V1rms = 0.75 V (c) V1rms = 0.9 V (d) V1rms = V
11.11 In single-phase full-bridge inverter, the rms value of fundamental component of output voltage is
______.
(a) V1rms = 0.45 V (b) V1rms = 0.75 V (c) V1rms = 0.9 V (d) V1rms = V
11.12 When a three-phase voltage source inverter operates in 180° conduction mode, the rms line to line
voltage is ______.
2 2 1
(a) VL (rms) =V (b) VL (rms) = V (c) VL (rms) = V (d) VL(rms) = V
3 3 3
11.13 When a three-phase voltage source inverter operates in 120° conduction mode, the rms line to line
voltage is ______.
2 1 3
(a) VL (rms) = V (b) VL (rms) = V (c) VL (rms) = V (d) VL(rms) = V
3 2 2
11.14 In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, if the input voltage is V and the pulse width is d, the rms
value of output voltage is equal to ______.
d p V d V p
(a) Vo(rms) = V (b) Vo(rms) = V (c) Vo(rms) = (d) Vo(rms) =
p d 2 p 2 d
Inverters 781
11.15 In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, if the input voltage is 220 V and the pulse width is 120°, the
rms value of output voltage is equal to ______.
(a) 210.6 V (b) 200.42 V (c) 190.5 V (d) 179.62 V
11.16 In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, if the third harmonic is eliminated, the width of pulse is
equal to ______.
(a) 150° (b) 120° (c) 60° (d) 30°
11.17 In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, if the fifth harmonic is eliminated, the width of pulse is
equal to ______.
(a) 108° (b) 72° (c) 60° (d) 36°
11.18 In a single-pulse width modulation inverter, if the third harmonic is eliminated, the amplitude of
rms value of fundamental component output voltage and the width of pulse are ______ and ______
respectively.
6V 2 3V 6V 2 3V
(a) , 120∞ (b) , 120∞ (c) , 60∞ (d) , 60∞
p p p p
11.19 In a multi-pulse width modulation (uniform PWM) inverter, if p is number of pulses per half cycle and
d is the duration of each pulse, then the rms output voltage is equal to ______.
pd p d p
(a) Vrms = V (b) Vrms = V (c) Vrms = pV (d) Vrms = pV
p pd p d
11.20 In an uniform pulse width modulation inverter, the amplitude of reference square wave is 1 V and the
amplitude of triangular carrier wave is 2 V, If five pulse per half cycle is generated, the pulse width will
be ______
(a) 12° (b) 18° (c) 24° (d) 36°
11.21 In a multi-pulse width modulation inverter, the amplitude and frequency of reference square wave and
the triangular carrier wave are 4 V, 5 kHz and 1 V, 1 kHz respectively. The number of pulse per half cycle
and the pulse width will be ______.
(a) 3, 45° (b) 3, 60° (c) 5, 45° (d) 5, 60°
11.22 In a sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter, the amplitude and frequency of sinusoidal reference
wave and the triangular carrier wave are 1 V, 50 Hz and 5 V, 1 kHz respectively. If the zeros of the
triangular carrier wave and sinusoidal reference wave coincide, the modulation index and the order of
significant harmonics are ______.
(a) 0.4, 9 and 11 (b) 0.2, 9 and 11 (c) 0.4, 17 and 19 (d) 0.2, 17 and 19
11.23 A single-phase CSI is connected to a capacitor load. For constant current source, the voltage across
capacitor is equal to ______.
11.24 In a current source inverter, when the frequency of output voltage is f, the frequency of voltage input to
CSI is ______.
(a) f (b) 2f (c) 3f (d) 4f
11.25 In a sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter, there are m cycles of the triangular carrier wave in the
half cycle of sinusoidal reference wave. If the zero of the triangular carrier wave coincides with zero of
the sinusoidal reference wave, the number of pulses generated in each half cycle are ______.
(a) m (b) m – 1 (c) 2m (d) m + 1
11.26 The simplest method of eliminating third harmonic from the output voltage of a single-phase full-bridge
inverter is ______.
(a) single-pulse width modulation (b) uniform pulse width modulation
(c) multi-pulse width modulation (d) stepped wave inverter
11.27 A series capacitor commuted inverter operate satisfactory, when ______.
2 2 2
1 Ê Rˆ 1 Ê Rˆ 1 Ê Rˆ
(a) <Á ˜ (b) =Á ˜ (c) >Á ˜ (d) None of these
LC Ë 2 L ¯ LC Ë 2 L ¯ LC Ë 2 L ¯
11.28 The pulse width modulation technique is used in single-phase inverter for which of the following
reasons:
(a) Reduce lower order harmonics and increase higher order harmonics.
(b) Increase lower order harmonics and reduce higher order harmonics.
(c) Reduce the total harmonic distortion.
11.29 The output voltage waveform of a three-phase square wave inverter consists of
(a) only odd harmonics (b) only even harmonics
(c) both odd and even harmonics
11.30 In a series resonant inverter,
(a) The load current is a square waveform
(b) The output voltage waveform depends on the damping factor of load impedance
(c) The trigger frequency is higher than the damped resonant frequency
11.31 In a single-phase bridge inverter, the maximum value of fundamental component of load current is equal
to I. If the load is purely resistive, the maximum value of nth harmonic component of load current is
equal to
I I I
(a) I (b) (c) 2 (d)
n n n n
to I. If the load is highly inductive, the maximum value of nth harmonic component of load current is
equal to
I I I
(a) I (b) (c) 2 (d)
n n n n
to I. If the load is highly capacitive, the maximum value of nth harmonic component of load current is
equal to
I
(a) I (b)
n
I I
(c) 2 (d)
n n n
11.34 The rms value of output voltage waveform
as depicted in Fig. 11.92 is
100
(a) 100 V (b) V
p
200
(c) 200 V (d) V
p
11.35 The output voltage of a three-phase square
wave inverter does not contain third
harmonics for Fig. 11.92
(i) line voltages in 180° conduction mode
(ii) phase voltages in 180° conduction mode
(iii) line voltages in 120° conduction mode
(iv) phase voltages in 120° conduction mode
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i, iv (c) ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, iv
11.36 If input dc voltage is constant, the output voltage of a single-phase bridge inverter can be controlled by
(a) pulse width modulation (b) changing the switching frequency
(c) pulse amplitude modulation (d) All of these
Inverters 783
11.37 The output voltage waveforms of a voltage source inverter Vo1 and Vo2 are depicted in Fig. 11.93. The
rms output voltage V12 between terminal 1 and 2 is
f f V Vf
(a) V (b) V (c) (d)
2p p p p 2
Fig. 11.93
11.38 A three-phase voltage source inverter is connected to purely inductive three phase load. From Fourier
analysis of output voltage waveform, it is found that the amplitude of nth order harmonic voltage is an
times of fundamental component where an < 1. Then the amplitude of nth order harmonic current is
(a) an times of fundamental component current
(b) n ◊ an times of fundamental component current
a
(c) n times of fundamental component current
n
(d) zero
11.39 Match List I and List II and find the correct matching.
List I List II
1. Voltage source inverter A. DC to AC converter (inverter) with inductive load
2. Current source inverter B. Voltage spites in the output voltage
3. Freewheeling diode C. Phase controlled converter with inductive load
4. Feedback diode D. Peaks in the inverter current
(a) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B (b) 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
(c) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B (d) 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
11.40 Figure 11.94 shows a periodic output voltage waveform of VSI. If the conduction angle is a = 120°, the
rms value of fundamental component of the output voltage is
(a) 100 V (b) 110 V
(c) 90 V (d) 78 V
11.41 A periodic output voltage waveform of VSI is shown in Fig. 11.94.
What will be the conduction angle a for which the output voltage
will be free from 5th harmonic
(a) a = 180° (b) a = 150°
(c) a = 120° (d) a = 72°
11.42 McMurray commutation is superior compared to parallel capacitor Fig. 11.94
commutation in respect of
(a) over voltage spike at the output (b) number of components used
(c) reduction in current through thyristor (d) trigger circuit
11.43 A single-phase bridge inverter can be implemented using thyristors without forced commutation circuit
when the load is
(a) series combination of R, L and C with resonant frequency of the circuit is greater than the inverter
switching frequency
(b) series combination of R, L and C with resonant frequency of the circuit is less than the inverter
switching frequency
(c) series combination of R and L
(d) series combination of R and C
List I List I
1. Voltage source inverter A. Voltage depend on the values of R and L of load
2. Current source inverter B. Voltage constant and independent of R and L of
load
3. Phase controlled rectifier with RL load C. Depends on firing angle
4. Single-pulse converter with RL load D. Depends on firing angle and also impedance angle
of load
(a) 1-D, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B (b) 1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-D
(c) 1-A, 2-D, 3-C, 4-B (d) 1-D, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C
11.45 In McMurray commutation inverter circuit, the circuit turn-OFF time is
(a) independent of load current and depend on operating frequency
(b) depend on load current and independent of operating frequency
(c) depend on load current and also load power factor
(d) independent of load current and depend on recovery period
11.46 The operating frequency of a self-oscillating inverter using a saturable core depends on
(a) battery voltage and saturation flux density
(b) battery voltage
(c) load power factor
(d) battery voltage, saturation flux density and number of turns on primary winding
Fill in the Blanks

11.1 An ______ is a converter circuit which is used to convert dc power into ac power at desired output
voltage and frequency.
11.2 The gate commutation switching devices such as ______ are used in inverter.
11.3 The ______ is commonly used in very high power applications such as induction motor drives.
11.4 ______ inverters are complementary commutated inverters.
11.5 ______ is defined by the ratio of the rms value of the total harmonic component of the output voltage to
the rms value of the fundamental component.
11.6 ______ is defined by the ratio of the rms voltage of a particular harmonic component to the rms voltage
of the fundamental component.
11.7 When a single phase full-bridge inverter operates with dc source voltage V, the output voltage can be
expressed as ______
11.8 A three-phase inverter can be formed after combining ______ single-phase inverters in parallel.
11.9 A three-phase inverter can be operated in ______ conduction modes.
11.10 The output voltage of single-pulse width modulated inverter can be controlled by controlling the width
of pulse d which depends upon ______.
Inverters 785
11.11 To eliminate third harmonic from the output voltage of single-pulse width modulated inverter, the
required pulse width is equal to ______.
11.12 In modified sinusoidal pulse width modulation, the carrier signal is applied during the fast and last
______ interval of each half cycle.
11.13 In ______ each semiconductor switch of converter circuit changes its state either from OFF to ON or ON
to OFF when voltage across device becomes zero.
11.14 In ______ each semiconductor switch of converter circuit changes its state either from OFF to ON or ON
to OFF when current through device is zero.
11.15 Resonant converters operates using ______ switching technique.
11.16 For proper operation of modified McMurray half-bridge inverter, the value commutating capacitor
is ______.
11.17 For proper operation of modified McMurray half-bridge Inverter, the value commutating inductor
is ______.
11.18 The value of resistance which provides critical damping in modified McMurray half-bridge inverter
is ______.
11.19 In McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter circuit, the circuit turn-OFF time tc is ______ than one quarter
of a cycle.
11.20 For proper operation of Modified McMurray Bedford half-bridge inverter, the value commutating
capacitor is ______.
11.21 For proper operation of Modified McMurray Bedford Half-bridge Inverter, the value commutating
inductor is ______.
11.22 In a three-phase bridge inverter, the Fourier series expansion of line to neutral voltage is expressed by
______.
11.23 If two inverters are connected in series, the phasor sum of two fundamental voltages Vo1 and Vo2 is
______.
11.24 In ______, amplitude of output voltage does not depend on the load, but amplitude of output current
depends on the load.
11.25 In ______, amplitude of output current does not depend on the load, but amplitude of output voltage
depends on the load.
review Questions
11.1 Define inverter. What are the types of inverter? What are the applications of inverter circuit? What are
the switching devices used in inverter circuit?
11.2 Explain the operating principle of inverter with a suitable diagram. Draw the voltage and current
waveforms of inverter. Derive the expression for rms output voltage.
11.3 Discuss the classification of inverters. What are the performance parameters of inverters?
11.4 What do you mean by VSI and CSI?
11.5 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single phase half-bridge voltage source inverter and explain its oper-
ating principle with R load and (b) Derive the expression for
(i) average value of output voltage, (ii) rms value of output voltage and (iii) rms value of fundamen-
tal component.
11.6 What are the drawbacks of single-phase half-bridge voltage source inverter? Explain how these
drawbacks can be overcome.
11.7 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-bridge voltage source inverter with RL load and
explain its operating principle and (b) Derive the expression for (i) rms value of output voltage,
(ii) rms value of fundamental component and (iii) output load current.
11.8 Prove that ‘the output power of a single-phase full-bridge inverter is four times of the output power of a
single-phase half-bridge inverter’.
11.9 Why diodes are connected in anti-parallel with semiconductor switches in inverter circuit?
11.10 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single phase full-bridge voltage source inverter and explain its
operating principle with R load and (b) Derive the expression for (i) Average value of output voltage,
(ii) rms value of output voltage and (iii) rms value of fundamental component
11.11 (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase full-bridge voltage source inverter with RL load and
explain its operating principle and (b) Derive the expression for (i) rms value of output voltage, (ii) rms
value of fundamental component and (iii) output load current.
11.12 Write Fourier series expression for output voltages of single-phase half-bridge and full-bridge inverters.
11.13 What is a three-phase inverter? What are the applications of three-phase inverter? What are the switching
devices used in three-phase inverter circuit?
11.14 Discuss the operating principle of a three-phase bridge inverter with a suitable diagram when each
semiconductor switch conducts for 180°.
11.15 (a) Draw the phase voltage and line voltage waveforms of a three-phase bridge inverter with star
connected R load when each semiconductor switch conducts for 180° and (b) Derive the expression
for (i) rms value of line to line voltage, (ii) rms value of phase voltage, (iii) rms value of fundamental
component of line voltage, (iv) power delivered to load, (v) rms value of load current, (vi) rms value of
current flows through semiconductor switch and (vii) average source current.
11.16 Explain the operating principle of a three-phase bridge inverter with a suitable diagram when each
semiconductor switch conducts for 120°.
11.17 (a) Draw the phase voltage and line voltage waveforms of a three-phase bridge inverter with star
connected R load when each semiconductor switch conducts for 120° and (b) Derive the expression for
(i) rms value of phase voltage, (ii) rms value of line voltage, (iii) rms value of fundamental component
of line voltage, (iv) power delivered to load, (v) rms value of load current, (vi) rms value of current flows
through semiconductor switch and (vii) average source current.
11.18 What is pulse width modulated inverters? What are the different PWM techniques used in inverter?
Explain any one PWM technique with suitable diagram.
11.19 What is the need for controlling the output voltage of an inverter? What are different techniques used to
control the output voltage of an inverter? Differentiate between different techniques.
(a) Single pulse width modulation (SPWM)
(b) Multi pulse width modulation (MPWM)
(c) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SinPWM)
(d) Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
11.21 Prove that the output voltage of single pulse modulation inverter can be expressed as
4V È d 1 3d 1 5d 1 7d ˘
vo = ÍÎsin 2 sin w t - 3 sin 2 sin 3w t + 5 sin 2 sin 5w t - 7 sin 2 sin 7w t + ˙˚
p
where d is the pulse width.
11.22 Describe sinusoidal pulse width modulation inverter with proper diagram. Discuss the condition under
Ê f ˆ
which the number of pulses generated per half cycle is Á c - 1˜ = (m - 1) where fc is the frequency of
Ë2f ¯ r
carrier signal and fr is the frequency of sinusoidal reference signal.
11.23 What is the need for harmonic reduction in output voltage of an inverter? What are the different methods
used for harmonic reduction in output voltage of inverter?
(a) Harmonic Reduction Using PWM Technique
(b) Harmonic Reduction by Series Connected Inverters
(c) Harmonic Reduction by Stepped Wave Inverters
11.25 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of half-bridge and full-bridge inverters.
11.26 What are the advantages of eliminating lower-order harmonics from the output voltage of an inverter?
Inverters 787
11.27 What are the advantages and disadvantages of a current source inverter?
11.28 Compare 180° and 120° conduction mode of three phase bridge inverter.
11.29 Draw the block diagram of resonant converter and explain its operating principle. What are advantages
of resonant converter over other converters?
11.30 State the advantages of ZVS and ZCS.
11.31 Draw the circuit diagram of series resonant converter and explain its operation with voltage and current
waveforms.
11.32 What are type’s resonant converters? Discuss the operation of self-commutating or load resonating
converters with circuit diagram and voltage and current waveforms.
11.33 Draw the circuit diagram of parallel loaded resonant converter and explain its operation with voltage and
current waveforms.
V
11.34 A single-phase half-bridge inverter feeds a resistive load of 15 W. When the voltage is 200 V,
determine 2
11.35 A single-phase half-bridge inverter feeds an RL load with R = 10 W and L = 0.01 H. When the voltage
V
is 100 V and the frequency of output voltage is 50 Hz, find
2
(a) The output current for the first two half cycles of output voltage
(b) Third harmonic distortion factor (THD) of load current
11.36 A single-phase full-bridge inverter feeds a resistive load of 5 W. When the dc voltage source is 120 V,
determine
11.37 A full-bridge inverter has a dc source voltage of 240 V. The inverter supplies a RLC load with R = 5 W,
L = 0.1 H and C = 4.7 mF. The operating frequency of inverter is 600 Hz. Determine (a) rms load current
at fundamental frequency, (b) the rms value of load current, (c) power output, (d) average supply current
and (e) THD in load current.
11.38 A three-phase bridge inverter is fed from 200 V dc supply. If the semiconductor switches (transistors)
which are used in inverter conducts for 180° duration and the inverter is supplying a star connected
(d) power delivered to load
(e) average source current
11.39 A three-phase bridge inverter is fed from 400 V dc supply. If the semiconductor switches (transistors)
which are used in inverter conducts for 120° duration and the inverter is supplying a star connected
(d) power delivered to load
(e) average source current
11.40 A single phase PWM inverter is fed from a 200 V dc supply and it is connected to a RL load with R = 5 W
and L = 5 mH. Determine the total harmonic distortion in the load current. Assume width of each pulse
p
is and the output frequency is 50 Hz.
2
11.41 The output voltage of multipluse modulation inverter is shown in Fig. 11.95. Determine
(a) the rms value of output voltage
(b) the rms value of fundamental component of output voltage
(c) the total harmonic distortion
Fig. 11.95
11.42 A series resonant RLC inverter using thyristors has the following parameters:
R = 1 W, Lr = 0.2 mH, Cr = 10 mF and tq = 15 ms
Find the maximum switching frequency for non-overlap operation of the series resonant inverter.
11.43 A single-phase series resonant RLC inverter delivers power to load with R = 2.5 W and XL = 15 W. If the
time period is 0.1 ms, determine the value of C so that load commutation of thyristor is possible. Assume
thyristor turn-OFF time is 12 ms.
11.44 Find the value of inductance of a series resonant RLC inverter when it operates at frequency 15 kHz and
its capacitor value is 1 mF. Assume inverter operates at angular undamped natural frequency wo
11.45 A series resonant RLC inverter using thyristors has the following parameters:
R = 90W, Lr = 6.0 mH, Cr = 1.2 mF and toff = 0.25 ms
(a) Determine the value of output frequency.
(b) If the load resistance varies from 50 W to 150 W, find the range of output frequency for non-overlap
operation of the series resonant inverter.
11.46 A single-phase half-bridge inverter has a resistive load of 5 W and the centre tap dc input voltage is 96 V.
Determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of fundamental component of output voltage,
(c) first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform, (d) fundamental power consumption in load
and (e) rms power consumed by load.
11.47 A single-phase full-bridge inverter has a resistive load of 12 W and it is operated from a 120 V dc input
voltage. Determine (a) rms value of output voltage, (b) rms value of fundamental component of output
voltage, (c) first three harmonics of the output voltage waveform, (d) fundamental power consumption
in load, (e) rms power consumed by load and (f) transistor rating.
11.48 A single-phase transistorized full-bridge inverter has a resistive load of 5 W and it is operated from a
48 V dc input voltage. Determine (a) total harmonic distortion, (b) distortion factor, (c) harmonic factor
and distortion factor at lowest order harmonic and (d) transistor ratings.
11.49 A single-phase transistorized half-bridge bipolar PWM inverter is operated from a center tap 96 V dc
input voltage. The fundamental output frequency is 50 Hz and the carrier frequency is 1.5 kHz and
modulation index is 0.8. Determine (a) carrier ratio mf , (b) number of pulses per cycle, (c) fundamental
output voltage, (d) distortion factor of output voltage waveform and (e) harmonic factor of output
voltage waveform.
Inverters 789
11.50 A single-phase transistorized full-bridge bipolar PWM inverter is operated from a 120 V dc battery
and it is connected with a RL load. If the modulation index is 0.8, determine (a) rms output voltage,
(b) fundamental output voltage, (c) distortion factor of output voltage waveform, (d) harmonic factor of
output voltage waveform and (e) gain of inverter.

11.1 (a) 11.2 (b) 11.3 (d) 11.4 (a) 11.5 (a) 11.6 (c) 11.7 (d)
11.8 (a) 11.9 (a) 11.10 (a) 11.11 (c) 11.12 (a) 11.13 (b) 11.14 (a)
11.15 (d) 11.16 (b) 11.17 (b) 11.18 (a) 11.19 (a) 11.20 (b) 11.21 (a)
11.22 (d) 11.23 (c) 11.24 (b) 11.25 (b) 11.26 (a) 11.27 (c) 11.28 (a)
11.29 (a) 11.30 (b) 11.31 (b) 11.32 (c) 11.33 (a) 11.34 (a) 11.35 (d)
11.36 (a) 11.37 (b) 11.38 (c) 11.39 (b) 11.40 (d) 11.41 (d) 11.42 (a)
11.43 (a) 11.44 (b) 11.45 (b) 11.46 (c)

11.1 inverter 11.2 SCRs, GTOs, BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs
11.3 CSI 11.4 McMurray Bedford
11.5 THD 11.6 HFn
•
4V
11.7 vo (t ) = Â sin nw t 11.8 three half-bridge
n = 1,2,3... np
11.9 180° and 120° 11.10 amplitude modulation index
p
11.11 d = 120° 11.12 or 60∞
3
11.13 ZVS 11.14 ZCS
tI
11.15 ZVS or ZCS 11.16 C = 0.892 c o max
Vmin
tcVmin L
11.17 L = 0.3964 11.18 Rd = 2
I o max C
I o max tq
11.19 less 11.20 C = 2.35
V
Vtq •
2V
11.21 L = 2.35 11.22 Van = Â sin nw t where k = 0, 1, 2, 3...
I o max n =6 k ±1 np
2 2
11.23 Vo = V01 + V02 + 2 ◊ V01 ◊ V02 cos f 11.24 VSI
11.25 CSI
ApplicAtions of power
electronics in electricAl
Drives, power fActor
improvement, Ups
12
12.1 IntroductIon
Electrical drives are available in very wide power range from a few watts to several
MW. These drives are commonly used in many industrial applications starting from very
precise high performance position control systems in robotics to variable speed drives in
pumps for flow control. In all electrical drives, the position or speed is controlled by a
power electronics converter. Basically, power electronics converter is used for interfacing
between input power supply and electric motor. Figure 12.1 shows a block diagram of a
electric drive system which consists of electric motor, power electronics converters and
energy transmitting shafts to transfer mechanical energy from motor to load.
Fig. 12.1 An open loop electrical drive
Presently, all modern electrical drive systems operate with closed loop system as depicted
in Fig. 12.2. The output of a power electronics converter may be a variable dc or a variable
ac with variable voltage and frequency. The output of a power converter depends upon
the requirement of load. When the load is a three-phase induction motor, the converter
output will be adjustable ac voltage and frequency. If the load is dc motor, the converter
output will be adjustable dc voltage.
The feedback signals are the measured parameters of the load, i.e., speed and position.
These signals are used as input signals of controller. The command signals are also
applied to the controller. Then the feedback signals are compared with the reference or
Applications of Power Electronics in Electrical Drives, Power Factor Improvement, UPS 791
Fig. 12.2 A closed loop electrical drive
command signals and accordingly the control signals are generated by the controller to turn ON the
semiconductor switches of power converter. Consequently, we can get the required output at the load.
The control circuit or controller is the heart of power electronics converters. The control circuit
generates triggering pulses to control thyristors of power electronics converters. The control circuit
is a low power circuit which is built using analog circuits, digital circuits, microprocessors or
microcontrollers or personnel computer.
Usually, there are three types of electrical drives such as
d DC motor drives
d Induction motor drives
d Synchronous motor drives
In this chapter, power electronics-based dc motor drives, induction motor drives and synchronous
motor drives are discussed elaborately.
12.2 dc Motor drIves

DC motors are extensively used in variable or adjustable speed and position control drives. They
provide high starting torque and the speed control of dc motor is possible over a wide range. Usually,
separately excited dc motors and dc series motors are used in variable speed drives but dc series
motors are extensively employed for traction applications. The speed of dc motor can be controlled
by armature voltage control and field-flux control. In armature voltage control, the motor speed can
be controlled below base speed or rated speed but using field-flux control, the motor speed can be
controlled above base speed or rated speed.
Controlled rectifiers provide a variable dc output voltage from a fixed ac input voltage by changing
the firing angle of thyristors. DC-to-dc converters or choppers can provide a variable dc output voltage
from a fixed dc voltage. Since controlled rectifiers and choppers can provide a continuously variable
dc voltage, the applications of controlled rectifiers and choppers in speed control of dc motors is a
revolution in modern industrial variable speed drives from a few watts to several MW. Figure 12.3
shows a controlled rectifier fed dc drives and the block diagram of chopper fed dc drives is depicted
in Fig. 12.4. Depending upon the type of power source, dc drives can be classified as
Fig. 12.3 Controlled rectifier fed dc drive
Fig. 12.4 Chopper fed dc drive
1. Single-phase controlled rectifier fed dc drive

2. Three-phase controlled rectifier fed dc drive
3. Chopper fed dc drive
In this chapter, initially the basic characteristics of dc motors are discussed and subsequently the speed
control strategies of dc motors are explained.
12.2.1 separately excited dc Motor

The equivalent circuit of separately excited dc motor which is couple to a load is shown in Fig. 12.5.
In Fig. 12.5, Va = Armature voltage, Ia = Steady state armature current,
ia = Instantaneous armature current, Eb = Back emf,
Vf = Field voltage If = Steady state field current,
if = Instantaneous field current, La = Inductance of armature winding,
Ra = Resistance of armature winding, Lf = Inductance of field winding,
Rf = Resistance of field winding, Te = Electromagnetic torque,
TL = Load torque, w = Speed and B = Damping constant
The field current if is independent of the armature

current ia of a separately excited dc motor.
Therefore, the change in the armature current
has no effect on the field current. The value of
field current is less than the armature current.
The KVL equation in the field circuit is
di f
Vf = R f i f + L f
dt
The KVL equation in the armature circuit is
di Fig. 12.5 Equivalent circuit of a separately
Va = Ra ia + La a + Eb
dt excited dc motor
The back emf of motor is Eb = kbw i f where, kb is the back emf constant
The electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is
Te = kt i f ia where, kt is the torque constant
The relation between the electromagnetic torque and load torque is
dw
Te = J + Bw + TL
dt
At steady state condition, the time derivative in the above equations becomes zero and the above
equations can be written as
Vf = R f I f
Va = Ra I a + Eb = Ra I a + kbw I f as Eb = kbw I f
Te = Bw + TL
Electromagnetic power developed is
Pd = Tew
Va - I a ra
Then w=
kb I f
Va - I a ra
or wµ where, f µ I f
f
It is clear from above equation that the speed of a separately excited dc motor can be controlled by
1. armature voltage control
2. field current or field flux control
The speed at rated armature voltage is called rated speed or base speed. The speed less than base
speed is controlled by armature control, armature and field current are constant to maintain the torque
demand but armature voltage is varied.
In the field control, speed is greater than the base speed is possible where armature current
maintained at its rated value and the field current varied to control the speed of motor. Power developed
by the motor is Pd = Tew which is remaining constant. The characteristics of a separately excited dc
motor are depicted in Fig. 12.6.
Fig. 12.6 Characteristics of a separately excited dc motor
12.2.2 dc series Motor

Figure 12.7 shows the equivalent circuit of a dc series motor where field winding is connected in
series with armature. The back emf Eb, armature voltage Va, electromagnetic torque Te of dc series
motor can be expressed by
Eb = k b w I f = k b w I a as Ia = I f
di f dia
Va = R f i f + L f + Ra ia + La + Eb
dt dt
Te = kt i f ia
dw
Te = J + Bw + TL
dt
Fig. 12.7 Equivalent circuit of a dc series motor

At steady state condition, the time derivative in the above equations becomes zero and the above
equations can be written as
Eb = k b w I f = k b w I a
Va = ( R f + Ra )I a + Eb = ( R f + Ra )I a + kbw I a
Te = Bw + TL
The speed of the motor is equal to
Va - ( R f + Ra )I a
w=
kb I a
The speed can be controlled by armature
voltage and armature current.
At starting dc series motor provides very
high torque during starting. Therefore,
dc series motors are commonly used in
electric traction applications.
To control speed below base
speed, armature voltage is varied
when armature current kept constant.
Therefore, power Pd linearly varies with
armature voltage Va as Pd = Va I a = Tew
and the electromagnetic torque
Te = kt I a2 remains constant. For speed
control above base speed, the flux f
must be decreased by using a diverter
and Ia is constant. Due to decrease of
flux f, electromagnetic torque decreases
as Te = ktfIa. Subsequently, power Pd
remains constant. The characteristics Fig. 12.8 Characteristics of a dc series motor
of dc series motor are shown in Fig. 12.8.
12.3 sIngle-Phase dc drIve

The simplest representation of a single phase dc drive is shown in Fig. 12.9 where armature and field
circuits of dc motor are connected to the output of controlled rectifier. By varying the firing angle of
thyristors of the controlled rectifier, the voltage applied to armature and field windings of dc motor
can be controlled. This drive can be operating either in continuous or discontinuous operating mode.
At low value of firing angle, armature current is continuous. If the firing angle is increased, armature
current becomes discontinuous. Due to discontinuous armature current, the losses in motor increased
significantly with poor speed regulation. The smoothing inductor L is connected in series with the
armature circuit to reduce the armature ripple current. The armature current will be continuous at low
value of motor speed. Based on the power electronics converter circuit, single-phase dc drives are
classified as the following:
1. Single-phase half wave converter fed dc drives
Fig. 12.9 Representation of a single-phase dc drive
2. Single-phase semi converter fed dc drives

3. Single-phase full converter fed dc drives
4. Single-phase dual converter fed dc drives
12.3.1 single-phase half-wave converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.10 shows a single-phase half-wave converter fed separately excited dc drives. The motor
field winding is supplied by a single-phase semi-converter and the amplitude of field current through
field winding is ripple free. If a half-wave converter is applied in the field circuit, the field current
contains high ripple and subsequently the magnetic losses of the dc motor will be increased significantly.
Fig. 12.10 Single-phase half-wave converter fed DC drive
Usually, the armature current is discontinuous unless a very large inductance L is connected in series
with armature. A freewheeling diode must be connected across armature and the drive operates in one
quadrant as shown Fig. 12.11. Assume that armature current is ripple free. Then the waveforms of
input ac voltage Vs, armature terminal voltage Vo, source current iS, thyristor current iT1 and current
through freewheeling diode iFD for this drive are depicted in Fig. 12.11. This drive is suitable up to
1
kW dc power drive and can operate in the first quadrant only as depicted in Fig. 12.11.
2
Fig. 12.11 (a) Waveforms of single-phase half-wave converter fed DC drive (b) First quadrant diagram
If the firing angle of thyristor T1 is a1, the average output voltage of a single-phase half-wave
converter is
2V
Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) for 0 £ a1 £ p
2p
V
or Vo = m (1 + cos a1 )
2p
as Vm = 2V is the maximum value of supply voltage and V is the rms value of supply voltage.
When the firing angle of thyristors of single-phase semi-converter in field circuit is af, the average
output voltage of single-phase semi-converter across the field winding is
2V
Vf = (1 + cos a f ) for 0 £ a f £ p
p
Vm
or Vf = (1 + cos a f ) as Vm = 2V
p
It is clear from Fig. 12.11 that the rms value of source current IS or thyristor current IT is
1/2
È 1 p 2 ˘ Ê p - a1 ˆ
I S = IT = Í Ú = I o2 Á
Ë 2p ˜¯
I o dw t ˙
ÎÍ 2p a1 ˚˙
Ê p - a1 ˆ
or I S = IT = I o Á
Ë 2p ˜¯
rms value of armature current is Ia(rms) = Io
rms value of free wheeling diode current is
Ê p + a1 ˆ Ê p + a1 ˆ
I FD = I o2 Á = Io Á
Ë 2p ˜¯ Ë 2p ˜¯
Power input = rms value of input supply (source) voltage × rms value of source current
p - a1
= VI S = VI o
2p
Power deliver to motor is equal to
= Eb I a + I a2 Ra = Vo I o
Power factor of input supply
Power delivered to motor Eb I a + I a2 Ra Vo I o
= = = as I S = I S (rms)
Power input V ◊ I S (rms) VI S
12.3.2 single-phase semiconverter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.12 shows a single-phase semiconverter fed separately excited dc drive. Both the armature
and field windings of dc motor are fed by the single-phase semiconverters. This drive operates in one-
quadrant and it can be used up to 15 kW dc drives. Assume that the armature and field currents are
ripple free. The voltage and current waveforms for a highly inductive load are shown in Fig. 12.13.
Fig. 12.12 Single-phase semiconverter fed DC drive
As single-phase semiconveter is connected in the armature circuits and the firing angle of thyristor is
a, the average armature output voltage is
2V
Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) for 0 £ a1 £ p
p
Vm
or Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) as Vm = 2V and V is the rms value of supply voltage
p
Fig. 12.13 (a) Waveforms of single-phase half-wave converter fed DC drive (b) First quadrant diagram
Since the field winding is fed by a semiconverter and the firing angle of thyristor is af, the average
voltage across the field winding is
2V
Vf = (1 + cos a f ) for 0 £ a f £ p
p
Vm
or Vf = (1 + cos a f ) as Vm = 2V and V is the rms value of supply voltage
p
The rms value of supply current is
1/2
È 2 p 2 ˘ Ê p - a1 ˆ
I S = IT = Í Ú I o dw t ˙ = I o2 Á
2p
ÍÎ a1 ˙˚ Ë p ˜¯
Ê p - a1 ˆ
or I S = IT = I o Á
Ë p ˜¯
As armature current is constant, rms value of armature current is
I a (rms) = I o
rms current of thyristor is

Ê p - a1 ˆ Ê p - a1 ˆ
IT (rms) = I o2 Á = Io Á
Ë 2p ˜¯ Ë 2p ˜¯
rms value of free wheeling diode current is
Êa ˆ a
I FD = I o2 Á 1 ˜ = I o 1
Ëp¯ p
Power factor of input supply
Power delivered to motor Eb I a + I a2 Ra VI
= = = o o
Power input V ◊ I S (rms) VI S (rms)
Example 12.1 The speed of a 15 HP, 220 V, 1000 rpm dc series motor is controlled by a single-phase half-
controlled bridge (semiconverter) which is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The total armature and field
winding resistance is Ra + Rf = 0.5 W. When the motor current is continuous and ripple free, and the motor operates
at 1000 rpm with firing angle of a = 25°, determine the (a) motor current and (b) motor torque.
Assume motor constant kb = 0.03 V/A rad/s, kt = 0.03 N-m/Amp2 and the current waveforms are ripple free.
Solution
Given: 220 V, a1 = 25°, N = 1000 rpm, Ra + Rf = 0.5 W, kb = 0.03 V/A rad/s, kt = 0.03 N-m/Amp2
(a) The output voltages of single-phase half-controlled bridge is
2V
Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) and Vo = Eb + I a ( Ra + R f )
p
The electromagnetic torque of motor is
Te = kt I f I a = kt I a2 as I f = I a
The back emf of motor is Eb = kbw I f = kbw I a
Therefore, Vo = Eb + I a ( Ra + R f ) = kbw I a + I a ( Ra + R f ) as Eb = kbw I a
2V
or Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) = kbw I a + I a ( Ra + R f )
p
2p N 2p ¥ 1000
Speed w= = = 104.7619 rad /s
60 60
2 ¥ 220
At a1 = 25∞, (1 + cos 25) = 0.03 ¥ 104.7619 ¥ I a + I a ¥ 0.5
p
Armature current is Ia = 51.80
(b) Motor torque is Te = kt I a2 = 0.03 ¥ 51.802 Nm = 80.49 N-m
12.3.3 single-Phase Full converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.14 shows a single-phase full converter fed dc drives where full converter-1 is connected to
armature circuit of dc motor and the full converter-2 is applied to field winding of dc motor. This is
a two quadrant drive as shown in Fig. 12.15 and its applications limited up to 15 kW.
Fig. 12.14 Single-phase full converter fed dc drive
Fig. 12.15 (a) Waveforms of single-phase half-wave converter fed dc drive and (b) First and fourth quadrant
diagram
The armature converter-1 provides the output voltage +Vo to –Vo by varying the firing angle of
converter from 0° to 180°. Hence this drive operates in the first and fourth quadrant. For regenerative
breaking of dc motor, the power must flow in reverse direction, i.e., from motor to ac supply. This is
possible if the back of motor is reversed by reversing the field excitation (field current or field flux).
Subsequently, the EbIa is negative. Since thyristors are unidirectional device, current can flow in one
direction only. Therefore, for regenerative braking, the polarity of back emf must be reversed. This is
feasible if firing angle of the field converter-2 is greater than 90°. The polarity of applied voltage will
be reversed (-negative), and the field winding is energized by negative voltage through a full converter.
The average output voltage of armature converter-1 is
2 2V
Vo = Va = cos a1 for 0 £ a1 £ p
p
2V
or Vo = Va = m cos a1 as Vm = 2V and V is the rms value of supply voltage
p
The average output voltage of field converter-2 is
2 2V
Vf = cos a f for 0 £ a f £ p
p
2V
or V f = m cos a
p
Since armature current of separately excited dc motor is constant, the rms value of armature current is
I a (rms) = I o
The rms value of source current is
1/2
Ê pˆ
I S = I S (rms) = Á I o2 ˜ = Io
Ë p¯
1/2
Ê p ˆ Io
IT 1(rms) = Á I o2 =
Ë 2p ˜¯ 2
Supply power factor is
2 2V
cos a . I o
Vt I a p 2 2
= = cos a
Vs I s VI o p
It is clear from above equation that the input power factor depends on the firing angle of converter.
Example 12.2 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single-phase full converter which is supplied
from 440 V, 50 Hz ac supply. If the field circuit is fed through a single-phase full-converter with 0° firing angle,
the delay angle of armature converter is 30° and load current is 20 A, determine (a) voltage across field winding,
(b) the field current, (c) electromagnetic torque and load torque, (d) voltage across armature winding, (e) back
emf, (f) motor speed and (g) input power factor. Assume armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, field resistance Rf =
140 W, motor constant kb = 0.7 V/A rad/s, kt = 0.03 N-m/Amp2 and the current waveforms are ripple free.
Solution
Given: 240 V, af = 0°, a1 = 30°, Ra = 0.5 W, Ra = 0.5 W, Rf = 140 W, kb = 0.7 V/A rad/s, kt = 0.7 N-m/Amp2
(a) Voltage across the field winding is

2 2V 2 2 ¥ 440
Vf = cos a f = cos 0 = 395.97 V
p p
(b) The field current is
V f 395.97
If = = = 2.828 A
Rf 140
(c) Motor constant kt = 0.7 V/A rad/s
At steady state operation, the motor electromagnetic torque = Load torque
or Te = kt I f I a = TL
or Te = kt I f I a = 0.7 ¥ 2.828 ¥ 20 = 39.592 N-m
(d) The average output voltage of a single-phase full converter which is connected to armature circuit
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 440
Vo = cos a1 = cos 30∞ = 342.928 V
p p
(e) The back emf is
Eb = Vo - I a Ra = 342.928 - 20 ¥ 0.5 = 332.928 V
Eb = kbw I f = 0.7 ¥ w ¥ 2.828 V = 342.928
Eb 342.928
(f) Speed w = = = 173.23 rad /s
kb I f 0.7 ¥ 2.828
(g) The total power input from the supply is
Pi = Vo I a + V f I f = 342.928 ¥ 20 + 395.97 ¥ 2.828 = 7078.36 Watt
The rms value of supply current is
I S = I a2 + I 2f = 202 + 2.8282 = 20.198
Pi 7078.36
= = 0.796 (lagging)
VI S 440 ¥ 20.198
Example 12.3 In Example 12.2, the polarity of induced emf is reversed by reversing the field excitation to
its maximum value. Compute (a) firing angle of the field converter, (b) delay angle of armature converter at 1000
rpm to maintain armature current at 40 A and (c) the power fed back to the supply due to regenerative breaking
of the motor.
Solution
(a) As the field excitation is reversed, the voltage across the field winding is
2 2V 2 2 ¥ 440
Vf = cos a f = cos a f = - 395.97 V
p p
or af = 180°
Therefore, firing angle of the field converter is af = 180°
(b) The field current is
Vf 395.97
If = =- = - 2.828 A
Rf 140
2p ¥ 1000
Eb = kbw I f = - 0.7 ¥ ¥ 2.828 = - 207.386 V
60
2p N
where, kb = 0.7 V/A, N = 1000 rpm and w =
60
The polarity of induced emf is reversed by reversing the field excitation. Then the average output voltage
across armature terminals is
Vo = Vt = - Eb + I a Ra
2 2V
or Vo = cos a1 = - Eb + I a Ra
p
2 2 ¥ 440
or cos a1 = - 207.386 + 40 ¥ 0.5 = - 145.17 V
p
Ê -145.17 ¥ p ˆ
or a1 = cos-1 Á = 111.506∞
Ë 2 2 ¥ 440 ˜¯
(c) The power fed back to the supply due to regenerative breaking of the motor is equal to
P = Vo I a = 145.17 ¥ 40 = 5806.8 Watt
Example 12.4 A 230 V, 1500 rpm, 15 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single-phase full bridge
controlled rectifier which is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Assume that armature resistance Ra = 1 W, field
resistance Rf = 120 W load current is continuous and ripple free. Determine (a) motor speed at the firing angle
a = 45° and load torque of 10 N-m and (b) torque developed at the firing angle a = 30° and speed 1000 rpm.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, a1 = 45∞, Ra = 1 W, R f = 120 W
When the separately excited dc motor operates at rated operating condition,
Vt = Eb + I a Ra = kb I f w + I a Ra
2p N 2p ¥ 1500
Rated speed w = = = 157.142 rad /s, Vt = 230 V, I a = 15 A
60 60
Therefore, 230 = kb I f ¥ 157.142 + 15 ¥ 1
Then kb I f = (230 - 15)/157.142 = 1.3681 V-s/ rad or N-m / A

(a) At steady-state operation, the motor electromagnetic torque = Load torque
Te = kt I f I a = TL
When torque is 10 N-m, Te = kt I f I a = 1.3681 ¥ I a = 10 N-m As ktIf = 1.3681 N-m/A
10
Armature current I a = A = 7.309 A
1.3681
At firing angle a1 = 45°, the output voltage of converter-1 is
2 2V
Vo = cos a1 = Eb + I a Ra = kb I f w + I a Ra
p
2 2 ¥ 220
or cos 45 = 1.3681 w + 7.309 ¥ 1 1
p
Speed w = (139.99 - 7.309)/1.3681 rad /s = 96.988 rad /sec
(b) At the firing angle a = 30°, speed is equal to 1000 rpm,

The output voltage of converter-1 is
2 2V
Vo = cos a1 = Eb + I a Ra = kb I f w + I a Ra
p
2 2 ¥ 220 2p ¥ 1000
or cos 30 = 1.3681 ¥ + Ia ¥ 1
p 60
Armature current Ia = 28.14 A
The electromagnetic torque developed in motor at the firing angle a = 30° and speed 1200 rpm is equal to
Te = kt I f I a = 1.3681 ¥ 28.14 = 38.49 N-m
12.3.4 single-Phase dual converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.16 shows a single-phase dual converter fed separately excited dc drive where a single-phase
dual converter is feeding the armature circuit. In a dual converter, two full converters, i.e., converter-1
and converter-2 are connected in anti parallel. When the converter-1 operates, a positive armature
voltage Va is applied to armature terminals of motor, but the converter-2 operates to provide a negative
armature voltage (–Va). Consequently, the converter-1 operates in first and fourth quadrants and the
converter-2 operates in second and third quadrants. Hence, this drive operates in four quadrants and
this drive also operates in four operating modes such as
1. Forward motoring – First quadrant
2. Forward regenerative braking – Fourth quadrant
3. Reverse motoring – Third quadrant
4. Reverse regenerative braking – Second quadrant
Fig. 12.16 Single-phase dual converter fed DC drive

When the converter-1 operates with the firing angle a1, the average output voltage of armature
converter-1 is
2 2V
Vo = Va = cos a1 for 0 £ a1 £ p
p
2V
or Vo = Va = m cos a1 as Vm = 2V and V is the rms value of supply voltage
p
If the converter-2 operates with the firing angle a2, the average output voltage of armature converter-2 is
2 2V
Vo = Va = cos a 2 for 0 £ a 2 £ p
p
2V
or Vo = Va = m cos a 2
p
where, a1 + a2 = p and a2 = p – a1
The average output voltage applied to field winding is
2 2V 2V
Vf = cos a f = m cos a f for 0 £ a f £ p
p p
When the converter-1 operates with a1 < 90°,
motor operates in forward motoring mode, i.e., first
quadrant operation. If the converter-1 operates with
a1 > 90°, motor operates in forward regenerative
braking mode, i.e., fourth quadrant operation.
While converter-2 operates with a2 < 90°, motor
operates in reverse regenerative braking mode,
i.e., second quadrant operation. If the converter-2
operates with a2 > 90°, motor operates in reverse
motoring mode, i.e., third quadrant operation. Four
quadrant operation of single-phase dual converter
fed dc drive is given in Fig. 12.17.
Fig. 12.17 Four quadrant diagram
12.4 three-Phase dc drIves
Single-phase dc drives have limited applications up to 15 kW. For high power applications, single-phase
dc drives are not suitable. Therefore, three-phase dc drives are used for high power applications up
to some megawatt power. When a three-phase controlled rectifier feeds power to the armature circuit,
the motor operates at below base speed. While a three-phase controlled rectifier is connected in the
field winding, its speed will be controlled above base speed.
The ripple frequency of the armature voltage using three phase controlled rectifier fed drives is
higher than that of single-phase drives. As a result armature current ripple is reduced. Consequently,
less inductance is required in the armature circuit to reduce ripple in armature current. Since the
armature current is mostly continuous, the performance of three-phase dc drive is better than that of
single-phase drives. The three-phase dc drives are classified as
1. Three-phase half-wave converter fed dc drives
2. Three-phase semi-converter fed dc drives
3. Three-phase full converter fed dc drives

4. Three-phase dual converter fed dc drives
In this section, the above three-phase drives are discussed elaborately. Assume that the armature
current is ripple free.
12.4.1 three-Phase half-wave converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.18 shows a three-phase half-wave converter fed dc drive where armature circuit is fed from
a three-phase half-wave converter and the field circuit is also fed from a three-phase semi converter.
This drive operates in first quadrant only. This drive is suitable for applications up to 40 kW power
level. This drive can be operating in two quadrants when the field circuit is drive by a single-phase
full converter or a three-phase full converter.
When a three-phase half-wave converter is connected to the armature circuit, the average armature
voltage at firing angle a is equal to
3Vm (line)
Vo = Va = cos a1 0 £ a1 £ p
2p
where, Vm(line) is the maximum line voltage.
If Vm is the maximum phase voltage of a star connected three ac supply, the output voltage of three-
phase half-wave converter is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = cos a1 as Vm (line) = 3Vm
2p
In the field circuit dc voltage is supplied by a three-phase semiconverter and the average output voltage
across the field winding is equal to
3Vm (line)
Vf = (1 + cos a f ) for 0 £ a f £ p
2p
3 3Vm
or Vf = (1 + cos a f ) as Vm (line) = 3Vm
2p
Since three-phase half-wave converter introduces dc components in the ac supply, this drive is not
generally used in industrial applications.
Fig. 12.18 Three-phase half-wave converter fed dc drive

Fig. 12.19 (a) Waveforms of three phase half-wave converter fed dc drive and (b) First quadrant diagram
rms value of armature current is

I a (rms) = I o
rms value of phase current is
1/2
Ê 2p / 3 ˆ Io
I S (rms) = Á I o2 ˜ =
Ë 2p ¯ 3
Average thyristor current is
Ê 2p /3 ˆ I o
IT 1(av) = Á I o ˜=
Ë 2p ¯ 3
The rms value of thyristor current is equal to the rms value of source current
1/2
Ê 2p /3 ˆ Io
IT 1(rms) = I S (rms) = Á I o2 ˜ =
Ë 2p ¯ 3
Example 12.5 The speed of a 10 HP, 300 V, 1500 rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a three-
phase half-converter from a Y connected, 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The field current is controlled by a three-phase
semiconverter and is set to its maximum value. Assume armature resistance Ra = 0.1 W, field resistance Rf = 210 W,
and motor constant is 0.6 V/A-rad/s. Compute
(a) the firing angle of armature converter at rated power and rated speed,
(b) the no-load speed if the firing angle is same as (a) and no-load current is 12% of rated current and
(c) the speed regulation.
Solution
Given: Ra = 0.1 W, R f = 210 W, kb = 1.4 V / A-rad /s, N = 1500 rpm
2p N 2p ¥ 1500
w= = = 157.1428 rad/s
60 60
P 10 ¥ 746
Rated armature current I a = rated = = 29.84 A
Vrated 300
V 220
Phase voltage Vp = L = V = 127.017 V
3 3
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2Vp = 2 ¥ 127.017 = 179.629 V
The field current will be maximum when field voltage will be maximum. Therefore, af = 0.
3 3Vm 3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ 179.629
Voltage across field winding V f = (1 + cos a f ) = = = 296.98 V
2p p p
V f 296.98
The field current I f = = A = 1.414 A
Rf 210
(a) At rated speed, the generated back emf is
Eb = kb I f w = 0.6 ¥ 1.414 ¥ 157.1428 V = 133.31 V
Voltage across armature is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = cos a1 = Eb + I a Ra
2p
3 3 ¥ 179.629
or cos a1 = 133.31 + 29.84 ¥ 0.1 = 136.294 V
2p
Ê 136.294 ¥ 2p ˆ
a1 = cos-1 Á ˜ = 23.38∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 179.629 ¯
The firing angle of armature converter at rated power and rated speed is a1 = 23.38°
(b) No load armature current is 12% of rated current. Then I a = 0.12 ¥ 29.84 = 3.58 A
The generated back emf at no-load is
Eb = Vo - I a Ra = 136.294 - 3.58 ¥ 0.1 = 135.936 V
Eb = kb I f w = 0.6 ¥ 1.414 ¥ w = 135.936 V
135.936
or w= = 160.22 rad/s
0.6 ¥ 1.414
60w 60 ¥ 160.22
N no-load = = = 1529.37 rpm
2p 2p
(c) Speed regulation is

N no-load – N full-load 1529.37 - 1500
= = 0.01958 = 1.958%
N full-load 1500
12.4.2 three-phase semiconverter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.20 shows the circuit diagram of three-phase semiconverter fed separately excited dc motor.
The field winding of the motor is also connected to three-phase semiconverter. This drive operates in
the first quadrant and its application is limited to 115 kW power ratings.
Assume that the armature current is ripple free and continuous. Figure 12.21 shows the voltage and
current waveforms of a semiconverter fed drive at firing angle a = 30°.
Fig. 12.20 Three-phase semi-converter fed dc drive
Fig. 12.21 Voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase semi converter fed DC drive at a1 = 30°
If the firing angle a £ 60°, each thyristor conducts for 120° duration. When a is greater than 60° and
less than 180°, each thyristor conducts for 180° – a duration. Free wheeling diodes conduct while
a > 60° and it conducts for a – 60° duration. While the armature current is continuous, the sum of
conduction angle of thyristor and conduction angle of freewheeling diode is 120°.
As a three-phase semiconverter is connected across the armature and its firing angle is a1, average
armature voltage is
3Vm (line)
Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) for 0 £ a1 £ p
2p
3 3Vm
or Vo = (1 + cos a1 ) as Vm (line) = 3Vm
2p
Since a three-phase semiconverter is connected across the field winding, the voltage Vf is equal to
3Vm (line)
Vf = (1 + cos a f ) for 0 £ a f £ p
2p
3 3Vm
Vf = (1 + cos a f )
2p
Since armature current is ripple free, rms value of armature current is
Ia = Io
When a £ 60°, the rms value of line current IA is
1/2
Ê 2p /3 ˆ 2
I S (rms) = Á I o2 ˜ = Io
Ë p ¯ 3
The rms value of thyristor current IT1 is
1/2
Ê 2p /3 ˆ Io
IT 1(rms) = Á I o2 ˜ =
Ë 2p ¯3
p
When < a < p , the rms value of supply line current IA is
3
1/2 1/2
Ê 2 p -aˆ Êp -aˆ
I S (rms) = Á I o ˜ = I o ÁË ˜
Ë p ¯ p ¯
1/2 1/2
Ê p -aˆ Êp -aˆ
IT 1(rms) = Á I o2 ˜ = Io Á
Ë 2p ¯ Ë 2p ˜¯
p I p
If a < , the average value of thyristor current is o and for < a < p , the average value of
3 3 3
average thyristor current is
Êp -aˆ
IT 1(av) = Á
Ë 2p ˜¯ o
I
Average value of free wheeling diode is

Ê a - p /3 ˆ a - 60 p
I FD (av) = I o Á ˜ = Io for <a <p
Ë 2p /3 ¯ 120 3
rms value of free wheeling diode is

1/2 1/2
Ê a - p /3 ˆ Ê a - p /3 ˆ p
I FD (rms) = Á I o2 = IO Á for <a <p
Ë 2p /3 ˜¯ Ë 2p /3 ˜¯ 3
12.4.3 three-phase Full converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.22 shows a three-phase full converter fed dc drive where a three-phase full converter is
connected in the armature circuit and another three-phase full converter is applied to the field winding.
This drives operates in two quadrants and it is used up to 1500 kW ratings.
Fig. 12.22 Three -phase full converter fed dc drive
The average output voltage across armature of dc motor is

3Vm (line)
Vo = cos a1 for 0 £ a1 £ p
p
3 3Vm
or Vo = cos a1 where, Vm (line) = 3Vm
p
The average output voltage is applied to field winding is
3Vm (line)
Vf = cos a f for 0 £ a f £ p
p
3 3Vm
or Vf = cos a f
2p
For regenerative braking of dc motor, the polarity of induced emf Eb must be reversed. The polarity of
back emf can be reversed by reversing the field excitation with increasing the firing angle af greater
than 90°(af > 90°). During regenerative braking of dc motor, power flow in reverse direction due to
reverse polarity of back emf.
The voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase full converter fed dc drive are depicted in Fig.
12.23 at a = 30° assuming the armature current is continuous.
The rms value of armature current is
I a (rms) = I o
rms value of supply current IA is

1/2
Ê 2p /3 ˆ 2
I S (rms) = Á I o2 ˜ = Io
Ë p ¯ 3
1/2
Ê 2p /3 ˆ IO
IT 1(rms) = Á I o2 ˜ =
Ë 2p ¯ 3
Average value of thyristor current is equal to
2p 1 I
IT 1(av) = I o = o
3 2p 3
Figure 12.23(c) shows the A phase current iA. Similarly, B phase current and C phase current are
phase shifted by 120°.
Fig. 12.23 Voltage and current waveforms of a three-phase full converter fed dc drive at a1 = 30°
12.4.4 three-Phase dual converter Fed dc drives

Figure 12.24 shows a three-phase dual converter fed dc drive. In this drive, two three-phase full-wave
converters are connected in anti-parallel and applied across the armature of dc motor. Converter-1 is
used to operate motor in first and fourth quadrant but converter-2 is used to operate motor in second
and third quadrant. This converter operates in four quadrants and it has limited applications up to
2 MW power rating. Just like single-phase dc drive, a full-wave converter or a semi-converter can
be used as field converter. For regenerative braking purpose, the polarity of generated emf must be
reversed when the field circuit is energized from single-phase or three-phase full converter.
When the converter-1 operates with a delay angle of a1, the average output voltage is
3Vm (line)
Vo = cos a1 for 0 £ a1 £ p
p
3 3Vm
or Vo = cos a1 when Vm (line) = 3Vm
p
Fig. 12.24 (a) Three-phase dual converter fed DC drive and (b) Four quadrant operation of dual converter fed
dc drive
If the firing angle of converter-2 is a2, the average output voltage is

3Vm (line)
Vo = cos a 2 for 0 £ a 2 £ p
p
3 3Vm
or Vo = cos a 2 where, a1 + a 2 = p and a 2 = p - a1
p
When a three-phase full converter is applied across field winding, the average field voltage is
3Vm (line) 3 3Vm
Vf = cos a f = cos a f for 0 £ a f £ p
p 2p
Example 12.6 A separately excited dc motor can be controlled by a three-phase semiconverter which is
supplied by Y connected 208 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The dc motor has the following parameters:
Armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, armature inductance La = 5 mH, machine constant k = 1.2 V/rad/s or N-m/A.
Determine the speed of motor at 20 N-m load with firing angle a = 30°
Solution
Given: Ra = 0.5 W, La = 5 mH, TL = 20 N-m, a = 30∞, k = 1.2 V / rad /s or N-m / A.
The motor torque Te = TL = kI a
\ TL 20
Ia = = A = 16.666 A
k 1.2
VL 208
The phase voltage Vp = = = 120.08 V
3 3
The maximum phase voltage Vm = 2Vp = 2 ¥ 120.08 V = 169.818 V
The voltage across armature is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = (1 + cos a1 ) = Eb + I a Ra = kw + I a Ra
2p
3 3 ¥ 169.818
(1 + cos 30) = 1.2w + 16.666 ¥ 0.5
or 2p
or w = 211.35 rad/s
60w 60 ¥ 211.35
Motor speed is N = = = 2017.43 rpm
2p 2¥p
Example 12.7 A 15 HP, 300 V, 1000 rpm separately excited dc motor can be controlled by a three-phase
semiconverter which is supplied by Y connected 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The dc motor armature resistance
Ra = 1.0 W and armature current is continuous and ripple free. If the motor operates at 900 rpm at firing angle
a = 45°, determine the rms value of source and thyristor currents, average value of thyristor current and input
power factor.
Solution
Given: Ra = 1.0 W, a = 45∞, N = 900 rpm
Prated 15 ¥ 746
At rated operating condition, I rated = = A = 37.3 A
Vrated 300
Voltage across armature Vo = Eb + I a Ra = kw + I a Ra
2p ¥ 1000
or 300 = k ¥ + 37.3 ¥ 1.0 At rated speed N = 1000 rpm
60
(300 - 37.3) ¥ 60
or k= V-s/ rad = 2.507 V-s/ rad
2p ¥ 1000
V 220
The phase voltage Vp = L = = 127.01 V
3 3
The maximum phase voltage Vm = 2Vp = 2 ¥ 127.01 V = 179.619 V
The voltage across armature is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = (1 + cos a1) = Eb + I a Ra = kw + I a Ra
2p
3 3 ¥ 179.619 2p ¥ 900
or (1 + cos 45) = 2.507 ¥ + I a ¥ 0.5
2p 60
or 253.47 = 236.37 + 0.5I a
253.47 - 236.37
Ia = = 17.1 A
1.0
rms value of source current
2 2
I S (rms) = I o = 17.1 = 13.962 A
3 3
rms value of thyristor current IT1 is
IO 17.1
IT 1(rms) = = = 9.872 A
3 3
Average value of thyristor current is
IO 17.1
IT 1(av) = = = 5.7 A
3 3
Vo I a 253.47 ¥ 17.1
= = 0.814 (lagging)
3VL I S (rms) 3 ¥ 220 ¥ 13.962
Example 12.8 A dc motor is driven by a three-phase

full converter as shown in Fig. 12.25 and 100 A dc current
flow through armature with negligible ripple.
(a) Draw the ac line current iA for one cycle at a1 = 30°.
(b) Determine the third and fifth harmonic components
of line current as a percentage of the fundamental
current.
Solution
The ac line current iA at firing angle a1 = 30° is depicted in
Fig. 12.26. The amplitude of armature current Ia = 100 A
The waveform iA can be expressed by Fourier series as
given below.
Fig. 12.25
• 4I np
iAn = Â npa cos 6 sin(nw t - na )
n = 1,3,5....
Fig. 12.26 (a) load current io (b) ac line current iA at firing angle a = 30° (c) current through T1
rms value of nth harmonic current is

4Ia np
I An = cos
2 np 6
rms value of fundamental component of current is
4Iap 4 ¥ 100 p
I A1 = = cos cos = 77.983 A
2p 6 2p 6
rms value of third harmonic component of current is
4Ia 3p
I A3 = =0A
cos
2.3p 6
rms value of fifth harmonic component of current is
4Ia 5p 4 ¥ 100 5p
I A5 = =
cos cos = - 15.5966 A
2.5.p 6 2..5p 6
The third harmonic components of line current as a percentage of the fundamental current is
I A3
= 0 = 0%
I A1
The fifth harmonic components of line current as a percentage of the fundamental current is
I A5 -15.5966
= = - 0.2 = - 20%
I A1 77.983
Example 12.9 In speed control of dc motor, the load torque is 40 N-m. Assume that under steady state condition
the motor operates at speed 500 rpm and t = 0. At t ≥ 0+, the electromagnetic torque is suddenly increased to 100
N-m. The inertia of dc motor is 0.01 N-m.sec2/rad.
(a) Write differential equation which governs the speed of motor for t ≥ 0.
(b) Compute the time taken to reach the speed 1000 rpm from 500 rpm.
Assume the friction torque is negligible.
Solution
(a) At steady state condition, the electromagnetic torque is equal to load torque.
Then, at t = 0, Te = TL
dw
Under dynamic condition, the electromagnetic torque Te is equal to the sum inertia torque J , friction
torque Dw and load torque TL dt
dw
Therefore, Te = J + Dw + TL
dt
(b) As the friction torque is negligible, Dw = 0
dw
\ Te = J + TL
dt
dw
or 100 = 0.01 + 40 as Te = 100 N-m, J = 0.01 N-m sec 2 /rad, TL = 40 N-m
dt
dw 100 - 40
or = = 6000
dt 0.01
dw
or dt =
6000
w
After integrating, we get t = +C
6000
2p ¥ 500
At t = 0, w = rad/s
60
w w 1 2p ¥ 500 p
Therefore, 0 = + C or, C = - =- ¥ =-
6000 6000 6000 60 360
w p
Then, t = -
6000 36
The time taken to reach the speed 1000 rpm from 500 rpm
w p 1 2p ¥ 1000 p p
t= - = ¥ - = sec
6000 36 6000 60 360 360
Example 12.10 The speed of a 15 HP, 400 V, 1000 rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a three-
phase full converter from a Y connected, 250 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Assume armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, field
resistance Rf = 150 W, and motor constant is 0.8 V/A-rad/s.
(a) The field current is controlled by a three-phase full converter and is set to its maximum value. If the motor
develop 100 N-m torque at 1000 rpms, determine the firing angle of armature converter.
(b) If the field current is set to its maximum value, firing angle of armature converter is 30° and developed
torque is 100 N-m, find the operating speed of motor.
Solution
Given: Ra = 0.5 W, R f = 150 W, kb = 0.8 V/A-rad/s, N = 1000 rpm
2p N 2p ¥ 1000
(a) Speed w = = = 104.76 rad/s
60 60
V 250
Phase voltage Vp = L = V = 144.337 V
3 3
Maximum phase voltage Vm = 2Vp = 2 ¥ 144.337 = 204.123 V
The field current will be maximum when field voltage will be maximum. Therefore, af = 0.
3 3Vm 3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ 204.123
Voltage across field winding V f = cos a f = = = 337.48 V
p p p
Vf 337.48
The field current I f = = A = 2.249 A
Rf 150
The toque developed Te = kI f I a
Te 100
Armature current is I a = = A = 55.58 A
kI f 0.8 ¥ 2.249
At rated speed, the generated back emf is
Eb = kb I f w = 0.8 ¥ 2.249 ¥ 104.76 V = 188.48 V
Voltage across armature is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = cos a1 = Eb + I a Ra
p
3 3 ¥ 204.123
or cos a1 = 188.48 + 55.58 ¥ 0.5 = 216.27 V
p
Ê 216.27 ¥ p ˆ
a1 = cos-1 Á ˜ = 50.145∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 204.123 ¯
The firing angle of armature converter is a1 = 50.145°
(b) at a1 = 30°, Voltage across armature is
3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ 204.123
Vo = Va = cos a1 = cos 30 = 292.26 V
p p
We know that Vo = Eb + IaRa
Therefore, Eb = Vo - I a Ra = 292.26 - 55.58 ¥ 0.5 = 264.47 V
The back emf Eb = kb I f w = 0.8 ¥ 2.249 ¥ w = 264.47 V
264.47
Speed w = = 146.993 rad/s = 1403.11 rpm
0.8 ¥ 2.249
Example 12.11 A 220 V, 1450 rpm, 20 A separately excited dc motor is supplied from a three-phase
full converter. When the full converter is connected to 440 V, 50 ac supply through a delta-star transformer,
(a) determine the turn ratio of transformer and (b) find the value of firing angle of armature converter when
(i) motor rotates at 1200 rpm with rated torque and (ii) motor operates at -1000 rpm with half rated torque.
Assume armature resistance is 0.5 W and motor terminal voltage is rated voltage when converter firing angle
is zero.
Solution
(a) At a1 = 0°, Voltage across armature is
3 3Vm 3 3 ¥ Vm
Vo = Va = cos a1 = cos 0 = 220 V
p p
220p
or Vm = = 133.065 V
3 3
Vm 133.065
Phase voltage (secondary) Vp = = = 94.09 V
2 2
Phase voltage (primary) = 440 V
Phase Voltage (Primary) 440

Turn ratio = = = 4.67
Phase Voltage (Secondary) 94.09
(b) (i) Motor rotates at 1200 rpm with rated torque
At 1450 rpm and Ia = 20 A, the induced back emf
Eb = Vo - I a Ra = 220 - 20 ¥ 0.5 = 210 V
1200
At 1200 rpm, the induced back emf is 210 ¥ V = 173.79 V
1450
The voltage across armature at rated torque is
Vo = Eb + I a Ra = 173.79 + 20 ¥ 0.5 = 183.79 V
3 3Vm
Therefore, Vo = Va = cos a1 = 183.79 V
p
3 3 ¥ 133.065
or cos a1 = 183.79 V
p
Ê 183.79p ˆ
a1 = cos-1 Á ˜ = 33.34∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 133.065 ¯
(ii) Motor operates at -1000 rpm with half rated torque
1 1
Armature current I a = ¥ rated current = ¥ 20 = 10 A
2 2
1000
At 1200 rpm, the induced back emf is - 210 ¥ V = - 144.8275 V
1450
The voltage across armature at rated torque is
3 3Vm
Vo = Va = cos a1 = Eb + I a Ra = - 144.8275 + 10 ¥ 0.5 = - 139.8275 V
p
3 3 ¥ 133.065
Therefore, cos a1 = - 139.8275 V
p
Ê -139.8275p ˆ
a1 = cos-1 Á ˜ = 129.46∞
Ë 3 3 ¥ 133.065 ¯
12.5 dc-to-dc converter (choPPer) Fed dc drIves

Variable dc voltage can be obtained from dc-to-dc converters or choppers. Therefore, choppers can be
used for speed control of dc motor. If the field winding of dc motor is fed from a constant dc source
and a chopper is connected across armature circuit, the voltage across armature can be controlled by
varying the duty cycle of chopper. Due to armature voltage variation, the speed of dc motor can be
controlled below base speed. For speed control of dc motor above base speed, another chopper may
be connected across field winding. The dc-to-dc converter or chopper fed dc drives are widely used
in electric traction applications.
The chopper fed dc drive is not only used in speed control but also it can be used for dynamic and
regenerative braking of dc motors. A chopper fed dc drive operates in four quadrants by controlling
both armature voltage and field current. When the field flux is in the same direction, but the polarity
of armature voltage can be reversed. The motor will operate in reverse direction, it is called reverse
motoring.
During regenerative braking, motor voltage must be greater than input voltage. If the input voltage
is non-receptive during regenerative braking, motor voltage will be less than input voltage and
subsequently regenerative may not be possible. In that case, rheostatic braking is possible in chopper
fed dc drives.
Chopper fed dc drives are most commonly used in battery operated electric vehicles. The different
operating modes of chopper fed drives are:
1. Power control or motoring control
2. Rheostatic or dynamic braking control
3. Regenerative braking control
4. Combination of regenerative and rheostatic braking control
12.5.1 operating Principle of Power control

Figure 12.27 shows the arrangement of chopper fed separately excited dc motor. In this dc-to-dc
converter, the semiconductor switch such as transistor, IGBT, MOSFET or force commutated thyristor
may be used. This drive operates as first quadrant drive as shown in Fig. 12.28(b). The waveforms of
input voltage Vi, armature voltage Vo, load current io, input current iS and free wheeling diode current
iFD are depicted in Fig. 12.28(a). Assume that load is highly inductive and the load current is ripple free.
The average voltage across armature of dc motor is
T
Vo = ON V = DV = f TONV
T
T 1
where D = Duty cycle = ON and f = Chopping frequency =
T T
Fig. 12.27 Chopper fed dc drive
The power supplied to the motor = Average armature voltage ¥ Average armature current
= Vo I a = DVI a
Average value of input current is equal to
T
I i = ON I a = DI a
T
The equivalent input resistance of chopper drive seeing from input is
V V
Req = i =
I i DI
Fig. 12.28 (a) Voltage and current waveforms chopper fed dc drive (b) Quadrant of chopper
By varying duty cycle D, Req can be varied.

Applying KVL in the armature circuit, we get
Vo = DV = Eb + I a Ra = kbw + I a Ra
DV - I a Ra
or w=
kb
It is clear from above equation that by varying the duty cycle D of chopper, the voltage across armature
can be controlled and subsequently the speed of dc motor will be controlled.
If the load is not highly inductive, the armature current will not be ripple free. When the switch
is ON, input voltage is applied across armature, the armature current will increase from Imin to Imax.
If the switch is OFF, the free wheeling diode conducts and the voltage across armature becomes zero
and armature current falls from Imax to Imin. The waveforms of armature voltage, armature current,
source current and current through freewheeling diode are shown in Fig. 12.29.
The instantaneous armature current when the switch is ON is expressed by
V - Eb
I a (t ) =
R
( -t
)
1 - e t + I min e t
-t
for 0 < t £ TON
L
where, t =
R
When the switch is OFF, the instantaneous armature current is
E
( ) -t
I a (t ) = - b 1 - e - t + I max e t
R
t
for TON £ t £ T
Fig. 12.29 Voltage and current waveforms chopper fed dc drive
The maximum peak-to-peak ripple current is

V R
DI max = tanh
R 4 fL
where, R is the total resistance of armature circuit
L is the total resistance of armature circuit
If motor armature and field windings are connected in series of a series motor,
R = Ra (armature resistance) + R f (field resistance) + any series resistance and
L = La (armature inductance) + L f (field.inductance) + any series inductance.
At steady state operating condition, voltage across motor terminals is equal to
Vo = DV = Eb + I a R
Example 12.12 The speed of separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper. The input voltage of
chopper is 220 V, armature resistance Ra = 0.25 W and motor constant K = 0.08 V/rpm. When the motor drives
a constant load, average armature current of 25 A flows through armature winding. Determine (a) the range of
speed control and (b) the range of duty cycle D. Assume motor current is ripple free.
Solution
Given: V = 220 V, Ra = 0.25 W, k = 0.08, I a = 25 A
When the duty cycle of chopper is D, the voltage across armature is
Vo = DV = Eb + I a Ra = kbw + I a Ra
Since the motor drives a constant load torque, motor torque is constant and armature current is constant at 25 A.
The minimum possible speed is zero, i.e., N = 0 rpm
Therefore, DV = kbw + I a Ra
2p N
or D ¥ 220 = 0.08 ¥ 0 + 25 ¥ 0.25 as w = =0
60
25 ¥ 0.25
\ D= = 0.0284
220
The spped of dc motor will be maximum at D = 1
DV = kbw + I a Ra
DV - I a Ra 1 ¥ 220 - 25 ¥ 0.25
or w= = rad/s = 2671.87 rpm
kb 0.08
The range of speed control is 0 £ N £ 2671.87 and the range of duty cycle 0.284 £ D £ 1
Example 12.13 A dc series motor is drived by a chopper. The motor has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.1 W, R f = 0.2 W, K = 0.004 N-m/Amp2
If the dc supply voltage of chopper is 400 V, duty cycle of chopper is 50% and the average armature current is
100 A, determine (a) input power from supply, (b) motor speed and (c) motor torque.
Assume current is ripple free.
Solution
Given: V = 400 V, D = 50% = 0.5 I a = 100 A, Ra = 0.1 W, R f = 0.2 W, K = 0.004 N-m/Amp2
(a) Input power from supply Vo I a = DVI a = 0.5 ¥ 400 ¥ 100 = 20 kW
(b) Voltage across motor terminals is
Vo = DV = Eb + I a R where, R = Ra + R f = (0.1 + 0.2) W = 0.3 W
or Eb = DV - I a R = 0.5 ¥ 400 - 100 ¥ 0.3 = 170 V
Eb 170
Since Eb = kb I aw , w = = = 425 rad/s
kb I a 0.004 ¥ 100
(c) Motor torque Te = kI a2 = 0.004 ¥ 1002 N-m = 40 N-m
Example 12.14 A chopper circuit is used to control a separately excited dc motor. The chopper is ON for
10 ms and OFF for 20 ms. When the chopper is supplied by 200 V dc supply, determine the average load current
when the motor operates in 1200 rpm and machine constant k = 0.5 V/rad per sec. The armature resistance is
1 W. Assume armature current is continuous and ripple free.
Solution
Given: V = 200 V, TON = 10 ms, TOFF = 20 ms, N = 1200 rpm, k = 0.5 V/rad per sec, Ra = 1 W
TON 10 1
Duty cycle D = = =
TON + TOFF 10 + 20 3
Voltage across armature terminals is
Vo = DV = Eb = I a R = kw + I a Ra
1 2p ¥ 1200 2p N
or ¥ 200 = 0.5 ¥ + I a ¥ 1 as w =
3 60 60
200 2p ¥ 1200
The average load current I a = - 0.5 ¥ = 3.80 A
3 60
Example 12.15 The speed of a separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper circuit. Assume that
the chopper is supplied by 250 V dc supply and it operates at 200 Hz. The motor has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.25 W, La = 25 mH, k = 1.5 V/rad per sec or N-m/A
When the motor operates at 1200 rpm with load torque 30 N-m, determine (a) the minimum and maximum
values of armature current, (b) ripple current and (c) derive the expression of armature current during ON and
OFF period of chopper.
Solution
Torque developed in the motor Te = kIa
T 30
At 30 N-m load torque, the average armature current I a = e = = 20 A
k 1.5
2p N 2p ¥ 1200
The induced back emf Eb = kw = k = 1.5 ¥ = 188.57 V
60 60
Voltage across armature terminals
Vo = DV = Eb + I a Ra = 188.57 + 20 ¥ 0.25 = 193.57 V
193.57
D= = 0.774
or 250
1 1
Time period T = = = 5 ms,
f 200
TON = DT = 0.774 ¥ 5 ms = 3.87 ms and TOFF = T - TON = 5 ms - 3.87 ms = 1.13 ms
La 25 ¥ 10 -3 1 1
t= = = 100 ¥ 10 -3 , = = 10
Ra 0.25 t 100 ¥ 10 -3
V - Eb
I a (t ) =
Ra 1 (
- e )
- tt + I
min e
- tt
for 0 < t £ TON
250 - 188.57
= (1 - e -10 t ) + I min e -10 t = 245.72(1 - e -10 t ) + I min e -10 t
0.25
At t = 3.87 ms, Ia(t) = Imax.
-3 -3
Therefore, I max = 245.72(1 - e -10 ¥ 3.87 ¥10 ) + I min e -10 ¥ 3.87 ¥10
or I max = 9.314 + 0.962 I min (i)
When the switch is OFF, the instantaneous armature current is
Eb Ê - ˆ
t t
-
I a (t ) = - Á 1 - e t ˜ + I max e t for TON £ t £ T
RË ¯
188.57
=- (1 - e -10 t ) + I max e -10 t = - 754.28(1 - e -10 t ) + I max e -10 t
0.25
At t = 1.13 ms, Ia(t) = Imin.
-3 -3t
Therefore, I min = - 754.28(1 - e -10 ¥1.13 ¥10 ) + I max e -10 ¥1.13 ¥10
I min = - 8.428 + 0.988 I max (ii)
After substituting the value of Imin in Eq. (i), we get
I max = 9.314 + 0.962 ¥ (-8.428 + 0.988 I max )
or I max = 1.206 + 0.95I max
\ Imax = 24.12 A
I min = - 8.428 + 0.988 I max = - 8.428 + 0.988 ¥ 24.12 = 15.40 A
Then
(b) Ripple current is DI = I max - I min = 24.12 - 15.40 = 8.72 A
I a (t ) = 245.72(1 - e -10 t ) + 15.4e -10 t for 0 < t £ TON
The instantaneous armature current when the switch is OFF is expressed by
I a (t ) = - 754.28(1 - e -10 t ) + 24.12e -10 t for TON £ t £ T
12.5.2 Principle of regenerative Braking of separately excited

dc Motor
During regenerative braking, the dc motor acts as a generator and the kinetic energy of the motor and
load are returned to the dc supply. In the motor mode operation, the armature current is positive and
V - Eb
its value is I a = o .
Ra
When the armature of a separately excited motor rotate at speed w, the kinetic energy is stored in
the inertia of motor and load. In the transport system, the energy is stored in vehicles, train, rotating
shaft. The regenerative braking of separately excited dc motor can be done by circuit as shown in
Fig. 12.30. When the switch (thyristor T1) is ON, the armature current increases due to short circuit
of armature terminals of dc motor. When the switch (thyristor T1) is OFF and the diode conducts, the
energy stored in the armature inductance would be returned back to the supply and the drive operates
in second quadrant. The waveforms of input voltage, armature voltage, input current, armature current
are depicted in Fig. 12.31. Assume that the armature current is continuous and ripple free.
The average voltage across armature terminals (chopper) is
TOFF T
VO = V = OFF V = (1 - D)V where, D = duty cycle
TON + TOFF T
Power generated by the dc motor is
Pg = Vo I a = (1 - D)VI a
When the motor operates as generator, its generated voltage is equal to
Eg = kbw I f = Vo + I a R = (1 - D)V + I a Ra
where, kb is machine’s constant, w is machine speed in rads per second.
Fig. 12.30 Regenerative braking of separately excited dc motor
Fig. 12.31 (a) Voltage and current waveforms of regenerative braking of dc motor and (b) Second quadrant
operation of dc motor
The condition of regenerative braking is Eg > Vo + IaRa

or Eg > (1 - D)V + I a Ra as Vo = (1 - D)V
If the minimum braking speed is wmin, the motor speed during regenerative braking is
(1 - D)V + I a Ra
w= where, w > w min
kb I f
The maximum braking speed of a dc series motor can be found from

kbw max I f - I a R = V
V + Ia R
or w max = where, R = Ra + R f
kI f
dia
When the switch is ON, Vt = 0 = Eg - I a Ra - La
dt
dia
or Eg - I a Ra = La
dt
dia
As is positive and current rises in inductance, energy is stored in inductance La
dt
di
Since a ≥ 0, Eg - I a Ra ≥ 0
dt
dia
When the switch is OFF, Eg - I a Ra - La =V
dt
dia
or Eg - I a Ra - V = La
dt
dia
Therefore, V - ( Eg - I a Ra ) = - La ,
dt
For regenerative braking, Eg - I a Ra > V
dia
Therefore, V - ( Eg - I a Ra ) must be negative, current decreases and becomes negative.
dt
\ V - ( Eg - I a Ra ) £ 0
or - ( Eg - I a Ra ) £ - V
or ( Eg - I a Ra ) ≥ V
At minimum braking speed
( Eg - I a Ra ) = 0 or kbw I f = I a Ra as Eg = kbw I f
I R
The maximum braking speed w min = a a
kb I f
During maximum braking speed,
( Eg - I a Ra ) = V
V + I a Ra
The maximum braking speed w max =
kb I f
For regenerative braking, the motor speed must be greater than wmin and less than wmax and it is
expressed by
w min < w < w max
I a Ra V + I a Ra
or <w <
kI f kI f
The regenerative braking of chopper fed separately excited dc drive provides stable operation, but dc
series motor operates with an unstable operating characteristic. Therefore, regenerative braking of dc
series motor is difficult one.
Example 12.16 Regenerative braking is applied to a separately excited dc motor using a dc chopper. The
chopper circuit is supplied from 250 V dc supply. The average armature current during regenerative braking is
kept constant 200 A with negligible ripple. The machine has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.25 W, k = 1.2 V/rad per sec
If the duty cycle of chopper is 50%, determine (a) power feedback to dc supply, (b) minimum and maximum
permissible braking speeds and the speed range of regenerative braking and (c) speed during regenerative braking.
Solution
Average armature voltage is Vo = (1 - D)V = (1 - 0.5) ¥ 250 = 125 V
(a) Power feedback to dc supply is Vo I a = 125 ¥ 200 = 25 kW
I a Ra 200 ¥ 0.25
(b) Minimum braking speed w min = = = 41.666 rad/s
k 1.2
V + I a Ra 250 + 200 ¥ 0.25
Maximum braking speed w max = = = 250 rad/s
k 1.2
The speed range of regenerative braking 41.66 £ w £ 250 rad/s
(c) During regenerative braking, the generated voltage is equal to
Eb = Vo + I a Ra = 125 + 200 ¥ 0.25 = 175 V
Eb 175
We know that Eb = kw, then w = = = 145.833 rad/s
k 1.2
12.5.3 Principle of rheostatic Braking of dc drive

In rheostatic braking of chopper fed dc drive, the stored energy must be dissipated in the rheostat.
Therefore, the system will be heated. The rheostatic braking is also known as dynamic braking. Figure
12.32 shows the arrangement of rheostatic braking of a separately excited dc motor. This drive operates
in second quadrant. The waveforms of voltage and current for rheostatic braking of a separately excited
dc motor are shown in Fig. 12.33. Assume that the armature current is continuous and ripple free.
Fig. 12.32 (a) Rheostatic braking of a separately excited dc motor (b) Quadrant
The average current through braking resistance is

I b = (1 - D)I a
The average voltage across braking resistance is
Vb = I b Rb = (1 - D)I a Rb
The equivalent load resistance of the generator is

V (1 - D)I a Rb
Req = b = = (1 - D) Rb
Ia Ia
The power dissipation in the braking resistance Rb is
Pb = I a2 Rb (1 - D) = (1 - D)I a2 Rb
It is clear from above equation that by varying the duty cycle D, the braking power can be controlled.
Fig. 12.33 Waveforms of rheostatic braking of a separately excited dc motor
Example 12.17 A dc chopper is used for rheostatic braking of a separately excited dc motor. The machine
has the following parameters:
Armature resistance Ra = 0.1 W, braking resistance Rb = 5 W and kb = 1.2 V/A rad per sec
The average armature current during braking is kept constant 100 A with negligible ripple. The field current is 1.5 A.
If the duty cycle of chopper is 60%, determine (a) average current through braking resistance, (b) average voltage
across dc converter, (c) equivalent load resistance of the generator, (d) power dissipated across braking resistance
and (e) speed during braking.
Solution
(a) The average current through braking resistance is
I b = (1 - D)I a = (1 - 0.6) ¥ 100 = 40 A
(b) The average voltage across dc converter
VChopper = Vb = I b Rb = (1 - D)I a Rb = (1 - 0.6) ¥ 100 ¥ 5 = 200 V
(c) The equivalent load resistance of the generator is
Vb 200
Req = = =5W
Ia 40
(d) The power dissipation in the braking resistance Rb is

Pb = I a2 Rb (1 - D) = (1 - D)I a2 Rb = (1 - 0.6) ¥ 1002 ¥ 5 = 20 kW
(e) The generated emf Eb = Vb + I a Ra = 200 + 100 ¥ 0.1 = 210 V
Eb 210
We know that Eb = kbIf w, then w = = = 116.666 rad/s
kb I f 1.2 ¥ 1.5
12.5.4 combination of regenerative and rheostatic Braking of

dc Motor
The stored energy in the inertia of machine and load is dissipated as heat during rheostatic braking. In
case of regenerative braking, the stored energy is fed back to dc supply. Therefore, regenerative braking
is energy efficient braking. If the dc supply is partially receptive, the combination of regenerative and
rheostatic brake control will be the most energy efficient. This method is practically suitable for electric
traction. Figure 12.34 shows the circuit diagram for regenerative and rheostatic braking.
Initially regenerative braking is applied to motor and the line voltage is sensed continuously.
Whenever the amplitude of voltage exceeds a preset value, i.e., about 20% the line voltage, the
regenerative braking is removed and the rheostatic braking is applied to motor. Thyristor T2 will be
turned ON to divert the current to the braking resistance Rb.
Fig. 12.34 Combination of regenerative and rheostatic braking of dc motor
12.6 two-Quadrant choPPer-Fed dc drIves

For motor mode operation, the dc-to-dc converter or chopper fed dc drives operates in the first quadrant
where both the armature voltage and armature current are positive. During regenerative braking, the
dc-to-dc converter fed dc drives operates in second quadrant where armature voltage is positive but
the armature current is negative. Figure 12.35 shows the basic arrangement of two quadrant dc-to-dc
converter fed drives where thyristors and transistors can be used in place of semiconductor switches.
This drive operates on
1. motoring mode
2. regenerative braking mode
Fig. 12.35 (a) Two quadrant chopper fed dc drive (b) Two-quadrant diagram
12.6.1 Motoring Mode

In this operating mode, the semiconductors switch S1 and diode D1 operate. When switch S1 is turned
ON, the input voltage Vi is applied to the armature terminals and armature current Ia increases. When
switch S1 is turned OFF, the free wheeling diode D1 conducts and the armature current Ia flows through
diode D1. In motor mode operation, this drive operates in first quadrant as shown in Fig. 12.35(b).
The first quadrant operation of dc motor is also called as forward motoring mode.
12.6.2 regenerative Braking Mode

In this operating mode, the semiconductors switch S2 and diode D2 operate. When switch S2 is turned
ON, the motor acts as a generator. The armature current rises and energy is stored in armature inductance
La. When the switch S2 is turned OFF, diode D2 becomes turn ON, the direction of armature current
Ia is reversed. Subsequently, the energy stored in inductance La will be returned to dc supply. During
regenerative braking mode, this drive operates in second quadrant as shown in Fig. 12.35(b). The
second quadrant operation of dc motor is known as forward regenerative braking mode.
12.7 Four-Quadrant choPPer-Fed dc drIves

Figure 12.36(a) shows a four quadrant chopper fed dc drive which consists of four semiconductor
switches S1, S2, S3, S4 and four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4. This dc drive operates on the following modes:
1. First quadrant (Forward motoring)
2. Second quadrant (Forward regenerative braking mode)
3. Third quadrant (Reverse motoring)
4. Fourth quadrant (Reverse regenerative braking)
In this section, all four operating modes are discussed.
1. Forward motoring During forward motoring mode operation, this drive operates in the first
quadrant. In this mode, semiconductor switches S1 and S2 operate and switches S3 and S4 are OFF.
When switches S1 and S2 are turned ON, the input voltage Vi is applied across armature terminals of
dc motor and the armature current Ia increases. While switch S1 is turned OFF and switch S2 is ON
condition, the armature current start to decrease and flows through switch S2 and diode D4. If both
switches S1 and S2 are turned OFF, armature current is forced to decay through diodes D3 and D4.
Fig. 12.36 (a) Four quadrant chopper fed dc drive (b) Four quadrant diagram
2. Forward regenerative braking mode In this operating mode, the motor works as a generator,
the induced emf of motor is greater than input voltage. When semiconductor switches S1, S2 and S3
are turned off and switch S4 is turned ON, armature current increases and flows through switch S4
and diode D2. When the switch S4 becomes OFF, the motor acts as a generator and the stored energy
in inductance must be returned back to dc source through diodes D1 and D2. In forward regenerative
braking mode, motor operates in second quadrant.
3. Reverse motoring In this operating mode, semiconductor switches S3 and S4 operate and switches
S1 and S2 are turned OFF. When switches S3 and S4 are turned ON, the armature current increases, but
it flows in reverse direction. When switch S4 is turned ON and switch S3 is turned OFF, the armature
current starts to decay and flows through switch S4 and diode D2. When both switches S3 and S4 are
turned OFF, armature current falls and flows through diodes D1 and D2. This operating mode is op-
posite to forward motoring mode.
4. Reverse regenerative braking mode When semiconductor switches S1, S3 and S4 are turned
OFF and switch S2 is turned ON, armature current increases through switch S2 and diode D4. Then
energy is stored in inductance. When switch S2 is turned OFF, the armature current falls. As the gener-
ated voltage is greater than input voltage, the stored energy of motor must be returned to the dc supply
through diodes D3 and D4. In reversed regenerative braking mode, motor operates in fourth quadrant.
12.8 ac drIves
Generally, most of the motion control systems are derived by electric motors. Drives employing electric
motors are called electric drives. Most commonly used electric drives are:
1. DC motor drives employing shunt, series, and compound dc motors.
2. Induction motor drives employing squirrel cage and wound rotor (slip ring) induction motors.
3. Synchronous motor drives employing permanent magnet and wound field synchronous motors.
4. Brushless dc motor drives employing brushless dc motors.

5. Stepper motor drives employing stepper motors.
6. Switch reluctance motor drives employing Switch reluctance motor.
Based on the application of motors, electric drives are classified as dc drives and ac drives. The dc
drives are already discussed in Section 12.2 to Section 12.7. AC motors contain highly coupled stator
and rotor windings, non-linear and multivariable structure but separately excited DC motors has
comparatively simpler decoupled structure than AC motors. The comparison between AC and DC
drives are given in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Comparison between AC and DC drives

AC Drives DC Drives
AC motors are lightly decoupled, non-liner and multi- DC motors are simple decoupled structure.
variable structure.
AC drives require complex control algorithms. DC drive have simple control algorithms.
AC motors are light weight and about 20% to 40% DC motors are heavy weight compared to AC motors.
light weight than same rating dc motor.
The cost of AC motors less compared to DC motors for The cost of dc motor is high compared to AC motor for
same kW rating. same kW rating.
AC motor requires less maintenance compared to DC DC motor requires more maintenance compared to AC
motors. motors.
VSI, CSI, AC voltage controller, PWM inverters are Controlled rectifiers and choppers are used to control
used in variable speed induction motor drive. DC motors.
Power converters used in AC drives are relatively com- Power converters used in DC drives are relatively sim-
plex and more expensive. ple and less expensive.
The AC drives have certain advantages and disadvantages over DC drives which are given below.
Advantages of AC drives compared to DC drives
1. For the same kW rating, ac motors are 20% to 40% light weight as compared to dc motors
2. AC motors are less expensive as compared to same kW rating dc motors
3. AC motors have low maintenance as compared with dc motors
4. AC motors can work in hazard areas like chemical and petrochemical etc. but dc motors are not
suitable for hazard areas due to commutator sparking
Disadvantages of AC drives compared to DC drives
1. The control of ac drives require complex control algorithms such as model reference,
adaptive control, sliding mode control and field-oriented control which can be performed by
microprocessors and microcontrollers
2. Power electronics converters such as converters, inverters and ac voltage controllers are used to
control the ac motors and these converters are expensive
3. Power electronics converters for ac drives generate harmonics in the supply system and load
circuit. Therefore, ac motors will be derated.
The advantages of ac drives outweigh their disadvantages. AC drives are used for several industrial
applications. Generally, there are two types of ac drives:
1. Induction motor drives
2. Synchronous motor drives
In this section, induction motor drives and synchronous motor drives are discussed elaborately.
12.9 InductIon Motor drIves

Three-phase induction motor have stator and rotor windings. The stator windings are supplied with
balanced three-phase ac supply. Due to transformation action, voltage is induced in the rotor winding.
Based on rotor construction, three-phase induction motors are of two types such as squirrel cage
induction motors and wound rotor slip-ring induction motors. The rotor of squirrel cage induction motor
is made of aluminum or copper bars which are short circuited by two end rings. In case of wound rotor
induction motor, the rotor has a balanced three-phase distributed winding with same number of poles
as stator winding. Actually, three-phase rotor windings are connected to three slip rings on the rotor
shaft. When a balanced three-phase ac supply is connected to three-phase stator winding, the rotating
magnetic field is developed and rotates at synchronous speed Ns.
The synchronous speed is equal to
120 f 2f
Ns = in rpm or ns = in rps
P P
The synchronous speed can be expressed in rad/sec
4p fs 2w1
ws = = rad/sec
P P
where fs = f1 = f supply frequency in Hz,
w1 = 2pf1 = supply frequency in rad/s
P = Number of stator poles.
The speed of rotor of induction motor Nr is always less than synchronous speed Ns
N - Nr w s - w m
The slip s = s = where, wm is the rotor speed or shaft speed in rad/sec.
Ns ws
Then rotor speed is equal to
N r = N s (1 - s) in rpm or, w m = w s (1 - s) in rad /s
The equivalent circuit of one phase of rotor is represented by Fig. 12.37(a) and one phase stator and
rotor circuit is depicted in Fig. 12.37(b).
where, r2 = resistance per phase of rotor winding
x2 = reactance per phase of rotor winding at supply frequency
E2 = induced rms phase voltage at zero speed Nr = 0
r1 = resistance per phase of stator winding
x1 = reactance per phase of stator winding at supply frequency
Fig. 12.37 (a) One phase of rotor circuit and (b) One phase stator and rotor circuit
The per phase equivalent circuit of three-phase induction

motor is depicted in Fig. 12.38(a), (b) and (c). where
x2¢ = reactance per phase of rotor winding referred to stator
r2¢ = resistance per phase of rotor winding referred to
stator
Rm = magnetizing resistance, Xm is the magnetizing
reactance
I1 = stator current, I 2¢ is the rotor current referred to
stator, V1 is input voltage per phase
V1
Rotor current referred to stator is I 2¢ =
Ê r ¢
2ˆ
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + j ( x1 + x2¢ )
s
The air gap power, i.e., power transferred from stator to
rotor is
r¢
Pg = 3I 2¢ 2 2
s
Rotor copper loss (ohmic loss) is PCu = 3I 2¢ 2 r2¢
Power developed in rotor is Fig. 12.38 (a) Equivalent circuit of in-
duction motor (b) Alternative
Pd = Pg - PCu circuit of Fig. 12.37(a)
r2¢ Ê 1 - sˆ (c) Simplified equivalent
= 3I 2¢ 2
- 3I 2¢ 2 r2¢ = 3I 2¢ 2 r2¢ Á = Pg (1 - s)
s Ë s ˜¯ circuit of induction motor
Torque developed by motor

Pd Ê 1 - sˆ 1
Te = = 3I 2¢ 2 r2¢ Á ˜¯ ◊ as w r = w s (1 - s)
wr Ë s w s (1 - s)
1 r ¢ Pg
= ◊ 3I 2¢ 2 2 = (12.1)
ws s ws
After substituting the value of I 2¢ in Eq. (12.1), we obtain
3 V12 r¢
Te = 2
◊ 2
ws Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
dT
The electromagnetic torque is function of slip s. The developed torque will be maximum when e = 0.
The slip at which maximum torque occurs is equal to ds
r2¢
sm =
r1 + ( x1 + x2¢ )2
2
The maximum electromagnetic torque is equal to

3 V12
Te max =
2w s r + r 2 + ( x + x ¢ )2
1 1 1 2
The maximum torque is also known as pull out torque or breakdown torque which is independent
of rotor resistance r2¢ , but slip at maximum torque sm is directly proportional to rotor resistance r2¢ .
3 V12 r¢
Neglecting the value of resistance r1, Te = 2
◊ 2 (12.2)
ws Ê r ¢ ˆ s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2 2
s
r2¢
and the slip at maximum torque is sm =
x1 + x2¢
After substituting the value of sm in Eq. (12.2), the maximum torque is
3 V12
Te max = (12.3)
2w s x1 + x2¢
From Eqs. (12.2) and (12.3), we obtain
Te 2 2 ssm
= =
Te max s sm sm2 + s2
+
sm s
s s Te 2 s 2(w s - w m )
If s << sm and << m , = = (12.4)
sm s Te max sm smw s
w s sm Te
or ws - wm =
2Te max
w s sm Te Ê s T ˆ
or motor shaft speed w m = w s - w m = w s Á1 - m e ˜ (12.5)
2Te max Ë 2Te max ¯
When the slip is small, the motor torque is directly proportional to slip as per Eq. (12.4). The motor
speed decreases with increasing load torque as shown in Eq. (12.5).
After substituting the value of sm in Eq. (12.5), we get
Ê r2 Te ˆ
wr = w s Á1 - (12.6)
Ë x1 + x2 Te max ˜¯
It is clear from Eq. (12.6) that the speed drop of induction motor from no-load to full load depends
on rotor resistance.
The input power to motor is
Pi = 3V1 I1 cos f1 where, f1 is the angle between V1 and I1
= Pg + stator core loss + stator copper loss
= Pg + Pcore + PCu
Shaft power output is PO = Pd - fixed loss = Pd - Pno-load

Fixed loss is equal to friction and windage loss, Pno-load
P Pd - Pno-load
Motor efficiency is h = O =
Pi Pg + Pcore + PCu
If Pg >> ( Pcore + PCu ) and Pd >> Pno-load ,
Pd Pg (1 - s)
efficiency h ª = =1- s as Pd = Pg (1 - s)
Pg Pg
Psh Psh
Torque output at shaft is Tsh = = where, shaft output Psh = Po output power
w m w s (1 - s)
12.9.1 torque-speed characteristics of Induction Motor

The torque developed in machine is function of slip s or speed. Figure 12.39 shows the torque-slip
(speed) characteristics of induction motor.
Fig. 12.39 Torque-slip (speed) characteristics of induction motor
The torque-speed characteristics of induction motor are subdivided into three operating regions such as
1. Forward motoring, 0 £ s £ 1
2. Regeneration, s < 0
3. Reverse plugging, 1 £ s £ 2
1. Forward motoring (0 £ s £ 1) During forward motoring operation, the induction motor rotates
in the same direction as the electromagnetic field. When slip increases, the torque increases while air
gap flux remains constant. At s = sm, torque is equal to maximum torque. When slip s > sm, torque
decreases with the reduction of the air gap flux.
2. Regeneration (s < 0) During regeneration operation, the motor speed wm is greater than the
r2¢
synchronous speed ws. As wm and ws rotate in the same direction, slip s is negative. Then is nega-
s
tive. Therefore, power is fed back to the ac supply and induction motor acts as an induction generator.
The torque-speed characteristic of induction motor during regeneration is similar to that of forward
motoring but torque becomes negative.
3. Reverse plugging (1 £ s £ 2) In reverse plugging, the speed of induction motor is opposite to
the direction of the electromagnetic field and slip is greater than unity. Plugging operation is possible
when the sequence of ac supply is reversed and the direction of filed is reversed. The developed
torque opposes the motion and it acts as braking torque. As slip s > 1, the motor current will be high
and the developed torque will be low. During plugging, the energy will be dissipated with in the mo-
tor. Subsequently induction motor will be heated excessively. Therefore, this type of breaking is not
commonly used in induction motor.
Example 12.18 A 3-f 50 Hz, 8 pole, 400 V, 720 rpm Y connected induction motor has the following parameters:
r1 = 0.25 W, x1 = 0.75 W, r2¢ = 0.2 W, x2¢ = 0.75 W, and X m = 25 W
When the motor is driving a load torque TL = 0.015w m2 , determine slip, full load rotor current, power factor at
full load and load torque.
Solution
120 f 120 ¥ 50
The synchronous speed N s = = = 750 rpm
P 8
N - N r 750 - 720
The full load slip s = s = = 0.04
Nr 750
The full load rotor current is
400
V1 3
I 2¢ = = = 42.296 A
2 2
Ê r2¢ ˆ Ê 0.2 ˆ
ÁË 0.25 + ˜ + (0.75 + 0.75)
2
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s 0.04 ¯
r¢ 0.2
r1 + 2 0.25 +
-1 -1
f2 = cos s = cos 0.04 = cos-1 0.961
2 2
Ê r ¢
2ˆ Ê 0.2 ˆ
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ ) ÁË 0.25 + ˜ + (0.75 + 0.75)
2 2
s 0.04 ¯
= 15.94∞ (lagging)
Then I 2¢ = 42.296–-15.94∞
400
V1
The magnetizing current I m = = 3 = 9.2376–- 90∞
jX m j 25
The full load stator current is
I s = I 2¢ + I m = 42.296–-15.94∞ + 9.2376–- 90∞
= 40.669 - j11.615 - j 9.2376 = 40.669 - j 20.8526
= 45.703–- 27.146∞
Power factor is cos f = cos(-27.146) = 0.8898 (lagging)
4p f 4p ¥ 50
Synchronous speed w s = = = 78.5714 rad/s
P 8
Motor speed in rad/s w m = w s (1 - s) = 78.5714(1 - 0.04) rad/s = 75.4285 rad/s
Load torque TL = 0.015w m2 = 0.015 ¥ 75.42852 N-m = 85.341 ◊ N-m

12.10 speed control of three-phase InductIon Motor

Three-phase induction motors are most commonly used in adjustable speed drives as these motors
are highly suitable to fulfil the demand of loads. In different industrial applications, adjustable speeds
are required for efficient operations. Presently power electronics converters are employed for speed
control of three-phase induction motors. The speed and torque of three-phase induction motors can
be controlled by the following methods:
1. Stator voltage control
2. Stator frequency control
3. Stator voltage and frequency control
4. Stator current control
5. Rotor resistance control
6. Slip-power recovery control
7. Rotor voltage control
The first four methods are applicable for both squirrel cage induction motor (IM) and wound rotor
induction motor, but other three methods are only feasible in wound rotor or slip ring induction motors
V
only. In this section, only stator voltage control, stator frequency control, control, stator current
f
control, rotor resistance control and slip power recovery control are discussed.
12.10.1 stator voltage control of Induction Motor

The electromagnetic torque of induction motor is directly proportional to the square of the stator input
voltage and it is given by
3 V12 r¢
Te = 2
◊ 2
ws Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
where, V1 is input voltage, r1 and x1 are stator resistance and reactance, r2¢ and x2¢ are rotor resistance
and reactance, s is slip and ws is synchronous speed.
When the stator input voltage is reduced by a fraction, the electromagnetic torque is expressed by
3 ( xV1 )2 r¢
Te = 2
◊ 2 where, 0 £ x £ 1
ws Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
The stator voltage control is possible by using a three-phase ac voltage controller; variable voltage fed
variable dc link inverters and pulse width modulation inverters. Figure 12.40 shows a three-phase ac
voltage controller fed induction motor drive. By varying the firing angle of thyristors, the rms voltage
across the stator of induction motor can be controlled. Subsequently, motor electromagnetic torque
will be changed. Hence the speed of the induction motor will be controlled.
It is clear from Fig. 12.41 that the torque-speed characteristic and load characteristic intersect at
point A, and B. At point A, x = 1 and input voltage is rated, motor speed is O-a, electromagnetic torque
Te is equal load torque, i.e., Te = TL = TA - a . When x is reduced to 0.75, the operating point becomes
B, the motor speed is reduced to O-b , the electromagnetic torque and load torque are equal to TB–b.
Fig. 12.40 Three-phase ac voltage controller Fig. 12.41 Torque speed characteristics of induction
fed induction motor drive motor at x = 1 and x = 0.75
The stator voltage control method is only suitable for induction motors having large value of sm and
the wide control range. The speed control using ac voltage controller is very simple but the harmonic
contents are high and input power factor of ac supply is low. Therefore, this drive is only suitable for
low power applications such as electric fans, blowers, pumps where the starting torque requirement
is low. The drive is not suitable for a constant torque drive and for low slip motors, the speed control
range will be narrow.
In case of blower type load, the load torque is directly proportional to the speed square and it is given by
TL = kw m2 where, TL is load torque and wm is machine speed
The mechanical power developed in the motor is
Pm = TL w m = Pg (1 - s)
r¢ r¢
Since Pg = 3I 2¢ 2 2 , TL w m = Pg (1 - s) = 3I 2¢ 2 2 (1 - s)
s s
Tw s Tw s
Therefore, I 2¢ 2 = L m or I 2¢ = L m (12.7)
3r2¢ 1 - s 3r2¢ 1 - s
We know that w m = w s (1 - s) and TL = kw m2 . After substituting the value of TL in Eq. (12.7), we obtain
kw m2 w m s kw m s
I 2¢ = = wm
3r2¢ 1 - s 3r2¢ 1 - s
kw s (1 - s) s k ◊ s ◊ ws k ◊ w s2
or I 2¢ = w s (1 - s) = w s (1 - s) = s (1 - s)
3r2¢ 1- s 3r2¢ 3r2¢
k ◊ w s2
Therefore, I 2¢ = s (1 - s)
3r2¢
dI 2¢
The rotor current I 2¢ is function of slip and I 2¢ will be maximum when =0.
ds
dI 2¢ 1 1 k ◊ w s2 k ◊ w s2
Then, = (1 - s) + s (-1) =0
ds 2 s 3r2¢ 3r2¢
1- s 1
or = s or, s =
2 3
1
Therefore, the maximum current at s = is equal to
3
k ◊ w s2 1Ê 1 ˆ k ◊ w s2 1 2 1 k ◊ w s2
I 2¢ |max = s (1 - s) = Á1 - ˜¯ =
3r2¢ 3Ë 3 3r2¢ 33 3 r2¢
2 k ◊ w s2
=
9 r2¢
Example 12.19 A three-phase induction motor drives a blower where load torque is directly proportional
to speed squared. If the motor operates at 1450 rpm, determine the maximum current in terms of rated current.
Solution
Synchronous speed Ns = 1500 rpm and rotor speed Nr = 1450 rpm
N s - N r 1500 - 1450
Slip s = = = 0.0333
Ns 1500
2 k ◊ w s2 k ◊ w s2
I 2¢ |max = and I 2¢ = s (1 - s)
9 r2¢ 3r2¢
2 kw s2
I 2¢ |max 9 r2¢ 2 3 2 3
The ratio = = = = 2.1819
I 2¢ kw s2 9 s (1 - s) 9 0.0333(1 - 0.0333)
s (1 - s)
3r2¢
12.10.2 stator frequency control of Induction Motor

When the frequency of supply voltage has been changed, the synchronous speed of induction motor
will be changed. Hence the torque-speed characteristics will be modified and the speed of motor can
be controlled. The voltage induced in stator winding is directly proportional to the product of supply
frequency f1 and air-gap flux f. The per phase voltage induced in stator winding is expressed by
V1 = 2p f1 N1f kw1
Due to reduction in supply frequency without change in amplitude of supply voltage, air-gap flux
increases. Actually induction motors are designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization
characteristic so that the magnetic material is fully utilized. Since flux increases, the induction motor
will operate in saturation region. Therefore, the magnetization current will be increased, the line current
and voltage become distorted, the core loss and stator copper loss increase and the motor parameters
would not be valid to determine the torque-speed characteristics. Accordingly, the motor efficiency is
reduced. At low frequency, the reactance of motor decreases and the motor current will be high. For
this reason, the speed control of induction motor with constant voltage and reduced supply frequency
is not commonly used in industry.
When the frequency is increased above rated frequency, air-gap flux decreases and subsequently
electromagnetic torque will be decreased. The performance of induction motor can be determined by
using the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 12.38(c).
The rotor current is

V1
I 2¢ = neglecting r1
2
Ê r2¢ ˆ
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
4p f1 2w1
At supply frequency f1, synchronous speed w s = = rad/s as w1 = 2pf1
P P
3 2 r2¢
The electromagnetic torque is Te = I2 ◊ (12.8)
ws s
3 V12 r¢
After substituting the value of I 2¢ in Eq. (12.8), we obtain Te = ◊ 2 (12.9)
ws Ê r ¢ ˆ 2 s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2 2
s
If the rotor frequency is fr = f2, the relation between supply frequency fs = f1 and rotor frequency is
fr = sfs or f2 = sf1
f f 2p f2 w 2
\ s= r = 2 = =
fs f1 2p f1 w1
2w1 w
After substituting the value of w s = , x1 = w1l1 , x2¢ = w 2 l2¢ , s = 2 in Eq. (12.9), we get
P w1
3P V12 r ¢w
Te = 2
◊ 2 1
2w1 Ê r ¢w ˆ w2
ÁË w ˜¯ + w1 (l1 + l2¢ )
2 1 2 2
3P V12
or Te = ◊ w 2 r2¢
2w12 r2¢2 + w 22 (l1 + l2¢ )2
r2¢
The slip at which the electromagnetic torque occurs is smax =
x1 + x2¢
The rotor frequency at which the electromagnetic torque is maximum in rad/s.
w1r2¢ r2¢
w 2 = smaxw1 = =
w1 (l1 + l2¢ ) (l1 + l2¢ )
It is clear from above equation that w2 does not depend on the supply frequency w1. After substituting
r2¢ = w 2 (l1 + l2¢ ) , the maximum torque Te, max is equal to
3P V12
Te max = ◊ w 2 r2¢
2w12 r2¢2 + w 22 (l1 + l2¢ )2
3P V12
= ◊ w 22 (l1 + l2¢ )
2w12 w 2 (l1 + l2¢ ) + w 2 (l1 + l2¢ )
2 2 2 2
3P V12
= ◊ (l1 + l2¢ )
2w12 (l1 + l2¢ )2 + (l1 + l2¢ )2
3P V12
=
4w12 (l1 + l2¢ )
1
Hence, the Te, max is inversely proportional to supply frequency squared, i.e., Te max µ .
w12
Since supply voltage V1 is constant, the value
3P V12
of is constant. Therefore, Te maxw12
4 (l1 + l2¢ )
is also constant. If the operating frequency w1
increases and Te maxw12 remains constant, the
maximum torque at increased frequency w1
will be reduced. This behavior is similar to
the working of dc series motors. With constant
voltage and increased frequency operation, air
gap flux is reduced. Therefore, during stator
frequency control method, induction motor
Fig. 12.42 Torque speed characteristics of induction
should be work in field weakening mode.
motor at stator frequency control
Figure 12.42 shows torque speed characteristics
of a three-phase induction motor with stator frequency control with constant supply voltage.
Example 12.20 A three-phase 50 Hz, four pole, 440 V, 1420 rpm, 20 kW, Y connected induction motor has
the following parameters:
r2¢ = 0.30 W and x2¢ = 1.1 W.
The value of magnetizing reactance Xm and stator leakage impedance and rotational losses are neglected.
When the motor is operated by three phase 440 V, 100 Hz supply, determine (a) the motor speed at rated load,
(b) slip at maximum torque, and (c) the maximum torque.
Solution
At three-phase 440 V, 50 Hz supply
2p N r 2p ¥ 1420
wm = = = 148.76 rad/s
60 60
P 20 ¥ 1000
The full load torque Te -full-load = = = 134.44 N-m
wm 148.76
(a) When three-phase 440 V, 100 Hz supply is applied to induction motor,
100
the reactance will be x2¢ = 1.1 ¥ W = 2.2 W and resistance r2¢ = 0.30 W
50
4p f 4p ¥ 100
P 4
3 V12
r¢
The full load torque Te = 2
◊ 2
ws Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
3 V12 r¢
or Te = 2
◊ 2 As r1 and x1 are neglected
w s Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x2¢ )
2
s
2
Ê 440 ˆ
ÁË ˜
3 3¯ 0.3
= 2
◊ = 134.44
314.2857 Ê 0.3 ˆ s
˜ + (1.1)
2
ÁË
s ¯
184.8s
or = 134.44 or, 162.67s2 - 184.8s + 12.09 = 0
0.32 + 1.12 s2
-(-184.8) ± (-184.8)2 - 4 ¥ 162.67 ¥ 12.09

Therefore, s =
2 ¥ 162.67
Slip s = 0.0696
The motor speed at rated load is w m = w s (1 - s) = 314.2857(1 - 0.0696) = 292.41 rad/s
r2¢ 0.3
(b) Slip at maximum torque sm = = = 0.1363
x2¢ 2.2
(c) The maximum torque
3 V12 3 V12
Te max = ◊= ◊ as x1 is neglected
2w s x1 + x2¢ 2w s x2¢
2
Ê 440 ˆ
ÁË ˜
3 3¯
= ◊ = 140 N-m
2 ¥ 314.2857 2.2
Example 12.21 A three-phase 50 Hz, four pole, 440 V, 10 kW delta connected induction motor has the
r1 = 0.5 W, x1 = 1.2 W, r2¢ = 0.30 W, and x2¢ = 1.2 W,
The value of magnetizing reactance Xm is neglected.
(a) If the motor is started with DOL starting, determine starting current, power factor at starting, maximum torque.
(b) When the motor is operated by 220 V, 25 Hz supply and is started with DOL starting, determine starting
current, power factor at starting, maximum torque.
Solution
(a) The starting current is
V1 V1
Is = = as s = 1
Ê
2
r2¢ ˆ (r1 + r2¢ ) + ( x1 + x2¢ )2
2
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
440
= = 173.926 A
(0.5 + 0.3)2 + (1.2 + 1.2)2
The power factor
r1 + r2¢ 0.5 + 0.3
cos f = = = 0.3162 (lagging)
(r1 + r2¢ ) + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2 2
(0.5 + 0.3)2 + (1.2 + 1.2)2
r2¢ 0.3
Slip at maximum torque sm = = = 0.1223
r12 + ( x1 + x2¢ ) 2
0.5 + (1.2 + 1.2)2
2
4p f 4p ¥ 50
P 4
3 V12 3 4402
Te max = = = 626.1225 N-m
2w s r + r 2 + ( x + x ¢ )2 2 ¥ 157.1428 0.5 + 0.52 + (1.2 + 1.2)2
1 1 1 2
(b) At 25 Hz, the stator and rotor reactance will be
25 25
x1 = 1.2 ¥ W = 0.6 W and x2¢ = 1.2 ¥ W = 0.6 W
50 50
The starting current is

V1 V1
Is = = as s = 1
Ê
2
r2¢ ˆ (r1 + r2¢ ) + ( x1 + x2¢ )2
2
ÁË r1 + ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
220
= = 152.565 A
(0.5 + 0.3)2 + (0.6 + 0.6)2
The power factor
r1 + r2¢ 0.5 + 0.3
cos f = = = 0.5547 (lagging)
(r1 + r2¢ ) + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2 2
(0.5 + 0.3)2 + (0.6 + 0.6)2
r2¢ 0.3
Slip at maximum torque sm = = = 0.2453
r12 + ( x1 + x2¢ ) 2
0.5 + (0.6 + 0.6)2
2
4p f 4p ¥ 25
P 4
3 V12 3 2202
Te max = = = 536.412 N-m
2w s r + r 2 + ( x + x ¢ )2 2 ¥ 78.574 0.5 + 0.52 + (0.6 + 0.6)2
1 1 1 2
12.10.3 stator voltage and frequency control of Induction Motor

In a three-phase induction motor, the stator voltage per phase is
V1 = 2p f1 N1f kw1
V1
Then, = 2p N1f kw1
f1
ÊVˆ
It is clear from above equation that if the ratio of supply voltage to supply frequency Á ˜ is remaining
Ë f¯
ÊVˆ
constant, subsequently the air gap flux f remains constant. In stator voltage and frequency Á ˜ control,
V Ë f¯
frequency and voltage are varied in such a way that ratio is maintained constant at its rated value.
The starting torque of induction motor is f
3 V12
Te |starting = ◊ r2¢ as slip s = 1
w s (r1 + r2¢ )2 + ( x1 + x2¢ )2
4p f1 2w1
Since ( x1 + x2 ) >> (r1 + r2 ) and w s = = as w1 = 2p f1
P P
3 V12 3P V12 2w
Therefore, Te |starting = ◊ r2¢ = ◊ r2¢ as w s = 1
w s ( x1 + x2¢ ) 2
2w1 ( x1 + x2¢ ) 2
P
3P V12
= ◊ r¢ as x1 = w1l1 and x2 = w1l2¢
2w1 w1 (l1 + l2¢ )2 2
2
2
3P Ê V1. ˆ r2¢
= Á ˜
2w1 Ë w1 ¯ (l1 + l2¢ )2
V1 V
When or 1 the air-gap flux f is kept constant, the starting torque is inversely proportional to
f1 w1
supply frequency w1.
The maximum electromagnetic torque is
3 V12
Te max = ◊
w s 2( x1 + x2¢ )
2
3P V12 3P Ê V1 ˆ 1
or Te max = ◊ = Á ˜
2w1 2w1 (l1 + l2¢ ) 2 Ë w1 ¯ l1 + l2¢
It is clear from the above expression that since air gap flux is kept constant; the maximum torque
will be constant.
When the stator resistance r1 is neglected, the slip at maximum torque is
r2¢ r2¢
sm = =
x1 + x2¢ w1 (l1 + l2¢ )
If the supply frequency w1 in rad/s is reduced, the slip at maximum torque increases.
Fig. 12.43 (a) Voltage variation with frequency and (b) Torque-speed characteristics of induction motor
The variation of voltage with frequency is shown in Fig. 12.43(a). The applied voltage will be
V
constant above the base speed. Below the base speed, ratio is maintained constant but at low
V f
frequencies, ratio is increased to maintain the maximum torque constant. The torque-speed
f V
characteristics for motoring operations with control are depicted in Fig. 12.43(b). The speed control
f
and braking operation of induction motor is feasible from about zero speed to above synchronous
speed. The variable voltage and variable frequency control induction motor drives using voltage source
inverters are used in low and medium power drives.
12.10.4 stator current control of Induction Motor

The torque developed in induction motor and
speed control of three phase induction motor
can be controlled by stator current control. The
behavior of an induction motor using stator
current control is different from the stator
voltage control with the help of inverters.
Figure 12.44 shows the equivalent circuit
of induction motor where current I1 is fed into
the stator windings of a three-phase induction Fig. 12.44 Equivalent circuit of single-phase induction
motor, the rotor current is I2, stator impedance motor
is r1 + jx1.
The rotor current is
jX m
I 2¢ = I1 neglecting Rm
r2¢
+ j ( x2¢ + X m )
s
The electromagnetic torque developed Te is
3 2 r2¢
Te = I 2¢
ws s
After substituting the value of I 2¢ in the above equation, we obtain
3 ( I1 X m )2 r¢
Te = ◊ 2
ws Ê r ¢ ˆ 2 s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x2¢ + X m )
2 2
s
Applying the condition for maximum power transfer in the equivalent circuit, we find
r2¢
= x2¢ + X m when r1 + jX1 = 0 and current I1 is constant
sm
r2¢
or sm =
x2¢ + X m
The maximum torque Te max is

3 ( I1 X m )2 r2¢ 3 ( I1 X m )2 r¢
Te max = ◊ = ◊ 2 ( x2¢ + X m )
ws Ê r ¢ ˆ 2 sm w s Ê r2¢ ˆ
2 r2¢
2
ÁË s ˜¯ + ( x ¢
2 + X m ) 2
ÁË r ¢ ( x ¢
2 + X m ) ˜¯ + ( x ¢
2 + X m ) 2
m 2
3 ( I1 X m )2 3 ( I1 X m )2
= ◊ ( x ¢
2 + X m ) = .
w s 2( x2¢ + X m )2 w s 2( x2¢ + X m )
2w1
As w s = , X m = w1 Lm , x2¢ = w1l2¢ ,
P
3 ( I1 X m )2 3P w12 ( I1 Lm )2 3 P ( L m )2
Te max = ◊= ◊= ◊ I2
w s 2( x2¢ + X m ) 2w1 2w1 (l2¢ + Lm ) 4 (l2¢ + Lm ) 1
It is clear from the above equation that the maximum torque is proportional to stator current squared,
independent of supply frequency f1 and also independent of rotor resistance.
The starting torque of induction motor is
3 ( I1 X m )2 r¢
Te|starting = 2
◊ 2 where, s = 1
ws Ê r ¢ ˆ s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x2¢ + X m )
2 2
s
3 ( I1 X m )2 3 ( X m )2
= ◊ r2¢ = ◊ r ¢I 2
w s (r2¢ )2 + ( x2¢ + X m )2 w s (r2¢ )2 + ( x2¢ + X m )2 2 1
The torque-speed characteristics of induction motor at different stator current is depicted in Fig. 12.45.
Fig. 12.45 Torque-speed characteristics of induction motor
Example 12.22 A three-phase 440 V, four pole, 50 Hz delta connected induction motor has the following
parameters:
r1 = 0 ◊ W, x1 = 1.1 W, r2¢ = 0.30 W, x2¢ = 1.1 W and X m = 40 W
When the induction motor is fed from (a) 440 V, 50 Hz voltage source inverter and (b) 30 A, 50 Hz constant current
source inverter, determine the slip for maximum torque, maximum torque and starting torque for cases (a) and (b).
Solution
(a) When the induction motor is fed from 440 V, 50 Hz voltage source inverter
r2¢ 0.3
The slip at maximum torque is sm = = = 0.1363
x1 + x2¢ 1.1 + 1.1
4p f 4p ¥ 50
P 4
2
3 V1 3 4402
The maximum torque is Te max = ◊= ◊ = 840 N-m
2w s x1 + x2¢ 2 ¥ 157.1428 1.1 + 1.1
3 V12 r¢
When resistance r1 = 0, Te = 2
◊ 2
w s Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
s
At starting s = 1, starting torque will be
3 V12 r¢ 3 4402
Te starting = ◊ 2 = ◊ 0.3 = 224.90 N-m
w s Ê r2¢ ˆ 2
1 157.1428 (0.3) + (1.1 + 1.1)2
2
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x1 + x2¢ )
2
1
(b) When the induction motor is fed from 30 A, 50 Hz constant current source inverter
r2¢ 0.3
The slip at maximum torque is sm = = = 0.00729
x2¢ + X m 1.1 + 40 2
Ê 30 ˆ
Á ¥ 40˜
3 ( I1 X m ) 2
3 Ë 3 ¯
The maximum torque is Te max = ◊= ◊ = 111.479 N-m
w s 2( x2¢ + X m ) 157.1428 2(1.1 + 40)
The starting torque of induction motor is
3 ( I1 X m )2 r¢
Te|starting = 2
◊ 2 where, s = 1
w s Ê r2¢ ˆ s
ÁË ˜¯ + ( x2¢ + X m )
2
s
2
Ê 30 ˆ
ÁË ¥ 40˜
3 ( I1 X m )2 3 3 ¯
= ◊ r2¢ = ◊ 0.3 = 5.424 N-m
w s (r2¢ ) + ( x2¢ + X m )2
2
157.1428 (0.3)2 + (1.1 + 40)2
12.10.5 static rotor resistance control of Induction Motor

In a wound rotor or slip-ring induction motor, a three-phase variable resistance Rr external can be inserted
in the rotor circuit as depicted in Fig. 12.46. By changing the rotor resistance Rr external, the motor
electromagnetic torque can be controlled. The starting torque and starting current can also be varied
by controlling the rotor resistance Rr external. The torque-speed characteristics of induction motor and
the effect of rotor resistance on stator current are shown in Fig. 12.46(a) and (b) respectively. The
disadvantages of speed control using rotor resistance control are as follows:
1. Efficiency is low at low speeds.
2. Speed changes very widely with the change of load.
3. Voltages and currents become unbalance if rotor circuit resistances are not equal.
The above speed control method is commonly used in overhead cranes and load equalization.
Fig. 12.46 (a) External rotor resistance control of induction motor, (b) Effect of external rotor resistance in
torque-slip characteristics and (c) Effect of external rotor resistance in stator current and speed
The three-phase resistor can be replaced by a three-phase rectifier, a chopper and one resistor
as shown in Fig. 12.47. The inductor Ld is used to smooth the current Id. The effective rotor circuit
resistance may be varied by changing the duty cycle of chopper and subsequently the speed control
of slip ring induction motor is possible. Rectifier circuit is used to convert the slip frequency input
power to dc power at output terminals A-B.
Fig. 12.47 (a) Static rotor resistance control using rectifier and chopper and (b) Waveforms of output voltage
Vd and external resistance
When the chopper is ON, the resistance R is short circuited and Vdc = 0 = Vd. When chopper is
OFF, Vdc = Vd neglecting the effect of Ld
If the chopper is ON for TON time and is OFF for TOFF time. Then effective external resistance
RA–B is expressed by
T T - TON T
RA - B = R OFF = R = R(1 - d ) where, d = ON is duty cycle of chopper
T T T
The equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor, rectifier and chopper circuit are depicted in
Fig. 12.48(a). When stator impedance r1 + jx1 and rotor impedance referred to stator r2¢ + jx2¢ are
neglected as compared to inductor Ld, the equivalent circuit can be represented in simplified form as
depicted in Fig. 12.48(b).
Fig. 12.48 (a) Equivalent circuit of Fig. 12.47(a), and (b) Approximate equivalent circuit of Fig. 12.48(a)
Stator voltage V1 referred to rotor circuit is E2

V1 N1 N
= or, E2 = 2 V1 = aV1
E2 N 2 N1
N 2 rotor effective turns per phase
where, a = = = per phase turns ratio from rotor to stator
N1 stator effective turns per phase
E2 is rotor induced emf per phase at stand-still
V1 is stator voltage per phase
Voltage E2 = saV1
The output voltage of a three-phase bridge appears is Vd and it is expressed by
3Vm line 3 3Vm phase
3 3 3 6
Vd = = = 2 saV1 = saV1 = 2.338saV1
p p p p
where, Vmline is maximum line voltage and Vmphase is maximum phase voltage
Vmphase is the maximum value of phase voltage = 2saV1
Total slip power is 3sPg. If there is no loss in rectifier, dc output power is equal to VdId. Actually dc
power is equal to slip power.
Therefore, 3sPg = VdId

Vd I d
\ Pg =
3s
The per phase mechanical power developed is Pm = Pg (1 - s)
Vd I d V I 1- s
Therefore, Pm = Pg (1 - s) = (1 - s) = d d
3s 3 s
The per phase mechanical power is Pm = Tew m = Tew s (1 - s)
Vd I d 1 - s
Therefore, = Tew s (1 - s)
3 s
3sTew s
or Id = (12.10)
Vd
After substituting the value of Vd in Eq. (12.10), we get
3sTew s Tw
Id = = 1.2831 e s as Vd = 2.338saV1
2.338saV1 aV1
TL
Total load torque TL = 3Te \ Te =
3
The current Id in terms of load torque TL is
3sTew s 3sw s TL TL w s
Id = = =
2.338saV1 2.338saV1 3 2.338aV1
The current through inductor Id is independent of motor speed.
The dc voltage at the rectifier output is Vd = I d R(1 - d )
Then, Vd = 2.338saV1 = I d R(1 - d )
I d R(1 - d )
or Slip s =
2.338aV1
Motor speed w m = w s (1 - s)
After substituting the value of slip in w m = w s (1 - s) , we find
Ê I R(1 - d ) ˆ
w m = w s (1 - s) = w s Á 1 - d
Ë 2.338aV1 ˜¯
Ê I R(1 - d ) ˆ 2p N r 2p N s
or Nr = N s Á1 - d as w m = and w s =
Ë 2.338aV1 ˜¯ 60 60
After substituting the value of Id in the above equation, we obtain
Ê I R(1 - d ) ˆ Ê R(1 - d ) TL w s ˆ TL w s
w m = w s Á1 - d ˜ = w s Á1 - as I d =
Ë 2.338aV1 ¯ Ë 2.338aV1 2.338aV1 ˜¯ 2.338aV1
Ê T w R(1 - d ) ˆ
= w s Á1 - L s
Ë (2.338aV1 )2 ˜¯
It is clear from above equation that speed of induction motor decreases with increasing load torque
TL when duty cycle is constant.
In three-phase rectifier, each diode conducts for

120°. The waveform of per phase rotor current Ir is
depicted in Fig. 12.49. Assume the output current Id
is ripple free. Then, the rms value of rotor current is
2p 1 2
I r (rms) = I d2 = Id
3 p 3 Fig. 12.49 Per phase rotor current waveform
as Ir = I2
The rotor current referred to stator
N2 2
I1 = I = aI 2 = aI d as I 2 = I r (rms)
N1 2 3
After Fourier series analysis of I2 current waveform, we find
2 5p /6 2 2 3
b1 = Ú I d sin w t ◊ dw t = I d | - cos w t |p5p/6/6 = Id
p p /6 p p
The rms value of fundamental component of rotor current is
b1 1 2 3 6
I 2(rms) = = Id = Id
2 2 p p
The rms value of fundamental component of rotor current referred to stator is
N2 6
I1(rms) = I 2(rms) = aI 2(rms) = aI d
N1 p
Example 12.23 A three phase, 440 V, 50 Hz, 1450 star connected wound rotor induction motor has the
r1 = 0.2 W, x1 = 0.45 W, r2 = 0.15 W, x2¢ = 0.45 W and negligible X m
The speed of motor can be controlled by a GTO based dc-to-dc converter (chopper) where inductor Ld is very
large and R = 5 W. When the motor operates at 1000 rpm and inductor current is 100 A, determine (a) duty cycle
of chopper, (b) efficiency at 25 kW power output and (c) rms value of fundamental component of rotor current
referred to stator.
Assume per phase rotor to stator turn ratio is 0.75 and no-load loss is negligible.
Solution
440
(a) Per phase stator voltage V1 = = 254.034 V
3
Ê I d R(1 - d ) ˆ
We know w m = w s (1 - s) = w s Á 1 -
Ë 2.338aV1 ˜¯
Ê I R(1 - d ) ˆ Ê 100 ¥ 5(1 - d ) ˆ
Therefore, N r = N s Á 1 - d or, 1000 = 1500 Á 1 -
Ë 2.338aV1 ¯ ˜ Ë 2.338 ¥ 0.75 ¥ 254.034 ˜¯
Duty cycle of chopper d = 0.7277
(b) Power loss in chopper resistance is I d2 R(1 - d = 1002 ¥ 5 ¥ (1 - 0.7277) = 13615 Watt
2 2
Rotor current is I 2 = Id = ¥ 100 = 81.65 A
3 3
Rotor copper loss = 3I 22r2 = 3 ¥ 81.652 ¥ 0.15 = 3000.025 Watt
Stator current is I1 = aI 2 = 0.75 ¥ 81.65 = 61.2375 A

Stator copper loss = 3I12r1 = 3 ¥ 61.23752 ¥ 0.2 = 2250.018 Watt
Power output Poutput = 25 kW
Input power Pinput = Poutput + stator copper loss + rotor copper loss + Loss in chopper
= 25 ¥ 103 + 2250.018 + 3000.025 + 13615 = 43865.043 Watt
Poutput 25 ¥ 103
Efficiency h = ¥ 100 = ¥ 100 = 56.99%
Pinput 43865.043
(c) rms value of fundamental component of rotor current referred to stator is
6 6
I1(rms) = aI d = ¥ 0.75 ¥ 100 A = 58.45 A
p p
12.11 synchronous Motor drIves

Synchronous motors have two windings such as a three-phase armature winding on the stator and a
field winding on the rotor. The winding on the stator is also known as armature winding. The three-
phase winding on stator of synchronous motor is similar to the three-phase winding on the stator of
three phase induction motor. When the field winding is excited by dc and dc current flows through
field winding to develop magnetic field. There are two mmf in synchronous motor such as field mmf
and armature mmf. Whenever the field winding is excited with dc, a mmf is produced and it is called
field mmf. Whenever three-phase stator winding is excited by three-phase ac voltage, a three-phase
balanced current flows through armature and is called armature current. Due to armature current, a
rotating armature mmf is generated. Then two mmfs are combined together to create a resultant mmf.
Subsequently, the field mmf interacts with the resultant mmf to generate electromagnetic torque.
Though armature of synchronous motor is similar to the stator of three-phase induction motor, there
is no induction in the rotor. A synchronous motor always operates at synchronous speed (constant
speed) with zero slip. The power factor of synchronous motors can be controlled by varying its field
current. There are different types synchronous motors such as
1. Cylindrical rotor synchronous motors
2. Salient pole synchronous motors
3. Reluctance synchronous motors
4. Permanent magnet synchronous motors
The speed control of synchronous motors can be possible using both inverter and cycloconverters. In
this section, cylindrical rotor motors, salient pole motors, reluctance motors, permanent magnet motors
and speed control of synchronous motors are explained in detail.
12.11.1 cylindrical rotor synchronous Motors

In cylindrical rotor synchronous motors, the field winding is wound on the cylindrical rotor. These
motors have uniform air gap and the reactances are independent of the rotor position. The per phase
equivalent circuit for a cylindrical rotor synchronous motor is depicted in Fig. 12.50 where,
V f = 2p f f f N1kw , the excitation voltage per phase, (12.11)
ra = armature resistance per phase,

Xs = synchronous reactance per phase,
Vt = armature terminal voltage per phase,
Zs = ra + jXs = synchronous impedance per phase, and
Ia = armature current per phase.
It is clear from the Fig. 12.50 that
Vt = V f + I a Z s = V f + I a (ra + jX s )
Then excitation voltage per phase
Fig. 12.50 Equivalent circuit for a
V f = Vt - I a (ra + jX s ) cylindrical rotor synchro-
nous motor
Therefore, current
Vt - V f Vt V f
Ia = = -
Zs Zs Zs
If Vt = Vt –0, V f = V f –-d , and current Ia is q

 
angle lagging from voltage Vt, Fig. 12.51 shows

the phasor diagram of synchronous motor at
lagging load. Fig. 12.51 Phasor diagram of synchronous motor
From phasor diagram, we can write at lagging load
V f = Vt –0 - I a (ra + jX s )
= Vt - ( I a cos q - jI a sin q )(ra + jX s ) as I a = ( I a cos q - jI a sin q )

= Vt - I a ra cos q - I a X s sin q - j ( I a X s cos q - I a ra sin q ) = V f cos d - jV f sin d = V –-d
where, V f cos d = Vt - I a ra cos q - I a X s sin q and V f sin d = ( I a X s cos q - I a ra sin q )
V sin d ( I a X s cos q - I a ra sin q ) È ( I X cos q - I a ra sin q ) ˘

Then tan d = = and d = tan -1 Í a s ˙
V cos d Vt - I a ra cos q - I a X s sin q Î Vt - I a ra cos q - I a X s sin q ˚
Vt V f Vt V f cos d - jV f sin d
Current I a = - = -
Z s Z s ra + jX s ra + jX s
Vt (ra - jX s ) (V f cos d - jV f sin d )(ra - jX s )
= - (12.12)
ra2 + X s2 ra2 + X s2
Vt ra V f ra cos d - V f X s sin d
Then I a cos q = -
ra2 + X s2 ra2 + X s2
The power input to the machine is
È Vr V f ra cos d - V f X s sin d ˘
Pinput = 3Vt I a cos q = 3Vt Í 2 t a 2 - ˙
ÍÎ ra + X s ra2 + X s2 ˙˚
3V 2 r 3Vt V f ra cos d - 3Vt V f X s sin d
= 2 t a2 -
ra + X s ra2 + X s2
Stator copper loss of synchronous motor is Pstator_cu_loss = 3I a2 ra

Air gap power is Pg = Pinput - Pstator_cu_loss
The developed power is Pd = Pg
If the synchronous speed of synchronous motor is ws, the torque developed is Td.
P
Therefore, Td w s = Pd or, Td = d
ws
If armature resistance (stator resistance) ra is very small, Pstator_cu_loss = 3I a2 ra = 0
3Vt2 ra 3Vt V f ra cos d - 3Vt V f X s sin d 3Vt V f X s sin d 3Vt V f sin d

Then Pinput = - ª =
ra2 + X s2 ra2 + X s2 X s2 Xs
-1 È ( I a X s cos q - I a ra sin q ) ˘ È I X cos q ˘

and d = tan Í ˙ ª tan -1 Í a s ˙
Î Vt - I a ra cos q - I a X s sin q ˚ Î Vt - I a X s sin q ˚
If armature resistance is neglected,
3Vt V f
Pinput = Poutput = sin d
Xs
Poutput
When per phase developed torque is Te, 3Te =
ws
Poutput Vt V f 4p f
\ Te = = sin d where, w s = = synchronous speed in rad/s (12.13)
3w s w s Xs P
d = load or power angle.
The torque Te vs load angle d characteristics for cylindrical rotor synchronous motor is depicted in
Fig. 12.52(a). During motor mode operation, d is negative and torque or power becomes positive. For
generator mode operation, d is positive and torque or power becomes negative.
Fig. 12.52 (a) Torque-angle characteristics and (b) V-curve of synchronous motor
If the fixed voltage at constant frequency is applied to synchronous motor, torque depends on the load
angle d and the excitation voltage Vf. When Vf and d are constant, torque depends on the voltage to
V V
frequency ratio. If ratio is constant, speed control at constant torque is possible. When Vt, Vf
f f
and d are remain constant, torque decreases with increase in speed and the synchronous motor operates
in the field weakening mode.
Vt V f
At d = 90°, the torque Te is maximum and its value is Te max = . The maximum developed torque
w s Xs
is also known as pull-out torque. For stable operation, synchronous motor should operate in the positive
slope of Te – d curve and the range of torque angle is - 90∞ £ d £ 90∞
The power factor of a synchronous motor depends on the field current If. The typical variation of
armature current Ia of a synchronous motor with respect to field current If at different loads is depicted
in Fig. 12.52(b). Since the shape of curves is similar to the letter “V”, these curves are called V curves
of a synchronous motor. For the same armature current, the power factor may be lagging or leading
depending upon the field excitation. The unity power factor curve is represented by dotted line when
the synchronous motor is normally excitated. During under excitation, i.e., below normal excitation,
synchronous motors operate at lagging power factor. When the field current is increased beyond the
normal excitation, i.e., over excitation, synchronous motors operate at leading power factor.
Vt V f
If the power angle d = 90°, the pull-out power is Pmax =
Xs
1 Vt V f
The pull-out torque is Te max =
w s Xs
When the field excitation is constant, the excitation emf Vf is directly proportional to supply frequency
V
and the synchronous reactance Xs is directly proportional to frequency. Therefore, t is independent
Xs
of frequency variation. When the change of supply voltage Vt is directly proportional to frequency
V V
and t or t is constant, the pull-out torque Te max is constant. Subsequently, the pull out power is
f ws
Pmax = Te max w s increases linearly.
At w s = 1.0 per unit, synchronous motor
operates at rated voltage and rated frequency.
When ws > 1.0 per unit and synchronous motor
operates at supersynchronous speed, rated
voltage must be applied and is kept constant,
after that inverter frequency can be increased
to operate at higher speeds.
For constant field excitation Vf is directly
proportional to supply frequency and increase
Vf
in frequency keeps constant. Since input
Xs
voltage remain constant above base speed, the
pull-out power remain constant but the pull-
out torque decreases with increase in speed as Fig. 12.53 Variation of Te max, Pmax, Vt and Ia with respect
Pmax to frequency for synchronous motor
Te max = . Fig. 12.53 shows variation of Te
ws
max, P max Vt and Ia with respect to frequency for synchronous motor.
,
12.11.2 salient pole synchronous Motors

The armature winding of salient pole synchronous motor is
similar to that of cylindrical rotor synchronous motors. The
armature winding is placed in the stator and the field winding is
placed on the rotor of motor. The field winding is a concentrated
winding on the salient poles. Due to saliency, the air-gap is not
uniform and the flux depends on the position of the rotor. To
analyze a salient pole synchronous motor, armature current and
reactances are resolved into two components namely direct axis
(d-axis) and quadrature axis (q-axis) components. Armature
current Ia is represented by direct axis current Id and quadrature
axis current Iq. Similarly, reactance is represented by d-axis
synchronous reactance Xd and q axis synchronous reactance Xq.
The phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor
with negligible armature resistance ra is depicted in Fig. 12.54.
From Fig. 12.54, we can write Vt = V f + jI d X d + jI q X q
Therefore, V f = Vt - jI d X d - jI q X q
Since the angle between Vf and Ia is q – d,
I d = I a sin(q - d ) and I q = I a cos(q - d )
Then, Vt sin d = I q X q = X q I a cos(q - d ) Fig. 12.54 Phasor diagram of
salient pole synchronous
= X q I a cos q cos d + X q I a sin q sin d motors
or sin d (Vt - I a X q sin q ) = I a X q cos q cos d
I a X q cos q Ê I a X q cos q ˆ
or tan d = \ d = tan -1 Á ˜
Vt - I a X q sin q Ë Vt - I a X q sin q ¯
The terminal voltage is resolved into d-axis and q-axis components:
Vtd = - Vt sin d and Vtq = Vt cos d
Input power is P = 3(Vtd I d + Vtq I q ) = - 3Vt I d sin d + 3Vt I q cos d (12.14)

= 3Vt I q cos d - 3Vt I d sin d
Vt
Since Vt sin d = I q X q , I q = sin d
Xq
and Vt cos d = V f + I d X d
Vt cos d - V f
or I d X d = Vt cos d - V f \ Id =
Xd
Vt sin d
As I q X q = Vt sin d , Iq =
Xq
After substituting the value of Id and Iq in equation (12.14), we obtain
V f Vt Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
P= sin d + - sin 2d (12.15)
Xd 2 ÁË X X d ˜¯
q
It is clear from Eq. (12.15) that the power has two

V f Vt
components. The first component is sin d
Xd
which is same as cylindrical rotor motor and it is
called the electromagnetic power. The other part is
1 2Ê 1 1 ˆ
V - sin 2d which is called the reluctance
2 t ÁË X q X d ˜¯
power. The reluctance power component is developed
due to the reluctance variation along d-axis and q-axis.
The torque developed in synchronous motor is equal to
P 1 V f Vt V2 Ê 1 1 ˆ Fig. 12.55 Torque versus load angle charac-
Te = = sin d + t - sin 2d
w w X Á
2w Ë X X ˜¯
teristics of salient pole synchro-
s s d s q d nous motors
First component is electromagnetic torque and the other component is reluctance torque. Figure 12.55
shows the torque Te vs load angle d characteristics. The torque is maximum at a load angle less than 90°.
12.11.3 reluctance synchronous Motors

The reluctance motor is similar to the salient-pole motors but there is no field winding on the rotor.
When three-phase armature winding of a salient pole synchronous motor is connected to ac voltage
source, a rotating magnetic field is developed in the air gap. This rotating flux induces a field in
the rotor and it has a tendency to align with the armature field. Consequently, a reluctance torque is
developed at synchronous speed.
Whenever a salient-pole synchronous motor is connected to
ac voltage source, it runs at synchronous speed. If field current
of salient-pole synchronous motor is switched off, it runs at
synchronous speed continuously and operates as a reluctance
motor. Therefore, a reluctance motor is similar to a salient pole
motor with no field winding on the rotor. Reluctance motors are
used for low power drives where constant speed operation is
required. These motors are also used in some applications where
a number of motors must be rotate in synchronism.
As there is no field current (If = 0), Vf = 0. Figure 12.56
shows the phasor diagram for synchronous reluctance motor.
Per phase input power is Fig. 12.56 Phasor diagram for
synchronous reluctance
P = Vt cos d ◊ I q - Vt sin d ◊ I d (12.16) motor
Vt sin d V cos d
Direct axis and quadrature axis currents are I q = and I d = t
Xq Xd
After substituting the values of Iq and Id in Eq. (12.16), we obtain
V sin d V cos d
P = Vt cos d ◊ I q - Vt sin d ◊ I d = Vt cos d ◊ t - Vt sin d ◊ t
Xq Xd
Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
= - sin 2d
2 Ë X q X d ˜¯
Á
From Fig. 12.56, we can write

Vt sin d = I q X q = X q I a cos(q - d ) as I q = I a cos(q - d )
I a X q cos q
or tan d =
Vt - I a X q sin q
-1
I a X q cos q
Therefore, d = tan
Vt - I a X q sin q
Three-phase input power is
3Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
P3-phase = - sin 2d
2 Ë X q X d ˜¯
Á
Then reluctance torque
P3-phase3Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
Te = = - sin 2d
ws 2w s ÁË X q X d ˜¯ Fig. 12.57 Variation of reluctance torque with
load angle for synchronous reluctance
At d = 45°, the pull-out torque is equal to motor
3Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
Tp = Te max = - as sin 2d = 1
2w s Ë X q X d ˜¯
Á
Figure 12.57 shows the variation of reluctance torque with load angle.
12.11.4 permanent Magnet synchronous Motors

Permanent magnet synchronous motors are similar to salient pole synchronous motors without the field
winding on the rotor. In permanent magnet synchronous motor, the required field flux is developed by
permanent magnets which are mounted on the rotor. In these motors, the excitation voltage Vf can not
be varied. For the same frame size, permanent magnet synchronous motor has higher pull-out torque
and more efficiency compared to salient pole synchronous motor. All the equations for evaluating the
performance of a salient pole synchronous motor are applicable to permanent magnet synchronous
motor with constant excitation voltage Vf. Due to absence of field winding, dc supply to field winding
and two slip rings leads, the motor losses will be reduced and the complexity of motor construction
is also reduced.
These motors are known as brushless motors and most commonly used in robots and machine tools.
Permanent magnet synchronous motors can be operated by rectangular current source or sinusoidal
current source. A rectangular current fed synchronous motor used in low power drives when the
concentrated windings on the stator are excited by square or trapezoidal voltage. A sinusoidal current
fed synchronous motor has distributed windings on the stator and usually this motor is used in high
power drives.
V
12.11.5 closed loop control of synchronous Motors
f
Synchronous motors can be operated as constant torque drive and constant power drive. In the constant
V
torque region, the is maintained constant and in the constant power region, torque decrease with
f
increasing frequency. The torque-speed characteristics

of synchronous motor at different frequencies are shown
in Fig. 12.58.
The speed of synchronous motors can be controlled
by changing voltage, frequency and current. Figure
V
12.59 shows the block diagram of closed loop
f
control of synchronous motors. The speed error
w error = (w r - w ref ) is generated by an error detector.
After that the speed error generates the frequency and
voltage command for pulse width modulation inverter.
To get proper voltage, firing angle of controlled
rectifier is adjusted and frequency is also adjusted by
Fig. 12.58 Frequency control of synchronous
controlling PWM voltage source inverter. As the speed
motor
of synchronous motor depends on the supply frequency
only, these drives are commonly used in paper mills, spinning mills, textile mills and machine tools.
Example 12.24 A four pole, three-phase, 420 V, 50 Hz star-connected reluctance type synchronous motor
has negligible armature resistance, Xd = 6 W and Xq = 4 W. If the load torque of synchronous motor is about
40 N-m, determine (a) load angle, (b) line current and (c) input power factor.
Solution
4p f 4p ¥ 50
The synchronous speed w s = = = 157 rad/sec
P 4
V
Fig. 12.59 Closed loop control of synchronous motors
f
3Vt2 Ê 1 1 ˆ
Three-phase power P3-phase = Tew s = - sin 2d
2 ÁË X q X d ˜¯
420
(a) As Te = 40 N-m, Vt = V, X d = 6 W and X q = 4 W,
3
2
Ê 420 ˆ
3¥Á
Ë 3 ˜¯ Ê 1 1 ˆ
40 ¥ 157 = ÁË - ˜¯ sin 2d or, sin 2∂ = 0.854
2 4 6
sin -1 (0.854) 58.69∞
Therefore, d = = = 29.34∞
2 2
420
(b) Phase voltage Vt = V = 242.494 V
3
V cos d 242.494 ¥ cos 29.34
Direct axis-current I d = t = = 35.23 A
Xd 6
Vt sin d 242.494 ¥ sin 29.34
Quadrature axis-current I q = = = 29.704 A
Xq 4
Armature current I a = [ I d2 + I q2 ]1/2 = 35.232 + 29.7042 = 46.08 A

(b) We know that 3Vt I a cos f = Tew s
Tew s 40 ¥ 157
Power factor is cos f = = = 0.3244 (lagging)
3Vt I a 420 ¥ 46.08
12.12 power factor IMproveMent

In electrical industry, the most commonly used load are induction motors, induction furnace, arc furnace,
fluorescent tube and electric fans which operate at low power factor. Due to low factor, these loads draw
a large amount of reactive power. Consequently, the consumer terminal voltage is reduced significantly
and the performances of utility devices are also reduced. To improve system performance, the power
factor must be improved. There are different methods of power factor improvement such as using
1. capacitor banks
2. synchronous condensers
3. static VAR compensations
When a bank of capacitors is connected across the load, the overall reactive power drawn from the
system will be decreased as capacitor banks provide leading reactive power. As a result, the system
power factor can be improved. As the system load is dynamic in nature, the reactive power demand is
also dynamic. If a bank of capacitors is used for power factor improvement, sometimes system operate
at leading power factor and sometimes in lagging power factor and unity power operation will be
very rare. To operate the system at unity power factor continuously, dynamic VAR compensation or
dynamic power factor control must be carried out through dynamic switching in or out of capacitors.
The dynamic switching is feasible by using thyristors which are controlled by applying trigger pulses.
Thyristor controlled reactors (TCRs) and Static VAR compensators are most commonly used power
factor improvement techniques through which we can (i) regulate the reactive power flow, (ii) control
power factor and (iii) maintain better voltage profile as per consumer requirement. In this section,
Thyristor controlled reactors (TCRs) and Static VAr compensators are explained elaborately.
12.12.1 thyristor controlled reactors (tcrs)

Figure 12.60 shows a circuit diagram of thyristor controlled
reactors where a linear inductor L is connected to ac source
through anti-parallel connection of two thyristors. This circuit
is also known as thyristor controlled inductor. In ac power
system, it is commonly called as static VAR compensation.
This is similar to the circuit where a purely inductive load is
connected to a single-phase ac voltage controller. The output
p
voltage can be controlled during wt from to p only as f =
p 2
90°. Then range of firing angle is £ a £ p . The waveforms
2 Fig. 12.60 Thyristor controlled reactor
of voltage and current at different firing angles are shown in
Fig. 12.61. This circuit draws lagging reactive current from utility system; hence there will be excessive
voltage drops which adversely affect on stability of system.
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T1 will conduct whenever the trigger
pulse is applied to T1. Similarly, during the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T2 will
conduct whenever the trigger pulse is applied to T2. If the firing angle a £ 90°, the source current is is
continuous in nature and it lags 90° from input voltage. In this case the fundamental component is1 is
same as is and its value is maximum. Subsequently, the reactance offered by the reactor is minimum
V V
i.e., X L = =
I s I s1
where, V is rms value of source voltage and Is = Is1 is rms value of source current.
When the firing angle a > 90°, the source current is discontinuous and it flows from a to b.
The load current is equal to
2V È Ê pˆ Ê p ˆ tan(
a - wt
˘
io (w t ) = Ísin ÁË w t - 2 ˜¯ - sin ÁË a - 2 ˜¯ e
p /2)
˙
wL Î ˚
2V
= (cos a - cos w t )
wL
Assume the load current is discontinuous and at w t = b , io (b ) = 0
Then, io (b ) = cos a - cos b = 0
So, b = 2p – a
The fundamental components of load currents are
2b 2b
a1 =Ú io (w t ) ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t ) and b1 = Ú io (w t ) ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )
pa pa
After substituting the value of io(wt), we obtain
2 b 2V
a1 = Ú (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ cos w t ◊ d (w t )
p a wL
=
2 2V È
Í
pw L Î
1 1
{ ˘
cos a (sin b - sin a ) - (b - a ) + (sin 2 b - sin 2a ) ˙
2 2 ˚ }
2V
= [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] when b = 2p - a
pw L
Fig. 12.61 Voltage and current waveforms of thyristor controlled reactor (a) a £ 90° and (b) a > 90°
2 b 2V
b1 = Ú (cos a - cos w t ) ◊ sin w t ◊ d (w t )
p a wL
2V
= [ - cos 2a + cos 2 b - 4 cos a (cos b - cos a )]
2pw L
=0 when b = 2p - a
Therefore, rms value of the fundamental component of current is

1/2
È a 2 + b12 ˘ V
I1 = Í 1 ˙ = [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] for a > 90∞
Î 2 ˚ pw L
The reactive power drawn during 0 £ a £ 90° is equal to
V V2
Q = VI s1 = VI s = V
=
wL wL
During 90° £ a £ 180°. The reactive power drawn is equal to
V V2
Q = VI1 = V [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] = [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]
pw L pw L
V2
It is clear from above equation that at a = 90°, the reactive power drawn is maximum, i.e., Q =
wL
and at a = 180°, the reactive power drawn is minimum, i.e., zero.
12.12.2 static var compensator (svc)

Figure 12.62 shows a circuit diagram for Static VAR
Compensator (SVC) where a thyristor controlled
reactor (TCR) is connected in parallel with a fixed
capacitor C. It is clear from Fig. 12.62 that an SVC
is a combination of TCR and a fixed capacitor and
a load is connected in parallel with static VAR
Compensator. The Static VAR Compensator is also
known as thyristor controlled compensator (TCC) or
static VAR compensating system (SVS).
As fixed capacitor is connected to ac supply, the
constant leading power wCV 2 is supplied to power
Fig. 12.62 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
system. When thyristors T1 and T2 are fired at a =
90°, the value of reactance will be minimum and TCR provides maximum lagging reactive power i.e.
V2 V2
. The values of C and L are selected in such a way that is more than wCV 2. Therefore, at
wL wL
a = 90° the SVC draws lagging reactive power from the source and accordingly the power factor of
the combination of load and SVC is lagging in nature.
At a = 90° (Fig. 12.63(a)), the current flows through inductor is IL and the value of IL is maximum.
The current flows through capacitor is IC which is less than IL and Io is the load current. The phasor
diagram of IC, IL, Io and IS is depicted in Fig. 12.63. As the drawing of lagging – reactive power from
source is increased by V(IL – IC), the reactive power of supply system has been increased from VIo
sin qo to VIs sin qs.
When firing angle a1 > 90° (Fig. 12.63(b)), the inductive reactance becomes more and as a result
the fundamental current of IL will be reduced. The resultant of IC and IL will be modified from OA to
OB. Then power factor has been improved from qo to q1. In this case, the total reactive power drawn
from the ac system has been reduced from VIo sin qo to VI1 sin q1.
If firing angle is further increased, at a = a2 (a2 > a1) (Fig. 12.63(c)) the inductive reactance be
more than the inductance at a = a1. As the value of inductive current decreases, the fundamental
Fig. 12.63 Phasor diagram of IC, IL, Io and IS (a) at a = 90°, (b) at a = a1 > 90°, (c) at a = a2 > a1 and
(d) at a = a3 > a2
component I1 is further reduced. If we assume that at a = a2, (IC – I1) = Io sin qo and the power factor
of system becomes unity.
When the firing angle is further increased from a = a2 to a = a3 (a3 > a2) (Fig. 12.63(d)) the
inductive reactance be more than the inductance at a = a2. As the inductive current decreases, the
fundamental component I1 is further reduced. If we assume that at a = a3, (IC – I1) > Io sin qo and the
system power factor can be changed from unity power factor to leading power factor.
At any firing angle of TCR, the fundamental component of SVC is expressed by
V V V
I= - I1 = - [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] for a > 90∞
XC XC pw L
= w CV -
V
pw L {
[2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] = V w C -
1
pw L
[2(p - a ) + sin 2a ] }
When the current of SVC is positive, the SVC provides reactive power to load to improve power
factor as well as voltage profile. If the current of SVC is negative, the SVC absorbs reactive power
from source and weakens the system power factor as well as voltage profile. Hence by controlling
the firing angle of TCR from a = 90° to a = 180°, the reactive power can be continuously regulated
and system power factor can also be improved.
12.13 unInterruptIble power supply (ups)

There are several critical applications where a sudden power failure causes a great deal of public
inconvenience and there will be huge economic losses. Examples of some critical load are process
control plants, a large computer network systems, safety monitoring system of a plant, communication
systems, and hospital intensive care units etc. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system is required
to provide power without interruption in all critical load. UPS is also known as standby power supply.
Usually, the two types of UPS configurations are commonly used such as
(a) Load normally connected to ac supply
(b) Load normally connected to inverter
12.13.1 load connected to ac supply

Figure 12.64 shows that load is normally connected to ac supply and the rectifier maintains the full
charge of the battery. Whenever the supply fails, the load is switched to the output of the inverter
that takes over the main supply. In this configuration, the circuit must be break momentarily and the
transfer by solid state switches which takes about 4 to 5 ms. Inverter operates only during the time
when the power supply fails.
Fig. 12.64 Load is normally connected to ac supply (short-break UPS)
12.13.2 load connected to Inverter

Figure 12.65 shows that the inverter operates continuously and its output is connected to load. Therefore,
there is no need for breaking the power supply. The rectifier unit supplies power to the inverter and
Fig. 12.65 Load normally connected to inverter (no-break UPS)

maintains the charge on the standby battery. In this configuration, inverter can be used to provide
power supply, to protect the load from the transients in the main supply and to maintain the desired
frequency at load. Whenever inverter fails to give supply, the load is switched to ac power supply.
The advantages of no-break UPS are
1. Load will be protected from transients in the ac supply.
2. Inverter is used to provide power supply to load.
3. Inverter output frequency must be maintained at the desired value.
Nickel-cadmium and lead-acid-type batteries are used in the UPS system. Nickel-cadmium batteries
have the following advantages over lead-acid type batteries:
1. The electrolyte of Nickel-cadmium (NC) batteries does not emit any explosive gas during
charging.
2. The electrolyte of NC batteries is non-corrosive.
3. NC batteries can not be damaged by overcharging or discharging and these batteries have
longer life.
But the cost of NC batteries is two or three times that of lead-acid batteries. The time period during
which a bank of NC batteries can deliver power to load depends on battery size and nature of load.
Summary
d In dc drives, the voltage across armature and field windings can be controlled by dc to dc converters and ac
to dc converters. DC to DC converter fed drives are mostly used in traction applications where as ac to dc
converter fed drives are used as variable speed drives.
d In this chapter, single phase and three phase controlled rectifier fed dc drives and chopper fed dc drives are
explained in detail.
d AC drives have advantages over dc drives. Torque speed characteristics and different speed control scheme
of ac drives such as induction motor drives and synchronous motor drives are discussed elaborately.
d Power factor improvement using TCRs and SVC and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) are also
incorporated in this chapter.
12.1 In a separately excited dc motor, constant horsepower control of speed is achieved by ______.
(a) armature voltage (b) armature current (c) field voltage (d) field current
12.2 In a separately excited dc motor, constant torque control of speed is achieved by ___________.
(a) armature voltage (b) armature current (c) field voltage (d) field current
12.3 In armature speed control method of dc motor, when the applied armature voltage has been decreased by
a large amount, the motor __________.
(a) speed increases (b) speed decreases
(c) works as generator as back emf exceeds the applied voltage (d) gets overloaded
12.4 If a separately excited dc motor is to be operated in the first quadrant only, the ________ converter is used.
(a) Single-phase half wave (b) Single-phase full-wave wave
(c) Single-phase dual (d) Four-quadrant chopper
12.5 When a separately excited dc motor is to be operated in the two quadrants, the __________converter is used.
(a) Single-phase half wave (b) Single-phase semi
(c) Single-phase full-wave wave (d) Single-phase dual
12.6 If a separately excited dc motor is to be operated in the four quadrant, the __________converter is used
(a) Single-phase half wave (b) Single-phase full-wave wave
(c) Single-phase dual (d) Four-quadrant chopper
12.7 When a separately excited dc motor is to be controlled from a 3-phase source for operation in first
quadrant only, which converter will be used?
(a) three-phase half-wave converter (b) three-phase full converter
(c) three-phase semi converter (d) three-phase dual converter
12.8 A single-phase half-wave converter with freewheeling diode fed separately excited dc drive operates at
1000 RPM at firing angle a 45°. If single-phase half-wave converter is replaced by single phase semi-
converter, the motor rotates at
(a) 2000 RPM (b) 1500 RPM (c) 1000 RPM (d) 500 RPM
12.9 When a separately excited dc motor is fed from a single-phase full converter with firing angle a, it runs
at a speed of ‘N’ RPM. If the motor is fed from single-phase semi-converter with same firing angle of full
converter, the motor speed is found to be 2N rpm. The value of firing angle of converters is _____ degree.
(a) 68.528° (b) 69.528° (c) 70.528° (d) 71.528°
12.10 During the discontinuous conduction mode of a dc drive with armature control using a single phase
converter, the reduction in speed wm for an increase in armature current ia or load torque TL will be
________ that for the continuous conduction mode.
(a) more than (b) equal (c) less than (d) zero
12.11 During the regenerative braking operation of a chopper based dc drive, the energy transfer takes place
____
(a) from the load at high voltage to the source at low voltage
(b) from the source at high voltage to the load at low voltage
(c) from the source at low voltage to the load at high voltage
(d) from the load at low voltage to the source voltage at high voltage
12.12 In a dc drive supplied by a single phase ac source and a controlled rectifier, discontinuous conduction
can be avoided by _____________
(a) decreasing the frequency of the ac supply
(b) adding high inductor in series with the armature of the dc motor
(c) adding a capacitor in series with the armature of the dc motor
(d) increasing the frequency of the ac supply
12.13 A three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier is connected to a separately excited dc motor and the
machine has the following data:
Te = 150 N-m, w = 75 rad/s and Ia = 50. What will be the back emf of the motor?
(a) 200 V (b) 225 V (c) 250 V (d) 275 V
12.14 If a separately excited dc motor is supplied from a single-phase full converter with firing angle of
a = 60°, it operates at a speed of 800 rpm. When the same motor is connected to 1-phase semi-converter
with the same firing angle of a = 60°, the motor runs at speed _____ rpm
(a) 800 (b) 1000 (c) 1200 (d) 1400
12.15 A three-phase full wave controlled rectifier is connected to a separately excited dc motor and the machine
has the following data
Eb = 150 V, w = 75 rad/s and Ia = 50. What will be the electromagnetic torque of the motor?
(a) 50 N-m (b) 75 N-m (c) 100 N-m (d) 125 N-m
12.16 A single phase half wave converter with freewheeling diode drives a separately excited dc motor at 500
rpm with the firing angle a = 30°. What will be the motor speed if single phase half wave converter is
replaced by a full converter with a = 30°, the motor speed would be
(a) 750 rpm (b) 828 rpm (c) 928 rpm (d) 1000 rpm
12.17 When a single-phase full converter with firing angle a drives a separately excited dc motor, the dc
machine runs at a speed of 1200 rpm and load current is continuous. If one of the four thyristors gets
open-circuited, the motor speed will be ________.
12.18 A single-phase semi-converter drives a separately excited dc motor and the armature current is 25 A
which is ripple free. If the firing angle of converter is a = 45°, the rms values of freewheeling diode
current and thyristor current would be ______ A, _______ A respectively.
(a) 12.5 A, 15.3 A (b) 15.3 A, 12.5 A (c) 12.5 A, 15 A (d) 12 A, 15.3 A
12.19 DC drives that use series motors are more advantages than drives that employ separately excited motors
because they have ________
(a) high starting torque (b) frequent starting
(c) frequent torque overloads (a) low starting torque
12.20 A single-phase half-controlled rectifier drives a separately excited dc motor and the dc motor has back
emf constant of 0.75 V/rpm. The armature current is 10 A which is ripple free and the armature resistance
is 0.2 W. If the converter fed from 220 V, 50 Hz single-phase ac supply with a firing angle of a = 60°,
the speed of the motor will be
12.21 A three-phase semi-converter feeds the armature of a separately excited dc motor and developing a non-
zero torque in motor. Under steady-state operation, the motor armature current is found to drop to zero
at certain instances of time. At these instances, the input voltage is
(a) equal to the instantaneous value of the ac phase voltage
(b) equal to the instantaneous value of the motor back emf
(c) zero
(d) greater than the instantaneous value of the motor back emf
12.22 Which of the following statements are correct for speed control of a squirrel cage induction motor using
three phase bridge inverter?
(a) If frequency deceases, starting torque decreases with constant supply voltage
(b) If frequency deceases, starting torque increases with constant supply voltage
(c) If frequency increases, starting torque increases with constant supply voltage
(d) If frequency increases, starting torque remains constant with constant supply voltage
V
12.23 A delta connected induction motor is fed by a three-phase ac-to-dc inverter and operated in constant
control mode during starting with a __________. f
(a) star-delta starter (b) DOL starter (c) auto-transformer starter
12.24 The slip-power control scheme of a three-phase induction motor can able to provide the speed control
range of ________.
(a) 0 to Ns (b) 0 to 2Ns (c) Ns to –Ns (d) 0 to –Ns
12.25 A three-phase induction motor is used for speed control applications. It is drive from an inverter with a
V
constant control. The motor name plate details are as follows:
f
V = 415 V, Phase = 3, f = 50 Hz, N = 2845 RPM
If the induction motor run with the inverter output frequency set at 45 Hz and with half the rated slip, the
running speed of the motor is equal to______________
12.26 The most accurate and adaptable method for improving reactive power compensation is
(a) satiable reactor with controlled reactor (b) saturable reactor with capacitor bank
(c) switched capacitors (d) fixed capacitor with thyristor controlled rector
12.27 Static VAR compensator is usually designed to operate at
(a) slightly lagging power factor (b) slightly leading power factor
(c) unity power factor (d) zero power factor lagging
12.28 Reactive power provided by a thyristor controlled reactor when a £ 90° is ______.
V2 V
(a) (b) (c) w LV 2 (d) w LV
wL wL
12.29 If the firing angle of a thyristor controlled reactor a > 90°, the fundamental current through inductor is
equal to
V V
(a) [2(p - a ) + sin a ] (b) [2(p + a ) + sin 2a ]
pw L pw L
V V
(c) [(p - a ) + sin 2a ] (d) [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]
pw L pw L
p
12.30 During < a < p, the current provided by SVC is equal to
2
Ï 1 ¸ Ï 1 ¸
(a) V ÌwC - [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]˝ (b) V ÌwC - [2(p + a ) + sin 2a ]˝
Ó pw L ˛ Ó pw L ˛
Ï 1 ¸ Ï 1 ¸
(c) V ÌwC - [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]˝ (d) V ÌwC + [2(p - a ) + sin 2a ]˝
Ó pw L ˛ Ó pw L ˛
12.31 Which of the following statements is correct for SVC?
(i) Reduce the source current (ii) reduce load reactive power
(iii) improves voltage profile (iv) improves supply power factor
(a) (i), (iii), (iv) (b) (ii) (c) (i), (ii) (d) (iii), (iv)
12.32 Which of the following statements of thyristor controlled reactor is correct?
(i) Maximum reactive power at firing angle a = 90°
(ii) Maximum reactive power at firing angle a = 180°
(iii) No reactive power at a = 0°
(iv) Maximum reactive power at firing angle a = 30°
(a) (i), (iv) (b) (ii) (c) (i), (ii) (d) (iii), (iv)
12.33 The effective inductance offered by a thyristor controlled inductor (TCR) is 50 mH. If firing angle is
varied, the effective inductance will be changed.
(i) 50 mH for firing angle a = 60°
(ii) 50 mH for firing angle a = 90°
(iii) Less than 50 mH for firing angle a = 120°
(iv) More than 20 mH for firing angle a = 120°
(a) (i), (ii), (iv) (b) (ii) (c) (i), (ii) (d) (iii), (iv)
Fill in the Blanks

12.1 DC drives are widely used in ______________.
12.2 DC series motors are preferred to separately excited dc motor due to ________.
12.3 The variable dc voltage is provided to dc motor by using ________.
12.4 The normal drop in speed of dc motor from no load to full load is about __________.
12.5 The most commonly used speed control methods of dc are _______.
12.6 The armature control is convenient for ________ control.
12.7 When the armature voltage is kept constant at the base value and field current is varied for speed control,
this method is known as ___________.
12.8 Single-phase converter fed drive can be able to implement constant ____ and constant _____ control
operation.
12.9 The regenerative braking of a separately excited dc motor is possible with a _______ quadrant chopper.
12.10 The speed control of dc motor in smooth four-quadrant operation is possible using a _______ converter.
12.11 For the same HP rating, induction motors are ___________ lighter than dc motors.
12.12 If an induction motor has P number poles and operates at frequency f, the synchronous speed of induction
motor is __________.
12.13 In a torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor, the complete range of slip is _______.
12.14 In a torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor, the range of slip for forward motoring is
__________, for plugging is _______ and for regeneration is _______.
12.15 The most commonly used speed control methods of induction motor are _______ and ______.
12.16 AC voltage controller fed induction motor drive is suitable for _______ power applications.
Review Questions
12.1 How power electronics can be used in electric drives?
12.2 What are the different types of dc drives based on the input supply?
12.3 What is the purpose of a converter in dc drives?
12.4 Define the base speed of a dc motor.
12.5 What are the different parameters to be varied for speed control of a separately excited dc motor?
12.6 Why dc series motors are used in traction system?
12.7 Define speed regulation of a dc drive.
12.8 Draw the equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor and derive the mathematical model of
machine. Sketch the characteristics of motor in constant torque and power region.
12.9 Draw the equivalent circuit of a dc series motor and derive the mathematical model of machine. Sketch
the characteristics of motor in constant torque and power region.
12.10 Explain the working principle of single phase full converter fed dc drive with waveforms and appropriate
equations.
12.11 Explain the working principle of single phase semi-converter fed dc drive with waveforms and
appropriate equations.
12.12 What are the advantages and disadvantages of single-phase full converter fed dc motor drives?
12.13 What are the advantages and disadvantages of single phase semi converter fed dc motor drives?
12.14 Explain the working principle of three-phase half converter fed dc drive with waveforms and appropriate
equations.
12.15 Explain the working principle of three-phase semi-converter fed dc drive with waveforms and appropriate
equations.
12.16 What are the advantages and disadvantages of three-phase full converter fed dc motor drives?
12.17 What are the advantages and disadvantages of three-phase semi converter fed dc motor drives?
12.18 What are the advantages and disadvantages of three-phase dual converter fed dc motor drives?
12.19 What is first quadrant dc drive? What is two quadrant dc drive? What is four quadrant dc drive?
12.20 Discuss the working principle of chopper fed dc drive with waveforms and appropriate equations.
12.21 What is the working principle of regenerative braking of dc-dc converter fed dc motor drives?
12.22 Write short notes on the followings:
(a) Rheostatic braking (b) two quadrant chopper fed dc drive (c) four quadrant chopper fed dc drive
12.23 What is ac drive? What are the advantages and disadvantages of ac drive over dc drive?
12.24 Write the comparison between ac drive and dc drive.
12.25 What are the different types of induction motor?
12.26 Define synchronous speed, slip, slip frequency of induction motor.
12.27 Draw the torque-speed characteristics of induction motor. What are the different methods for speed
V
control of induction motor? What are the advantages of control?
f
12.28 What is a static Kamer drive? What is a static Scherbius drive?
12.29 What is a field-weakening mode of induction motor? What is the effect of frequency control of induction
motor?
12.30 What are the different types of synchronous motor?
12.31 Define torque angle of synchronous motor. What are the differences between salient-pole motors and
reluctance motors?
12.32 What are the differences between salient-pole motors and permanent-magnet motors?
12.33 What is pull-out torque of synchronous motor?
12.34 What are the torque-speed characteristics of synchronous motor?
12.35 What are the V-curves of synchronous motor?
12.36 What is thyristor controlled reactor? Explain how the inductance of thyristor controlled reactor can be
varied with firing angle a.
12.37 What is SVC? Describe how SVC regulates the reactive power flow and improves system power factor.
12.38 What is UPS? What are the types of UPS? Draw a block diagram of UPS system and explain its working
principle. Give a list of industrial applications of UPS.
12.39 Assume that a separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single phase half wave controlled rectifier
which is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. When the field circuit is fed through a single-phase
semi-converter with 30° firing angle and the motor operates at 900 rpm with 10 N-m load, determine the
following:
(a) firing angle of thyristor of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier
(b) rms value of source current, thyristor current and free wheeling diode current
(c) input power factor
Assume, armature resistance Ra = 1 W, field resistance Rf = 180 W motor constant = 0.6 V/A rad/s and
the current waveforms are ripple free.
12.40 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single phase semi-converter which is supplied from 230 V,
50 Hz ac supply. When the field circuit is fed through a single phase semi-converter with 10° firing angle
and the motor operates at 1200 rpm with 22 N-m load, determine the following:
(a) Voltage across field winding
(b) Field current
(c) Armature current
(d) Delay angle of thyristor of a single-phase semi-converter
(e) rms value of source current, thyristor current and free wheeling diode current
(f) Input power factor
Assume, armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, field resistance Rf = 120 W motor constant = 0.7 V/A rad/s and
the current waveforms are ripple free.
12.41 The speed of a 18 HP, 220 V, 1000 rpm dc series motor is controlled by a single-phase half-controlled
bridge (semi-converter) which is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The total armature and field
winding resistance is Ra + Rf = 0.55 W. When the motor current is continuous and ripple free, and the
motor operates at 1000 rpm with firing angle of a1 = 30°, determine the following:
(a) Motor current, (b) Motor torque
Assume, motor constant kb = 0.03 V/A rad/s, kt = 0.03 N-m/Amp2 and the current waveforms are
ripple free.
12.42 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single-phase full converter which is supplied from 400 V,
50 Hz ac supply. If the field circuit is fed through a single-phase full-converter with 0° firing angle, the
delay angle of armature converter is 30° and load current is 25 A, determine the following:
(a) Voltage across field winding (b) Field current
(c) Electromagnetic torque and load torque (d) Voltage across armature winding
(e) Back emf (f) Motor speed
(g) Input power factor
Assume, armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, field resistance Rf = 140 W, motor constant kb = 0.7 V/A rad/s,
kt = 0.03 N-m/Amp2 and the current waveforms are ripple free.
12.43 In Example 12.42, the polarity of induced emf is reversed by reversing the field excitation to its maximum
value. Compute (a) firing angle of the field converter, (b) delay angle of armature converter at 1000
rpm to maintain armature current at 45 A and (c) the power fed back to the supply due to regenerative
breaking of the motor.
12.44 A 220 V, 1500 rpm, 16 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single-phase full bridge controlled
rectifier which is supplied from 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Assume that armature resistance Ra = 1 W, field
resistance Rf = 120 W load current is continuous and ripple free.
Determine (a) motor speed at the firing angle a = 45° and load torque of 12 N-m (b) torque developed
at the firing angle a = 30° and speed 1000 rpm
12.45 A 210 V, 1000 rpm, 50 A separately excited dc motor is controlled by a single-phase full bridge controlled
rectifier which is supplied from 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Assume that armature resistance Ra = 0.2 W and
load current is continuous and ripple free.
Find (a) the firing angle of armature converter for rated motor torque at speed 640 rpm, (b) the firing
angle of armature converter for rated motor torque at speed - 600 rpm and (c) motor speed at a = 145°
and half rated torque.
12.46 The speed of a 12 HP, 300 V, 1500 rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a three-phase half
converter from a Y connected, 210 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The field current is controlled by a three-phase
semi-converter and is set to its maximum value. Assume armature resistance Ra = 0.1 W, field resistance
Rf = 210 W, and motor constant is 0.6 V/A-rad/s. Compute (a) the firing angle of armature converter at
rated power and rated speed, (b) the no-load speed if the firing angle is same as (a) and no-load current
is 12% of rated current and (c) the speed regulation.
12.47 A separately excited dc motor can be controlled by a three-phase semi-converter which is supplied by Y
connected 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The dc motor has the following parameters:
Armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, armature inductance La = 5 mH, machine constant 1.2 V/rad/s or N-m/A.
Determine the speed of motor at 20 N-m load with firing angle a = 30°.
12.48 A 12 HP, 300 V, 1000 rpm separately excited dc motor can be controlled by a three-phase semi-
converter which is supplied by Y connected 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. The dc motor armature resistance
Ra = 1.0 W and armature current is continuous
and ripple free. If the motor operates at 900 rpm
at firing angle a = 45°, determine the rms value
source and thyristor currents, average value
of thyristor current and input power factor.
12.49 A dc motor is driven by a three phase full
converter as shown in Fig. 12.66 and 100 A dc
current flow through armature with negligible
ripple.
(a) Draw the ac line current iA for one cycle
at a1 = 45°.
(b) Determine the third and fifth harmonic
components of line current as a percent-
age of the fundamental current.
12.50 In speed control of dc motor, the load torque
is 42 N-m. Assume that under steady state Fig. 12.66
condition the motor operates at speed 500 rpm and t = 0. At t ≥ 0+, the electromagnetic torque is suddenly
increased to 100 N-m. The inertia of dc motor is 0.01 N-m.sec2/rad.
(a) Write differential equation which govern the speed of motor for t ≥ 0
(b) Compute the time taken to reach the speed 1000 rpm from 500 rpm
Assume the friction torque is negligible.
12.51 The speed of a 14 HP, 400 V, 1000 rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a three-phase full
converter from a Y connected, 250 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Assume armature resistance Ra = 0.5 W, field
resistance Rf = 150 W, and motor constant is 0.8 V/A-rad/s.
(a) The field current is controlled by a three-phase full converter and is set to its maximum value. If the
motor develop 100 N-m torque at 1000 rpms, determine the firing angle of armature converter
(b) If the field current is set to its maximum value, firing angle of armature converter is 30° and devel-
oped torque is 100 N-m, find the operating speed of motor
12.52 220 V, 1445 rpm, 20 A separately excited dc motor is supplied from a three-phase full converter. When
the full converter is connected to 440 V, 50 ac supply through a delta-star transformer, (a) determine
the turn ratio of transformer and (b) find the value of firing angle of armature converter when (i) motor
rotates at 1200 rpm with rated torque and (ii) motor operates at -1000 rpm with half rated torque.
Assume armature resistance is 0.5 W and motor terminal voltage is rated voltage when converter firing
angle is zero.
12.53 The speed of separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper. The input voltage of chopper is 220 V,
armature resistance Ra = 0.3 W and motor constant K = 0.08 V/rpm. When the motor drives a constant
load, average armature current of 25 A flows through armature winding. Determine (a) the range of
speed control and (b) the range of duty cycle D. Assume motor current is ripple free.
12.54 A dc series motor is driven by a chopper. The motor has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.15 W, Rf = 0.25 W, K = 0.004 N-m/Amp2
If the dc supply voltage of chopper is 400 V, duty cycle of chopper is 50% and the average armature
current is 100 A, determine (a) input power from supply, (b) motor speed and (c) motor torque.
Assume current is ripple free.
12.55 A chopper circuit is used to control a separately excited dc motor. The chopper is ON for 10 ms and OFF
for 18 ms. When the chopper is supplied by 200 V dc supply, determine the average load current when
the motor operates in 1200 rpm and machine constant k = 0.5 V/rad per sec. The armature resistance is
1 W. Assume armature current is continuous and ripple free.
12.56 The speed of a separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper circuit. Assume that the chopper
is supplied by 250 V dc supply and it operates at 200 Hz. The motor has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.2 W, La = 25 mH, k = 1.5 V/rad per sec or N-m/A
When the motor operates at 1200 rpm with load torque 30 N-m, determine
(a) The minimum and maximum values of armature current, (b) Ripple current and (c) Derive the
expression of armature current during on and off period of chopper.
12.57 The speed of a separately excited dc motor is controlled by a chopper circuit. Assume that the chopper
is supplied by 220 V dc supply and it operates at 100 Hz. The motor has the following parameters:
Ra = 0 W, La = 30 mH, k = 1.2 V/rad per sec or N-m/A
When the motor operates at 1000 rpm with load torque 24 N-m, determine (a) the minimum and
maximum values of armature current, (b) ripple current, (c) derive the expression of armature current
during on and off period of chopper.
12.58 Regenerative braking is applied to a separately excited dc motor using a dc chopper. The chopper circuit
is supplied from 250 V dc supply. The average armature current during regenerative braking is kept
constant 200 A with negligible ripple. The machine has the following parameters:
Ra = 0.2 W, k = 1.2 V/rad per sec
If the duty cycle of chopper is 50%, determine (a) power feedback to dc supply, (b) minimum and
maximum permissible braking speeds and the speed range of regenerative braking and (c) speed during
regenerative braking.
12.59 A dc chopper is used for rheostatic braking of a separately excited dc motor. The machine has the
Armature resistance Ra = 0.15 W, braking resistance Rb = 5 W and kb = 1.2 V/A rad per sec.
The average armature current during braking is kept constant at 100 A with negligible ripple. The field
current is 1.5 A.
If the duty cycle of chopper is 60%, determine (a) average current through braking resistance, (b) average
voltage across dc converter, (c) equivalent load resistance of the generator, (d) power dissipated across
braking resistance and (e) speed during braking.
12.60 A separately excited dc motor is operated by a single-phase semi-converter which is fed from 220 V,
50 Hz ac supply. The motor parameters are:
ra = 1.75 W, La = 0.05 H, km = 1 V/rad/sec and kT = 1 Nm/A
If the firing angle of semi-converter is 60°, the motor runs at 1400 rpm.
(a) Find the expression of armature current. (b) Draw waveforms of output voltage and armature current.
(c) Determine the average motor torque.
12.61 A three-phase 400 V, 50 Hz, four pole, star connected induction motor has the following parameters
r1 = 0.2 W, x1 = 0.4 W, r2¢ = 0.2 W, x2¢ = 0.4 W and X m = 20 W
If the no load loss of induction motor is 50 W and motor rotates ate 1440 rpm, determine the following:
(a) Synchronous speed in rpm and rad/s, (b) slip, (c) input current, (d) input power factor, (e) input
power, (f) air gap power and (g) motor efficiency.
12.62 A three-f 50 Hz, eight pole, 420 V, 725 rpm Y connected induction motor has the following parameters:
r1 = 0.25 W, x1 = 0.75 W, r¢2 = 0.2 W, x¢2 = 0.75 W, and Xm = 25 W
When the motor is driving a load torque TL = 0.015w m2 , determine slip, full load rotor current, power
factor at full load and load torque.
12.63 A three-phase induction motor drives a blower where load torque is directly proportional to speed
squared. If the motor operates at 1460 rpm, determine the maximum current in terms of rated current.
12.64 A three-phase 50 Hz, four pole, 42 V, 1425 rpm, 20 kW, Y connected induction motor has the following
parameters:
r2¢ = 0.30 W and x2¢ = 1.1 W.
The value of magnetizing reactance Xm and stator leakage impedance and rotational losses are neglected.
When the motor is operated by three phase 440 V, 100 Hz supply, determine (a) the motor speed at rated
load, (b) slip at maximum torque and (c) the maximum torque.
12.65 A three-phase 50 Hz, four pole, 400, 10 kW delta connected induction motor has the following
parameters:
r1 = 0.5 W, x1 = 1.2 W, r¢2 = 0.30 W, and x¢2 = 1.2 W,
The value of magnetizing reactance Xm is neglected.
(a) If the motor is started with DOL starting, determine starting current, power factor at starting, maxi-
mum torque.
(b) When the motor is operated by 220 V, 25 Hz supply and is started with DOL starting, determine
starting current, power factor at starting, maximum torque.
12.66 A three-phase induction motor which is derived by an inverter has the following parameters:
r1 = 0.45 W, x1 = 1.2 W, r2¢ = 0.30 W, x2¢ = 1.2 W and X m = 30 W
(a) Find the value of stator current input and full load torque at slip 0.035 if the inverter output voltage
is 440 V, 50 Hz
(b) When the inverter output voltage is changed to 400 V, 45 Hz, determine the value of stator current
input and full load torque at the instant of voltage change.

12.1 (d) 12.2 (a) 12.3 (c) 12.4 (a) 12.5 (c) 12.6 (c) & (d) 12.7 (a)
12.8 (a) 12.9 (c) 12.10 (a) 12.11 (a) 12.12 (b) 12.13 (b) 12.14 (c)
12.15 (c) 12.16 (c) 12.17 (d) 12.18 (a) 12.19 (a) 12.20 (a) 12.21 (b)
12.22 (b) 12.23 (b) 12.24 (b) 12.25 (b) 12.26 (d) 12.27 (a) 12.28 (a)
12.29 (d) 12.30 (a) 12.31 (a) 12.32 (a) 12.33 (a)

12.1 Electric traction, machine tools 12.2 High starting torque 12.3 Controlled rectifier and chopper
12.4 5% 12.5 Armature control and field control
12.6 Constant torque 12.7 field weakening 12.8 torque, power
12.9 second 12.10 dual 12.11 20%-40%
120 f
12.12 N s = 12.13 –1 £ s £ 2 12.14 0 £ s £ 1, s > 1, s < 0
P
V
12.15 stator voltage control, control 12.16 low
f

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Power electronics

About the Author

Soumitra Kumar Mandal has a BE degree in Electrical Engineering from

soumitra Kumar Mandal

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education (India) Edition 2014

Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Head—Higher Education (Publishing and Marketing): Vibha Mahajan

Assistant General Manager (Marketing)—Higher Education: Vijay Sarathi

General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela

3.6 Series and Parallel Operation of BJT 42

4.27 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) 211

6.12 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controlled Rectifier Using Centre Tap Transformer

8.10 Three-Phase Dual Converters 477

11. Inverters 679

Why Power Electronics?

Who can Use this Book?

Why Should You Choose this Book?

Chapter Organization of the Book

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Fig. 1.2 A power electronics-based system

Fig. 1.3 Relation between power electronics and other disciplines

1.2 HIstory of Power electronIcs

Fig. 1.6 A selenium rectifier Fig. 1.7 Power semiconductor devices

Table 1.1 Symbols and characteristics of power semiconductor devices

Device Name Symbol I-V Characteristics

Device Name Symbol I-V Characteristics

Device Name Symbol I-V Characteristics

Device Name Symbol I-V Characteristics

1.3 classIfIcatIon of Power semIconductor devIces

Fig. 1.8(d) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on number of terminals

Fig. 1.8(e) Classification of power semiconductor devices based on triggering methods

1.4 aPPlIcatIons of Power electronIcs devIces

5. Power system applications

7. Aero space Applications

1.5 advantages of Power electronIcs converters

1.6 dIsadvantages of Power electronIcs converters

Example 1.2 If I = 80 A, V = 220 V, tr = 2.5 ms

Average ON state loss is equal to Pon-state = 0

(a) BJT (1) (b) IGBT (2)

(c) MOSFET (3) (d) MCT (4)

Fill in the Blanks

Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions

Answers to Fill in the Blanks

2.2 Structure of a Power dIode

2.3 I-V characterIStIcS of Power dIode

Fig. 2.2 I-V characteristics of a power diode

Equation (2.1) can also be expressed as

where, Io is the reverse saturation current, and

2.4 conductIvIty ModulatIon In Power dIode

2.5 Breakdown voltage of Power dIode In

2.5.1 Breakdown voltage of non-punch through Power diode

2.5.2 Breakdown voltage of Punch through Power diode

2.6 reverSe recovery characterIStIcS of Power dIode

From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), we obtain

2.7 coMParISon Between general low Power

2.8 Schottky Power dIodeS