Basic Concepts of Chemistry

|
YamaniEftT÷fe monasteries
Empirical formula
Mole
Concentration Terms

stoichiometric Calculations

1- 2Qts
classification of Substances

Laws of chemical Composition

1 Law of Conservation mass : Em products
.

of
( Lavoisier ) =
Emreactants

2 . Law of Constant composition : A chemical

compound always contains same elements
together in same proportion by mass .

( by Proust)
H2O from any source is l :S ratio
by mass .
3 . Law of multiple Proportion : when 2 elements
combine to
form two or more
compounds -

then which combines

mass
of one
of
with
fined man
of other bears a simple
whole No . ratio .

4 .

Cray Lussac 's law of Combining volumes

At a
given temperature and pressure ,
combine in volumes which bear a
gases to
simple ratio one another .

volume all
Avogadro 's Law -

Equal of gases
similar conditions
under
of temperature I
pressure contain
equal of molecules
No . .

Empiricalar formula
•
Simplest whole No .
ratio of atoms
of each
element present in as molecule of compound

But molecular
formula is actual
element in 2 molecule
of atoms
No .

each
of compound
.

of

E f Mf
If n t =
-
-

otherwise both are

different .
 -

Mole concept

NA atoms / molecules le
-

G 02×1023
-
= NA

mole = particlesgien
NA

role given 2 Mol wt

-

Mole
- -

22.ua ) Atomic art

at Sep

2
gram atom or
2 gram molecule

mole electrons in 2 molecule

electrons X NA x
No
of
-
=

molecules mole X NA
No of
=
.
 Concentration Terms

molarity =
Noiofmoees
Vol of Soen ( L)
-

Temp .

dependent
normality -_noofgeg_
Volume of
Soen CL )
Equivalent =
mole x
refactor
Normality molarity refactor
'
=
x

molality naofmoleswt
-

of solvent
(kg)

temp -

independent
fraction
MAHATNB
mole =

Dilution Solution MV , Mz Va
•
of =

•
Acid + Base Niv , =
Nz Va (Neutral)
Niv , L
Nz Va (Basic) Niv , > Nzvz (Acidic )
 stoichiometry Calculations
• Determination of quantities of reactants
chemical
and
products in balanced
equation .

Hz t
Iz ZHU
smote smote anole

limiting Reagent
which totally consumed
-
The reactant
gets .

. Decides product quantity

Luz t Oz 2h20

2 moles Hz react with 2 mole of Oz .

Given 4 moles Hz and 05 of Oz

Sf : moles

limiting reagent :
02
Product mole
formed 2
of H2O
: .
Previous yrs Impe .
SSTTRRUUETTUURRE OF NATIONAL " "

µ÷÷÷÷÷
,

Bukavuwe
e - Y
• Thomson 's Model

:L .ms mode

Dee
rroogliee Equuattiionn
-
BB

Deum

.mil/pl eeQQuuanttummramoddell
Heisenberg
Numbers
Quantum
. Electronic configuration
Orbitals
Shape of
•

2- 2 Qts
 Thomson 's Model
plum pudding model

Discovery .
positive
Sphere
⇐

*
ooo

o o o

electron

Rutherford 's Model a

particle scattering]
-

Most
of space
is ( NUCLEUS DISCOVERY)
empty
• -

small
Extremely foil region of charge at centre
+ve
•

why gold Laroe used ?

•
Because
of atomic size and malleable nature .

÷:÷:÷÷i÷÷÷
-

Boheismod.ee
• Electron revolve inn stable orbits without loss
of
energy ( stationary orbits)
• l =

iftar
L
( :
Angular moment
of orbits is quantized)

electron ell
622g
KE 13
KE of
• -
= .

of Te

PE
te P E . .

of electron =
-
27 -

22nF EV
s
"

of electron
T .
E . = K E
-
.
+ PE .
 • ABSORPTION
SPECTRUM .

electron transit
from lower

lines
to
higher energy level
No .

of spectral
@ z
-
ni ) (n .
-
n
,
ti ) • EMISSION
2 electron transit from higher
to lower level
% :
higher energy level energy
energy level
N, : lower

1222
( mtg th ) Lymann series If not
-
=

trydberg
,

Atomic
visible Neet 19
Balmer series
¥ No .
nz=z

Yawn constant
Paschen series n. =3

0972×10'm
"
I Brackett series 4
'

na
-
-

level
Nz :
higher energy level series
n :
higher energy Pfund na s
-
-

Neet 2015
( P)

De
Broglie Equation Heisenberg
Applicable for and H
Uncertainty g. * nosy
Heike atom 6.62×15345 -

s Principle I. s

d =L Bp 31
PMT -14
DN .

P 4A

x: wavelength on :
change in position
in

: momentum
p op : change
momentum
 Quantum Numbers N
) No .

of subshells
= n

m2
No of orbitals
=
.

PRINCIPAL Q.tt
of electron in
'

defines shell Ln) i

•
. No .
shell 2h -

r
,

AZIMUTHAL Q N
defines subshell No
of subshells No
of l values !
-

• . . . - .

(e) .
:
QN l f
MAGNETIC
defines( )orientation n
-
-

•
-

(ORBITAL) l ( ) ; 2 (p) ; 2(d) 53 (f)

m
⇐
O s

SPIN QN
• .

defines spin of e-
dist 2e
-

s
Neet 16
.

Orbital
Angular Momentum
✓ he Pme 12 -
.

QUANTUM MODEL
2T .

fm -

-
Let 1) values

Electronic coinfiguration
Rules -

• Pauli Exclusion Rule -

Hoo 22 e- canon have same spin

•
Afb au Rule -

filling 1st 25<40235

to
ace
increasing
.

. .
.
energy
levels

• Hund 's Rule

of Manimum
multiplicityfilled
pairing of electrons occur
only when
they are
singly
' '
(q : Is 22522ps 3523ps 3d Us (2--24)
g s2 2522ps 6 3523ps 3d
6 "
cu 45 ( 2=29)
'
:
Shape of Orbitals
Radial Nodes RN Y
' -
-

Probability
Density
•

always spherical
(n e i )
-
-

Nodes =L AN
Angular
i.
different shapes mostly planar
-

tale Nodes n -
I Neet 2019

Is Rana 2010=0
,
spherical •

25
Raff , LIE ' •
RN

¥
RN 2-1-1=0 → Lobes

Lp
-
-

AN -
-
E -
-
2
yz= Nodal plane
RN =3 -2-1=0
-31 AN l 2
= -
-

AN -21in form of planes)

Previous YRS Smh .
GASEOUS STATE
.

- measurable Properties
• Volume
•
Temperature
•
Pressure

LAWS
- .

's Law
•
Boyle
• Charles Law

•
Gay Lussac 's Law

• Avogadro Law

• Graham 's Law of Diffusion

Partial Pressure
• Dalton 's Law of

- Ideal Gas Equation

kinetic Gas
→
Theory of

-
Vanderwall Equation

Liquefaction of Gas

2- 2 Ql 's
 Measurable Properties

temperature Pressure volume

klkelinn) Pa ( Pascal) SI unit

'
SI unit =
SI unit -
- =L
2Pa
'
k= Oct 273 = IN
Im IL -
-
1000mL
105Pa
°§= f°_g3→
}
2bar = 2L -

-
2dm
g. atm =L 01×10 -
'
PA
ym3 1000L-
-

Pgas Patmtheg
-
-

Laws Gaseous state

of

Boyle 's Law Charles Law

Gay Lussac 's Law Avogadro
Law
's

'
Y -
klwnst) 1127 PLT
VLN
"
(no of .
moles)
un
p
V Vs

V
, p
-
i

van
-

i
-

p
-

"
i v ,
>
.

Oc title) T
Ly
-
273ns:c
 Graham 's Law
of Diffusion
Rate
of diffusion (a) 2¥ (T and P constant)

:÷iF¥I=¥
↳
.
vitamin:X: gas

since ee = Volume
time taken
of gas diffused o :
tea ,
=

'÷t,=P÷/IMm ,
p : pressure
leap

Ideal Gas Equation

Combining Charles Boyle 's Gay 's , ,
& Avogadro 's Laws .es

.
PY = NRT
k
-
-
E R = PI
Neet 2019
i

N
n7
deal Gas Constant
' "
8.314×10 '
ergs mot degree
=

6. 02×1023 l l
O 0821
-

Latin Mol
-

.
K
'"

( S2 unit)
"
K I -38 X to '
8 314 J m ol
'
-
-
'
ergs moi degree K
-
- - -
.

↳ BOLT 2 MAN CONSTANT

Dalton 's Law of Partial Pressure

•• Partial pressure =
of moles of gas th) x Petal
No .

applicable for the gases

which do not react
Total no
of moles ( n) -

Ptotal = RV , + R V2 Bb +
€gf⑧¥ Cm Mz B ) Rfd
t
-
- - -

,
+
-
- -

Xl .

Application 2 To
find mole
fraction (xD partial pressure
=

of gas CR )
Ptotal
Neet 19 odh
2 To
find relative
Humidity Rn -
-

partial pressure of water

vapour pressure of water
 Kinetic Theory of Gas
.

Kinetic Gas Equation PV

tzmnurms P pressure exerted by gas
- -
- -

volume
"
v
of gas .

Kinetic molecules molecule

Energy of n
Innu m
average mass
of
- -
-
-

molecules
n no
of
-

-
.

K E
3zPV=3z RT U Root mean square velocity
-
= =
.

of gas
between 2 collisions
Mean
free path Average distance travelled
by
:
gas
a

X =
I D= molecular diameter
tanned Neet 20

Molecular velocities

I
.

ti 1

Root mean
square velocity Average velocity Most probable velocity
Urns =
u , 2+422+45 . - -

Navy =
Uit Mz +
Us - -

n n

1¥ ftp.yzuaug-fs.F.IT#sump--JIrm--JIz
arms -
-

A- Me

53 :
FE :
JT
Ump Luang L Unms

Real vls Ideal Gas

H2

Gases which at all temp

obey gas laws
w
Hee - •

Real Gas
Ideal Gas
obeys
•
are
z -
-
PI coz ,
nm

gas
laws at Low Pressure
High Temp

2
Compressibility factor
-

p
-
 -

Vander Waal 's Equation

i .
.

i
Neet 2018

(Pinya) )
-

(V -
nb = n RT constant Ea
SO ,
'
-
Measure Attractive forces
> MHz > H2S > coz
Pressure volume
correction correction
b' Excluded volume
'
constant .

b - 4 Nov
(def on mass )
PMT-12
MODIFICATIONS

When
pressure is when
pressure is tour pressure and

extremely high low

high temperature
For 2 mole of for 2 mole
of gas
'

gas for 1 mole of

⇐ E) ( b V -

) -
- RT
@
+

fi) ( v -

)
b
-
- RT
gas
@ ta) (
2
"

neglected V -

b) -
- RT

neglected pv + PI = RT -

Pv -

Divide
Pb = RT
RT Divide
42
RT
both
neglected
by by pv = RT

PRI Divide
Pd RT
It PI I I
by
-

= =

RT VRT
, RT PI = 2
2 = It Pts 2 = I -
I RT
RT v RT 2=2
Z > 2
Neet 29 2<2 Ideal Gas
PV > RT PV LRT Behaviour
less compressible more compressible
positive Deviation
negative deviation Neet 2015

Liquefaction of Gases
critical Temperature GD temp
'

above which cannot be liquefied

gas .

Critical Pressure ( Pc) minimum pressure applied to

liquefy gas
:

critical volume Crc) : volume occupied by gas Tc and Pc .

Pc " c =3 b
Tc
foyer b zag 's Temp → Temp at
Boylebehaves which real
= -
-

,
like ideal gas
gas .
PREVIOUS YRS ImPT
Cchheeanimeald Equiwliibum.me -

f
Dynamic nature

::::::
Types of Equilibrium
de -

chattier 's Principle

1 Ques
 Dynamic Nature
-

§ products j§ "
ward reaction
-

§
i

got pgagaoaad
Reaction
reactants
-0

Time Time

Equilibrium state achieved in closed vessel

•
only be can

Equilibrium state REVERSIBLE

: ¥-8 Rate
of forward backward
=
•

• At Equilibrium : DG O ; DH
-
- =
TDS

Law of Mass Action

att t b B ⇐ c C t DD

Ale Rate
to have -

EB ]b
a

forward reaction or EAT i

of
-

of backward reaction Codd

'
Rate ? -63 -
z

Edb
d
At Equilibrium kf EAT kg
EYED =
.

Eaf}I
" libre
comme'T
- '
'

1¥
-

'
=
'

= ke -
.

Equilibrium constant Neet 2017

•
Depends only on TEMPERATURE PMT 2015
• 2503 -
'

25oz t
Oz 503 ⇐ SO, t
Oz Kf =
Kz
Kz Kz

• To
judge entente
of Reaction
10-3 to 103
same
of
> 103 products dominate 10-3 reactants dominate Totem
-

K K e k in range of
 Concentration Quotient CQ )
X Y F A B Q
EAIEBJEX]
+ t =

] EY
• Q L K reaction proceeds in
forward direction
• Q = k Reaction is in equilibrium
• Q S K Reaction
proceeds in backward direction .

Types of Equilibrium
:
Homogeneous Equilibrium Heterogeneous Equilibrium
All reactants and products All reactants and products
in different phases
'

in same
phase .
-

Nz
'

(g) + 3 Hz
(g) ⇐ 2MHz (g) Ccs) t
Cong) ⇐ 2W (g)
4- n ) (3 -
3 a) (2K) ( n)
I -

(2 ) -
n Gn)
-
n :
degree of dissociation
y

for solids =
Active mass = 2

liquids and
gases
= Active mass =

Yoga pm re -
zoiy

Kp ( defined in terms :
mainly for gases
of partial pressure) ( ang Difference
: in
gaseous
Mt
Kp
-
- Kc ( RT) molecules
of products
PMT 2010
)
and reactants
-

Relation between Gibb 's and

free energy
Kc .

2.303 RT Q
DG =D Go t
log P MT -

2015
At equilibrium DG O ; Q K
-
-
-
-

D Go = -
2.303 RT K
 Le -

chattier 's Principle .

change in
any of
the
factors that determine the
equilibrium
will
shift equilibrium the in such a manner to counteract the.

effect of change Addition -

of catalyst does not shift eguiln

Equilibrium
change imposed Equilibrium
constant
position moves

conc .

of reactants To
right N
? change
increased (
forward reaction

cone .

of products To left No
change
( backward reaction
t

increased
,

Pressure increase
inert is added it (products) 7 (reactants) NO
change
If gas
Dng ve ( left backward)
-
+ To -

equilibrium
-

to Cbn )
o
-
-
-

is
there no
effect .

•••
.
of inert
gas added if (reactants) > (products) Neef 2018
Dng ve Go right forward)
at constant volume -

= -

and Dn to -
no
effect
•
If
Dn to and inert gas
PM T 2014
added at constant pressure
equilibrium shifts where total
,
if (reactants) =
(products)
moles show an increase .
Dng
= 0 ( NO change)

Temperature if DH = -

Lenothermic) value Decrease

ve

increase To
left ( backward)

if DN
= + ve (endothermic value Increase

Tonight (
forward)
PREVIOUS YRS Impe .
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
→ Acid Base concept
•
Arrhenius concept
Bromated concept
•

•
Lewis
concept
→ Ostwald 's Dilution Law

sohu.%eegttipngoau.ie
'
.

Common Ion
Effect
→
Buffer solution

Hydrolysis
→ Salt

→
Indicators

2- 2 Qts
 i

ACID -
BASE CONCEPT

Arrhenius concept Bronsted Concept Lewis concept

Neet 2019 Odh .

Acids : which
give min Acids : which has
tendency to ACIDS -

dissolved water
give proton incomplete octet
Hce
, Mason , MNO, HCl , CHZCOOH Neet 2019 Bfz Beclz Alllz .
,

which
Base
give on in
-

:
Bases : which accept proton • where central atom
dissolved water has
from water
empty orbitals
NaOH , Kon ,
@Danon MHz , cop
-

Sifu Pfs Sully , ,

conjugate acid ⇐
conjugate base + Ht • where double
bonds exist coz

CONJUGATE Cations
ACID •

BASE
BASES -

cloy
-

Helo,
. with atleast
pair
-

Hsoy 2 lone
Hzsoy
HU U
-
R -

E -

H , :Nnz
-
inna

H2O
-

OH
.
• anions
City CHI
Neet 2016 TI -

Ostwald 's @ilutionLa.w

acid we base is their
•
strength of an
experimentally measured
by
dissociation or ionisation constant .

"
Ctlzcoo
'

CH Coon H2O # Dissociation constant

-

,
+ t
1130 ka :

C
degree of dissociation
t -
-
o O O L :

CL
p
t t -
-
C -
CL ca

qq.cat
ka CI
'
On weak
electrolytes ka Cd
= -

= -

I -

d l -

2=1
 weak Base
'
Ka ca
Similarly for
-

-1¥ JE Ktv
a = a -

-
-
-

c- -

÷ This is Ostwald's Dilution hair

.

Neet 2019 Odh

-

Calculating pH
-

Neetu's
PMT 2014

pm log Cnt] or
pm hey ¥, log (on )
-

pom
-
= -
-
- -
-

"
product of ( ] Con J
-

'
Ionic water Kw
-

n lo x
-

:
.

put pom =
pkw -14

Relative
Strength Dagenais
' on ka

is acid
more ka
stronger the
-

Kb is base
more
stronger the
-
o -

.
Neet 2019

Product nneetu.zo.is
.

Solubility
.

Neet 2016
PMT 2015
"
.

B
.
-

ABCs) ⇐ A t
Tins '

unit't
"
-

An
By # YB
.

. .

CBT KGB UM ohid)

Cathay
K
-

"

[Ba Tt
- -

Ksp LA ]
't
-

Esp solubility Product

-

criteria
for precipitation of an
electrolyte
Kip Ksp L
unsaturated
Kip >
supersaturated
Ksp
skait-pua.ae Kip -
-

ipwmtduct
 common Ion .

Effect
The
degree of dissociation of weak
a
electrolyte is suppressed big
addition
of another
strong electrolyte having common ion .

"

EI solubility AGU with

-

: -

of Ksp -
-
1.6 X lo in 0.2 Me Nau solution is -

Agh Agt T
'
Ksp Cag ] Eu
-

ce
-

+
⇐
-
-

s s =
Cs ] Esto 2] -

Nail Nat u
s 't
fneglect 5 small)
-

Ksp
⇐ + =
o .
is -

o 2 o I 0-2
Ksp O I s
. -

= -

Neet 2016
S =

kos.fm =

t.bg?l#=l.6Xlo-9m
29 Odh
Neet

Buffer Solution
solution that resist addition
•

acid
change of
base
pm upon
of small or

- -
Acidic buffer Basic
buffer Salt
of weak acid
and weak base
solution weak
of its salt
of weak base
acid and salt and its salt CH300 Nhu

Chz WON +
Utz WON a N the Chl
Why ON + Muy Cl
.

pH =p Kat log {salt÷g Gatt) pm 7

pon pig beg [base
-

-
- + -

)
A 1PM T -

15 Neet 2019
-x

Henderson -

Hasselbach Equation
No moles of acid or base added to 1L
Buffer capacity =
of
.

in
change pH
Salt
Hydrolysis
'
Sno .
Salt Nature
Hydrolysis @ so) Ph

No
Salt
of strong Neutral hydrolysis 7
-

2 .

acid and
strong base

Kh ke
pH pkat
-
- -
-

µk_
Salt weak Basic ka
pkwtwgc
of
2 acid and 2
.

c
base h
strong
-

CH COO Na Kac
z

Kee pkw
kn
pH
- -
- -
-

Salt weak Kb
of pkaiogc
3 .
base and Acidic 2
Kb
strong acid
Wnyw
h=Tw± Kbc

Kh Ke -
-

pm pkwt
-
-

Jta
4 Salt weak Neutral Kaxkb
of
pka-pkbacidakand.se
.

Kb Z
h .

Kaxkb

Ent) =NNi-Nu
pH of minture
of 2
strong acids
Wit V2

pH of mixture of bases con J NN.tn#.

strong
-

2
-
-

y, + Vz
Re PMT -

2015
Ent )
-

- io
[ on ]
 INDICATORS .

acid weak acid weak

strong
✓
Is strong base vis strong base svthsmoteeapandase acid
4S
weak

Phenolphthalein Phenolphthalein methyl Red base

( pH8.3 : -
lo -

5) and

methyl Orange No
-

Red
Methyl suitable
( 4.4 -

6.5) indicate

methyl 4orange
( 3.2 -
-

5)
-0
HIN t
H2O # HzO+ + Ind

Ccolowe A) (colour B)

Kind = 30 'T fend -0)

(H In] Thus

pH p Kindt log GndI

-
-

Kind [nzn ) = [430-1] Cmn)

(2nd-0g

weak Monobasic acid Monoacidic base

pH of weak

pH I [pka logo ] pH I [ pkb logo]

- - -
-
- -
Previous YRS Imps .
HER MO DYNAMICS

µ
→ Basic
Terminology
•
•

Thermodynamic systems
-

• and Extensive
Instensive Properties
•
state and Path function
•
Different processes .

Works Done in
various processes
•
taws Haw Thermodynamics
• first Lane
• second law
•
Entropy lane
• Third

→ Cribb 's free Energy

→
Thermochemistry
1- 2 QI s
Basic Terminology both matter
open System Exchange
and
.

energy

systems closed
system Exchange energy
But Not Matter i

cannot
Isolated enchange
voter matter
and
energy

Intensive Do not depend

on mass .

Pressure
melting point
Properties -

temperature Boiling Tpoint

ension
Density surface
index
viscosity Refractive
Extensive Depends on
mass
mass Enthalpy
volume
Entropy
Internal
Energy

/↳onlystatldependtt
'VE initial and
functions final state of reaction

Energy
Path function
depends on
path taken
by a

reaction .
Work , Heat
 Isothermal Process DT
-
-

I
Temperature remains constant .

Different Isobaric Process DP -

-
o

processes
:÷i;Ti:
volume remains constant .
i

Adiabatic Process da -
- O

+ - - - -
- Isotonic In this process , system cannot
• I
nd l
exchange
heat with
surroundings .

§ Lwow 1
E ,

a ago . Units
of heat and work
2e - - - - -

i
'
t
2cal 4 28J 2cal > IT >
Leg
i i
=

#
.

300K 600K I J I
107
ergs
Temperature
\

Work done in various processes

Heat absorbed
by system
+ ve
q
=
•

evolved
Heat
by system ve
q
= -

Work done tve w

on
system
=
•

• Work done by system

= -
ve ul

Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law :
If A is in thermal equilibrium with C ,
A ⇐ c and if B is also in thermal equilibrium
B E C with C ,
then A and B are also in
•
• .
A EB thermal equilibrium with each other .
 First-tier :
Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed . .

Ez -

Ez = DE =
get W .

in internal heat added to

"

work done
change system system
= +

energy
on
,

different
malecite
Internal
Energy sum
of forms of energy within a .

DE w Amount of heat
Gt Heat
capacity c=qq
-

in
DH =
DE tpdv .
change Temp .

DH = DE t
Dng RT
Cp
-

Ang products)g
:
-

(reactants)g = Cu =
=

p r

at constant
DH :
Enthalpy DE :
Enthalpy at constant

Eennterqlgu§
volume
pressure

Y -
-
GI
Cx Cp -

G, = R

specific heat
capacity ( ) s

Gas as Cp y
s -_
9- OR q
-

Ms DT
monoatomic ZR ZR
-

i. 66
MDT

Diatomic
5rad 712 1.4 .

Triatomic SR GR 1.33

Work done in various prices

PROCESS WORK DONE EXPRESSION

ISO CHORIC DV =
O pDV= W = O

ISOBARIC PDV -
-
W leet 2019 Odh
Neet 2019 2017
ISOTHERMAL
2- 303 MRT
log Wenpansion Wenpansion
-

" =
= -
W compression

ADIABATIC II (4-72) Wenpansion wenpansion W

compression
-
= -
-
 €
20190M€
isothermal process

g§
triatomic

omeioamtoae.moumgag.is/adipabatuss
gas -

Neet

volume

Second Law : The

entropy of universe tends to increase .

during any spontaneous process

-

Entropy and
Entropy change
randomness / disorder
Entropy measure
of of system
:
.
.

D S
spinal Sinitial =

Kelly (unit JK) :

change in
entropy
-
- = -

heat absorbed DS
Sf is free , = + ve i = we
Neet 2019
heat is evolved DS
of gree, ve ; ve
solid
= - = -

gas > liquid >

entropy
Entropy change during phase transition

The state to another is called

phase transition
change of one .

(solid liquid)
Bmg temp Geo )
at
Dsf = →
.
fusion .

boiling point Gb)

D
sup ( liquid
Dtfapp gas)
-
-
→ at

Entropy change for an ideal

gas
i) when T and V are two variables
DS new ln
¥ + NR
entry (Assuming Ci, constant)
-
-

ii) Fou Isothermal process Bpg

DS -
-
nR ln OR -
n Ren
(T constant) Neet 2010 I -
 .

Free Energy and Free Energy Khang e

Gibb 's
free energy (G) -
state
functiondone : -

Manimum work done on

useful work
from a

reversible reaction at constant temperature & Pressure .

Neet

DG DH T DS Gibb 's Helmholtz 2017

Equation
-
=

PM T -

2014
PM
'

T 2012
At Equilibrium
-

• DG = 0

B bi = -

2.303 RT log , ok K
-

Equilibrium constant

spontaneous and Non -

spontaneous processes

spontaneous process : A process which can take place

by itself .

DG = -
ve DS = + ve

Non spontaneous process : The forbidden

process which are
and are made to take place only by supplying energy .

D G = tve DS =
-
ve

-
Neet 2016
-
 Thermochemistry n
'

Hess 's Law : The Law

of constant Heat summation
A → B → c → D .

DH DH z DH
g 3

DHA -
D
= DH z t D Mz t D
Mz

Heat Reaction
of
Pmt 2015 -

PM T -
2012

•
absorbed
Heat of formation Heat evolved or when I mole

substance is constituent elements

of formed from .

Heat of combustion Heat evolved when I mole

of
substance is
completely burnt in
onygen (mostly one ve
)
-

Heat
of solution Heat evolved on absorbed when 2 mole
→
solute is dissolved in of water (mostly Dhs red
of excess =
-

Neutralisation Heat evolved

Heat of when 2
equivalent of
acid neutralised
by equivalent of base Can
'
is one .
= -
ve
.

t
acid DH 13.7kcal or 57 KJ mol
-

strong strong base =

t
-

→
Heat
of Hydration Heat evolved or absorbed when I mole

of anhydrous salt combines with required No .

of moles of H2O .

→ Heat
of Vapourisation change in enthalpy when liquid
into vapour state For water +43.93 KJ
changes
=
.

fusion when solid

→ Heat
of change in
enthalpy
changes into liquid state .
for water = + I 44 KJ
-

→ Heat of sublimation change in

enthalpy when solid
KJ
changes into gaseous state Iz ( ) → Iz (g) DM sub . s = +623

→
Heat of
precipitation Amount of heat liberated in the
precipitation of 2 mole of sparingly soluble substance ve
-

→ Bond Enthalpy meet 2018

The amount
of energy required to break one mole of
bond of a particular
type between atoms in gaseous state E
.

E DM of products DM of reactants
-

Heat of Reaction =
EBE of reactants -

2 BE of products
PREVIOUS YRS Tmm .
RED OX REACTIONS

µ
onidation
FILE Lon
.

→ Oxidation state

Redon Reactions
→ Balancing
Redon Reactions
→
Types of

1 QI s
Concept of Oxidation Reduction
PMT 2015-

onidation Reduction

Addition of oxygen removal of

oxygen
•
•

Removal
•

of hydrogen • Addition
of hydrogen
• loss of electrons • Gain
of electrons
• Increase in onidation No .
• Decrease in onidation No .

• Addition
of non metal • Addition
of metal

Oxidising Agent he substance that

gains )
electron (reduced
Important onidising Agents :

• kmn Oy
HN Oz Hgclz
K2 cuz Oy NaN Oz Kilby
• oxides
of
elements
MgO bro bells Py Dio
:
, , ,

• fluorine is the strongest Onidismg Agent

electron (onidised)
Reducing Agent : The substance that loses

Important reducing Agents :

All metals : Na 2n Fe ne etc

pm T 2014 eg
.
, , ,
.

•
Hydroids : Hel
,
H Bee ,
HI ,
HS etc .

• Lithium is
strongest Reducing agent in solution .

Equivalent wt .

of OA
IRA = molecular
weight
electrons
No .

of gained co Ay -

electrons lost CRA)

No .

of

Equivalent wt = Molecular
weight
in ouidation
change mole
No .

five
 Oxidation State
GG•yap
wnfifigationn.tt
eoommmmonmooniedationnstatete

+2 NSL
IA + 2 NSZ
'
TIA +3 ,
+2
ns2np
ME
TIA +4 , -13 ,
-12 , +2 , -2 ,
-2
,
-3 ,
-4
n.ph
Mp3
-

IA +5 ,
-13 ,
+2 ,
-2 , -3 n'S2
VI A +6 ,
-14 ,
+2 ,
-2 NSZ np "
VI A +7 MS
'
's
, +5 , -13 ,
+2 ,
-2
hp

Neet 2018
'

common Onidatiorr states

PMT 2012 i

compound onidation state

N +
(-2×4)=-1 n +7
-

-_

Mnoy 2)
Lonygen
-
-_
-

Hz 505 -
trots.iq#gPTnhkddgeo.N.ofs--t2t2t2 +6

linkage
,qwxide
- 2 p

1121208 ¥, sina.aoo-oo-s.io?oitntion.ofSEfIf2t2
I
I
-

be ftp.ofje-peronideo.N.ofae
-

to .

-
3 i linkage -
a
z
-
-

Caollz Cad ! ou
- -
z 72

Fez
•
Fez Oy Feo +

Cequimolaumintwee)
Life in -12
2. Fe in -13

be , 0,2 2K (7×2)=-2
-
-

a > + f
-

B. 06 ON -_
6 Neet 2019 Odb
 Balancing Redon Reaction

Onidation No . method Ion -

electron method
Example
-

Example -

Cu Cu (NO 3)
- -

Og Mz O
-

t HN → t NO z t
Iz t on → I 03 t I t
te O
'
z

step I -

write
given equation step I
-

split into a half

write onidation of all atoms equations
step I No
-

Tinto; ciifiiiojjztni of + Ii E Hao ( d)

oui
' -

ai Ig
-

→
+
,
Iz t on → t

Iz ( reducer)
-

→ I

www.otefhafgniong!
#
step -

step TI Adding on ions

-

+5 + y

HN Oz → NO z
-

② ( for 2 molecule of H2O -

OH ions)
-

Increase in onidation 2
No
of Cu 2
per molecule
-
-
.

oxidation
-

Decrease in No .

of N = 2
per molecule Iz t 12011 → 2IOj +
6h20
Step II -

make increase and decrease

electrons
equal multiply ② by CD Step TI Adding
-

. .

cut 2MW Oz → Cu ( NO 3)
z
+ 2N
Oz + H2O to the sides
deficient
in electrons
Balance Nitrate ions 2105+61120+10 e-
-

step I -

. Iz -112011 →

Cll
-

4 HN Og Cu (NO Iz 2e → 23
-

→ t
3)
+ t 2N
Oz -1 2h20
z

step II
Balancing electrons
-

both
in
-
half reactions .

12 OH
2IOj GHz Ot Ge
-

Iz →

Follow
t t

I
any LIZ IT
5 2e
-

t → 2

Io
step I -

Add both half

reactions

nature
's : :: is:: : :: :
Types of Redon Reactions

Indirect redox Direct Redon Intermolecular Intramolecular

Reaction reaction Redox Reaction Redox Reaction

where onidation Where onidation Where one where one

and redox and reduction reactant is element is
reactions occur reactions occur onidised and onidised
in different in some other is while other
vessels vessel reduced .
is reduced
in same

o +3
compound .

LAL + Fez 03 2KI0z

-13 O
Is
"
-2

Alzoztfe 2k£, -1302

Disproportionation Reaction
Same
and
substance
reduction .
undergoes simultaneous onidation

O -
t +5

362 t 6 NaOH 5 Nacl +

Nacloz -131120
decrease

Neet 2019

increase
PREVIOUS YRS IMPI
.
Solid State .

of Solids
i

Types
> Crystallography
cubic system
> Analysis of
• close
packing
Void foe
•

.
,
,
Sep

Ratio Packing Efficiency

→ Radius
-

structure of
Ionic crystals
: ni:{oyegontfa.ua,
→
:
.
Eggs
in Solids
→
Defects
solids
→ Properties of
2 Q Is
 TYPES OF SOLIDS n

• CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

Glass is a

supercooled
liquid because
it is amorphous
solid and
shows
property
to
flow ,

though slowly .

CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Crystal :
Homogenous portion of solid substance
made
by regular pattern of structural
units
making definite angles with
each other .

Unit cell : smallest portion of crystal lattice

which when repeated in different
directions lattice
,
generates entire .
r

ANALYSIS OF CUBIC SYSTEM -

Behaviors lattices : hossible 143 -

D
lattices .

be divided into
Unit cells can
broadly -

• PRIMITIVE UNIT CELLS Unit cell in which

:

on the
constituent particles are
present only
corner fresitions of a unit cell .

Total No atoms in
.

of
unit cell 2
Ix
one = s =

8 corners X each corner

shared by s
particles

• NON PRIMITIVE UNIT CELLS : Unit cell in

which besides corners
,
constituent particle is
present at also
other positions .

Body centred unit cell ( bcc)

• 8 corners contribute 2
atom unit cell
per
• centre atom contribute
one atom per unit cell .

Total atoms = It I
=
2
 Face centred Unit cell (fcc)

•
Eight corners contribute
1 atom free unit cell .

Each 6 face centred

•
of
shared
atoms
by two

adjacent unit cells

6 X
Iz 3 atoms
: . =

Total Atoms = 3+1 =

4

Close Packing in Crystals

1 D
close
fracking in -

Only one
way to

arrange spheres
in 2 D -
. close
packed
structure .

• Each sphere in contact with 2 other spheres .

• Coordination No .
= 2

close hacking in 2 D -

Two
different ways :

AAA
type (square close)

CN = 4

Z AB AB
tyhe (hexagonal closed
CN = 6
Has
Triangular voids : Dm one row -

alpen
is
upwards ; other now has
downward open .
 in 3 D
close fracking
-

Obtained 2 D
i

above
by stacking layers one
-

another .

2 AAA ( 2 D square
type The second
By
-
close
packing)
layerisof 2 D square
i
-

closed
fracking placed over
first layer such that spheres of
second
layer exactly
are above
those
of first layer .

Primitive Unit cell is

formed .

D
By 2
hexagonal close
packing
-

z
AB AB
-

type
• 20
hexagonal close
A has similar
fracked
layer layer above
it such that spheres of 2nd layer
are placed in
depressions of 1st
layer .

B ABC ABC
type
•
when third layer is placed
over second , there are 2

possibilities :

① cover Tetrahedral voids

Zn
Mg ,

② cover octahedral voids cu , Ag

 VO I D S
spaces between
•
Empty spheres .

•
Triangular void was
formed in 2 D -

close
packing
Two
Types of Voids in 3 D close
-

packing
Tetrahedral void

⑦ -

Tetrahedral void
No 2X Atoms
of TV NO
of
. = .

Octahedral voids
z
PMT -
12
No .

of OV = No .

of atoms

• There is one octahedral

void at centre of each
and one at
12
edges
Body centre .

Edges contribution
Lux 12--3
-
-
 PACKING EFFICIENCY
total space
% of filled by particles .

I help Iacp equally efficient 7744%1 . .

cube
ii. Radius
of sphere a :
length of
centred ( bcc) 681
III body te =
531
.

74%
II face centred (fcc) ie
-
-
a- pm T -
ly
ZJZ

II simple cubic Csce) 52.4%

le =
Az

we do not need Derivations

RADIUS -

RA T IO

Radius Radius cation

of
ratio
lez
=
=

Radius anion
of

on : coordination
Number

NEET lb -
 Density of Unit cell
PMI 15
X M
-

D = Z

a3 X No

present Unit call

2 : no -

of atoms in one

me : molar mass
a
edge length of unit cell
:

No :
Avogadro
's Number

structure of Crystals
 Defects in Solids
• Line defects :arrangement
Deviations
from ideal
in entire
of lattice rows

points .

• Point defects : Deviations from ideal

arrangement around a point
or an atom .

stoichiometric
Defects
Impurity
Defects mmetnr-is-wdiefheif.is

Stoichiometric Defects
. Do not disturb
stoichiometry of solid .

• Intrinsic /
Thermodynamic defects .

I
vacancy Defect
• When some of lattice
sites are vacant .

• Decrease
density
• Also develop by heating .

z
Inter stial Defect
OR molecules
. when some atoms
occupy an

interstitial site .

• Increases
Density
 Better studied as follows -

I
Shottky Defect
•
Equal rations and equal anions
are
missing .

• Decreases
density
Quite
•
significant .

size
Shown substances where of
•
by
cations E anions almost similar .

( KU , Nacl , Cscl , Ag Br)

106 cm 3
Shottky pairs per at
temp
•
room .

2 Frenkel Defect
• Smaller ion dislocated from its
normal site to an interstitial
site .

vacancy defect
•
creates .

• Dislocation Defect .

Density unchanged
which have
• Shown
by substances
in ions
large difference .

( 2ns Aga , Ag Br , Ag 's )

,

Ag Bee is shows both

shottky I Frenkel Defect

IMPURITY DEFECTS
when other ration
• some
of more
valency occupies the position .

Example : Nacl
having little Srdz
Agh having Cd Ua
:
Non -

Stoichiometric Defects
metal Excess Defect

Due to Anion vacancies Due to entree cations

interstitial
at
sites
In Nacl ,
KU ZnO is white in
•
By loss of electron by colour but loses
cnygen
Nat and turn
Na atoms to
form yellow on

released
and electrons
heating .

diffuse into
crystal I
" -

interstitial site
ZnO → zn t
iz Oz + 2e
occupy .

now excess GE
F centres
- : Anionic sites , mores

to interstitial sites
occupied by unpaired electrons

Nacl :
yellow
Lice :
pink
ku : violet

metal Deficiency
less metal
• solids
containing amount
of as

compared to stoichiometric composition .

Fe Oo
Typical Example : e 0
mostly found as . as
 \

Properties of Solids

Electrical Properties
• CONDUCTORS
'
' I
104 D-
conductivity
-

-
lo m

• INSULATORS
' ' I
or
-

-20
-

conductivity
-

to -
lo m

• SEMICONDUCTORS
b
104 r im
conductivity
- - -
i
to -

• Silicon I Germanium : Intrinsic ( Pure) Semiconductor .

suitable
•

Doping is
adding a
impurity to
increase the
conductivity .

• Such impurities introduce Electronic

Defects

Electron Rich Impurities with Group elements

:
Doping 15

with Group 13 elements

Electron Deficit Impurities :
Dohring
Magnetic Properties
g.
PARAMAGNETISM
•
weakly attracted
by magnetic field .

• Due to presence of one or more unpaired electrons

Cut fest

312
, ,
Cy

DIAMAGNETISM
iinohhosllt
weakly repelled by magnetic field
-

direction -
No unpaired electrons

3 FERROMAGNETISM
Attracted
•
strongly by magnetic field .

oriented &
• Domains
randomly their
magnetic
moments
got cancelled .

Fe , Co , Ni , Gd , Cr Oz

4 FERRI MAGNETISM
•

Magnetic moments of domains are

aligned
in parallel I antiparallel in unequal number

weakly attracted by magnetic field

.

o .

Fez Oy , Mg Fez Oy ,
Znfez Oy

5 ANTI FERROMAGNETISM
oriented and cancel
• Domains are
oppositely
out each others
magnetic field
'
.

Mno

Diamond : 8 atoms
/ unit cell Nzef; ;
PREVIOUS YRS IMPI .
SOLUTIONS
solutions
types of
concentration of Solution

Solubility
Raoult 's Law

colligate
've Properties
✓ant Hoff factor

2- 2Q/s
Types of Solutions

Concentration of Solution
I Mole mole of compound
fraction
=
.

Total moles

2 .

Molality = wt of solute x 1000

mole wt of solute x wt of solvent g)

W solute x 1000
3 .

Molarity =

Mol wt x volume (ml)

 4 . % weight by volume

5- % weight by mass

6 .

Normality
=
Equivalent of salute
Vol
of solution ( )
.
L

molarity Normality Temperature Dependent

:

Molality ,
Mole fraction :
Temperature Independent

Solubility of Gases (Henry 's law

)

tiresome of at
solubility of gas in
gas
surface of liquid
Henry 's Law
p =
Kun

kn :
Henry 's constant
r mole
fraction
:

Value depends upon

of Henry 'sand
constant
nature
of gas temperature

mere the value

of kn : lesser the
solubility
of gas
Raoult 's Law
Non Volatile solute in volatile solvent .

po -

Ps N solute

°o° p
vapour pressure
=
of pure solvent
Ps
=
vapour pressure of solution

N solute = mole fraction of solute

volatile solute in volatile solvent

PA -
-
Pon
. Na
ptofae = PA + PB

PB = PB NB

PA =
vapour pressure of A (solvent)
PB =
vapour pressure of B ( solute)

Port =
vapour pressure of pure A
Pops =
vapour pressure of pure B

NA and NB = Mole
fractions of A E B
Ideal I Non Ideal Solution

colligate Properties
Properties that depend on number of solute
particles dissolved in it
.
I .
Relative lowering of vapour Pressure
P%p;aPA_ NB Wmf my
= =
'
'

2 .
Osmotic Pressure
A CRT
(
=
c : concentration)
Ry
it
my
=

Osmotic pressure is excess

pressure must be
applied on a solution to prevent passage of
solvent into it
through semipermeable membrane .

3 . aeration in
Boiling point
D Tb = T -

TO

D Tb = Kb M

(m -
-

molality)

Kb molal elevation
:

constant or
Ebuioswpie constant
4 .

Depression in freezing point

Dlf =
Kf M

Kf :
molal Depression
constant
or
constant
Cryoswpic

Kb and Kf
:
Intensive Properties of solvent

Van 't Hoff factor Ci)

i observed value of
=

Theatrical value
colligate Papery
i = no .

of moles after dissociation

no .

of moles before dissociation

i = I 9 deal solution

i > 2 Dissociation

i < 2 Association
Degree of Association

L = No .

of moles associated
Total No .

of moles taken

in =

In '
-

Degree of Dissociation

i = It Cn -

D2

. Total No .

of ions produced her

molecule
of electrolyte
PREVIOUS Yrs Imps
ELECTRO CHEMISTRY

/
...

:::::::*
Conductivity

Electrolysis
Batteries

2 2 Q Is
-
 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

Electrochemistryreleased
study of production
:
of elect
}
during spontaneous chemical
from energy
reactions and electrical
use
of energy to
bring
about non
spontaneous chemical reactions .

Daniell Cell
converts chemical liberated during the
energy
•

redox reaction to electrical

energy .

voltaic cell 1 Galvanic cell

( )

Zn ( s) +
wYaq, 2nYaqf Cues)
Electric
potential I IV = -

combination of 2 half reactions

"
Cee Cu (s)
-

•
t 2e →

(Reduction half)
"
2n (s) - Zn
-

•
t 2e

( onidation half)

These reactions occur in two different portions

of Daniel cell .

These two portions called as :

Half cells / Redon couples .

The
electrolytes of two half cells are connected

internally through a Salt Bridge .

 •
of an external
opposite potential
applied in galvanic
cell and increased

slowly ,
reaction
continues to take
place till the
value
opposing
reaches l -
IV .

• When the reaction

stops ,
no current
-

flows through cell .

• Potential difference which develops between the

electrode and
electrolyte : Electrode potential .

•
Half cell in which onidation takes place : AN ODE
C- ve potential)
•
Half cell in which reduction takes place : CATHODE
( ve potential)
+

• Thus
,
there exists a
potential difference between
two electrodes : As soon as switch is on -

Electrons electrode to
→
flow from negative
positive electrode .

→ current flow is
opposite to electron flow .

• The cell
potential is difference between
electrode potential
of cathode and anode .

It is called cell Electromotive Force (emf ) of

the cell when no current is drawn
through
the cell .

CONVENTION : Anode
while
on
left ; cathode on

cell
Right
representing galvanic .
 In (s)
"
Anode
-

2n Cag) + 2e At
cutey) t 2e arts) at cathode
-

" "
2nd) t Cu Cag ) Zn Cag) t cuts)

Representation : znlzn
"
II cut ' Icu

Emf of cell = Eanode t E cathode

= Oxidation potential + Reduction
of anode
potential of cathode

= Reduction potential
-
Reduction
of cathode -

potential of .

anode

standard
hydrogen Electrode

Hz 2Mt O OV (Anode)
-

→ t 2e -

2Mt (cathode)
-

t 2e → Hz O OV-

with help of SHE -

the standard Reduction

values all electrodes
potential
determined
of has
electrochemical
been

and placed in
series .
 Nernst Equation -

[cell Ecole
2n3foI log Products
-

(Reactant)

Chocked
C-cell
Eide 00h51 log
= -

(Reactant)

E- cell Cee
" "
for 2n Cs) t
Cag)
→ Zn Cag ) t Cues)

Ecole =
Eceee -

00529L log (C2n

Aest )

Conductivity
conductance
Electrolytic : conductance is the
-

property of conductor which

facilitates the

flow of electricity .

Conductance = 1

Resistivity
I
k =

R -

-
e
La (La : cell constant
)
 Molar conductivity
'
Am ' '
kxtooo ohm
-

= Units : em mot
'
Sms mot
Molarity
:

Equivalent conductivity
they
1
kxtooo ' '
Units ohm
-
-

= :
em eg
I
Normality :
Smzeq
-

Dilution
Effect of
• Conductance increases .

specific conductivity decreases

•
Equivalent I Molar conductivity increases .

kohlraush 's Law

At
infinite dilution where dissociation
of
-

is
all
electrolytes complete and all
interiano
effects disappear each ton ,
its ion and
migrates independently
contributes to total
of
molar conductivities .

Mm =
MITE + nunda
 Hey =

Iie
+
Ima

Relation between dm and Reg

Reg dmv
=

f
-
.

to
• Law
useful measure
conductivity of
a weak
electrolyte .
 Electrolysis
• Sn
is
an
electrolytic
passed to
cell : electrical
bring about redox
energy
reaction
is
which otherwise non -

spontaneous .

Faraday 's laws

1st Law 2nd Law

E =

of .
Wei
-
-
we
Ez

weight of a Quantity
substance of electricity
liberated passed
w do
= 20 f-
w = 96500

W -
- zit

2
-

E
Electrochemical
-

Z :
F
Equivalent
 Batteries

secondary fuel cells

Trinary cells
cells

can be produced
cannot be
energy combustion
recharged recharged from
of fuels .

Dry cell cell Ni ed cell Mz Oz fuel

- -

cell
mercury .
Previous YEARS Impe
.
Chemical kinetics

Rate Reaction
of
Order I molecularity
Rate Law

Integrated Equations
4- Half life
collision
Theory
Activation Energy
Arrhenius Equation

2- 2 Q Is
 Rate of Reaction
• Reaction Rate =
change in conc of reactant
.

change in time

At B → CTD

• Reaction rate wrt Disappearance of Reactant

IB)
ddfI =
-
=

dt

•
Reaction rate Wrt
Appearance of Product
= dce ) = DID
DF dt

factors Affecting it -

I .

Temperature : Increases rate

2 Concentration Reactant it Increases rate
.

of
3 . Pressure : Increases rate
4 .

Catalyst : tue catalyst increases rate

 Order I Molecularity
Order
•
found Experimentally .

Can 't be deducted

•
from
equation .

• Can be 0 tve
g
ve
-

AA t bB →
-

Product

Rate
of Reaction =
KCA]m[BY

Overall order = Mtn

rmoleulasity
No .

of reacting molecules colliding together

simultaneously to
give product .

Theatrical and cannot be more than 3 .

Cannot be 0 or -
ve .
 I

Half life Equations .

tyz = L
n I
( Ao)
-

Integrated Rate Equations

• for Zero Order

)
initial convent
"

k=AofA_ (A Ao :

final
"
: concent

•
for 1st order

a-
2.3ft log faff skype Its
egg
-

42 = 0.6-93
a time
 Collision Theory
Reactant molecules collide with each other to
state
form transition state or activated .

Activation
Energy
Minimum molecules
energy required by of
reactants to cross barrier
energy .
 Arrhenius Equation .

• Rate constant increases with increase

in temperature -

Explained by this
equation .

-
EUR7
K
-

- Ae

link = lnA -
EI
RT

Hohe -

Ligon
ugh

÷
Temperature coefficient
with 10°C rise in temperature
every ,

either doubled
rate
of
reaction
gets
or tripled or between them .
Previous Yrs Impe
.
 S,e Yhe w t (onaing
GCELEBRo
...

Adßnp" Anaaahl ExathtkÄC.

Z02 (630k), ct, (140k), H(33K)

Adsarp" iaditotyiSlue Halidog odMA hyne dy, uke EoSEL,

Mmlr, T: 4323633K

(u

ABnNNCLEASE
 CELEBRO
DATE.

So t2s 3S (Sa)t 2W20

RAulla+ 24cH0 3M20a 2 A (Sa) t 3HCODI 4 6MO
fe (ow), (sot) +3HU

Ikeanpis jlenpAalbidkasahonduiayhy naldsleydik

AuT Shok a Mild to STRAG 0PALeSCENCE wdn ieue

JmNCLT
Blond

TANNING
|Animal hidle alloidal.

ltdsacicQaiat
Periodic Table -

I
mt.EE:5?E:.rom:aE.-
.

• Mendeleev 's Periodic Table

Mo Modern Periodic Table
•

osley's
→ M odeum Periodic Table
and Blocks
groups
.

• Periods

properties
•
Nomenclature

Periodicity in

Screening effect
•

• Radius
• Ionisation Potential
• Electron
affinity
•

Electronegativity
•
Some other properties

2 Qts
Attempts to
classify elements
DO BE RE N EIR TRIAD

elements
•
1st to
classifymiddle element
.

is other
• Atomic mass
of average of 2 atoms .

- -

NEW LAND 'S LAW OF OCTAVES

•
Arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic
weight in such a way that every 8th element had
fvwperties similar to first .

- -

not
calcium
after

MENDELEEV 'S PERIODIC TABLE

Atomic Mass
1st
significant classification based on
-

s vertical columns (groups) and 9th added inert

• one
for gases
(zero group) .

Enceht for zero and VII all other divided

•
group -

groups
into two A and B
subgroups
E- ka ne Ga=
Eka Si = Ge
• 63 elements were classified
MOSELEY MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
Based on Atomic Number

JJ ( frequency) against atomic number plot gave straight line

•

with atomic it
while mass -
was
zig zag path .
 Modern Periodic Table .

•
7 Horizontal Rows
( PERIODS)

•
28 Vertical Columns
( GROUPS)

• 1st
period : 2 elements
( shortest period)
• 2nd 3rd -
: 8 elements
periods
(short period)

• 4th Sth -
: 18 elements
periods
( long periods)
6th elements
•
period : 32

(longest period)
Position Element 7th
Identifying of period INCOMPLETE
'

. -
:

BLOCK -
subshell to which last electron is added
PERIOD -

valence shell Neet 2017

GROUP

d block
s block
p block f block
No of valence to
of No
of valence Always
. + No . .

electron valence electron electron + 3rd

Example A = 22 No
of electron Group
-
.

up 0353 p
b
Bd 452
'
252252 in Cn Dd
-

Block : id ; Group .
2+1=3 subshell
Nomenclature • F Block
Lanthanides : A Css -
71 )
Actinoid : A (98-103)

FACTS

Transuranium elements
[Elements after Uranium ]

• 1st Man made element .

Tc

- .
Representative Elements

-
tandnentpsbeaks
block
]
•
Although He
belongs
to s block but its

position in
p block
is
justified because
it has
completely
15 sub shell
fitted noble
Neet 2020 feature of gas .

Periodicity
Neet 2016

Gelb)
Screening Effect : The
combined effect of attractive
and repulsive forces acting
on valence electron enheriences
less attraction
from nucleus s > p >d >
f
called as
screening effect .

Gunning effect of electron)

 -

PMT 2015
1
-

ATOMIC SIZE -

• Atomic Radius : calculated by distance between

atoms in ,
combined state .

covalent Radius Vanderwall Radius Metallic Radius

de di "

id
Ucav = d- Cvw = I
2 2 km =d
.
2

GROUP : -

Radius increase [ Zeff remains same ]

PERIOD : -
Radius decrease [ Zeff increases ] -

P'MT 2014
IONIC
-

SIZE A > A > At

-

Noofproto# &
Zeff Zeff increases
No
of electrons
.
size decreases

2 ENERGY
ONIZATION
electron is
Energy change when an removed
from an

isolated
gaseous atom . (ENDOTHERMIC)
IE L Zeff 2 1- IES > Ez > IE ,
Atomic size

faeways for an element )

GROUP : IE decrease but it also
generally
-

PERIOD : -

IE increase depends on electron

Neet 201g
configuration
1522g' If 252 1522522ps
"
152252ps 1522,22ps 6
LI L B L Be < ( C O C N L F Ccc Ne fully filled orbital
and 2nd shell
fully filled half filled p orbital
 ELECTRON PMT 2010
AFFINITY
}
-

Energy released when an electron is added to

isolated atom
an
gaseous .

•
can be eve or -
ve . .

Measure the which atom become

by
•
ease an can

ANION EA l
an . L Zeff d

Atomic size
PERIOD to
: Increases from left right
GROUP : Decreases from tofu to bottom
Group 17 :"
High
-

ve Electron
Affinity / Electron Gain
Enthalpy
Group 18 :
Large
eve Electron Crain
Enthalpy

Group
Group
17
16
o

:
U
s
7 F
> se >
> Br > I
ye > Po > o
(voltage of small size of )

4 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
attract shared pain of electron
Ability to .

EN 2
Zeff d

Atomic size
PERIOD : Increases
GROUP i Decreases
Man fluorine Cf )
Min
Electronegative Element :

Electronegative Element i caesium Ccs)

Xm = 28 XP
mulling Pauling scale
scale Neet 2019

More
electronegative element More is the ACIDIC STRENGTH
:

N Oz > ZnO 71520 ( Acidic strength)

Hof 7 HOU > HO Bee > HOI
 Other Properties I

2 Metallic character .

PERIOD : Decreases
from left to
night .

GROUP : Increases
from top to bottom .
.

:. Now Metallic character is vice versa .

2 Hydration Energy

Enthalpy change that occurs

by dissolving
2 mob ions in water
of gaseous .

PERIOD : Increases
from lift to right
GROUP
from top to bottom
: Decreases

size which decreases

of hydration ion increases ,
mobility .

Cst > Rbt >

Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Mobility
Order
Kt > Nat > Lit

3 Diagonal Relationship
-

Group 2 Group 2 Group 13

Group 14

2nd period Li Be B C

3rd period Na
Mg Ae si

Diagonal Relationship due to reason that these pairs of

element have almost identical ionic radii .

Element of second period :

Bridge Elements

behaviour
Anomalous of first elements
of a
group due to -

size d- orbitals
• small . Now
availability of
•

High electronegativity
Previous Yrs Imps .
Chemical Bonding
A Force that acts b/w two or atoms to hold them
more
together
characteristics of Ionic
as a stable molecule is known as chemical Bond .
compounds
a) Hard crystalline solid
Reason -

a) To attain stability b) To Follow octet Rule .

stability ✗ 1
b) High MP/ BP
solvent 114201
Energy
4 Highly soluble in
polar .

Ionic Bond :
/ Electro Valent Bond 1 covalent Bond :

Bond formed
by mutual of electrons between
Electrostatic attraction b/w cation and anion .
shaving
atoms
Metal + Non -

metal combining .

Cation + Anion H •→
H :O : = :O :

Electro valency Bond

pair pair of election
participating in Bonding
:
-

cation anion in Ionic Bond

Charge on or .
Lone
pair
-

pair of election not

participating in Bonding .

NaCl Electro
valency of Na =
-11
Coval
ency
:

Electro of Ct
valency =
-1
No of Bonds formed atom in covalent Bond
.

by an a .

Favourable conditions for ionic

Bonding :

Coval Coval
-41 5
' =3
ency ency
=

a ,
Low ionisation
a) energy of metal .

- F' "
a- F-
µ µ
b) High election
gain enthalpy .

H
Cl
c)
High Lattice 1 Force of attraction )
energy co ordinate
-

Bond :

lattice
energy
:

of covalent Bond in which Both the electrons

special type
Amount of released when mole of crystal lattice
energy one
are
given by one atom and accepted By another .

is formed
H H
.

H+
- -

energy depends :→ H
Lattice on
-

H -

N : + →
H -

H
'
H
"
f
1
Size of atoms ordinate Bond
a) Charge LE ✗
Charge b) LE ✗ co
-
-

size
variable Coval
ency
:
Born -

Haber
cycle :

Of Bonds of elections
Deals with the
energy changes involved in Formation No . =
No .

unpaired .

of one mole of ionic crystal .

Only valence electron participate in

Bonding .

'

Na Clz AH Formation
NaCl
e.
g. 502 5 =
[ Ne ] 3s
3ps 3d2
f-
+
is ) ,

^
Tt t t t t 1st excited
AH sub
1-2 HBDE

electron state
Ning , ciig , LE
4
unpaired =
4 Bond .

Drawbacks of octet rule

IEI Hi
Aeg electron deficient molecules (
a) Hypo valent )
Niicg , ciig ,
e.
g. 131=3 and Beck

AH formation AH sub -1 IE , +

1-2 AHBDE
+
Aeg H, + LE b) Expansion of octet 1
Hyper valent )
=

PC Is and 503
e.
g.
Why to
study Boon -

Haber ?
Odd election NO 2
Because cannot determine value of LE
c) species e.
g.
experimentally
.

we
 Bond Parameters
Overlapping :
-

a) Bond order 11301 a) +ve

overlapping
Number of Bonds between two
combining atoms .
Same
sign lobes overlap .

H -
H B. 0=1 Bond is Formed .

03 B- 0=1.5
C -
C B. 0=1
Colts B. 0=1.5
} Due to
b) -

overlapping
ve
c=C B. 0=2 Resonance
opposite sign lobes overlap .

C. = C B- 0=3
No Bond Formation .

b) Bond
length 11311 c) Zero
overlapping
Px PY

8 8
.

z-axis
Distance b/w nucleus of two atoms effective
overlapping zero .

No Bond Formation Px +
Py
Bond 1 BE )
.

c) energy
More close is the
overlapping orbital to nucleus
-

to dissociate Bond
Energy required any
.
.

extent of
more
overlapping and stronger is bond .

1 IS IS > 25-25 > 35-35

BL ✗ Size of atoms ✗
-

No .
of Bonds
Move the directional nature of
overlapping orbitals
-

B. L -

H F -
< H -

CI < H -

Br < H I -

move is the extent of

overlapping .

B. L -

C C -
> c=c > CEC
25-25 < 25
2p <
2p 2p
- -

1. 54 Ñ 1.34 Ñ 1.2 Ñ
Axial
overlapping or End to End
Overlapping :

Overlapping along inter nuclear axis

gizefatom
NO Of Bonds
-

B. E ✗ ✗
.

Bond is Formed
Sigma
-

orbital always undergo axial

B. E H F > H CI > H Br > H I S
overlapping
-
-
-
- - - -
.

B. E -

C C < C=c<c=c Parallel

overlapping side By side
-

or 00

Lateral
B. E C C > N N > O_O > F- F
overlapping or
sideways overlapping
-
- -

B. E- CI -
CI > Bo Bo - > F F -
> I I -

above and below inter

Overlapping nuclear axis
- -

B. E -

S s -
> O -

O -

TI -
Bond is Formed .

First Bond Formed is

d) Bond
angle 1 Hybridisation ) always o
-
.

Angle b/w two adjacent Bonds .

Difference between
Sigma and pi Bond :

valence 11113T )
Bond
theory Sigma Bond Pi Bond

covalent Bond
stronger the it Formed
by axial
overlapping it Formed
by parallel overlapping
t
2) stronger Because extent of 2) Weaker because extent of
'

More is B. E
y
, overlapping is move .

overlapping is less .

3) Allowed
Less is B. L
overlapping 3) Allowed overlapping p d
S S S
p p p
- - - -

, .
,

and p p -

.
and d- d.

Free rotation not

41 Free Rotation possible .
41
possible
Bond
angle
-

Example Hyb Geometry shape structure

Angle b/w two Bonds 2+2-0+01 Linear Linear

Beck
:-(
.
sN= Cl -
Be -

Order of repulsion LP LP LP BP BP BP 0=180

.

- -
> -
> -

=2
sp
-

Factors Bond
affecting angle BP __2LP=0
-

a) Lone pair F
-0+01
Bond
131=3
514--12-13+3 Trigonal Trigonal
angle ✗ 1 B F

No Of lone
planar planar F
pair
'
0=120
'

=3
sp
. -

B. 10=3 tP=0
b) Electronegativity of the central atom .

Bond
angle ✗ EN of central atom .

502
514=12-16+0-0
-101
Trigonal V-shape s

c) Size of side atom Bent 0

planar 00 o
=
3
sp2
-

side atom 0<120

'

Bond
angle ✗ size of .

B. p=zLp= ,

Hybridisation :

Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
H
cha SN
1214+4-0+01
-

orbitals
Overlapping of Hybrid .

H
,

H
=
4- sp3 µ

Hybrid orbitals are identical sin size shape and

energy 1310=4 tP=O
'

, .
0=10928

of orbitals half filled

All types i. e.
empty ,
-

00
fully filled
orbital take
µµ ,
sN=tg( 5+3-0+01 Tetrahedral
pyramidal ii
part in
hybridisation .

' H H
orbitals Orient themselves in
=
4- sp
Hybrid
H
such that
space
1310=3 tip 0<109.28
'
=L

repulsion b/w them is minimum .

Order of
repulsion LP LP > LP BP > BP BP -

H2O sN=
-1210+2-0-101 Tetrahedral V-shape or 0
- - -

H H
Angular or

How to calculate Hybridisation "

sp
= -

Bent 0<109028 '

B. P=2 Lip -_
2

Stevie number )
12-111
=
-1M -

C -1A "
15+5-0+01
pas
sN=Lz Trigonal Trigonal a

P a
Bipyramidat Bipyoamidal
sp 'd
a
11=1110 of valence in central atom =5 -

e-
CI
B. 10=5 LP=O
M= No .
of Monovalent atoms IH.F.CI 130,1 ) ,

-0+01 F
Cationic
51=4
5111=12-16+4 Trigonal see-saw
c=
charge Bipyramidal
F
s
=5
sp'd f
Anionic
charge
-

A __
.

F
B. P=5 L .P=1

5N =
No of BP -1 NO Of LP
F
. -

af,
sN=÷ (7+3-0+0) Trigonal T
shape
-

Vote -

TT Bond
plays no role in
hybridisation =5 -

sp3d
Bipyramid al
:O
-

a
,
-

1
No Ofs Bond
. =
No Of -

suiiounding atom .

B. p= } L .p=2 F

How to find central atom F

Xefz 181-2-0+01
5111=21 Trigonal Lineal
xe
1
:O
a) Least EN atom .

Bipyramid at I
=
5-
sp3d F
be central atom
b)
Hydrogen can never .

BP=2LP=3

F
Polar molecule Mnet -1-0 5111=2116+6-0+01
=
Sfo square square F f

Non -

Polat molecule =
µne-1=0 Bipyoamidal Bipyoamidal S
=
,
gpzdz
-

F F
00 octahedral or octahedral
COSOT =/Une-1^1=01 F
B. P= -6 lip =-D
 moment ( µ ) Drawbacks of VBT
Dipole
:
:

I 1
al
According to VBT .
Oxygen molecule was
Diamagnetic
M= d
d 9 ✗
practical it formed to be
But in
paramagnetic
⑦ a so
was
,

9 9

Fractional Bond order was not

Vector quantity :
I + veto -
vet
61
explained .

decided
( less EN to More EN )
c)
stability of molecule was not
by VBT .

Main points of MOT :

H Cl µ -1-0
-

CI CI a) In atoms electrons are

present in atomic orbitals
µ=o
-

b) In molecules electrons present in molecular orbitals

dipole moment
Move the EN more is ,
are .

H F > H a H Bo > H I c) NO of molecular orbitals

.
= Number of atomic orbitals combined
µ = >
- - -
- .

c- Cl > C F > c- By > c- I When two atomic orbitals combine =

2 molecular orbitals
µ
= -

are Formed
cclq < CHC 13 < ctlzclz < ctlzcl
.

µ
=

NH 3 > NF 3
a) Bonding molecular orbital ( BMO )
µ
=

ABMO )
b) Anti
Bonding molecular oobital (
-

MO is under the influence of two than two nuclei

Application of Dipole moment : or more .

Electrons are
according to Afbau 'S Rule Hund 's
Filled .

1) To determine whether a molecule is polar 00 Rule of Max .

multiplicity and pauli 's exclusion principle .

MO are formed
by Linear combination of atomic orbitals
non polar .
.

A and B LCAO
21 TO Find % ionic character in covalent Bond .

YA YB YBMO =
YA -1 YB constructive interference
% ionic character =

Experimental µ ✗ too YABMO =

YA -

YB Destructive interference
Theoretical µ YMO =
YA -1-413

BMO 1 Bonding Molecular orbital 1

Fagan 's Rule :

TO Find covalent character in Ionic Bond .

Formed by constructive interference .

and
Covalent character ✗ Polarisation .
Lower
energy more
stability .

Increases electron
density in region b/w 2 nuclei
Factors
affecting polarisation :
-

↳ not
a) Size -

For Max .
covalent character YBMO =
YA + YB may or
may
have node
4132 -124A YB
'
4213170
.

Cation size should be small =

YA +

Anion size should be

large .

ABMO ( Anti -

Bonding Molecular orbital 1

Lid > NaCl > KCI Rbcl > Cscl Formed destructive interference
by
>
.

b)
charge Higher energy and less stability .

For Max .
covalent character Electron
density decreases b/w 2 nuclei .

cation and anion should be YABMO YA YB

Charge on
=
more
-

NaCl <
Mgclz <
Along <
siclq 42A BMO =
42A -1473 -

24A 413

Formal
c) Electronic
configuration of cation .
charge
cations
having pseudo noble
gas configuration F. c =
Valence e- -

[ Non -

Bonding e- ] -

12-1 Bonding e- 1
has more covalent character .

CH } -

O -
CH} 5=6-[3+2]
CUCI > NaCl
14 =
-11
 of Molecular orbital
Types
:

at GMO -

Formed
by overlapping along internuclear axis .

• IS 6*15 625 6*25 021oz 6*2102

BMO ABMO BMO ABMO BMO ABMO

above and below inter nuclear axis

b) TIMO Overlapping is
-
-

lT*2Py
#
-112Pa IT 2Pac TT2Py
Electronic
configuration of molecules :

No of (
case 1 £14
Tl2Px=T12Py)o2Pz
: .

e-

case 2 :
No of -
e- > 14
o2Pz(TT2Px=T12Py )
Na= No of .

e- in ABMO

Nb= No of .

e- in BMO

B. ING Na )
0=1-2
-

Trick

toe B. 0=2
-

→
B- 0>0 → molecule exists

B. 010 molecule does not exist He B. 0=1.5

-

→ →
.

☐ e- → B. 0=2
of molecule
stability
13 e- →
B. 0=2.5
move the 13^0 move is
stability
=
.

14 e- → B. 0=3
If B. 0 is same ,
then lower hoof e- is ABMO '

☒ e- → B. 0=2.5
Higher is
stability .

16 e- → B. 0=2
B. 0 ✗ B. Ex -1
Me B. 0=1.5
-

→
B. L
18 e- → B. 0=1

Diamagnetic
-

zero
unpaired e-
Exception
-

co -1=13 e-

Paramagnetic
-

Atleast one
unpaired e- .
B. 0=3.5
 S block
-

|
Physical properties
chemical fuoherties

Compounds

I-2 Ofs
 Physical Properties

'

Atomic Radii
• Alkali metals have
largest radii in period .

Cs > Rb > K > Ba 7 Sr > Ca 7 7 hi Be

Na 7 Mg 7

Density .

Alkali metals : Cs > Rb > Na > k 7 Li

Alkaline Be 7
earth metals : Ba > Sr 7
Mg > Ca

melting I Boiling point

Li Na > k 7 Rb > b
Gp2 : >
 Gop 2 : Be > Ca ) Sr > Ba >
Mg

Order of hydration in cation

.

'

Gp2 : lit > Nat > Rt y Rb y Cst

"
Be" Bat 2
-12 -12
cap 2 : >
Mg > Ca > Sr >

Conductivity
size
opposite of hydration
Ionization Energy
1st 1st
IE
of Gp2 C IE
of Gp2
Ind IE
of Gp2 7 2nd IE
of Gp2

Reducing Nature
s block elements
good reducing agents
are .

Li :
Exceptionally strongest reducing agent
due to small size and
high hydration
enthalpy .
flame colouration .

chemical properties
oxides
02 02 02
M Mz O Mzoz Moz

Peggy:dg
syfggxide.li
oyiod.es,
forms stable Liao ,
Na :
Naz Oz and rest
Gp2 forms superoxide .
• Be .
Mg ,
Ca :
stable oxides
Ba ,
Sr : stable peroxides .

Hydroxides
Down the Basic character increases
group
:

Before )z :
Amphoteric

Halides
halides
. All halides ionic except Beryllium .

increases
•
Reactivity from Li
Be
to
to
Cs
Ba
. and
.

Hybridisation of Be -

solid state
atom in Beck
sp3 -

spz vapour phase

-

sp
-
Above 1200k

Carbonates
. Carbonates of Gp2 do not decompose enceht
Liz 63 -

Liz Coz → liz O +

Coz P

Carbonates of Gp2 decompose

•
.
 Reaction with Nz
• In Gp2 only Li reacts with Nz to give Liz N
.
Gptt reacts to
give Mz Mz .

Reaction with MHz

•
M → Mt ( in aqueous med)

"
Mt (nty ) MHz →
( m ( Nhan
) t

@ ENNDYJ
solvated
electrons

increases
• As
electropositive
ammoniated
'tmetal cation
:
stability of
increases .

• Blue colour due to solvated electrons .

•
Paramagnetic behaviour

Strong Reducing property .

M → m
"
t ze
-

( GPI)
2MHz 2N Nj
-

+ 2e →
+
Hz

2T
M ( Nm) z
-

+ 2N Nz -7 M
 Compounds
Nazcoz . 10MW (washing Soda)

•
Prepared by Solvay 's Process

•
Solvay process not
because
employed for manufacture
of
in
kzcoz
water .
kncoz is
fairly soluble

Paper Textile
Used in
industry
:
•
D ,

2) Laundry
Paints
3)
 NaOH (caustic Soda)
Prepared Castner Kellner fracas
by
-

• .

• Brine solution of Nacl is

electrolyzed .

• Used in preparation of soaps and in

petroleum refining .

Nancy (Baking Soda)

mild antiseptic
for skin

infections .
Cao ( Quicklime)
Used in
•

purification of sugar

Ca Con ) ,
slaked lime
Used in preparation
mortar
of .

Used in
glass making
and
tanning industry .
Plaster of Paris (
Cason .

Enzo)

Imht

N but
lines .
Previous Yrs Im PT .
GROUP (
,

- 13 BORON FAMILY )

/
1
Physical Properties
chemical
Compounds
Properties
BORAX
•

•
BORIC ACID
•
DIBORANE

GROUP -
14 GAIETY y ) ,

/ EYesmiicau.pe#ieies
Compounds •

-
Allotropes of
CO
CO
carbon

z
•
Si Oz
• Silicones
\S .
silicates
•
Zeolites
 GROUP 13 -

heterogeneous family
Most .

( because
regular
No trend in
B any property
AL it is 1st
group after d Ef block)
Ga
Physical Properties
-

-
-n
Te
2 Metallic character
B : non metallic
Al most metallic
:

• Decrease in metallic character to Ga

shielding
-

Effect .

B : -
hard black solid
2 Ionization
Energy : -

many allotropes
: unusual
high melting
-

3 > Tl 7 Ga > Al > In point

Ga lowest
melting
:
point
-

3 Atomic size NE ET -
18 : -

measures
high
temperature
Tl 7 In > Al 7 Ga 7 B
size decreases down smaller
group but Ga3rdis orbital
-

than Al
poor shielding effect of
:

4 lection
ergativity
-

3 7 Tl 7 In > Ga 7 Al

Re PMT -15
5 Onidation State 3 to +s

decreases down
3
group
+
.

increases down
+ 2
group .
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1 REACTION WITH AIR

B ,
Al : Forms trioxide & Nitrate
Ga ,
In : not
affected
13203 Ala Oz
69203 In 203 The 03
Acidic Basic
amphoteric amphoteric Basic

anhydride of Hz Boz
REACTION WITH ACIDS
2
B : Does not react with Hel E dil Hzsoy
• All others react with iconic tizsoy I HN
Oz
• Ga E Al :
protected onide
layer with conc tinos .

3 REACTION WITH ALKALIES

• In ,
Tl : Do not react with alkali

M NaOH Nam Oz +
Hz
t t
Hz O

Al Ga .
:
Amphoteric

4 REACTION WITH HALOGENS

No electrons around central atom (B in Bfs) is 6
• .

of .

•
They are electron
deficient molecules ( Lewis Acids)

• Aed, achieves
stability by forming
a dinner
octet complete)
.

( NON -
PLANAR ;
 pit pit back
bonding 2p 2p >
2p 3ps > 2p up
-
-
- -

size increases
decreases
Back
bonding
Bfg L B Uz s B.Beez C B
13 PMT - 2010

Back
bonding strongest (LEWIS ACID CHARACTER)

•
Ti Iz : Does not Enist
• Ga Uz more stable than Telly .

• Tell more stable than Telly .

lone electron from NB

•
Beez easily accepts a
pair of .

HY DOR LYSIS OF HALIDES

5 B ( on)g Hcl
•
BIZ +
H2O +

SNZ Mechanism
• Trichlorides encept of B on
tetrahedral
-

hydrolysis
form species @ (only] Gp3)
-

• Aluminium chloride forms octahedral

(
"
Aetna Do ]

(sp3d7
NEET -2019 Odh
 BORON ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES
Trihalides covalent
•
-
are in
"
nature .

Easily hydrolysed .

•
CM ( on)y) and (Mcm DD do not enlist .

NEE , , g
.

• Due to absence
of d orbitals : Man
covalency :
4

•
Bfs easily reacts with Lewis Bases like NB
to complete octet .

(Bfs : Lewis Acid)

COMPOUNDS
Naz By 07 10h20
BORAX
.

I.
Naz [ By Og ( )y]
on .
10h20

PREPARATION

Hz Boz +
Naz coz Naz By Og t

Mz O + Coz

•
Aqueous solution is
ALKALINE
weak acid

Naz By O , +
H2O Hz B Og t

fNywM¥
NaOH
strong base
Heating Boran
D
neem empt -

Naz By 07 .
10h20 Naz By Oy +
10h20

BORAX BEAD
a- metals orate NAB Oz +
13203 GLASSY
TRANSPARENT LIQUID

BORAX -
BEAD TEST

Boran bead +
cu cu( BOD Blue colour
,
+ co Blue
Ti
yellow
+

colours characteristic of Transition metals .

ORTHO BORIC ACID Hz Boz

•
Greasy Monobasic Lewis Acid
.

• In solid state : H bonded -

LD sheets
Hexagonal structure
-

Accepts lone
2
pain n
factor 2
-

• - -

PREPARATION

Naz By Oy + ZHU +
5h20 2 Nacl t

4 BLOM)3
PROPERTIES
-

B (on
)z t 2h OH CB (only] t Hz Ot

:k
°

Hz B Og s ,
HB Oz Bz 03

Test
for Borate Radical

( )
Hz Boz + Calls OH B ( 06h53 + H2O DRINK 4-
DRIVE TEST
Ethyl borate -

green
 DIBORANE BzH6 NEET 2013
PPI
-

pm T -

2010
Borates : Bnnnty ; Bnhn -16 NCERT

PREPARATION -
-

•
Bfg + Li
Almy 13246 + Lifalfy ) -

Bzhf t Hz t NAI
• NAB Hy t
Iz -

Bfz Nan Bano NAI

-

•
t +

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
32% +
02 Bz Oz +
nzo (etxotrpeemelyfueeexothernvi)
Bz HG
+ H2O H3B0z t
Hz

Bz HG +
NH3

excess NB IBZHG
excess NH
, 2MHz :

low temp .

high temp .

high temp .

Bz HG .

2MHz (BN) n B3N3Ho

(Nnz→Bnz←NHz) Boron nitride Borazole

Ionic Inorganic Graphite Inorganic Benzene

compound NEET -2013 (BEN sp)

-
-

USES : ① Borax : in optical glasses

② B Boz : Preservative
 GROUP 14 -

C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
si
Ge
spy 2 Metallic character
C- si : non metals
Ge :
metalloid
Sn -
Pb :
metals

2 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
C > Pb > si = Ge > Sn

melting & Boiling point of Group

Bonds
14
higher than Group 13
because metallic
of strong .

3 IONIZATION ENERGY
because of
C 7 Si > Ge > Pb > Sn lanthanide
contraction

4 Catenation Ability to make compounds

with itself .

C s> > si s Ge -
Sn

Pb : Does not show catenation

 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
I OXIDATION -
STATES NE ET -
2017

• Common on.edat.com states : * 4 ; . -12

orientation
• +2 state
tendency increases down
group .

• C E si : 44
; Sn : +2 is
reducing agent .

Pb stable
•
: +2 and +4 state is
onidising agent .

Reaction with AIR

types ofatoxides MO and

:
• Two Moz
o Sio :
only high temperature

CO2 Si Oz Ge Oz Geo
: ACIDIC OXIDES
g , ,

Sn 02 Pb Oz Sno Pbo : AMPHOTERIC

, , ,

CO
: NEUTRAL

Reaction with water

III
Fg inert
• C
,
Si
,
Ge :
unaffected Pb :

react
Sn t Mz O Sn Oz t
Hz
-
only to
with water

II Reaction with halogens

halides NE ET 19 -

• C
,
Sei Ge : COVALENT
,

•
Sn Pb halides : METALLIC
,

Two Mxz and Mxy

forms
•
:

Usually Mxy : COVALENT

NEET
Snfy ,
Pbfy : Ionic
-

2019
Sully more stable than Pb dy
• Pb Iy does not exist .

because Pb -

I bond does not

release
65 electrons
enoughand
energy
excite
to impair
one
NCERT
of them ) .
 Hydrolysis of halides

city all other tetrahalides

•
Encept : can
hydrolyse .

Sify +
H2O

si (on)
u
+
Hzsifb
silicic fluorosilicic
Acid acid

ALLOTROPES Of CARBON
I DI AMO ND
's
Each C bonded with other 4C
sp
-

Hard bond structure

strong 3D
-
or -
•

• Tetrahedral structure
•
High melting point
•

high Refractive index

• Insulator

GRAPHITE
'
• Each C bonded to other 3C -

sp
•
Hexagonal layered structure
• conductor ( because of delocalized electron)
• Weak ( because of Vanderwall forces)
Low
•
melting point .

Thermodynamically Graphite more

, stable

Graphite aqua solution : Aqua day

III
FULLERENE (Purest Allotrope) .

• Coo Buckminsterfullerene
:

12
pentagonal rings NEET-20
20
hexagonal rings statement

• All C
equal bonds with 3 others .

Spt AROMATIC

Dangling Bonds : Sn Diamond & Graphite , some

surface
of carbon have
free valency . These C
form new bonds
bonds
called
dangling .

• Absent in Fullerene

COMPOUNDS

I CARBON MONOXIDE (O .
highly poisonous
because it forms
PREPARATION ftp.oundswmttlnstba.me
26cg) (
"
limited Oz)
•
2C (s) t
Oz supply of
373k
• H COON H2O + CO ( pure CO
)
come
hzsoy
water
gas
Ccs) H2O (g) 473 1273k CO +
Nz ( g)
-

• +
(g) synthesis gas

• 2C
( s)
t
02cg ) + 4 Nz ( g) ' 273K
26cg )
t
4Nz( g)
Producer Gas
PROPERTIES
Colourless odourless water insoluble
.
, , gas
•
Powerful Reducing agent
:B I 0 : donor to
Because
of lone hair -
acts as
form
metal
carbonyls .
 CARBON DIOXIDE COZ
YI
PREPARATION
D
• Ccs) t
Oz Coz (g)
is
City (g) +
202cg) coz (g) t 2420 (g)

• Cacoz (s) t
2HUC.org) calk Cag) t Coz (g) +
Hz Ole)
1
-

PROPERTIES
• colourless ,
odourless ,
low
solubility in water

• H2O + Coz H2 3 .

•
Hz coz I Hwj :
Buffer system (maintains pH of blood
hw between 7-26 to 7-42
)
• 6 CO2 +
12h20 GHz 06 +
602 +
6h20
chlorophyll
•
Responsible for greenhouse effect .

• Solid CO2 :
Dry Ice NEET -20 Statement

C
•
z O
sp hybridisation
SILICON DIOXIDE Si Oz

• 8 membered
rings are
formed
.

with alternate si E O atoms

-

Non Reactive because

of very
-
•

si
high O bond
enthalpy
-

• Resists attack by halogens , na

and metals .

Si Oz + 2 NaOH Naz Si Oz +
H2O
si Oz + 4nF Sify + 2h20

• silica (sick) gel :

Drying agent ; support for
chromatographic materials
 SILICON ES (Rzsio) .

•
Oreganosilicon polymers
starting materials Rnsiclcu n)
• -

chain
• The
length of polymer
controlled
by adding
3) 3.Sill blocks ends .

nature
• water
repelling
Thermal
•
High stability
Dielectric
•
High strength
• Used in
surgical and
cosmetic plants . NEET -
19 Odh

"
SILICATES si Oy NEET
IT 2013

• Silicon bonded to 40 atoms

-

in Tetrahedron .

silicate is neutralised
ve
charge on
by + ve
-
•

metal ions .

Two made silicates : -

man
Glass of cement

Examples of natural silicates : -

feldspar mica
Zeolites Asbestos

Types : chain sheet

Ring 3-D structure
 I

E OL I T E S

• Al atoms replace fein Si -

atoms in
3D network of Si Oz

overall structure : Aluminosilicate ,

acquires a
negative charge .

"
• Cations like Nat ,
Kt ,
Ca -

balance

zeolites :
widely
petrochemical
used
catalyst in
•
as

industries
for cracking of
hydrocarbons .

ZSM 5 zeolite alcohols

Type of to convert
-

directly into
gasoline .

Hydrated Zeolites used as ion

exchangers in
'
hard water '

softening
Previous YRS Imm
Group 25 -
28

Elements

physical properties
chemical properties

Compounds

3- 40 Is
Group -
25
N
p
As
Sb
Bi

Physical Properties
 down
Metallic character increases the
group ( Bi Metal)
:
•

Nz while all other solids

gas
:
•

•
PA pit bond
-
in N = N
the :
PA bond
tendency decreases but
Down
group pit -

PA -
dit bond
formation increases .

• Nz L Py C As > Sb 7 Bi

melting and
Boiling points .

Oxidation State
•
can show -
ve and +ve oxidation state .

increases down and

+3
stability we
go
+5 decreases
•
as

due to inert pair effect .

Chemical Properties
s .

Hydrides
.
General formula MHz
° All
hydrides covalent :
Pyramidal
Nhz Pnz As
Hz Sbnz Binz

Basic strengthT
Thermal
stability d

Reducing nature T
Bond angle d (Due to r size I d
electronegativity)
 2 . Halides

° room 2
type of halides : Trihalides
Pentahalides

basic Clewis Bases)

. Trihalides
normally
•
Pentahalides thermally less stable

•
Trihalides covalent :
except Bifz ( Ionic

•
NBrz ,
N Iz : Unstable

(Due d orbital)
Nxs Do not exist to
unavailability of
: -
•
3 .
Oxides

Form 2 Orioles Mz Oz Mz Os
type of 5
:

compounds
is .
Oxides of Nitrogen
2 .

Nitrogen ( Nz)

Prepaid

low
solubility in water .

dissociation
High NEN
energy .
 3 .

Nnz ( Ammonia)

• Colourless ,
Basic in nature

Profperhesiu 4MHz t
302 2.Nz t 6h20

8MHz + 3 Iz Gnnycl + Nz
(excess)

MHz t 362 Nclz t 3Rd

Centers)

resets . As
refrigerant
• In
manufacture of fertilizers
• Used as solvent
4 .
HN Oz (Nitric Acid)

o
strong oxidising agent .

•
Acquires yellow colour due to
decomposition into Noz

Most Impt Reactions

5.
Phosphorous Allotropes

6 .
Phosphine ( Pnz)

§quy§ Caz P2 6420 3Ca(on)z 2pm,

+ t
,

Phy I t NaOH Naz + H2O + Pms

Py +3 NaOH + 3h20 3NanzP0z t

Mz
physicalproferhesv-cglomwyof8a.ro soluble
-uen fish
slightly in water

chemicalProherhesuT 2PM
z
t 402 Roz t
3h20

4 Pnz Py t 642

tlsesu . As Holme 's signals in deep sea E oceans

for
o smoke screen
production .

7 . Phosphorous HALIDES

Pelz ( Phosphorous trihalide)

Properttls@ ZHU
pee , +
gmo Hzpoz +

2. Pelz t 02 2POUz

Paz + Iz PAs
 Phosphorous fsentachloide ( Pels )

Prohertusw
Pale
°
yellow crystalline"
solid
[Pay] [PUD in solid state
-

. Exists as .

• Pels t H2O Poclz + 2nd Hzpoz + SHU

s .
Oxides
of Phosphorous
9 . Oxoacids
of Phosphorous
Group -
2b
O

Sse
Te
Po

Physical Properties
 molecule
•
Oxygen enists as diatomic
gaseous
•
Sulphur E Selenium as octa -
atomic molecule .

elements
•
All show
allotropy .

Chemical Properties
1 .

Hydrides

liquid to
tho due H
bonding
: -
•

Weakening H bond with increase in size Mr

of M
of
-
• .

Acidic character increases down the

•
group .

•
Bond
angle decreases

's
• All sp hybridise .
2 . Halides

Halides of not stable

oxygen .

does not dihalides

Selenium
form
EX z
g Aly , Exo types formed .

3- Oxides
 Compounds
2 .

Oxygen ( 02)

Preparations kcloz KU + 302

*go
24g + 02

2Ba0z LBAO + 02

Propertied women odometers

,
T
sparingly soluble in water
soluble in
pyrogallol
Iz OH + On QHCMO + 2ND

Pb + On Pb Oz

2 . Ozone (03)

proportioned electric
302 203 ( Dh -
-
)
+ ve

discharge
 Propertied tsaheubebeheinotaseacial acetic acid

oxidising &
Both
reducing actions

B. O
to .
= is

:p
:

3 . 502 (sulphur Dioxide)

Preparations
Cu t Hzsoy Cus Oy t 502 +
2h20
D
S t Oz 502

ProhertieswT
. As
reducing agent
502 t Iz t
2h20 → Hzsoy +
ZHU

• As
Bleaching agent (Due to
Reducing action)

Uses :
-

o As
disinfectant
•
Manufacturing Hzsoy , H2S
4 .
Allotropes of Sulphur
5 Oxoacids
.

of Sulphur

Teardrop

NCERT Text
 6 .

Sulphuric Acid ( Hzsou )

Preparatory
contact Process

2502 t Oz 2503 + zekcal

Hzsoy +
503 425207 ( oleum)
Hzszo, + H2O H2S 04

Profertiesn 98% by weight

Relative
density = 2.8
 •
Oxidising agent

•
Strong Dibasic acid

•
Dehydrating agent .

Uses
-
: -

o su lead storage batteries

. In
paint manufacture
° In
electrolytic refining of metals .
Group -
17
Fa
Bz
At

Physical Properties
• All diatomic
Absorb visible coloured molecules
•

range forming
Fz :
yellow
ch :
yellowish green
Bra : reddish brown
22 :
Deep violet

Oxidation state

F : -
2

Cl , Br : -
2 to +6

z : -
2 to +7

Bond dissociation energy

Iz 7 Bra 7 Fz 722

Chemical Properties
is .

Hydrides
• HI 7 HBR 7 Hcl 7 Hf HIS HBR L Hel L HF

Acidic strength Thermal stability

Reducing character Bond strength
Bond
length stability

2 .
Oxides
° Fluorine forms 2 oxides : ofz ,
Ozfz
Chlorine forms :
Uzo ,
6203 , Is 07 ,
402
Bromine
forms : Broz ,
Bros
Iodine : Iz Oy g
Iz Os ,
1207

3 Onoacids of
.

• HOF 7 HOI 7 HO Br 7 HOI

Halogens
Acidic Nature

her onoacids
of same
halogens ,
acidic strength and
thermal atoms
stability increases as 0 increase .

4
• When
.

Interhalogen Compels
2 different halogens react

• Ice is more reactive than Ig

Pseudo
halogens : substances behaving like pseudohalides
(a) z
:
cyanogen
@ ) cm
a

*
usually contain nitrogen
 Compounds
1 . Is ( chlorine)

preparations
Daewon 's Process
.

luck
4 HU t Oz 242 + H2O
Yoo C
-

•
Electrolytic process
Nat Cl
-

Nacl # +

2cL 2e Iz
-

26 →
-

+ →

prohertiesmT.dz + H2O → Holl + HI

HOU - HU + co]
nascent oxygen

Bleaching action due to oxidising nature .

Reaction with Nnz (Ammonia)

8MHz t 3 Iz → Nz t 6N Hull
oxen
 MHz t
362 -
Naz t 3nA
fencers)

chromyl chloride Test

kzcrzo , GO , Iz Hsoy H2O

- -

Cl t t Hrsoy +
KHSOY
+ +

Cr Oz Iz t 4 NaOH Naz Croy + 2 Nacl + 2h20

Naz Croy Pb ( cuz Cook Pbcroy

+ → +
Zchzcoona
( yellow)

2. HU ( hydrochloric Acid)

Preparations
Nacl + H2S Oy -7 Nan soy + HU

Nan soy t Nacl - Naz soy t HU

Propertied
colourless ,
pungent smelling gas
Nnz t Hel → Why I

Nazcoz t 2 HU - 2 Nacl +
H2O t coz
•
Noble elements like Gold ,
Platinum can dissolve
HU
in Agua regia parts come and 2 part conc HNS )

Uses : -

a-

• In manufacture of chlorides
Textile
• In and
dying industries .

3 .
Iodine CID
•
major source is Laminaria
• no reaction with water .

°
Purified by sublimation .

Tincture of Iodine : mixture of 22 and KI

dissolved in rectified
spirit
GROUP -
18
'
ne
Ne
Ar
Rr
xe

Rd

Physical Properties

.
He to xe :
solubility increases
•

Polarizability increases
 chemical Properties
not reactive
.
very
°
Completely filled ningpo
• In 1962 , Bartlett noticed that Ptff is powerful
oxidising agent .

It lead to discovery of Xe compounds

Xe + Ptfg →
Xe+[Ptfoj
( yellow)
Structures
Previous Yrs
Coordination
Compounds

µ
:L n'Thieme
"

Isomerism
field
Crystal Theory
Organometallic Compounds

I -2 Ols
 Werner 's Theory
0

In complex substance : central metal ion is surrounded

retains
by oppositely charged ions and
identity in
solutions .

According to Werner 's

Theory : metals possess
TWO TYPES OF VALENCIES -

I .

Primary Valency :
Ionic
covalent
2
Secondary valency
:
.
 TUPAC Nomenclature
• certain rules to be
followed
-

I . The
positive part of compound named
first followed
by negative part .

2 .

Ligands are named

followed by central metal .

prefix di tri tetra indicate each kind

no
of
:
, ,
.

of ligand present .

prefix
: bis ,
tris used when
fsolydendate ligands

3 .

ligands named in alphabetical order .

4 .
Oxidation state of central atom in roman No 's in

bracket .

complex central metal

5 . when has -
ve
charge : name of
ends in -
ate

for Anion
ligands : Name ends in 0

For Cationic name ium

ligands ends
: as

neutral
ligands
:
Regular Names

H2O =
Aqua
No =
nitrosyl
MHz = ammine

co =
carbonyl
 Isomerism

structural stereo

structural Isomerism
is .

Hydrate Isomerism
Differ in coordinated bound H2O .

( Co (H2O)6 Iz ) and Ccocnzo)ydz) I . 2420

2 . Ionisation Isomerism

Differ in ions released in solution

⇐ (Nns) , soy) Br and
@ (Nns) ,
Br ) soy

3 .

Linkage Isomerism
Differ in sites of coordination of ambient
ligand
⇐ (MDs model and founds (Ono)) I

4 . Coordination Isomerism
Differ in coordination spheres
@ (Nhs) 6) (counts) and [cocoons) 6) (crank )
 Stereoisomerism
1 .
Geometrical Isomerism

°
Tetrahedral complexes do not show
geometrical
isomerism .

•
Square planar complexes with
general formula
M Az Xz MABXY
M Az XY M ( AB)z
MAB Xa MCABCD)
show geometrical isomerism .

• Sn Octahedral complexes -

Auxz) ( MANY ] (m (AA)zX )

shows
geometrical isomerism
 and meridional
•
(MA 3×3) shows
facial type

2 .

Optical Isomerism

when CN = 4
Possible hybridisation
's
dsp
'
=
; sp

In case
of dsp
' -
No optical isomerism
On sp
's -

only possible when all 4

ligands are different
when CN -
-
6

"

Type I :
( ( )
m AA
,
Bz)

Type I :
(MIAA) ,]

Effective Atomic Number ( EAN)

C- AN = Own electrons of + electrons donated

central
by ligands
ion
 Hybridisation
certain Enamples :

"
1 .
(
Cr ( Nhs)¢ ) ion

"
Ear ) 3dB
Electronic
config of Cr =
n
2 . Hi Cco) u )
oxidation state Ni
of = zero

Crystal field Theory

VBT fails to explain magnetic and geometrical
properties of most
of compounds .

sphere central atom

surrounded
CFT assumes as + ve

by charged ligands
-
ve .

d lost
In CFT
degeneracy of orbitals is
-

.
 Decides stability of complex .

stable
strong field ligands complexes more
-

Inner d- orbitals more stable than outer orbital .

-
chelates (Ring forming ligands) are more stable .

Organometallic comped .

atleast metal
Compounds containing one carbon
-
•

bond .
I .
or bonded
organometallic compound
RMGX
Nez (MDG

2 A bonded
organometallic compound
-
.

3 .
o -
it bonded organometallic compound
Ni (co)y
Fe CCDs
Previous yrs Imm
D BLOCK
-

Transition Elements

I Fight
•
EFFIETrettin
compounds
kzcrz Oy
.

• KM n Oy

f- -

Block
lanthanides
Properties
Actinaids

Properties
2- 2 Q Is
 d block .

Transition elements : -

Elements who in their

common
orbital
oxidation state have
partially filled
nd -
.

Does not cover 2n

,
Cd , Hg

metallic character

Transition metals : Hard

,
malleable ,
Ductile
:
high melting Boiling point
.

metallic bond
:
strong
• Bond
strength due to presence of unpaired
nd electrons .
 Ionization Energy
increases
•
Although as we across each series

though not quite regularly .

Electrode Potential
values
• low
negative of standard reduction pot .

•
• weak
less Reactive
Reducing agents

oxidation state
• Due to ns and Ln Dd
-

electrons
• Increases till middle I then decreases .

• lower O S - = Ionic
man O s - .
= 8
( osmium)
 Melting Point
• Increases to middle of series & then
falls
 oxides
In lower O S
of metal Basic (2,2)
-
.
:

Acidic
nigher as :
-

catalytic property
because of variable
oxidation States .

Formation of Complexes
Because
-

2 Small
.
ration size
2 .

High effective nuclear

charge
d orbitals
3
Availability of vacant -

formation of coloured compel .

unpaired id electrons which

on
light
absorbing visible orbital
jump from one id -

to other .

( al id
-
transition)
 Magnetic Properties
µ = N
( n -12)
i

'
Manimum
paramagnetism = d cases

Kzcrz 07
Potassium Dichromate
(Eq wt
F- in
maciggm )
-
-
•

Preparation
•
prepared by chromite Ol '

sod chromate
.

Feo .
Crzoz t lb NaOH + 702 Nazor Oy +
Fez 03

Naz Croy
+
4250 y Nazcrz 07
sod dichromate
.

+
Naz Cr
,
O
,
KU kzcrzo , t Nall
pot dichromate
.

properties
 kzcrz 07 D- Kilroy t
•
t
2Crz0z 3oz

• Kzcrz 07 £5043 kzsoy t Cra ( soy)z + 02

chloride test
chromyl
-

Kil Cr Iz KHSOY

Og
R2 Cra Op t t Hzsoy → t

Naoh
✓

Pb Croy c-
Naz Croy
(yellow ppt)

• Kzcrz O +
44202 + Ht - Zor Os t H2O
,

Kmnoy ( Permanganate)
potassium
• Eq wt
of kmnoy :
In acidic medium =
Me
5

In alkaline medium = Me
or neutral medium 3

Preparation -

• From
fryrolusite one Mnoz ( Black)

Mn Oz t KOH +
Oc -
kzmnoy +
H2O

( pot GREEN
.

manganate
)

4Mt -7 Mn Mn Oz
-

Mn Oy +
Oy t + H2O

chemical Properties
kmn Oy D- kzmnoy t Mn Oz 1-
3oz

Good
oxidising agent .
 Lanthanoids
• coloured (f f
-

transition)
"
Ce
oxidising agent
:
•

(most common O s
- .

)
=3

Actinoid
previous Yrs Impe
.
HYDROGEN
naive mama Fadiman .ms
→
hydrides
→ Water water
• Hard and soft
water
•
Heavy
Peroxide @202)
→ Hydrogen

Hydro : water
gem
:
forming

1Q/s
 Position of Hydrogen
'

)
Alkali Metal Resemblance Halogens Resemblance

Diatomic enistence @as:

fenidmncyvatwnceoseseh
.lt?u+.ww
'
:
.

like fz Iz .

stable oxide like Mazo Gain 2e ion

-

i n
H2O
-

• .

H f like Nall
fluoride
'
• stable • I E
of te =
1312 KJ mot
'
in order of F =
1680 KJ mot

Isotopes of Hydrogen
Protium Deuterium Tritium
in 2in 3h
I e-
-

Ip 2e 2ps
-

-
2n -

sp
-
2e -
2n -

Radioactive
Heavy n .

Emits
particle
-

p
Half life =
12.33
yr

Forms ( basis nuclei)

of Hydrogen :
spin of

ORTHO PARA
spins of nuclei in spin of nuclei in
direction direction
same .

opposite .

•
751 .
ortho in nature
and 251 para
.

Pure para can be obtained at low

very
•

temperature but pure ortho cannot be

obtained .
Preparation of Hydrogen
1 LAB PREPARATION .

Zn should be
granulated
Zn H' ( dil)
't
-

t Zn Ha to increase rate reaction

of
+
.

2 COMMERCIAL PREPARATION '

Pt electrode
i
Electrolysis of acidic H2O using .

ii Pure ( > 99.95%) by electrolyzing warm

aqueous .

'

Bacon )z solution between Ni electrodes .

.

Cag Nacl)
iii
Electrolysis of BRINE
anode
-

At 26
Clzcg) 2e
-

:
Cag) t
-

At cathode 2e
-

:
2h20 Le) t Hz (g) t 20h
Cag)

iv Action of steam on coke Cc )

' 270K
( CO
H2O (g) Mz (g)
t t

Ni

Bosch Process water

gas ) syngas

(O 673K
+
H2O .
.

Coz t Hz ( g)
Fe Croy
.

I
.
t,
Increased
WATER GAS SHIFT REACTION Removed by
-

concentration
scrubbing
with Na As solution -

✓ Action steam on Fe
of
Fe t
Hzo Fez Oy + Hzt
(g)
LANE PROCESS

Hz a Nascent H s Atomic H
H -
molecules with high energy Reactivity
 Physical Properties of Hz

Combustible ; air Insoluble water

•
lighter than ; in

• Used as
cryogenic fluid [ low melting point ]
chemical Properties of Ma
.

Reaction with
halogens H, t Xz 2Hx
with fz : in dark ; Iz :
requires .

catalyst
2 Reaction with
oxygen and
Nitrogen .

Fe
Hz t Oz 21120 (e) Hz + Nz 2MHz (g)
DH ve
( Exothermic Reactions)
-
=

3 Hz + Co t RCH =
cuz RM< Cha CHO
Hz t Rchzchz CHO Rutz cuz 0M

Uses of the
Co
• CO t
2Hz Chz OH
Rocket (liquid hat liquid Oz)
•
fuel
• Air ship balloons ( Hz + Ne
)

am
-
s -
a HYDRIDES .

Hydride Gap
.

IONIC COVALENT
/ MOLECULAR METALLIC
/ INTERSTITIAL
volatile
s block
hydrides p block hydrides d and
f block
-

volatile coup 13) conduct

Non a) Electron
Lewis Acids
deficient
Bano
electricity
:
Alhz stotiometric
Non
conducting Non
.

salt like
b) Electron precise coup 14) Tims
Chu sing
is
-

Lin ,
Mg Mz , Benz c) Electron rich (Cup 15 -

lb -
17 ) ZNM.rs -
i. is

Nan + → Naomi na Lewis Basis : Ning ni:O

nzo
-

, .
 Water ( tho ) .

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
•

High specific heat ,

Thermal
conductivity ; Dielectric constant .

less than water

•
Density of Ice

surrounded
ICE : Each 0 atom
tetnahedrally by 4 other O -
atoms
:
open structure with wide holes

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ice

•
Amphoteric Nature
Onidised to Fz (fluorine )
• Oz by
• HYDROLYSIS

.tEntmuatingy )
Py O , +
Hz O o
Hg Poy

sin; I. Yon
"

since Inn: :
.

•
HYDRATES FORMATION "

COORDINATED WATER [
Cw (H2O) f) 345

• INTERSTITIAL WATER Ba Iz -
2h20

@ (Hz )
'
•
HYDROGEN -
BONDED WATER O)
y Oy : H2O

HARD -
WATER
•
of calcium and Magnesium salts in form
Presence
of hydro gencarbonate chloride and sulphate in ,

water hard does not

water makes
lather
which
give
with
soap .
 "
2Na' Cag
-

( 17h35 WON A ⇐ nzs Coo)zM t, +

)
Cag)
-1 M
Cag)
(soap) ( salt) ( hht)

HARDNESS OF WATER
- I

Hardness Permanent Hardness

Temporary chloride
Bicarbonates
of Ca and
Mg .
's and
sulphate
of Ca and Mg .

Removed
•

by BOILING
Cannot be removed
Mglnwz) Mg (on )z1 -10024
±

, .

by BOILING .

• CLARK 'S METHOD Neet 2019

slaked lime Caan ) Removed

By
-

Using ,

Ca ( ncos) t Conlon ) , Ca Coz I + H2O

,
,

Pure Demi neutralised Anion

water obtained by successively passing through cation
enchange
-

By washing soda
Calgon 's Ion
Exchange synthetic
Process method Resins
Nazcoz Method
Pg 018
Ag Naz Alzsiz 08
Most
Removes both nnzo
common
Naz [Na orgy ,]
-

and Naz cation

temporary Exchange
permanent Sodium
.it/rso3Ht
hence + Nau
peanut
hardness metaphosphate Zeolite
.

Rna
'
PG 018 with
"

MS Oy +
Naz coz
M t Nag Naz + M2 exchanged
mg2+
"
Ca and

Meet 2N at Anion
entrants
Exchange
Mcozt
+
Naz soy Na 2
[Nazia Pg )
+ nzo
,
Ots + Nat rnnz
when all Na used .
t,
M Ca RMI
Mg Regenerate
on
-

by
-

+
-

, Naz
enchanged by
with Nall
treating a- and soya
-

.
 Heavy
Used Moderator
Water
in Nuclear Reactors
Dao

• as .

• Prepared by Exhaustive Electrolysis of H2O

• All physical properties are higher than H2O except for
dielectric constant ( H2O better solvent than Dad
(
1320 t Na Na OD t Da
Heavy hydrogen)
D2 O t Nz Os DN 03

Dzo + Pz Os D3 POY PMT 2010 -

Ca (z Cz Da t Ca ( OD )z
Dz 0 +

C Dy t Al (OD) ,
Dz O + Nlycz
Mg (OD) Dz
t N
Dz 0 1-
Mgz Nz z

Dz O t
Caz Pz Ca ( OD ) z t PDS

Peroxide
Hydrogen 11202
Hz Oz used Hair Bleach Used to
synthesise detergents
•
a
as .

÷
As antiseptic known as
Perhydrol
Used in Green
Chemistry USES .

PREPARATION B METHOD
'

L -

Bak 8h20 -
t
Hzsoy Naz Oz +
Mzsoy By electrolysis
( Barium
peroxide) t t
,
of 501 .
Hz soy
Basoy +
Hzozlaqjt Hzocej Naz soy +4202
Using
Pt Anode :

Bason is ppt out and MERCK's Graphite cathode :

H2O is
evaporated under
METHOD CAINE :

reduced pressure Ht + 2e
-

→ Hz
CARO 'S ACID
ANODE :
z Sz Og → Hz SOS +
Hz soy
-

H soy
-

Hzszos 2e
-

+
→
H2 SOS H2 soy +
Hz Oz peuoxodisulphuric acid
INDUSTRIAL METHOD
Oz
2
ethylanthraquinone Hs 02
,
+ onidised product
21h02 formed
concentrated to 301 ( ) by Distillation
by mass
.

under Reduced pressure and to 851 Distillation under low

.

by
pressure Last . Traces
of H2O frozen out to obtain
pure nzoz .

Properties of Hz 0.2
Physical Properties
•
pale blue liquid .

• Dibasic weak acid

• soluble in both ether and
alcohol .

Hz Oz > D 20 7 H2O
entente)
.

(
Bonding
H
'
-

olivine
strength of Hz 02
• 301 . solution
of Hz Oz : marketed as : 100 volume 4202
301 solution 100mL Oz at STP
Means : .
nzoz
gives
: .
31 .
Hzoz : 10 volume "202
calculate
strength of
chemical Properties so volume naoz .

• Both
Reducing and
Onidising agent .

RA
Oz ran .
Reducing Agent 2h20, →
Ozegyt H2O Cl)
H2 Oz
/ OA OA oxidising Agent 2×34
:

pyo
22 7L (STP)
Both
68g
-

tho +
zoz

Storage
227L
: Hzoz decomposes on by 68g
' O l
by =

6282×-40 =

30g 4202
exposure to
light 211202 2h20 02cg ,
→
.

stored in lined in dark

• war
glass .

strength :
3081L =3 =
3%
In presence of metal alkali
•
surface or in Oval mo ,

or dust the decomposition

-

fastens .
PREVIOUS YRS 3mm .
Metallurgy
|
Generalisation .

Steps of metallurgy
Empt charts

1- 2 Ols
 Generalisation
minerals :
naturally occurring substances
-

in earth 's crust .

Ores : minerals used as source of

desired substance
recovery of .

Ganguefmatnn :
Earthy impurities present in ore .

Metallurgy
:
scientific and Technological
processes used for separation
metal
of from ores .
Steps of Metallurgy
Three steps 2 .
Concentration
Isolation Metal
2 .

of
metal
3 .

Purification of
 Impt Terms

1 .

Hydraulic washing : Based on

difference
and
in specific gravities of ore
gangue
particles .

Magnetic separation Based

magnetic
2 .
: on

and non
magnetic properties .

3 .
froth
floatation Method : mineral
particles wetted oil and
are
by gangue
particles water
by .

Oil :
Pine oil
acids
collector
froth stabiliser
:
xanthate ,
fatty
:
cresol ,
Aniline .

4 .

teaching
suitable
:

solvent
useful if
.
one is soluble in

5 . calcination : concentrated ore is heated

below
melting point in absence
of air .

in
6 .

Roasting :
sulphide one heated presence
of air .

7
. Auto Reduction :
Partly
reduce
onidised
ore .
metal can

Cu Pb ,
, Hg
 8 . hone
Refining : Based on principle that
soluble melt
impurities are more in
than in fume metal .

semiconductors Ge
Mostly used for ,
Si ,
Ga .

9 .
Mond 's Process : known as vapour phase
refining .

Ni t
4W Nico)y → Ni tuco
→

lo .
Van Arkel Process : foie Zr
, Hf
Zr t 232 D- Zr
Iy
c-

•
Electrolytic Refining
-

Anode -

Impure metal
cathode -
Pure metal
Anode mud
Impurity deposited as .

•
Electrolytic Reduction -
Forza , IA .
Al

• Extraction of Na ( Dawn cell fuocess)

Extraction Al ( Mall Henault method)
of
° -
Important charts
 • At high temp C is :

best
the
reducing agent .

• At low temp : co is
best
the
reducing agent .
Previous Yrs Impe .
IUPAC -

Isomerism

|
Classification of organic Compounds
Nomenclature

Types of Isomers

• Constitutional Isomerism
• chain •
Functional
• Position • Metamerism
chain Tautomerism
Ring
• •

•
Configurational Isomerism
•
Conformational
•
Geometrical
•
optical

1- 2 Qts
Classification of Organic Compounds
.

A CYCLIC / OPEN CHAIN

saturated cuz -

CK
-

Cha -

cnz
( chain bonded)
straight single
unsaturated cuz -

Ch -
CH -
-

cha

(contains double or
triplet bond)

ALICYCLIC
-

Homocyclic Heterocyclic
Atoms
like 0 , s
,

cyclopropane
N in
ring
cyclohexane present -

C atoms in
only ring
BE NEZOID COMPOUNDS

N -
BENZ ENO ID COMPOUNDS

HETEROCYCLIC
AROMATIC
COMPOUNDS
Nomenclature
Homologous series
o

group or series
of organic
-
.

compounds each
containing a characteristic

functional group forms homologous series .

Common or Trivial Names

cuz -

CY
-

CHEM
,
93 Two -

groups
cuz
( Iso group,
Thz
All 4
cuz -

q cuz
- CH
, groups
913 ( neo group)

Primary Carbon : carbon

joined to 2 other C -

only .

Secondary carbon : carbon

joined to 2 other Carbon 's .

Tertiary Carbon carbon

joined
'
: to 3 other carbons .

Primary Hydrogen Hydrogen attached to primary carbon

:
.

(same for secondary & Tertiary hydrogen)

 IUPAC system
components Name
of
-

2 Word Root .

carbon atoms
no .

of
in a
compound .

2 Suffix
(a) Primary suffix
Indicate whether the carbon ichaen is
saturated OR unsaturated .

(b) Secondary suffin

Indicates
functional group .

3 -
Prefer
groups not
regarded as
functional
substituents
groups
OR
are

side chain
regarded as

(a) Alkyl groups (b) Functional

Groups
not
regarded as principal
functional group
1

Example
Rules : .

Longest chain Rule Select

I : the
longest continuous
carbon atoms
chain
of .

2 Position Number
of substituent
of carbon atoms in
:

parent chain 1,2 3 starting from the end which

,
- -

gives lower number to carrying substituents

C.
atoms

3 Lowest set of locants : when two or different sets ,

set selected in which there

of locants are possible ,

is lowest term at first point ( as per alphabetic

Order)
.

certain Examples ( NCERT)

 Functional Group Rules :

•
Of organic compound contains two more
functional or

groups :
one is principal
functional group while ,

all other are treated as substituents .

2 Select
longest chain .

2
numbering principal chain

Principal functional group >

=
bond 7 E bond > substituents

NCERT

Examples
BENZENE -
RING EXAMPLES
NCERT

(a) ( b) Cc )

ortho meta para

\
 -

ISOMERISM
• Isomers :
Organic compounds having same molecular
formula but differ in arrangement of atoms
or
groups present in molecules .

• Isomers
differ in physical OR chemical properties .

Chain Isomerism

• Due to difference in nature

carbon chain
of
(straight OR branched)

Position Isomerism

• Due to
difference in
position substituent atom
of
or
group in same carbon
chain .
 Ring
Isomers
Chain Isomerism
either
possess open chain OR closed chain
structures .

CH Ctlzcnzctlzcnz CH
Utz =
CH

Methyl cyclopentane
Hen
cyclohexane
-
z -
ene

Functional Isomerism
compounds have same

molecular but different

functional groups .

Alcohol Ether
ketone
Aldehyde Acid Ester

Metamerism
•

Due to
unequal distribution of
substituents on either side of
polyvalent functional group .

Sheetal type of functional

Tautomerism isomerism which arises due
-
to

migration of H atom from polyvalent a atom to

-

bond
other
polyvalent atom with
reshuffling of it
-
.

IMPORTANT
Ln impt
conformational Isomerism
molecule
Sue to
different arrangement of atoms in a

which can be obtained due to rotation about C -

C .

( bond)
carbon carbon
single
-

• There are Infinite conformations .

.

However we
study 2 entreme cases
-

Eclipsed : H -
atoms attached to two C's
closed
are as as
possible .

Staggered : where H atoms are

far apart
as
-

Any other intermediate conformation : SKEW .

In all the conformations : Bond

angles and bond
length
remain the same .
NCERT
Magic

Two
Types of Projections
I sawhorse
projections
Molecule viewed
•
along molecular
anise .

• Front carbon is shown at

lower end
of line whereas
rear carbon at upper end
-
.

•
The lines are inclined at
120 to each other .

Newman
projections
The C atom to is
nearer
eye
-
•

represented by fveint .

• Three
hydrogen atoms attached
to
front carbon are shown
by
three lines at 1200 .
-
Relative
Stability
( Ethane)
Staggered >
Eclipsed of
conformations of Butane
-

Anti > Gauche 7 Eclipsed > fully eclipsed

trending
Due to H -

Geometrical Isomers
conditions to show
geometrical isomerism : -

There should be rotation allowed

frozen
• .

IT
so
>c -
-

cc →
¥
• Both substituents on each carbon should be
different .

H -

E -
I n E I
)
- -

11
pp
U 8 n
stability A
-
-

n
-
G
-

Trans isomer
cis isomer
same
group on opposite side side
Zero
dipole moment (less µ)
same
groups on same

more dipole moment

high melting point (symmetrical) less
melting point
 E 2 Nomenclature
system of
-

d - - a .

-
C=C -
b
e

E
groups of higher preference
•
: where atoms on on

opposite side .

• 2 : where atoms or
groups of higher preference on

same side .

Higher preference : Decided on basis

"
of Atomic No .

SHORT CUTS
calculation No of Geometrical Isomers
of .

in
poly enes
when a compound has n double bonds -
and ends

of frolyene are different .

=
an

q = ch cu = CH Cn =
CH en = Cn I 2N 24
- - -
- -

o = = If

of double bonds
n
-
- No .

II when the ends are same

Sf even
g⇐ 2)
o
n
2n
- -

• =

Cl -
Ch = Ch -
Ch =
ch -
Ch = CH -

Ch =
Cn -
ee
n = y
2¥
' '

24
-

'
23
-

+ : + 2 = 8-12 = 10

odd
24¥)
t
Sf n
-
=

gun
• -
a

on cu n =3
cm ch on ch CH OH
-
-
= =
- - -
-

'

£ 22+2
'
-

22 + =
= 6
 OPTICAL ISOMERISM
•
Compounds having similar physical and chemical
properties but have the
ability to rotate flame of
polarised light to either
right OR left side called are

as
optically active OR optical isomerism
:

Polarimeter plane polarised

• : measures
angle by which is
rotated .

rotates
If light to
right Dentro
rotatory Cd It )
:

rotates
If light
to
left :
Laevorotatory cel )
-

Chi Larity molecule

A is chiral or
dissymmetric if ,

it does not possess any of element

not super imposable on
symmetry and -

its mirror
image .

Plane of Symmetry -

plane which divides a

molecule into two

parts and are

mirror
images .

Enantiomers : non
superimposable mirror
images
All chemical properties
: are same
for both
rotates while to left
: one to
right other .

Racemic Mixture : Anequimolar mixture of In enantiomers

: St is
optically inactive
( By External Compensation)
: can be
separated into G) and t) forms
RESOLUTION
by a
process
:

The Ct ) into racemic mixture

conversion
of or t)
form
is called RACEMIC MIXTURE .
 Meso
form
'

: -

compound containing both centres

rotation in it
of .

:
optically inactive (Internal
compensation)
: cannot be separated into G) E t)

Diasterlomlrs : stereoisomers which are

not mirror
images of each other .

Have
different physical properties
°

:
Easy to sefrerateby DISTILLATION .

Isomers
calculation of No .

of Optical
is not divisible into two identical
I
If molecule
halves (having n asymmetric carbon atoms)
In
No
of optically active forms a
= =
.

No
of enantiomeric pair az
=
.

No racemic mixture
of az
.
=

molecule is divisible into two identical

Sf
halves -

(case i) -
when there are even no .

of carbon atoms
N = 2, 4 8,10 - -
-
,
'
I
-

No .

of optically active
forms
=
a =

of enantiomeric hairs
No . =
az
No .

of racemic
fixture =
az
(Z) - I

2
No
of meso
forms m
= =
.

Total No .

of configurational isomers = a + m
base Lii) has odd
of compound no
of C atoms
-

n = 3, 5 ,
7, 9 ,
11 - - -

In
"
2¥
No
of optically active
forms a
-

.
= =

enantiomeric pairs 92
No
of
=
.

racemic mixture 92
No
of
=
.

2¥
NO .

of meso
forms =
m =

Total No .

of configurational isomers = at m

optical Activity in
compounds having i

no
Asymmetric Carbon

1 Allenes attached to each

when 2
groups
different
.

terminal carbon atom are .

a - U
c - c -
-

CT
b ' y

Biphenyls superimposable images

22 Two non -

each other
( OOH N°2
of f
.

COOH

COON f
N°2 Coon
PREVIOUS YEARS .
 NCERT

✓
HYDROCARBONS

/
in:*:c's
.am.

ALKENES

ALKYNES
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
( BENZENE)

2- 3 Qts
 CLASSIFICATION
saturated Aromatic
.

unsaturated

Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons with Hydrocarbons with special

multiple C bonds
single C C bond C
type of
- -

and C H bond
cyclic
-

hydrocarbons
includes
BENZENE
open chain
ring form Double Triple
single
C c
single C- C bond
-

bond
bonds bonds
present present
between between
alkanes
Alkanes
Cyclo 2 carbons 2 carbons

(= C CEC
Alkenes .

Alkynes

ALKANES
in coal mines
• Methane curly) -
1st member Ccny -

found )
and nearshy areas

Remove HE add to tetravalency

2 CH
fulfil
•
→
,
Ethane (2nd member
Chainz →
)
• And so on
series formula
( Homologous Cnnzn -12
.
:
: .
 U CERT
Important
Information

PREPARATION OF ALKANES
FROM Unsaturated hydrocarbons .

Hydrogenation ptlpdlni
CH, Mz
= t
Mz Mz Utz
(ethene) (ethane)

• Pt E Pd :
catalyse
reaction at room temperature .

• Ni :
Requires higher temperature I pressure .

These metals adsorb and

•

activate it
hydrogen
on
surface
 From Alkyl Halides
•
Alkyl halides (encyst FLUORIDES) on reaction with
Zn & Hcl ( dig .
to
give alkanes

Zn
CH z -
cl t
Hz ne
CH y + HCL

Wurtz Reaction
•
Alkyl halides an treatment with Na metal -

in
dry ether ( free from moisture gives higher .

alkanes .

dry .

(Hz Br t 2 Na t
Mz Br ether Utz -
chz t
2NaBr

• Used
for fvuparation of higher alkanes
containing even no of C atoms
-

.
.

From Carboxylic Acid

Sodium salts acid
of carboxylic
Decarboxylation on

(
heating
NaOH & Cao
with
mixture)
soda
-
lime
Gives alkanes
less
containing 2C atom than acid

Cao
CH COO Nat
-

(
z
+ NaOH D Hy t
Naz 003
( sodium
)
ethanoate
 I

Kolbe's Electrolysis
An solution of Na k salt
aqueous or
- -

of carboxylic acid on
electrolysis gives
alkane containing even No .
atoms
of C -

at anode .

Nat
-

2 Cuz COO electro

+
2h20 Chez -
Ch
z
t 202-1242 t
lysis
2Nd OH

2mg COO
-

Nat 2Mz% -
o
-

+ 2 Nat
Anode cathode

E E ni
-

2e
-

t +
Qchz H2O → on
-

- -
o 2cm, -
-
ie :

t
Quiz +
202T gsi → not

My cannot
in, + in, →
cuz cuz T -
be Prepared .

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES .

• Alkanes :
Almost Nen polar
Possess Vander walls
forces
'
weak
r
. -

•
C, -
ca : Gases
Cs -

ch
:
liquids ; Above Cis :
solids
• Colourless and Odorless
•
petrol is mintwee of hydrocarbons used as
fuel
GREASE ( mixture )
higher
.

•
of alkanes because
of non
polarity - is HYDROPHOBIC
• Polar substances are soluble
Therefore solvents
:
in

and non polar ones in

polar
polar ( like Dissolves like)
nmeagriwm.ec
non -

Boiling Point
point increases with molecular mass
•
Boiling
because
of increase in intermolecular
Vander walls
forces
-

n
pentane > isopentane 7 neopentane
Because
contact
branching
and
results
thus weak
in smaller area of
intermolecular forces

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES .

I .
substitution Reactions
2 . Combustion
3 . Controlled Onidation
4 .
Isomerisation
5 . Aromatisation
6 .
Reaction with steam
7 .

Pyrolysis
Substitution Reactions
• One or more
hydrogen atoms
of alkanes can

replaced by halogens nitro

.

be and
,
group
sulphuric acid group .

nitration
• Lower alkanes do not
undergo

NmcagrtwME.hn
and sulphonation reactions .

chlorination of methane
ample of
Rate
of Reaction
Alkanes with
of
halogens
f- z 7 I, 7 Brz 7 Iz

Rate
of replacement
of hydrogens of
alkanes

I
°

3. 7 2
°
>

• fluorination is too
violent to be controlled .

Iodination is slow
very
•

and reversible .
Carried
out in
presence of
oxidising
HI
agents
like
Oz or HN Oz .
 ALKENES
'

•
strength of double bond (BE 681 kJmot
'
) is
( )
'

greater than single bond BE -_

348kt mot -

PREPARATION
By dehydrohalogenation
•
B elimination

cuz -

cuz I alt KOH cuz =

cuz

alcohols
By dehydration of .

elimination
p
-
•

Hd2 SOY
Cmc
Chg on
-

-
oh
,
-
cuz =
Utz

By dehalogenatim of Dihalides

Chz -
U
2n
cuz =
Mz
l is

cuz -
U
 By partial hydrogen of Alkyne
-R
R c -
= c -
r
Ml Pd + Baby Ric = c
cis
' alkene
Lindler's yl n
catalyst
R
Walliams
Yr transue
-
-
R c = c
-
Cz c -
R
Birch ht
Reduction

Kolbe 's electrolytic Method

cha -

COO Na

/
electrolysis Mz =
Chez

Cha -
Coo Na

physical PROPERTIES
• Ist 3 members : Gases
•
Ment 14 :
liquids
•
Higher ones : solids

Regular increase in
boiling point with
-

increase in sire . .
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Electrophilic Addition Reaction
• Alkenes
undergo
Markovnikov 's Rule : most stable product
formed via carbocation

ie Electrophile goes to carbon

having less
no .

of hydrogen .

↳ -

Mz

\
3
Nil Nz

Xz
Chzx -

Chzx
in Csu

Mz =
Cuz nx
cuz cha -
-
X
HI > HBR > NU

HOX HO X
Cha Cha
-
-
-

HH Og ch z -
Ch -
OS 03h
z
 NO -
Uz -

Choon
cold
alkkmnoy (syn #
(Baeyer 's
of on
group)
Reagent
CO2 +
H2O
kmnoy ,
on
-

Utz = Ch,
03 AMMO
2n 1420

Sack @ -

cuz cuz)zS
-

Hg coulda
Chzchz -
OH

nanny
fonymercuratian
Markovnikov)
-

Bzhf Chz -

Chron

( nydwboration
Anti Markinokov )
addition HP
of
 Alkynes .

•
Strength of triple bond highest .

• Both bonds
A are
mutually 1- to each
-

other
.

PREPARATION .

Hydrolysis of Eastside
H2O
Cafe ch on
H2O
Mgzcz cuz -
CE tu

Dihalide
Dehydwhalogenatiar of
•
p -
elimination
alckon
UzBr -

cuz By D
U = ch

Tetrahalide
Dnehalogenh of
an
ch Br , -
ch Br
, b Chem
 from Alkyl Halide
R -

CE Cwa + x -

R R -

CE e -
R

Kolbe's Electrolysis
H c -
cook
electrolysis
-

on
(M) on

n -
I - cook

physical PROPERTIES
Except All
alkynes colourless
ethyne
•
: are

soluble solvents
•
weakly polar : in
organic
•
weakly electronegative

chemical PROPERTIES .

Ucla -

Chaz
262

CME Ch
me
cuz -

Chaz
 die
CMZCHO
nzsoy

can
oh,
chg ch( Ocochz)z
-

'
ng
↳ Ecf
coldkmnoy COON
Leon

hotkmnoy 2002 -1MW

Cho
031 I

2h14am MO

HANK Nac Chia

new
D
Lon !
AROMATIC HYDROCARBON
AROMATICITY
A
compound is said to be aromatic
if
-

2) Ring is planar
2) Complete delocalization of a electrons
system
)
(conjugated
3) dnt 2) electrons -
used in delocalization

-0

I TH

ANTI -
AROMATIC
2) Ring is planar .

a) complete conjugated system .

3) Cen) it electrons used

- in delocalization

FI FI
PREPARATION of Benzene
3cm -=cn Red hot a

tfetube
↳
poona x
^ Noon
Cao is
,

in an
dust

d- Ni - ne alloy a

naon
I

Nzll
4- bro I

n3P0z #

Nhekane 6203 -
NGOs
1
770k
lo zoatm
-

{ 03h + H2O (steam)

X
X
423
-
473k
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
the
a- Br
-- H
H da
tht Allez Brie
Laney febrz
Ni
Us
ie X
a pie
362
I chzcl Frieda
nuts
noattyeation
sun
←
a
Cl
Ce cnzwil
Gammahexane 03
405
Allez
-
I -

Uz
MMM
Cho
3 I
ch -
co
f e
- -

Acylation
Cho
y
to
-
we
on
alyoxal

• Ganmahenane : Used as insecticide

Directive Influence
-

ortho para
directing meta
-

Nhz directing
-
NMR -

Noe
-

OH
-

kN

Cho
Olhz
-
-

NU
-
COR
Coury
-

-
Coon
Chg
-

Us -
COOR
,W3 I
✓
Nose
1- t
soon
-

④ navy
guy N°2
conc a come In
" No
, Lot ¥ litany
NOL cone

(
major) nnoz
Previous YRS Impe
.
HALO ALKANES I HALO ARE NES
HAW ALKANES (C -

) Bond
X

nature

Preparation
E chemical
physical
Properties
Haloarenes preparation
Haloarmes properties

Uses

1- 2 Qts
 Nature of C X -

Bond
• The C -
X bond is
polarised .

• C -
I > c -
Br > c -
ee > C -

F
( Bond length)

Preparation of Haloalkanes
from Alcohols

R on -
anhyd 2nd R.cl
HU
Reaction
( 20 30 Instant
:

: Take 2-5 minutes

ai React
heating
:
on

Ron Pasl Paz Rcl

ROH 5042 Rcl

(Best for 2° alcohols -

DARREN REACTION
)
 from Alkene
cuz
-

chill
HX
cuz cuz ( Markovnikov
In
- -

,
Addition)

(khqffm
HBR
GHz -
Cn =
cuz Chainz Mz Br
no,
43
Br
ye
-

(meso)
(Hz -
Ch =
Cn -
oh cis nd -

Br
, alkene i

Chz

trans cuz in
alkene nd Br Ch
-

-
By +

, I
Br -
C -
H H C -
Br

Addition Br, is
' I
of 43 Cns
always anti addition
(racemic
mintier)

from silver salt

Brr
R R Br
Coo
Ag coz Agx
- -
t +
no

Tlunsdiecker 's Reaction

Follows radical
•

free chloride mechanism

her
alkyl yield is less
-

• .
 Finkelstein Reaction
x
-

d. Br
R R
-

-
x - z
Nat , Acetone

Swartz Reaction
"
82 FZ
R - Cl R f
-

Physical properties
Boiling points isomeric haloalbranes
'

of
decrease with increase in
branching .

Chemical properties .

aqkon R -
ON

"
SN
R
Naomi R och
-
X -

,
Williamson
synthesis
Rch"
R CN -

calc)

Na
R -
I
ether
 Mg R -

Mgx
dry
ether Guignard Reagent

Agent R NC-

R -

X pro N -
-
- o
alkene

AGN 02 R N°2
-

akkon Alkene
D
Dehydrohalogenation

Dry R -
o R
-

Agro

alcAgN03 Agx
Haloarenes
-

sp hybrid carbon

Lot
Preparation .

from Direct Halogenation

Iz -
U
Allez
X
Brie - Br
Fe Br,

12
I
HI
03

Borodin Hunsdiecker

I?
×
→
OAF t Agx + coz
× .
-
B. .
.
 from Benzene Diazonium chloride

arent ee

fig
Hee

nice am,
on

µ as
nbr

Lot

{§
"

EI
Yf
§ a-
Br
or 4 Lot
HBR

K2 2- I

D
①

HBfy F
BalzSchuermann
-

Reaction D
 -

Physical Properties
•
Boiling points of isomeric dihalobenzcne
are
nearly same .

•
Melting point
para isomer > meta > ortho

E'Ia EI
U
' -
a
''

¥
chemical Reactions
Nucleophilic substitution
• Haloarenes : stabilised molecule ( by resonance )
: .
Nucleophilic substitution Reaction under
drastic conditions .

aqnaon , On
X 623K ,

300 atm
I
1-
NN 2
④ Nhs euro
fog
-
,

475k

Crew -
W
473k ,
pyridine
Electrophilic substitution

Rwd
o -

p chloroaceto -

a
it Allez phoneme

ofp%de.aect.mg
but
,
o -
pdicueaobenzene

Deactivating casino, cuz up ETA

-
-

Hssoy
Eye DDT

Reaction with metal

Na,
fitting
Reaction
dry
I ether

A inge
1101 mg x

X Tuf
①

Ni -
he

NaOH
 Uses -

• Chzclz : solvent
Paint remover
Aerosol propellant

•
chloroform congee) ; solvent
for fats
Product of
R
freon refrigerant
-

22

• coly : fire
Extinguisher
Depletes ozone
layer

most common
freon : cclzfz
Previous Yrs Imp ,
ALCOHOLS ,
PHENOLS I ETHERS
Lcohols preparation
Physical E chemical Properties
alcohol
uses of
Phenols preparation
Physical E chemical Properties
Uses of Phenol

\
Ethers preparation
Physical & chemical Properties
Uses Ether
of

1- 2 Q Is
Alcohols

PREPARATION
from hydrolysis of R -

R -

X t
aqkon ROH

Reduction of Carbonyl compounds

tinny tether
R Cho no
Ration (20 alcohol)
r -
E -

r roti R-

( zoaecohoe)

Reduction acid I derivative

of
cinema l
R -

Coon
hw
Rchzon

R COOR Ronson
"
-
'
+ R' on

"

R coil
-
Ronson

R - E -

o - IR
' '
'
2RMz on

Co Zno Cruz
2Mz
-

t ↳3 OH
700k , zooatm
 from Rxn with R -

Mgx
melon
-

R -

mgx t
Homo Ronson
on

E Hulon Chick
-

R Mg X cuz oh
+
cuz
-

,
-
-
-

( 30 alcohols )

hydration of Alkene

)
"
" wth

(
RCM markentkor
-_ oh, Rch -
chz
I Addition
On

physical Properties
•
Boiling point decrease with
branching
•
Boiling point higher as
comparing
Ethanol 7 Metheny methane > Propane
Molwt 46 46 44

B.pt 351K 248k 231K

chemical Properties
• Alcohols acidic due to
polar o n
-
bond
• Electron
withdrawing
go y zo > 30
 NH
GH5H
Red p

Iodoform 24 Ch 23 ( yellow)
Reaction noon

cut cnz.NO
Peel
DDC

R -

Calls OH rmgx

na
CM SONA

20,20 , 30 alcohols
distinguished by arson

383k
Cshsnsoy
Lucas reagent .

HU Znelz Msm
chzchz O Chzchg
-

- -

410k

Hrsou
Cha -
Cha
433k

uses -

•
Cnzon :
paints
alcohol
° commercial made unfit by adding
Cusoy I pyridine ( Denaturation Alcohol
of )
PHENOLS

PREPARATION
Nil
on
>
-

503N
s Egon

MSM'
→
hwlut
Egon
 INDUSTRIAL -
SCALE

- m
@3) z £7
hw
on camera

Process
(end
+
.

↳
,

fog 5y on
-

3150C

Fn on Dow 's
573 -

023K Process

chemical Properties
•
Phenols more acidic than alcohols .

•
Electron
donating Gps i decreases
acidity
-

increases
Electron
withdrawing Corps :
acidity
-

NO
NUZ z

NEX Noz
y
-

LY i y
Noz NO z

picnic tide
Acid I
strength
 oh
3. Bru
) B
# Br

H2O
Mr

oh
come .

N0¥- NOL

HN
03 ¥
NO z

cnclz
°"
on Diemer
a- Cho
Tiemann
NaOH Lod
①
can icon
④
Naoh

on Kolbe
Naoh
tycoon electrolysis
coz ,
I
dilute
O

K p -
benzo -

crozclz quinone
0

Oh Oh
,
I
dit a-Nor a

① El
HN
Og Hoz
 ETHERS
PREPARATION .

mum
Chzchz OH 413k
Cshs0W5

R OR + wax
Rona
-

RX +

Williamson 's synthesis

physical PROPERTIES
ethers
Large difference
and
in
boiling point of
alcohols is due to h -

bonding
despite molecular
of same mass .

Chemical PROPERTIES
halide
• Reaction with
halogen
HI 7 HBR 7 Hcl

R -
O -
R t H2 R X
-
t Ron
•
Electrophilic Aromatic substitution

or
group
:
Activating
-

o
p
-

directing
gunz 0M3
Brain 1- A- Br
44 ①
chzcoon Br

9kHz
^
⑦ och
3
01M I
chdz
hanky KIM
A

&
neg
Csz Ay

ooh
00h31
,
I
Hssoy EINE
HN Oz
Nor

•
R O R thx ( → ZRX 1- Hao
enemy
-
-
previous yrs Impe .
ALDEHYDES , KETONES I ACIDS
ALDEHYDES preparation
E chemical Properties
Physical
Uses

KETONES frefraration
Physical & chemical Properties
uses

A UBS fuefraration
& DERIVATIVES
Physical & chemical Properties
Uses

2- 3 Q1 s
ALDEHYDES ketones
-

PREPARATION
10)
Rch < on Pec
R CMO
Rch -
on
'

R C
-

-
O
k k

Pdl Bason Rosamund

R - E -

ee Remo
s
, Redman
Quinone

't
@co03zCatfycoojzca.di "nR Cho
Law
3
-

@ ( co) a) 2

Chu Uz -_
t Co th
z Chzchzlho
oxo process
OHO
anhy Allez
+ co Ince
-

Gutterman Koch
O
H

R c R
R cxz R
-
-

- -
 Physical PROPERTIES
• Methanol : Gras at room temp .

but
•

Boiling points lower than alcohols .

higher than
hydrocarbons .

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
2 .

Nucleophilic Addition
reactive ketones
•
Aldehydes more than .

N" EO
}c=o >
q
-
OO > c

"
-
OE

Nu
NU

\C=o HMG
( NG
/ G -
- -
on

(
NHL
around
= -

nu -

Ed
PM
3. 5 is
75% nm
-

maintained )
 Addition
Addition of of
HCN
Namsos
J
L

cyanohydrin for purifying

used
formed aldehydes I ketones .

2 .
Oxidation Reactions
R
- ROOM
C -
- O Co ) ,
'
y kurus Int

2 (Ag Kms) c) Oh
ROOM
Toller 's

Reagent

-1
cuz
-

20h
ROOM
+ t

Rochelle Salt
f-
ehling 's
solution
3. Reduction Reaction
-

Nilhz
> cmon
C O linen ,
NAB My

nzlredp > Mz
2. clemenson ( an ng Incl) -

2 .
Wolff (wuz -

Nnz ,
base)
Kishinev

4 .

Polymerisation Paraformald -

NMCMO
373k
@ )n ehyde
20

3 H CHO
Room - Uzo
Temp f l

cuz Chz
' O'metafesmal -

3. cmunssoy aldehyde
Cuz Cho is
Paraldehyde
me
Uchzcno dry Metaldehyde
5 . Aldol condensation
I atom
•
Aldehydes ketones
containing an
condensation reactions
undergo in
presence
base
of (dil Naoh) to
form -

B hydroxy
OR
aldehyde ketones
on
dit
Utz Cho +
Chz Cho
Naoh
Chs - Cin -

Cha Cho
B
-

hw

Ch
Chz -
Ch = -
Cho

CROTONALDEHYE

6- Cnnhizaro Reaction
molecule
2
oxidised to
of aldehyde
acid at
( having no an ) is

expense of other
which is reduced to alcohol .

soil
QHCHO Chz OH
.

HUO Na t
Nam

Cho so 't
bona
Chun
-

+
noon
CARBOXYLIC AND

PREPARATION

Rcoon
R -

mgx #ht "

w/

-¥
"
Cha -_
cuz + co -1420
( steam)

Koch Reaction cuzchz Coon

WH
'
"
Rcocl Room

Rconnz
"
w/ " Rcoon
hwl "
Ray Roon

COOH
 chemical Properties
•
weak acids -

partially ionised

• Presence
of Electron
withdrawing group
increases acidic
strength .

I .
Ortho Effect
was
RCOONA
NaOH

R Coon
-

RCOO
Nhu OH
Why

RCOO Na t coz T
Narcos )

Namco
)

2 Reaction
.

Decarboxylation
Corot NaOH
R H -

RCOOH

Noon
Kolbe
R R -

Electrolysis Electrolysis
3 .
Reduction Reactions
No Roxw
Nanny
RCOOH
n'
IP R Mz-

tinny Ronson

4 .
HV 2 Reaction
carboxylic acids
containing an atom
red P
can
be
halogenated in presence of Xz
+

UP
cuz Coon U -
Coon

5 .

ceectrophilio Aromatic
substitution Reaction
Coon
group is
ring deactivating
-

goon
tooth conch Nos t
^
⑦ -
nose
Concha soy
previous YRS 3mm .
 AM I N E S

/
aammionnesdpnepminon
wei.fi
Physical E chemical Properties

Diazonium salts
AMINES Classification
-

go 20 30

RNNL Ri Rin R
NH
-

R
-
←

PREPARATION
RI t
HN.tk Rnhz 1- ZR

Rz N t ZR RzNht I -
R

t
④ 2-0
Ryn

R -
CR -

Nhz
Bra
Rnnz (only to
amines
Kon )
Bromamide
Hoffamine synthesis

R -
I -

ee Nami
Rnnz
NaOH
D

Curtius Reaction
 ROOM
Nah
)
RNNL
nisoy
Schmidt
Reaction

WAVY
Rconnz RChzNhz
ti ALMY RN hchz
Rnc

RN Oz with
RNhz
Sn Ince
MINK
lining
Electrolytic cuz
weakly fog N°2
fog
- -

Acidic realm

physical PROPERTIES
I
-

• lower aliphatic amines :

Gases

• it z° aliphatic amines : Intermolecular

H -

bonding
•
Boiling point
Primary 7 Secondary >
Tertiary
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Amines are basic

in
gaseous state 3072075

if its
methyl gp
'
in
aqueous state
I > to 730
other
GP
zo > 3075

• Aniline : less basic than aliphatic

amines I ammonia due to
'

resonance .

2 .
Reaction with nnoz

"N"
R -

Nha ROM t Nz T
L°ame°ne
Nhl NANKIN U nzce

O C
'
-

HN "
Rz NH Rz No fellow)2° amine

(R3NnJN0i
MN 02
Rz N 3. amine
2 Reaction
.

Carbylamine
R
R Chaz
+
-
NHL + KOH -
NC

( i) pungent
smell

3 .

Electrophilic Ar . Substitution
ghz
Bru BI - Br

water Q
Br
WAC
1- NHL pnw Ac yn
Ac< 0
① a Bra a
Lot water hi!
Br
Nh WAC
,
t Br
acti
highly
-
-

voting Gp
-

o -

p directing
Difficult to Frieda
monosubstitue No Reaction
craft
 conc
gone ghost
'
I
NNZ Hzsoy i

503M 503-0
It zwitteee
④ Ion

NML NHL NHL

in a large
cone ¥ Lot
no,
H
Nose
HN Oz -1

517 477 21
hrsoy .
.
.

R cuz
- N 02

Tn ) nilnz
Nuuk HNOZ Snlncl

Rchz NHON Rom NML

i -
Nikolic Acid
i -

Pseudonitrol
30 -

No Rxn
Benzene Diazonium Chloride
Previous Yrs ofs
 POLYMERS

1
Classification

I Uses
Polymers

Biodegradable polymers

1- 2 Qts
classification

Natural §yfinetie Synthetic

found in plants cellulose Man made -

and animals .
derivatives

Proteins cellulose acetate Poly ethene

cellulose ( Rayon)
starch nylon 6.6
Cellulose xanthate Buna -
s

Biodegradable Polymers
-

To
prevent potential environmental hazards
caused
by synthetic fibres ; biodegradable
polymers are developed .

I
Nylon 2
nylon G
fun I Cena) In
- -
-

cuz Nn
.
- - -
-

2 .
PNBV ( Poly -

hydroxy
B -

butyrate co B hydroxy
-
- -

valerate)
fo Tim go Yan.in?-ITn
- -
-

.
Uses of Polymers Empt)

1 Ques
fixed .
Previous Yrs Qs .
 BIOMOLECULES

|
CARBOHYDRATES
:%%÷FwFF÷d :¥MFh÷÷tdl
PROTEINS
•
Polypeptides
•
structure

'
NUCLEIC -

ACIDS

VITAMINS

1- 2Q/s
 CARBOHYDRATES
•
Optically
ketones
active
polyhydroxy aldehydes OR
.

• Monosaccharides :
single unit
: can 't be hydrolysed .

•
Oligosaccharides : Give 2- to monosaccharides
on
hydrolysis .

Sucrose x-D
glucose +
p D
fructose
-

Maltese 2x D
glucose
-

lactose ,
p -
D Glucose +
p
-
D Galactose

•
Polysaccharides : contain more
20 subunits .
than

cellulose
starch

(starch)
CARBOHYDRATES -

TEST
 Tempt . Structures .

Reactions of Glucose
 PROTEINS
• Made up of Amino acids .

All
naturally occurring a amino acids
-

• :
.

•
Lysine and
Arginine
: Basic Amino acids
Glutamic acid and : Acidic Amino acids
Aspartic acid

Alanine , Glycine ,
°
. Neutral Amino acids
✓alanine

peptide Bend
• Amino acids joined together by this bond .

Primary structure :
sequence of amino
°
acids

secondary Structure
structure
: Due to
regular folding
Globular ; fibrous
Tertiary 3- D
: -
Nucleic Acids
DNA (
•
Deoxy
-

ribonucleic acid )
• RNA

- Uracil
Nitrogen
base absent
in DNA and
in RNA
present .

Vitamins
• Vitamin B and C =
Water soluble
• vitamin A. D E
, ,
k =
Fat soluble
previous LMP1 Q Is
Environmental
chemistry

µ
Pollution
Atzmoopheric
3mht chemicals
'
.

standards

Green chemistry

IQ Is
 Atmospheric Pollution
Pollution Extend
•
Trophosperic :
upto -1ohm
from
sea level .

Pollutants are
of 2
Types -

I .
PRIMARY -
Persist in environment in

form it is produced .

co .

2 SECONDARY formed
from primary pollutant
-

by change reaction or .

Caused solid
by gaseous particles or .

natural bacteria
-

fog pollen grains , , ,

volcanic
eruptions ,
dust , vapours .

TRO SOPHER 1C POLLUTION

Gaseous air Pollutants particulate matter

Bacteria
oxides
of carbon ,
nitrogen , , fungi .

sulphur . Smoke mist

Dust fumes
Hydrocarbons
Has (minute solid or
droplets in air
liquid )
03
 '

S MO G

classical Photochemical

Redwing /inLondon Smog

cool humid
oxidising /inlies Angles smog
occurs occurs warm
dry
-
- -
-

climate climate
sunny
.
.

Smoke oxides of nitrogen

fog Oz
502 Acrolein

Brinyacetyl nitrate (PAN)

BOD
(Biological oxygen
Demand )
• Amount of oxygen required by bacteria to breakdown
organic matter in a certain volume .

clean
water
BOD ppm
water 5

Highly polluted > ttppm

Eutrophication
Presence entree nutrients in water bodies
brings
of
about a dense plant pollution which kills
animals by depriving it of oxygen .
 Chemicals standards

Green chemistry
classic Example -

Replacement of tetraehloro ethane

as solvent
by liquid Co2 which
is less harmful .
s
Use
of 4202
which lesser tho
for bleaching
uses
.
previous YRS Impe .
Chemistry in
Everyday
in medicines
life
chemicals Antimicrobials
Analgesics
•

Antacids
•

°
Tranquilizers .

Antifertility
•
Antiseptics .
Antibiotics
•

Disinfectants
chemicals in food
•

Artificial sweetening agents

cleansing agents

2- 2 Qts
Chemicals in Medicines
ANTIPYRETICS
Decrease body
temperature

ANTACIDS

ANTISEPTICS
DISINFECTANTS
Applied intimate
to objects .

0.2% Solve
of phenol Antiseptic
-

2% of phenol Disinfectant
Soen -

clz in O 2
-
-
ou ppm & Soa (low) -

Disinfectant

ANTI -

FERTILITY DRUGS

TRANQUILIZERS

Barbiturate
Derivatives
ANTIBIOTICS
Narrow
spectrum
can cure
only
diseases
specific
streptomycin
Penicillin

Broad spectrum :
Effective against several
diseases .

Tetracycline
chloramphenicol

ARM flu AL SWEETENERS

most

widely
used

sensitive
to cold
temp .
 SOAPS

• sodium
acids
or
potassium salts of long chain
fatty
.

•
Do not work in hard water .

DETERGENTS

Anionic sodium salts of

• :
alkyl benzene
sulphonate
bromide
• Cationic :
Cetyltrimethylammonium
• Neutral : when stearic acid reacts with

polyethylene glycol .
Previous YRS Impe
.