Shear and Moment in Beams

Internal Forces and Moments in Beams

When a beam is loaded by forces and couples, internal stresses arise in the bar. In general, both
normal and shearing stresses will occur. In order to determine the magnitude of these stresses at
any section of the beam, it is necessary to know the resultant force and moment acting at that
section. These may be found by applying the equations of static equilibrium.

Figure 6.6 a Figure 6.6 b

Suppose several concentrated forces act on a simple beam as in Fig. 6-6(a). It is desired to study
the internal stresses across the section at D, located at a distance x from the left end of the beam.
To do this let us consider the beam to be cut at D and the portion of the beam to the right of D
removed. The portion removed must then be replaced by the effect it exerted upon the portion to
the left of D and this effect will consist of a vertical shearing force together with a moment as
represented by V and M, respectively, in the free-body diagram of the left portion of the beam
shown in Fig. 6-6(b). The force V and the couple M hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium
under the action of the forces R1, P1, P2. The quantities V and M are taken to be positive if they
have the senses indicated above.

Resisting Moment
The couple M shown in Fig. 6-6(b) at section D is called the resisting moment. The magnitude of
M may be found by use of a statics equation which states that the sum of the moments of all
forces about an axis at D is zero. Thus
ΣMD = 0
M – R1 x + P1( x − a )+ P2 (x – b) = 0
M = R1 x – P1 (x – a) – P2 (x – b)

Thus the resisting moment M is the moment at point D created by the moments of the reaction at
A and the applied forces P1 and P2. The resisting moment M is due to stresses that are distributed
over the vertical section at D. These stresses act in a horizontal direction and are tensile in certain
portions of the cross section and compressive in others.

Resisting Shear
The vertical force V shown in Fig. 6-6(b) is called the resisting shear at section D. For equilibrium
of forces in the vertical direction,
ΣFv = 0
R1 – P1 – P 2 − V = 0
V = R1 – P 1 – P2
This force V is actually the resultant of shearing stresses distributed over the vertical section at
D.

Bending Moment
The algebraic sum of the moments of the external forces to one side of the section D about an
axis through D is called the bending moment at D. This is represented by

R1 x – P1 (x – a) - P2 (x – b)

for the loading considered above. Thus the bending moment is opposite in direction to the
resisting moment but is of the same magnitude. It is usually denoted by M also. Ordinarily the
bending moment rather than the resisting moment is used in calculations because it can be
represented directly in terms of the external loads. Bending moment may be summarized
mathematically as M = (∑M)L or M = (∑M)R

Shearing Force
The algebraic sum of all the vertical forces to one side, say the left side, of section D is called the
shearing force at that section. This is represented by R 1 – P1 – P2 for the above loading. The
shearing force is opposite in direction to the resisting shear but of the same magnitude. Usually it
is denoted by V. It is ordinarily used in calculations, rather than the resisting shear. Shear force
nay be summarized mathematically as V = (∑Fv)L

Sign Conventions
The customary sign conventions for shearing force and bending moment are represented in Fig.
6-7. Thus a force that tends to bend the beam so that it is concave upward is said to produce a
positive bending moment. A force that tends to shear the left portion of the beam upward with
respect to the right portion is said to produce a positive shearing force.

Fig. 6-7 Sign conventions for bending and shear.

An easier method for determining the algebraic sign of the bending moment at any section is to
say that upward external forces produce positive bending moments, downward forces yield
negative bending moments.
Shear and Moment Equations with Diagram
Usually it is convenient to introduce a coordinate system along the beam, with the origin at one
end of the beam. It will be desirable to know the shearing force and bending moment at all sections
along the beam and for this purpose two equations are written, one specifying the shearing force
V as a function of the distance, say x, from one end of the beam, the other giving the bending
moment M as a function of x.

The plots of the equations for V and M are known as shearing force and bending moment
diagrams, respectively. In these plots the abscissas (horizontals) indicate the position of the
section along the beam and the ordinates (verticals) represent the values of the shearing force
and bending moment, respectively. Thus these diagrams represent graphically the variation of
shearing force and bending moment at any section along the length of the bar. From these plots
it is quite easy to determine the maximum value of each of these quantities.

A simple beam with a varying load indicated by w(x) is sketched in Fig. 6-8. The coordinate system
with origin at the left end A is established and distances to various sections in the beam are
denoted by the variable x. Let us derive relationships between w(x), V(x), and M(x) at any section
of the beam, shown in Fig. 6-8. The beam is subjected to any type of transverse load of the
general form shown in Fig. 6-8(a). Simple supports are illustrated but the following consideration
holds for all types of beams. We will isolate from the beam the element of length dx shown and
draw a free-body diagram of it. The shearing force V acts on the left side of the element, and in
passing through the distance dx the shearing force V will in general change to V + dV. The bending
moment M acts on the left side of the element and M + dM on the right side.

Fig. 6-8 A simple beam with a varying load.

Since dx is extremely small, the applied load may be taken as uniform over the top of the beam
and equal to w. The freebody diagram of this element thus appears as in Fig. 6-8(b). For
equilibrium of moments about O, we have

ΣMo = 0
M – (M + dM) + Vdx + wdx (dx/2) = 0
1
dM = Vdx + w (dx)2
2
Since the last term consists of the product of two differentials, it is negligible compared with the
other terms involving only one differential. Hence

dM = Vdx
𝑑𝑀
V= slope of moment diagram
𝑑𝑥
(the rate of change of moment is equivalent to the area of the shear)

𝑀2 2 𝑥
∫𝑀 𝑑𝑀 = ∫𝑥 𝑉𝑑𝑥
1 1
M2 – M1 = ∆M = Area(shear)

Thus the shearing force is equal to the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x.
This equation will prove to be of considerable value in drawing shearing force and bending
moment diagrams.

For example, from this equation it is evident that if the sketching force is positive at a certain
section of the beam then the slope of the bending moment diagram is also positive at that point.
Also, it demonstrates that an abrupt change in shear, corresponding to a concentrated force, is
accompanied by an abrupt change in the slope of the bending moment diagram.

Further, at those points where the shear is zero, the slope of the bending moment diagram is zero.
At those points where the tangent to the moment diagram is horizontal, the moment may have a
maximum or minimum value. This follows from the usual calculus technique of obtaining maximum
or minimum values of a function by equating the first derivative of the function to zero. Thus in
Fig. 6-9 if the curves shown represent portions of a bending moment diagram then critical values
may occur at points A and B.

Fig. 6-9 Maximum and minimum values for M(x).

To establish the direction of concavity at a point such as A or B, we may form the second derivative
of M with respect to x, that is, d2M/dx2. If the value of this second derivative is positive, then the
moment diagram is concave upward, as at A, and the moment assumes a minimum value. If the
second derivative is negative, the moment diagram is concave downward, as at B, and the
moment assumes a maximum value.

However, it is to be carefully noted that the calculus method of obtaining critical values by use of
the first derivative does not indicate possible maximum values at a cusp-like point in the moment
diagram, if one occurs, such as that shown at C. If such a point is present, the moment there must
be determined numerically and then compared to other values that are possibly critical.
Lastly, for vertical equilibrium of the element we have

wdx + V - (V + dV) = 0
𝑑𝑉
w= slope of shear diagram
𝑑𝑥
(the rate of change of shear is equivalent to the area of the load)

𝑉2 2𝑥
∫𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑥 𝑤𝑑𝑥
1 1
V2 – V1 = ∆V = Area(load)

Properties of Shear and Moment Diagram

The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the moment
at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.
4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shear. This is in reference to property
number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the tangent
drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.
Example 1
Write shear and moment equations for the beam shown.Let x be the distance measured from left
end of the beam. Also, draw shear and moment diagrams, specifying values at all change of
loading positions and at points of zero shear. Neglect the mass of the beam in each problem.
Example 2
Without writing shear and moment equations, draw the shear and moment diagrams for the
beam shown. Give numerical values at all change of loading positions and at all points of zero
shear

Assignment
Solve the following problems:
pages 103 – 107 problems 403 – 420 odd numbers only
pages 118 – 125 problems 425 – 451 odd numbers only
Be ready for a boardwork on our next on-site class. Thank you and Good luck.