LWP-G 3-3-8 Patrolling and Tracking

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AUSTRALIAN ARMY
LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES -

GENERAL
LWP-G 3-3-8
PATROLLING AND TRACKING
DEVELOPING DOCTRINE
This publication supersedes Australian Army Manual of Land Warfare,

Part Two Infantry Training, Volume 3, Pamphlet 3, Patrolling and
Tracking (All Corps), 1985.
This publication is a valuable item and has been printed in a limited production run.
Units are responsible for the strict control of issues and returns. No replacements are
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AUSTRALIAN ARMY
LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES -

GENERAL
LWP-G 3-3-8
PATROLLING AND TRACKING
DEVELOPING DOCTRINE
© Commonwealth of Australia (Australian Army) 2002
Land Warfare Development Centre

10 September 2002
Issued by command of
the Chief of Army
M.W. TRAFFORD
Colonel
Director
Training and Doctrine Group
LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

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1. This document contains Australian Defence information. All Defence information, whether
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Doctrine Wing, Training and Doctrine Group, Land Warfare Development Centre,
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AUSTRALIAN ARMY, LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES - GENERAL,

LWP-G 3-3-8, PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002
Doctrine Wing, Training and Doctrine Group, Land Warfare Development Centre, is
responsible for the management and sponsorship of this publication. The doctrine
contained herein was approved on 10 September, 2002.
AMENDMENT CERTIFICATE
1. Proposals for amendments or additions to the text of this publication should be made
through normal channels to the sponsor. To facilitate this, there are amendment proposal
forms at the back of this publication.
2. It is certified that the amendments promulgated in the undermentioned amendment lists

have been made in this publication.
Amendment List Amended By (Printed Date of Amending

Number Date Name and Initials)
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This publication supersedes Australian Army Manual of Land Warfare,

Part Two Infantry Training, Volume 3, Pamphlet 3, Patrolling and
Tracking (All Corps), 1985.
PREFACE
Aim
1. The aim of this publication is to provide doctrine for patrolling and tracking techniques.
Level and Scope
2. The publication is the source document on patrolling and tracking techniques to be taught
by instructors of all corps. It contains the information required to conduct operations and
continuation training in patrolling and tracking.
3. The publication contains detail on all aspects of employing patrols and techniques for use
in war.
References
4. This publication should be read in conjunction with other publications and documents, in
particular:
a. Manual of Land Warfare 2-1-2, The Rifle Platoon, 1986, ALI 1999;
b. Manual of Land Warfare 2-2-5, Mine Warfare and Booby Traps, 1982 (obsolescent);
c. Manual of Land Warfare 1-5-1, Staff Duties in the Field, 1986;
d. Manual of Land Warfare 2-1-3, Combat Intelligence, 1981;
e. Manual of Land Warfare 2-3-2, Fieldcraft and Target Detection (All Corps), 1984;
f. Manual of Land Warfare 2-9-4, Marksmanship (All Corps), 1995;
g. Manual of Land Warfare 2-3-1, Navigation, 1983;
h. Manual of Land Warfare 2-3-4, Ambush and Counter Ambush (All Corps), 1984;
i. Training Information Bulletin Number 79, Project NINOX – Night Fighting Equipment,
1999;
j. Royal Australian Infantry Corps Training Note 2-5, The Employment of Two Light
Support Weapons, 1996;
k. Royal Australian Infantry Corps Training Note 2-7, Direct Fire Support Weapon
Platoon, 1995; and
l. Manual of Land Warfare 2-1-1, Employment of Armour, 1993.

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On-line Doctrine
5. This and other doctrine publications are available via the Land Warfare Development
Centre Doctrine website located at:
http://lwdc.sor.defence.gov.au/doctrine
Gender
6. Words importing gender refer to both male and female unless specifically stated
otherwise.

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CONTENTS
CONDITIONS OF RELEASE iv
AMENDMENT CERTIFICATE v
DISTRIBUTION vi
PREFACE xi
CONTENTS xiii
ABBREVIATIONS xxi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PATROLLING 1-1
SECTION 1-1. GENERAL 1-1
Introduction 1-1
The Aims of Patrolling 1-1
SECTION 1-2. RESPONSIBILITIES IN PATROLLING 1-2

Introduction 1-2
Successful Patrolling 1-2
CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION OF PATROLS 2-1

Types of Patrols 2-1
SECTION 2-2. FIGHTING PATROLS 2-1

General 2-1
Standing Patrols 2-2
Anti-armour Patrols 2-3
Ambush Patrols 2-4
Urban Patrols 2-4
Stand-by Patrols 2-4
SECTION 2-3. RECONNAISSANCE PATROLS 2-4

General 2-4
Preparation 2-5
CHAPTER 3 PATROLLING STAFF DUTIES AND PLANNING 3-1

General 3-1
SECTION 3-1. DUTIES OF THE FORMATION STAFF 3-1

Duties of the Staff 3-1
Planning and Organisation of Patrolling 3-1
Coordination and Control 3-2
Fratricide Avoidance 3-3
Effects of Fratricide 3-3
Provision of Briefing Data 3-3
Recording and Dissemination of Patrol Information 3-4

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SECTION 3-2. DUTIES OF THE UNIT STAFF 3-4

Planning and Coordination 3-4
ANNEXES:
A. Unit Patrol Forecast/Programme Format
B. Boundary Clearance/Area Extension/Area of Operations
Transit Request
CHAPTER 4 PATROL COMMANDER'S PREPARATION 4-1

Introduction 4-1
Sequence of Preparation 4-1
SECTION 4-2. COMMAND AND CONTROL 4-2

Control 4-2
Elements of Patrol Orders 4-2
SECTION 4-3. PREPARATION OF PATROL COMMANDER'S ORDERS 4-4

General 4-4
Appreciation Factors 4-4
Enemy 4-4
Composition of the Patrol 4-5
Use of Vehicles/Aircraft 4-5
Weapons, Dress and Equipment 4-5
Selection of Routes 4-5
Navigation 4-6
Obstacles 4-6
Speed 4-6
Fire Support 4-7
Communications 4-7
Action on Contact En Route To and From the Objective 4-7
Action on Reaching the Objective 4-7
Casualties 4-7
Rendezvous 4-7
The Need for a Patrol Base 4-7
Administration on Return 4-8
Liaison 4-8
SECTION 4-4. ISSUING PATROL COMMANDER'S ORDERS 4-8

General 4-8
SECTION 4-5. FINAL PREPARATIONS 4-9

Rehearsals 4-9
Inspections 4-10
ANNEX:
A. Patrol Orders Checklist
CHAPTER 5 CONDUCT OF THE PATROL 5-1

Introduction 5-1
SECTION 5-2. PATROL TECHNIQUES 5-1

Observation 5-1
Searching Ground 5-1

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Anti-armour Patrols 5-4

Close Reconnaissance 5-4
Night Patrolling 5-6
Maintaining Control 5-7
Action on Contact 5-7
SECTION 5-3. PATROL FORMATIONS 5-8

General 5-8
Use of Scouts 5-14
Position of the Patrol Commander 5-14
Position of Trackers 5-15
Position of Guides 5-15
SECTION 5-4. CONTROL 5-15

General 5-15
SECTION 5-5. MOVEMENT 5-16

General 5-16
Action on Illumination 5-16
Movement at Night 5-16
Cutting 5-16
Obstacles 5-16
Tracks 5-18
Concealment of Movement 5-19
SECTION 5-6. PATROL RENDEZVOUS PROCEDURES 5-19

General 5-19
Location 5-19
Rendezvous Procedures 5-19
Marry-up Procedures 5-20
SECTION 5-7. CASUALTY EVACUATION 5-21

General 5-21
SECTION 5-8. COUNTERMEASURES FOR ENEMY SURVEILLANCE 5-21

Techniques of Countering Enemy Surveillance 5-21
CHAPTER 6 PATROL BASES 6-1

Introduction 6-1
Requirements 6-1
Siting 6-1
Sequence of Establishment 6-1
Security 6-2
Field Patrol Base 6-3
Urban Patrol Base 6-3
Urban Patrol Base Routine 6-4
Returning To a Base 6-4
Vacating a Base 6-4
CHAPTER 7 PATROLLING IN URBAN TERRAIN 7-1

SECTION 7-1. PATROLLING 7-1
General 7-1
Conduct 7-1
Considerations 7-2
Mounted Urban Patrolling 7-2
Tactical Employment of Amoured Fighting Vehicles 7-3

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SECTION 7-2. PATROL MOVEMENT 7-3

Hints on Movement in Urban Terrain 7-3
Urban Patrolling at Night 7-3
Patrol Contact Drills 7-4
Navigation 7-5
Fire Support 7-5
Communications 7-5
Vehicle Patrols 7-5
Fratricide 7-6
CHAPTER 8 ACTION AFTER PATROLLING 8-1

Debriefing 8-1
Patrol Reports 8-1
Patrol Records 8-1
ANNEX:
A. Patrol Debriefing Checklist
CHAPTER 9 INTRODUCTION TO TRACKING 9-1

Previous Military Tracking Applications 9-1
Current Tracking Applications 9-1
Purpose of Military Tracking 9-2
Role of the Tracker 9-2
Types of Tracking 9-2
The Tracker 9-2
Qualities of the Visual Tracker 9-3
Tracking Terminology 9-3
SECTION 9-2. THE TARGET 9-4

Definition of the Target 9-4
Understanding the Target 9-4
The Target’s Mission 9-4
The Target’s Background 9-5
SECTION 9-3. SIGN 9-6

Definition 9-6
Characteristics of Sign 9-6
Categories of Sign 9-6
Types of Sign 9-7
Soft Sign 9-7
Hard Sign 9-7
Classification of Sign 9-8
SECTION 9-4. TRACK INFORMATION 9-8

Recognition of Footprints 9-8
Direction 9-9
Numbers being Tracked 9-9
Age of Sign 9-9
Speed of the Target Being Tracked 9-11
Weight of Load Carried 9-11
Gender of Target 9-11
General Health 9-12
Rations 9-12
Types of Weapons and Equipment 9-12

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Tactics 9-12
Habits/Routines 9-13
SECTION 9-5. FACTORS WHICH AFFECT TRACKING 9-13

Sign (Spoor) 9-13
Terrain 9-14
Climatic Conditions 9-17
Time 9-17
SECTION 9-6. ANIMAL PRINTS 9-17

Introduction 9-17
Birds Tracks 9-17
Animal Tracks 9-18
Tracks Indicate Habits 9-18
CHAPTER 10 TRACKING TECHNIQUES 10-1

SECTION 10-1. TRACK PURSUIT DRILLS 10-1
Introduction 10-1
Stages of the Track Pursuit Drill 10-1
SECTION 10-2. TRACK CASTING DRILLS 10-2

Last Definite Sign 10-2
Track Casting Drills 10-2
Initial Probe 10-3
Initial Cast Drill 10-3
Extended Cast Drill 10-4
Likely Area Search Drill 10-5
SECTION 10-3. TRACK ISOLATION DRILL 10-6

Definition 10-6
Application 10-6
Predicting the Enemy Location 10-6
Method of Relocating the Track 10-7
SECTION 10-4. DUTIES OF A COVER MAN 10-7
SECTION 10-5. DEAD RECKONING 10-8

Route Recording 10-8
Method of Plotting 10-9
SECTION 10-6. NIGHT TRACKING 10-9

Factors to be Considered 10-9
Urgency of Task 10-9
Aids Available 10-10
Use of Lights for Night Tracking 10-10
Protection of Trackers 10-11
Night Viewing Devices 10-11
Night Tracking in Urban Areas 10-11
SECTION 10-7. INCIDENT AWARENESS 10-11

Considerations 10-11
Action at the Incident Site 10-12
Types of Information 10-12
SECTION 10-8. CAMP SEARCH 10-13

Occupied Position 10-13

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Unoccupied or Abandoned Position 10-13

Area Surveillance 10-14
Area Security 10-14
Search Techniques 10-14
Search Teams 10-14
Recording 10-14
SECTION 10-9. INICIDENT SITE SKETCHING 10-15

The Sketch 10-15
Producing a Sketch 10-15
SECTION 10-10. BOOBY TRAP AWARENESS 10-15

Employment of Booby Traps 10-16
Types of Booby Traps 10-16
Siting of Booby Traps 10-16
Detection of Booby Traps 10-17
Booby Trap Markers 10-17
Countermeasures 10-18
General Rules 10-18
SECTION 10-11. DECEPTION TACTICS 10-19

Types of Deception 10-19
ANNEX:
A. Suggested Legend Symbols
CHAPTER 11 REPORTING 11-1

SECTION 11-1. INTERPRETATION AND DEDUCTION 11-1
Interpretation of Information 11-1
Facts 11-1
Interpretation 11-1
Deduction 11-1
Assumption 11-1
Confirmation 11-1
SECTION 11-2. REPORTING 11-3

Types of Reports 11-3
Incident Report 11-3
Hot Debrief 11-3
Written Track Report 11-5
ANNEXES:
A. Hot Debrief Format
B. Track Report Format
C. Example of a Completed Track Report
CHAPTER 12 TRACKER DOGS 12-1

Introduction 12-1
Type of Dog 12-1
Tracking Conditions 12-1
Factors Affecting Tracking 12-1
Employment 12-3
Dog Handlers 12-3

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CHAPTER 13 TRACKER TEAMS 13-1

Introduction 13-1
SECTION 13-2. VISUAL TRACKER TEAMS 13-1

Composition 13-1
Team Members’ Responsibilities 13-1
Formations and Movement 13-2
Changeover Procedure 13-3
Tracking Hand Over Brief 13-4
Employment 13-4
Briefing of the Track Commander 13-4
Deployment for Pursuit 13-5
Distance 13-5
Speed of Movement 13-6
Action on Contact 13-6
SECTION 13-3. COMBINED TEAMS 13-6

Composition 13-6
Responsibilities 13-6
Formations 13-6
Rotation 13-7
Searches 13-7
Use of Teams at Night 13-8
CHAPTER 14 SPECIAL FORCES 14-1

Reserved
CHAPTER 15 TRAINING 15-1

SECTION 15-1. PATROLLING 15-1
Introduction 15-1
Patrol Exercises 15-1
Controlled Exercises 15-2
Variations 15-3
Night Patrolling Exercises 15-3
Close Reconnaissance Techniques 15-3
Staff Training 15-4
SECTION 15-2. TRACKING TRAINING 15-4

Introduction 15-4
Tracking Exercises 15-5
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 5–1: The Fan Method 5-2
Figure 5–2: The Stream Method 5-3
Figure 5–3: Example of the Preparation of a Sketch Map 5-6
Figure 5–4: Patrol Break Contact Drill 5-8
Figure 5–5: Action on Contact When Stopped 5-8
Figure 5–6: Single File 5-9
Figure 5–7: Open File 5-10
Figure 5–8: Staggered File 5-10
Figure 5–9: Extended Line 5-10
Figure 5–10: Arrow Head 5-11
Figure 5–11: Platoon in Staggered File 5-11

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Figure 5–12: Platoon Two Up, One Back in Single File 5-12
Figure 5–13: One Up in Open File, Two Back in Single File 5-13
Figure 5–14: One Section Up in Arrow Head, Two Back in Single File 5-13
Figure 5–15: One Section Up, Two Back in Arrow head 5-14
Figure 5–16: Section Obstacle Crossing Drill 5-17
Figure 5–17: Platoon Obstacle Crossing Drill 5-18
Figure 7–1: Example of Half-Platoon Patrol Organisation 7-1
Figure 10–1: Initial Probe Drill 10-3
Figure 10–2: Initial Cast Drill 10-4
Figure 10–3: Extended Cast Drill 10-5
TABLES
Table 3–1: Patrol Forecast/Programme 3A-2
Table 3–2: Example of Transit Request 3B-1
Table 10–1: Dead Reckoning Data Sheet 10-9
Table 10–2: Incident and Camp Sketching Symbols 10A-1
Table 11–1: Fact and Deduction Diagram 11-2

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ABBREVIATIONS
1. The following abbreviations are used in this publication. Abbreviations which appear in
Australian Defence Force Publication 103, Abbreviations and Military Symbols, 1995, are
expanded upon in normal type. Abbreviations shown in italics have not been accepted for
joint Service use.
AAW anti-armoured weapons

AFV armoured fighting vehicle
AO area of operations
CM cover man
DF defensive fire
DTG date time group
GR grid reference
HQ headquarters
ICP incident control point
IR infra-red
LDS last definite sign
LUP lying-up point
MLW Manual of Land Warfare
NFE night fighting equipment
NOD night observation device
NVG night vision goggles
NWS Night Weapon Sight
OP observation post
PW prisoner-of-war
ROE rules of engagement
RV rendezvous
SF Special Forces
SOP standing operating procedures
TCD Track Casting Drill
TPD Track Pursuit Drill
USA United States of America
VT visual tracker
VTP visual tracker patrol

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2. The following abbreviations appear in tables and figures within the publication.
ack acknowledge
auth authority
bde brigade
BDY boundary
CPL Corporal
DOP drop off point
ENY enemy
EXT extension
Fct forecast
fmn formation
GLA grenade launcher
m metres
NZ New Zealand
OPSO operations officer
posn position
pri priority
ptl patrol
PUP pull up point
recon reconnaissance
rept report
req required
ser serial
TCV troop carrying vehicle

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1-1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PATROLLING
SECTION 1-1. GENERAL
Introduction
1.1 Patrolling is conducted as part of all operations. To be successful, patrolling needs to be

well planned, active and aggressive.
1.2 Patrolling is the responsibility of all corps and is carried out not only in the forward areas
but also in rear areas to counter enemy infiltration and to protect installations and
administrative areas. It is therefore essential that all members of the Australian Army are
trained and practised in the techniques of patrolling.
1.3 New equipment and weapons will continually improve the commander's ability to obtain
information about the enemy and to inflict damage on him and his installations. However,
while changes in technology are likely to change the way some patrols are conducted
and require the development of new and imaginative techniques, technology will never
replace the need for patrols.
The Aims of Patrolling
1.4 The aims of patrolling are as follows:
a. To Gain and Retain the Initiative. When friendly patrols dominate the ground
between opposing defended localities, the enemy is contained largely within his own
positions. This gives the successful patrolling force freedom of action in the area,
raises morale and enhances security. The primary task of patrols sent out for this
purpose is to destroy the enemy.
b. To Gain Information. Patrols gain information related to:
(1) the enemy, such as his strength, location, disposition, identification, state of
defences, habits and early warning of his intentions;
(2) the ground, such as the going for vehicles and infantry, obstacles and
approaches; and
(3) intelligence requirements which are listed as part of the intelligence estimate in
Manual of Land Warfare (MLW) 2-1-3, Combat Intelligence, 1981.
c. To Deny Information to the Enemy. By denying the enemy freedom to patrol, this
denies much of the information required by him to plan his operations.
d. To Harass the Enemy. The aim of harassment is to maintain pressure on the enemy,
to deny him regular rest and thus lower his morale.
e. To Provide Security. Patrols may be used to:
(1) ensure the area immediately outside unit localities is clear of enemy and that
there has been no unsuspected buildup close to the position;

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(2) check that minefields, wire and warning devices have not been tampered with;
(3) maintain contact with flanking units and sub-units;
(4) cover the gaps between unit installations and controlled areas, thereby
preventing enemy infiltration and give early warning of the enemy forming up for
an attack;
(5) give early warning of enemy approach;
(6) give flank protection, especially during mobile operations; and
(7) deceive the enemy.
f. To Provide Protection. Patrols may:
(1) escort specialist reconnaissance parties, such as engineers reconnoitering sites

for a river crossing;
(2) protect routes, forming up places, etc;
(3) protect parties with special duties – eg, mine laying or wiring; and
(4) protect administrative installations.
1.5 Irrespective of their specific tasks, all patrols are a source of intelligence and they must
be prepared to report all information discovered.
SECTION 1-2. RESPONSIBILITIES IN PATROLLING
Introduction
1.6 Patrolling tasks are the responsibility of all units of all corps. Soldiers of all units must be
proficient at patrolling and their staff must be capable of providing the needed operational
control and administrative support for a patrol programme.
1.7 Commanders are responsible for the formulation of the patrol policy. Staff are responsible
for the execution of the patrol programme and subordinate commanders are responsible
for the execution and conduct of the patrol. Details are contained in Chapter 3.
Successful Patrolling
1.8 The following factors form the basis of successful patrolling:
a. realistic and achievable aims in a coordinated patrol programme,
b. thorough planning and briefing conducted by formation and unit staff,
c. realistic timings,
d. thorough preparation and rehearsals,
e. a high standard of training and equipment,
f. a high degree of initiative and leadership by patrol commanders, and
g. accurate recording and quick dissemination of all information gained through

patrolling.

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CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF PATROLS
Types of Patrols
2.1 Once a patrol's aim is defined, it can be classified as either:
a. a fighting patrol, or
b. a reconnaissance patrol.
2.2 Although a patrol may be classified by type, any patrol may be given a number of tasks.
While the broad classification by type can be used to assist in training and to help define
the primary task of a patrol, the briefings, preparation and general conduct of all patrols
should be similar.
SECTION 2-2. FIGHTING PATROLS
General
2.3 Fighting patrols are designed to engage the enemy. They contribute to gaining and
retaining the initiative and to our force's security. Fighting patrols may vary in size from a
small group to an infantry sub-unit or larger. Standing patrols and hunter-killer teams/anti-
armour patrols are particular types of fighting patrols.
2.4 Typical tasks of a fighting patrol are to:
a. ambush,
b. fight for information,
c. harass the enemy,
d. hold ground,
e. form a patrol base,
f. provide escorts,
g. capture a prisoner,
h. search an area for enemy,
i. distract enemy attentions from other areas, and
j. provide security.

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2.5 Composition. A fighting patrol is organised in size commensurate with the nature of its
task. Considerations which will affect the size of fighting patrols are as follows:
a. the patrol must have sufficient combat power to achieve its mission,
b. the patrol must have sufficient strength to cope with such events as the need to
picket and the possible need to carry casualties,
c. the patrol must have sufficient manpower to maintain a high degree of alertness
throughout the duration of the patrol,
d. the patrol may require the assistance of trained radio operators to ensure speedy
and timely passage of information, and
e. the patrol may require the assistance of specialists from supporting arms and/or
indirect fire controllers.
Standing Patrols
2.6 Standing patrols are a particular type of static fighting patrol frequently used for protection
of defensive positions. Standing patrols are deployed on the order of the unit commander
and should not be confused with listening posts which are sited by sub-units. In situations
where a screen is not deployed, standing patrols are likely to be the first troops
encountered by the enemy. The unit commander should give careful consideration as to
whether a standing patrol should be deployed. Alternatives are observation posts (OPs)
equipped with surveillance devices or mobile fighting patrols.
2.7 Considerations. The following should be considered in the planning and execution of
standing patrols:
a. Command. Standing patrols are under command of the unit commander. Although
they may be drawn from a sub-unit and be sited to cover an approach to that sub-
unit, the unit commander is responsible for their sighting, orders and relief.
b. Communications. Standing patrols must have effective communications and an

effective back-up communications system.
c. Protection and Concealment. Standing patrols should be dug in and camouflaged.

Occupation should be in accordance with normal defence position considerations.
d. Strength. A standing patrol should be kept as small as possible, commensurate with

its task. The strength should be determined by the unit commander but should not be
less than a section. If possible, a shortage of manpower should be compensated for
with increased firepower, including indirect fire support.
e. Deployment. Standing patrols are deployed to cover likely enemy approaches and
dead ground in front of and between defended localities. Tasks may include:
(1) giving early warning of enemy movement,
(2) preventing infiltration or penetration between localities, and
(3) covering the entrance to gaps in field defences.
f. Fire Support. Consideration should be given to inclusion of a mortar fire controller or

forward observer in the patrol.

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2.8 In open country, standing patrols should move into position after last light. In close
country or where visibility is limited, standing patrols will often be deployed by day.
Standing patrols must have specific orders for withdrawal and withdrawal procedures
must be rehearsed. If forced to withdraw they must be re-established as quickly as
possible. They should not be re-established in exactly the same location if the patrol
location has been compromised.
Anti-armour Patrols
2.9 Anti-armour patrols are specialised patrols with the primary task to destroy armoured
fighting vehicles (AFVs).
2.10 Composition. The anti-armour patrol requires three main elements:
a. command element,
b. destroyer element, and
c. security element.
2.11 Employment tasks of anti-armour patrols on operations or exercise are as follows:
a. Raids on:
(1) AFV hides,
(2) communication centres,
(3) ammunition and supply depots, and
(4) command centres.
b. Ambushing is still the most common technique used for:
(1) covering dead space in sectors of fire,
(2) limiting AFV movement in built up or wooded areas and close country,
(3) harassing small armoured reconnaissance units, and
(4) canalising armoured columns.
c. Other tasks (these tasks are explained in detail in Royal Australian Infantry Corp
Training Note 2-7, Direct Fire Support Weapon Platoon, 1995).
2.12 Mobility. Success and survival of an anti-armour patrol will depend to a great extent on
the degree of mobility. If possible, they should have greater mobility than the enemy.
2.13 Conditions. The ideal conditions for employing anti-armour patrols are as follows:
a. when enemy infantry have be separated from their AFVs,
b. when enemy armoured vehicles are operating independently, and
c. when mobility and visibility of enemy armour has been reduced due to:
(1) weather,

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(2) smoke,
(3) obstacles, and
(4) closed down hatches.
Ambush Patrols
2.14 Ambushing will often be the task of a fighting patrol. Ambush operations are covered in
MLW 2-3-4, Ambush and Counter Ambush (All Corps), 1984.
Urban Patrols
2.15 Urban patrols are tasks given to sections, platoons or companies operating in the urban
environment.
2.16 The specific features of urban patrolling are explained in Chapter 7 of this publication.
Stand-by Patrols
2.17 A stand-by patrol may be nominated to assist another patrol that gets into difficulty. It will
normally be on a short degree of notice to move but will carry out normal tasks unless
reacted.
2.18 Quick Reaction Force is a patrol dedicated to respond to a patrol requiring assistance or
to react to a developing situation. It is on a very short notice to move and will not carry out
any other tasks. The strength of the patrol is usually a section at company level and a
platoon at battalion level.
2.19 Incident Response Force is a specialist patrol dedicated to respond to situations or

incidents beyond the technical skills of the Quick Reaction Force or to supplement the
patrol in a developing situation. The Incident Response Force is requested by the
sub-unit commander when a particular situation arises and on the authority of the unit
commander. An example is the supplementation of a patrol with a visual tracker (VT)
team when fresh signs have been located.
SECTION 2-3. RECONNAISSANCE PATROLS
General
2.20 Reconnaissance patrols are designed to gain information by observation. They operate
by stealth, avoiding contact except for self-protection.
2.21 Typical tasks for reconnaissance patrols are:
a. collecting topographical information on features, tracks and the state of the ground,
b. locating enemy positions,
c. obtaining details of enemy minefields and other field works,
d. observing enemy habits and traffic, and
e. locating sites for crossing obstacles.

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2.22 Composition. As a principle, reconnaissance patrols should be kept as small as

possible. For foot patrols, a five-man group has been found successful. Over short
distances the patrol strength may be reduced further, although it should not be less than
three men.
Preparation
2.23 Preparation for both reconnaissance and fighting patrols is similar. However
reconnaissance patrols must place more emphasis on the requirements for secrecy to
maintain their protection.
2.24 Fieldcraft. Reconnaissance patrols will require a high degree of stealth and a high
standard of fieldcraft. Some aspects of fieldcraft requiring particular consideration and
training are as follows:
a. the rate of movement must be reduced to ensure that the enemy is seen before the
patrol is seen. Rates as low as 1 000 metres per day may be experienced;
b. frequent halts are required to listen and observe; and
c. the degree of alertness must be high. Due to the small size of reconnaissance
patrols, there is less opportunity for members to rotate security duties.

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CHAPTER 3
PATROLLING STAFF DUTIES AND PLANNING
General
3.1 Effective patrolling depends upon the initiative and skill of the patrol commander and the
effectiveness of his soldiers in executing the patrol. It also relies heavily on the
effectiveness of the controlling commander and his staff in formulating and executing the
patrol programme.
3.2 This chapter outlines the staff aspects of patrolling at both formation and unit level and
should be read in conjunction with patrolling staff duties in MLW 1-5-1, Staff Duties in the
Field, 1986.
SECTION 3-1. DUTIES OF THE FORMATION STAFF
Duties of the Staff
3.3 The staff duties of patrolling fall under four main headings:
a. planning and organisation of patrolling,
b. provision of briefing data,
c. coordination and control, and
d. recording and dissemination of patrol information.
Planning and Organisation of Patrolling
3.4 The patrol policy of the formation or unit commander forms the basis from which patrol
plans are made. The policy may cover a period of days or weeks. The policy usually
includes:
a. the patrolling aim;
b. an indication of the number, type and frequency of patrols;
c. arrangements for coordination (planning and control in conjunction with the civil
power will often be undertaken down to unit and sub-unit headquarters (HQ));
d. plans and orders at all levels covering the applicable rules of engagement (ROE),
orders for opening fire control measures such as restricted firing areas and the
presence and location of civilian concentration;
e. maps and charts must also detail or otherwise highlight areas involving the presence
of civilians; and
f. infrastructure or cultural objects having protected status.

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3.5 Normally, a commander will divide his area of responsibility into patrol sectors and these
will be shown in his patrol policy. A sector commander, usually a unit or sub-unit
commander, will be named for each sector.
3.6 Early Warning. The formation staff must give the earliest possible warning of what will be
required from patrols so that unit commanders, given the task, can plan and allot their
own tasks. Patrol commanders should have sufficient time for full briefings, study of
ground, rehearsals, preparation and rest before setting out on the patrol task. Early
warning is usually promulgated in the form of a patrol forecast prepared in accordance
with MLW 1-5-1, Staff Duties in the Field, 1986. The amount of detail in the patrol forecast
depends on the nature of the operation. It is unusual for formation HQ to nominate
particular timings, routes and composition for patrols except in static-conditions when
defences have been developed to an advanced stage. Patrol forecasts are amended as
further information becomes available. They are subsequently confirmed by the issue of a
firm patrol forecast and programme (Annex A to this chapter).
Coordination and Control
3.7 Patrol Boundaries. Boundaries between units must be clearly defined by higher
formation HQ. Units will normally undertake all patrolling activity within their sectors.
3.8 In conventional operations patrol boundaries should be well defined on the ground to
reduce the possibility of patrol clashes. Detailed instructions must be given in formation
and unit standing operating procedures (SOP) as to how close a patrol can go to its
boundary and what clearances must be obtained from the controlling HQ before
proceeding into a restricted area. An example of a boundary clearance, extension of area
of operations (AO) and transit through another AO is at Annex B to this chapter. It should
be made clear to patrol commanders what latitude is to be allowed regarding approaching
or crossing boundaries in the event of patrols encountering fresh enemy tracks or
following-up unexpected enemy encounters.
3.9 Coordination with Other Arms. Patrolling plans must be closely coordinated with both
indirect and direct fire plans. This coordination must be effected in time for fire
programmes to be amended to fit patrol plans, or vice versa – eg, modifying harassing
fire tasks. Patrols require information on all other units or organisations that may be within
the area of operation – eg, Military Police, civil agents, friendly forces, civil police.
3.10 Civil/Military Cooperation. Close cooperation between civil authorities, territorial

commands and tactical commanders should be established and maintained as explained
in MLW 2-1-1, Employment of Armour, 1993. It is normal to establish a combined
operations room in which the staff officers of joint committees carry out detailed planning
and supervision of patrols.
3.11 Coordination with Flanks. Coordination with flanking units is essential to ensure the
action of a patrol in one area does not prejudice the operations of a patrol in another.
3.12 Coordination with Other Armies. This coordination must be conducted at all levels
when operating with other Armies. Ensuring each other’s procedures are known when
operating with or in close proximity to prevent fratricide.
3.13 Technical Information. Technical information is often required from patrols on such
subjects as locations and types of mines, water obstacles or going for AFVs. Staff officers
must ensure that information likely to be required by other corps is scheduled in the patrol
programme.
3.14 To collect specialist information other corps representatives may be included in infantry
patrols. If this is not possible, then patrols will need to be given:

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a. a detailed technical briefing of the requirements, and
b. recording equipment such as cameras.
Fratricide Avoidance
3.15 Fratricide is avoided by the following:
a. Doctrine. Doctrine provides the basic framework for the way that training and
operations are achieved. An understanding of joint service and coalition partners
doctrine is required when operating jointly.
b. Tactics, Techniques and Procedures. Tactics, techniques and procedures provide

the way of operating that all understand and are explained in doctrine and SOP.
3.16 Responsibility for reducing the risk of fratricide is the commander’s at all levels whether
they are a manoeuvre or a supporting force.
3.17 Two specific ways of reducing the chance of fratricide are:
a. Situation Awareness. The real-time accurate knowledge of your position, location of

friendly forces enemy forces and civilian locations (if known).
b. Positive Identification. The immediate and accurate identification, through sight or

challenging procedures, of enemy from friendly.
Effects of Fratricide
3.18 The effects of fratricide can be devastating within a unit. It increases the risk of
unacceptable losses and the risk of the mission failing. Fratricide seriously effects the
unit’s ability to survive and function. Units experiencing fratricide may include:
a. loss of confidence in the unit’s leadership,
b. increase in leader’s self doubt,
c. hesitation in using supporting fire and other combat systems,
d. oversupervision of units, loss of initiative,
e. loss of aggressiveness in fire and manoeuvre,
f. disrupted operations,
g. needless loss of combat power, and
h. destruction of morale.
Provision of Briefing Data
3.19 Staff officers must ensure that all relevant information from all available sources is
provided to patrol commanders so he can carry out individual military appreciation
process such as:
a. intelligence preparation of the battlefield,
b. intelligence requirements,
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c. priority intelligence requirements,
d. commander’s critical information requirements, and
e. area familiarisation reports.
Recording and Dissemination of Patrol Information
3.20 The staff are responsible for the build up of the enemy picture from reports received from
patrols. The build up is cumulative and all information received from patrols must be
carefully sifted, analysed and checked with information received from all other sources,
such as air photographs, air reconnaissance, OPs, prisoners-of-war (PWs) and civilian
inhabitants. The resulting intelligence must be disseminated as soon as possible to those
likely to be effected by it.
3.21 A patrol situation map must be maintained on an enlargement or air photograph mosaic.
Progress of, and reports from, patrols are recorded.
3.22 It is important for commanders and staff officers to acknowledge the efforts of patrols.
This should not only be done by passing down to the unit concerned the intelligence
gained as a result of its patrol reports but also by speaking to the commander and
members of successful patrols during visits to units.
SECTION 3-2. DUTIES OF THE UNIT STAFF
Planning and Coordination
3.23 Within the guidelines of the higher formation policy, the unit commander and his staff
order and coordinate all patrols within the unit sector. A detailed patrol forecast is
compiled by the unit patrol master, or the responsible officer, and issued to sub-units. The
patrol forecast indicates what patrols are to be sent out and which sub-unit is to provide
each patrol. It should also indicate the area of the patrol, its type and strength. The period
covered by the forecast will vary according to the operational situation. In protracted
defence, it should cover a week. The forecast is subsequently confirmed by a firm patrol
programme.
3.24 When time permits, the full sequence of planning patrolling for protracted defence is as
follows:
a. unit commanders submit patrol forecasts to higher formation about seven days in
advance. The forecast is based on the formation commander's patrol policy;
b. the formation HQ agrees, alters or adds its own patrol requirements to the unit
forecast to consolidate it with the forecasts of other units under command and sends
it back to the submitting unit;
c. the unit issues its own forecast to sub-unit commanders about three to four days in
advance;
d. formation HQ and sub-units must be notified immediately of changes necessitated by

either new information or changing situations; and
e. the unit issues its firm patrol programme 12 to 36 hours in advance based on the
patrol forecast.

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3.25 Patrol Forecasts. The patrol forecast is to be compiled in accordance with MLW 1-5-1,
Staff Duties in the Field, 1986. This could be used as the patrol forecast for both higher
formation and sub-units. Information presented to formation HQ from units is broad in
outline and does not necessarily need to include detailed routes and timings. The
information provided to subordinate commanders, however, needs to include details to
allow for adequate preparation.
3.26 Patrol Programme. The patrol programme is drafted from the unit's patrol forecast and
details the actual patrols going out. It includes such detail as strength, duration, etc. It is
normally issued at 24 hour intervals. A suggest format is shown at Annex A. Points to
note are as follows:
a. copies should be sent to higher formation, flanking units and supporting arms for
information and to allow coordination of fire support. Copies should also be
distributed to sub-units of the parent unit;
b. all action addressees should acknowledge programmes before patrols go out;
c. tasks must be specific and clearly described. Usually, the unit commander decides
the strength of the patrol, its route and detailed timings; and
d. consideration should be given to the following when deciding which sub-units should
provide patrols:
(1) the overall patrolling requirements, including patrols for local protection and
security;
(2) strength of sub-units, their state of training and morale;
(3) location of sub-units and their tasks; and
(4) control measures, see paragraph 3.29.
3.27 Security. One major consideration when planning patrolling is the requirement to move
patrols into their sector without the loss of surprise and security. Every means of avoiding
observation must be used including deception, movement by night and the use of indirect
routes. Security and deception are essential to conceal the intention and size of patrols.
3.28 Fire Support. Patrols will usually need indirect fire support to carry out their tasks. This
support must be coordinated with all other fireplans to ensure operations are not
prejudiced and to take advantage of existing fire plans so that there is minimum
duplication of targets. Pre-arranged defensive fire (DF) on easily recognisable features
along the patrol route can be of great assistance in providing rapid support. Care must be
taken not to prejudice the patrol's route by registration.
3.29 Control. Once patrols are launched it is necessary to control their movement and
coordinate fire support and the use of illumination. Special control of radio traffic may be
required to ensure that urgent information can be transmitted quickly. Control may be
exercised by one or more of the following methods:
a. By Sectors. Each sub-unit or unit is allotted a sector within which the commander will
control all patrols irrespective of the sub-unit or unit providing the patrol. The
advantages of this system are as follows:
(1) all patrols in that sector including standing patrols will be on the same radio
frequency and will hear all information which is passed; and

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(2) the sub-unit or unit commander can coordinate the action of all patrols in his
sector which may be necessary on contacts, when there are casualties or when
one patrol is required to assist another.
b. By Sub-units. Each sub-unit commander retains control of patrols from his sub-unit
irrespective of the sector in which the patrols operate.
c. By Centralised Control. Control is centralised at the unit HQ. The unit commander
may wish to follow the patrol battle closely and to influence it personally. One officer
may be appointed as patrol master and he is responsible for the planning, briefing
and interrogation of all patrols sent out by the unit. Patrols tasked by higher
formation HQ and are operating outside a unit's area will be controlled by formation
HQ.
3.30 Information. Within a unit, the intelligence officer is normally responsible for the
collection, collation and dissemination of information. At this level, unit patrol reports and
debriefs of patrol commanders will be the major source. Information on the following
topics must be sought and passed to the patrol commander at his briefing.
3.31 Topography. Full use must be made of maps, air photographs, air reconnaissance and
local knowledge. A patrol ‘going map' should be kept up to date. It is essential that all new
topographic and track data should be recorded on going maps.
3.32 Enemy. Information may be available from PWs, civilian agencies, informers, air
reconnaissance (both visual and photographic), captured documents and diaries. The
past history and habits of the enemy in the operational area should be studied.
3.33 Civilians. If applicable in the operational area, movement and habits of civilians must be
studied if movement of troops is to remain secure.
3.34 Briefing and Debriefing. The detailed briefing of patrols is discussed in Chapter 4 and
for details of debriefing see Chapter 8.
Annexes:
A. Unit Patrol Forecast/Programme Format
B. Boundary Clearance/Area Extension/Area of Operations Transit Request

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ANNEX A TO CHAPTER 3
UNIT PATROL FORECAST/PROGRAMME FORMAT
1. The following format is used initially as the Patrol Forecast. Once the formation
commander approves the consolidated, amended and coordinated forecast, it is then
referred to as the Patrol Programme. The Patrol Forecast/Programme is shown in
Table 3–1.

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Table 3–1: Patrol Forecast/Programme
PATROL FORECAST/PROGRAMME (1)
Page of Pages
Fmn/Unit: Period From: To: Sector/Zone:
(DTG) (DTG)
Forecast/Programme: REF: A. (Map)
(No) (Year) B. (Bde Ptl Fct)
C. (Unit Ptl Fct)
D. (Other as applicable)
Ser (2) Unit Type Task DTG In DTG GR of Rept Method Approva Pri Remark Ptl Briefing Briefing (Spare)
Out route Req of l Auth s (3) Strength Time (4) RV (4) (4)
(4)
(Trace) Insert/
Extract
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p)
Notes: (5)
Distribution:
(Signature Block)
Notes:
1. When the commander approves the consolidated, amended and coordinated Patrol Forecast, it is then referred to as the Patrol
Programme.
2. Patrols are to be serially numbered to include the date of departure (eg, 1/15, 2/15, etc). Subsequently, patrols are to be referred to by their
serial number and not by call sign. Amendment will also be advised by reference to the original forecast number.
3. Include reference to unit forecast serial number in the ‘Remarks’ column.
4. These serials will normally only apply within the Unit Patrol Programme. Unit Patrol Programmes can provide extra letter serials for more
detailed information as required.
5. Information which is common to all patrols should be written at the foot of the Forecast/Programme in the form of notes.

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ANNEX B TO CHAPTER 3
BOUNDARY CLEARANCE/AREA EXTENSION/AREA OF
OPERATIONS TRANSIT REQUEST
1. The request is to be submitted where movement outside the existing boundaries is

sought. This includes transit through another area, extension of operations into another
area beyond existing boundaries and for movement along boundaries.
2. The request is to be transmitted by either voice or hard copy (overlay) commensurate

with the lead time frame of request.
Table 3–2: Example of Transit Request
Format Example
A. REQ UNIT/FMN A. 11 BDE
B. (1) BDY CLEARANCE B. (2) AO EXT
(2) AO EXT
(3) AO TRANSIT
C. DESCRIPTION OF AREA/ROUTE OF C. GR 1234, GR 1324, GR 1424

INTEREST (ENCODE)
D. PERIOD REQUIRED D. 161600Z – 161800Z
E. REASON FOR REQUEST E. AREA CLEARANCE TO FLANK
F. ACK F. ACK

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CHAPTER 4
PATROL COMMANDER’S PREPARATION
Introduction
4.1 The success of any patrol will depend to a great extent on having a simple plan and
thorough preparation. A simple plan will ensure that every member of the patrol knows
the details of the task and how it is to be achieved. Thorough preparation will reduce the
possibility of an oversight that may cause failure.
4.2 Sufficient time should be allowed for a thorough briefing, careful planning,
reconnaissance, issue of orders and rehearsals.
Sequence of Preparation
4.3 A suggested sequence of preparation by the patrol commander is:
a. receive warning order from unit HQ;
b. issue warning order to patrol members;
c. receive patrol commander's orders, either from the unit commander, sub-unit
commander, intelligence officer or patrol master;
d. prepare orders:
(1) conduct individual military appreciation process ensuring all relevant data is
accessed. Sources of information include maps, photographs, OP reports,
patrol reports, area familiarisation reports, briefing from intelligence staff and air
reconnaissance if available, etc. Details of the contents that can be expected in
a patrol brief are at Section 4-2; and
(2) effect liaison with supporting arms and insertion/extraction agency if required.
e. issue orders:
(1) prepare model for briefing;
(2) assemble patrol;
(3) study the ground from an OP, if possible, or from maps, air photographs and
models;
(4) orders group;
(5) conduct rehearsals (by both day and night if required);
(6) prepare, inspect and test arms and equipment;

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(7) rest;
(8) complete eating and personal administration;
(9) conduct final inspection; and
(10) obtain approval prior to departure from patrol HQ.
SECTION 4-2. COMMAND AND CONTROL
Control
4.4 Patrols are centrally coordinated and controlled to avoid conflict between the patrols of
sub-units. Sub-units can be directed to provide patrols to the higher HQ for direct control
or to conduct particular patrols set out in the unit patrol programme.
4.5 Patrols supplied to higher HQ come under command of the higher HQ who provide
administration during the patrol. The patrol will be allocated a call sign on the higher HQ
net.
4.6 Prior to preparing his orders, a patrol commander may receive orders from his sub-unit
commander who will have received details of the patrol from the unit patrol programme.
Special patrols are sometimes issued orders from the unit commander, intelligence officer
or patrol master, each of whom will have a more comprehensive knowledge of the whole
unit patrol sector.
4.7 In static conditions, the patrol master will normally give initial orders to all patrol
commanders for the forthcoming 24 hours.
4.8 Plans for patrols which are to operate under unit centralised control must be formulated
and agreed at unit level and passed to all concerned. When the sub-unit providing the
patrol members is not the organisation controlling the patrol, it is responsible for the
administrative arrangements prior to the patrol. The controlling organisation will be
responsible for the tactical plan and the conduct of the patrol, including administration
during the patrol.
4.9 Supporting arms and insertion/extraction agency representatives at each level must
attend patrol orders groups.
Elements of Patrol Orders
4.10 The orders given to the patrol leader should cover the following:
a. Enemy Forces. The patrol must have all the available information about the enemy
that may affect the patrol.
b. Friendly Forces. The description of friendly force activities should include information
on the disposition of forward troops, flanking units, movement of other patrols and
their locations.
c. Civilians. The briefing should include the likelihood of meeting civilians, their possible
locations, movement, intentions and likely attitude towards the patrol, as well the
action to be taken if encountered.

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d. Mission. Each patrol should have one simple mission which must be carefully
explained so all members of the patrol understand their mission. For example,
Question: ‘Is...........?’ or Order: ‘You are to..........’.
e. Strength. The strength of the patrol will normally be given in the initial briefing but in
some circumstances it may be left to the sub-unit or patrol commander to decide.
f. Time Out, Time In and Where. The time and location of the patrol's departure and
return should be given. Time and location for return needs to be flexible as unknown
factors (eg, close country enemy contact) may influence the patrol's movement. It is
essential that fixed transmission times for situation reports and location status are
given.
g. Time Information is Required By. Where receipt of information is vital to subsequent

operations, an additional timing may be ordered (time by which the information is
required). This may necessitate passing the information by radio.
h. Ground. The route, both out and in, must be dealt with in detail. OPs, maps, air
photographs, models and aerial reconnaissance should all be used if available. The
location of obstacles, including minefields and wire, must be identified and any gaps
or lanes, including those for use in emergencies, must be allocated.
i. Insertion/Extraction. The briefing will include how the patrol is to be inserted into, and
extracted from, the patrol area. It must also include details on the availability of
vehicles and aircraft to support the actual conduct of the patrol.
j. Availability of Fire Support. The patrol commander must be aware of any artillery,
mortar or air support outside, but near, the patrol's sector that may be employed by
other units while the patrol is out. He must be quite clear what fire support is
available.
k. Passwords and Recognition Procedures. These are to be passed to the patrol for a
sufficient period to cover the patrol activity.
l. Communications. The briefing must indicate the allocation of radios and frequencies,
whether radio silence will be observed and, if so, when it may be broken.
m. Casualty Evacuation. The patrol commander must be clear as to whether casualty

evacuation is to be effected from within the patrol's resources or whether outside
assistance will be available.
n. Deception Plan. If a deception plan is to be used to cover the patrol at any stage
during the conduct of the patrol, the briefing must include all details.
o. Special Equipment. The requirement for and availability of armoured vests, night
observation device (NOD), special ammunition, etc, must be highlighted.
p. Resupply. For long patrols, resupply arrangements may be required.
q. Action if the Enemy is Encountered. The briefing must include the policy on whether
to fight or evade the enemy.
r. Debriefing. The debriefing officer will be nominated at the end of the briefing. It is
normally the officer who briefed the patrol. The time and place for the debriefing will
also be nominated and will usually take place as soon as possible after the patrol
returns to the sub-unit area.

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SECTION 4-3. PREPARATION OF PATROL COMMANDER’S ORDERS
General
4.11 The patrol commander should study all available information such as maps, air
photographs and previous patrol reports. He should then, if possible, view the ground
over which he is going to move. He should also consider the need for variation in
techniques to prevent the enemy developing effective countermeasures.
Appreciation Factors
4.12 A patrol appreciation is not different from any other tactical appreciation. The following
factors should be considered and covered in the patrol commander's plan:
a. enemy;
b. friendly forces;
c. composition of the patrol;
d. time constraints;
e. use of vehicles/aircraft;
f. weapons, dress and equipment;
g. selection of routes;
h. navigation;
i. passage of obstacles;
j. speed;
k. fire support;
l. communications;
m. action on contact en route to/from the objective;
n. action on reaching the objective;
o. casualties;
p. rendezvous (RV);
q. need for a patrol base; and
r. administration.
Enemy
4.13 The patrol commander must take into account all the information he has received about
the enemy in his briefing as well as the information he can glean from the reports of
previous patrols, contact reports and his own experience.

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Composition of the Patrol
4.14 The strength of a patrol will normally be told to the patrol commander during his briefing;
however, the selection of individual members is normally left to him. The importance of
the patrol task, the degree of skill required and the state of training of individual soldiers
will influence the selection of patrol members. Personnel selected should be free from
medical afflictions and should be physically fit. The tendency to select only the
experienced or very capable personnel is also wrong. A patrol roster is a means of
ensuring patrol duties are shared fairly.
Use of Vehicles/Aircraft
4.15 If vehicles or aircraft are available, the patrol commander must identify how they can be
used and if their use will prejudice the patrol's security. If the transport to be used
throughout the patrol is not normal for that unit, the patrol commander will have to
allocate time for rehearsals involving mounting, dismounting and contact drills. The patrol
commander will also have to detail tactical loading of his patrol so that he has the best
possible grouping to achieve his aim. When using vehicles, the orders must include
action on:
a. breakdown of the vehicle,
b. contact whilst mounted, and
c. split patrol caused by mounting/dismounting in contact.
Weapons, Dress and Equipment
4.16 The weapons and equipment to be taken and the dress to be worn will depend upon the
patrol's task. As a general rule patrols should operate as lightly equipped as possible.
4.17 Weapons. Fighting patrols should be able to produce maximum firepower quickly. There
may be a requirement to carry extra light support weapons and specialist weapons may
also be carried. Reconnaissance patrols normally carry section weapons which do not
hinder the patrol's mobility and speed.
4.18 Ammunition. The commander must confirm what ammunition each man will carry. The
scale is usually laid down in unit SOP.
4.19 Equipment. The aim should be to keep the load of each soldier to the absolute minimum
(depending on the task). Equipment should be camouflaged, well fitting and must not
rattle. Night fighting equipment (NFE) and night aiming devices should be fitted correctly
and zeroed.
4.20 Navigation Equipment. Necessary items of navigation equipment should be duplicated

within the patrol.
Selection of Routes
4.21 The selection of routes to and from the objective requires careful consideration to ensure
maximum advantage is made of concealed routes to enhance security. The following
should be considered:
a. habitation should be avoided and indirect routes may have to be used;
b. likely enemy ambush positions and known enemy DF locations should be avoided;

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c. a concealed route is important, particularly by day. The advantages of a concealed

route may be outweighed by the difficulties of control and quiet movement;
d. easily recognisable landmarks along the route should be selected (bounds and
report lines);
e. patrols must return by a different route. Only in exceptional circumstances will a

patrol return by its outward route;
f. enemy use of surveillance equipment will require the selection of routes with
maximum concealment and cover. Night no longer provides concealment; and
g. timings for sunrise, sunset, moonrise and moonset should also be considered.
Navigation
4.22 Accurate navigation is essential. Navigation information is contained in MLW 2-3-1,

Navigation, 1983.
Obstacles
4.23 Every obstacle presents a separate problem. The patrol commander should try to identify
all likely obstacles, both natural and artificial, before the patrol sets out. Groups within the
patrol should be capable of clearing and covering minor obstacles without supervision.
Only major obstacles need to be examined by the patrol commander. Wherever possible,
a drill or technique for crossing an obstacle should be rehearsed. To avoid confusion, a
prearranged sequence should be used. The principles are as follows:
a. avoid having the whole patrol in the obstacle at the one time,
b. provide a group on the near side of the obstacle in a position to assist the crossing
with fire support if necessary, and
c. the first group through the obstacle should deploy far enough out to clear the exit
and provide security for the remainder of the patrol.
4.24 A detailed explanation of obstacle crossing is contained in MLW 2-3-2, Fieldcraft and
Target Detection (All Corps), 1984.
Speed
4.25 In planning the patrol route, staff are concerned with how long it will take the patrol to
complete its task. This is important for coordination with movements of other patrols and
supporting fire programmes. Some factors on timings to be considered are as follows:
a. strain on personnel,
b. the degree of risk,
c. the going,
d. background noise,
e. visibility,
f. obstacles,

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g. patrol formations,
h. probability of enemy action, and
i. navigation.
Fire Support
4.26 A patrol commander can request special fire tasks if required. All patrol commanders
should be able to use target grid procedure. If possible, there should also be alternative
means of calling down fire should radio communications fail. A system of signal flares or
lights may be necessary.
Communications
4.27 On many occasions the success or failure of a patrol depends on good communications.
Good communications depend on the training of operators and on the preparation and
proper maintenance of equipment. Radio is subject to electronic interference and some
consideration must be given to using alternative means of communication.
Action on Contact En Route To and From the Objective
4.28 Action to be taken on contact must be planned and rehearsed prior to the patrol's
departure. Depending on the terrain, basic or contact drills are carried out. Subsequent
action will depend on the type of patrol, the strength of the enemy and the ground on
which he is encountered. Reconnaissance patrols need to rehearse break contact drills.
These drills are explained in Section 5-2 of this publication.
Action on Reaching the Objective
4.29 It is difficult to plan action on the objective in detail, especially if prior observation from an
OP is unavailable. However, a probable plan of action should always be prepared and
rehearsed. On arriving near the objective, the patrol commander should secure the area.
He should then make a brief reconnaissance to enable him to check his outline plan and
consider any additional requirements. Finally, he must brief the patrol of any changes to
the plan.
Casualties
4.30 Commanders at all levels must prepare for and plan the evacuation of casualties.
Evacuation will be conducted by the quickest appropriate means available.
Rendezvous
4.31 Patrol RV are used for control purposes – eg, a place where a patrol gathers after
completing a task or where individuals may report if they are cut off in an encounter. They
are essential to assist in quickly regaining control. On long patrols, several RVs may be
needed. The RV must be easy to find but not too obvious. The time for which individuals
or groups remain at the RV and subsequent action to be taken must be clearly stated by
the patrol commander in his orders. Patrol RVs are discussed in Section 5-6.
The Need for a Patrol Base
4.32 A patrol may need to set up a patrol base in the following circumstances:

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a. to form a base from which further patrols are sent out, and from which aid can be
sent forward if necessary;
b. to provide radio relay when required, ensuring communications between distant

patrols and the controlling HQ;
c. to provide a secure position for the evacuation of casualties; and
d. to provide a temporary or permanent base for use at night. DF tasks will need to be
planned for such a base.
4.33 The location and purpose of patrol bases must be included in the patrol plan and details
issued in the patrol orders. Patrol Bases are discussed in Chapter 6.
Administration on Return
4.34 Before departing on a patrol, the patrol commander should consider the administrative
arrangements for the reception of his patrol when it returns. A sound ‘drill' is required to
include the following:
a. hot debrief (verbal);
b. completion of written patrol report;
c. care and cleaning of weapons;
d. returning special stores;
e. personal washing and hygiene;
f. removal of dirty clothing; and
g. food and rest.
4.35 A checklist for patrol orders is at Annex A to this chapter. The patrol commander must
determine which headings should be included in particular orders depending on the task
and likely duration of the patrol.
Liaison
4.36 All other addition personal (specialists) to the patrol from other unit, civil agency, insertion
and extraction units need to be contacted to find out what, if any, are their special
requirements prior to deploying on the patrol (equipment, medical, etc).
4.37 Timing and location for the orders group need to be passed to all additional personal to
the patrol, as well as the location of rehearsals.
SECTION 4-4. ISSUING PATROL COMMANDER'S ORDERS
General
4.38 The success of any patrol will largely depend upon the contents of the patrol
commander's orders and the manner in which he presents them. Orders will take time as
they must be detailed. Time may be saved if certain actions are mentioned in outline only
and are practised in detail during rehearsals.
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4.39 It is usually impractical to issue orders in a position from which the patrol area can be
seen but, if possible, all members of a patrol should visit an OP to familiarise themselves
with salient terrain features. Patrol orders should be issued with the aid of a model.
4.40 Patrol orders must always be given to the whole patrol. They must be given slowly and
members should be allowed to ask questions. A suggested method is to give a general
outline using the standard sequence for orders, followed by a detailed explanation in
chronological order tracing the activities of the patrol from when it departs until it returns.
After the orders, the patrol commander must be confident that every member not only
knows his own job thoroughly but is capable of taking charge in an emergency or even
completing the mission by himself should the need arise. An order of seniority must be
given in case the patrol leader or other key members become casualties.
SECTION 4-5. FINAL PREPARATIONS
Rehearsals
4.41 Patrols will not always consist of standard groupings such as a rifle section. They will
often be composed of soldiers who do not normally work together or who normally carry a
different weapon. It is most important that all actions of the patrol should be thoroughly
rehearsed before it sets out. The patrol commander must be quite clear as to what he
wants to rehearse; vague rehearsals of formations alone are of little use. A daylight
rehearsal should be held to practise the following:
a. order of march, individual positions and arcs of responsibility in all formations to be

used;
b. method of changing formations;
c. obstacle crossing drills;
d. action on contact with the enemy en route;
e. action on the objective;
f. field signals;
g. action on halts;
h. use of night vision goggles (NVG) equipment (infra-red (IR) discipline);
i. action on illumination; and
j. casualty evacuation and prisoner escort.
4.42 If the patrol is to operate at night, both day and night rehearsals are conducted. The
rehearsal should be conducted on ground similar to that over which the patrol is going to
operate.
4.43 An effective method of conducting rehearsals is to firstly talk the patrol through each
stage of the patrol, describing the actions and having each man perform his duties. When
satisfied that this is understood by all members, rehearse actions using only the signals
and commands to be used during the actual patrol. Rehearsals are continued until the
patrol is thoroughly familiar with all actions. Ideally, response becomes instinctive.

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4.44 There should be few occasions when it is not possible to carry out a rehearsal. Where
this is so, the procedures and drills must be discussed and each man fully briefed on
what he will do.
Inspections
4.45 A thorough inspection of weapons and ammunition is necessary before a patrol moves
out. The time between the inspections and departure must be sufficient to allow time to
correct faults found. Weapons and radios are normally tested at the discretion of the
patrol commander or at times laid down by the controlling HQ.
4.46 The patrol commander must carry out a final inspection of the patrol as close as possible
to the time of departure to ensure the following:
a. each man is correctly dressed and equipped and is carrying a field dressing and
wearing his identity discs;
b. weapons and equipment do not rattle or shine (individuals should be made to jump
on the spot several times);
c. each man is camouflaged with his exposed skin suitably darkened;
d. all appropriate safety precautions have been taken; and
e. no-one is carrying items that are likely to assist the enemy to gain information should
a member of the patrol be killed or captured. The following are examples of items
which must not be carried:
(1) marked maps;
(2) notebooks containing information, other than a patrol diary which should be
destroyed if capture is imminent;
(3) unit badges or titles; and
(4) letters, photos, etc.
Annex:
A. Patrol Orders Checklist

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PATROL ORDERS CHECKLIST
Preliminary Action
1. Seat patrol in order of tasks and orient features depicted by the model to map actual
features.
2. Remember security and brief patrol accordingly.
Topography
3. A brief explanation of the ground over which the patrol is to move. Refer only to that
ground which is of immediate concern to the patrol. Points which can be covered are:
a. nature of roads and tracks in the area,
b. creeks and streams and water levels if applicable,
c. vegetational cover, and
d. description of terrain.
4. Use models, air photographs, etc, as aids and take questions on topography.
5. Weather conditions for the duration of the patrol, some examples are:
a. sunrise and sunset;
b. first and last light;
c. likelihood of rain, fog, frost or snow;
d. cloud cover;
e. phases of the moon; and
f. any additional information, long range forecast.
Situation
6. Enemy. Those issues to be covered include:
a. expected enemy strength;
b. dress and equipment;
c. weapons (including small arms, machine guns, anti-armour and indirect support
weapons);
d. special equipment (surveillance devices, radar, NVG, etc);

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e. type of NFE (active or passive);
f. scale of issue;
g. laser threat;
h. suspected locations, direction, movement, intentions;
i. anticipated order of march, spacings, formations of personnel and vehicles;
j. habits (reaction to contact); and
k. air (frequency of use, reaction time).
7. Friendly Forces. Those issues to be covered include:
a. own positions;
b. other patrol locations;
c. clearances to use other areas;
d. fire support available (tanks, mortars, artillery, machine guns, air); and
e. location of:
(1) wire obstacles and gaps,
(2) minefields and location of safe routes, and
(3) trip flares.
8. Civilians. Those issues to be covered include:
a. location,
b. habits, and
c. need to avoid or ignore.
9. Attachments and Detachments. Those issues to be covered include:
a. details of personnel attached for the duration of the patrol (mortar fire
controllers/forward observers, pioneers, engineers, guides, members of civil
agencies); and
b. details of personnel detached for duration of the patrol.
Mission
10. The mission must be clearly expressed and understood by every man. It takes the
following form respective to the patrol:
a. Reconnaissance Patrols. This mission takes the form of a question or questions.
b. Fighting Patrols. This mission is a clear statement of the task.

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Execution
11. General Outline. The general outline is delivered with the following points. Detail of
phases for example:
a. Phase One. Movement to patrol base.
b. Phase Two. Action at patrol base.
c. Phase Three. Action at the objective.
d. Phase Four. Return to base location.
12. Strength and Composition. Numbers, appointments and position in patrol.
13. Timings. Timings are to incorporate:
a. time out,
b. anticipated time of arrival at patrol base,
c. anticipated time out of patrol base, and
d. anticipated time of return to current location.
14. Insertion/Extraction. Details about the method used for insertion/extraction.
15. Phase One – Movement to Patrol Base. General description of route by use of model:
a. Detailed Route. This is as per the navigation data sheet.
b. Navigational Responsibilities. These include:
(1) pacers,
(2) check pacers, and
(3) check navigator.
c. Boundaries. Must be clearly defined.
d. Bounds. These are to include:
(1) location, and
(2) action at bounds.
e. Rendezvous. Orders should include:
(1) location,
(2) action at RV, and
(3) action when waiting time expires.
f. Formations. These are:
(1) initial formations, and

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(2) anticipated formations.
g. Order of March. Give the initial order and when it will change.
h. Deception and cover plan.
i. Measures to counter enemy surveillance devices.
j. IR restrictions.
k. Action on contact.
l. Action on halts (location of Night Weapon Sight (NWS)).
m. Action on NFE malfunction.
n. Action if ambushed.
o. Action on Obstacles. Include actions for:
(1) anticipated obstacles,
(2) unexpected obstacles, and
(3) action on mines and booby traps.
p. ROE.
q. Action if separated or lost from patrol.
16. Phase Two – Action at Patrol Base. The following actions must be detailed in full:
a. method of occupation,
b. routine,
c. communications,
d. administration,
e. action if contacted in patrol base, and
f. action if reconnaissance patrol fails to return by a given time.
17. Phase Three – Action at the Objective. This may take the form of:
a. attack orders,
b. ambush orders,
c. confirmation of orders,
d. brief on actions for standing patrol, and
e. action on contact.
18. Phase Four – Return to Base Location. General description of route by use of model
(detail to cover is the same as for Phase One). A different return route should be used.
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19. Details of Fire Support. These must take into account:
a. proposed on call targets along routes;
b. proposed on call targets at objective; and
c. use of other fire support, machine guns, tanks, air, etc.
20. Rehearsals. Rehearsal issues should consider:
a. timings (day and night);
b. content; and
c. location.
21. Debriefing. This should include:
a. timings,
b. by who, and
c. location.
Administration and Logistics
22. Rations. Rationing should take into account:
a. type and number of days,
b. resupply,
c. cooking, and
d. water.
23. Dress and Equipment. These should consider:
a. change of clothing;
b. large or small pack;
c. bedroll;
d. footwear; and
e. maps, compasses and air photos.
24. Weapons. Weapons preparation is to include:
a. type and distribution;
b. special weapons, grenade launchers, etc; and
c. test firing, including zeroing.
25. Ammunition. Ammunition preparation is to include:

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a. type and distribution,
b. grenades, and
c. signalling munitions.
26. Medical. Medical preparation must take into account the following:
a. casualty evacuation,
b. first field dressing,
c. section first aid kit,
d. medical orderly and haversack,
e. water sterilising tablets,
f. stretcher tops,
g. anti-malaria precautions,
h. mosquito and mite repellent, and
i. foot powder.
27. Special Equipment. Issues of special equipment must consider:
a. saws and machetes;
b. cameras;
c. binoculars;
d. surveillance equipment;
e. wire cutters;
f. explosives;
g. marker balloons;
h. dropping zone marker panels;
i. NFE (NVG, NWS, night aiming devices and Dry Zeroing Device);
j. IR marker;
k. nylon rope; and
l. signal equipment (mirrors, strobes, etc).
28. Inspection. The inspection must ensure the following:
a. all equipment is serviceable, noise free;
b. personnel have correct weapons and equipment;

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c. security breaches (carriage of personal mail, marked maps, etc); and
d. time for inspection.
29. Prisoners-of-war. Handling procedures need to be explained.
Command and Signal
30. Radio. Radio procedures must consider:
a. times of opening,
b. special instructions,
c. main and alternative frequencies and designators,
d. codes:
(1) net identity signals,
(2) codes and what days are required, and
(3) passwords.
e. check and test sets:
(a) antennae;
(b) morse keys (if used);
(c) spare batteries; and
(d) time for radio test.
31. Alternative Communications Means. Details are mandatory.
32. Ground/Air Communications. These must include:
a. drop zone panels and the letters and colours allotted;
b. frequencies; and
c. ground/air signal code.
33. Bounds and report lines.
34. Patrol Seniority List. This should include the whole patrol.
Conclusion
35. The following issues need particular consideration:
a. synchronisation of watches;
b. allow patrol to read through notes;
c. questions from orders group and clarify doubtful points; and
d. questions to orders group – the commander directs questions on important aspects

of task to appropriate members of the patrol.

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CHAPTER 5
CONDUCT OF THE PATROL
Introduction
5.1 Patrolling requires the utmost vigilance. The enemy should be seen and heard by the
patrol before it is itself seen or heard. This demands great patience, skilful and silent
movement and good observation. The members’ individual and collective skills at
fieldcraft become an important factor.
5.2 The initial contact may be a fleeting target observed in any type of terrain or weather.
Soldiers will need to be adept at instinctive shooting to resolve the contact favourably.
Furthermore, due to limitations on how much ammunition a patrol can actually carry, fire
discipline is vital. Targets should not be engaged indiscriminately or by using excessive
amounts of ammunition. All soldiers engaged in patrolling should be trained in
marksmanship as detailed in MLW 2-9-4, Marksmanship (All Corps), 1995.
SECTION 5-2. PATROL TECHNIQUES
Observation
5.3 During a patrol, all the human sensory perceptions must be used. On the move, patrol
members attempt to detect any visual sign of enemy such as movement, tracks, and
broken vegetation. The sense of smell must be developed to detect the presence of the
enemy. When patrol halts to listen, every man should freeze in place, maintain absolute
quiet, look and listen.
5.4 Soldiers must be trained to look through rather than at foliage. A better view is often
obtained at ground level.
5.5 The patrol commander should lay down the arc of responsibility for observation by each
man in a patrol. This will vary with different formations. Observation to the rear and above
must not be forgotten.
Searching Ground
5.6 When searching ground, or patrolling for general information, the amount of ground
covered will depend upon the vegetation and terrain. Commanders must bear this in mind
when briefing patrols, they must appreciate the time required for the patrol otherwise
ground will be only partially searched and incomplete information will result.
5.7 The patrol commander may decide to establish a patrol base from which he can send out
smaller patrols to search around the area. These reconnaissance patrols are deployed to
obtain information on which the patrol commander can make a plan. Once they have
information, the correct procedure is for the patrol to report to the patrol base
commander. If no information is forthcoming, the patrol base moves on and a fresh series

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of reconnaissance patrols is sent out. A patrol commander who finds signs of enemy
movement should try to answer the following questions:
a. How many enemy made the track?
b. When were the tracks made?
c. Where were they found?
d. What was the direction of enemy movement?
5.8 Fan Method. An effective method of search in close country is the fan method. A patrol
base is established from which a number of reconnaissance patrols are dispatched on
compass bearings, at intervals of 200 mils like the ribs of a fan. All patrols turn right or
left, move a prescribed distance, then return to the patrol base (Figure 5–1). The radius of
action of the patrol should be limited so that it is not absent from base for more than
about two hours to reduce the time required to react to any contact. Navigation may be
difficult in close country and so strict control must be exercised. Patrols could enter and
leave the patrol base after the return of the previous patrol to minimise the chance of a
patrol clash. However, this would greatly increase time taken to clear an area. If the
commander wishes to deploy a number of adjacent fan patrols concurrently, care must be
taken to minimise the chance of patrols clashing by detailed briefing and by deploying
them at staggered intervals.
200
Mils
Patrol
Base
Notes:
1. Outwards distance depends upon terrain and vegetation.
2. Arc covered will be in direct proportion to the outward radius.
Figure 5–1: The Fan Method
5.9 Ridge/Stream Method. In this method, a patrol base is also established from which
reconnaissance patrols of three or four men are sent out. Instead of following specific
bearings, they work their way up and down the banks of streams and creeks, or ridges
and spur lines (Figure 5–2). When using this method the accuracy of maps must be
checked beforehand. Additional points to note on stream searches are as follows:
a. do not search only the features marked on the map; unmarked features which are
discovered during the patrol should also be investigated;
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b. do not always conduct the search in the same manner; the search pattern must be
varied. Random movement away from and back to the stream/ridge should occur;
c. always move away from fast running water to listen;
d. the enemy will expect patrols to come up the stream and will position sentries to
cover those approaches;
e. do not move into the defile through which the stream flows;
f. smells hang heavily in low places and also are channelled down valleys, so a base
or camp may be smelt before it is seen; and
g. vegetation is normally thicker on the edges of streams and movement may be very
difficult, noisy and slow.
Patrol Route
Stream
Note:
1. The exact course of the stream should not always be followed.
Figure 5–2: The Stream Method
5.10 Base-line (or Box) Method. In this method, a road, ridgeline, tree line, river or any linear
feature is used as a base-line and patrols are sent out on a box-like route back to the
base-line. Reconnaissance patrols of three to four men are sent out on the same
compass bearing, approximately perpendicular to the base-line. Patrols move a
prescribed distance, turn 1 600 mils to either the left or right, move a specified distance,
then return to the base-fine on a back bearing to the outward direction. The distance
between patrols and between outward and inward patrol routes, will depend on
vegetation visibility and the operational situation. As with the fan method, patrol duration
should be limited to about two hours.
5.11 Ground and visibility both have a marked effect on the method of search selected. Any of
the methods employed will require modification to conform to the shape of the ground and
to minimise any difficulties in navigation.

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5.12 The above methods are particularly useful in mopping up operations or in counter-
insurgency operations when searching a controlled area for remaining enemy, hides, or
RVs.
5.13 In an enemy dominated area, a reconnaissance patrol of three to four men will be
insufficient to defend itself and a section or more will be required. The methods must be
modified accordingly.
Anti-armour Patrols
5.14 On occasions, there may be a requirement for anti-armoured elements to be deployed in

a patrolling situation. Most units are equipped with anti-armoured weapons (AAW). These
may be employed on normal patrolling tasks and should be used in anti-armour patrols
whenever and wherever possible.
5.15 Stalking. Tank stalks are commanded by a patrol commander. He decides the formation
to be adopted and the route to be taken, based on the guidelines laid down by the patrol’s
controlling HQ. Once deployed, the hunter-killer teams begin their stalk from the patrol
firm base, taking into consideration the following:
a. The firers must be covered by supporting troops and indirect fire support. The
supporting troops must be positioned where they can give covering fire. The position
must in no way interfere with or impede the movements of the mutually supporting
tank hunting teams.
b. Normally, AAW will be prepared and loaded before commencing the stalk. This
prevents noise close to the enemy that could prejudice the chance of success.
c. The selected fire position must be close enough to ensure a first round hit, but
should make as much use of the AAW range as possible.
d. The maximum number of available AAW should be used without prejudicing the
security of the unit position from which they are drawn.
e. If more than one medium direct fire support weapon is going to engage a tank, then
careful consideration must be given to ensure that simultaneous volley firing is
achieved. The enemy is unlikely to pinpoint the firer's location from the firing of a
single round but will be on the alert for any subsequent shots. Subsequent shots
should, therefore, only be fired from the same position in exceptional circumstances.
Volley firing by a number of weapons will achieve the greater effect and individual
positions will be less identifiable.
f. Once the target has been engaged, the anti-armour patrol should withdraw, covered
by its supporting troops until it rejoins the patrol and the patrol moves off.
Close Reconnaissance
5.16 Once an enemy position has been located, it may be necessary to carry out a close
reconnaissance of the position to enable the commander to decide upon a plan of action.
Detailed knowledge of the enemy's strength, deployment, morale and equipment will all
assist the commander in planning future action. Two techniques for close reconnaissance
are long and short range observation/surveillance.
5.17 Long Range Observation/Surveillance. Long range observation/surveillance is the

reconnaissance of an objective from an OP that is far enough from the objective and
outside the area normally covered by enemy sensors and other local security measures.
It is the most desirable method since the patrol does not approach close enough to the
objective to risk detection. A series of OPs may be established if information cannot be
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gained from only one direction. OPs are also used to select close reconnaissance
positions from which detailed reconnaissance may be conducted. Security must be
maintained by:
a. selecting covered and concealed OPs;
b. using covered and concealed routes between OPs and a patrol base; and
c. security elements, including sensors, being deployed to give early warning and to
provide covering fire if required.
5.18 Short Range Observation/Surveillance. Short range observation/surveillance is the

observation of an objective from a place that is within the range of enemy local security
measures and sensors. The need to gain information will often require the patrol to adopt
this technique. Close reconnaissance positions are preselected from an initial OP where
possible. The reconnaissance patrol will need to move close to the objective before
choosing the exact location of the final OP.
5.19 On nearing the objective, the patrol commander should establish a forward RV. It should
be sited so that it is well hidden, no closer than 200 metres from known enemy patrol
routes, OPs or sentry positions. The forward RV provides the commander with a
temporary firm base, close to the objective from which he can operate. While the close
reconnaissance is in progress, the patrol second-in-command and the radio operator
should man it. Only vital transmissions should be made while in the forward RV. The
volume setting should be as low as possible on the radio and, if available, the operator
should use an earphone.
5.20 The close reconnaissance team should make its final preparation in the forward RV.
Movement forward of the forward RV must be very slow and deliberate. Commanders
should allow sufficient time for the team to obtain the information without prejudice to its
own security. If time is limited, the team should only be required to ascertain a
correspondingly limited amount of information. If the enemy position is large or time is
limited, then the commander may employ more than one close reconnaissance team. If
this occurs, then each patrol must have clearly defined routes for movement to and from
the forward RV. They must also have clearly defined areas in which to conduct their
reconnaissance in order to avoid clashes.
5.21 The close reconnaissance team will normally consist of an observer (normally the patrol
commander) and two cover men. The cover men should be sufficiently close to provide
protection to the observer but far enough away so his position is not compromised. When
moving in areas close to the enemy position, only one man should move at any one time.
Accordingly, bounds should be very short.
5.22 It is important that information obtained is accurately recorded and sketches are related to
the ground. There are several methods of sketching enemy positions. One method, which
is normally the simplest method for use in close country, is diagrammatically shown in
Figure 5–3. The observer must start from a known point and record all bearings and
distances. At a later time, these can be converted onto a diagram produced to scale. If
the observer employs symbols in his sketch, then all patrol members should understand
what the symbols mean so that they can be deciphered if the observer becomes a
casualty.

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Rifle
Pit
Wire
Bearing 6000 mils
Bearing 800 mils Distance 150 m
Distance 150 m
New fixed
reconnnaissance position Gun
Bearing 3200 mils Pit Dead
Distance 100 m Gun New fixed
reconnnaissance
position
Bearing 5800 mils
Distance 300 m
Bearing 6400 mils Bearing 800 mils
Sentry Distance 200 m Distance 300 m
position
Known recon
posn
Figure 5–3: Example of the Preparation of a Sketch Map
5.23 Some actions that the reconnaissance patrol may carry out to minimise the possibility of
detection are to:
a. maximise use of poor visibility conditions;
b. restrict the size of the actual reconnaissance element to reduce noise and
movement;
c. use all available countermeasures (both passive and active) to overcome enemy
surveillance devices;
d. use noise to mask movement – eg, diversions provided by artillery fire or aircraft;
and
e. be familiar with enemy routine and habits.
Night Patrolling
5.24 Changes in technology have altered the way some patrols are conducted and require the
development of new and imaginative techniques. However, technology will never replace
the need for patrols or to maintain first class patrolling skills.
5.25 Due to the reduced field of observation with NVG, there is a tendency for the soldier to
look straight ahead and view the direction in which he is going. All personnel should be
aware of their arcs and resist the urge to constantly look narrowly forward. Soldiers
should alternate wearing the NVG on each eye to become proficient with either eye.
Alternating the eye on which the NVG is worn should not be continued if soldiers find it
difficult or uncomfortable to use other than their preferred eye. It is likely that, when
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patrolling in open file formation, those soldiers on the right flank will find scanning their
arcs easier if the NVG is over the right eye. This method is valuable for the scouts who
require complete coverage of the section’s front.
5.26 On nights when conditions are extremely dark, the capability of the NVG/NWS is reduced.
This can make the detection of targets more difficult. Commanders should use a
formation appropriate to the visibility and patrol in bounds, stopping and scanning arcs
prior to moving forward.
5.27 Soldiers involved in night patrolling using NVG must be trained in NFE as detailed in
Training Information Bulletin Number 79, Project NINOX Night Fighting Equipment, 1999.
Maintaining Control
5.28 The patrol commander must always adapt the patrol's speed of movement to cater for his
rear elements. Responsibility for keeping in touch within the patrol must be from front to
rear. The flanks must maintain their position by the centre. If a patrol is split, then the rear
party is to stay where they are and the leading elements must retrace their steps.
Action on Contact
5.29 Fighting Patrol. While a contact situation often requires a heavy weight of fire to gain the
initiative, it is important to remember that a patrol has limited ammunition and strict fire
discipline must be maintained.
5.30 If the patrol is caught by surprise, possible courses of action are to:
a. launch an immediate assault;
b. throw smoke while the patrol disengages and moves back quickly to a pre-arranged
distance or follow the commander's orders; and
c. take cover, fire weapons and throw grenades until the patrol commander signals or
orders a move.
5.31 The commander should have a clear means of indicating which action is to be taken and
must cover this point fully in his orders. Experience has shown that an enemy can be
thrown off balance and the initiative regained if he is attacked at close quarters. An
immediate and aggressive assault is generally the best method.
5.32 Reconnaissance Patrol. On contact, reconnaissance patrols will attempt to break

contact as quickly as possible and withdraw to a pre-arranged RV. Suggested drills for
action on contact for reconnaissance patrols are shown in Figure 5–4 and Figure 5–5.

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ENY 5
3 4
ENY
1 2
Notes:
1. On contact, patrol members deploy right and left of centre line, front men engage enemy.
2. Front man moves back through centre line. Second and third men engage enemy after
front man has passed.
3. Second and subsequent men move rapidly back through centre line while the remainder
engages the enemy covering their withdrawal.
Figure 5–4: Patrol Break Contact Drill
ENY
ENY
RV
Notes:
1. On contact when stopped, the patrol should either adopt the procedure in Figure 5–4 or split into
two groups.
2. Withdraw by fire and movement.
3. Reassemble at a RV.
Figure 5–5: Action on Contact When Stopped
SECTION 5-3. PATROL FORMATIONS
General
5.33 The formation adopted by a patrol will depend on:
a. the type of patrol and its task,
b. ground,

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c. control,
d. protection, and
e. concealment.
5.34 Formations should be kept as simple as possible. When deciding which formation the
patrol will use, the following factors should be considered:
a. the need to produce maximum fire power immediately on contact,
b. battle is often at close quarters, and
c. formations must be chosen to allow troops to take immediate counter-ambush

action.
5.35 A patrol is best organised into groups. Where the numbers permit and visibility allows, the
patrol may be divided into three or four groups. A commander should be appointed for
each group, leaving the patrol commander free to command the patrol as a whole.
Grouping affords the following:
a. it simplifies control of the patrol,
b. it provides the commander with manoeuvrability of fire units within the patrol as a
whole, and
c. it enables the groups to be drilled and rehearsed in all actions the patrol is likely to
encounter.
5.36 Useful formations are an extension of the normal section formations such as single file,
extended line, arrowhead, open file and staggered file. Other patrol formations may be
designed for specific tasks and the distance between individuals will depend upon
visibility. Examples of section and platoon formations are shown in Figures 5–6 to 5–15.
5.37 The formations for half-platoon patrols or platoon-plus size patrols are variations of
section type formations or platoon formations. Details of weapon are included only in the
section formations. The number and strength of the groups depends on the overall
strength of the patrol.
DIRECTION OF ADVANCE
GLA GLA
S S R R R
Command Group Gun Group Assault Group
Figure 5–6: Single File

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S R
GLA
S S
GLA
S R R
Note:
1. Dashed scout symbols show alternative scout locations
Figure 5–7: Open File
S R
GLA GLA
S R R
Figure 5–8: Staggered File
GLA GLA
R R S S R
Figure 5–9: Extended Line

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R
GLA
S S
GLA
Figure 5–10: Arrow Head
DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
Figure 5–11: Platoon in Staggered File

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DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
Figure 5–12: Platoon Two Up, One Back in Single File

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S S
R R
DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
Figure 5–13: One Up in Open File, Two Back in Single File
DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
Figure 5–14: One Section Up in Arrow Head, Two Back in Single File

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DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
Figure 5–15: One Section Up, Two Back in Arrow head
Use of Scouts
5.38 Scouts are soldiers who move in front of or sometimes to the side of a patrol with the task
of detecting the enemy before the enemy detect the patrol. Scouting becomes more
important when visibility is reduced. Scouts normally work in pairs. The task of the lead
scout is to search, while the task of the second scout is to provide covering fire for the
first if it is required.
5.39 The three methods of movement for the scouts are as follows:
a. Trail. When contact is not likely, both scouts continue moving one behind the other
with a suitable gap between them.
b. Caterpillar. The lead scout goes forward to a bound, and when in position the second
scout closes up near him. Then the lead scout moves on to the next bound and so
on.
c. ‘Leapfrogging’. The second scout closes up but instead of stopping near the leading
scout he continues on to the next bound.
5.40 Commanders must remember that scouting places great pressure on the personnel
involved. Consideration must therefore be given to resting and rotating scouts on long
patrols.
Position of the Patrol Commander
5.41 The patrol commander should normally move behind the scout group. His position will
vary with the ground and tactical circumstances but he should always be sufficiently
forward to:
a. be in a position to influence an encounter from the outset,
b. not be caught in the opening burst of fire but he should be placed where he can
quickly exploit immediate action drills, and
c. exercise control and navigate.

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Position of Trackers
5.42 The function of the tracker is to follow a trail. Once a trail has been picked up the tracker
must be moved into the lead, otherwise the faint signs of enemy movement will be
obliterated and confused. The tracker must be protected by the scouts who must not relax
their alertness or be distracted by the signs of the trail.
Position of Guides
5.43 The word ‘guide’, as used here, means somebody with an intimate knowledge of an area
or someone who can lead a patrol to a known enemy location. The guide may be a
policeman, a member of a local force or a local civilian. The correct position for a guide is
with the patrol leader. A guide should not lead a patrol because:
a. he is not normally a trained scout nor part of the military team and his function is
merely to advise the patrol commander on direction;
b. if enemy are encountered en route, a guide may react badly and prejudice the
patrol's chance of success; and
c. cases have occurred of troops being led into an ambush.
SECTION 5-4. CONTROL
General
5.44 The success of the patrol largely depends on the control exercised by the patrol
commander. He must be able to deploy groups as the situation demands. Any
combination of the methods described in Figures 5–6 to 5–15 can be used.
5.45 Field Signals. Arm and hand signals should be used whenever possible. Immediate
obedience to hand signals are of paramount importance. All members must understand
the signals and be alert to pass them onto other members.
5.46 Oral Orders. Oral orders must sometimes be given in the course of a patrol. This is
particularly so with large patrols. If it is necessary, commanders should speak just loudly
enough to be heard and should not shout except in an emergency. At night, or when
close to the enemy, the patrol should be halted and group leaders brought forward.
5.47 Accounting for Personnel. An important aspect of control is the accounting for
personnel. This should always be done after crossing obstacles, after enemy contact and
after halts.
5.48 Moving by Bounds. Patrols should always try to move in tactical bounds. The distance
between bounds will vary according to the ground, vegetation and visibility.
5.49 Speed of Movement. The terrain and task dictate speed of movement. Speed is better
obtained by intelligent route planning than by trying to push forward quickly and blindly.
Troops must be kept fresh and alert for action.
5.50 Halts. Frequent halts must be made for observation and listening. When halted for a rest,
a patrol must always take up positions for all-round defence. In some formations, it may
be necessary to delegate responsibility for protection and provision of sentries to groups.
After passing through an obstacle, or after periods of extra exertion, a short halt should
be planned.

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SECTION 5-5. MOVEMENT
General
5.51 Silence is essential at all times. With practice, it is possible to move at reasonable speed
in comparative silence. Personnel should move steadily and carefully, parting
undergrowth and avoiding dry leaves, sticks, rotten wood, etc.
5.52 When moving along sloping ground, the patrol should contour around the slope keeping
fairly high but below the crest. Moving along crests in open country increases the risk of
being seen against the skyline. When crossing a ridge, the patrol should crawl and try to
make use of any background available.
Action on Illumination
5.53 When a flare is activated, there is usually time to find concealment or drop and lie
motionless before the light takes full effect. When surprised by full light, in close country it
is best to ‘freeze’; in open country it is best to fall flat. Movement is the most likely factor
to give a patrol away. One eye should be closed to avoid night blindness after the flare
goes out. If the enemy has NFE, IR flares or illumination may be employed. Your NVG
will alert you to this but without it you will not be aware of IR illumination.
Movement at Night
5.54 The night has lost its advantages and its concealment because of the advances in NFE.
5.55 When moving at night, advantage should be taken of noises such as wind, vehicles,
aircraft or battle sounds. The following aids will assist in maintaining control when moving
at night:
a. uses of NFE;
b. luminous tape or patches worn on the back of the collar, hat, or helmet; and
c. white cloth fixed to the back of equipment.
Cutting
5.56 The cutting of vegetation should only occur as a last resort and to avoid unacceptably
long detours. If it is necessary to cut, secateurs, bush saw or sharp machetes should be
used. Cutting has the following disadvantages:
a. noise,
b. it reduces speed of movement,
c. fatigue is increased in the leading elements, and
d. quick handling of weapons is prejudiced.
Obstacles
5.57 If a patrol encounters an obstacle, the commander must move forward and make an
assessment on the need for an obstacle crossing drill. The drill for an obstacle crossing is
illustrated in Figures 5–16 and 5–17. This drill should be rehearsed prior to the patrol. The
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considerations are contained in MLW 2-1-2, The Rifle Platoon, 1986. If the enemy's
presence is known or suspected, the obstacle should be crossed at night or in reduced
visibility. The cutting of wire must be concealed and any tracks made through the
obstacle must be obliterated.
S S
R c le
bsta
R 4 O
R
6 S 5
S
R R
1 R
S
3 2
R DIRECTION OF
ADVANCE
R
Figure 5–16: Section Obstacle Crossing Drill

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STAGE 1 STAGE 4
3
2
2
DIRECTION OF
3 ADVANCE 1
STAGE 2 STAGE 5
3
1
2 3
1
STAGE 3
2
STAGE 6
1 3
Figure 5–17: Platoon Obstacle Crossing Drill
5.58 When returning from a patrol, it is a dangerous practice to rely on minefield perimeter
fences to find minefield gaps and lanes. These should be reconnoitered prior to
departure.
Tracks
5.59 If a straight linear feature such as a track, fence or ditch must be followed for direction, it
is best to move parallel to it, and not along it, as the enemy is likely to cover the feature
with DF tasks, mines or ambush. However, movement on tracks may be necessary when
speed in follow-up is required or when moving in mountainous country.

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Concealment of Movement
5.60 Not only should established tracks be avoided but also efforts should be made to disguise
or hide signs of movement. This applies particularly for operations in close country. Some
aids to conceal movement are:
a. to maintain track discipline;
b. not to signpost the route with litter or waste food (rubbish must be kept and carried);
c. not to unnecessarily damage vegetation;
d. to obliterate signs of crossing obstacles by the rear man;
e. to avoid handling of small saplings when moving through close country; and
f. to avoid the shaking of overhead branches which can be seen and heard at a
distance.
SECTION 5-6. PATROL RENDEZVOUS PROCEDURES
General
5.61 Patrol RVs are necessary along a patrol route as they provide the patrol with locations to
regroup if members are separated from the main body. RVs should be preplanned by the
commander and all members should be made aware of them.
Location
5.62 A patrol RV should be near a prominent landmark so that it can be easily located by all
members by day or night.
5.63 Patrol commanders will need to nominate RVs at regular intervals along the patrol route.
In the event of a patrol member becoming separated from the main body, he should
return to the previous RV and wait for a period of time as specified in the patrol orders.
On long patrols, where members are unlikely to be able to remember all the RV locations,
it may be necessary to nominate and indicate RVs along the patrol route that are obvious
to the patrol as it passes.
Rendezvous Procedures
5.64 A standard system for opening and closing an RV should be stipulated in unit SOP. RVs
should only be used after they have been passed and cleared by the patrol. An RV
should only be ‘open’ for a specific time which is known to all members of the patrol. If the
patrol is not regrouped within the specified time then the separated members should
continue with their ‘action if separated’ procedure. Once an RV has been used then it
should not be reused.
5.65 An individual needing to use an RV should spend some time observing it before entering.
He should then clear the area of the RV and then move to one side of it where the
remainder of the RV can be clearly observed. A patrol should approach the RV from a
nominated direction so that the chance of a clash is reduced. Marry-up procedures
between patrols and individuals should be rehearsed prior to the patrol. Visual
identification, passwords or signals can be used to assist in marrying-up.

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Marry-up Procedures
5.66 An RV may also be used to accept resupply or for two or more patrols to join up. If two
patrols are to marry-up then there is a very real danger that a clash may occur. It is
therefore essential that the rehearsed marry-up procedures be used.
5.67 Marry-up with Good Communications. When both elements involved in the marry-up
have adequate communications then the procedure to be adopted is as follows:
a. Only one element is to move.
b. The moving element is to advise when they are approaching the static element
location (there is no requirement to stop at this point if both commanders are sure of
their positions and the elements are outside visual and hearing distance).
c. Both elements remain on the net until the marry-up is complete.
d. The static element ensures that group commanders and sentries are warned that
another element is approaching and from which general direction.
e. If the moving element is not positively identified before it is within small arms range,
it must be requested to stop and confirm location with the static element.
f. The static element withdraws sentries, ‘stands to’ and warns every member of the
impending arrival. Only when this has been completed is authority given to the
incoming element to proceed.
g. The moving element proceeds to the position and is checked in by their commander.
Normal challenging procedure is adopted.
5.68 Marry-up with No Communications. Elements may be employed away from their parent
unit without radio communications or radio facilities may fail. Under these circumstances,
it becomes imperative that any actions taken are in accordance with the pre-task briefing.
This briefing should include as follows:
a. The time the patrol is to arrive back into the position. It is important that, unless
information gathered is of extreme importance, the patrol arrives at this time. If the
task is completed earlier than anticipated, wait until the time specified before
approaching the position.
b. The route to be taken back into the position should be clearly defined (for example,
creek, spur line, etc). The patrol commander must ensure that this is used.
c. If a patrol is being pursued then a direct entry will be required. In these

circumstances, firm coordination by voice is necessary.
d. If entry is required earlier than the planned time then it should be done through a
sentry position. All sentries must be aware of this likelihood. Unless essential, patrols
without communications should not be tasked to enter a position by night.
e. Patrols should be aware of the positions of all sentries.
5.69 The primary method of marry-up without communications should be based upon a laid
down time of entry and a known direction of entry. This, together with the careful briefing
of all sentries, should ensure a successful marry-up. Irrespective of when the marry-up is
to be done, sentries must challenge anyone seen approaching the position in accordance
with SOP.

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SECTION 5-7. CASUALTY EVACUATION
General
5.70 All casualties must be brought back, not only for reasons of morale but also to deny
information to the enemy. A man wounded on the way to the objective may have to be left
with an escort and collected on the way back. If the situation permits, it may be possible
for another patrol to evacuate him. When there is a severe casualty and other methods of
evacuation are not available, the casualty will have to be evacuated by the patrol. The
detailed evacuation plan will depend on:
a. the remaining active strength of the patrol,
b. the mission and whether or not it has been accomplished,
c. the seriousness of the casualty,
d. the distance to the nearest friendly location,
e. available areas for an landing zone, and
f. enemy activity.
5.71 The patrol commander must decide whether to try and carry the casualty or move him to
an existing clearing for possible air evacuation.
SECTION 5-8. COUNTERMEASURES FOR ENEMY SURVEILLANCE
Techniques of Countering Enemy Surveillance
5.72 Modern surveillance equipment can assist the conduct of successful patrols.
5.73 A patrol commander must be aware of the enemy surveillance devices that are deployed
and must consider them in his plan. The following factors are for consideration:
a. thorough route reconnaissance and planning to avoid known or suspected

surveillance devices,
b. maximum use of timbered and dead ground,
c. use of electronic countermeasures to disrupt enemy surveillance devices,
d. use of indirect fire on known or suspected enemy locations or to cover friendly

movement near enemy sensors,
e. maximum use of night or poor visibility in order to degrade enemy devices, and
f. inclusion of passive detection devices in the patrol so they may detect the presence
of enemy surveillance.

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CHAPTER 6
PATROL BASES
Introduction
6.1 Patrol bases are secure areas, temporarily established, from which further patrols or
operations can be conducted. Part of the force establishing the patrol base must remain
in location to provide security for the base area. Patrol bases may also be used to
conduct personal administration during long patrols or when operating some distance
away from the parent locality. When operating in urban areas, the base may be located at
an exit or entrance points to an area or to provide intimate protection to a vulnerable
point. Bases in conventional field operations should be moved frequently so that the
enemy can not discern a pattern and identify its location.
Requirements
6.2 The requirements for a patrol base that need to be considered are:
a. effective siting,
b. sequence of establishment, and
c. security.
Siting
6.3 Factors to be considered when siting a patrol base are:
a. it must be sited so that the patrol can carry out its task;
b. the base area should be defendable for a short time by the troops remaining while
patrols are out;
c. it should not be easily detected;
d. the ground chosen should be suitable for radio communications;
e. it should, if possible, be within easy reach of water;
f. the area should be suitable for personnel to sleep in comfort; and
g. if it is anticipated that aerial resupply will be required, the base should be near to a
drop or landing zone. These zones should only be used once and the patrol base
location should also be changed after the resupply.
Sequence of Establishment
6.4 Once the area of the proposed patrol base is reached, the patrol commander may have to
conduct a reconnaissance of the area to ensure that he has selected the best location.
When the final location is selected, the patrol should move in and establish the base.
Establishing a base must become a routine matter and each man must know his own, his
neighbour's and his group's responsibilities. The tactical layout will depend upon the
terrain and vegetation. A suggested sequence is as follows:
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a. The patrol commander orders a halt. The patrol should move to rehearsed group
locations in all round defence. The patrol should ‘stand to’.
b. One or more clearing patrols/building search teams are sent out to search the
surrounding area or buildings that are going to be occupied or cleared by the patrol.
If more than one patrol is sent out, then the patrols should work in the same direction
to avoid clashes. The remainder of the patrol remains ‘standing to’ until the clearing
patrols/search teams return and sentries and OPs are posted.
c. The patrol commander makes adjustments to the siting of OPs, weapons and
personnel as necessary to ensure that he has all round defence.
d. Group commander’s detail sentry rosters, confirm ‘stand to' positions, etc.
e. The position is prepared as for a hasty defence provided this does not prejudice its
secrecy, if secrecy is required.
f. If required, the patrol commander holds an orders group. The following are some
points which may be reiterated from the initial orders group:
(1) sentries, OPs ‘stand to’ and ‘stand down’ procedure;
(2) use of NVG during ‘stand to’ and ‘stand down’;
(3) location of the command post;
(4) actions on presence of the local population;
(5) ROE and orders for opening fire;
(6) local patrolling (Quick Reaction Force if required);
(7) routes in and out of patrol base;
(8) radio;
(9) tasks for the next day;
(10) weapon cleaning programme;
(11) water and washing parties;
(12) cooking fires and smoking; and
(13) latrines and urinals.
Security
6.5 If the base is occupied longer than overnight and a major portion of the force is operating
away from the base, sufficient troops must remain to provide adequate protection of the
base. Personnel must carry weapons at all times and should never move on their own
outside the base perimeter.

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Field Patrol Base
6.6 The security of a patrol base in the field is achieved largely by avoiding detection. Points
to be considered are:
a. if possible, the approach march should be made at night;
b. the base should be located away from obvious sites;
c. not more than one track should lead into a base. This track must be well
camouflaged and guarded;
d. the base must be occupied as quickly and quietly as possible;
e. before developing a base the immediate area should be patrolled to ensure that
there are no enemy present;
f. morning and evening ‘stand to’ routine must be adhered to; and
g. the patrols own surveillance equipment may be deployed to assist in security.
6.7 Sentries will need to be deployed by both day and night as follows:
a. By Day. Close country, it will often be impossible to cover all likely approaches.
Single sentry posts should be located so as not to be distracted by noise from the
base. A silent method of warning the base must be arranged. Sentries should
normally be supported from within the base by a manned weapon pit. Where
possible sentries are positioned in pairs.
b. By Night. The base should be as compact as practicable so that the minimum

number of two-man sentry posts need to be manned. Sentries should have a torch,
watch compass, NVG and NWS (if available). It must be remembered that the
number of sentries will always depend on the ground, the size of the patrol and the
closeness and intensity of enemy activity.
Urban Patrol Base
6.8 The following functions will normally be conducted during Vital Asset Protection/Urban
Patrol Base.
a. Observation Post Element. Normally, individual positions equipped with night

observation equipment will be manned at all times. OPs should be mutually
supporting and provide all round observation. Dead ground is to be covered by
patrols and surveillance devices.
b. Static Defences. These positions may be located at entrance/exit points and/or to

provide intimate protection of vulnerable points. OP locations may serve the same
purpose, therefore most static defence locations may only need to be occupied
during ‘stand to’, or periods of local population presence.
c. Patrol Element. An active patrol programme will need to be established for the same
reasons as for conventional defence. The programme should include areas external
to the vital asset that may be used direct and indirect firing points.
d. Reaction Force. This element should be at a minimum of section strength, however

the size of the facility and the threat will determine force levels. Normally, the
reaction force will employ their vehicles to shorten reaction time. The reaction force
should be rehearsed in the planned deployments to counter the full spectrum of likely
attacks.

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e. Command Post. The command post is to be located where the commander is best
able to influence and command the security force.
Urban Patrol Base Routine
6.9 The commander will determine the routine by balancing the available manpower with
tasking. Ideally, the reaction force should not be seen as a rest period so that a high
degree of readiness is maintained; however, with a small force this may not be possible.
A cycle of patrolling, OP sentry and reaction force will normally be employed.
Commanders should ensure timings are varied to ensure all personnel work in equal
periods of day and night and to provide a degree of deception.
Returning To a Base
6.10 When returning to a patrol base, a patrol should employ marry-up procedures as outlined
in Chapter 5. The need to maintain security when returning to a base cannot be over-
stressed. Should the enemy make a habit of following up patrols returning to base, a
system of RV ambushes can be adopted.
6.11 An RV ambush is conducted by personnel from the patrol base who site an ambush to
cover an RV outside the area of the patrol base. The ambush party remains at the RV for
a predetermined time after the patrol has passed and then follows up the patrol to the
patrol base. Extreme care must be taken to ensure that a clash does not occur. This
method should only be used by troops that have been thoroughly trained and rehearsed.
The patrol returns through the RV ambush to the patrol base. In the event of enemy
action against the patrol base during the absence of the patrol, the patrol is guided to the
new base location by guides from the RV.
Vacating a Base
6.12 When a base is vacated, every effort must be made to obliterate all signs of occupancy
and, in particular, any telltale marks of the size of the force and duration of occupation.

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CHAPTER 7
PATROLLING IN URBAN TERRAIN
SECTION 7-1. PATROLLING
General
7.1 Dismounted urban patrolling may be conducted by team, section, half-platoon and
platoon strength patrols.
7.2 To constitute a half-platoon patrol, the sections are broken down into teams, each of four
to six members. Each team should include a junior non-commissioned officer. The
combination of three teams makes up the half-platoon patrol.
7.3 An example of a half-platoon patrol is shown in Figure 7–1. In this example, the primary
team is commanded by the platoon commander or platoon sergeant and includes three to
five men from the sections. There are two satellite teams, each consisting of four to six
men and commanded by a section commander or section second-in-command.
GLA
R
Primary Team
GLA GLA
R R R R
Satellite Team Satellite Team
Figure 7–1: Example of Half-Platoon Patrol Organisation
Conduct
7.4 The formation used by the patrol in urban or village environments will normally be
staggered file with the patrol equally divided on both sides of the street. The distance
between each man will normally be around 25 metres. Members of the patrol should work
in pairs, covering each other’s movement. Individual members of the patrol must not be
isolated. In crowded areas, the distance between patrol members may be reduced. The
patrol commander will normally be the second position in staggered file.

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7.5 Individual arcs within the patrol should provide all round protection. Arcs should include
scanning across the street and up to cover upper floors and roofs of buildings. Scanning
with the weapon scope sight should be kept to a minimum (to avoid undue fear or anger
when local civilians are present).
7.6 The speed of the patrol should be slow and even. This will promote a relaxed, confident
attitude towards the local population. It will also enable patrol members to concentrate on
the urban environment and population, therefore increasing information gathering
potential. A steady pace will also reduce fatigue. Running and hard targeting should be
restricted to crossing obstacles and gaps (ie, street junctions). Each patrol member must
check his static position (within five metres for short halts) for possible explosive devices
and line of sight to potential weapon firing points.
Considerations
7.7 The patrol commander should consider the following points in determining his tactical
manoeuvre:
a. the patrol commander will normally command the primary team;
b. the route of the primary team will determine the patrol route;
c. all other teams are designated satellite teams;
d. the route of satellite teams will be determined by the formation directed by the patrol
commander and the actions of the primary team;
e. the patrol commander may provide satellite teams with routes;
f. use a combination of formations to enhance deception;
g. the deployment of all teams in file or line abreast should be avoided, these
formations do not provide depth and the ability for teams to provide mutual support is
limited;
h. distance between teams should be a balance between optimum coverage of the

ground and the ability to provide mutual support between teams;
i. the patrol commander should consider an obstacle crossing drill if an obstacle

causes channelling; and
j. the use of deception is essential in maintaining security. While movement in the

same area is unavoidable, the use of the same or similar patrol routes will make own
troops vulnerable to ambush. Security may be achieved by varying directions,
employing armoured vehicles for drop off and pick up and varying formations and the
number of teams.
7.8 The movement out and into patrol bases is the most vulnerable period for the patrol. The
employment of speed, multiple exit and entry locations and overwatch by sentries should
be considered as part of the patrol route.
Mounted Urban Patrolling
7.9 The planning considerations for mounted and dismounted patrols are similar. Although
armoured vehicles have the advantages of firepower, protection, communications and
mobility, they are vulnerable to attack in an urban environment. For this reason, armoured

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vehicle patrols are normally combined with foot patrols so that the two capabilities
complement the other.
Tactical Employment of Amoured Fighting Vehicles
7.10 The deployment of armoured vehicles should be considered for all deliberate operations.
Top cover for each vehicle must be provided by a minimum of two top cover sentries as
they provide the vehicle with all round view and protection from top attack. Detailed
description of employment of AFVs is contained in MLW 2-1-1, Employment of Armour,
1993.
SECTION 7-2. PATROL MOVEMENT
Hints on Movement in Urban Terrain
7.11 Movement must be tactical at all times with mutual support between soldiers. Also, when
stationary, soldiers should make themselves ‘hard targets’ by using available cover.
7.12 When patrolling in urban terrain the following should be considered:
a. use the rooftops and underground routes where possible;
b. move through, rather than around, buildings wherever possible;
c. where it is necessary to move along the street:
(1) remain spread out;
(2) move from cover to cover;
(3) cross the street at right angles, not diagonally;
(4) if there is no cover on one side of the street, cross to the other side and recross
later; and
d. be wary of moving through backyards as the patrol is exposed when crossing

fences.
Urban Patrolling at Night
7.13 The decision to use NFE in urban areas will largely depend on the ambient light provided
by street and building lights. If there is sufficient light, there may be no need to use NVG
but it should still be worn with the monocular positioned out of the soldier’s field of view as
light conditions may change as the patrol moves through different areas. This also applies
to clearance of buildings.
7.14 When patrolling with NVG, soldiers should avoid looking straight at light sources such as
streetlights. The NVG will shut down if exposed to a bright light source for more than 15
seconds. Most urban areas have some form of ambient light and the NVG should operate
to their maximum capability. The advantages provided by the NFE in urban terrain are the
same as those in rural areas.

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Patrol Contact Drills
7.15 Urban terrain provides several opportunities for attack against patrols. Building
characteristics, vehicles, civilian population and noise will conceal the location of firing
points. The patrol must therefore regain the initiative during a contact by immediate and
aggressive action. The nature of urban terrain makes set piece contact drills
impracticable. The action on contact is to:
a. take cover;
b. identify where the enemy is and what the threat is;
c. manoeuvre teams to provide depth;
d. the team in contact is to close with speed on suspected firing point;
e. the team should not enter the firing point to avoid the possibility of booby traps
and/or to preserve evidence (depending on the situation);
f. teams out of contact rapidly envelop the indicated firing point and attempt to close off
escape routes;
g. the priority will be to establish a cordon around the firing and contact points;
h. the patrol commander nominates an incident control point (ICP);
i. ICP is cleared to a radius of 20 metres and ensure there are no explosive devices
located;
j. a detailed contact report is sent;
k. the patrol commander consults with HQ on the extent of planned follow-up and the
deployment of additional assets;
l. the patrol commander nominates a cordon commander;
m. the cordon commander ensures the cordon is operating effectively and the cordon is
kept informed of progress and events;
n. cordon members are to clear their positions to ensure no explosive devices have be
sited and their positions are not overlooked by potential firing points;
o. individuals should change their position regularly to avoid presenting a static target;
and
p. the cordon must remain looking out and ensure only authorised entry, as determined
by the ICP and cordon commander, is allowed.
7.16 Inside buildings, contacts will be small battles within themselves. Success will depend
upon the initiative of the patrol in contact, which will need to:
a. suppress the enemy's fire by the use of grenades and a large volume of automatic
fire,
b. establish a firm base to protect the patrol's flanks and rear,
c. clear rooms using hand grenades and automatic fire, and

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d. be aware of the risk of enemy and friendly fire through floors and ceilings as well as
between rooms on the same floor.
7.17 In more open areas of urban terrain such as parks or industrial complexes, normal patrol
contact drills are applicable.
Navigation
7.18 The use of street names and building numbers, together with a commercial road
directory, is an effective method of patrol navigation in urban terrain. The following points,
however, should be noted:
a. the defender will try to remove or change all road and street signs to hinder the
attacker;
b. maps will also be required for stormwater drains and sewers; and
c. artillery and mortars will still usually require a grid reference (GR) to provide fire
support.
Fire Support
7.19 In urban terrain, indirect artillery support may be limited because of the short range of
engagements and crest clearance problems among buildings near the city centre.
Mortars will be the most useful indirect fire support weapons in high rise urban terrain.
When circumstances permit, artillery and other heavy weapons may be used in the direct
fire role.
Communications
7.20 Communications for urban patrols will be difficult because buildings will hinder very high
frequency radio transmissions and usually the number of urban patrols required will be
greater than the normal allocation of radios.
7.21 To assist in communication, patrols should attempt to:
a. transmit from roof tops;
b. use the civil telephone, if still in service and if security permits;
c. check in to friendly strong points on the patrol route;
d. use balloons, flags or signal flares to signify location, progress or contact; and
e. use runners.
Vehicle Patrols
7.22 Vehicle patrols may be required in urban terrain. Likely tasks include:
a. to maintain contact between static defensive positions;
b. to reinforce foot patrols;
c. to support vehicle control points and road blocks;

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d. to move in hostile areas while affording some protection to troops in armoured

vehicles;
e. a show of force;
f. rapid movement of a ready reaction or reserve force; and
g. reconnaissance patrols where long distances are involved.
7.23 Where vehicle patrols are to be mounted, the following points should be considered:
a. vehicles will need to have sufficient cross-country ability to cross rubble and
obstacles that may be encountered (unexpectedly) on the route; and
b. vehicles must be properly prepared including:
(1) sandbagging,
(2) removal of doors and windows, and
(3) reverse seating.
7.24 Vehicles should travel in pairs, well separated and move in bounds from cover to cover.
Armoured vehicles need to consider their vulnerability to attack from rooftops, windows
and from below, basements, sewers, etc.
Fratricide
7.25 Commanders must consider the effects of fratricide in their planning process and
because of the decentralised nature of urban operations.
7.26 Fratricide can be avoided by doctrine, tactics, techniques and procedures as explained in
Chapter 3.

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CHAPTER 8
ACTION AFTER PATROLLING
Debriefing
8.1 The nominated debriefing officer must be ready to debrief the patrol commander as soon
as the patrol returns. Information is required for planning of further operations and patrols.
8.2 It is essential that a drill be arranged for the reception of returning patrols. As well as
catering for normal administrative matters, the format should include a review of the
patrol's actions and the techniques used on the patrol.
8.3 Normally the debriefing will be carried out by the officer who briefed the patrol and may
be conducted in one of two ways:
a. The patrol commander only is debriefed. It is usual in this case to allow the patrol
commander to debrief his patrol before he is debriefed. This method is commonly
used with routine patrols.
b. The whole patrol is debriefed. This method is more common for long and complex
patrolling tasks.
8.4 Where particular information is required urgently, a hot de-briefing may be done. This will
be followed by a more detailed debriefing later.
8.5 The test of a thorough debriefing is that few, if any, queries are raised later. The value to
other units and higher formations of information obtained from a debriefing must be borne
in mind. While debriefing, the debriefing officer should aim at keeping the patrol as
relaxed and as comfortable as possible. He seeks ‘through questions’ to gain information
which, because of tiredness, the patrol may have missed. The use of a debriefing check
list, such as given at Annex A to this chapter, simplifies the task. This check list is a guide
to the types of information required from patrols. Information obtained is passed through
the daily sitrep.
Patrol Reports
8.6 The officer responsible for debriefing will prepare the patrol report in conjunction with the
patrol commander. Where the unit commander debriefs, the intelligence officer attends to
compile the patrol report. When completed, copies of the report, in the form shown in
MLW 1-5-1, Staff Duties in the Field, 1986, are forwarded to higher HQ.
Patrol Records
8.7 To provide an accurate and up-to-date record of patrolling, the following action is
necessary:
a. the patrol master should maintain a map showing patrol routes, as well as the actual
patrol route taken being marked in on completion of the patrol. As features or

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obstacles are confirmed, information is added to ‘going’ maps of the area. Dates of
observation are essential for all but natural features; and
b. systematic recording of patrol information extracted from patrol reports must be

carried out.
8.8 In an infantry battalion, the intelligence section is responsible for patrol records, the
confirmation of patrol information with that obtained from all other sources and the
dissemination of such information within the unit.
Annex:
A. Patrol Debriefing Checklist

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PATROL DEBRIEFING CHECKLIST
1. The purpose of this checklist is to provide a guide to the type of information required from
patrols. It supplements, but does not replace, the patrol report form.
2. Hints on Debriefing:
a. Make the person who is being debriefed comfortable.
b. Do not make him write the answers. You must do the work while he relaxes.
c. Debrief as soon as possible while the information is still fresh.
d. Avoid asking questions that suggest the answer.
e. Patrol leaders will answer questions better if they know what is needed before they
go out.
3. Topography:
a. Was the intelligence briefing accurate? If not, what inaccuracies were discovered?
b. Was the map accurate? If not, what were the inaccuracies?
c. If air photos were used, was the interpretation of any benefit?
d. What was the state of tracks, if followed?
e. Were any other tracks or game trails seen? If so where?
f. Where rivers were crossed or followed, give location of:
(1) bridges (include types), and
(2) fords and their depths.
g. Did tracks, bridges or fords show signs of recent use?
h. Were any obstacles encountered (eg, minefields, wire, cleared areas)?
4. Local Peoples. If any local people were contacted out of their known locations, state the
following:
a. Location.
b. Name of village or town from which they came.
c. Name of headman.
d. Number of people.
e. Were they friendly?

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f. Whether they had encountered previous armed forces or not?
g. Have they moved recently? If so, why?
h. Did they give any information?
5. Enemy Contacts:
a. Where were they contacted (time, date, place, GR)?
b. What was their reaction (drill, fight, run, use of indirect fire, machine guns,
illumination, morale)?
c. How many enemy?
d. Any known persons? Can you describe any of them?
e. How were they dressed?
f. Were they carrying packs?
g. How were they armed (weapons seen and estimated from volume of fire)?
h. What were the enemy doing? If moving, in what direction? What were his defence
arrangements?
i. Any equipment or documents recovered? To whom have they been given?
j. Any casualties to own troops or enemy?
k. Have enemy casualties been identified? If not, what has happened to the bodies?
l. Any surrendered or captured persons? What have you done with them?
6. Camps/Defence Works:
a. Where and when was the position discovered?
b. How was it sited (eg, valley, hillside, hilltop)?
c. How many huts and buildings? How many pits, bunkers, command posts, etc?
d. What type were they?
e. Estimate their condition.
f. How long ago were they built?
g. When were they last used? By how many?
h. Were any defences constructed? Describe layout including sentry posts, warning
signals, obstacles, booby traps, dugouts, etc.
i. How many approaches or escape routes? Give their directions.
j. Any food dumps in the position?
k. Any weapons, ammunition or armourers' tools?

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l. Any sign of medical facilities?
m. Any signs of radio sets being used?
n. Any documents? If so, where were they found?
o. What was done to the camp?
7. Civilian Cultivation Areas:
a. Give time, date, GR of place of discovery.
b. What was its size and shape?
c. Any steps taken to camouflage crops?
d. What kind of crops?
e. How old were they?
f. When were they last tended?
g. Any signs of habitation in the area?
h. Any tracks?
i. What was done to the cultivation?
j. In the case of aboriginal settlement, can you estimate if the food produced was in
excess of the aborigines' own requirements?
8. Supply Dumps:
a. Location, time and date?
b. What was in it?
c. What was the condition of the store?
d. How was it concealed?
e. When was it last visited?
f. Estimate age of the dump?
g. Has it been added to since it was first laid down?
h. What was done with the stores?

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CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION TO TRACKING
Remember that following up the enemy by tracking is the

most dangerous of all military tactics.
Special Air Service Regiment Handbook
Previous Military Tracking Applications
9.1 Armies have used trackers, often known as scouts, since man first began fighting with his
neighbour. Discovery of primitive weapons and tools indicate that early men were
hunters. To survive, they had to observe the areas frequented by, and the habits of, the
animal and bird life that they intended catching for their food. After early man had
overcome his food problems, even to the point of domesticating animals and harvesting
the land, his naturally aggressive nature and his greed for power soon turned him towards
his fellow man. He soon found that he was able to gain the initiative over an armed and
alert enemy even with inferior numbers and weapons, by employing stealth, cunning,
surprise and a superior knowledge of bush craft.
9.2 Tracking has been employed in numerous military campaigns, more recently in counter
guerrilla warfare operations in Borneo, Malaysia, Vietnam and more recently East Timor.
Countless reports of successful operations in these areas have been accredited either
directly or indirectly to the intelligence gathered by the trackers.
9.3 A tracker can come from any walk of life or nationality. Some examples are:
a. Kikuyu trackers during the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya;
b. Orang Asli and the aborigines of Malaysia together with the Iban and Dyaks of
Borneo during the Malayan campaign and the Indonesian confrontation; and
c. United States of America (USA) Border Patrol along the USA/Mexico border using
Amerinds.
9.4 Generally speaking, a tracker is normally most efficient in his own country. In a new
country, his effectiveness will depend entirely on his ability to adjust to the new
environment. Once this is achieved, a tracker will be able to perform to his maximum
efficiency.
Current Tracking Applications
9.5 The vast majority of the civilian population and even some military leaders are
unacquainted or unaware of the potential use of trained trackers. With some imagination,
it is not difficult to envisage its many uses and employment. Its potential can be utilised by
the following organisations:
a. Search and Rescue. These organisations are often called upon to locate missing
campers, etc. Unfortunately, when they possess little or no knowledge of the art of
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tracking, a lot of sign is often obliterated by searching personnel making it almost

impossible for any immediate pursuit by trained trackers. As a result vital time is
wasted and the victim’s fate may end in tragedy.
b. Law Enforcement Agencies. Tracking with most law enforcement agencies is

orientated primarily towards employing highly trained tracker dogs. Their tasks have
ranged from tracking law-breaking fugitives to the detection of explosives and
narcotics. The USA Border Patrol is but one law enforcement agency who currently
employ the techniques of tracking in their never ending task to stop entry by illegal
immigrants into the USA. Australian Customs and immigration have used elements
from the Regional Force Surveillance Units to aid them in identification of smuggling
and illegal immigrants.
c. Military. Military tracking introduces a whole new concept to this ancient skill. It is
man tracking man, to locate, identify and pursue his adversary. With the type of war
now being fought, the soldier with a high degree of field craft and trained to pursue
and locate guerrilla type enemy groups is more important than ever. Lead scouts
within a patrol or section should be trained as trackers.
Purpose of Military Tracking
9.6 The purpose of military tracking is to close with the enemy and gain as much information
as possible about the enemy by employing tracking techniques.
Role of the Tracker
9.7 The role of the tracker is to locate, identify and pursue sign, and from intelligent
interpretations and deductions, gain reasonably accurate information about the target
concerned.
Types of Tracking
9.8 The methods by which sign can be followed are:
a. visual tracking, and
b. scent tracking.
9.9 These two methods indicate that the senses of ‘sight’ and ‘smell’ are used; in addition, the
senses of hearing and touch are used, although to a smaller degree.
9.10 Visual Tracking. Visual tracking is the art of being able to track a target or animal by the
many signs and marks it has left in the environment.
9.11 Due to the fact that the VT relies primarily on sight, it is difficult to track at night except in
very unusual circumstances, ie, brilliant moonlight, artificial light or with the use of NODs
or NVGs.
9.12 Scent Tracking. Dogs normally perform scent tracking. However, a well-trained tracker
can pursue a quarry by its scent, whether human or animal, providing the scent is strong
and fresh. Information on the use of tracker dogs is included in Chapter 12.
The Tracker
9.13 Nobody is born with the natural instincts of a tracker and, contrary to the common belief,
a tracker is not a special type of person. He is a normal person who has attained these

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skills through dedication and practice. It is possible for anyone to become proficient in the
art of tracking provided they are determined, interested and are given the opportunity to
practise their skills.
Qualities of the Visual Tracker
9.14 To be a competent tracker one must possess certain qualities. These include:
a. honesty;
b. patience;
c. perseverance;
d. an inquisitive mind;
e. acute observation;
f. determination (both mental and physical);
g. above average endurance;
h. above average standard of fieldcraft;
i. knowledge of the enemy and his tactics; and
j. knowledge of the local fauna and flora.
Tracking Terminology
9.15 Some of the basic terminology used in tracking include:
a. Track Picture. This is the overall picture (story) gained by the tracker over any given
length of track.
b. Key Sign. This is that sign, which is prominent in any one environment within a track
and serves to increase the range and speed of tracking, eg, primary bush colour
changes from overturned leaves.
c. Sign Pattern. This sign serves to indicate the habits or the peculiarities of the target.
d. Pointers. These are those signs which indicate direction of movement – eg, low
foliage (grass), when tramped on or brushed forward, will remain in the direction of
movement until disturbed again.
e. Exit and Entry Points. These are points or passageways through which the target
may pass from one environment to another.
f. Straight Edge. This is the line found on leaves or blades of grass caused by the
application of pressure, as in the folding of paper.
g. Casting. This is a drill used to locate or relocate sign, that has been abandoned or
lost and where a tracker is endeavouring to locate a start point at an incident area.
h. Time Bracket. All sign in the initial stages is placed into a time bracket, ie, the time
lapse between the earliest possible time that the sign could have been made and the
time it was located. It allows the tracker to estimate the age of sign.

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i. Foul Track. Is defined as a track which has entered an area where numerous other
tracks exist.
j. Tuning In. This is the initial reading of the sign which enables the tracker to think and
act as the target being pursued. This will assist the tracker to anticipate future
actions.
k. Track Isolation. This is where the tracker, having anticipated the intended route, is
able to ‘leapfrog’ ahead and be able to identify the same track by sign pattern.
l. Indicator Pace. This is the pace immediately before or after a change of direction.
m. Pace Tracking. This is ‘pace for pace’ tracking carried out during ‘tuning in’ period or
when the track becomes difficult to pursue.
SECTION 9-2. THE TARGET
Definition of the Target
9.16 The target is the quarry itself (human, animal or vehicle) being pursued by the tracker.
Understanding the Target
9.17 For the tracker to have an advantage during a tracking task, it is important for him to
know as much about the target as possible. This knowledge will assist the tracker in
being able to identify his target, to think like his target, anticipate his likely actions and be
able to better counter any moves or deceptions the target may employ.
9.18 Prior to insertion, the tracker, where possible, should conduct a detailed study and
receive comprehensive intelligence briefings on the target. The knowledge the VT has of
his target will come from information gained in the following areas:
a. own intelligence cell;
b. previous patrol reports;
c. members of local population;
d. informers;
e. law enforcement agencies;
f. the mission of the target (this may be either assumed or confirmed based on the
available information); and
g. the background of the target.
The Target’s Mission
9.19 The mission of the target may be either assumed or confirmed. Unless based on a very
reliable source, the target’s mission will invariably be an assumption based on available
information.

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The Target’s Background
9.20 Knowledge and understanding of the background of the target will aid the tracker in his
ability to think like the target, anticipate his likely actions and therefore be able to counter
the actions of the target. Information on the background may come from the following
areas:
a. traits;
b. doctrine; and/or
c. habitat.
9.21 Traits. These are the characteristic features or qualities distinguishing a particular target:
a. Nationality. The target may not be an original inhabitant of the country in which he is
operating or residing (eg, Chinese Malay, which means he is of Chinese origin who
is naturalised as a Malay). The most important fact to consider here from the
tracker’s point of view is to try to ascertain the nationality of the target regardless of
the country of operations.
b. Life Style. There are seven factors that contribute to the targets lifestyle:
(1) Attitudes. State of mind, moods or emotions, ie, does he become easily
deterred or violent when subjected to mental or physical stress.
(2) Beliefs. The principle ideas and ideals where a person elects to pursue a course
in life because of what he believes in and accepts, often without question.
(3) Habits. The tendency or disposition to act in a particular way, either natural or
acquired.
(4) Loyalties. It can be envisaged that degree of allegiance can change depending
on the situation and personal feelings at the time. As a tracker, it must be
assumed that the target is a devoted subject whose loyalties are fully committed
to their cause.
(5) Intelligence. The state or quality of mental or intellectual ability.
(6) Physique. The general appearance of the body, with regards to shape and
muscular development.
(7) Diet. The food and drink that the target normally consumes regularly.
c. Doctrine. Target doctrine refers to the standard and origin of the target’s training and
can be examined in four areas:
(1) Customs/Traditions. The established habitual practices and thought processes

belonging to a particular country, people, family or institution.
(2) Military. The type of military teachings, in particular with regards to Special
Forces (SF), regular forces or conscription force training.
(3) Political. The political beliefs and ideologies.
(4) Religion. The religious beliefs and ideologies.
9.22 Habitat. This is the past or present region in which the target is residing:
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a. Remote. Habitat which is located away from centres of population, society or

civilisation.
b. Rural. Habitat being characteristics of the country or country life.
c. Suburban. Habitat whose residential area is situated on the outskirts of a city or

town.
d. City. Habitat centred on any large town or populated location.
SECTION 9-3. SIGN
9.23 A good understanding of sign and how to identify it is the most important part of visual
tracking. It must be remembered that some people may not have the aptitude. With
experience and practice, locating and identifying sign will become easier.
Definition
9.24 Sign is defined as any evidence of change that is inflicted upon the environment by the
passage of man, animal or machinery.
Characteristics of Sign
9.25 Sign may be identified by one or a combination of the following characteristics:
a. Regularity. Regularity is an effect caused by straight lines, arches or other

geometrical shapes being pressed into the ground or created on other surfaces
thereby leaving marks not normally found in nature.
b. Flattening. Flattening is the general levelling or depression caused by pressure on

an area compared to the immediate surrounding – eg, bed space, boot print on
grass.
c. Transfer. Transfer is deposit carried forward over an area after the target has moved
from one environment to another – eg, mud, sand, grass, water, etc.
d. Colour Change. Colour change is the difference in colour or texture from the area
that surrounds it – eg, long grass, overturned leaves.
e. Discardables. Discardables are any items 'cast off' (intentionally or otherwise) by the
target – eg, rations, camouflage netting or equipment.
f. Disturbance. Disturbance is any change or rearrangement of the natural state of an

area caused by the passage of the target – eg, broken cobwebs, disturbed insect or
animal life, dead leaves or bruised roots.
Categories of Sign
9.26 All sign is divided into two categories, top sign and ground sign. The dividing line is taken
at ankle height and the categories are detailed as follows:
a. Top Sign. Top sign is sign above the ankle to the height and width of the person and
equipment he may be carrying. Some examples of top sign are:
(1) broken twigs or leaves,

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(2) scratches on trees trunks,
(3) hand hold marks or prints on trees,
(4) changes in colour due to disturbed and overturned vegetation,
(5) unnatural position of vegetation, and
(6) cutting.
b. Ground Sign. Ground sign is the sign left mainly by the feet or equipment coming in
contact with the ground. Examples of ground sign are:
(1) foot, boot or tyre prints;
(2) broken twigs or leaves on the ground;
(3) bruised or 'bleeding' roots;
(4) disturbance of insect life on the ground;
(5) disturbance to grass;
(6) disturbed or overturned leaves, twigs or stones;
(7) discardables left or dropped; and
(8) muddy or discoloured water.
Types of Sign
9.27 The tracker should be aware of the variation in impact a target may have depending on
the surfaces with which he is in contact. This is catorgised as soft and hard sign.
Soft Sign
9.28 If the surface is soft, disturbance or damage is easily inflicted. Examples of soft surfaces
include:
a. soft soil, mud, sand;
b. green, leafy plants; and
c. roots that bleed.
Hard Sign
9.29 If the matter or material is hard, it is less likely to be damaged or disturbed. Examples of
hard surfaces include:
a. dead, dry foliage;
b. hard packed or sun baked soil;
c. rock; and
d. resilient mosses or tussock.

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Classification of Sign
9.30 Sign falls into two classes:
a. Definite. These are those signs which on their own indicate to a tracker the passage
of the target through the area – eg, foot print, discardables, cutting. In other words,
the sign is definitely that made by the target. How definite the sign is will vary
between trackers and is dependent on his experience.
b. Inconclusive. Inconclusive sign is sign that may or may not have been caused by the
target (ie, not definite, doubtful or uncertain). Inconclusive sign has to be
substantiated (proven) one way or the other before the tracker can continue with
confidence. With experience and practice, a tracker can verify these and class them
as definite. However, a learner may require several examples to be convinced he is
still pursuing the same target.
SECTION 9-4. TRACK INFORMATION
9.31 The gaining of information starts with the briefing before the pursuit and is confirmed
throughout the task. Each individual piece of sign is telling the tracker something about
the target. The information gained may be vital to higher command decisions.
Regardless, all information gained during a pursuit task will give the tracker a better
understanding of his target and with this knowledge be able to counter any moves the
target may employ. It is therefore vital for the tracker to gain as much information from a
track as possible and to have access to information from previous tracking patrols and
other sources.
Recognition of Footprints
9.32 One of the most essential pieces of information relating to the target is the type of
footwear normally worn. This information will assist the tracker to discriminate between
friendly and target tracks and even to identify individuals. Trackers must have a picture in
their minds or notebook of current friendly footprints as well as enemy main force and
militia prints.
9.33 The shape of the barefoot print gives clues to the race and habitat of the target.
9.34 Urban Dwellers. Urban dwellers habitually wear some form of footwear, and the bare
print shows uniform narrow gaps between the toes. The print has rounded edges and
normally a high narrow instep.
9.35 Underdeveloped Country or Remote Area Dweller. These people seldom have
footwear and normally walk barefooted. The print shows a large gap between the big toe
and the remainder which have small or no gap showing. The foot is broad when
compared to its length and the edges are clearly defined. The instep is almost flat with
little curvature. In some cases, the fringe dweller has been known to wear different types
of footwear on each foot, eg, thong on one foot and a sandshoe on the other.
9.36 Footprints can be broadly classified into three types:
a. Heels. These are shoes, boots or sandals with a distinct and discernible heel. This
results in a definite heel print separated from the sole print. The shape of the heel
print is the best indicator of an individual’s track. Overall shape, tread pattern and
wear patterns assist in identifying the target.

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b. Flats. These are shoes, boots or sandals with no discernible heel. These leave less
conclusive evidence than heels as the print is relatively shapeless except where a
tread or wear pattern can be identified.
c. Barefoot. These prints may be identifiable in good conditions but are often too ‘soft’
to leave clear tracks.
9.37 The type of print can be photographed or sketched and noted in the patrol’s
fact/deduction record and posted to all trackers in the AO for use in future patrols.
Direction
9.38 From a given length of track, the VT can assess the general direction in which the target
is moving. Some indicators of direction are:
a. pointers,
b. transfer,
c. high grass and fern pushed down in the direction of movement, and
d. heel marks or boot prints.
Numbers being Tracked
9.39 The following points may assist the tracker in estimating numbers:
a. number of sleeping areas in a harbour or lying-up point (LUP);
b. number of resting places at a rest halt;
c. different types of boot patterns; and
d. if the ground is soft and boot prints are distinct, the following methods can be used:
(1) measure off a distance of 60 centimetres and count the number of heel marks
(one man rarely places his feet down twice within 60 centimetres); and
(2) measure off a distance of one over-extended pace or two normal paces then
count the number of heel marks within the given area and divide by two (eg,
estimate five heel marks as two or possibly three persons).
Age of Sign
9.40 All sign is subjected to natural processes which will eventually return it to a state where
judging age will become more of a guess. The knowledge of these natural processes and
how they affect sign will enable the VT not only to identify sign but also reasonably
accurately judge its age to fulfil the primary role as an information gatherer. The correct
calculation of the age of the sign being followed will assist the VT and his commander to:
a. determine the approximate time lapse since the target passed through the area and
decide whether to pursue the target or not;
b. distinguish between old and fresh sign once on pursuit (this will indicate your position
in relation to that of the target). If not assessed correctly, this could compromise the
security of the patrol, or worse, cause casualties due to the patrol running into the
enemy without warning; and
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c. overcome problems of foul tracking where sign of differing ages is encountered.

Being able to determine targets sign from others, based on age, will save valuable
time.
9.41 Considerations. The VT must have an understanding of local flora and wildlife, the
relationship between these, the weather and terrain in the AO. All these factors will
determine the aging process of sign found and how fast the sign returns to its natural
state or how it presents itself to the tracker. The ability to judge age accurately to within
hours will only come with experience and continual application and practice and even
then may not be accurate. However, it is reasonable to say that age can be estimated
within 24 hours or less if the tracker considers all of the following:
a. type of sign;
b. the location of the sign, and its degree of exposure to the elements; and
c. weather conditions prior to discovery to which sign may have been subjected.
9.42 Methods to Assist in Judging Age. Having considered type, exposure and weather in
relation to the sign, the tracker could use one of the following methods to help assess the
age:
a. Comparison by Colour. By checking the colour of damaged grass or twigs, we can

judge the age of the sign by:
(1) Cracks in Bent Grass or Leaves. An indication of the age of a track may be
gained by the state of dryness of such cracks. When fresh, they are green but
after a few days they turn a brown colour; and
(2) Breaking and Comparing Sticks and Twigs. A fresh break will be a lighter colour
and a study of ends may show fibres protruding. These fibres disappear over a
period of time and the colour darkens.
b. Comparison by Impression. The state of dryness of a track in mud or soft ground

must be noted. If the track is very fresh, water will not have run back into the print or
depression made by foot. Later the water runs back and later still the mud, which has
been pushed up around the print, and kicked forward begins to dry. By placing your
print beside that of targets and then comparing them over a period of exposure an
assessment can be made by gauging difference in colour and breakdown of regular
lines, shapes and edges.
c. Bracketing Using Weather. If we know the weather history of the area, the following
will assist in judging the age of the sign:
(1) Rain, Mist and Dew. If tracks are pock marked or lack definition, they will have
been made before the rain. Similarly, by noting if the tracks have been pock
marked by morning mist dripping from trees, an estimate of age can be made;
and
(2) Wind. In forests, leaves and needles are always falling from trees. The amount
of foliage that falls on the sign will depend on the wind and rain conditions over
the period since target passed over the area.
d. Bracketing when Game Tracks are Superimposed. The wild animals lie up during the
day and move at night. If human prints on a main game trail have animal tracks
superimposed, and these tracks show that the animals have moved in both
directions, then human prints are probably at least one night old.

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e. Knowledge of Local Flora and Fauna. A knowledge of the local flora and fauna can
assist in judging the age of signs by:
(1) Vegetation. The state and position of trodden vegetation must be noted. Various
grasses have different degrees of resilience and prior knowledge of the
response of flora to being crushed, pushed aside, broken or cut will assist in
determining age. Only by studying flora present in the AOs over periods of time
can the tracker become adept with this method; and
(2) Wildlife. By studying and noting the habits of wildlife with regards to feeding,
watering, movement and so on, the tracker can use this information to assist
him in assessing age. Most wild animals feed and move during hours of
darkness but birds which feed on the forest floor (eg, blackbirds) feed during the
day so any sign disturbed by feeding or moving animals can assist in assessing
age. Disturbed or crushed spider webs, broken ant or termite mounds or trails
should all be taken into consideration.
Speed of the Target Being Tracked
9.43 Speed of the target can be estimated from the following:
a. distance between rest, meal stops and LUPs;
b. the distance between paces can indicate speed (a person moving fast will take a
longer pace than someone moving slowly or cautiously);
c. the depth of the footprint can indicate loads being carried (a person carrying a heavy
load will leave a deeper footprint); and
d. amount of sign being left behind can indicate careful or hurried movement.
Weight of Load Carried
9.44 The heavier the bodies’ weight or load carried then the deeper the overall print will be. As
the load increases, the length of the pace will shorten significantly and large amounts of
material will be scuffed in the direction of movement.
Gender of Target
9.45 The gender of the target can be identified as follows:
a. Footprint. The male generally has a larger and broader foot than the female and a
longer gait when moving. The toes generally point outwards and body weight is
heavier with the print being better defined. Female prints are usually small and have
a shorter span. The toes usually point in and the print is less well defined.
b. Sleeping Arrangements. Enemy forces having female soldiers will normally have
separate sleeping and toilet areas, particularly those forces that have stricter moral
codes.
c. Toileting. Males urinate standing while females urinate squatting thus leaving a
deeper impression on the earth between the feet. Evidence may be found of debris
associated with female menstruation.

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General Health
9.46 The target’s general health can sometimes be detected by some of the following
methods:
a. examination of toilet areas and faeces may indicate diahorrea or dysentery,
b. vomit or bloody sputum will indicate ill health, and
c. bloodstained bandages or other medical debris will indicate injury or ill health.
Rations
9.47 A tracker can gain the following information from discarded rations:
a. nationality of target by preferred diet – eg, rice for people of Asian descent, etc;
b. supplier of rations from containers; and
c. types of rations – combat, local purchase, living off the land.
Types of Weapons and Equipment
9.48 Identifying the weapons and equipment the target may be carrying is very difficult;
however, the following can assist:
a. discarded ammo cartridges and equipment,
b. sighting by trackers or other patrols,
c. contact by trackers or other patrols,
d. marks on the ground around rest areas and LUPs, and
e. marks on tree where the weapons or equipment may have been placed.
Tactics
9.49 Identifying enemy tactics is a fundamental part of tracking, especially when information
reporting. A tracker must therefore determine the tactics employed by the enemy.
Knowing the tactics employed will not only assist in determining how friendly forces
operate against the enemy but will assist the tracker in finding information. For example,
knowing if the enemy posts sentries whilst lying-up could affect when or how a follow-up
force engages the enemy or knowing that the enemy always travels with flank protection
could determine how far from a track we site our ambushes. Likewise, the knowledge that
our enemies snap-ambush before halting will assist the tracker when determining where
to look for information, such as numbers of enemy, etc. Assessing the enemy’s tactics will
be done as the track picture is built up through intelligent interpretation of the target’s:
a. tactics at halts;
b. tactics at obstacles;
c. tactics at LUP/harbour areas; and
d. deception tactics, if employed.

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Habits/Routines
9.50 A knowledge of the enemy’s day-to-day patrol routine is vital to the tracker. After tracking
the target for a sustained period, idiosyncrasies may be detected which will help to
identify the patrol especially if an area of foul track is encountered and can speed up the
tracking process. The tracker should identify and recognise idiosyncrasies such as:
a. The habitual siting of LUPs/harbours on or by certain topographical features such as

streams. Knowing this will assist in identifying future enemy locations for either track
isolation or follow-up purposes. In addition, such a habit might also indicate the
requirement for water for cooking or fishing for food.
b. Negotiating obstacles or bypassing thick vegetation in a certain manner or direction.

If this can be identified, then ambushes can easily be sited in these locations.
c. Carrying out halts or tasks at regular periods. This will assist the tracker in knowing
where to look for incidents and will help him to anticipate enemy actions (ie, meal
halt followed by a communications halt) thus speeding up his ability to interpret
incidents and subsequently spend more time on track.
d. Patrol members’ idiosyncrasies may also be observed – eg, smokers, ‘phantom twig
snappers’, etc, which assist in identifying this patrol from other patrols.
SECTION 9-5. FACTORS WHICH AFFECT TRACKING
9.51 The four main factors which will affect or influence tracking are:
a. sign (spoor);
b. terrain;
c. climatic conditions; and
d. time.
9.52 In general, all four factors are very closely related and this can lead to both advantages
and disadvantages for the tracker. A tracker must have a good understanding of each of
these factors and how they can affect each other and the track in general.
Sign (Spoor)
9.53 During a pursuit, the sign (spoor) left by the target is the most important thing to consider.
The tracker must also consider other human and animal sign in the area and how they
are going to affect the sign left by the target and create foul tracks.
9.54 Other Human Sign. If there is other human sign in the area, the tracker must identify the
sign pattern of the target and disregard all others to continue the track.
9.55 Animal Sign. The tracker must consider the habits and be able to identify the difference
between animal and human sign.

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Terrain
9.56 The terrain may or may not assist the tracker. The degree of success in tracking will
depend on the type of country he is operating in which may be any or a combination of
the following:
a. grasslands or savanna;
b. rocky country;
c. forest;
d. scrub (secondary forest);
e. rivers, streams and swampy ground;
f. sand (coastal or desert); and
g. urban areas.
9.57 Grasslands. If the grass is high (ie, above three feet) trails are relatively easy to pursue
due to the fact that the grass is knocked down and will stay down for some time,
depending on the weather. If the grass is short, it springs back into its original position in
a relatively short space of time. The following points will assist when tracking in this type
of terrain:
a. grass is normally trodden down and pointing in the direction the pursued person is
travelling;
b. grass presents a contrast in colour to the normal undergrowth when pressed down;
c. passage through vegetation that has been wet with dew the night before will remove
moisture droplets;
d. mud or soil from footwear may appear on some of the grass;
e. when the grass is dry, broken and crushed stems can be located and often footprints
will be located in the area;
f. new vegetation showing through generally indicates old sign; and
g. in short grass (ie, up to twelve inches) a boot will damage the grass near the ground
and a footprint or impression may be found.
9.58 Rocky Country. Tracking through this type of country is not as difficult as many people
think. This is due to the fact that rocks are easily disturbed and, generally speaking, are
easily marked. The following points will assist when tracking in this type of terrain:
a. unless moving over large boulders, stones and rocks are often moved aside or rolled
over. This will disturb the soil, leaving a distinct variation in colour and an impression.
If wet, the underside of the stone and rock will be darker in colour and, if dry, will be
a much lighter colour;
b. movement over large stones with hobnails and plates on boots tend to scratch the
surface of the rocks;
c. on sandstone, boot marks tend to show dark in colour and on lava the mark is
whitish;
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d. brittle stone will normally chip and crumble when walked on and a light patch
appears. The chips can also be seen nearby;
e. stones on the side of hills will move slightly or roll away when walked on irrespective
of whether up or down hill movement by the target;
f. stones on a loose or soft surface are normally pressed in when walked upon, leaving
either a ridge around the edge of the stone where it has forced the dirt out or a hole
where the stone has been pushed below the surface of the ground;
g. particles of stone sometimes catch in the sole of the footwear and are deposited
further on and show up against a different background; and
h. where moss is found growing on rocks, a boot or hand will often dislodge it and leave
telltale sign.
9.59 Forest. Due to the diverse nature of the forests, the VT can expect many types of sign.
The following points will assist when tracking in this type of terrain:
a. leaves on the forest floor when wet and disturbed will show much darker than those
undisturbed;
b. dry leaves undisturbed show a distinct dark brown underneath in comparison with
the ‘biscuity’ colour of the bleached upper surface;
c. some dead leaves become very brittle and crack and break under pressure of a
person walking on them. The same can be said for small, dry twigs;
d. in thick undergrowth the green leaves of bushes that have been pushed aside or
twisted will show up the underneath side which will be lighter in shade than the top of
the leaf. When looking for this sort of trail the tracker must look through the forest
and not at it;
e. colour change in broken twigs will assist in assessing how long it is since they were
broken. Freshly broken twigs, green or dead, generally is a creamier colour at the
break. This colour gets darker with time but if the tracker breaks the twig, again he
will get an indication by comparison of how long it is since the original break
occurred. Only by experiment and experience will the tracker be able to determine
the age of the break. Freshly broken green twigs usually retain the smell of sap for
three or four hours;
f. boot impressions will be left on fallen rotting trees if walked on;
g. marks are generally left on logs which lay across a path or if not on the logs then on
the track on either side of the log;
h. roots laying across a path will show signs of having been walked on; and
i. broken cobwebs across the path may indicate passage of animals or humans.
9.60 Scrub (Secondary Forest). This is the type of country where the primary growth has
been cleared and secondary growth has started. Generally speaking, it is very thick and
hard to penetrate. To do so, the individual may be forced to make his way through by
cutting or by crawling along at ground level. The following points will assist when tracking
in this type of terrain:
a. broken or cut branches and twigs,

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b. leaves knocked off,
c. branches facing the direction in which the target has gone,
d. footprints on the ground which show up clearly as grass does not grow underneath,
e. tunnels made very low to the ground,
f. broken cobwebs, and
g. pieces of clothing and equipment caught on sharp edges of vines and bushes.
9.61 Rivers, Streams and Swampy Country. Contrary to general belief, tracking is possible
where these circumstances exist. In most cases, it is made relatively easy by the marks
left behind. The following points will assist when tracking in this type of terrain:
a. footprints on the banks;
b. footprints in shallow water;
c. mud being stirred up and discolouring the water;
d. rocks splashed with water in a quiet running stream;
e. water on the ground at point of exit;
f. boots may have been taken off to wade the stream. Look for spots on banks where
this was done and where they were put on again. Normally there will be signs where
the person sat down to take off and put on his boots; and
g. in mangrove swamps mud will be stirred up. Branches of mangroves will be bent
where people have held onto them to prevent themselves from tripping over roots.
9.62 Sand. Sand is relatively easy to track in. The biggest problem is the wind as it can
obliterate marks and impressions within a couple of minutes. The following points will
assist when tracking in this type of terrain:
a. if the surface is inclined to be hard, the footprint is often clear;
b. if the surface is soft the footprint will be quite deep and in the early morning and late
afternoon the walls of the impression may cast a shadow; and
c. in a tidal area footprints may be washed away and leave only a blurred outline of the
imprint. Knowledge of tide timings will assist in judging the age of sign.
9.63 Urban Areas. Tracking into these areas will invariably result in foul tracks and will slow
most trackers. If reduced to pace tracking, the tracker may speed up his pursuit by
carrying out the following:
a. entry and exit point search,
b. likely area search,
c. identification of particular sign patterns, and
d. track isolation.
9.64 Any track that leads to a built up area may indicate any of the following:

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a. RVs;
b. familiarity with inhabitants (treat locals as possible collaborators); and
c. likely target area nearby.
Climatic Conditions
9.65 Strong climatic condition will eradicate sign quickly. The degree of this effect is varied and
dependent upon the strength of these elements. Generally speaking, tracks sheltered
from rain, wind and direct sunrays can remain longer. The following factors will adversely
affect tracking:
a. Direct Sunlight. This causes sign to return to normal more quickly. Alternatively, it
can harden prints, making them more long-lasting.
b. Strong Wind. Encourages disturbed vegetation to return to normal and may conceal
some ground sign.
c. Heavy Rain. This will wash out some sign very quickly, particularly ground sign, and
is probably the greatest problem facing the VT.
d. Sun, Rain and Wind. These are all factors which will adversely affect sign and marks
of a track. The degree to which this effects will have is varied and dependent upon
the strength of the elements. Generally speaking, tracks sheltered from rain, wind
and direct sunrays can still be recognised up to thirty hours later.
Time
9.66 To be able to assess the time between when a sign mark was made and when it is found
is the hardest task for a tracker. Only experience and practice will help to overcome this
difficulty. The inter-relationship between sign (spoor), terrain and climate, coupled with
the time span since the sign has been made, will determine the total effect on the
appearance of the sign and the ability of the VT to pursue it.
SECTION 9-6. ANIMAL PRINTS
Introduction
9.67 Since the beginning of time, humankind has associated with animals, mainly as a food
source but also as a means of waging war. Horses, elephants and dogs are some of the
better known and documented animals used. In the modern age, animals have been
replaced in the main by machinery but they still have uses. To the tracker, animals are
useful in deception and counter deception as well as an aid to judging the age of sign.
Their absence may also indicate a close enemy presence. The tracker must have a good
knowledge of animals indigenous to the area, their habits and what their print looks like.
Birds Tracks
9.68 Bird prints are the most difficult to recognise due to the bird’s small body weight. Their
prints reveal much about their habits.
9.69 Hopping Bird. Birds that hop are usually unaccustomed to moving on the ground and
would normally live in the trees and feed on insects. To find their print on the ground
would indicate that their food was also present on the ground. Insects are usually present

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in the open or above ground during hatching or immediately prior to and after dusk and
dawn, therefore the insect eater would be on the ground at this time.
9.70 Walking Bird. Walking birds are accustomed to being on the ground and therefore
finding all or some of their food there. There are two types of ground feeders, they are:
a. the bird that finds its food on top of the ground is usually a daylight feeder that
requires water daily. They normally drink at dusk and dawn; and
b. the bird that feeds on insects and worms is a ground scratcher and again is a
daylight feeder. The ground scratcher disturbs the ground as it searches for food and
produces large amounts of transfer. They have a heavy, strong and well-developed
centre toe and powerful claws.
9.71 Flesh Eating Birds. The flesh eating bird is often uncomfortable on the ground and
normally would only land in an attempt to acquire food. They only move on the ground for
short distances. The different species move and hunt by day and night. Their print shows
four heavily built toes with heavy, powerful and distinct claws.
9.72 Water Bird. The majority of water birds are active by day and roost by night. They rarely
move far from water unless they are migrating as part of a large flock. Their tracks show
the distinct webbing between the toes.
Animal Tracks
9.73 In the animal kingdom, the reading of tracks is equally simple, with the print giving an
insight into the creatures habits and characteristics.
9.74 Tree Dweller/Climber. The tree dwellers are active by day and night dependent on
species and move on the ground in search of food close to the trees and rarely move
long distances on the ground. They have prints that show the prehensile thumb required
for grasping at branches.
9.75 Digging/Burrowing Animal. The majority of these animals are nocturnal and normally
smaller than other species. Their print shows separated toes and claws.
9.76 Carnivores. Carnivores are powerfully built and fast movers that range over large areas.
Generally, the dog family moves by day and the cat by night, but there are exceptions.
Their print lacks the prehensile thumb and the digging claw.
9.77 Grazing Animals/Herbivores. These are normally daytime feeders and movers covering
large distances and areas within their range. The cloven hoof characteristic of these
animals’ produces a 'cliff' that is easily mistaken for a human heel print.
Tracks Indicate Habits
9.78 Tracks made by animals, when read correctly, show the pattern of the animals’ habits.
This calls for continuous and careful observation. It is important to recognise the fact that
all living things are creatures of habit. Particular animals will follow the same track to and
from the water every day. Most animals hunt in one general area and only leave if driven
out by fire, drought, flood or interference. This habit-forming characteristic of animals
makes it possible for the experienced tracker to predict the animals’ movements. Careful
observation of the number and newness of the tracks or pads in the area and the number
of droppings can gauge the importance of the track or pad.
9.79 Knowledge about animal habits and their print characteristics will aid the tracker in
following his target but, unless the tracker also has the ability to read human print and
understand its characteristics, much valuable information will be lost.

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CHAPTER 10
TRACKING TECHNIQUES
SECTION 10-1. TRACK PURSUIT DRILLS
Introduction
10.1 When in pursuit, the VT is tracking an armed and alert enemy who is well-versed in
fieldcraft and battle skills. One of the tasks of the VT is to search his area of responsibility
to ensure there is no enemy presence prior to any forward movement.
10.2 Track Pursuit Drills (TPDs) are designed to allow the VT to pursue the enemy and
maintain his security. The VT must memorise the steps of the TPD and follow them in the
correct sequence religiously. As his competence and experience improves the VT will be
able to combine these steps and perform several steps with one quick glance and the
period spent between bounds will become a short pause. The VT must avoid becoming
overconfident as experience has proven that sooner or later he will make an error that
could prove fatal to himself or his patrol.
Stages of the Track Pursuit Drill
10.3 The seven stages of the TPD are:
a. Assess General Direction. The tracker should look for all possible openings and try
to determine the general direction of the track. To achieve this with some degree of
accuracy, the tracker must put himself in the place of the target and say to himself
‘which way would I go?’ If the target is unaware of being followed, he often
telegraphs his general direction by his route, confirmed by a compass bearing and
from the map.
b. Eliminate all Openings and Finalise Direction. Whenever a person moves through
any environment he will always cause disturbance that in some way will alter the
natural appearance of the area compared to its surroundings. A tracker, through
training and experience begins to recognise these changes and by a process of
elimination narrows it down to the most probable direction. The possibility of a group
splitting up should not be discounted.
c. Identify the Furthest Sign and Connect up Track Back. The tracker should go
through a process to confirm that the track being pursued is in fact the desired track.
This is achieved by visually back tracking from the farthest visible sign to the last
definite sign (LDS). It is not recommendable to reverse this process as the tendency
is to make up sign where sign does not exist. It is important for the tracker to have
substantiating sign in front before proceeding to the next stage, especially in difficult
vegetation and terrain.
d. Search for Enemy Presence. To prevent a possible chance encounter, movement

must be kept to an absolute minimum with the exception of perhaps going down on
one knee or a slight sway to the left or right in order to examine signs. The tracker
should employ to his maximum ability his natural instincts, experience and
observation to locate the presence of the enemy.

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e. Check Areas Left and Right. This action is used to detect possible deception tactics,
split up or booby traps. Understanding of enemy deception tactics is invaluable to
allow the tracker to anticipate possible moves. This action is carried out by the cover
man (CM) who is in a better position, allowing the tracker to concentrate on the front.
f. Memorise the Route. The tracker should select and memorise the best route to his
furthest sign, making a mental note of all obstacles that he will have to negotiate. Up
until this point of the drill, the VT should remain stationary, minimising all
unnecessary movement which could compromise his position.
g. Move Forward as a Lead Scout. When the track has been confirmed, the immediate
area checked for enemy presence and the intended route memorised, the VT
becomes the lead scout and moves forward to the limit of the confirmed track – alert,
weapon at 'instant' and ready to deal with the unexpected.
10.4 During the TPD, the VT must maintain his fieldcraft and battlecraft skills. To aid in this the
VT must not:
a. look down when moving forward;
b. make noise which will travel beyond visible distance;
c. ‘bluff’ himself (particularly in regard to sign which is not definite);
d. grab vegetation (which may transmit his location); or
e. track on when exhausted.
SECTION 10-2. TRACK CASTING DRILLS
10.5 It would be a rare occurrence, and only under exceptional circumstances, that the VT
would be able to pursue his target without breaks in the track. Track Casting Drills (TCDs)
have been designed to enable the VT to relocate lost sign in the shortest possible time
without compromising his or the patrol’s security.
Last Definite Sign
10.6 The VT must know the exact location of his LDS before moving forward. If there is any
doubt in his mind of his ability to relocate the LDS, he must establish a definite mark near
the LDS to enable him to re-establish the track.
Track Casting Drills
10.7 There are four TCDs. When sign is lost, to successfully re-establish the track there will be
a need to carry out the subsequent drills. The TCDs are carried out in sequence until the
track is found. TCDs are as follows:
a. initial probe,
b. initial cast,
c. extended cast, and
d. likely area search.

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Initial Probe Drill
10.8 When the VT has lost the track and cannot find definite sign to his front he must pull back
to the LDS and carry out the following drill (Figure 10–1):
a. mark LDS;
b. advise the CM that he is going to conduct the initial probe. The CM adopts a position
to provide cover for the tracker;
c. probe forward 3-5 metres into all likely openings until sign is located; and
d. once located, confirm and carry on.
10.9 If the initial probe drill fails to locate the track, the initial cast drill should be employed.
Mark made by Visual Tracker

showing event of probe
m
5
3-
Cover man Location Last Definite Sign
Signs of Enemy
Track
Figure 10–1: Initial Probe Drill
Initial Cast Drill
10.10 Before the VT and CM move off, the patrol commander moves the patrol up to the last
definite sign and adopts a defensive posture. The patrol should be briefed on direction
out and expected return of the VT and CM.
10.11 The VT and his CM should move back from LDS along the side of the track for 10-15
metres and then commence a circular patrol around the LDS with the aim of recutting the
target’s sign. The direction of movement is dependent on the general direction of the
track, vegetation and terrain (Figure 10–2).
10.12 If the VT comes across the track, he must confirm that it is the same track being following
by checking the age. He should then visually link up with the LDS and check forward to

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ensure that it is not a dead end deception. He should then complete the cast in case of a
split up. During this drill, the VT and CM should remain in visual contact with the rest of
the patrol.
10.13 During the drill, the CM must remain alert, facing the direction of possible danger,
listening and watching for sign or movement of the enemy.
10.14 On their return, the information gained is passed onto the patrol commander. The patrol
moves off when the tracker confirms that he is on the right track. The time taken for this
can range from 15 to 60 minutes depending on the enemy proximity, ground and tracking
conditions.
m
5
3-
Patrol location /LDS
oute
st R
Ca
10-15
l
tia
Ini
m
Start and Finish

Signs of Enemy
Track
Figure 10–2: Initial Cast Drill
10.15 If the initial cast drill fails to locate the track, the extended cast drill should be employed.
Extended Cast Drill
10.16 Depending on the type of vegetation the patrol commander may elect to take the whole
patrol on this cast. The patrol must move 15-30 metres back and carry out the same
procedure as the initial cast (Figure 10–3).

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m
5
3-
Patrol location /LDS
te
R ou
ute
a st
Ro
lC
ast
itia
15-30
In
dC
de
m
ten
Ex
Signs of Enemy
Track
Figure 10–3: Extended Cast Drill
10.17 If the extended cast drill fails to locate the track, the likely area search drill should be
employed.
Likely Area Search Drill
10.18 If sign or track has not been found using one of the other methods then the tracker can
search the following places:
a. streams and river banks,
b. areas of steep gradient,
c. areas of likely camp sites,
d. river junctions and bridges,
e. road edges and tracks,
f. likely target areas,
g. villages or built up areas, and
h. compass bearings for short distances.

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SECTION 10-3. TRACK ISOLATION DRILL
Definition
10.19 Track isolation is where the tracker, having anticipated the intended route of the target, is
able to ‘leapfrog’ ahead and through the sign pattern of his target be able to identify the
same track.
Application
10.20 Track isolation is used on a number of occasions although predominantly when foul track
is encountered or when the tracking team is attempting to make up ground on the enemy.
Track isolation should be applied as follows:
a. when foul track is encountered;
b. when the position/route of the enemy can be predicted (for example through an
assessment of his route/direction of travel, mission or intelligence received);
c. in order to avoid contact or compromise with other enemy or civilians;
d. when tasked/ordered to gain ground on the enemy;
e. when the route of travel is obvious – ie, on a steep sided ridge;
f. in order to avoid difficult terrain;
g. in order to overcome deception; and
h. in order to move on to fresh sign.
Predicting the Enemy Location
10.21 On the majority of occasions, the length of track isolated will be short and the tracker will
simply move at a greater speed in the direction of travel and then regain the sign and
continue on task. Greater distances, however, can be isolated if the tracker is able to
predict/anticipate the likely position of the enemy. This is not a simple task, although in
some areas where movement corridors are restricted it may be simpler. The ability to
predict where the enemy is going will come with experience and a thorough knowledge of
the enemy’s method of operations and an understanding of his likely mission or task. In
predicting the likely objective or route taken by the enemy, the tracking team will normally
be assisted or even directed on some occasions by the battalion intelligence cell. The
following factors should be considered when attempting to assess the enemy’s likely
route/position. A combination of the information provided by considering each factor will
normally point to the enemy location:
a. Speed and Direction of Travel. When the tracker has identified the direction of
enemy travel, he should ask what distance is the enemy travelling per day, and
having identified the age of sign he is able to predict where the enemy is as follows:
(1) age of sign – eg, 48 hours old (two days);
(2) distance travelled per day – eg, three kilometres;
(3) direction of travel – eg, north; and

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(4) likely location of the enemy is therefore six kilometres north of the current
location.
b. Terrain. The tracker should look at the terrain and determine which would be the
most suitable for the enemy he is following. By knowing his method of operations,
the tracker can predict which way he would go.
c. Sign Pattern. Considering the sign pattern identified will assist the tracker in
determining where the enemy is; for example, the type of location where he lies up
(eg, next to a stream) or the navigational features he uses – eg, stream junctions or
main features such as ridgelines.
d. Enemy Tactics. The strength and professionalism of the enemy patrol should also be
considered as this will assist in determining where he may be. His tactics will vary
depending on his mission/strength. Reconnaissance patrols will normally avoid main
features/good movement routes, whereas fighting patrols will probably use them.
e. Intelligence. Intelligence of your own and enemy force locations, when combined
with the knowledge you have identified on your target, will also assist in indicating his
route/target location. An enemy carrying heavy stores may well be travelling to
resupply someone whereas a possible reconnaissance patrol may be heading
towards a friendly force location.
10.22 Having considered the above, the tracking team will be able to ‘leapfrog’ ahead and pick
up the track at a later stage. When/if the target is identified, especially if it is towards or
near a friendly force or key location, this information should be reported immediately. As
previously mentioned the identification of the enemy target/route is also the task of the
intelligence cell.
Method of Relocating the Track
10.23 The tracking team will decide where to relocate the track and will move to that area. On
arrival, the VT and the CM will cast for sign as per the TCDs. It is imperative, however,
that the target is identified by his sign pattern as quickly as possible. Confirmation through
the enemy sign pattern is the only way of being certain that the same target is now being
pursued. For example, this may be clarification of the strength, speed and load of the
target or any idiosyncrasies identified.
SECTION 10-4. DUTIES OF A COVER MAN
10.24 In any tracking task, the CM is normally another VT; however, another member of the
patrol can carry out this task. It is vital that a good working understanding exists between
the tracker and his CM. To provide maximum security to the patrol, it is important that
each perform their respective tasks as a team.
10.25 The duties of the CM are:
a. Provide Security for the Tracker. At all times the CM must endeavour to be so
positioned that he is able to provide cover before the tracker carries out close
examination of any sign.
b. Provide Relief for the Tracker. Generally, the tracker must be rested after a period of
one to two hours on pursuit. Tracking can be very taxing both physically and
mentally and to minimise errors, which could endanger the safety of the patrol,
trackers should be relieved regularly.

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c. Check for Signs of Deception. The tracker, in certain threat situations, may become
extremely tense. The CM on the other hand should remain less tense and therefore
able to see signs that the tracker may have overlooked. It is important that the CM
does not try to do the tracker's task for him but note and inform the tracker of other
signs he may have located. Knowing the enemy and the types of deception he
normally employs will assist in anticipating and countering any deception that may be
encountered along a track.
d. Note Distance Travelled and Change of Direction. Although the patrol commander is
responsible for navigation and dead reckoning, the CM and tracker should discuss
any changes to the track picture and direction that may indicate the intentions of the
target.
e. Assist the Tracker During Casting Drill. The CM is required to accompany the tracker
during the relocating of track sign.
SECTION 10-5. DEAD RECKONING
10.26 Unlike most other cross-country navigation where the route is pre-planned, the VT is
required to pursue a route laid down by the target with no prior knowledge of where or
how far the track may lead. To be able to locate his position, dead reckoning must be
used.
10.27 Dead reckoning is a method of navigation that requires the recording and plotting of the
direction and distance travelled from a known start point. It is important that all bearings
and distances be accurate and that they are converted and plotted correctly.
Route Recording
10.28 When following the target, dead reckoning must be constantly updated and plotted onto
the map to give a current position for quick reference. All recording should be conducted
by the CM and confirmed by the patrol commander. He must record the bearing and
distance each time there is a turn or deviation in the route. To aid speed and security
recording may be done with a chinagraph or an overhead projector pen on:
a. the butt of the weapon,
b. hard plastic attached to the magazine or webbing,
c. a waterproof notebook, or
d. a waterproofed card on lanyard.
10.29 A suggested format for the recording of dead reckoning data is shown in Table 10–1.

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Table 10–1: Dead Reckoning Data Sheet
Serial GR Bearing (Mils Grid) Distance (m)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
1 753216 0400 2 300
2 0900 2 100
3 2640 1 700
4 1280 1 900
5 3560 2 200
Map: BOOLDUROO, 1:100 000, Series R733, Sheet 9445-111, Edition 1-AAS
DTG: 260900K May 98
Compiled By: CPL G. Whizz
Method of Plotting
10.39 The patrol commander must accurately plot the route onto his map or use graph paper or
the squared pages from the field message notebook to obtain a visual record of the
patrol’s route. The sequence of plotting is as follows:
a. record the bearing and distance each time there is a turn or deviation in the route,
b. from the start point the bearing and distance is plotted to the first change in direction,
and
c. each subsequent change in direction is then plotted.
SECTION 10-6. NIGHT TRACKING
10.40 During peacetime, there may arise the requirement to pursue sign at night and even in
time of conflict. There is the possibility of a tracking team being required to perform a
night tracking task. Night tracking would only be done under extreme circumstances.
Factors to be Considered
10.41 Normally, visual tracking is not conducted at night due to lack of light. However, night
tracking can be performed under certain conditions. In peacetime, the most common use
for night tracking is during a search and rescue task. For military applications, there are a
number of factors to be considered prior to conducting a tracking task at night. The main
ones are:
a. urgency of the task, and
b. aids available.
Urgency of Task
10.42 Night tracking requires far more time to complete a task over a given distance. The type
and depth of information required must be considered. Regardless of either time or aids
available, the tactical situation will govern whether or not tracking at night is feasible.
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Aids Available
10.43 The following aids may be used to assist in night tracking:
a. moonlight,
b. torch,
c. night viewing devices,
d. chemical lights,
e. burning torches, and
f. phosphorus.
Use of Lights for Night Tracking
10.44 A torch is a handy aid that can be used in assisting a VT in night tracking. For a torch to
be used effectively in a tactical environment it should be modified. Modification methods
include:
a. Torch Collar. This is made of cardboard or similar and is taped to the outside of the
head of the torch. In this way, the beam is concentrated and eliminates the possibility
of light escaping out the side, as with a normal torch.
b. Diffused Light. Placing a coloured filter over the lens of the torch can make a diffused
light. If no colour filter is available, then one can be made as follows:
(1) using the carbon page from a field notebook in place of a plastic filter. This has
the added advantage of preserving the VT’s night vision; or
(2) using a white page which allows a clearer reading of sign.
10.45 The light is placed next to the sign or general area if no start point exists and is rotated to
the front and side. The tracker, as he locates each piece of sign, is in effect pace tracking.
When employing light for night tracking the following need to be considered:
a. light is best used to create shadows in foot prints or illuminate disturbance, transfer,
flattening, colour change or discardables;
b. white light is best, however green or blue chemical light is useable;
c. a second tracker employed at 90 degrees to the first tracker may locate sign by the
shadows cast;
d. with a large torch you can channel the beam ahead to pick up pointers;
e. this process is extremely slow depending on terrain, vegetation and the size of the
quarry;
f. it is difficult to judge the age of sign;
g. TCDs are extremely difficult;
h. by concentrating on ground sign, top sign is missed;

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i. concentrating on ground sign causes trackers to stoop over, giving a false sense of
security to the front; and
j. the tracker becomes fatigued, quickly requiring additional trackers.
Protection of Trackers
10.46 If required to track at night with the aid of an artificial light source, the tracker quickly
becomes night blind and his vision is reduced to the immediate area contained within the
light beam. This increases the danger to the tracker due to his inability to search for and
detect enemy presence and he becomes an easy target. It is essential that screen or
protection elements be deployed to the front and flanks. The use of these elements may
destroy or foul any track that is being followed, thus negating any advantage to night
tracking.
Night Viewing Devices
10.47 The use of night viewing devices is feasible if the track being followed is readily identified.
The use of a minute amount of artificial light is a great help and the small amount of light
needed for the NODs does not readily reveal the tracker’s position. An IR chemical light is
also available to be used if the NODs have IR capability. Both white and filtered light and
IR combined with NODs enhances night tracking capabilities but both have the
disadvantage of giving no depth perception.
Night Tracking in Urban Areas
10.48 Night tracking in urban areas is possible due to the availability of artificial light from
streetlights, dwellings, buildings and vehicles. The use of torches in urban areas is less
fraught with danger due to the amount of light from surrounding areas. NODs also have
enhanced capabilities.
SECTION 10-7. INCIDENT AWARENESS
10.49 Reading the sign left by the target is the most important part of tracking. Each track or
incident will leave some sign, which will assist a tracker in reconstructing the incident that
had taken place. Through intelligent interpretation, valuable information can be gained.
10.50 The tracker must always put himself in the place of the target. By doing this, the tracker
will be in a far better position to interpret, with accuracy, the information which can be
gained from the incident.
Considerations
10.51 The tracker's awareness and ability to identify an incident site, when he enters such an
area, will enable him to gain the maximum information from any sign left at the incident
site. Some points to assist are:
a. anticipating possible incidents due to the distance travelled between LUPs and rest
halts;
b. changes in the track picture such as:
(1) track loops back on itself, and
(2) the target breaks track.

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c. boot marks or pointers indicating that the target may have moved off his axis of
advance but has returned and continued;
d. increase in the amount of sign and disturbance in a particular area;
e. unnatural position of plants, leaves, etc;
f. discardables; and
g. likely areas – eg, water resupply, obstacle crossings at streams and tracks and rest
halts at the top of steep grades.
10.52 Sufficient time must be spent on a thorough and systematic search of the incident area to
gain all relevant information. The time used constructively at this stage may prove
invaluable in the event of the target sign being lost and may help to identify a target group
if track isolation is conducted or considered.
10.53 If the possibility of contact with the enemy at the incident site is likely, the area should be
placed under surveillance from an OP prior to the conduct of the search.
Action at the Incident Site
10.54 Time spent on the search at an incident area will vary depending on the type and size of
the site. By employing a logical sequence and a sense of urgency, relevant information
can be gained without wasting precious time. Once the incident site is identified or
suspected, the patrol should conduct the following actions:
a. pull back and adopt all round defence short of the incident site;
b. plan the conduct of the search which may include:
(1) looping to determine size, layout, entry/exit points; and
(2) divide areas to assist in searching.
c. conduct a systematic search compiling a list of all facts and completing a drawing or
sketch of the area and debrief patrol commander;
d. depending on the type and importance of the information, superior HQ may be

advised; then
e. continue with the task unless otherwise directed.
Types of Information
10.55 As well as the information gained from the track, an incident site may yield other relevant
information such as:
a. target’s degree of training and tactics from their patrol discipline and methods of
operation;
b. equipment and loads being carried;
c. evidence of cutting or digging which requires specialised tools;
d. cooking equipment used;

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e. sleeping equipment and shelter details from areas of flattening and rope burns on
trees;
f. morale and health deductions from hygiene practices and habits; and
g. possible target group’s task, assumed from accumulated information gained at

several incident sites.
SECTION 10-8. CAMP SEARCH
Occupied Position
10.56 If the enemy position encountered is occupied, it would most likely have sentries and
some form of early warning located around the perimeter, on approach routes and on
entry and exit points. The tracking task would usually be terminated and an OP would be
established or a reconnaissance conducted, possibly by another patrol.
Unoccupied or Abandoned Position
10.57 If the position encountered was abandoned, the tracker could be required to conduct a
search to gather information on:
a. exact location,
b. how sited,
c. type of camp,
d. construction materials,
e. size and layout including:
(1) accommodation areas and calculated capacity,
(2) stores and supplies areas and caches,
(3) administration area,
(4) type of rations and food, and
(5) stores and equipment.
f. defensive layout including:
(1) weapon pits and bunkers,
(2) obstacles and field defences,
(3) mines and booby traps,
(4) early warning, and
(5) entry and exit points.
g. age of camp,

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h. estimation of when last used,
i. how well maintained, and
j. potential for reoccupation.
Area Surveillance
10.58 Before beginning any type of search, the patrol must ensure the position is unoccupied.
This requires surveillance from an OP or a series of OPs prior to any move into the camp.
Area Security
10.59 The area immediately surrounding the camp must be secure and all entry and exit points
and likely routes covered prior to beginning the search.
Search Techniques
10.60 The camp should be divided into small search areas or sectors to ensure that the entire
camp area is thoroughly searched. Some suggested methods are:
a. divided into quarters;
b. divided into strips;
c. divided into specific areas centred around buildings, weapon pits, vehicles, etc; and
d. divided as a clock face.
10.61 Each area, or sector, is then searched methodically. The following points are to be noted:
a. mark all suspicious areas and items;
b. prod or probe loose earth;
c. check for tunnels and caches;
d. minimise disturbance and move as little as possible; and
e. if required, suspicious items should be pulled from a location which keeps the team
member safe and a warning given before pulling.
Search Teams
10.62 Each search team should consist of a searcher and a CM/recorder. Due to the length of
time required to conduct a detailed search, more than one team of searchers may be
required. Alternately, the search team may require rest periods between sectors.
Recording
10.63 When the search is complete, the position should be sketched and a plan of the area
completed.

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SECTION 10-9. INCIDENT SITE SKETCHING
10.64 When compiling a report, it is essential that all the information gathered is recorded and
presented accurately and in an easily understandable format. To allow this, the tracker
should include drawings of all routes, incident sites and camps searched. A suggested
format for a track report is included at Annex B to Chapter 11 and an example of a
completed report including a range of annexes such as incident site sketches is shown
within Annex C to Chapter 11.
The Sketch
10.65 A sketch is a drawing of an area that clearly shows the location of each piece of
information found within the area. A sketch should be drawn neatly with all writing legible.
The drawing itself must not appear cluttered with information.
Producing a Sketch
10.66 When producing a sketch it is not necessary to draw an exact picture. The sketch is only
a representation of what is actually present. A sketch should include the following:
a. Title. The sketch should be either an annex or an appendix to a Track Report. If not,
then the Map Reference must be included;
b. Date Time Group. The date time group (DTG) of when the sketch was produced;
c. North Point. This should be at the top of the page;
d. Scale. If the drawing is not to scale it must be indicated as such;
e. Grid Reference. The location of the area as well as an exact location of a known
point either within or in close proximity to the camp or incident;
f. Surrounding Topographical Features. These should be included to give some

indication of the terrain and vegetation, as well as aiding in identifying the location;
g. Exact Position of all Details and Information. Bearings and distance to all items from
a known point should be included. If it is a large area then more than one point can
be used;
h. Entry and Exit Points. All entry and exit points should be depicted and a direction of
movement shown;
i. Authors Identity. The name, rank and unit of the drawer should be included for any
future reference; and
j. Legend. Correct military symbols must be used, any other symbols must be included
in a legend so that they can be identified. The use of a legend also assists in keeping
the drawing from being cluttered with information. A suggested list of symbols
suitable for use in track sketching is included at Annex A to this chapter.
SECTION 10-10. BOOBY TRAP AWARENESS
10.67 There is little doubt that any future enemy will employ booby traps. Since VTs are
required to pursue the exact route taken by the target being pursued, it would be

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reasonable to expect that if the target is aware of or suspects a follow-up then he would
employ booby traps to delay or neutralise the follow-up force.
Employment of Booby Traps
10.68 The enemy will only be restricted in the operational employment of booby traps by the
extent of his imagination. Booby traps can be expected in all types of operations. The
principles of booby trapping are:
a. Concealment. Charge and mechanism are both often concealed or made to

resemble some harmless object. All signs of preparation are camouflaged or
removed;
b. Constricted Locations. The more constricted the site, the more chance of the trap
being sprung. Any defile or closed space such as a room or tunnel is a potential
booby trap site;
c. Concentration. Traps can be laid in concentrations to reduce the chance of the victim
finding them all without springing them. Dummies are freely used;
d. Inconvenience. Traps can be placed in conjunction with obstacles, the removal of

which sets off the trap;
e. Curiosity. Traps can be deliberately placed on attractive items – eg, weapons, food
and potential souvenirs, the handling of which sets off the device;
f. Everyday Operations. Items of routine everyday use are potential trap sites.
Examples include doors, windows, telephones and light switches;
g. Alternative Methods of Initiation. Where possible, booby traps are provided with two
or more means or firing; and
h. Variety. As many types as possible are used in one area of concentration.
Types of Booby Traps
10.69 There are four types of booby traps as described in MLW 2-2-5, Mine Warfare and Booby
Traps, 1982 (obsolescent). They are:
a. baited,
b. decoy,
c. bluff, and
d. double bluff.
Siting of Booby Traps
10.70 Some areas are more likely than others to be locations for booby traps. These areas
include:
a. along and on either side of tracks, roads, streams and fence lines, especially at
bridges, culverts, bottlenecks, gates and fords;
b. near and around likely resting areas, assembly areas and forming up places;

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c. near and in road blocks, craters, obstacles, huts, bunkers, tunnels and caches;
d. in clearings particularly those suitable as air landing sites;
e. approaches to camps and installations; and
f. on his own back track.
Detection of Booby Traps
10.71 There is no substitute for sharp eyesight and awareness. When detected, traps should
be:
a. marked,
b. recorded,
c. reported, and
d. the area avoided by track isolation.
10.72 The following sign may indicate the presence of booby traps:
a. loose dirt or newly filled areas;
b. loose or taut wires, rope, strings, vines, etc;
c. sticks and stones in unnatural looking positions providing marker indications;
d. disturbed foliage, damaged foliage, foreign grass, weathered camouflage;
e. plastic wrapper materials protruding from the ground;
f. any electrical lead wires; and
g. irregular tread patterns particularly on roads or tracks.
Booby Trap Markers
10.73 In conventional war, booby trapped areas are often clearly defined providing an effective
obstacle in the same manner as a minefield.
10.74 In counter revolutionary warfare, booby traps are used in areas occupied by both sides,
necessitating the use of booby trap markers. Booby trap markers can consist of items
indigenous to the area, placed in geometric patterns or placed 'out' of position. The
following are examples of some of the types of ‘natural’ markers used to indicate the
presence of booby traps:
a. abrupt changes in continuity of any object as unnatural appearances of fences, eg,

walls, paint, vegetation, dust, etc;
b. wires, cords, ropes, moldings, etc, that appear to have no purpose;
c. unusual marks, imprints, etc;
d. obstructions in defiles;

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e. sticks, stones, bushes, leaves, fronds or other items placed in geometric patterns;
f. items in the wrong area such as banana or palm fronds in areas where none are
growing; and/or
g. implements such as shovels, hoes, brooms or cords left in areas which have been
used as thoroughfares and although harmless in themselves have been placed to
attract attention.
10.75 In counter terrorist situations, no pattern of booby trap marker can be discerned but a
constant suspicion of the unusual and knowledge of previously found markers could
minimise casualties.
Countermeasures
10.76 The strict adherence to the following countermeasures while in pursuit will save time and
casualties:
a. tactically aware movement with patrol members alert and suspicious of any object
which appears to be out of place in its surroundings;
b. clearing areas left and right before moving forward;
c. isolating suspicious portions of track, but be aware that booby traps may be early
warning for an enemy position;
d. marking and reporting all booby traps and mines;
e. not picking up souvenirs, especially at incident sites; and
f. looking for the unnatural or obvious.
General Rules
10.77 There are some general rules to which the tracker should always adhere to:
a. know the habits of the enemy,
b. know the markings used,
c. look for visible signs,
d. keep spread out,
e. never relax,
f. never pull a slack wire or cut a taut wire,
g. when tracing wires be alert for traps underneath or beside it,
h. never rush in to aid casualties, and
i. if in doubt seek assistance.

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SECTION 10-11. DECEPTION TACTICS
10.78 Man will always leave sign of his presence for the experienced tracker to pursue. The aim
of any deception is to gain time and distance. A look at deception tactics will make the
tracker realise that there are many different ways in which a determined enemy can
confuse, delay and possibly lose a tracker or follow-up party. Determination and
imagination will often need to be called on by the tracker when tracking through deception
tactics.
Types of Deception
10.79 The enemy may employ the following deception tactics:
a. Walking Backwards. When a person walks backwards, the length of his pace is
shortened. The toe and the ball of the foot will be more pronounced, the heel not so
much. Loose dirt, sand and leaves will be dragged in the direction of movement.
b. Conversion of Sign. Unless a target is proficient, this practice only serves to

signpost his direction. Human footprints have been masked by making animal tracks
over them by the use of shaped sticks.
c. Brushing the Track. Similar to conversion of sign but to an experienced tracker it only
signposts the intentions of the target.
d. Stone Hopping. After a stone has lain for some time, dirt and sand will build up
around the base. Once stepped on, this wall will crumble or a shadow will appear
around the base (a gap between the stone and the dirt). Fine particles of dust, sand
or dirt may be left on the surface of the stone. This method of deception is hard to
track if done properly.
e. Fade Out. The tracker may notice the amount of sign being tracked dwindling. The
CM who checks the sides of the track may notice the 'jump off points'.
f. Crossing or Walking in a Streambed. This is normally done where the water is

rippling, making the sign much harder to locate. With the use of a glass to break
through the surface of the water, the streambed may be examined. The light
underside of small stones may show.
g. Splitting Up. The amount of sign will dwindle. VTs should pursue the sign that is the
most prominent.
Annex:
A. Suggested Legend Symbols

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SUGGESTED LEGEND SYMBOLS
1. The symbols shown in Table 10–2 are suggested for use in incident and camp sketching.
Table 10–2: Incident and Camp Sketching Symbols
Flattening (Brown)
Digging (Brown)
Cache (Brown)
Track (Black)
Road (Orange)
Creek (Blue)
Disturbance (Green)
Orientation Marks (Red)
Marks on Trees (Brown & Green)
1 Discardables (Black)
Burn Marks (Red)
Booby Trap (Green)
Mine (Green)
Boot Print (Black)
Heel (Black)
Toe (Black)
Entry/Exit Point (Black)

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CHAPTER 11
REPORTING
SECTION 11-1. INTERPRETATION AND DEDUCTION
Interpretation of Information
11.1 Countless reports of successful operations by units have been associated or accredited
either directly or indirectly to the information gathered by the trackers. Information
gathered must be interpreted and a logical deduction made.
Facts
11.2 A fact is defined as an incident known to have taken place or signs actually located along
a length of track.
Interpretation
11.3 Interpretation is an explanation based on facts and reasoning as to who, how, why and
when each sign or group of signs were made.
Deduction
11.4 Deduction is the process of drawing a conclusion from something known (a fact).
Assumption
11.5 Assumption is the general conclusion of the overall track picture. Having examined all the
available facts, it is possible to:
a. assume the task of the target, and
b. anticipate the intentions of the target.
Confirmation
11.6 Confirmation is the verification of the deduction and assumption. This can either be:
a. Immediate. Confirmed along the track or by contact with the target; or
b. Delayed. Confirmed some time after the pursuit by one of the following:
(1) the target;
(2) other patrols;
(3) PW;

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(4) local inhabitants; and
(5) intelligence report.
11.7 To gain the maximum information from any length of track, the VT is required to be able
to interpret any evidence of change caused by the passage of the target being pursued.
In the studying of sign, the following format is advised:
a. list all the known facts,
b. list the deduction based on each or a group of facts,
c. compile an assumption based on the facts and deductions, and
d. confirm and report information.
Table 11–1: Fact and Deduction Diagram
Facts and Deductions
Fact Deduction
1. At GR 334694 the following were located:
2 x New Zealand (NZ) boot patterns, 1 x US boot At least three personnel (military or have
pattern. access to military equipment)
Two areas of flattening, east of a four wheel drive Group may have been dropped off by
track vehicle and may have placed equipment
down or sat on ground
Cutting disturbance 20 metres north of flattening Group is in possession of cutting
implements similar to secateurs
Not aware of a follow-up
Felt secure or may lack discipline
2. At GR 364714 the following were located:
Four large areas of flattening in an area 10 metres Night LUP for four persons
x 10 metres
Three burnt areas, 15 centimetres square near Hexi stove or similar was used on at least
areas of flattening three occasions
Most likely used for preparing food or brew
Located NZ Army ration pack rubbish Persons may be from NZ Army or have
access to NZ Army rations
Assumption:
Four man patrol carrying packs was in the area at least overnight to reconnaissance route from
a drop off point to GR 387731

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SECTION 11-2. REPORTING
Types of Reports
11.12 To enable commanders to use any information gained, it is important that patrols pass on
intelligence at the earliest possible opportunity. The report can be a verbal or written
account compiled and presented by the tracking team during or after the task. The
following types of reports are to be used:
a. Incident Report;
b. hot debrief (verbal); and
c. written Track Report.
Incident Report
11.13 On each occasion, when the tracking patrol identifies any significant information, it is to
report the incident to the higher HQ using the standard Incident Report format as
contained in Chapter 3, Annex A, Appendix 5 of the Manual of Land Warfare
1-5-1, Staff Duties in the Field, 1986. It should include the following:
a. In paragraph D (brief description of the incident), include details of:
(1) direction of target movement,
(2) sign identified, and
(3) age of the sign.
b. In paragraph H (commander’s evaluation), include deductions and assumptions.
Hot Debrief
11.14 The hot debrief is utilised on completion of a patrol as a means of reporting the main
information gained. For a tracking patrol the hot debrief will normally be delivered to the
Intelligence Officer, Operations Officer (OPSO) or, if attached to a company, the company
commander or second-in-command.
11.15 Prior to the hot debrief, the patrol commander will debrief his patrol and collate all of the
relevant information. The hot debrief should be conducted no later than one hour after the
patrol comes in and the commander must ensure that he concentrates on getting the key
information across and not trivia, remembering that the person being briefed may be the
same person who tasked the patrol. If possible, the complete patrol should be present
during the debriefing.
11.16 Prelims are used prior to the hot debrief as with any set of orders or briefing. The patrol
commander must always use a map or a model as well as the route overlay to illustrate
the target actions. He should restate the situation and mission if the debriefing officer is
not familiar with them.
11.17 The remainder of the brief should follow as a clear, concise and chronological story of the
vital information gained on track.
11.18 A list of the contents of the debrief are at Annex A. The following points need to be
considered:
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a. when describing the insertion, include a brief overview of the method, location and
the route to the cast site;
b. the initial cast site should be briefly described in order to establish an initial
intelligence picture for the person being briefed;
c. explain the overall route taken by the patrol on the map/model/route overlay;
d. when presenting the incidents, there is no requirement to talk through each day in
detail. Instead, using the map/model/patrol trace, the patrol commander should state
the following in relation to critical incidents:
(1) establish what day he is briefing on and confirm the date of that day. This will
make it easier for the person being briefed to understand the patrol action;
(2) show the route tracked each day illustrating on the patrol trace where incidents
were located. The patrol trace must be marked accordingly;
(3) talk through briefly any major incidents;
(4) any key or critical information gained; and
(5) age of sign.
e. state the time, location, age of sign and distance travelled when the track was
abandoned;
f. the patrol summary is the important part of the hot debrief and contains the detail
required by commanders to plan and conduct offensive operations based upon the
information provided by the trackers. The patrol summary delivered during the hot
debrief must be short and to the point concentrating on the main issues whilst
allowing the person being briefed to ask questions as he sees fit;
g. conclusions or assumptions on the track picture gained should include the following:
(1) The Type of Target. Whether they are regular troops, SF, part-time, local
indigenous, etc. It should also cover the type of action they were carrying out –
eg, fighting patrol, reconnaissance patrol, admin move, etc;
(2) Tracker Awareness/Deception Employed. Was the target aware that they were
being followed? If deception tactics were employed, was it as a result of your
patrol or did they conduct them as a mater of routine;
(3) Deductions and Assumptions. Make an educated judgment about the possible
objective or intentions that you assume the quarry is endeavouring to
undertake. This will assist in building an intelligence picture of the enemy. Be
prepared to quantify your assumption with evidence; and
(4) Predicted Location. The possible or predicted location is given in addition to the
possible or known objective in order to identify where the enemy is if he is
expected to be still on route. Alternatively, if the objective is not known, a
predicted enemy location will prove useful for tasking future patrols.
h. finalise your debrief with your recommendations as to what follow-up action should
be taken against the enemy; and
i. a hot debrief should be followed up by a full track report so as no detailed

information is missed and it should be used as the basis for the track report.

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Written Track Report
11.19 The written track report is a summary of the patrol prepared by the patrol commander.
The format of a written track report is shown at Annex B and an example of a completed
track report with its supporting documents is at Annex C.
11.20 A track report should be supported by the following:
a. Route Overlay. To enable the location of critical sites to be identified easily and
accurately, a route overlay showing the location(s) of each contact, incident or camp
should be included.
b. Incident Report(s). For each incident, a facts and deductions table, supported by a
sketch diagram of the incident site, must be included. It should identify the following
facts:
(1) location and DTG found,
(2) type of incident,
(3) enemy strength and direction,
(4) estimated age of sign, and
(5) any other relevant information.
c. Camp Site Report(s). These will usually be more detailed than other incident reports
and can include the following additional information:
(1) siting of the camp,
(2) type of camp,
(3) construction materials,
(4) size of camp,
(5) accommodation areas and capacity,
(6) stores and supplies areas and caches,
(7) administration areas,
(8) type of rations and food,
(9) stores and equipment found,
(10) defensive layout and orientation,
(11) weapon pits and bunkers,
(12) mines and booby traps,
(13) early warning,
(14) entry and exit points,
(15) age of camp,

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(16) time last occupied,
(17) current enemy activity,
(18) how well maintained, and
(19) potential for reoccupation.
Annexes:
A. Hot Debrief Format
B. Track Report Format
C. Example of a Completed Track Report

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HOT DEBRIEF FORMAT
Preliminaries
1. Describe the following:
a. call sign and task;
b. first light/last light;
c. DTG in/out;
d. map co-ordinates;
e. climatic conditions (per day);
f. model/sketch description (use a map); and
g. ground orientation.
Situation
2. Brief description of why the task was carried out.
Mission
3. Brief description of the task.1
Insertion
4. Foot, helicopter, vehicle, boat, etc, and grid and location. The brief from this point should
be given clear and concise and told as a chronological story.
Initial cast
5. Report on the following:
a. DTG on track,
b. GR,
c. entry and exit locations,
d. direction of travel,
e. numbers,
f. age of sign, and
g. other information.
1. The above information relayed to outside agency only.

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Route Taken
6. Explain on the map/model/overlay the route taken. Always present a map overlay.
Incidents on Track
7. Only an overall assumption as to what the incident was and any relevant information. This
should include sketches.
Track Abandoned
a. time,
b. location,
c. age of sign, and
d. distance covered.
Summary of Information
9. This could include the following:
a. total distance travelled,
b. total time tracked,
c. numbers being tracked,
d. gender,
e. general direction,
f. speed and load
g. general health,
h. rations,
i. weapons,
j. equipment,
k. habits and routines,
l. tactics,
m. critical information, and
n. other information.

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Conclusions
a. type of target, (regular/SF);
b. tracker awareness, deception employed;
c. possible/predicted intentions; and
d. possible/predicted locations.
Recommendations
11. Recommend any follow-up action that you believe is needed.

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ANNEX B TO CHAPTER 11
TRACK REPORT FORMAT
1. The use of the following format will ensure that a track report delivers a complete picture
of the patrol’s activity.
Track Report
Exercise/Operation:
Call Sign:
Area of Operations:
Map Reference:
AO Coordinates:
Eastings:
Northings:
Patrol Composition:
Task:
Infil Details:
Method:
DOP:
DTG:
Exfil Details:
Method:
PUP:
DTG:
Summary:
Total Time of Patrol:
Total Distance of Patrol:
Time on Track:
Distance Tracked:

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Climatic Conditions:
Prior to Infil:
During:
Ground:
General Situation:
Concept of Operations:

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Route Taken:
Day One:
Day Two:
Day Three:
Information Gained:
Strength:
Weapons:
Load and Equipment:
Dress:
Tactics:
Morale:
Age of Sign:
Start:
Finish:
Assumptions:

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Likely Enemy Intentions:
Confirmation:
Recommendations:
Comments by OPSO:
Signatures:
Trackers:
OPSO:
Notes:
1. For simplicity in this publication, the annexes which usually form part of the Track
Report are not listed. They are to be created as required and should include as a
minimum, a route overlay as well as a table of facts, deductions and interpretations
and an incident site sketch for each incident site.
2. Annex C to Chapter 11 includes examples of the types of annexes usually
included.

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ANNEX C TO CHAPTER 11
EXAMPLE OF A COMPLETED TRACK REPORT
Track Report T1 Dated 22 Mar 01

Exercise/Operation: MANHATTAN TRANSFER
Call Sign: T1
Area of Operations: AO SUBWAY
Map Reference: Tully Training Area (Special)
1:25 000 Auspec 0232 Edition Two
- AAS
AO Coordinates:
Eastings: 69–73
Northings: 20–27
Patrol Composition: SGT T. Smith

CPL G. Feather
CPL A. Perkins
PTE. R. Allen
PTE C. Pollock
PTE. D. Brown
Task: To locate, identify and pursue target sign in order to

establish identity and intentions.
Infil Details:
Method: TCV
DOP: GR696209
DTG: 190700K MAR 01
Exfil Details:
Method: Landrover 110 & Tlr
DOP: GR727257
DTG: 211500K MAR 01
Summary:
Total Time of Patrol: 53.5 hrs
Total Distance of Patrol: 13 000 m
Time on Track: 56 hrs
Distance Tracked: 12 km

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Climatic Conditions:
Prior to Infil: The 24 hours prior to insertion was warm and humid.
Temperatures ranged from 19 to 30 degrees Celsius.
Humidity ranged from 60% to 100%. 25mm of rain
fell in the 24 hours prior to insertion.
During: During the patrol, the weather was overcast. There

was constant light rain throughout with a total of
15mm of rain. The temperature ranged from 22 to 29
degrees Celsius. Humidity range was from 70% to
100%.
Ground: The ground south of the Tully-Cardstone Road was

flat with a vegetation of primarily banana plantation.
North of the Tully–Cardstone Road, the vegetation
was secondary jungle with some areas of primary
jungle in the steeper areas. The terrain in general
was steep and rugged. All watercourses were running.
The main watercourse north of the Tully–Cardstone
Road is Jarra Creek. There are numerous unmarked
and disused logging tracks in the AO. The main road
to the north of the Tully–Cardstone Road is the road
from Jarra Creek Camp to Earl’s Court, known locally
as the “North–South Road”. There are many foot
tracks throughout the AO. None have been used in
the last 48 hours.
General Situation: At 172300K Mar 01, a single TCV carrying explosives

was ambushed and destroyed on Davidson Road at
GR690198.
The driver and co-driver were killed. Tracking Team
Two (T2) was inserted to locate, identify and pursue
target sign at 180630K MAR 01. From information
gained from the incident site, they believe that there
were five enemy. They pursued the target sign NNE
to the Tully River where they located the remains of
a raft. The river was flowing quickly and as they had
no means to cross, the pursuit was abandoned.
Concept of Operations: Tracking Team One (T1) had been on a five minutes
notice to move from 190500K MAR 01. At 190630K
MAR 01, T1 was ordered to search for target sign on
the northern side of the Tully River and, if sign is
located, to pursue.
Route Taken:

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Day One: The Route Overlay is at Annex A. From the insertion

point at GR696209, the patrol cast SSW along the
dirt vehicle track. At 191000K MAR 01, sign was cut.
The sign was pursued to the SW to the Tully River to
confirm that it was the target sign. Once confirmed,
the sign was pursued NE through the banana
plantation to the Tully–Cardstone Road (Incident Site
One – Obstacle Crossing). CPL Feathers was the lead
tracker at the time and the sign was approximately
14 hours old. A sketch diagram and interpretations
and deductions are detailed at Annex B.
From Incident Site One, the sign continued NNE
through secondary jungle. At 191430K MAR 01, one
US-style jungle boot print was located in a muddy
creek bed at GR719222. A sketch of the print is at
Annex C.
The pursuit continued in a northerly direction with
the ground rising steeply to the ridgeline that links
the 134 and the 135 features. The foot track marked
on the map that follows the ridge was crossed at
GR716230. There was no evidence that the track had
been used within the past week.
From the foot track, the sign was pursued to the
north. At 191730K MAR 01, at GR716236, the sign
crossed a small fast-flowing creek (Incident Site
Two – Obstacle Crossing and Water Resupply). PTE
Allen was the lead tracker at the time and the sign
was approximately 19 hours old. A sketch diagram and
interpretations and deductions are detailed at
Annex D.
From Incident Site Two, the sign continued in a
northerly direction. The patrol went into an LUP at
191800K MAR 01 at GR717235.
Day Two: At 200700K MAR 01, the pursuit continued. The sign
was pursued NE towards the 233 feature. It then
turned East 300m from the top of the 233 feature.
At GR725248 at 201500K MAR 01 an LUP was
encountered (Incident Site Three – LUP). CPL Perkins
was the lead tracker at the time and the sign was
approximately 15 hours old. A sketch diagram and
interpretations and deductions are included at
Annex E.
From Incident Site Three, the sign turned NNW. The
patrol went into an LUP at 201800K MAR 01 at
GR723255.

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Day Three: At 210700K MAR 01, the pursuit resumed with the
sign continuing a NNW direction. The sign was
pursued to a suspension bridge at GR720265 and
then it led across the bridge and turned NE. The
pursuit was abandoned at 211200K MAR 01. The
patrol moved to the extraction point at GR727257
and were extracted at 211500.
Information Gained:
Strength: 5 persons
Weapons: Unknown
Load and Equipment: The following equipment is believed to have been
carried by the target:
a. load carrying equipment,
b. dried rations,
c. cooking stoves,
d. solid cooking fuels,
e. digging implements,
f. US jungle boots, and
g. shelters and cordage.
Dress: Unknown
Tactics: The enemy patrol displayed sound tactics throughout

the pursuit. Their obstacle crossing and LUP drills
were sound. There was no evidence of cutting of
vegetation and their use of ground was generally
good. The use of the suspension bridge demonstrated
a lapse in discipline and may be exploited in the
future.
Morale: High
Age of Sign:
Start: 14 hours
Finish: 27 hours
Assumptions: A five-man patrol acting on sound intelligence

conducted an ambush on a single TCV on Davidson
Road at GR690198 and withdrew NE across Jarra
Creek into their sanctuary in the Walter Hill Ranges.
From the tactics displayed, the assumption is made
that the patrol was a Musorian Special Forces team.
Likely Enemy Intentions: The success of this raid and subsequent evasion is
likely to bolster the Musarian Armed Forces morale
and level of activity in the area. They will continue to
patrol from their sanctuary area to inflict damage on
isolated Australian elements.
Confirmation: Nil to date.

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Recommendations: The following recommendations are made by Tracking

Team One:
a. vehicles travel with escort vehicles,
b. random foot patrols are conducted along major
roads in the area,
c. ambush the suspension bridge at Jarra Creek, and
d. combat tracking teams follow-up further.
Comments by OPSO: A well conducted patrol with valuable information

gained. I concur with the patrol’s recommendations.
Signatures:
Trackers: TSmith T. Smith
G Feather G. Feather
A Perkins A. Perkins
R Allen R. Allen
C Pollock C. Pollock
OPSO: D Brown D. Brown
Annexes:
A. Route Overlay
B. Incident Site One Facts and Deductions
C. Sketch of Boot Print
D. Incident Site Two Facts and Deductions
E. Incident Site Three Facts and Deductions

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ANNEX A TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Route Overlay
Suspension
Bridge
26
T1 LUP
(201800K Exfil
- 210700K) 211500K
70
Incident Site 3
201500K
T1 LUP
(191800K
- 200700K)
Incident Site 2
191730K
23
69
Boot print
191430K
Incident Site 1
191200K
Infil
190700K
Cast
191000K
20
72

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ANNEX B TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Incident Site One Facts and Deductions
Incident Site One – Obstacle Crossing GR709219

Location: GR709219
DTG: 191200K MAR 01
SER Fact: Deduction:

1 Four areas of flattening 1.8m by 0.5m One man lay in each of flattening
three toe prints. covering outwards.
2 Tracks leading to and from the areas of One man moved to each area of
flattening. flattening and subsequently crossed the
Tully-Cardstone Road.
Assumption:
A four to five man Musorian patrol conducted a tactical obstacle crossing drill on the Tully-
Cardstone Road.

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APPENDIX 1 TO
ANNEX B TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Sketch of Incident Site One
Incident Site One

GR 709219
19 Mar 01
Compiled by CPL Feathers
OBSTACLE CROSSING
6m
0100 mils Mag

20 m
0100 mils Mag
Legend
NOT TO SCALE
Areas of Flattening
Direction of Person Orientated

Tracks

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ANNEX C TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Sketch of Boot Print
Sketch of Boot Print Found at GR718220
BOOT SKETCH DIAGRAM
Jungle Boot Print

GR 718220
19 Mar 01
32 cm
Estimate size 9 boot

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ANNEX D TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Incident Site Two Facts and Deductions
Incident Site Two – Obstacle Crossing and Water Resupply GR716236

Location: GR716236
DTG: 191730K Mar 01

1 Four areas of flattening 1.8m by 0.5m. One man lay in each area of flattening
Boot prints x 4. covering outwards.
2 Tracks leading to and from the areas One man moved to each area of flattening
of flattening. and subsequently crossed the creek.
3 Five areas of disturbance in and near Five persons conducted a water resupply.
the waters edge.
Assumption:
A five man Musorian patrol conducted a tactical crossing drill and a water resupply at the
creek at GR716236.

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11C-11
APPENDIX 1 TO
ANNEX D TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Sketch of Incident Site Two

Incident Site Two
GR 716236
19 1730 K Mar 01
Compiled by PTE Allen
OBSTACLE CROSSING AND WATER RESUPPLY
7m
5600 mils Mag
10 m
3m
NOT TO SCALE
Legend
Areas of Flattening 5800 mils Mag
Areas of Disturbance
Direction of Flow
Direction of Person Orientated
Tracks

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ANNEX E TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Incident Site Three Facts and Deductions
Incident Site Three – LUP GR725248

Location: GR725248
DTG: 201500K MAR 01

1 A fish hook deception was employed Demonstrates a sound LUP drill and
when occupying the LUP. professional military training.
2 Five areas of flattening 1.8m x 0.5m. One man in each area of flattening facing
Boot prints leading to the areas of out.
flattening. Toe prints on inside edge of
flattening.
3 Four burn marks on the ground with One person cooked at least a meal at each
residue of solid fuel. burn mark.
Have access to solid fuel.
Have access to some type of cooker.
Have access to lighting implement.
4 Latrine filled in. Have at least one digging implement.
Practice sound hygiene habits.
5 Marks on trees average of 1m above Have assess to shelters.
ground. Have access to rope/cordage.
Demonstrate sound tactics by erecting
shelters close to ground.
6 At areas 1 and 3, grains of rice located Have access to freeze-dried rice.
near the burn marks.
7 At area 2, particles of dried fish were Have access to dried or freeze-dried fish.
located near the burn marks.
Assumption:
A five man Musorian patrol conducted a LUP drill, cooked at least one meal and spent the
night in location.

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APPENDIX 1 TO
ANNEX E TO
TRACK REPORT T1
DATED 22 Mar 01
Sketch of Incident Site Three
Incident Site Three
GR 725248
20 1500 K Mar 01
Compiled by SGT Perkins
LUP
10 m
6300 mils Mag
3200 mils Mag
3 10 m
2
NOT TO SCALE
Route In
Legend
Areas of Flattening 1 Discardables:
1. Grains of rice near fire
Latrine filled in
2. Particles of fish near fire
Direction Person Orientated
3. Grains of rice near fire
Tracks
Rope burn marks on trees
Average height 1 m above ground
Burn marks

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12-1
CHAPTER 12
TRACKER DOGS
Introduction
12.1 The tracker dog is a highly trained animal. His training and use are based upon his ability
to track his prey rather than upon his naturally aggressive instincts. An unprepared or
poorly trained enemy will tend to take rash evasive action when being tracked by dogs
which not only slows him down but also increases the scent and enhances the dog's
chances of success.
Type of Dog
12.2 The most outstanding characteristic of a tracker dog is its scenting capability. Only dogs
with this ability are selected. Other traits required are willingness, power of endurance
and intelligence. The breeds most commonly used are Labradors, Retrievers,
Bloodhounds, German Shepherds and Doberman Pinschers.
Tracking Conditions
12.3 Scent. It is well known that a dog has a most highly developed sense of smell and under
certain conditions is able to track a man over a trail many hours old. What is not fully
understood is exactly what the dog scents. Man, in common with animals, gives off a
body odour that is specific for each person. The body odour is constantly being exuded
and traces of it remain in the path of the individual. Added to this odour, there is the scent
given off by the wearer's clothes and footwear, odours released by the bruising and
breaking of vegetation and the scent released by the crushing of small insects when
walked on. One theory put forward is that the dog does not track one scent but a
combination of them. These have been linked to the colours of a picture, the whole
combination being referred to as the ‘scent picture’. The picture constantly changes with
first one scent predominating and then another but the basic theme remains constant.
The scent organs of a dog are so highly developed that it is able to follow this changing
picture.
12.4 The dog becomes conscious of the scent through the air it breathes, coming in contact
with the delicate membranes lining the nose. It follows that the degree of discernment is
directly related to the concentration of scent in the air. This concentration varies with the
rate of evaporation, air movement and type of country over which the track is made.
Factors Affecting Tracking
12.5 Factors Favouring a Successful Track. The following factors will assist in successful
tracking by dogs:
a. Weather. A mild, dull day with a certain amount of moisture in the air favours tracking
as it limits dissipation of scent.

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b. Vegetation. Long grass, high undergrowth and jungle retard the movement of air and
thus keep the concentration of scent at a high level.
c. Time of Day. Although tracking conditions are unfavourable during the day in
summer, at night and early morning, when the air is cool and evaporation is less
rapid, conditions are still normally favourable.
d. Exertion. A running fugitive leaves a higher concentration of scent than one who
calmly walked away because exertion increases body odour.
e. Personal Hygiene. A man who, by either force of circumstances or carelessness is

unclean, gives off more body odour than one careful of his personal hygiene.
f. Food and Equipment. Obviously strong smelling foodstuffs increase the scent
picture.
g. Time. Time is of prime importance. If the dog is introduced to a recent or hot track
the scent picture or concentration will be such to enable the dog to follow it with a
greater degree of certainty than one that is old and ‘cold’.
h. Blood. The presence of blood on a track aids most tracking dogs. However, some
dogs become disturbed by the presence of blood or a body and their performance
deteriorates.
i. Start Points. Dogs do not need a personal article of clothing belonging to ‘the
pursued’ to enable them to find and follow his track but if it is available then it is an
asset – eg, a discarded parachute or hat, etc.
12.6 Factors Unfavourable to Tracking. The following conditions are unfavourable when
tracking with dogs:
a. Sun. When the day is hot and dry, evaporation of the scent is rapid.
b. Wind. A strong, dry wind rapidly disperses the scent.
c. Rain. Heavy rain washes away the scent.
d. Ground Surface. Dry, bare ground adversely affects tracking – eg, chalk, rock paths
or roads where there is little or no foliage.
e. Manure. Heavily manured land will conceal the scent.
f. Crowds. Streets and villages where the track has been crossed by other and fresher
tracks.
g. Transport. A dog cannot follow once the scent has been lifted off the ground – eg, by
a vehicle.
h. Water. Running water destroys scent. However, dogs have been known to follow a
track across shallow, still water.
12.7 Although these factors have a direct affect on the track picture the degree of effect is
variable. It is known that tracks made late in the day can normally be identified the
following morning and that tracks protected from sunlight and heavy rain have been
recognised after 36 hours or more.

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Employment
12.8 Since the most important single factor in the successful employment of a tracking dog is
time, the dog must be brought to the scene of the incident with all possible speed and not
used as a last resort. It is suggested that tracker dogs and handlers be held centrally until
a call for their service is made. When this happens, they should be taken as near as
possible to the scene of the incident by vehicle or helicopter so that they arrive fresh.
Objects liable to have been in contact with the person to be tracked should not be
touched and movement over the area should be restricted to a minimum.
12.9 Fatigue of the handler may spoil the dog’s performance. The handler may unwittingly put
the dog off the scent or discourage him from following the track through dense bush or
awkward going. The team leader must be on his guard against this. A fit dog will always
be capable of going on longer than the handler.
Dog Handlers
12.10 The performance of a tracker dog is directly dependent upon the skill of the handler and
the mutual understanding existing between himself and the dog. The dog must be
handled only by a skilled handler who must be given sufficient time to train the dog and
keep him fit.
12.11 Potential dog handlers should be chosen from volunteers who have already received
sound basic military training and who are friendly and sympathetic towards dogs. A dog
will quickly sense an unsympathetic handler and its standard of performance will
deteriorate.

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CHAPTER 13
TRACKER TEAMS
Introduction
13.1 A team of trackers can be allotted to a patrol that have encountered sign that needs to be
followed. A team of trackers working to the front of a patrol has obvious advantages over
relying on the patrol’s own abilities to track. Coordination of the action must be carefully
controlled by a patrol commander to ensure they do not hinder each other. The actual
conduct of the track is the responsibility of the tracking team commander and the
supported force will follow at an agreed distance until required to deal with an enemy
force. The forward tracker (with or without a dog) follows the ‘main sign’ while the other
members of the tracking team, working some distance behind the forward tracker,
searching to the right and left for any sign.
13.2 Tracker team commanders should always remember that they are not ‘strike groups’ but
an aid to their commanders to locate the enemy. Thus, each tracker team when used to
follow-up tracks must be partnered by a follow-up party of a size detailed by higher
commanders. The team commander must ensure that as soon as he locates an enemy
force he halts his team and informs the patrol commander so that effective action can be
taken at the appropriate level to destroy the enemy.
SECTION 13-2. VISUAL TRACKER TEAMS
13.3 Ideally, each infantry sub-unit should be capable of locating and following sign in order to
pursue and contact the enemy. This is rarely possible due to the degree of skill required
and the detailed and continuous training needed to produce an effective tracker. Each
unit or sub-unit should hold a small number of trained VTs within its organisation. If
required, visual tracker patrols (VTPs) may be formed and deployed for specific tasks.
Composition
13.4 The VTP should consist of five to six members. These are organised into three elements:
a. a command element, comprising of a patrol commander and a signaller;
b. a tracking element, comprising of two VTs employed as the lead tracker team; and
c. a protection element, comprising of two VTs who can be rotated through the tracking
element.
Team Members’ Responsibilities
13.5 The VT, when in the lead, must have a CM who acts as a second pair of eyes. This CM
must never be out of visual contact with his tracker when the latter is actually tracking.

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13.6 Each member within the patrol has certain duties and responsibilities to perform. The key
duties are:
a. Patrol Commander:
(1) organise and conduct patrol training,
(2) command and control of the patrol,
(3) collection and interpretation of information,
(4) navigation, and
(5) liaison with supporting force commander.
b. Signaller:
(1) maintain communications equipment,
(2) establish and maintain communications,
(3) relay information to support force, and
(4) act as CM for the VTP commander.
c. Lead Tracker:
(1) locate, identify and pursue sign;
(2) control the rate of movement;
(3) pass information to the patrol;
(4) provide forward local security; and
(5) select the patrol route (dependent on track sign).
d. Cover Man:
(1) provide local forward security,
(2) relieve the lead tracker if required,
e. Protection Element Members:
(1) provide local, flank and rear security;
(2) look for enemy deception;
(3) relieve members of the tracking element; and
(4) maintain link with support unit.
Formations and Movement
13.7 The formation employed by the VTP and supporting force as a whole will depend on the
age and state of the sign being pursued. These are:

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a. Cold Track. When the track is more than one day old, the VTP would move in a
formation that ensures the fastest movement and the least disruption to sign.
b. Warm Track. When the track is less than one day but more than two hours old, the
patrol should move in a formation that allows more firepower to the front.
c. Hot Track. When the track is less than two hours old and contact is likely the patrol
should move in a formation allowing maximum firepower to all directions.
13.8 The supporting force should move in any formation deemed appropriate by its
commander that will provide maximum security to the VTP. The distance between the
lead elements of the supporting force and the VTP will vary due to the terrain and the
quality of the track. As a rule, it should be such that any noise emanating from its
movement cannot be heard by the tracking element. However, if the situation is such that
an immediate follow-up is required and the track is ‘hot’, then a more aggressive mode is
necessary and the supporting force can be close behind the VTP.
Changeover Procedure
13.9 The VT cannot track indefinitely and must not track when tired. There is no hard or fast
rule as to when the VT must hand over and sometimes handing over may be tactically or
professionally unsound – ie, on arrival at an incident site or if the tracker is still fresh or
trying to work to a set time period. Flexibility, therefore, is required. It is essential that
when the VT hands over to another VT that the track is not lost and security is
maintained. In simple terms the VT (VT1) will hand over to the CM then become VT4,
VT3 will take over as the CM and VT4 will move forward one place to become VT3. It is
not recommended to swap the VTs in pairs because, despite the fact that both are fresh,
neither will be tuned in nor will they be fully aware of the track picture. In detail, the drill is
conducted as follows:
a. Visual Tracker to Cover Man. When the VT states that he needs a rest or is told to
change over by the team commander, the VT will go firm and the CM will close up
with him. The team commander will cover them. The VT briefs the CM as follows:
(1) the VT shows the CM the sign he is on, which should be conclusive sign, and
indicates his furthers sign;
(2) the VT informs the CM what key sign he has been following; and
(3) the VT updates the CM on the track picture – ie, any information that the new
VT may not be aware of, anticipated incidents, etc.
b. Hand Over. The CM then observes the sign. If he is content that he is on definite
sign, he will take over; however, if he is not content the VT will recommence on
track. The VT will then continue on track for a further 2–3 bounds and keep repeating
the procedure until the point when the CM is confident that he is on definite sign. The
VT reconfirms all of the information that he previously briefed the CM on and steps
off track. The CM is now ready to continue as the VT.
c. The New Cover Man. The VT3 will move forward ahead of the team commander to
cover the new VT whilst tuning in. He then continues the task until it is his turn to
become the VT.
d. Remaining Visual Trackers. The original VT will become the last man and VT4 will
step up one place. This ensures that each VT has an equal amount of rest and that
the task of being CM is spread equally amongst the VTs and the CM is always fresh.

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Tracking Hand Over Brief
13.10 The following points must be clearly passed on to the new lead tracker:
a. LDS;
b. direction of sign (magnetic bearing);
c. age of sign;
d. key sign; and
e. track picture (number, deception, etc).
Employment
13.11 It is important that the VTP know the commander’s intent before deployment. Specific
tasks for the VTP could include:
a. searching an area to locate and identify enemy camps,
b. gathering information through interpretation of sign,
c. pursuing and establishing contact with a withdrawing enemy force, or
d. locating and identifying enemy resupply routes and lines of communication.
13.12 Although follow-up by a tracker team may result in a contact, this will not always be so.
However, each follow-up should provide information that may at a later stage enable
commanders to ascertain the location of enemy camps, enemy areas of activity or enemy
intentions.
13.13 To assist commanders in identifying possible enemy camp sites or areas of activity, each
unit and sub-unit should maintain a track map. On this map, every track discovered by the
unit or sub-unit in the area should be marked. This should be done irrespective of age or
length of the track. Each track marked should be labelled to show the following:
a. direction,
b. age,
c. number in party,
d. length of track, and
e. any special features.
Briefing of the Track Commander
13.14 When tasked, the patrol commander must be briefed on the following:
a. present location of friendly units in the area;
b. strength and composition of the supporting force;
c. present location of the supporting force;

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d. weather details prior to, and at time of incident;
e. the higher commander’s intentions;
f. details on supporting forces signal operating instructions and SOP; and
g. details on enemy:
(1) time last seen;
(2) size (known or estimated);
(3) weapons (type and number);
(4) specific tactics;
(5) direction of movement (if known); and
(6) last position occupied (if known).
Deployment for Pursuit
13.15 At the start of the pursuit the following actions are required:
a. the tracking team commander is briefed by the local commander if one is present,
b. the signaller establishes communications with the support unit,
c. the remainder take up all-round defence, and
d. the team is briefed.
13.16 After the visual tracking team has been fully briefed by the team commander the following
actions should occur:
a. The tracking element moves forward to the limit of local movement of friendly troops
and starts the casting drill. They are to ensure that the supporting unit is informed of
their movements.
b. The remainder of the tracker team forms the base line as protection to the rear of the
forward tracking element.
c. On receiving the signal 'on track' from the forward tracking element the tracking team
and support unit move off, led by the forward tracking element.
Distance
13.17 The working distance between the tracking element and the support element is normally
up to 100 metres to ensure less volume of noise being heard by the enemy. However, if
the situation is such that an immediate follow-up is required and the track is ‘hot’, then a
more aggressive mode is necessary and the supporting force will be directly behind the
VTP.

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Speed of Movement
13.18 The ability of the VTs to read the sign will regulate the speed of movement for the VTP. If
clear, fresh sign is present the movement will be fast but steady and silent. During the
pursuit, trackers should not be forced to move quicker than sign and security allows.
Action on Contact
13.19 The VTP commander must ensure that as soon as he locates an enemy force he halts his
patrol and informs the supporting force commander so that appropriate action can be
initiated.
SECTION 13-3. COMBINED TEAMS
13.20 Both the VT and the tracker dog have certain limitations. Fortunately, the strengths and
weaknesses of each are different. Their strengths are complementary and can be
exploited most effectively by tracker teams consisting of both VTs and dogs. It is
desirable that permanent affiliations be built up and kept intact.
Composition
13.21 Tracker teams should be built up and trained until they are accustomed to working with
each other. The team members should be changed as little as possible. These teams are
not designed to engage in combat and must work in conjunction with a protection element
to complete designated tasks. However, personal weapons should be carried by the team
for self protection.
13.22 The organisation of a team may vary but must include radio communications and the
overall team strength should allow for a relief system to be operated when a long
follow-up is in progress. The following is a suggested composition of a team committed to
a follow-up:
a. team commander;
b. VTs (6);
c. dog handlers (2);
d. tracker dogs (2); and
e. radio operator.
Responsibilities
13.23 The tasks allocated to a combined tracking team are similar to those listed above for the
visual tracking team. The inclusion of dogs and additional VTs will increase the team’s
capability.
Formations
13.24 Except when carrying out a box search the team will remain in single file. The following
order of march is suggested for combined tracking teams:

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a. VT leading:
(1) number one VT,
(2) number one CM tracker,
(3) team commander,
(4) radio operator,
(5) number two VT,
(6) number two CM VT,
(7) tracker dogs and handlers,
(8) number three VT, and
(9) number three CM.
b. Tracker dog leading:
(1) tracker dog and handler,
(2) number one VT,
(3) number one CM,
(4) team commander,
(5) radio operator,
(6) number two VT,
(7) number two CM,
(8) tracker dog and handler,
(9) number three VT, and
(10) number three CM.
Rotation
13.25 As with VTs, dogs must be rested during a long follow-up, hence the need for two dogs in
the team. While working, the dogs should be rested for ten minutes every hour and after
this time it is appropriate to change dogs.
13.26 For prolonged follow-ups of five to seven days or more, the working dogs should be
replaced completely by fresh dogs from the team reserve. This is necessary as the
animals lose condition and, in some cases, efficiency when on operational rations. A
suitable time for the changeover to occur is during resupply.
Searches
13.27 If a dog or VT has temporarily lost the scent or track, a search is carried out by VTs on
command from the team commander. This can be in the form of a probe, an initial or
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extended cast as described in Chapter 10 or may involve the whole tracking team in the
use of the fan, box or other search as outlined in Chapter 5. Provided that the team have
isolated the target’s track, it may be possible to move forward to a likely location and
re-identify the track (see Track Isolation Drill, Section 10-3).
Use of Teams at Night
13.28 Tracker teams can be used in open or lightly timbered country at night. By using the dog
element the team should be able to follow enemy tracks to the edge of close country.
There the team should establish a base and continue to track at first light. Silence must
be maintained in the night location as it is possible that the enemy are themselves only a
matter of 200-300 metres from the edge and are also halted. Teams must not attempt to
follow through country in which it is not possible to move silently.

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CHAPTER 14
SPECIAL FORCES
Reserved.

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14-2

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15-1
CHAPTER 15
TRAINING
SECTION 15-1. PATROLLING
Introduction
15.1 Soldiers of all corps must be capable of patrolling and all unit HQ must be able to manage
a patrol programme. The tactical doctrine and techniques for patrolling have been
covered in the preceding sections of this publication. Successful patrolling requires
soldiers to possess a high standard of military skills.
15.2 The following guidelines for training must be observed if troops are to reach a high
standard in patrolling:
a. Constant alertness must be practised. This presupposes a high standard of physical

fitness and endurance.
b. A high standard of marksmanship has to be maintained. Constant practice by day

and night is the key to success. Further detail is contained in MLW 2-9-4,
Marksmanship (All Corps), 1995.
c. Fieldcraft must be developed to a high standard. Training information is contained in

MLW 2-3-2, Fieldcraft and Target Detection (All Corps), 1984.
d. Continual training in navigation using the map, air photographs and compass is
required. Further detail is contained in MLW 2-3-1, Navigation, 1983.
e. Immediate action drills must be practiced. Many situations will develop suddenly and
without warning. During training, drills must be perfected so that counter-action
becomes instinctive.
f. Realism in training is a necessity for preparing soldiers for patrolling. The maximum
amount of realism should be introduced in exercises to increase interest and thus the
soldiers’ willingness to learn.
Patrol Exercises
15.3 Most patrol exercises allow a patrol commander to lead his patrol, navigating along the
route of his choice, to and from an objective. When choosing his route, the patrol
commander takes into consideration such factors as:
a. known and likely enemy positions,
b. difficult obstacles to cross,
c. cover and noise, and
d. distance and time available.

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15.4 The disadvantage of such an exercise is that it is likely to be uneventful. It is difficult for
the controlling staff to stage incidents during the patrol which will bring out points of
training. Although the patrol commander is fully occupied, the other members of the patrol
may fail to derive the same benefit; the better the route the commander chooses, the
fewer incidents and obstacles are likely to be encountered. An alternative is a controlled
exercise.
Controlled Exercises
15.5 In a controlled exercise, the patrol is channelled onto a route along which certain
incidents and situations are staged. This allows the controlling staff to test aspects of
patrol training. The exercise should be conducted by day and by night. It will be
necessary for umpires to accompany the patrols. The type and number of incidents
conducted will depend on the level and standard of training required.
15.6 Routing. Routing must be done realistically. The patrol should be informed that a
particular route is being given to them as a result of previous patrol reports and known
enemy defences. The patrol commander will be briefed in detail concerning the route in
his normal patrol briefing. The route must, however, be reasonably easy to follow as there
should be no deviation from the exact path.
15.7 Maps. Maps can be of assistance but normally the scale is not large enough for the route
to be defined accurately; a better method is to confine the patrol to a physical feature on
the ground which they must follow, controlled by the umpire. This could be a timber track,
a stream, a narrow ridge in mountains, and the edge of a forest, a series of fences or,
more probably, a combination of these features. If the route is complicated, the patrol
commander could be given either a sketch map or an air photograph to assist him in his
navigation. Another method is for the patrol to follow a ‘blood’ trail or to track an escaping
enemy.
15.8 Obstacles. The obstacles on the route will either be natural or constructed across the
patrol's path. The first exercise could be set with simple obstacles such as wire fences,
gates, isolated clearings, fallen trees, walls and any other similar obstruction. The umpire
with the patrol will note how the patrol negotiates these obstacles and they will be judged
with regard to their silence, protection, silhouettes and the speed with which they cross.
On succeeding exercises, the obstacles are made more difficult until the patrol is
competent to overcome all of them. Trip flares, dummy mines, creeks, Dannert fences,
isolated houses and rock faces should be some of the obstacles used to train more
advanced patrols. These will obviously call for greater skills and should only be included
after a thorough grounding has been given in these subjects.
15.9 Incidents. During the patrol, one or two incidents should be staged, either on the
objective or on the route to it. A simple incident, such as encountering an enemy sentry
on a track, will be a satisfactory enough event with which the inexperienced patrol must
deal. Other simple incidents may include a flare being fired by the enemy while the patrol
is in the open or an enemy radio set being operated near their location. This is also an
opportunity of testing a patrol in the recognition of noises at night. If the course is set in a
circuit, another patrol could be routed in the opposite direction, neither patrol knowing the
existence of the other and both patrols being briefed, if possible, to avoid all contacts. An
incident en route for the more experienced patrol may be a full scale ambush of the patrol
that will test their counter ambush drills and RV techniques. One of the patrol members
can be secretly briefed beforehand that he is to become a casualty at a certain stage
from, for example, a mine. If the mine was detonated at the correct moment and the
wound had been made up previously, the patrol commander will be faced with a realistic
casualty evacuation situation. Many incidents and situations can be created to test a
patrol at different stages of training.

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Variations
15.10 There are a number of variations to these types of exercises. The patrol, for example,
could be told to choose its own route back after following a set course to the objective.
Mechanical targets could also be included on part of the set course. Controlled exercises
should be conducted concurrently with general patrol exercises where the patrol
commander chooses his own route.
Night Patrolling Exercises
15.11 NFE allows the patrol to operate as if in daylight, however the endurance of soldiers may
be limited, longer rest periods are required after night activities.
15.12 Training with NFE must be an ongoing activity, starting with simple daytime activities and
increasing to extended night exercises. The following areas should be exercised during
these activites:
a. maintenance of equipment;
b. operating the NFE;
c. target detection and identification, using NFE;
d. fire control;
e. patrolling at night (navigation); and
f. fire and movement.
Close Reconnaissance Techniques
15.13 Close reconnaissance techniques need particular emphasis in training because many of
the skills are not practised during normal fieldcraft activities. In all close reconnaissance
training, the importance of fieldcraft skills, especially camouflage, concealment and
stealth should be stressed.
15.14 Close Reconnaissance Exercises. Close reconnaissance exercises should be

conducted concurrently with unit field activities to ensure realism and to economise on
training time. Close reconnaissance can be conducted against any exercising body of
troops by day or by night, providing the members of the patrol are not familiar with the
detailed layout of the defensive position or installation. To be effective, the exercise
should require the reconnaissance patrol to:
a. select a suitable OP from which to select close reconnaissance positions;
b. select suitable close reconnaissance positions;
c. silently breach wire obstacles and minefields;
d. use countermeasures to overcome surveillance devices;
e. gather accurate information on the enemy's strength, deployment and equipment;
f. gather information by listening when not able to observe; and
g. move independently to a prearranged RV if detected.

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15-4
Staff Training
15.15 One of the most important areas that must be covered is the training of staff. Exercises
should be conducted where staff members have to brief and debrief patrols and
disseminate information gained by those patrols. The information collected should effect
the conduct of the battle. If this training is not conducted, then much of the hard work
undertaken by the patrols may be wasted.
SECTION 15-2. TRACKING TRAINING
Introduction
15.16 Although his normal employment may be as a member of a sub-unit, the soldier who
operates as a tracker requires specialist skills that can only be acquired after extensive
training and continuing practice. If well trained, he will be a valuable asset to the unit and
the investment of time and effort in his training will be repaid in enhanced combat
effectiveness.
15.17 The following guidelines for training must be observed if the tracker is to maintain his skill
level:
a. The soldier selected as a tracker must have the personal characteristics of alertness,
commitment and endurance. His physical fitness and concentration will allow him to
remain focussed on a target track for extended periods.
b. His fieldcraft must be of a high standard. Training needs to be soundly based on the
principles set out in MLW 2-3-2, Fieldcraft and Target Detection (All Corps), 1984,
but needs to be taken beyond the standards set for other patrolling tasks. He needs
to train in acute observation and in stealthy movement through all kinds of terrain.
c. The VT must learn both tracking and CM duties, both of which require exceptional
fieldcraft.
d. Casting and other drills need to be understood and practiced by the tracker. In
addition, supporting forces must be aware of the role of these drills so as to allow the
tracker to complete his tasks without hindrance or pressure.
e. Since the tracker’s art rests in his ability to observe and interpret sign, he must be
given every opportunity to learn and practice these skills. He should initially work as
an ‘apprentice’ to an experienced tracker.
f. Since a tracker will require time to ‘tune in’ to a track and to isolate the target track
from other sign, opportunities to practice this recognition process are required. This
skill can likewise benefit from contact with an experienced tracker.
g. A tracker must practice his navigation even under conditions where his focus is on
the track rather than on where he is located. He must be able to record the data that
will allow dead reckoning while being able to relate this to the map.
h. Field mapping, field sketching and written reporting are skills that allow the tracker to
pass on useful and accurate information to commanders. Specific training in these
more academic aspects of the job must be included. The unit intelligence staff can
assist in this training.
i. Likewise, joint training can be achieved between the trackers and intelligence staff in
the conduct of track briefs and in the debriefing and reporting of a tracking patrol.
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15-5
j. The tracker must have a thorough knowledge of the enemy and the ability to absorb
new information about his target from intelligence reports and other sources.
k. The tracker must become adept at recognising the point at which he should
terminate the track in favour of the supporting forces. He must develop a clear
understanding that his role is only to locate and report. Other members of the unit
also need to be aware of this relationship.
Tracking Exercises
15.18 The selection of a soldier to train as a tracker can focus on the skill sets mentioned
above. His fieldcraft and navigation skills and his personal suitability can be assessed in
unit activities.
15.19 The tracker must attend a formal course where he can benefit from the incidental training
that comes from exposure to experienced trackers as well as learn the basic skills of
tracking.
15.20 Continuation training of the tracker does not require access to costly equipment or involve
large amounts of resources but it does need training that is relevant, creative and
interesting.
15.21 The tracker will only develop effectiveness in a particular environment over time as he
learns to ‘tune in’ to the features of that location and its flora and fauna. However, when
planning continuation training, commanders need to include different areas so the tracker
becomes effective in all types of terrain.
15.22 Valuable training can be achieved in short activities such as a half-day track in the unit’s
close training area or in much longer tracks conducted as part of an exercise. In any
case, the inclusion of the track brief as well as the reporting and debriefing phase is
essential, not only for the tracker but also for intelligence staff.
15.23 Training should increase in difficulty as the tracker’s skill develops. This can include:
a. variations in terrain,
b. variations in weather,
c. inclusion of sign of increasing age,
d. varying the number of targets being tracked,
e. increasing the evasive skills of the target, and
f. inclusion of foul tracks.
15.24 The conduct of a tracking exercise is essentially based on the setting of a track by the
staff and then allowing the tracking team to follow the track. Thus, it is simple to include
the above variations. An indication of the type of activity that can be used to train trackers
can be seen in the report presented at Annex C to Chapter 11.
15.25 The tracker is a specialist who requires constant practice to refine and maintain his skills.
Commanders at all levels who wish to benefit from the use of trackers must invest time
and effort in the conduct of realistic and interesting training for the trackers and the staff
who interact with them.

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COVERING RESTRICTED

The information given in this document is not to be communicated, either directly or

LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES -

This publication supersedes Australian Army Manual of Land Warfare,

LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES -

© Commonwealth of Australia (Australian Army) 2002

Land Warfare Development Centre

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

2. When this information is supplied to Commonwealth or foreign governments, the recipient

a. be safeguarded under rules designed to give it the equivalent standard of security to

b. not be released to a third country without Australian consent;

c. not be used for other than military purposes;

d. not be divulged to a non-Defence organisation unless that organisation is sponsored

e. not be downgraded or declassified without Australian Government approval.

Released to: ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Released by: ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Date Released: ……………………………………………………………………………………………

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

AUSTRALIAN ARMY, LAND WARFARE PROCEDURES - GENERAL,

2. It is certified that the amendments promulgated in the undermentioned amendment lists

Amendment List Amended By (Printed Date of Amending

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

10th/27th Battalion, The Royal South Australian

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

2nd Combat Engineer Regiment 8

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

A Squadron, The 10th Light Horse Regiment

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

Headquarters Special Operations 2

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

Special Air Service Regiment 10

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

This publication supersedes Australian Army Manual of Land Warfare,

Level and Scope

c. Manual of Land Warfare 1-5-1, Staff Duties in the Field, 1986;

d. Manual of Land Warfare 2-1-3, Combat Intelligence, 1981;

f. Manual of Land Warfare 2-9-4, Marksmanship (All Corps), 1995;

g. Manual of Land Warfare 2-3-1, Navigation, 1983;

l. Manual of Land Warfare 2-1-1, Employment of Armour, 1993.

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

SECTION 1-2. RESPONSIBILITIES IN PATROLLING 1-2

CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION OF PATROLS 2-1

SECTION 2-2. FIGHTING PATROLS 2-1

SECTION 2-3. RECONNAISSANCE PATROLS 2-4

CHAPTER 3 PATROLLING STAFF DUTIES AND PLANNING 3-1

SECTION 3-1. DUTIES OF THE FORMATION STAFF 3-1

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

SECTION 3-2. DUTIES OF THE UNIT STAFF 3-4

CHAPTER 4 PATROL COMMANDER'S PREPARATION 4-1

SECTION 4-2. COMMAND AND CONTROL 4-2

SECTION 4-3. PREPARATION OF PATROL COMMANDER'S ORDERS 4-4

SECTION 4-4. ISSUING PATROL COMMANDER'S ORDERS 4-8

SECTION 4-5. FINAL PREPARATIONS 4-9

CHAPTER 5 CONDUCT OF THE PATROL 5-1

SECTION 5-2. PATROL TECHNIQUES 5-1

LWP-G 3-3-8 PATROLLING AND TRACKING, 2002

Anti-armour Patrols 5-4

SECTION 5-3. PATROL FORMATIONS 5-8

SECTION 5-4. CONTROL 5-15