CHAPTER ONE

MEANING AND SCOPE OF GOVERNMENT

THE THREE MAIN MEANINGS OF GOVERNMENT

1. GOVERNMENT AS AN INSTITUTION OF A STATE.

Government refers to the set of institutions and structures legally set up by the state to manage its
affairs. It is the machinery through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and
attained. The institutions of government responsible for carrying out the political task of a state
include the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The legislature makes laws to regulate the
conduct of people in the state, the executive implements laws and policies of the state and the
judiciary is responsible for the interpretation of laws.
Government as an institution is responsible for the provision of social services. It does this
through the various ministries, corporations, local governments and other agencies. It is also
responsible for the creation of employment opportunities. This is carried out by the executive
through the ministry of labour and employment and the various extra- ministerial agencies.
Again, through established institutions such as ministry of foreign affairs and other agencies,
government maintains cordial relationship with other countries. Besides that, the executive
through the police and other security agencies ensures that law and order is maintained in the
state.

2. GOVERNMENT AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD OF STUDY

Government is also an academic field of study. It is a social science subject that is taught in
schools and colleges as well as higher institutions. In tertiary institutions, it is popularly referred
to as Political Science. Government as an academic field of study involves the study of political
institutions and theories which deal with acquisition and use of political power. Other courses
studied under government include the study of International Relations, Political Economy,
Conflict Resolution, Local Government, Political Thought, Public Administration, and
Comparative Politics.
 3. GOVERNMENT AS A PROCESS OR AN ART OF GOVERNING
Government as an art of governing is the process of carrying out the day-to-day administration of
the affairs of a state. The art or process of governing includes the day-to-day activities carried
out by the three organs of government namely the legislature, the executive and the judiciary to
achieve the aims of government. It encompasses (includes or involves) making, enforcing and
interpreting laws.

SUMMARY OF THE MEANINGS OF GOVERNMENT

i. Government can be defined as a body of persons or agency through which laws are made,
interpreted and enforced in a state.
ii. Government refers to the study of political institutions and theories which deal with
acquisition and use of political power.
iii. Government is the art or process of carrying out the day-to-day administration of the
affairs of a state.
REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT/WHY GOVERNMENT IS
IMPORTANT AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD OF STUDY.
i. It helps the citizens to know their duties and obligations in a state: The study of
government helps the citizens to know their duties and obligations in a state. For instance,
through the study of government, citizens are made to know why they should pay tax,
why it is necessary for them to protect public properties; defend the country and be law
abiding.
ii. It promotes Political participation/Interest in the governance of our country: The
study of government promotes political participation. Thus, it stimulates and arouses the
interest of the people in the activities of the government and prepares them to take active
part in the political process of their country. Its study enables the individuals to take
active part in the political affairs of their country such as voting during elections,
belonging to a political party, contesting in elections to hold public office and
constructively criticizing the unpopular policies of the government.
iii. It helps us to know the successes and failures of our past leaders: The study of
government in schools and colleges enables those who study it to know the successes and
failures of our past leaders. For example, a lot of us were not born during Dr. Kwame
 Nkrumah’s regime, but through the study of government, we can easily outline almost all
the achievements and failures of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
iv. Helps citizens to know their fundamental human rights and freedoms defend them
when violated: The study of government helps citizens to know their fundamental
human rights and freedoms and redress when those rights are infringed upon or violated.
Examples of these rights and freedoms include the right to privacy, the right to life,
movement and freedom of speech.
v. Helps the individuals to understand the various systems of government: The study of
government helps the individuals to understand the systems of government such as
Presidential and parliamentary systems government and recommend the best type for
their country. This is possible through a comparative study of the various systems of
government.
vi. Inculcates the consciousness of nationalism and patriotism in the people: The study
of government enables individuals to develop consciousness of nationalism and
patriotism. Thus, it enables the individuals to love their county, and to defend its
sovereignty
vii. Promotes understanding of the economic and social systems: The study of
government helps the citizens to know and understand the type of economic and social
systems in their country.
viii. Equips people interested in politics with knowledge: The study government equips
people interested in politics with knowledge to become professional politicians. Such
people embark on effective and goal-oriented campaigns devoid of insults and
personality attacks.
ix. It widens citizens political horizon: The study of government widens citizens’ political
horizon. This makes them understand and appreciate the system of government practised
in their country.
x. Makes the citizens understand the importance of joining international
organizations: The study of government makes the citizens understand why the
government of their country belongs to some international organisation such as
Commonwealth of Nations, ECOWAS, UNO, and AU.
xi. It provides career opportunities for those who study it: The study government offers
 individuals who study it the opportunity to get jobs in the state. Its study makes people
secure jobs such as Government tutors or lecturers of political Science, politicians,
lawyers, etc.
xii. Helps the individuals to understand the processes of managing the state: The study
of government enables the individual to understand the processes by which the affairs of
the state arc managed. Thus, people get better insight on how the state is run through the
study of government
xiii. It helps us to know what is happening in and outside our country: The study of
government helps us to know what is going on in our country and around the world.

FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNMENT

i. Supremacy of government laws: The laws made by government are superior to and
above all other laws made by individuals, associations and clubs.
ii. Non-permanency: Governments come and go but a state remains unchanged. No
government in this world rules permanently. A government may rule for quite a
reasonable period of time but one day its authority would be replaced by another
government. For example, in Ghana, J.J Rawlings government made way for Kufour’s
government after the 2000 presidential election and Kufour’s government also made way
for Atta Mill’s government after the 2008 presidential election. This attests to the fact
that no government is permanent.
iii. Monopoly over the use of force: A government has monopoly over the legitimate use of
force which enables it to compel people to obey its laws. The government exercises this
through established institutions such as courts, police, military and other law enforcement
agencies.
iv. Laws of the government bind everyone: A rule made by an association, club or a
religion binds only its members but the laws of the government binds everyone found in
its territory be it a citizen or an alien.
v. Its authority encompasses everyone living in its territory: Ones subjection to authority
of an association, club or a religion is not compulsory but voluntary. However, ones
subjection to the authority of government is compulsory or involuntary. Whether one
likes it or not, so far as he lives in the territory of a state, be it a citizen or an alien, is
 subject to the authority and control of the government of the country.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT/WHY GOVERNMENT IS IMPORTANT AS AN ART

(PROCESS) OF GOVERNING / INSTITUTION OF A STATE
i. Maintenance of law and order: The basic function of every government is to maintain
peace, law and order in a state. A government establishes institutions such as the police
force, other security agencies and the Judiciary for the maintenance of peace, law and
order.
ii. Maintaining friendly external relations with other states: A government is responsible
for maintaining good rapport (friendly relation) with other states so that in times of needs
it can rely on them. The executive through the appropriate ministries like the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and other agencies ensures that a good friendly external relation with
other states is maintained
iii. Enactment of laws: A government is expected to make laws for regulating the conduct
of people in the country. Without laws, citizens may do whatever they like which could
result in anarchy, chaos or disorder in the state. The laws of the government are enacted
by the legislature.
iv. Provision of social amenities (social services): It is the duty of a government to provide
social amenities or services for its citizens. Examples of social amenities a government is
expected to provide include building hospitals, schools and providing recreational
facilities.
v. Creation of job opportunities: A government is responsible for creating job
opportunities in the country. The government does this by establishing firms or by
encouraging and regulating private enterprises to establish firm in order to reduce the
unemployment rate in the country.
vi. Defence of the country against external aggression: It is the duty of government to
defend the country against any external aggression (attack). This is the primary duty of
the Armed forces namely, the Navy, the Army and the Air Force.
vii. Protection of Citizens: A government is responsible for protecting the citizen of his
country against any attack. Internally, the government protects the citizens through the
police and court of laws. Externally, the citizens are protected against attack through the
 armed forces namely the Army, Navy and the Air Force.
viii. Promotion of economic activities in the country: Another duty of government is to
promote the economic and social development of the country. The government does this
by setting up public corporations to provide the goods and services needed by the people
at moderate prices. Another means is by encouraging private entrepreneurs to produce
goods and services needed by the people. To promote good economic development, it is
also the duty of the government to provide the necessary physical infrastructure such as
good roads and electricity.
ix. Regulating economic activities: A government through ministerial and financial
institutions like the Central Bank regulates economic activities in the state.
x. Administering justice: The government ensures that justice prevails in the country. The
government does this through the judiciary.
xi. Formulation and implementation of policies: Government formulates and implements
policies in the country. This is carried out by the executive.

INSTITUTIONS THAT PERFORM THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

 Maintenance of law and order: This is carried out by the executive through the police,
other security agencies and the judiciary.
 Maintaining friendly external relations with other states: This is carried out by the
executives through the appropriate ministries like the ministry of foreign affairs and
other agencies.
 Enactment/making of laws: This is carried out by the legislature/parliament.
 Provision of social amenities (social services): This is carried out by the executive
through the various ministries, corporations, local government etc.
 Creation of job opportunities: This is carried out by the executive through the various
extra-ministerial agencies.
 Defending the country against external aggression: The executive protects and
defends the state through the Armed Forces namely, the Army, Navy and Air Force.
 Protection of Citizens: Internally, the government protects the citizens through the
police and court of laws. Externally, the citizens are protected against attack through the
Armed Forces namely the Army, Navy and the Air Force.
  Promotion of economic activities: This is carried out by the executive through
appropriate ministries.
 Regulating economic activities: This is carried out by the executive through ministerial
and financial institutions like the Central Bank.
 Administering justice: This is carried out by the Judiciary.
 Formulation and implementation of policies: This is carried out by the
executive/cabinet.

ACTIVITY
(i). Put students into groups to discuss the functions of government and make presentations.
(ii). Invite resource persons from the various institutions that perform the functions of
government to highlight more on their roles.

TRIAL QUESTIONS
Q1). Explain what is meant by government as an academic field of study
Q2.a) Define government as an academic field of study
b) Describe any three branches of government as an academic field of study.
Q3.a) Outline three functions of government
b) Identify the institutions that perform these functions (WASSSCE, 2006;
Q4.a) What is government?
b) Give any five reasons for the study of government (WASSSCE 2007,
Q5). In what six ways is government important as an institution of the state? (WASSSCE,
NOV/DEC 2009; QI)
Q6). Explain government as an institution of a state (WASSSCE NOV/ DEC2010; Q1)
Q7). Identify any five features of government.
Q8.a) Define government as an institution of a state
b) Highlight any five functions of government (WASSSCE NOV/DEC 2011, Ql).
Q9. State five reasons for the study of government (WASSSCE MAY/ JUNE 2014, Ql)
 CHAPTER TWO
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT:
A. BASIC POLITICAL CONCEPTS
POWER
Power is the ability to control the behaviour of others by those who possess the instrument of
coercion even against their wish. It may also be referred to the ability to influence someone to do
one’s bidding. Political power refers to the ability of political leaders to control the action of
others despite their resistance. Political power could also be explained as the ability which the
institution of government has in order to influence its citizens to comply with the laws. For
example, government has coercive power which enables it to compel people to obey its laws.

FORMS OF POWER
i. Political power: This is the power that an elected president or prime minister possesses
to rule. Political power is usually derived from the people or the constitution.
ii. Economic power: Economic power is the condition of having sufficient productive
resources at command that enables individuals with such resources to influence people
and issues in a state. Individuals with economic power usually command respect and
people’s emotions, actions and inactions could be influenced by them.
iii. Physical power: Physical power is the application of force to influence people’s action.
iv. Military power: This is the power possessed by the armed forces to control the
instruments of violence in a state. These instruments can sometimes be manipulated to
overthrow a civilian government.

SOURCES OF POLITICAL POWER

The sources of power include the constitution, the use of force, inheritance (hereditary), power
from electorate, charisma, and Economic wealth of an individual and the state, through
appointment and through delegation
i) Constitution: Constitution of a country grants powers to certain individuals and
institutions. It is from the constitution that the legislature, executive and judiciary derive
the power they exercise in the state. It is also the source through which agencies,
 commissions and other governmental institutions derive their power.
ii) Use of force/coup d’etat: Political power can be acquired through the use of force/
coercion or coup d’etat. It is a source of power in some-developing countries after a coup
d’etat. For example, in Ghana, Ignatius Kutu Acheampong obtained political power
through coup d’etat which was conducted to overthrow the Progress Party (PP)
government led by K. A Busia.
iii) Hereditary (inheritance): Traditional powers are acquired through inheritance. The
custom, tradition, convention and norms of the people of a society can confer political
power on individuals as in the case of Britain.
iv) Election/Electorate: Political power is popularly acquired through elections. The
electorates determine through elections who should be in the key executive and
legislative positions in the state especially in a democracy.
v) Charisma: Special or extra-ordinary abilities or qualities possessed by some individuals
can give them political power. For example, one of the factors that contributed to the
electoral success of the Convention People’s Party in Ghana in 1951, 1954 and 1956 was
the charismatic nature of its leader, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
vi) Economic wealth: Economic wealth/might can be a source of power for both individuals
and the state. Individuals with economic power usually command respect and people’s
emotions, actions and inactions could be influenced by them.
vii) Through Appointment: Some people are appointed into positions to exercise political
power. Examples include judges, ministers, Ambassadors and High Commissioners
viii) Through Delegation: Some people exercise political power through delegation.
Examples include the power granted by the central government to District Chief
Executives (DCEs), Municipal Chief Executives and Metropolitan Chief Executives
(MCEs) to exercise in their area of jurisdiction.

LEGITIMACY
Legitimacy simply refers to a rightful rule. It denotes the acceptance and recognition of a ruler
by the people as the one who has the right to rule or govern. A government is regarded as
legitimate if it has the mandate of the people to rule. Legitimacy therefore confers authority on
the ruler.
MAIN FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF LEGITIMACY OR A LEGITIMATE
GOVERNMENT
i) Constitutionalism: A legitimate government adheres to the provisions of the
constitution. Thus, the ruler rules in accordance with the constitution. This implies that
the actions and activities of the government and its officials should be in line with the
provisions of the constitution
ii) Responsiveness to the people’s views and opinions: A legitimate government listens to
the views and opinions of its people and swiftly acts to address their needs. Such a
government does everything within its means to satisfy the needs and aspirations of its
people.
iii) Legality: A Legitimate government is backed by law. Thus, a legitimate government
comes to power through lawful means without the use of force. Such a leader is selected
through the conduct of free and fair election.
iv) Recognition: A legitimate government should be recognized both internally and
externally. This implies that the people within the country as well as international
community must see the government as a rightful ruler to govern or rule.
v) Respect for rules and regulations, customs and conventions: A legitimate government
does not look down or arbitrary change the culture and traditions of the people or ignores
them but rather respects the rules, regulations, customs and conventions of the people and
allows them to work or preserve them.
vi) Good governance/leadership/accountability and responsibility: A legitimate
government does not rule arbitrary or against the wishes of the people but rather rules in
the right way. Such a government formulates and implements policies and programmes
that will meet the needs and aspirations of the people. Again, a legitimate government
explains the rationale taking certain decisions and policies to its people.
vii) Respect for fundamental human rights: A legitimate government respects the
fundamental human rights of its people. In a legitimate government fundamental human
right of the citizens such as right to life and right to privacy are guaranteed and respected.
viii) Popular participation: The government involves all sections of the people in
governance. Example is appointing political office holders from all of the society. The
 people willingly take part in all political activities registration, attending rallies and
voting.
ix) Existence of free or independent press/media: In a legitimate government the press is
given freedom to work without any intimidation or censorship. This enables them to air
relevant information and to criticize the unpopular decisions and policies of the ruling
government which helps to keep the government on its toes.
x) Periodic free and fair elections: In a legitimate government, elections are conducted
periodically to make leaders responsible and accountable. The conduct of the elections is
usually free and fair and it is entrusted in the hands of an independent and impartial
electoral commission or electoral management body.
xi) Popularity: A legitimate government should be able to receive popular support from the
people. This implies that the government must be appealing to the general public; widely
favoured or admired

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE/ SUSTAIN LEGITIMACY IN A STATE

(i) Good governance: If the government policies satisfy the yearning of the populace, the
people will continue to have trust and confidence in such government. For instance, if
the government performs well in certain vital areas such as maintenance of law and
order, provision of essential commodities, social amenities and physical infrastructure,
the people will continue to regard such government as legitimate.
(ii) Respect for the customs and traditions of the people: Respect for the established
customs and traditions of the society can help to sustain legitimacy. Example is
hereditary as in the British monarchy.
(iii) Popular support: A government is legitimate if it receives popular support of the
citizens.
(iv) Wider scope of political participation/popular participation: The ability of the
government to involve all sections of the people in governance helps to sustain
legitimacy. Example is appointing political office holders from all sections of the
society.
(v) Ideology: The ability of the ruling government to uphold the tenets of the state’s
ideology will help sustain legitimacy. Example is promoting socialism in China and
 propagating capitalism in USA by the ruling government.
(vi) Good leadership: Legitimacy may be accorded to a leader if he lives up to expectation.
If the leader performs well to meet the needs and aspirations of the people, he would
win the confidence and respect from the ruled and legitimacy would be sustained.
Adherence to the constitution: Legitimacy may be accorded to a ruler if he adheres to
the provisions of the constitution of the state.
(vii) Periodic free and fair elections: If the government comes to power through free and
fair election conducted in the state, such a government will be regarded as legitimate
since he has the sovereign will of the people to rule.
(viii) Respect for Fundamental Human Rights: Legitimacy may be accorded to a leader, if
he respects the fundamental human rights and freedoms of his people. If a government
allows individuals in a state to enjoy their fundamental human rights and freedom such
as freedom of speech, freedom of movement, right to privacy etc. the people will regard
such a government as legitimate and comply with his commands.
(ix) Appreciable level of socio-economic development in the state by the government: If
a government does well in improving the socio-economic development in the state such
as providing schools, hospitals, good portable water, good portable water, etc, the
people will regard such government as legitimate

AUTHORITY:
The instrument by which legitimacy manifests itself is called “authority”. Authority simply
refers to the right to give orders. By political authority, we mean the formal or legal right of a
given government to make and enforce laws or policies over or for its citizens, Once the leader is
accepted as the one who has the right to rule (legitimate), he is expected to issue instructions and
to take actions to fulfill the roles assigned to the office. The ruled accept the decisions and
actions of the ruler because they believe that the decisions and actions have been taken by the
one who has the right to do so.

TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY;

 Legal/Rational authority: This type of authority is derived from constitution in a
modern democratic state and is exercised through the three organs of government namely
 the legislature, executive and the judiciary.
 Charismatic Authority: This type of authority is derived from belief in the
exceptionality of a leader which inspires allegiance among the followers.
 Traditional Authority: This is associated with traditional societies when the chief or
council of elders exercise such authority based on customs and traditions of the people.

MANDATE
Mandate refers to the power given to elected representatives by the electorate to act according to
their wishes.
CAPITALISM
Capitalism is a political and economic system in which the major means of production,
distribution and exchange of goods and services are in the hands of private individuals. It is
mostly practiced in the Western World countries such as USA, Britain, Germany and France.
FEATURES OF CAPITALISM;
(i) Profit maximization is the guiding principle: In a capitalist economy, the critical
motive of production is to maximize (gain) profit. Profit maximization is rather than
social welfare maximization is what each producer considers when making economic
decisions.
(ii) Private ownership and control of the means of production and distribution: In a
capitalist economy, the major means of production, distribution and exchange of wealth
is in the hands of private individuals.
(iii) Freedom of choice to consumers, workers and owners of capital: In a capitalist
economy, producers have freedom of choice as regards to what to produce. In a capitalist
economy, the government permits the citizens free entry to, and exit from any form of
enterprise. Again, each individual consumer is free to use his income as he desires.
(iv) Prices are determined by the market force: Another feature of capitalism is that
resources are allocated through the price system or price mechanism. There is no price
control in the capitalist system of goods and services. Prices are determined by the
market force of demand and supply.
(v) There is competition and economic rivalry: Competition or economic rivalry is also a
feature of capitalism. Capitalism works in an open market system so competition is
 promoted. This enables producers to come out with high quality goods and sell them at
moderate prices.
(vi) Interference by the government is limited: The government participation in the
economy is reduced. It only acts as a referee.
(vii) Consumer sovereignty: In a capitalist state, consumers enjoy sovereignty as regards to-
hat to buy or consume. Consumers are free to purchase any good offered for sale based
on their preference. Producers therefore produce based on consumers demand or need to
avoid waste.

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF CAPITALISM;

(i) There is high degree of healthy competition in the economy: Capitalism works in an
open market system which promotes competition. The competition among firms enables
them to produce high quality goods and sell them at moderate prices to attract many
consumers.
(ii) It encourages consumer sovereignty: In a capitalist state, consumers enjoy sovereignty
as regards to what to buy or consume. Consumers are free to purchase any good offered
for sale based on their preference. He buys what he wants to buy, at what time and places,
and at what quantities. Producers therefore produce based on consumers demand or need
in order to avoid waste.
(iii) It promotes hard work: There is an effective supervision in a capitalist system which
makes those employed to work hard to improve upon output.
(iv) Freedom of choice: In a capitalist economy, producers have freedom of choice as
regards to what to produce. In a capitalist economy, the government permits the citizens
free entry to, and exit from any form of enterprise.
(v) It ensures efficient allocation of resources: Capitalism ensures efficient allocation of
resources. Economic resources are more efficiently used under capitalism than under
socialism. The private entrepreneur uses resources wisely and economically to avoid
waste and therefore increases his profits. Besides, resources go into the production of
goods and services demanded by consumers.
(vi) It encourages private ownership of property: Individuals are free to enter any business
venture provided that business is not against the provision the country’s constitution.
(vii) It promotes creativity: Capitalism encourages numerous inventions and innovations.
The individuals are given free role to come out with their initiatives in order to acquire
wealth and maximize profit.
(viii) It promotes specialization: Capitalism promotes specialization. The individuals try to
maximize profit by specializing in the production of goods and services in which they
enjoy comparative advantage. The specialization also enhances quality and increase
quantity in production.
(ix) It creates room for effective use of talents: Capitalism allows individuals to use their
God given talents profitably to produce their own goods and sell provided it does not
contravene the fundamental laws of the state.

DISADVANTAGES/DEMERITS OF CAPITALISM;
1. It does not consider public interest because of profit motive: The primary motive of
capitalism is profit maximization instead of the needs of the people. The available scarce
resources may be used to produce goods and service which are relatively unimportant to
the society as a whole, while goods and services of greater social value may be short in
supply.
2. Can lead to economic instability/job insecurity: Capitalism can lead to economic
instability. Prices, output levels and unemployment levels are highly susceptible to
changes, since they are all determined by the strength of demand, which may be unstable.
Thus, a fall in demand of a particular commodity would lead to a decrease in production,
and for that matter a lot of labour being laid off in that industry, causing structural
unemployment.
3. It promotes inequality: Capitalism promotes inequality in the distribution of income and
wealth. Incomes are grossly unequally distributed in capitalist countries. In capitalism,
those with physical assets such as capital and earn relatively large incomes whilst the vast
majority with only their labour to sell, earn relatively low incomes and live in abject
poverty. Thus, the rich becomes richer and the poor becomes poorer.
4. It encourages exploitation of the poor by the rich: It makes it possible for the rich in
society to cheat and exploit the masses and to acquire abnormal profit. Producers could
make excessive profits and pay meager salaries to their workers
 5. It may lead to unhealthy rivalry: Capitalism may lead to unhealthy rivalry because
industries arc operated in the interest of a few people rather than in the interest of all or
society as a whole. Thus, in capitalism individual goals are pursued to the disadvantage
of national goals.
6. It may lead to conflict between employers and employees: Producers could make
excessive profits and pay meager salaries to their workers which can bring conflict
between employers and employees.
7. Can lead to monopoly of firms: The liberal or unhealthy competition associated with
capitalism may give rise to monopolies. Monopolistic or oligopolistic firms may emerge
as a result of one or only a few persons using their wealth to monopolize resources for
producing certain goods, and this naturally leads to high prices of such goods, leading to
exploitation of the consumer.

SOCIALISM
Socialism is a political and economic theory in which the major means of production,
distribution and exchange of goods and services are owned by the state and used in common by
all. It aims at collective organization of the community in the interest of the people through the
common ownership and collective control of the means of production and exchange. The theory
of socialism was popularized by Karl Max. Examples of socialists’ countries include the former
Soviet Union, North Korea, China, Cuba and Russia.

FEATURES OF SOCIALISM;
1. Absence of competition: In a socialist state, there is a virtual absence of competition.
The state exercises monopoly in the supply of goods and services.
2. Fair distribution of wealth: In a socialist state, the wealth of the country is fairly
distributed which promotes social justice.
3. State control of economic process and political power: Another feature of socialism is
that the control of all economic processes and political power in the hand of the state.
4. Entrepreneurial decisions are influenced by social welfare considerations, and not
the profit motive: What to produce, how much to produce, how to distribute etc. are
determined by what is considered to be in the best interest of the state.
 5. Control of wealth: In a socialist state, individuals are not permitted to or control too
much wealth. However, citizens are allowed to own only little wealth.
6. Ownership of property and wealth: Under socialism, ownership of property and wealth
is also vested in the state. All industries, capital and land are owned by the state.
7. Only one political party exists for the realization of the objectives of state: In
addition to that, only one political party exists for the realization of objectives of the state
and all divergent views are undermined or suppressed
8. Existence of equal opportunity in decision- making and equality of sharing the
benefits of society: There is equal opportunity in decision- making and equality of
sharing the benefits of society which ensures social justice.
9. Prices are largely fixed by the state: In a socialist state, prices are largely fixed by the
state. The state sets up bodies that fix what they consider to be fair prices for goods and
services.

ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF SOCIALISM:

(i) It reduces inequality among citizens: Socialism reduces inequality among citizens in
the distribution of the national cake (resources). In a socialist state, there are no class
distributions. There is equal opportunity in decision- making and equality of sharing the
benefits of society, even the poor gets reasonable access to available goods and services
which ensure social justice.
(ii) It reduces unhealthy competition and rivalries: Socialism reduces unhealthy rivalries
that could emanate from excessive competitions.
(iii) Prices of goods and services are lower: Under socialism, prices are normally lower
which enables even the poor to buy most goods and services. These prices are fixed by
the state.
(iv) It reduces wastage: In socialism, production is planned centrally so wastage is reduced.
The planning authority makes sure that only goods that are needed by the people are
produced.
(v) It ensures social security for the vulnerable groups: Socialism ensures the provision of
social security for vulnerable groups including the aged, the sick, and the weak in the
society. The state provides social welfare for such people who may find it difficult to
 afford those services.
(vi) High level of production of public goods: Under socialism, public utilities are given
priority in the state’s production plan, since social-welfare maximization is the goal. Such
products are also supplied at affordable rates to the populace.
(vii) It provides welfare programmes: It provides welfare programmes to improve the living
standard of the people. Examples of these welfare programmes include provision of
shelter, health, education and mass employment.
(viii) It reduces class exploitation: Class exploitation of citizens is reduced since the
government controls major means of production, distribution and exchange. No private
firms exercising monopolistic or oligopolistic powers are around to exploit the consumer.

DISADVANTAGES OR DEMERITS OF SOCIALISM

1. Lack of consumer sovereignty: Consumers have no alternative in the choice of goods
and services. They only have to depend on goods produced by the state even if such
goods are of poor quality.
2. Lack of innovation: Socialism kills initiative on the part of private individuals since the
state initiative is the only one that is pursued.
3. Lack of economic competition: There is lack of economic competition leading to
inefficiency or low output in the economy. In a socialist economy, only economic
ventures set up by the state are allowed to operate, following official guidelines. This
monopolistic tendency leads to inefficiency.
4. Lack of incentives for hard work: Under socialism, people have no incentive or
motivation to work hard since there are no profits to earn by hard work. Everyone works
for the state at an agreed wage rate, so labour does as little as it can and still earns the
fixed wage. National income is therefore low and the economy cannot also grow fast.
5. Low productivity: There is low productivity due to ineffective supervision. Individuals
do not take keen interest in the state properties and hence little effort is put resulting in
low productivity.
6. Socialism breeds dictatorship: Socialism may promote dictatorship sin one political
party exists and all divergent views are suppressed. Individuals are not permitted to form
rival parties to reflect different shades of opinion. Again, the rights of the individuals are
 sometimes violated under one system
7. Denial of free choice of political parties and candidates: In soda citizens are denied
free choice of political parties and candidates before elections because of the existence of
a single party system.
8. Creates disparities in the society: In socialism, the differences between skilled and
unskilled labour still creates disparities in the society.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CAPITALISM AND SOCIALISM

1. In capitalism, the major means of production, distribution and exchange of resources is in
the hands of the individual whilst in socialism the major means of production,
distribution and exchange of resources is in the hands of the state.
2. In capitalism, the market is open so competition is promoted whilst in socialism the
market is not open, and therefore discourages competition.
3. In capitalism, consumers enjoy sovereignty as regards to what to buy, consume whilst in
socialism, consumers have no alternative in the choice of goods and services, they only
have to depend on goods produced by the state even if such goods are of poor quality.
4. Capitalist system is democratic because two or more political parties exist whilst socialist
system is totalitarian because only one political party exists for the realization of the
objectives of the state; there is violation of rights of the individuals.
5. In a capitalist system, there is duplication of economic activities and therefore waste is
inevitable whilst in socialism, production is planned centrally so wastage is reduced.
6. In capitalism, political power is highly decentralized whilst in socialism political power is
highly centralized.
7. In capitalism, prices are determined by the market force of demand and supply whilst in
socialism, prices of goods and services are largely fixed by the state.

MIXED ECONOMY SYSTEM

Mixed economy is an economic system in which economic resources are owned and controlled
by both the private and the public sectors and decisions are made by both.
FEATURES OF MIXED ECONOMY SYSTEM
1. Existence of joint ventures: In a mixed economy, there are some enterprises that are
 jointly owned by the individual shareholders and the state. Government and private
individuals establish an organization or a firm jointly by contributing the necessary
capital. Example of such ventures in Ghana is Ghana Commercial Bank limited.
2. Both share ownership of resources: In a mixed economy, the state and private
individuals share the ownership of resources. Production resources such as land and
capital are owned and shared by both the state and the individuals.
3. Business decisions are made by both: In a mixed economy, business decisions are made
by both the state and private individuals. That is what to produce, how much to produce,
when to produce and where to produce are decided by both.
4. Prices of goods and services are mainly determined by the forces of demand and
supply: In a mixed economy, prices of goods and services are mainly determined by the
market forces of demand and supply but in some cases, prices are fixed by the state. For
example, in Ghana, prices of utilities such as water and electricity are usually fixed by the
state to prevent undue exploitation of the masses by a few.
5. Consumer sovereignty: In a mixed economy, consumers have freedom to choose
between private suppliers and state suppliers. For example, people may choose to attend
public or private school, private or public toilet, private or state hospital, etc. since both
are allowed to operate.
6. Both contribute to promote employment: In a mixed economy, employment of labour
is executed by both the state and the private entrepreneurs and therefore helps in reducing
unemployment in the state.
7. In a mixed economy, investment and production are carried out by both the state and
individuals.
ADVANTAGES OF MIXED ECONOMY SYSTEM
1. It minimizes exploitation of consumers: The existence of a healthy competition
between the private and public sectors of the economy prevents anyone of them from
exploiting the consumers to its advantage.
2. Promotion of employment opportunities: Mixed economy helps in providing
employment to a vast majority of people in the state. Both the state and private
individuals employ people to undertake productive ventures which helps in reducing
unemployment rate in the state.
 3. It promotes keen competition: In a mixed economy, competition between private and
public sector is allowed. The existence of healthy competition between both sectors
promotes efficiency. All factors of production work efficiently with the hope of
maximizing profit and to ensure social well-being.
4. Promotes optimum/efficient use of resources: Mixed economy ensures efficient
allocation or use of resources. Under this system, both private and public sectors work for
the efficient use of resources. Public sector works for social benefit while private sector
makes the optimum use of resources for profit maximization.
5. High standard of living: Countries that have adopted mixed economy seem to achieve a
better overall standard of living. The mixed-economy provides the lower class an
opportunity of welfare, education and tax-benefits to the middle-classes.
6. Attracting foreign investment: Because mixed economy makes it possible for both
private and public investments, foreigners with capital advanced technology are attracted
into the country to invest in various sectors.
7. Promotes government revenue: Mixed economy helps in improving the government
revenue. Corporate taxes that are imposed on the profits of the private sector generates a
lot of revenue to the government which can further be re-invested to promote economic
development in the country.
8. Promotes the welfare of the people: The system supports the unemployed and provide
healthcare to the general population and other incentives. This ensures that the lower-
level income earners are able to access the same level of quality healthcare and treatment
as the higher income earners in the society.
9. Combines the best advantages of capitalism and socialism: Mixed economy combines
the best advantages of both the private and public sectors of the economy which helps to
improve efficiency.

PROLETARIAT
Proletariat is a socialist concept of exploited class/workers in a capitalist system. They do not
own the means of production but earn their living through wage labour. Simply put, proletariat
refers to the working class.
COMMUNISM
Communism is a political and economic theory which states that all economic and social
activities should be absolutely owned and controlled by the state and not by private individuals.
Industries, Agriculture and commercial enterprises of whatever size big or small must be owned
by the state. Karl Max stated in his manifesto that communism is the highest stage of socialism.
He indicated that under communism, the state will not have the proletariat (poor) and the
bourgeoisie (rich). According to Karl Marc, in a communist state, there is no division of people
as we have in the capitalist state. Here, people will only do what they are capable of doing and
they will be able to enjoy whatever they desire. According to Karl Max. the communist is a
classless society based on the principle “from each according to his ability” and to each
according to his needs” which is in sharp contrast with the principle of capitalism “to each
according to his work”

COMMUNALISM:
Communalism is a socio-political system which allows the ownership and use of property on the
basis of collectivism. Communalism can also be referred to as a social and political system
which practises group ownership and use of property by members of a community.

FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM:
1. There is direct participation of all in decision-making. In communalism, every individual
who forms part of the community is given opportunity to participate in making decisions
that affect the community.
2. There is equitable distribution of income. In communalism, money or income is shared
fairly among the people who work.
3. Labour is relatively free. In communalism, labour is relatively free and for sale. All the
people in the community work and at the end, they share benefit derived from what they
produce. Nobody is paid for the effort put in but gets his or her fair share of the benefits
derived from the production.
4. It is associated with agrarian societies. That is communalism is associated with societies
whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crop and farmland. It stresses the
importance of agriculture.
 5. It promotes group interest. In communalism, decisions and policies that are in the interest
of the entire group is what is pursued instead of individual parochial interests.
6. Communalism encourages equitable distribution of resources. In communalism,
resources are equitably distributed. Everyone gets his or her fair share of the resources
belonging to the community. An organ of the state is responsible for the fair and
equitable distribution of products.
7. It encourages collectivism. In communalism, there is collective ownership of resources.
That is, every property in the community belongs to all people and no one can claim full
ownership of the resources belonging to the community.
8. It is practised in small and primitive societies. Communalism is practise in small and
homogeneous communities. That is communalism is usually practised in communities
that are relatively small in size and share certain things in common. It is a common
feature of a village setting.

MONARCHY
Monarchy is a rule by a king or a queen or an emperor. In a monarchy, the individuals or group
of people in power are determined through bloodlines. Thus, succession to the throne is by
inheritance. Specific rules are in place that dictate who can be named the ruler of the state in a
monarchy.

FORMS OR TYPES OF MONARCHY

Absolute Monarchy: Absolute monarchy is the type of monarchy in whit the monarch is both
the lead of State and Head of Government; his power is not limited by a constitution or by
law. Current absolute monarchies include the monarch of Oman, Swaziland, and Saudi Arabia.
Constitutional monarchy: Constitutional monarchy is the type of monarchy in which the
monarch is the Head of State but not the Head of Government, his power is limited by a
constitution. Current constitutional monarchies include the monarchs of the United Kingdom.
Canada, New Zealand, Denmark, Netherlands and Morocco.

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF A MONARCHICAL SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT
1. The monarchical system of government is headed by a King, a Queen or an Emperor.
2. In a monarchical system of government, the monarch is selected by Kingmakers from a
ruling family called dynasty.
3. Monarchical form of government is hereditary. In a monarchical government, succession
to the throne is by inheritance. Thus, the ruler is selected from the royal line of
succession.
4. In a monarchical form of government, there is no fixed tenure of office for the ruler. The
ruler (monarch) reigns as long as he/she lives.
5. In a monarchical form of government, the absolute monarchy has no constitutional
limitation. With the absolute monarchy, the monarch is both the Head of State and Head
of the Government and his power is not limited by law or constitution. Current absolute
monarchies include the monarch of Oman, Swaziland and Saudi Arabia.
6. The constitutional monarch has limited powers. The constitutional monarchy is the type
of monarchy in which the monarch is the Head of State but not the Head of Government
and his power is limited by constitution or law. Current constitutional monarchies include
the monarch of United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Denmark and Netherlands.
7. In a monarchical form of government, the authority of the monarch is derived from the
tradition,

ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF MONARCHY

1) The transfer of power tends to be smoother: The transfer of power in other forms of
government such as presidential system of government sometimes create protests, counter-
protests, and moments of societal violence. During the transfer of power in a monarchy, there
are fewer complications. Even when the ruler decides to abdicate his position, a successor
has already been named can immediately assume his duties. Thus, transition of government
is easier and more peaceful since no parties are on each other’s necks and attack each other.
This creates fewer gaps in the power structure of the government and its predictability
reduces societal uncertainty.
2) It brings about a solid government: Monarchy’s singularity of power provides people with
a symbolic and focused area for group loyalty and identity. There will only be one individual
 who will make the decisions, so they will be made quickly, and there will be fewer
arguments as regards to new policies go to be formulated and implemented.
3) It is cheaper or less expensive to run a monarchy: Monarchy is more effective than other
forms of government since it reduces the huge amount of expenditure of the country from
conducting periodic elections as there is no need to elect their next leader. This is because
sovereignty is handed on successor within the family.
4) It lessens cases of corrupt practices: Nations that are being ruled by monarchs experience
less corruption. In such nations, since monarchs know that they not ruling for a term, they are
mostly not interested in having great wealth themselves. They are thus not known to intend to
abuse authority for core practices.
5) It encourages suitability for leadership: In a monarchical form of government, a potential
successor to the throne is taught the proper ways to rule as early in his/her life as possible,
unlike traditional politicians who only learn about leading a nation in their adult years. Also,
monarchs would not share the blame once they make a bad decision, like traditional
politicians do.
6) High level of respect for the ruler: Monarchies typically have very deep rooted and long-
lasting traditions. Children, parents, grandparents, and even great grandparents are ruled
underneath the same family. The family becomes an icon of the country and the people have
very high levels of respect for them.

DISADVANTAGES OF MONARCHY
(i) It can degenerate into tyranny: Power can corrupt anyone, and sometime, a king or his
successors might degrade themselves and exploit people, bringing into the administration
tyranny.
(ii) It is difficult to change the direction of a country under a monarchy: Because only
one family or one “noble” group is allowed into the ruling class under the structure of a
monarchy, in the event that monarchs become irresponsible and ineffective, it can be
quite difficult for the people to force these leaders out or replace them with those they
think are more effective. Unless the ruler or group of rulers agrees, there is no way for
the average person to create change. The public has no voice, which means a selfish or
power-hungry monarch could create instant and long-term oppression.
(iii) Independent justice is not present unless it is specifically built into the government:
Independent justice is difficult to find in a monarchy because the ruling class has the final
judicial say in matters unless a separate structure has been built into the government. If
the ruler doesn’t like you, then you might find yourself in prison, even if you did nothing
wrong.
(iv) It might lead to having a leader who might not be responsible and accountable:
Accountability within a monarchy is limited at best. The head of state may be held
accountable to the rest of the ruling group, but not to the people whom they rule. A
person who knows that he or she will rule the country for the rest of his or her life might
not take the responsibility to serve for the betterment of the people seriously. He may rule
to satisfy his own whims and caprices instead of the welfare of the entire society.
(v) It does not create enough room for diversity of ideas in governance: Nations become
stronger when different ideas, perspectives, and experiences come together to create a
path that invites forward progress. Within a monarchy, the ideas, perspectives, and
experiences of one person are what drive the nation forward. Since monarchs are trained
for their role, the only influence on them is the individual responsible for their training.
That structure reduces diversity, which ultimately makes it difficult for a monarchy to be
competitive compared to other forms of government.
(vi) It can lead to inequality of wealth: In a monarchical government, the leader, his
ministers and the ruling class would amass wealth, but the common people’s plight would
remain miserable, Instead of the rulers using the resources at their disposal for the
betterment of the entire society, they may use them to satisfy their own parochial interest.
(vii) No Checks and Balances: A monarch is recognized as a supreme legislator, judicator
and executor. The practice whereby the three arms of government exercise some
influence over the other with the view to prevent an abuse power by each organ and to
ensure that nothing harmful or corrupt happens within the country is absent in a
monarchy. In a monarchy, there are no check and balances and only one person makes all
decisions. There is therefore no one to stop something bad from happening or being
implemented.

ARISTOCRACY
Aristocracy is a government by the people of the highest rank (class). In Aristocracy, only the
best people rule. It is a government in the hands of a few privileged excellent or noble people.
The ruler rules in the interest of the people. When Aristocracy becomes perverted it leads to
oligarchy.

OLIGARCHY:
Oligarchy is a government in the hands of a few powerful people who rule in the own interest or
in the interest of their class.

PLUTOCRACY:
Plutocracy is a system of government in which the richest (wealthy) people country rule or have
power.

AUTOCRACY:
Autocracy is a form of government in which all powers are vested in one person. The ruler has
absolute power and he relies on force to suppress those who oppose to his rule. Under autocratic
rule, the leaders tend to be heavily work-oriented, placing their emphasis on task
accomplishment or achievement and very on human needs. Again opposing views are suppressed
and are considered as attempt to overthrow their dynasty.

DESPOTISM
Despotism is a form of government in which a single entity called the ‘deport’ rules with
absolute power.

DICTATORSHIP
A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which government is ruled by
an individual, the dictator.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
It is a leadership style the leader grants total or complete freedom to his followers. The leader
does not actively involve himself in work performance. The leader often distances himself from
where action is taking place. Again, work is assigned in a vague manner, with the individual
workers using their preferred techniques to arrive at the final product
KLEPTOCRACY
Kleptocracy is a government of thieves.

MOBOCRACY/OCLOCRACY
Mobocracy or Ochlocracy is a government by mob or a mass of people.

KREPTOCRACY
Kreptocracy is a rule by judges.

GERONTOCRACY
Gerontocracy is a government by elderly (old) people.

THEOCRACY
Theocracy is a government headed by a priest or a clergy.

KAKISTOCRACY
Kakistocracy is the government by the worst citizens in the state.

DEMARCHY (LOTTOCRACY)
Demarchy is a form of hypothetical government in which the state is governed by randomly
selected decision makers who have been selected by sortition from broadly inclusive pool of
eligible citizens.

FEUDALISM
Feudalism can be defined as the identification of landed property with sovereignty. It is
characterized by close personal bond between the lords and serfs. It is based on ownership of
land or estate by the lord. In feudalism, ownership of the land or estate is with the king and is
hierarchical. The monarch is the maker, judge and commander over his vassals. Again, the lord
who is the holder of an estate has authority over those living on it. The lowest class of people in
the feudal system of government is the serfs. Land or property of the serfs goes back to the lord
when the vassal dies without the heir. The serfs worked on the land and receive protection for
work done. The serfs (tenants) pay their overlord’s annual tributes in money or in kind.

MERITOCRACY
Meritocracy is a political ideology whereby appointments are made and responsibilities are
assigned to individuals based upon their “merits” namely intelligence, morality and education
usually determined through evaluations or examination.

TOTALITARIANISM
It is a system of government in which the individual is not allowed free will in political as well
as social matters of the state OR Totalitarianism is a system government in which all aspects of
life of the individual are controlled by the state or government. Power and authority are
completely centralized. Examples of totalitarian leaders are Adolf Hitler of Germany, Joseph
Stalin of Russia and Benito Mussolini of Italy.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF TOTALITARIANISM
(i) There is usually a single mass party or Absence of opposition parties: In a totalitarian
state, only one political party is allowed to operate. Opposition parties are not tolerated. All
political enemies are suppressed, killed or detained without trial. The government employs
massive propaganda to weaken its opponents.
(ii) The state monopolizes the media: In a totalitarian state, the press is not allowed to operate
freely. The government uses intimidation and censorship to suppress the mass media. The state
decides the type and nature of information and education to be given to the masses.
(iii). Existence of one dominant ideology: A totalitarian state usually has one dominant
ideology or philosophy to which all citizens are expected to subscribe. Thus, there is an official
ideology to which general acceptance is demanded. This ideology could be in the form of
communism, fascism etc
(iv) Existence of political censorship: In a totalitarian state, all information outlets and cultural
activities such as literature, art. and music are subject to political censorship.
(v) Absence of judicial independence: In a totalitarian state, the judiciary is not given freedom
to operate. Judges are subject to political control which undermines fair administration of justice.
(vi). The state centrally directs the economy: In a totalitarian state, the economy is highly
centralized. The state controls all the factors of production, distribution and exchange. All
economic decisions and policies emanate from the centre.
(vii) Presence of a secret police force: In a totalitarian state, there is usually a secret police
force. Totalitarian state has a strong secret force whose main aim is crushing any opposition.
Political enemies are suppressed, killed or detained without trial by these secret police force.
(viii).The state is supreme: A totalitarian state is superior to and above all other organizations
and institutions. Thus, the state makes all other organizations and institutions in society
subordinate to its needs. The state relies heavily on coercion or force to enforce its ideas.

FASCISM
Fascism is a form of government headed by a dictator with the government having total or
absolute control over all activities in the state OR Fascism is defined as a system of government
headed by a dictator and emphasizes aggressive nationalism and racism in which government has
absolute control over all activities in the state. South Africa before 1994 was a good example of a
fascist state.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF A FASCIST STATE/FASCISM

(i). There is usually a single mass party/Absence of opposition parties: In a fascist state, only
one political party is allowed to operate. Opposition parties are not tolerated. All political
enemies are suppressed, killed or detained without trial. The government employs massive
propaganda to weaken its opponents.
(ii) Aggressive nationalism: Fascist regimes tend to make constant use of patriotic mottos,
slogans, symbols, songs, and other paraphernalia. Flags are seen everywhere, as are flag symbols
on clothing and in public displays. Fascism is based on aggressive nationalism which manifests
itself in territorial expansion and the desire to dominate other states
(iii). Existence of one dominant ideology: A fascist state usually has one dominant ideology or
philosophy to which all citizens are expected to subscribe. Thus there is an official ideology to
which general acceptance and obedience is demanded. This ideology could be in the form of
communism, Nazism, fascism and others.
(iv). Existence of political censorship: In a fascist state, all information outlets and cultural
activities such as literature, art, and music are subject to political censorship.
(v). Absence of judicial independence: In a fascist state, the judiciary is not freedom to operate.
The fascist leader may unduly interfere in the activities of the judiciary. Judges are subject to
political control which undermine administration of justice.
(vi). The state centrally directs the economy: In a fascist state, the economy is highly
centralized. The state controls all the factors of production, distribution and exchange. All
economic decisions and policies emanate from the centre, what to produce, how much to produce
and when to produce are all determined by the state.
(vii). Presence of a secret police force: In a fascist state, there is usually a police force. Fascist
state has a strong secret force whose main aim is crushing any opposition. Political enemies are
suppressed, killed or detained without trial by these secret police force. The people are willing to
overlook police abuses and even forgo civil liberties in the name of nationalism.
(viii). The state is supreme: A fascist state is superior to and above all individuals and all other
organizations and institutions. Thus, the state makes all other organizations and institutions in
society subordinate to its needs. The state relies heavily on coercion or force to enforce its ideas.
Individuals can even be killed in pursuit of state goals.
(ix). Adoption of autocratic tendencies: A fascist government adopts au tendencies. It uses its
coercive agents, the police, army, navy and air organizing violence and terror in society. The
fundamental human right citizens are curtailed and violated with impunity.
(x) Limited political participation: In a fascist state, political participation is limited to a few
elite while the majority of the population is not allowed to take part in decision making. Fascist
regimes almost are always governed by groups of friends and associates who appoint each other
to government positions and use governmental power and authority to protect their friends from
accountability. A vast number of people are therefore left out when making decisions.
(xi) The state monopolizes the media: In a fascist state, the press is not allowed to operate
freely. The government uses intimidation and censorship to suppress the mass media. The state
decides the type and nature of information and education to be given to the masses.

DEMOCRACY
Democracy comes from a Greek terminology “Demos Kratia” which means rule of the people or
peoples’ rule.

DEFINITIONS
(a). Democracy is a political system in which absolute power in the state is vested in the hands of
the people and is directly or indirectly exercised through elected representatives.

(b). Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as the government of the people, by the people and for
the people.

TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
There are two main types of democracy. They are direct or classical democracy and indirect,
modern or liberal democracy.
Direct or classical democracy is a form of governance in which people collectively make
decisions for themselves, rather than having their political affairs decided by representatives.
Direct democracy is collectively termed “pure democracy”. Direct democracy was first practiced
in the Greek City state of Athens.
Indirect or modern or liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of
the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law and
usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of
individuals and which places constraints on the leaders and the extent to which the will of the
majority can be exercised against the right of minorities.

MAIN FEATURES OF MODERN OR LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

(i). Majority rule: In democracy, the will of the greatest number must prevail in all decisions.
For instance, in Ghana’s parliament two thirds (2/3) must agree to a bill before it can be passed
into law.
(ii). Existence of opposition parties: In democracy, there should be an existence of opposition
parties to serve as a check on the passing of ill- conceived or hasty decisions by the ruling
government. The opposition parties constructively criticize the unpopular policies of the ruling
government, legitimately oppose government measures that are not in the national interest and
offer alternative solutions.
(iii). Existence of legislature: There should be a legislature whose member freely elected on the
basis of Universal Adult Suffrage and periodic election for people to re-affirm their confidence.
(iv) Respect for human rights and freedoms: In democracy, fundamental rights and civil
liberties exist and are respected. The democratic government should respect the rights and
freedoms of the people. These rights and freedom include right to privacy, right to life, right to
vote, freedom of speech
(v). Periodic elections: In democratic state, elections should be organised periodically in order
to make government responsible and accountable to the electorates. It helps the electorates to
change their representatives who fail to live up to expectation. The conduct and supervision of
the election free and fair.
(vi) Tolerance of varied views: Tolerance of dissenting views is another important feature of
democracy. The government must be prepared to face criticisms. All citizens must feel free to
criticize the government constructively without fear or favour.
(vii) Sovereignty of the people: In democracy, political sovereignty is in of the electorate. The
electorate determine through elections who should be in the key executive and legislative
positions in the state.
(viii) Existence of free press: In democracy, the press is free from censorship and intimidation.
These enable them to criticize the government co and expose his shortcomings. The existence of
fret press also enables the citizens to articulate their opinions.
(ix). Existence of rule of law: In democracy, the law of the state is supreme. All individuals are
equal before an existing law irrespective of colour, race, sex, religion or status. In a democratic
state, authority exercised by political office holder is backed by constitutional rights.
(x) Existence of an independent judiciary: In democracy, the judiciary is made independent of
all forms of control from the executive or the legislature. This enables them to administer justice
fairly without any fear or favour.
(xi) Independent electoral commission: The conduct of election in democracy is entrusted in
the hands of an independent electoral commission.
(xii) Existence of democratic institutions: In democracy, there should be existence of
democratic institutions such as Public Complaint Commission, civil societies and pressure
groups.
 FACTORS THAT CAN ENSURE DEMOCRACY IN A STATE
I. Existence of free press: There must be an existence of an independent media to criticize
the unpopular policies of the government. The media also educates the citizens on their
rights and liberties and where to seek redress when their rights are trampled upon: Again,
the existence of free press will enable the citizens to articulate their opinions on issues
going on in the state.
II. Periodic elections: To ensure democracy, periodic elections must be held to make the
government responsible and accountable to the electorates.
III. Existence of multi-party system: To ensure democracy, there must be existence of
strong and vibrant opposition parties to serve as watch dog on the activities of the ruling
government. The opposition parties constructively criticize the ruling government and
legitimately oppose government measures that are not in the national interest.
IV. Existence of legislature: There must be a legislature whose members are freely and
fairly elected on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage and periodic elections for people
to reaffirm their confidence.
V. Entrenchment of Fundamental Human Rights and civil liberties: To ensure
democracy, Fundamental Human Rights and civil liberties of citizens must exist and
should he entrenched in a written constitution to prevent greedy politicians from
amending them so easily to encroach on the citizens right
VI. Existence of democratic institutions: There must be existence of democratic institutions
such as Public Compliant Commission, Commission on Human Rights and
Administrative Justice, judiciary, executive, civil societies, pressure groups to promote
democracy. There must be a degree of separation of powers among these institutions in
order to prevent arbitrary rule.
VII. Existence of Rule of law: The principle of rule of law must be observed to promote
democracy. Thus, the principle of liberty, equality and certainty legality must be
observed.
VIII. Existence of an independent judiciary: The judiciary should be made to independent
from the executive and the legislature so that they can settle cases fairly without any fear
of favour.
IX. Opportunity to appeal: The system must provide opportunity for aggrieved persons to
seek appeal.

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE EFFECTIVENESS/SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF

DEMOCRACY
1. Absence of an independent and impartial judiciary that can settle election disputes.
2. Absence of free and fair press that can enlighten the electorates and also election
atrocities
3. Destabilizing effort by the opposition parties which may lead to political instability
4. Lack of an independent electoral commission that will conduct free and elections
5. High degree of illiteracy and ignorance on the part of the electorates which will prevent
them from performing their civic responsibility of voting during elections.
6. Depriving the electorates their right of choosing the right candidates through rigging of
elections
7. Obstruction or interfering in the duties of the electoral commission by selfish politicians

MAIN FEATURES OF A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

Democratic government is a system of government which enables the citizens to participate in
the decision-making process of their country either directly or indirectly through their elected
representatives. Features of a democratic government include:
1. Majority rule: In a democratic government, the will of the greatest number prevails in
all decisions. Thus, decision making must be based on majority consent or view. For
instance, in Ghana’s parliament two thirds (2/3) majority must agree to a bill before it can
be passed into law.
2. Existence of vibrant opposition parties: In a democratic government, there is an
existence of vibrant opposition parties which serve as a check on the passing of ill-
conceived or hasty decisions by the ruling government. The opposition parties criticize
the unpopular policies of the government and offer alternative solutions
3. Respect for human rights and freedoms: In democratic governments, Fundamental
Human Rights are respected. The democratic government respects the rights and
freedoms of the people. These rights include right to privacy, right to life, right to vote.
 freedom of speech etc
4. Periodic elections: In a democratic government, elections are organized periodically in
order to make government responsible and accountable to the electorates. The conduct
and supervision of the election must be free and fair.
5. Tolerance of varied views: Tolerance of dissenting views is another major feature of
democracy government. Minority views must be respected. The government must be
prepared to face criticisms. All citizens must feel free to criticize the government
constructively without fear or favour.
6. Sovereignty of the people: In a democratic government, political sovereignty is in the
hands of the electorates. They have the power to decide who should rule and who should
not rule.
7. Freedom of the press: In a democratic government, the press is free from censorship and
intimidation. These enable them to criticize the government constructively and expose his
shortcomings.
8. Existence of rule of law: In a democratic government, the law of the state is supreme.
All individuals are equal before an existing law irrespective of colour, race, sex, religion
or status.
9. Existence of rule of law: In a democratic government, the law of the state is supreme.
All individual are equal before an existing law irrespective of colour, race, sex, religion
or status.
10. Periodic change of government: In a democratic government, elections must be
conducted periodically to pave way for the citizens to change their representatives who
fail to live up to expectation.
11. Existence of an independent judiciary: In a democratic government, judiciary should
be independent of all forms of control from the executive the legislature so that it can
administer justice effectively without fear or favour.
12. Independent electoral commission: The conduct of election in democratic state should
be entrusted in the hands of an independent electoral commission
13. Existence of institutions to safeguard rights: In a democratic government there is an
existence of institutions and mechanisms to safeguard the right and liberties of
individuals. Examples of institutions that must exist include the Commission on Human
 Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) National Commission for Civic Education
(NCCE), Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU).
14. Adherence to the principle of separation of powers: In a democratic government, the
principles of separation of powers and checks and balance are adhered to.

ADVANTAGES/MERITS/IMPORTANCE OF DEMOCRACY
(i) Protection of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms: The rights of the citizens
are better guaranteed under democracy. In democracy, the rights and freedoms of the
citizens are entrenched in a constitution which makes it difficult for the government and
other bodies to trample upon them.
(ii) Promotes Popular Participation in government: Democracy allows to participate in
government. It allows people to criticize the unpopular policies of the ruling government.
It also allows voting public to take part in elections and choose politicians to represent
them in the legislature and the executives. Thus, people voice their opinions by means of
votes. This participation in government process inculcates in the people a feeling of
belongingness the political community.
(iii) Ensures peaceful and orderly transition of power: Democracy ensures peaceful and
orderly transfer of power without resorting to violence. Power can be transferred from
one party to another through elections. This promotes stability and continuity in
government.
(iv) Ensures peaceful resolution of conflicts: Democracy is good for resolving
disagreements between powerful groups in society without resorting to physical fighting
and civil war. Political conflicts are settled peacefully after verbal debates and vote in
parliament.
(v) Prevents dictatorship: In democracy, the fundamental laws by which a country should
be governed by are provided. These laws specify the functions and limitations of the
government in power and for that matter, leaders cannot abuse their powers. Again, the
democratic government operates on the basis of separation of powers since power
corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Also, the three organs of government
namely, legislature, executive and judiciary check each other to prevent over-
concentration of power and its subsequent abuse.
(vi) Promotes accountability, good governance and transparency: Democracy promotes
accountability, good governance and transparency through periodic elections. The
existence of periodic elections in democracy serve as a reminder to political office
holders that one day they would be called upon to give an account of their stewardship.
Because of this, rulers try to work hard to meet the wishes and aspirations of the people
so that they will be re-elected in the next election.
(vii) Ensures equality: Democracy promotes equality before the law, and also equal political
participation. In democracy, all citizens are regarded as equal irrespective of race, colour,
class, wealth, health and intelligence. Again, all citizens have equal opportunity to
participate in the decision making of their country. Equal opportunities are provided for
employment in the public sector. Citizens are also free to pursue their private businesses
and aspirations so far as it does not contravene the law of the land.

DISADVANTAGES /DEMERITS OF DEMOCRACY

(i) Expensive to operate: Democracy is very expensive. For democracy to work up to
perfection, democratic institutions such as judiciary, parliament, Electoral Commission,
Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) and National
Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) must be established and resourced. All the
people working in those institutions have to be paid. Again, the conduct of elections in
democracy is very costly especially when there are run-offs.
(ii) It may represent the rule of few not many: Democracy, especially the modern type
which is representative has received a lot of criticism from pool as a type of oligarchic
rule. This is because few people are elected to rule behalf of the majority. Although in
theory, democracy refers to government by the people in practice it is rather government
by a few.
(iii) Intricate and technical: In a democratic nation, it is the citizens who hold the right to
elect their representatives and their governing authorities. According to common
observation, not all the citizens may be fully aware of the political scenario in their
country. The common masses may not be aware or understand the political issues in the
society. This may result in people making the wrong choice during election.
(iv) Slows down decision-making: Democracy tends to slow down decision making process
 in a state. The democratic government is expected to follow laid down rules and
regulations before decisions are taken. For example, before a bill is passed into law, it
goes through very laborious processes before it is accepted and promulgated. People and
organizations are sometimes consulted before major decisions are taken. Sometimes
referendums are used to ascertain the opinions of the electorate before decisions are
taken. This sometimes derails the smooth running of the state especially in emergency
situations.
(v) Producing incompetent people: Some people have criticized democracy on the basis
that the system sometimes produces incompetent people government. According to the
critics, the system sometimes allows people who are not experienced and knowledgeable
to cope with complex issue be in government which impedes the smooth running of the
state.
(vi) Short term focus: As the government is subject to change after every election term, the
authorities may work with a short term focus. As they have to face an election after the
completion of the term, they may lose focus on working for the people and rather focus
on winning elections.
(vii) Democracy sometimes gives platform for destructive criticisms: Democracy provides
undue advantage to the people to express their opinion. These people sometimes abuse
these freedoms and speak or write to destroy the government in power and individuals. In
some countries, Trade Union Organizations such as teachers, nurses, doctors etc may
repeatedly embark strike without any justification. The media also at times use the press
free to criticize any policy of the government whether good or bad. Destructive criticisms
expressed by the people sometimes result in chaos, anarchy and disorder in a state.

REASONS WHY PEOPLE PREFER DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENTS TO MILITARY

REGIMES
(i) In democratic governments, political parties are allowed to exist and operate in the state
whilst in military regimes, they are banned.
(ii) In a democratic government, elections are held periodically for the electorates to select
representatives to administer the state whilst in military regimes, those who manage the
affairs of the state are not elected.
 (iii) In democratic governments, laws are generally made through democratic procedures
whilst military regimes rule by decrees.
(iv) In democratic governments, fundamental human rights of the citizens are guaranteed and
respected whilst in military regimes; they are curtailed and violated with impunity.
(v) In democratic governments, the principle of separation of powers is applied and upheld
whilst in military regimes, powers are fused.
(vi) Actions of democratic governments are open to public scrutiny and criticisms whilst
military regimes are intolerant and apprehensive to scrutiny and criticisms.
(vii) Democratic governments are legitimate because the ruler has the sovereign will of the
people to rule whilst military regimes are illegitimate.
(viii) Decisions in democratic governments are through persuasion whilst in military regimes,
coercion and violence are utilized.
(ix) In a democratic governments, the constitution as the fundamental law is allowed to
operate whilst in military regimes they are suspended.
(x) Democratic governments are usually internationally recognized whereas military regimes
may not gain international recognition.
(xi) Democratic governments promote free press whereas in military regimes, they are usually
gagged or proscribed

NATION
A nation is a group of people with a sense of common race, culture, religion and historical
experiences but who may not necessarily live together in a single territory. In other words, a
nation refers to a group of people with common ethnic origin, language, religion, culture and
common consciousness of togetherness.
FEATURES OF A NATION
(i) Common descent/Common origin: Individuals inhabiting a nation usually have a
common origin and descent. Such people trace their origin to a common place and a
common ancestor.
(ii) Attachment to a common geographical area (Attachment to a common Territory):
People that form a nation may live in one or more territories for example the Arab nation.
A nation does not necessarily need to have a clearly defined area as a state possesses.
 People that form a nation identify themselves with specific geographical area and
consider that area as their national homeland
(iii) Common historical link: There is a high degree of common historical experiences,
social and cultural ties among the people. Members of a nation share common historical
experience. This experience could be those of battle that they have won together or bad
experience they have had as a nation.
(iv) Common language: A common language is a unique feature of a nation. Individuals
inhabiting a nation usually have a common language which majority of the people can
speak and understand. For instance, Asante as nation has a common language, Asante-
Twi, which majority of the people can speak and understand.
(v) Peaceful atmosphere: Conflicts and disagreements are not pronounced as in diverse and
heterogeneous societies. The common language, culture and religion associated with a
nation makes the people feel that they are one people attached to a common geographical
area. Because they see themselves as one people, conflict and disagreements are not
usually pronounced.
(vi) Common culture and traditions: People of a nation usually have a common culture.
Thus, they have common way of life. Their mode of dressing, dancing, drumming,
festivals, funeral rites, puberty rites, naming ceremony and the food they eat are similar
or common.
(vii) Common religious beliefs: People that form a nation usually have common religious
beliefs, which could be Christianity, Islam, etc. For example, the people of Israel are
united by Judaism. The Arab nation also has a common religion that is Islam which
majority of the people believe and worship. The existence of a religion serves as a
magnetic pull uniting binding the members together.

THE STATE
A state is a defined territory with people, system of laws (constitution) and government that has
supremacy over all other institutions. OR A state is a group of people occupying a definite
territory with an organized government free from external control. OR A state is a politically
organized body of people occupying a definite territory independent of external control and
possessing a government to which the inhabitants render obedience.
FEATURESCOMPONENTS/E LEMENTS/ATTRIBUTES OF A STATE
The features of a state include: territory, people, sovereignty, government, constitution,
permanence and international recognition.
1. Definite Territory: A state has an area of its jurisdiction where it is located. This area is
both geographically and legally marked out. It includes the land surface, the soil beneath
it, the empty air-space above it and its sea limit as recognized by international law. A
state has a definite proportion on the globe which it can claim to be its own. Defined
geographical territory is the most visible feature of a state.
2. Population (people): A state has its people living within a definite territory. Thus, the
people are the inhabitants of a state. There are two categories (groups) of people found in
every state. They are the citizens and the aliens (foreigners). A citizen is a person who
has full rights as a national of a country either by birth or by being granted that status by
the state. Citizens have political rights, social rights, legal rights and economic rights in
the state. Aliens or foreigners are individuals in a state who do not enjoy the legal status
of a citizen. An alien belongs to another state and resides in a different state. Aliens may
enjoy social, and economic rights of their host state but do not have political right. That
is, they cannot vote or be voted for during general elections of their affiliated or
accredited country.
3. Government: A state is organized with leaders who may be appointed or elected to
make, interpret or implement the laws and public policies. The government has authority
over its citizens as well as foreigners (aliens) who live in the state. The government has
coercive power which enables it to use force to compel people to obey its laws. The
government performs a number of functions in the state. These include enactment of
laws, protection of citizens, maintenance of law and order, defence of the country against
aggressions, conducting external relations and promoting economic activities.
4. Recognition by the international community: A state must be recognize by other
international community.
5. Permanence: Governments come and go when their tenure of office ends a state remains
unchanged. No government rules forever. The constitution of every state provides a fixed
tenure of office of every government. For example, under the 1992 constitution of Ghana,
 the president serves for four years a mandated by the constitution and his tenure can be
renewed for another years only if the electorate still like him.
6. Systems of laws or Constitution: A state has system of laws which is a code of conduct
for the rulers and the ruled. Without the laws, there will be chaos, anarchy or disorder in
the state. Existence of law helps to ensure orderliness and harmony within the state. The
law of the state binds only people in the territory. It does not therefore affect citizens of
other states.
7. Sovereignty: A state has power of total control over its people and territorial area. In
other words, a state has supreme and final legal authority to make and enforce its own
laws over all the people under its jurisdictions or border without any external influence or
control. This implies that the laws of the state are superior to and above all other laws
made by individuals, associations and clubs. For instance, when the state makes laws it
must be obeyed by everybody in the territory be it a citizen or an alien. The state has
monopoly over legitimate use of power, force or violent. Only the state can determine life
a death. For example, only the state prevents you from killing your own son or yourself
and it is only the state that can pronounce death penalty on someone
8. Compulsory membership: A state has a compulsory membership. Whether one likes it
or not, so far as he lives in the territory of a state, be it a citizen or an alien, is subject to
the authority and control of the government of that country.

FUNCTIONS OF A STATE
1. Protection of citizens: The state protects the rights of its citizens. The protection
embraces the life, family and property of the citizen. Internally, the citizens are protected
by the police and court of laws. Externally the citizens are protected against attack
through the armed forces namely Army, the Navy and the Air Force.

2. Provision of social services: The state provides social services for its citizens. Examples
of these social services that a state is expected to provide include medical care, formal
education, recreational services, and social security during old age.
3. Maintenance of law and order: The basic (primary) function of every state is to
maintain peace, law and order. The state establishes institutions like the police force,
 courts and prisons for the maintenance of peace, law and order.
4. Defence of the country against external aggression: The state establishes the Armed
Forces namely, the Navy, the Army and the Air force to defend its territory against
external aggression (attack).
5. Enactment of laws: The state enacts (makes) laws to ensure orderliness and harmony
within the state. Without laws, citizens may do whatever they like which could result into
anarchy, chaos and disorder in the state. The laws of the state are enacted by the
legislature.
6. Promotion of economic activities- The state promotes social and economic
development. It does this by encouraging private entrepreneurs to provide the goods and
services needed by the people. Another way is to set up public corporations to produce
goods and services at moderate prices. The state also provides the necessary physical
infrastructure like roads and electricity to promote economic development.
7. Maintenance of external relations: The state maintains good friendly relations with
other states for the purpose of peaceful co-existence. The state does this through
appropriate ministries like the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other agencies.
8. Preservation of the identity of the people: The state preserves the identity of the
people. People identify themselves with states.
9. Promotion of morality of the people: The state promotes morality of good life. It
imposes on the people one standard of morality, one code of conduct and punishes vices
and criminal conduct and encourages good conduct and performance by means of various
rewards such as award of national honours, tides and prizes.

REASONS WHY THE STATE SHOULD PERFORM THOSE FUNCTIONS

1. Citizens pay taxes and should therefore be provided with social services such as good
health, good education and good recreational facilities by the state
2. Citizens defend the country in times of war; they should also be protected both internally
and externally by the state.
3. Citizens obey the laws of the state, it is therefore the duty of the state to maintain law and
 order so that there will be peace and harmony in the stat
4. Citizens protect the properties of the state and report criminals, their live properties must
also be protected by the state.
5. The state cannot provide all the resources needed by the citizens, the state therefore has to
establish good rapport (friendly relationship) with other state so that in times of need it
can rely on them.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATE AND GOVERNMENT

1. A state is a continuing entity and is therefore permanent while government is a temporary
institution. It only lasts over a period of time. A government may come and go, but the
state continues for ever. Death of a ruler or the overthrow of a government does not mean
the change of a state. For example, if the New Patriotic Party government replaces the
National Democratic Congress government in Ghana, it involves no fundamental changes
in the structure the state in Ghana.
2. A state possesses sovereignty. Its authority is absolute and unlimited power cannot be
taken away by any other institution. Whereas government possesses no sovereignty, no
original authority but only derivative power delegated by the state through its
constitution. Powers of government are delegated and limited.
3. A state is a territorial association of people with defined boundaries whiles government is
an administrative institution within a state.
4. A state depends on government for carrying out its activities whiles government is the
machinery through which the functions of a state are performed. A state is more inclusive
and it is therefore greater than government. Government not inclusive; it is only part of a
state.
5. A state has its elements as population, territory, government and sovereign whiles
government has its main organs as the legislature, executive and judiciary. Government is
a narrow concept and it is an element of the state. Government is an agent of the state.
That is why in democracy, it is considered as a servant and the state as master.
6. All states are identical in character and nature. Whether big or small, the characteristics
the state do not undergo changes but governments are of different types and they may
vary from state to state. Various political scientist have given different classifications of
 government. Aristotle had classified government into monarchy, aristocracy and
democracy. Marriot has classified government into parliamentary or presidential and
unitary or federal. Thus, there is no uniform pattern of government but the state is a
universal institution having one single form with its essential characteristics.
7. A state is an abstract concept whereas government is a concrete one. Nobody sees the
state and the state never acts. The government is a physical manifestation and it acts for
the state. It consists of a definite group of persons who can be seen and known. It is a
tangible organization which can be seen and questioned.

COUNTRY
A country is a region legally identified as entity in political geography. A country may be an
independent sovereign state or one that is occupied by another state.

SOCIETY
The word society refers to any group of people living together through kinship relation, social,
political, religious and having common interest. Membership of a society may not be compulsory
but voluntary. OR
The word society refers to a group of people who conceive of themselves as distinct from other
groups and who are connected together through communication ties (language), common
customs, traditions and institutions such as politics, law and Economics. Members of human
societies share a sense of common identity that grows out of their shared culture.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOCIETY
1. Membership of a society may not be compulsory but voluntary. Thus, members have free
will to join or not to join the group. For example, in societies such as church, members
choose to join or leave depending upon their own will and conviction.
2. Society is controlled by rules and regulations: Society is controlled by rules and
regulations whose enforcement may not be as rigid as laws made by the state. Societies or
associations such as church societies usually have rules and regulations and can therefore
apply sanctions such as fines, suspension and deprivation of recalcitrant members from
the enjoyment of benefits and facilities belonging to those societies.
 3. Society consists of members: Every society consists of members. There can be no
existing society without members. Only rational and free beings form a society, since it is
a union based on agreement about goals.
4. There is cooperation among members: There is cooperation among members. Members
of society cooperate or work together for the attainment of some end. This end may be
some common goal that all the members share in that no member could accomplish
singly.
5. Society is equipped with moral power called authority. To guide the cooperate effort to
common goal, society must be equipped with moral power called authority. Authority is
the right to determine the means and direct the member in their use.

SOVEREIGNTY
DEFINITIONS
Sovereignty of a state refers to the supreme authority of a state to make and enforce its laws over
all the people within its jurisdiction or borders without any external influence or control. OR
Sovereignty of a state refers to the existence of supreme authority in a state is not restrained by
law. OR
Sovereignty is the supreme power or authority of the state to manage its affairs and control its
territory without any external control or interference. Sovereignty ultimately resides in the
people within a political society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVEREIGNTY
Sovereignty is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive, inalienable, absolute and unified or
indivisible.

1. Permanence: So long as the state itself exists, sovereignty continues without

interruption. Changes in government do not affect its continuity and permanence. Thus,
the holder of sovereignty may die but the power of the state survives.
2. Exclusive: This means that there can be, but one supreme power in the state. Within the
state, there is no other power that possesses equal or superior authority to it.
3. Comprehensive (universal): Sovereign power extends over all persons, associations and
 other things within such territorial limits. No person or association can claim exception
from its law except those over which the state has voluntarily consented to waive the
exercise of its jurisdiction.
4. Inalienability: This means that the state cannot transfer its sovereignty without its own
death or self-destruction. No state can alienate or part with its essential elements of
sovereignty and yet remain a state. Division of sovereignty is tantamount to its death.
5. Absolutism: Sovereignty is absolute, unlimited and unrestrained. There is no power
higher and greater than sovereign. Sovereignty is a primary power. It does not derive its
power from anything. There is no other body that determines the nature and the extent of
the power as a matter of legal rights.
6. Indivisible: Sovereignty cannot be divided without producing several wills of the people;
which is inconsistent with the notion of sovereignty

THE TRADITIONAL NOTION OR HISTORY OF SOVEREIGNTY

The traditional concept of sovereignty demands a ruler to enjoy absolute power. The major
proponents of traditional sovereignty include:
1. Jean Bodin (1530-1596): The concept of sovereignty was propounded by Jean Bodin.
According to Jean Bodin, a French lawyer, sovereignty is the supreme power of the state
over citizens and subjects without any influence from external authority.
2. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1676): Thomas Hobbes when writing about the civil war in
Britain made the assertion that human nature is inherently savage and brutal and affirmed
strongly that the power of the sovereign must be single, absolute, inalienable, unlimited
and perpetual if man’s life was to be prevented from being solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
and short.

3. John Locke (1632-1704): John Locke, who supported the claim of parliament to ultimate
power, wrote that people were sovereign and the sovereign power of the people should be
expressed by the ruler or rulers to whom they delegate it.
4. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 1778): J J Rousseau also opines (holds view or believes)
that the totality of power in the state must be welded and not by an individual or a group.
He ended by regarding sovereignty as inalienable, indivisible, absolute and perpetual.
 5. John Austin (1790-1859): Austin opines that law is the command of the sovereign who
receives habitual obedience but owes obedience to no one holds the view that, sovereign
power is unlimited.

MODERN OR CONTEMPORARY MEANING OF SOVEREIGNTY

Professor A. V. Dicey revised the traditional notion of sovereignty by classifying sovereignty
into political and legal sovereignty.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOVEREIGNTY
Political sovereignty: Political sovereignty refers to the body in which power ultimately resides
in a state. In democracy, political sovereignty resides the electorate. The electorate determine
through elections who should be in the key executive and legislative positions in the state.
Legal sovereignty: Legal sovereignty refers to the accepted institutions and bodies established
by law for the administration of the state. Legal sovereignty establishes legal institution such as
legislature, executive, judiciary and ombudsman for the administration of the state. In a
democracy, the legal sovereign receives its authority from the electorate whatever be the basis of
the right of vote, and is answerable to it for the exercise of its powers. It is therefore subject to
change by the mandate of the electorate at regular intervals. In parliamentary system, legal
sovereignty resides in the legislature.
Internal sovereignty: This is the ability of the state to make and enforce within its
jurisdiction/borders without any control or interference.
External sovereignty: External sovereignty refers to freedom of a country from external
influence or control.

A de-facto sovereignty refers to a ruler who occupies the highest office of the state through
illegal or unconstitutional means. Such a ruler may assume power through the use of coup d’état
or a revolution.
A de jure sovereignty refers to a ruler who derives his authority from the established laws. Such
a ruler is able to issue commands and secure obedience on the part of the people by virtue of the
laws of the state.
FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE SOVEREIGNTY OF A STATE
(i) Membership of international organizations: A states’ membership of international
organizations like UN, ECOWAS, AU, and can CommonWealth can limit its
sovereignty. These international organizations exert great influence on the decision-
making of the member states. A state is expected to respect the charter and decisions of
such organizations in the formulation of her foreign policy in order to maintain her
membership.
(ii) Influence of Pressure groups/public opinion: Pressure groups or public opinion can
also influence the decisions or policies of the government. For example, the Value Added
Tax (VAT) was withdrawn in 1995 by the parliament of Ghana under Rawlings regime
due to the pressure that was coming to the government from a pressure group called
Alliance for Change.
(iii) International interdependence due to inadequate resources of a state: Many poverty
stricken nations mortgage their external sovereignty for military, economic and technical
assistance. The exercise of full sovereign power is limited by the interest of these donor
countries.
(iv) Inter-state relations: Inter-state relations such as economic, cultural and treaties signed
between states usually regulate and restrict the activities of such states. A state is
expected to respect the conditions attached to such agreements.
(v) International laws: International laws can impose restraint upon the sovereignty of
states. States abide by international laws for the interest of world peace.
(vi) Diplomatic immunity: Foreign diplomats enjoy immunity from prosecution. No matter
the crime committed by a diplomat he or she cannot be tried in his or her country of
accreditation which limits the sovereignty of the state to make and enforce laws over all
people within its jurisdiction without any external interference.
(vii) Influence of powerful states/nations: The sovereignty of states especially developing
ones can be influenced by powerful nations such as USA, China, Russia, France and
United Kingdom (UK). These powerful nations exert great influence on the policies and
decisions of the smaller nations. The actions and inactions of these smaller states are at
times influenced by the decisions of these powerful states.
POLITICAL CULTURE
Political culture can be defined as the sum total of the political attitudes, values, feelings,
knowledge and skills possessed by members of the political community.

ASPECTS OF POLITICAL CULTURE

Gabriel A Almond and Sydney Verba identified three basic aspects of political culture namely:
the affective, the cognitive and the evaluative.
The affective: consists of the feelings and emotions of the people toward political system-its
institutions, leaders and values.
The cognitive: consists of the knowledge and information that the people possess about the
political community-its history, heroes, symbols, present conditions and future aspirations
expressed in the policies of the leaders.
The evaluative: consists of the value judgments of the people about the performance and general
credibility of the system and its leaders.

TYPES OF POLITICAL CULTURE

Political culture has been classified into three, namely: the parochial, the subjective, the
participant.

 Parochial political culture: In a parochial political culture, the people as a whole have
neither deep knowledge nor intense feelings about the institutions, leader and processes
of the state. They are predominantly rural and government penetration is minimal.
 Subject political culture: In this type of political culture, the people are generally
passive but loyal to the rulers. They know about and have some measure of feelings and
emotions towards the general political system and they may even be aware of the
decisions and actions that affect them but the people do not know what role they
themselves can play as political actors or how they can affect the decisions and actions of
the rulers by making use of the input channels. They may be aware of the input channels
but they are scared of the consequences of making mistakes or they simply feel that as
individuals they hardly count.
  Participant political culture: The third typology is the participant political culture. In
this type, the citizens actively participate in the political process of their cou

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
Political socialization is the process through which an individual acquires a set of political
attitudes, values, beliefs and form opinions about political systems and OR
Political socialization is the transmission of political norms, attitudes values, beliefs and
behaviours that are acceptable in an established system of government to the future generation.
Political culture of the society is transmitted from one generation to another through political
socialization. Through effective political socialization, the citizens of a country are made to be
aware of the political system, the role they are expected to play in the system, raise their loyalty,
pride, patriotism and nationalistic feelings to the nation.

AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION

The major agents of political socialization include the family, the school, the peer groups, the
mass media and the political parties.
The family: The home is the first place an individual makes his first contact. Children learn
mainly through observation and by observing the political behaviours of their parents, they tend
to learn them. Citizens from politically conscious families tend to be politically aware and
interested in politics.
The school: Educational institutions play significant role in the political socialization of the
citizens of a country. It is in schools that political theories, the actors. etc are read and learned. It
is in schools that people start to learn and practice how to play political roles.
The peer Groups: A person is known by the group he keeps. One’s views, including political
view are influenced by one’s playmates and friends. Therefore, the peer group of an individual
tends to socialize the individual politically.
The Mass Media: The mass media include radio, newspapers, television and magazines. The
mass media educate, inform and entertain. The type of education passed unto the people by mass
media includes political education. People are socialized through what they read, listen to and
watch in the mass media
Political parties: One of the significant roles political parties play in political socialization is
by stimulating the political awareness and consciousness of the people. Political parties also
educate its members through their manifestoes and campaigns.

POLITICAL EDUCATION
Political education refers to the process by which citizens are enlightened on the values, attitudes
and beliefs of the political system.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT

RULE OF LAW
Rule of law is a concept that states that the law in all things must be supreme. (It is the
supremacy of the law). This means that members of the executive branch of government
including the president, all public officials, members of parliament, members of the bench and
all citizens are subject to the law and must obey the laws of the state. This means that no one, not
even the president or head of state is above the law. The concept of rule of law was advocated by
A.V. Dicey.

MAIN FEATURES OR PRINCIPLES OF RULE OF LAW

(i) Principle of certainty or legality of the law: Certainty of the law is one of the basic
principles or features of rule of law. Rule of law according to this principle means there
should be a clear definition of the law as regards to what is right or wrong. The law must
be in existence, known and passed by elected legislative body of the people. Again, the
legality of the law implies that no person can be made to suffer either in body or goods
except he is guilty of breaking or breaching an existing law and this should be determined
in the ordinary courts of the land according to the legal procedure.
(ii) Equality before the law: Equality before the law is another basic principle of rule of
law. This principle means that nobody is above the ordinary law of the land and that the
same law should be applied equally to all manner of persons irrespective of their status,
rank or wealth; and that there should be no special courts empowered to deal with a
particular group of people. All persons must have equal access to the law courts. Again,
to ensure proper realization of equality before the law, the poor and the needy should be
 given aid when needed. Discrimination of what ever kind should not be encouraged.
(iii) The principle of liberty: Another feature of rule of law is the principle liberty. This
principle implies that people must enjoy basic rights. Fundamental human rights and
liberties such as right to life, right to privacy, freedom of speech, freedom of movement
etc should not be trampled upon-hence they are invariably provided for in many
constitutions. The fundamental human rights must be enjoyed by the citizens.
(iv) Social and Economic welfare: The Delhi declaration of 1958 makes it imperative for the
state to provide social and economic conditions, which will make it possible for
individuals to enjoy benefits for their welfare.

IMPORTANCE OF RULE OF LAW/WHY RULE OF LAW MUST BE

ENFORCED/UPHELD
(i) Protection against arbitrary rule: When rule of law prevails, citizens are protected
from arbitrary exercise of power by greedy politicians. When there is abuse, they can go
to court to seek redress.
(ii) To enhance the individual rights and freedoms: Rule of law must be enforced in a
state because it enables individuals in the state to enjoy their rights and freedoms. The
principle of liberty stipulates that people must be allowed to enjoy their fundamental
human rights and freedoms such as freedom of movement, freedom of expression,
freedom of association etc.
(iii) To prevent dictatorship and allow for good governance: In countries where rule of
law prevails, dictatorship is minimized. For example, in democratic states, the
government is expected to rule by the law and nothing else. The governments can
therefore not resort to the arbitrary use of power that can lead to dictatorship.

(iv) Helps to improve the living standard of the people: Rule of law helps to improve the
living standard of the people and enable them to live a dignified life. This is because the
rule of law makes it imperative for the government to provide the basic needs of life, and
to create opportunities that will enable individuals live a dignified life.,,
(v) For promoting equality before an existing law: Rule of law helps to avoid all kinds of
discrimination in the society since it ensures that everybody is treated equally before an
 existing law irrespective of the person’s position, rank, or social status.
(vi) Ensures the supremacy of the law: The principle of rule of law ensures that the laws in
the constitution remain supreme and become the main laws of the land as oppose to laws
that emanates from the repertoire of arbitrary leaders. The principle makes everybody in
the state subject to the existing law. This means that members of the executive branch of
government including the president, all public officials, members of parliament, members
of the bench and all citizens are subject to the law and must obey the laws of the state.
This means that no one, not even the president or head of state is above the law.
(vii) Individual enjoy free legal aid: The existence of rule of law enables individual who
cannot afford to pay for the services of lawyers in court proceeding enjoy free legal aid
since it is one of the pre-requisite conditions necessary for an effective operation of rule
of law.

CONDITIONS THAT ENSURE THE OPERATION OF RULE OF LAW

(i) Provision of socio-economic facilities: To promote rule of law, good education, health
facilities, pipe-borne water and recreational facilities must be provided by the
government to improve the social life of the people. Also, equal opportunities must exist
for all citizens for employment in the public sector without any discrimination.
(ii) Existence of judicial review: The concept of judicial review should enshrined in the
constitution. This will enable the Supreme Court to critically examine all laws passed by
the legislature and certain actions taken by the executive and declare those found to be
contrary to the provisions of the constitution as null and void or ultra vires.
(iii) Existence of an impartial and independent judiciary: There should be an independent
judiciary with impartial courts as well as other institutions as Public Compliant
Commission to safeguard the rights of the individuals and to settle disputes among
individuals or between the individual and the state without interference with the process
of administering justice. The judiciary must not discriminate against any person in the
performance of its functions.
(iv) Provision of legal aid: To ensure effective operation of rule of law, legal aid must be
provided to people who cannot afford to pay for the services of lawyers in court
proceedings.
 (v) Tolerance of varied views: Tolerance of varied views on the part of the government
ensures rule of law. People must not be detained for opposing the government. The
government must tolerate freedom of expression, the mass media must be allowed to
operate without intimidation or coercion. The government must also tolerate the
activities of pressure groups.
(vi) Enlightened citizenry: The citizens must be educated to know their rights, the laws of
the state and channels for seeking redress.
(vii) Entrenchment of fundamental human rights in the constitution: Fundamental
Human Rights must be entrenched in a written constitution to make it difficult for the
government to tamper with them.
(viii) Existence of justifiable orders or prerogative writs: There should be an effective
legislation and constitutional provisions to enhance rule of law in a country. The
constitution must include writs such as mandamus, certiorari, habeas corpus, prohibito
and quo warranto so that people whose rights are being infringed upon can file any of
such writs to seek redress.
(ix) Existence of democratic institutions: Democratic institutions such as the legislature,
executive, judiciary, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ)
and National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) must be established to promote
rule of law. There should be a degree of separation of powers among these institutions in
order to prevent arbitrary rule.
(x) Existence of Free press: To ensure rule of law, there must be an existence of
independent press capable of criticizing the wrong decisions and policies of the
government especially those that encroach on human rights.

WAYS IN WHICH RULE OF LAW IS REALIZED IN GHANA

1) Citizenry is encouraged to know their rights and responsibilities and the laws of the state
through such institutions as the National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) or
Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ).
2) Independence of the judiciary guaranteed under the constitution is allowed to operate freely
without undue interference.
3) The judicial system features such judicial processes as Mandamus, Certiorari, Habeas corpus
and Prohibition to safeguard the liberty of the individual.
4) There is an existence of democratic structures. That is, the three organs of government
namely the legislature, the executive and the judicially exist and are made to work
independently of each other to prevent arbitrary rule.
5) Fundamental human rights and freedoms such as freedom of expression, freedom of worship,
freedom of movement as entrenched in the constitution are enforced. This makes it difficult
for the government to tamper with them.
6) Basic education and health facilities are provided to all people without discrimination.
Example in Ghana, the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) is enforced.
Again, there is free health care for the minor and the aged under the National Health
Insurance Scheme.
7) There is equal opportunity for employment in the public sector.
8) Government tolerates freedom of expression. etc. Citizens enjoy their basic rights.
9) Provision of legal aid services for the poor. Legal aid is provided to people who cannot
afford to pay for the services of lawyers in court proceedings.
10) Existence of an impartial and independent judiciary: There is an existence of independent
judiciary with impartial courts as well as other institutions such as Public Compliant
Commission to safeguard the rights of the individual and to settle disputes among individuals
or between the individual and state without interference with the process of administration of
justice. The judiciary does not discriminate against any person in the performance of its
functions.

FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE OPERATION OF RULE OF LAW

(i) Rate of illiteracy: The high illiteracy rate among people especially in Africa makes it
difficult for them to know their rights and liberties and where to so redress when these
rights are violated.
(ii) Delegated legislation: The practice of delegated legislation may give rise to a body of
laws, rules and regulations which the individual may not about and which may encroach
 upon the individual’s rights and liberties. Many bodies with powers of delegated
legislation have often used such powers to the detriment of the application of the rule of
law.
(iii) Diplomatic immunity: The principle of equality before the law does not always apply. In
real practice, some people enjoy better privileges than others before the law. Foreign
diplomats enjoy immunity. No matter the crime committed by a diplomat he /she cannot
be tried in his country of accreditation. Judges and members of parliament enjoy
immunity from prosecution with regard to anything done or said while discharging their
duties.
(iv) System of government: The type of governmental system practiced in a country can
limit the realization of rule of law. For instance, the concept is not effective in countries
that practice military rule, one party-system and autocratic systems of government. In
such countries, individual rights and liberties arc trampled upon and the press is also
suppressed. The concept is mostly realized in a democratic state.
(v) State of Emergency: The practice of rule of law is suspended in a state of emergency.
Citizens of a country may be denied some of their fundamental human rights and
freedoms such as right to life, right to privacy, freedom of speech, freedom of movement
and the application of rule of law is limited when a state of emergency is declared in a
country. State of emergency can lead to government acquiring wider and uncontrollable
powers, indiscriminate arrests and detention without trial or if possible secret trials.
(vi) Customs and conventions: Customs and conventions practised in some areas in a state
can weaken the effectiveness of rule of law in a state or country. A good example is the
`Trokosi’ system practiced in some areas in Ghana which allows people to be enslaved.
Another good example is the Female Genital Mutilation.

(vii) Absence of judicial independence: In many developing countries, especially in Africa,

the judiciary is not given full independence to operate but are controlled by the executive.
This practice derails the realization of the concept of rule of law since the judiciary may
not give fair judgment.
(viii) Security of the state: Rule of can be violated with impunity in a bid to maintain the
security of the nation. For instance, people can be arrested and detained without trial,
 their movement restricted, their properties confiscated etc. for security reasons.
(ix) Age Limit: People’s age also play significant role in determining how the rule of law can
be applied to them. For example, children less than seven years cannot be prosecuted,
notwithstanding the legal offence committed by them.

THE PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS, CHECKS AND BALANCES

SEPARATION OF POWERS
Separation of powers is the practice by which the three arms of government, namely the
legislature, executive and judiciary arc made independent of each other in terms of personnel,
powers and functions. OR
Separation of powers is the practice whereby government powers and functions exercised by
different organs of government and people, in which case no single person or organ exercises
two or more powers and functions at the same time.
The theory of separation of powers was formulated and popularized by a French writer called
Baron de Montesquieu. The principle of separation of powers is best noticeable in presidential
or non-parliamentary system of government.

ADVANTAGES/IMPORTANCE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS

(i) To prevent dictatorship/ tyranny: The doctrine of separation of is a safeguard against
autocracy. Separation of powers helps to check emergence of tyranny or dictatorship
which can happen if two or more powers are concentrated in the hands of one person or
body of persons. This is because ”power corrupts and absolute power corrupts
absolutely”. The principle of separation of powers prevents an individual or group from
welding absolute and unchecked power.
(ii) To guarantee Fundamental Human Rights: Because powers of government are shared
among different persons or a body of persons, encroachment individual rights and liberty
is minimized.
(iii) To reduce the workload of each of the organs of the organs of government:
Separation of powers makes it possible for the work of the organs of government to be
limited. Each of the three organs of government operates within its jurisdiction which
 reduces their workload.
(iv) To ensure efficiency and orderliness in the administration of the country:
Separation of powers promotes specialization and efficiency in administration. This is
because each organ concentrates on one area of the government allocated to it by the
constitution.
(v) To ensure compliance with the Rule of Law: Separation of powers helps to ensure
compliance with the Rule of Law since each organ of government complies with the
provisions of the constitution and works within its limit set forth in the constitution.
(vi) To reduce friction: Separation of powers helps to reduce friction or among the three
organs of government since each organ works independently without any interference
from the other.
(vii) To strengthen the independence of the Judiciary: Separation of powers helps to
strengthen the independence of the judiciary. Thus, it enables judges to administer justice
impartially without any tear or favour or interference from the legislature or the
executive.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEPARATION OF POWERS

1. It may create friction among the organs of government: Separation of Power if
strictly applied can lead to frictions among the various arms of government namely; the
legislature, the executive and the judiciary. This is true because where there is the need
for co-ordination, the arms of government may stick to their role and refuse to co-operate.
This may lead to a deadlock in governance.
2. Not compatible with a parliamentary system of government: In a parliamentary
system of government, the executive and the legislative arms of government are fused.
Ministers who are part of the executive arm of government are all selected from the
legislature.
3. Not completely workable in practice: The doctrine of separation of powers is not fully
workable in practice. The principle states that the organs of government must be
independent of each other but in countries where the ruling government has majority in
parliament, the executive arm is able to control the legislature through its members in
parliament. Also in some modern presidential systems, most bills emanate from the
 executive and the legislature has only been reduced to a rubber stamp. Again,
impeachment which is judicial in nature is done by the legislature.
4. Not enough to guarantee the liberty of citizens: It may be true that Separation of
Powers can protect the liberty of the individual but it is not the only factor of liberty
There must be in existence some other ingredients like; a free press, active pressure
groups, Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, etc. to ensure that the
rights and liberties of the citizens are not violated.
5. Administrative Complications and deadlock: Separation of powers results in
administrative complications. It becomes difficult to forge cooperation, coordination and
harmony among the organs of government. The smooth working of modern governments
demands not so much separation of powers as ’co-ordination’ of powers.

PRACTICALITY OF THE CONCEPT OF SEPARATION OF POWERS

 The need for power to check power often referred to as ”cheeks and balances” makes the
application separation of powers not very practicable in any system of government

 The judiciary, as much as possible is kept separated to ensure its independence in

administering justice.

HOW SEPARATION OF POWERS OPERATE IN PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT
(i) In presidential system, the three organs of government namely the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary are separated in terms of personnel, power and functions. The
legislature is charged with the responsibility of making laws, the executive to implements
the laws and the judiciary to interpret the laws.
(ii) In presidential system, all cabinet ministers are selected from outside parliament house
and none of three organs of government should usurp powers or interfere in the workings
of the other organs.
(iii) In presidential system of government, no one person or organ of government can
combine the legislative, executive and judicial functions or organs. Each organ
concentrates only on the area of government allocated to it by constitution which helps to
 promote efficiency.

LIMITATIONS OR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE APPLICATION THE

DOCTRINE IN PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM
a) The doctrine of separation of powers is only theoretical, what exists in pratice is the
doctrine of checks and balances. The following points attest to that
b) The executive appoints the Chief Justice and approves the appointment High Court
Judges
c) The executive also assent to bills passed by the legislature to become laws. The
executive also make laws. Under delegated legislation, ministers make laws, rules and
regulations for the ministries.
d) The legislature on the other hand approves the budget prepared by the executive. It also
approves treaties and major policies of the executive
e) The judiciary also performs some legislative functions through the case that it makes.

HOW SEPARATION OF POWERS OPERATE IN PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT
1. There is no strict separation of powers in a cabinet system of government because the
executive is collectively responsible to the legislature.
2. Individuals can operate in two or more organs of government. Thus, one can be a
member of parliament and at the same time an executive member as a minister. No.
3. There is fusion of powers in the discharge of responsibilities. There is no clear distinction
between legislative powers and executive powers.
4. Members of the cabinet are also part of the legislature. All cabinet members in the
parliamentary system of government are selected from the legislature. Under no
circumstance can anybody be selected from outside parliament to become a cabinet
member.
5. In Britain, the Lord Chancellor who is the head of the judicial arm of government is also
a member of the legislature and the executive.
6. In Britain, the House of Lords, the Upper House or the Second chamber of the legislature,
is the highest Court of Appeal.
THE DOCTRINE OF CHECKS AND BALANCES
The doctrine of checks and balances was advocated (propounded) by a French writer called
Baron de Montesquieu. Checks and balances is the practice whereby the three organs of
government exercise some influence over the other with the view to prevent the abuse of power
by each organ. Each organ acts as a watchdog on the other. The doctrine of checks and balances
is best noticeable in presidential system of government.

HOW THE DOCTRINE OPERATES

The constitution of many countries determines the various ways by which the three organs of
government can check and balance one another. Some of the ways are listed below:

A. HOW THE LEGISLATURE CHECKS THE EXECUTIVE

The legislature exercises a number of checks on the executive. For instance, in the presidential
system of government; some major nominees made by the executive require the approval of the
legislature. These include the appointments of ministers, Ambassadors and judges of the supreme
Courts as is done in U.S.A. The legislature therefore encroaches on the powers of the executive.
The legislature controls the raising and spending of moneyy by the executive. The legislature is
responsible for authorizing the raising and spending of public money. The legislature can
increase or decrease the budget presented to it by the execute.
The legislature can also subject a minister or prime minister to questioning over their handling of
state affairs
Again, treaties entered into by the executive with foreign countries require legislative approval
before they can become effective.

Finally, in a cabinet system, the legislature can pass a vote of no confidence to remove the prime
minister and his cabinet if they fail to live up to expectation and in the presidential system, the
president can be impeached by the legislature.

B. HOW THE EXECUTIVE CHECKS THE LEGISLATURE

The executive also checks the legislature in several ways.
Firstly, bills passed by the legislature are subject to the assent of the executive before they can
become law.
Secondly, the executive may be unwilling to enforce laws passed by the legislature
Thirdly, in parliamentary system of government, the prime minister can call for the dissolution of
parliament.

C. HOW THE EXECUTIVE CHECKS THE JUDICIARY

In countries where judges are appointed and removed by the executive, judges be removed by the
executive as a measure to weaken judicial power.
Secondly, the executive may be unwilling to enforce decision, as happened in Sallah’s case in
Ghana during the Busia regime.

D. HOW THE JUDICIARY CHECKS THE EXECUTIVE AND THE LEGISLATURE

The judiciary also checks the legislature and the executive through the power judicial review.
This power enables the judiciary to nullify unconstitutional acts of the legislature and the
executive.

ADVANTAGES/IMPORTANCE OF CHECKS AND BALANCES

 It helps to check the emergence of tyranny: The main objective of the principle of
checks and balances is to prevent tyranny which can happen if too much power is
concentrated in the hands of one person or body of persons without any organ serving as
watchdog on the use of such powers.
 It helps to protect the liberty of the individuals (people): Provision of checks and
balances in a constitution enhances the liberty of the individuals in a state. Since checks
and balances avoid tyranny, it preserves the rights and liberties of the people in the state.
 It regulates and limits the powers of the organs of government: Checks and balances
make it possible for the powers of the organs of government to be limited. Each of the
three organs of government operates within its jurisdiction and as a result cannot be too
powerful.
 It preserves the constitution: Checks and balances help to preserve the constitution by
ensuring that each organ of government complies with the provisions of the constitution.
 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Political participation refers to voluntary activities in which the citizens of a country involve
themselves directly or indirectly through influence over public policies and decision making in
the state. OR
Political participation refers to the voluntary activities by which members of a society share in
the selection of rulers and directly or indirectly involve in the formulation of public policies.

WAYS BY WHICH A CITIZEN CAN PARTICIPATE IN THE AFFAIRS OF THE

STATE
(i) Acting as a polling agent: By acting as a party representative at a polling station, a
person is directly involved in the political activities of his country.
(ii) Belonging to a political party: A citizen can be actively involved in the political affairs
of the state by joining or belonging to a political party. These people who belong to a
political party usually participate in electioneering campaigns, political rallies and other
forms of political meetings.
(iii) Holding of political office: A citizen can be actively involved in the political affairs of
the state by holding political office either elective or non-elective to enable him
contribute to decision making of the state. (iv).
(iv) Serving as an election observer: A citizen can participate in the affairs of the state by
serving as an elections observer. These type of people do not identify with any of the
political parties but mere observation of events.
(v) Contesting in elections to hold public office: Some active political participants stand as
candidates seeking elective public offices on the ticket of political parties or as
independent candidates if the constitution allows it.
(vi) Voting during election: A citizen can participate in the affairs of the state by taking part
in voting to select representatives to hold public office.
(vii) Attending political rallies and campaigns: A citizen can participate affairs of the state
not actively but partially by attending political rallies and campaigns.
(viii) Taking active part in political events: A citizen can participate in the affairs of the state
by holding meetings and having discussions on political events.
CONSTITUTIONALISM
(i) Constitutionalism refers to strict adherence to the provisions of the constitutions of the
land by everyone including the leaders’. OR
(ii) Constitutionalism is defined as a rule in accordance with a constitution
(iii) Constitutionalism means that the power of government should be defined and limited by
the dictates of the body of the fundamental laws of the land known as constitution. This
implies that the actions and activities of government its officials should be in line with
the provisions of the constitution.

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE CONSTITUTIONALISM

(i) Entrenchment of Fundamental Human Rights and civil liberties in the constitution:
To promote constitutionalism, Fundamental Human Rights and civil liberties of citizens
must exist and should be entrenched in a constitution to prevent greedy politicians from
amending them so encroach on the citizens’ rights.
(ii) Existence of an independent judiciary: The judiciary should be independent from the
executive and the legislature and any other institution of the state so that they can settle
all cases fairly without any fear or favour. The concept of judicial review should also be
enshrined in the constitution. This will enable the Supreme Court to critically examine
all laws passed by the legislature and certain actions taken by the executive and declare
those found to be contrary to the provisions of the constitution as null and void or ultra
vires.
(iii) Tolerance of varied views: Tolerance of dissenting views is another major factor that
promote constitutionalism. Minority views must be respected. The government must be
prepared to face criticisms. All citizens must feel free to criticize the government
constructively without fear or favour.
(iv) Observance of Rule of law: The principle of rule of law must be observed to promote
constitutionalism. Thus, the principle of liberty, equality and certainty or legality must be
observed. The citizens must also be provided with social and economic welfare to
improve their living standard.
(v) Existence of free press: To promote constitutionalism, the press is free from censorship
 and intimidation. These enable them to criticize the government constructively and
expose his shortcomings. The existence of free press also enables the citizens to articulate
their opinions
(vi) Existence of a multi-party system: To promote constitutionalism, there must be
existence of strong and vibrant opposition parties to serve as watchdog on the activities of
the ruling government. The opposition parties constructively criticize the ruling
government and legitimately oppose government measures that are not in the national
interest.
(vii) Free, fair and periodic elections: To promote constitutionalism, periodic elections must
be held to make the government responsible and accountable to the electorates. The
conduct of the elections must be entrusted in the hands of an independent and impartial
electoral commission to ensure free and fair elections.
(viii) Existence of separation of powers/checks and balance: To promote constitutionalism,
the three organs of government namely the legislature, the executive and the judiciary
should be made to work independently in terms of personnel, powers and functions.
Each of these three organs of government should serve as a check on each other to
prevent abuse of power of any organ.
(ix) Existence of constitution: To ensure constitutionalism, there should be existence of
constitution to enable those at the helm of affairs to govern according to the provisions
stipulated in the constitution. It will also help moderate the behaviour of citizens in the
state.
(x) Fixed tenure of office for political office holders: To promote constitutionalism, there
should be a fixed tenure of office political office holders to make them accountable and
responsible to the electorates. The existence of tenure of office serves as a reminder to
political office holders that one day they would be called upon to give an account of their
stewardship. Because of this, rulers will try to work hard to meet the wishes and
aspirations of the people so that they will be re-elected in the next election.
(xi) Nature/system of government: To promote constitutionalism, there should be an
existence of a democratic government in which leaders govern only by the laid down
rules set forth in the constitution.
(xii) Raising the level of literacy/civic education: There should be an existence certain
 institutions such as National Commission on Civic Education (NCCE) to provide civic
education to the citizens.

IMPORTANCE OF CONSTITUTIONALISM
(i) It safeguards the fundamental human rights of the people: The principle of
constitutionalism enhances the protection of the peoples’ fundamental human rights such
as right to life, freedom of movement, freedom of speech etc.
(ii) Constitutionalism promotes the principle of rule of law: Constitutionalism is a means
of ensuring that the constitution is seen as supreme law of the land and that all the people
adhere to its provisions. It also ensures that all citizens are treated equally before the law.
(iii) Constitutionalism ensures legitimacy: Thus, it ensures that those who exercise political
power have the right and mandate of the people.
(iv) Constitutionalism places limitations on the exercise of governmental functions:
Constitutionalism ensures that governmental functions are exercised in accordance with
the law. It determines the framework within which governmental powers and functions
are exercised which helps to prevent arbitrary rule.

TRIAL UESTIONS
Identify four features of capitalism
Discuss four merits of capitalism Q2.a). What is power? b). Identify five sources of
political power Q3.4. What is political power? b). Highlight any three sources of
political power Q4. Highlight merits and two demerits of socialism Q54 Define a nation

Highlight any three features of a nation Q6.a). Explain political participation. b). State
five ways a citizen can take part in the political affairs of the

state Q7.a). What is fascism? b). Highlight five features of fascism. Q&$. Define
legitimacy? b). Outline five factors that determine legitimacy Q9(a) Define capitalism
(b) State two advantages and two disadvantages of capitalism Q10). What is
sovereignty of a state? Outline the main limitations on the

sovereignty of the state. Q11.a). What is sovereignty of a state? (b) Highlight five salient
features of sovereignty of a state. Q12.a) What is a state? b) Highlight any five
components of a state Q13.a) Highlight any six functions of a state b) Why should the
state perform those functions? Q14). Outline the main limitations on the sovereignty of the
state Q15) Why is it necessary for people to be under the state? Q16.a) What is a state?
b) Describe any five features of a state Ql7). Outline six differences between state and
government. Q18.a) What is democracy’? b) What are the features of a democratic
government?

68

II

GOVERNMENT FOR S S
NC Of GOVIIRNMENT

Q19. Q20.a) b) Q21.

Q22. Q23. Q24. Q25.a) b) Q26).

0. 0.

Q27).

Q28).

?30.a).

b).

Q31). Q32.a). b). Q33.a). b). Q342) (b) Q35a). b). Q36a). b).

Discuss the salient roans= of liberal system What is democracy? State five factors that can
ensure in a state Outline five reasons why people prefer democratic government to military
regime. Under what conditions can the rule of law be ensured in a state? Explain the concept of
rule of law Why must a country uphold rule of law? What is rule of law? Highlight five
reasons why rule of law be enforced? Explain the concept of rule of law.

Give two limitations of rule of law and Two advantages of rule of law Highlight six ways by
which rule of law is realized in your country. Explain the concepts of separation of powers and
show how it is embodied in a countries constitution How is separation of powers practiced in
presidential system?

What is separation of powers? Explain how separation of powers is practiced in parliamentary

syst of government Describe how the three organs of government check each other. Explain
checks and balances Highlight five advantages of checks and balances. What is separation of
powers? State five reasons for the adoption of separation of powers in a coy What is
constitutionalism? State four factors that promote constitutionalism What is separation of
powers? Outline four disadvantages of separation of powers What is checks and balances?
Highlight four ways by which the legislature can serve as an ch the exercise of executive
powers.

°cataract+ GOVERNMENT FORS.’

 CHAPTER THREE
CONSTITUTION
A constitution can be defined as a fundamental system of law, written or unwritten of a
sovereign state established or accepted as a guide for governing the state. OR
A constitution is the fundamental laws of a state, which provides the principles upon which a
government is established.
Constitutional rule is a system of governance that recognizes the constitution as the ultimate
basis for the administration and management of all the affairs of the state.

MAJOR FEATURES OF A CONSTITUTION

(i) A constitution of a state specifies the type of party system that the country should
operate. Thus, it specifies whether the country should adopt one party system, two- party
system or multi-party system. For example, the 1992 constitution of the Republic of
Ghana specifies that multi -party system should operate in the state and parliament shall
have no power to enact a law establishing a one-party state.
(ii) A constitution has a preamble or introduction which states the ideological stand of the
state.
(iii) A constitution specifies the organs of government, their functions and limitations as well
as their relation with one another.
(iv) A constitution of a state specifies the type and characteristics of government the state
should adopt. Thus, it specifies whether unitary, federal, presidential or cabinet system is
to be adopted.
(v) There is a provision specified in the constitution for its amendment to meet changing
situations.
(vi) A constitution of a country specifies the rights and duties of citizens. These include
political rights, economic rights, social rights, civil rights and legal rights of the citizens.
In Ghana all these rights are enshrined in the chapter five of the 1992 Fourth Republican
Constitution.
SOURCES OF A COUNTRY’S CONSTITUTION
(i) Previous constitution of a country: Previous constitution of a country cm be a good
source of a written constitution. For example, Ghana made references from its previous
constitutions such as the 1969 Second Republican Constitution and the 1979 Third
Republican Constitution in drafting the 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution. Those
things found useful were inculcated in the 1992 Constitution.
(ii) Decrees: The laws made by military government can also serve as a source of a country’s
constitution. Acts of parliament: The various laws, statutes or acts of parliament are
usually codified into a single document which forms an important source of a country’s
constitution.
(iii) Judicial precedence/case laws: The pronouncements, declarations and interpretations
made by the judiciary at the various courts serve as another source of a written
constitution. The incorporation of case laws into the constitution helps to safeguard the
liberty of the individuals and to check possible abuse of power by government. It also
helps to resolve controversial issues in the process of governing.
(iv) Writings of eminent political thinkers/intellectuals: The authoritative books written by
political and constitutional experts can also serve as a source of a country’s constitution.
(v) Customs and conventions: The customs, usages, practices and conventions of a country
also form an important source of a country’s constitution.
(vi) Constitution of other countries: In drafting a constitution, a country car make reference
from the constitution of other countries.
(vii) Historical documents: Some historical records and documents of countries such as the
Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights etc. form another source of constitution of a country.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONSTITUTION
A constitution can be classified into the following types: written or unwritten flexible or rigid,
unitary or federal.

WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
A written constitution is a single document embodying the fundamental laws of the land. In other
words, a written constitution is a type of constitution in which all the major provisions need for a
smooth administration of the state are codified into one document. Examples of written
constitution are the 1992 Constitution of Ghana and the constitution of the United States of
America (USA).

REASONS WHY A COUNTRY SHOULD ADOPT A WRITTEN CONSTITUTION

(i) For reference purposes- A written constitution is used for the purpose of reference.
Citizens refer to it when there is disagreement. Government can also make reference to
it for the administration of the state
(ii) It allocates functions- A written constitution allocates functions and powers to the
various organs and institutions of the state and set limits and areas within which they
should operate.
(iii) It ensures certainties- A written constitution ensures certainty of rules because all the
rules for governing the state are written down in one document. It constitutes the
fundamental laws of the land. The laws are made available to the citizens. Citizens
therefore get to know what they should do and what they should not do. The absence of
written constitution might result in anarchy, chaos or disorder in the state.
(iv) It safeguards minority interest: A written constitution safeguards the interest of
minority and that of vulnerable groups such as the interest of women and children from
being ignored by majority groups in a state. A written constitution also ensures that the
interests of minority in federal states are guaranteed. It spells clearly the rights of
minorities.
(v) It establishes the organs of government- A written constitution establishes organs and
agencies of government. For instance, the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana
established the three main organs of government namely the executive, the legislature
and the judiciary.
(vi) It serves as a symbol of statehood- A written constitution serves as a symbol of
statehood. For instance, when Ghana attained a Republican status in 1960, it adopted a
new written constitution to signify her attainment of a new status. Again the adoption of
the 1992 constitution in Ghana shows that the country is democratically structured.
(vii) It protects the Rights of Citizens- A written constitution protects the rights of citizens.
The fundamental human rights of citizens are usually entrenched as a result, leaders
 cannot easily amend to infringe upon the rights of the people.
(viii) It ensures stability: Written constitution ensures stability because the procedures for
settling disputes, changing the government or amending constitution have all been
enshrined in the constitution.
(viii) It checks dictatorship: A written constitution checks dictatorship government because it
defines the functions and limitations of the various organs of government. No organ can
go beyond the limit set forth in the constitution and this helps to prevent dictatorship.
(ix) It provides ideology of the state: A written constitution provides the ideology of the
state by setting out ideas which are expected to support economic al social programmes
of a country.

DISADVANTAGES OR DEMERITS OF WRITTEN CONSTITUTION

(i) Difficult to amend- The entrenched clauses of a written constitution cannot be easily
amended. The amendment of the entrench clauses most at times require special procedure
such as the use of referendum. This is very expensive and time consuming. It can
therefore slow down the process of government
(ii) Slows down the administration of the state: A written constitution slow down the
administration of the state because of the numerous checks and balances it places on the
organs of government. It therefore becomes impediment during emergency situations like
civil wars.
(iii) May neglect customs and conventions: A written constitution tends to overlook
(neglect) the importance of customs and convention that are unwritten aspect of a
Country’s constitution. This affects the country adversely since the customs and
conventions are important for the smooth administration of the state.
(iv) Difficult and expensive in writing: A written constitution is very daft, and expensive in
writing with respect to time and human resources. In writing down a constitution, experts
are needed to actually discuss the provisions thoroughly before coming out with the
constitution.
(v) Its interpretation may lead to a deadlock: A strict interpretation of a constitutional
provision may lead to a stalemate in the relationship between the organs of government
especially between the judiciary and the other organs of government.
(vi) A written constitution is likely to be static: A written constitution is usually rigid and
does not easily render itself to meet changing needs.
(vii) Difficult to read and understand by the ordinary person: Interpreting provision of
written constitution often becomes a problem because of the legal language used in
writing the constitution.

UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION
An unwritten constitution is the type of constitution in which the fundamental laws by which a
state is governed by are not codified into a single document. It includes customs, conventions
and usages. Examples of unwritten constitution include the constitution of Great Britain, New
Zealand. San Marino and Israel.

ADVANTAGES OF UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION

(i) Flexible or easy to change: An unwritten constitution can easily be changed to meet
changing circumstances (needs). Changes to an unwritten constitution may take the form
of changes in convention, usages. Changes can be made by members of parliament
without going through any special procedure like the use of referendum.
(ii) Reflects the people’s culture: Because unwritten constitution has existed for a long
time, it reflects more accurately, the people’s culture. A state which has unwritten
constitution has rich cultural heritage that have evolved over time.
(iii) It is not expensive to operate: Unwritten constitution is not expensive to operate as
compared to written constitution. It does not require special procedure like referendum
for its amendment which helps to reduce cost.
(iv) Makes it possible for the knowledge and experienced statesmen to be considered: An
unwritten constitution makes it possible for the knowledge and experience of the people
to be taken into consideration by the government in formulating policies. This helps to
address the needs of the people in a more appropriate manner.
(v) Friction is reduced: Unwritten constitution is less likely to cause friction. This is due to
the fact that citizens would be conversant with its main features as they evolve gradually.
(vi) Easy to interpret: Unwritten constitution is easy to interpret because most of the
provisions used for the state do not contain entrenched clauses.
DISADVANTAGES OF UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION
(i) It may neglect minority interest: An unwritten constitution may not make it possible
for the interest of the minority to be taken into consideration by the government since
such a constitution does not spell out clearly the rights of minority groups as well as the
interest of vulnerable groups.
(ii) Makes references difficult: An unwritten constitution makes references difficult since
the various provisions needed for the smooth running of state as well regulating the
behaviour of the people are not codified in single document.
(iii) It can lead to dictatorship: Because the rules and regulations have not been codified
into a single-document, it could lead to dictatorship since then no certainty about the
basic rules by which the state is governed. Again, unwritten constitution can easily be
manipulated by greedy or selfish politicians and other powerful leaders in society to meet
their personal interests or needs.
(iv) Unwritten constitution does not allow for certainty of rules: This is because citizens
may not know what the laws are on certain issues. This could result in chaos, disorder
and anarchy in the state.
(v) Fundamental human rights of the citizens can easily be infringed: Since the
fundamental human rights are not entrenched in the constitution, such rights may be
abused or infringed.
(vi) Lacks clearly defined ideology: The unwritten constitution also lacks a clearly defined
ideology or guidelines upon which effective administration can be based.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WRITTEN AND UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTIO

(i) A written constitution is a type of constitution in which all the major provisions needed
for a smooth administration of the state are codified into one document whilst an
unwritten constitution is the type of constitution in which the fundamental laws by which
a state is governed by are not codified into a single document.
(ii) A written constitution can easily be referred to because it is written in a single document
whilst an unwritten constitution cannot be easily referred to since it is not written in a
single document.
(iii) In a written constitution, the fundamental rights of the individuals are clearly defined
 and entrenched in the constitution but in an unwritten constitution the rights of the
individuals are not entrenched.
(iv) In a written constitution, the method of amendment is clearly stated and no one group
or individual can easily change the constitution but in an unwritten constitution, the
method of amending the constitution is not stated and for that matter, arbitrary changes
could be made in the constitution by a few selfish individuals.
(v) A written constitution protects the minority against the domination of the majority but
the interests of the minority are not adequately protected under an unwritten constitution.
(vi) A written constitution is usually rigid and difficult to amend whilst unwritten
constitution is usually flexible and easy to amend.
(vii) A written constitution has a clearly defined ideology upon which effective
administration can be based but an unwritten constitution lacks a clearly defined
ideology or guidelines upon which effective administration can be based.
(viii) Written constitutions are generally rigid and not easily adaptable to changing situations
whilst unwritten constitutions are generally flexible and easily adaptable to changing
situations.

RIGID CONSTITUTION
A rigid constitution is a type of a constitution in which substantial segment of its provisions
usually the entrenched clauses can be changed only through a special procedure like referendum.
Examples of countries with rigid constitution include USA. Australia, Canada, and Bangladesh.

ADVANTAGES OF RIGID CONSTITUTION

(i) Prevents dictatorship: Rigid constitution prevents political leaders from ruling arbitrary
because the constitution cannot easily be changed (amended) to suit their selfish desire.
(ii) Safeguards or protects the rights and liberties of the citizens: Rigid constitutions are
mostly written and the fundamental human rights and liberties of the citizens are
entrenched in it. These rights are not subject to arbitrary changes by the government. For
example, chapter five of the 1992 constitution of Ghana specifies the various rights and
liberties to be enjoyed by the citizen. These rights are entrenched in such a way that they
cannot easily be amended by greedy or selfish politicians to violate the citizens’ rights.
(iii) A rigid constitution ensures stability and continuity: New constitution are not usually
drawn when governments change hands but most at times each government continues to
implement the existing constitution. Since provisions are not constantly or usually
changed, it may bring about stability, unity and continuity in the administration of the
state.
(iv) Protects minority interest: A rigid constitution may make it possible for interest of
minority groups to be taken into consideration by the government especially those in
federal states such as Nigeria and USA with many diverse ethnic groups.
(v) It ensures certainty of rules: A rigid constitution is usually documented a single book
and therefore ensures certainty since the individual can n and know what his/her rights
are so as to defend them.

DISADVANTAGES OF RIGID CONSTITUTION

(i) Difficult and expensive in amending: The procedure for amending rigid constitution
may be expensive and difficult, especially the entrenched clauses. These entrenched
clauses require the use of special procedure as referendum before they can be amended
which is expensive
(ii) Delays decision making: A rigid constitution may not enable government to respond
quickly enough to meet changing situations (needs) in a state. This is because citizens’
views would sometimes have to be solicited before the entrenched clauses are amended.
(iii) Difficult to draft and interpret: A rigid constitution requires expert to draft and
interpret because of the legal language involved. Acquisition of these experts may be
difficult and expensive.
(iv) Instability/Revolution: When a constitution becomes too rigid and oppressive, the
citizens may revolt as the only means to seek changes in the country.

FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION
A flexible constitution is a type of constitution whose rules can be amended or modified through
the simple procedure by which statutes are enacted. Examples of flexible constitutions are the
constitutions used by the Great Britain and Zealand.
ADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION
(i) A flexible constitution can easily be amended to meet emergency situations such as war,
fire outbreak and outbreak of disease.
(ii) It is less expensive to amend: A flexible constitution does not require special procedure
for amendment. It therefore saves the cost it would incur in terms of money and time if it
had to follow a special procedure for its amendment.
(iii) Unlike rigid constitution, the process of amending a flexible constitution is simple and
quick. This is because the flexible constitution does not require special procedures for
amending.
(iv) It allows for the use of customs and convention to enhance the smooth running of the
state.

DISADVANTAGES OF A FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION

(i) It may lead to dictatorship: Flexible constitution can easily be changed by greedy
politicians to satisfy their selfish desire (interest) to the detriment of the people.
(ii) Flexible constitution does not ensure stability and continuity: This is because they are
amended every now and then. This can retard the progress of the country.
(iii) Inadequate safeguard to protect the people’s interest: A flexible constitution does not
provide adequate safeguard for the protection of the rights and interest of the people.
(iv) Requires exceptional political maturity to operate: A flexible constitution is usually
unwritten and requires exceptional political maturity to operate. It may result into
ambiguity, confusion or anarchy, since there is no certainty of rules.
(v) Unsuitable for federal states: Flexible constitution is not suitable for federal states due
to its flexibility. If a flexible constitution is adopted, it may be easy for powerful states to
secede from the federation because the constitution does not bind them strongly to the
federation.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RIGID AND FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION

(i) Rigid constitution is difficult to amend whilst flexible constitution is easy to amend.
(ii) Rigid constitution is suitable for federal state because in federation, the final authority
lies in the constitution whilst flexible constitution is not suitable for federal states due to
 its flexibility.
(iii) Rigid constitution prevents political leaders from ruling arbitrary whilst there is
possibility of an arbitrary rule when a flexible constitution is adopted.
(iv) Rigid constitution is usually expensive to amend since it requires special procedure such
as referendum for amendment whilst flexible constitution is not costly to amend since it
does not require any special procedure for
(v) Rigid constitution is not suitable for emergency situation whilst flexible constitution is
suitable during emergency situations such as war, fire outbreak and outbreak of disease.

CUSTOMS AND CONVENTIONS

Customs are socially accepted behaviour that has evolved over a long period of time, and which
has assumed the force of law in a society.
Conventions are rules and precepts accepted and enforced in the process of administration;
though they are not legally enforceable, a break of convention may lead to a break of law.
Customs and conventions form the unwritten aspect as of a country’s constitution. Customs and
conventions are often associated the British political system, even though other states may use
them. Example, by convention, the Prime Minister Britain is always the leader of majority
parliament.

IMPORTANCE OF CUSTOMS AND CONVENTIONS

(i) Conventions and customs provide an opportunity for the desires and wishes of the people
to be considered in the administration of the state. This emphasizes the role of public
opinion in a democratic government. It also enhances political stability in a country.
(ii) Customary practices and conventions enhance the smooth functioning of the institutions
of government. They help to avoid confusion and conflict in the political system. For
example, after a lengthy debate in the legislature, a vote is normally taken to determine
the final decision. This ensures the working of parliamentary business.
(iii) Customary practices and conventions make it possible for constitutional rules to be
changed to suit changing circumstances. In case of emergency, a country can depend on
customary practices and conventions to overcome the emergency situation instead of
relying on the rigid constitution. For example, the British people could postpone their
 general elections when the Second World War was at its heat without recourse to the
amendment of the constitution.
(iv) Customs and conventions regulate relationship between the organs and institutions of
government. For instance, in British cabinet system of government, the political party
which obtains the highest number of seats in parliament, following parliamentary
elections, forms the government. The leader of that political party is automatically
appointed as the prime minister. It will be a breach of convention if any other person is
appointed and this could result in a constitutional crisis.

LIMITATIONS OF CUSTOMS AND CONVENTIONS

(i) It is difficult to determine what acts constitute convention since they are not carefully
formulated and precisely set out.
(ii) Conventions create too much room for politicians to govern the state according to their
own whims and caprices. Greedy and selfish politicians may manipulate the
predominance of conventions to gain certain advantage which may impede the smooth
administration of the state.
(iii) Conventions cannot be strictly enforced at the law courts. Conventions lack legal backing
and as such may not be legally enforceable.
(iv) Strict adherence to conventions and customary practices can breed extreme
conservatism in the state and may hinder change and development.

FUNCTIONS OF A CONSTITUTION
A constitution of a country performed a number of functions. These include:
(i) Constitution safeguards the rights of citizens: A constitution usually spells out clearly
the fundamental human rights and liberties of citizens such as right to life, right to
privacy etc. These rights are entrenched in such a way that they cannot he easily amended
by greedy politicians to infringe upon the citizens’ rights.
(ii) It defines the powers and functions of the Organs of government: Constitution of a
state defines the powers and functions of the various organs of government and its
agencies. It also sets limits within which each organ of government can operate. It
therefore prevents the emergence of dictatorship or arbitrary rule.
 (iii) It controls and gives legitimacy to the government: A constitution spells out clearly
the methods or procedure for making the government accountable to the electorates.
These include periodic and regular elections; referenda and recall. These procedures
make it possible for the electorates to vote out unpopular or corrupt government. Again,
when a government is directly elected by the electorates, it helps to legitimize him.
(iv) It states the type of party system the country should operate. A constitution specifies
whether the country should practice one-party system, two-party-system or multi-party
system.
(v) It establishes organs and other institutions of government- A constitution establishes
institutions and organs of administering the state. For example, the 1992 constitution of
Ghana established the three arms of government namely, the legislature, executive and
the judiciary.
(vi) It ensures peaceful change of government- A constitution ensures peaceful political
change of government. The procedures of changing governments are stated clearly in it
and therefore ensure peaceful and orderly transfer of power from one government to
another without recourse to the gun. This brings about continuity and stability in the
political system.
(vii) A constitution states the ideological direction of the government- The preamble of
every constitution informs the reader the system of government that is been practiced in
the state as well as hopes, fears and aspirations of the people.
(viii) A constitution ensures certainty of rules- A constitution, particularly written one
ensures certainty of rules. When all the fundamental laws of state are put together
(codified) into a single document (book), it serves as a guide for the administration of the
state. It makes the fundamental laws certain and reliable. It puts no one in doubt as it can
be referred to when there is any disagreement.
(ix) It specifies the type of government the country should adopt. A constitution of a state
specifies clearly the type of government that the state should adopt. For instance, it
specifies whether the country should practice presidential or parliamentary system of
government.
(x) It regulates the use of state power: A constitution sets the limits of government
through its lay down rules by which a country is governed. A government is therefore
 bound to work within the limit set forth in the constitution and nothing else.

PROCESSES OF MAKING A CONSTITUTION

A constitution goes through a series of processes to get it passed. These are:
 A committee of experts set up to consider the constitution to be adopted and what should
go into it
 Expects present their report for consideration
 A Constituent or Consultative Assembly is set up to prepare the draft constitution. A draft
constitution of a country is usually prepared by the Constituent Assembly.
 A referendum is held to solicit the views of the populace.
 Assent is then given by the president

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN MAKING A CONSTITUTION

How the constitution can be amended
(i) The preamble or introduction which states the ideological stand of the constitution
(ii) The type of constitution. That is whether the country should adopt written, unwritten,
rigid, flexible, unitary or federal constitution.
(iii) The organs of government, their functions and their relations to one another.
(iv) The type and characteristics of government. That is whether unitary, federal, presidential
or cabinet system should be adopted.
tHAPTIN (MUM

trittlii;:e#10, ’sic)

a), What is a constitution? b) State and explain four sources of a country’s constitution.

(WASSSCE, 2007)

0)2). Why is it necessary for a country to have written constitution?

(SSSSCEI997, Q1 SSSSCE 2005, QI) Q3). Why are conventions in a constitution

important? (SSSSCE, 2002, Q4). Why is it important for a country to have a constitution?
Q5). Outline three advantages and three disadvantages of unwritten

constitution. Q6). Identify any six functions of a constitution of a state (WASSSCE

MAY/JUNE 2009; QI) Q7). Identify two sources of a written constitution (WASSSCE
JUNE

Q2b)

Onetoodi GOVERNMENT FOR

 CHAPTER FOUR
ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT

Basically, there are three organs (arms) of government, namely, legislature, executive and
judiciary
THE LEGISLATURE
The legislature is the organ (arm) of government which has formal authority under the
constitution to make, change or repeal laws. The legislature is called by different names in
various countries. In countries like Ghana, Britain and South Africa, the legislature is popularly
referred to as parliament. In the United States of America (USA) it is called Congress, in Israel,
it is known as Knesset and in Japan it is called Diet.

FUNCTIONS/DUTIES/ROLES OF LEGISLATURE
(i) Law-making or Legislation: The basic function of the legislature is to enact laws for
the administration of the state. It also amends and repeals laws that are outmoded and do
not serve the needs and aspirations of the society.
(ii) Control of finance (public purse): Another function of the legislature is that it controls
the raising and spending of money by the executive. The legislature is responsible for
authorizing the raising and spending of public money. It is the legislature that is
responsible for the approval of taxes imposed on the people. It approves the annual
fiscal policy or the budget presented by the executive. Legislature can increase or
decrease the financial estimates or budgets of the executive. Loans contracted by the
government or the executive are also subject to legislative control. Again, it monitors
public expenditure through the Public Accounts Committee of parliament to ensure
financial sanity.
(iii) Vetting and approving key nominees made by the executive: The legislature through
the Vetting or Appointment Committee of Parliament examines and approves key
nominees made by the executive. For instance, Ghana’s Fourth Republican Constitution
makes it mandatory for the president to secure prior approval of parliament for his key
appointments such as those of ministers, Administrator of the District Assembly
Common Fund, the Chief Justice other Justices of the supreme courts
 (iv) An institution for discussing and redressing grievances: The legislature serves as a
forum for airing grievances. As a representative body, members of parliament convey
the grievances of their constituencies to the house for discussion and recommendations.
Thus, People who are dissatisfied with certain actions of the government may have their
grievances redressed in legislature through their elected representatives.
(v) Judicial function: The legislature in some countries performs judicial functions. The
legislature investigates cases against high state officials who abuse their official powers.
For instance, in the United States of America (USA), the House of Representatives can
prepare an impeachment charges against the president for the senate to try him. The
senate acts as a court for the impeachment of the president, vice president and Supreme
Court judges on serious offences like criminal acts and treason. For example, the
president of USA, President Richard Nixon escaped narrowly from legislative
impeachment by resigning from the presidency in August 9 th, 1974 over Watergate
scandal. In Britain, the House of Lords is the highest Court of Appeal.
(vi) Constitutional amendment: The legislature is also charged with responsibility of
changing a constitution that is outmoded. For instance, former soviet parliament rejected
the old constitution of the then Soviet Union since it did not contain provisions
guaranteeing the inalienable rights of citizenry and lacked laws to protect these rights.
(vii) Protection of Individual Rights: The legislature acts as a watchdog over the rights and
liberties of citizens in a state and vehemently criticise government that violates the rights
of citizens.
(viii) Deliberative and discursive institution: The legislature serves as a for debates on
international and external issues.

FACTORS THAT LIMIT THE POWERS (SUPREMACY) OF THE LEGISLATURE

(i) Constitutional limitations: The constitution that establishes the legislature, its powers
and functions also set limits within which the legislature can operate. The legislature
cannot go beyond its limit set forth in the constitution and this accounts for the limitation
on the powers of the legislature. For instance, the 1992 of Ghana prohibits parliament
from enacting any law establishing a one-party state in Ghana (Article 3 section 1).
Again, the 1979 Third Republican Constitution of Ghana forbade parliament from
 passing any law establishing a state religion in Ghana.
(ii) Judicial review or decisions: The practice of judicial review limits the position of
parliament as a law-making body. This is due to the fact that the judiciary can examine
and declare certain laws made by parliament as unconstitutional.
(iii) Public opinion/electorate: The electorate sometimes resent (show their disgust) to the
harsh measures or laws passed by the legislature. For instance, the parliament Ghana was
forced to withdraw the first Value Added Tax Law in 1995, massive public protest
against it. The legislature is therefore limited to make laws which will serve the interest
or the needs of the people.
(iv) External influence: External factors such as pressure from International Organizations
like United Nations Organizations and Amnesty International limit the powers the
legislature. The legislature is expected to respect treaties and obligations to which the
country is a signatory to. Again, the legislature cannot pass any law that contradicts the
International law for the sake of world peace.
(v) Delegated legislation: The legislature in modern times performs numerous tasks. In view
of that it sometimes gives some of its law-making functions to non-parliamentary bodies
like public corporations, local authorities and ministries to make laws that cover their
areas of operation. This undermines the powers of the legislature as the sole body to
make laws.
(vi) Party discipline: Party discipline does not always allow for independent tales and
discussions by members of the legislature. The various party whips do not allow
members of parliament to use their initiative and directions to argue or discuss bills fully.
Party whips influence members to vote on party lines instead of national interest.
(vii) The power of the Executive: Most bills that are debated and passed into law by the
legislature are proposed by the executive due to the increasing powers of the modern
executive. The executive again assent to bills passed by legislature before they can
become law. The executive can also veto bills passed by the legislature which in a way
limits the sovereign power of the legislature to make laws.
(viii) Territorial limitations: The legislature cannot pass laws to govern other countries. Thus,
the power of the legislature to pass laws does go beyond the frontiers (borders) of the
country.
(ix) Political sovereignty: The legislature is limited in the performance of functions by the
political sovereignty which resides with the electorates. The electorates can refuse to
vote for a legislature that does not satisfy aspirations in another election.
(x) Time limitations: Time limitations for debates also affect the work of the legislature.
The modern legislature often does not have sufficient time to critically scrutinize and
debate thoroughly all matters before they are approved. Time limitations of the
legislature sometimes result in the passage of hasty or ill-conceived legislation.

NOTE: Parliamentary sovereignty (supremacy) means only parliament can make or authorize
some persons or body of persons to legislate (make laws) on its behalf. As once said by De
Holmes about British parliament ”Parliament can do everything except making a man into a
woman and a woman into a man’

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LEGISLATURE

The legislature is hierarchically arranged. It includes:
- The Speaker of parliament
- Deputy Speakers - First and Second Deputy Speakers
- Majority and minority leaders
- Members of parliament
- Sub-committees of parliament

SPEAKER OF PARLIAMENT
The most important officer in parliament is the speaker. He is one of the great officers of state
and he ranks third in the official order of precedence after the president and the vice president.
The speaker may be elected from among members or outside the parliament. He does not take
part in debate and has no voting right

QUALIFICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP OF SPEAKER OF PARLIAMENT IN

GHANA
(i) The person must be a citizen of Ghana.
(ii) He must be a registered voter with his name found in the voters register
(iii) He must be of a sound mind.
(iv) He must not be a notorious criminal or a convicted person for high crime relating to such
matters as fraud, security of the state, moral turpitude or treasonable offence
(v) He must have a minimum degree of proficiency. This implies that must be able to speak
and read English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him carry his duties
effectively.

ESSINTIAL FEATURES OR QUALITIES OF A SPEAKER OF PARLIAMENT

(i) Impartiality: One of the essential qualities of the speaker of parliament is his absolute
impartiality in the chair where his role is one of the non- partisan referees. If he is a
member of a party, he should upon election severe all connections with his party and be
seen to have done so. For example, when Mr. Edward Doe Adjaho was selected as the
speaker of Ghana’s sixth parliament, he announced his vacation of Akatsi South
constituency seat where he was elected MP in the 2012 election.
(ii) Patience: The speaker is expected to have patience to tolerate all members and ensure
that all of views are expressed in the House.
(iii) He acts in accordance with the constitution: In carrying out his duties, the speaker acts
in accordance with the powers given him by the constitution, by the standing and by the
House. The speaker’s powers are therefore derived and not inherent.

FUNCTIONS OR ROLES OF A SPEAKER OF PARLIAMENT

i) The speaker is the chairman of the Parliamentary Service Board and has the
responsibility in the administration and management of the service.
ii) The speaker is ensuring that debates, discussions and voting in parliament are conducted
fairly. This is done to ensure that minority interests in parliament are protected
iii) The speaker administers and supervises the swearing and subscribing to the oath of
allegiance and the oath of Member of Parliament by the parliamentarians.
iv) The speaker serves as a link between the executive and the legislature. All official
communications with the executive has to pass through him. He collects bills from the
executive to be introduced to parliament, especially under presidential system.
v) The speaker presides over and controls debate and conduct of member in the chamber
 vi) He issues warrants fur the holding of by-elections when there is a vacancy in the house.
When a member of parliament dies or resigns, the speaker of parliament sends a warrant
to the electoral commission for the conduct of election to fill the vacant seat.
vii) The speaker sees to the formation of committees in parliament. He also sends bills to an
appropriate standing committee for consideration.
viii) As a representative of the legislative house where he presides, the speaker represents the
house on all ceremonial occasions.

DEPUTY SPEAKERS
The speaker of parliament is assisted by two deputy speakers. They are the Deputy Speaker and
the second Deputy Speaker, one of whom must be from the minority side.

ROLES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE DEPUTY SPEAKER OF PARLIAMENT

During the unavoidable absence of the speaker from the House, the First Deputy speaker
presides over debates and in the absence of the first deputy speaker, second deputy takes over.

MAJORITY AND MINORITY LEADER

The majority leader is selected from the party with the highest number of parliamentarians in
the House.
The minority leader on the other hand is selected from minority side of the House. He sees to it
that the interests of the minority are not overlooked by the House
Both the majority and the minority leaders have office in parliament. The office holders, majority
and minority leaders are assisted by a deputy majority leader and a deputy minority leader and
their chief whips. Both leaders constitute the leadership of the House with whom the speaker
must consult on the business of the House and other important issues. They are usually the first
to catch speaker’s eye if they want to speak during important debates.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT (MP’S)

An ordinary member of parliament is a legislator who does not hold any appointment. He is
elected as a member of a constituency either on the ticket of a political party or as an
independent member of the legislature. As a member of the legislature, he enjoys certain
privileges to enable him perform his functions effectively. For instance, he cannot be sued for
anything said or done during legislations of the legislature.

QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERSHIP OF PARLIAMENT IN GHANA

A person who wants to become a member of parliament in Ghana must have the following
qualifications:
(i) He must be a citizen of Ghana. The person must be a citizen of Ghana either by birth,
descent or naturalization.
(ii) The person must be a resident in the constituency he wants to stand as a candidate for
election to parliament or has resided there for a total of not less than five years out of the
ten years immediately preceding the election for which he stands, or hails from that
constituency.
(iii) He must be a registered voter with his name found in the voters register.
(iv) He must be of a sound mind. The person must be able to reason up well.
(v) The person must have paid all his taxes or made arrangements satisfactory to the
appropriate authority for the payment of his taxes.
(vi) He must not be a notorious criminal or a convicted person for high crime relating to
such matters as fraud, security of the state, moral turpitude, dishonesty and treasonable
offence or any other offence punishable by death or by a sentence of not less than ten
years.
(vii) He must have a minimum degree of proficiency. This implies that he must be able to
speak and read English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him carry out its
duties effectively.
(viii) He must have attained the age of twenty- one years or above.

FUNCTIONS OR ROLES OF ORDINARY MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT

(i) As a member of parliament, he conveys the grievances of his people constituency to the
house for deliberation. He also explains government policies to his people.
(ii) The legislator may take advantage of the question time in the legislature to question
ministers on the work of their ministries as it affects his constituency or the state a whole.
(iii) He takes active part in the law making process of the house.
(iv) The legislator may be appointed to serve one of the committees of the House. For
instance, he may be appointed to serve at a committee of enquiry to investigate a
particular subject matter.

COMMITTEES AND SUB-COMMITTEES OF PARLIAMENT

There is an existence of committees and sub- committees in the House, Each committee or sub-
committee has a chairman who controls the proceedings in the committees. Businesses of the
House are referred to the committees for further deliberations. Committees are for example, to
examine in detail bills that are introduced into parliament. They are to make enquiries and
investigate matters that are complex and complicated outside the chamber. Committees of
different kinds and for different tasks can undertake these complex tasks. Examples of sub-
committees (select- committees) of the House include the Committee on Education, the
Committee on Road and Transport, the Committee on Works and Housing, the Committee on
Mines and Energy, the Committee on Youth, Sports and Culture, the Committee on Health, the
committee on lands and Forestry, the committee on Foreign Affairs, the committee on
Environment, Science and Technology.

OTHER PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF PARLIAMENT

CLERK OF PARLIAMENT
The clerk of parliament is a public officer. He is not elected.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF THE CLERK OF PARLIAMENT

(i) The clerk is the principal adviser to the speaker on privileges, practice and procedure of
parliament.
(ii) He is also consulted on procedural matters. The clerk makes arrangements for the
sittings of the House, prepares the order paper (the daily business arranged for the
sitting), keeps its records and engrosses its bills.
(iii) Bills passed by the house are authenticated by the clerk for presidential assent.
(iv) The clerk presides over the first sitting of the newly elected parliament for the purpose of
 the election of a new speaker.

THE WHIPS
Each party has a whip. The party whip is the official who ensures that party members in
parliament in accordance with party policies. The chief whip have offices in parliament and they
provide important contract between the patty leadership and back-bencher of the same party.

FUNCTIONS OF THE WHIPS

The whips usually keep members informed about important business to be taken each week,
indicating when attendance is required on vital issues (a three-line whip), when a division is
expected (a two -line whip) and when ordinary attendance is requested (a one-line whip).

CONSTRAINTS/PROBLEMS FACING THE LEGISLATURE

(i) Lack of expertise: in some countries, the legislature lacks the needed expertise to
undertake its functions. Some of the members who are elected into the house are
inexperienced in the process of governing and so have little to contribute in passing of
bills that involve much technicalities.
(ii) Time limitations: Time limitations for debates also affect the work of the legislature.
The modern legislature often does not have sufficient time to critically scrutinize and
debate thoroughly all matters before they are approved. Time limitations of the
legislature sometimes result in the passage of hasty or ill-conceived legislation.
(iii) Inadequate facilities: In some countries the legislature lacks the needed facilities to
carry out its functions effectively.
(iv) Party discipline: Party discipline does not always allow for independent dies and
discussions by members of the legislature. The various party whips do not allow
members of parliament to use their initiative and directions to argue or discuss bills fully.
Party whips influence members to vote on party lines instead of national interest.
(v) Lack of infrastructure: In some countries, the legislature lacks the needed infrastructure
to undertake its functions effectively. Some of them are even housed in dilapidated
buildings which militate against its smooth function.
(vi) Poor remuneration of members of parliament: In some countries, members of
 parliament arc poorly paid Due to lack of incentives, low salaries and poor condition of
service, the legislature fails to attract highly qualified, expects and experienced people.
(vii) Inability to reach at consensus hiding to conflicts in the House: It is sometimes not
easy for members of parliament to reach into agreement in taking certain decisions
especially between the opposition parties and ruling government representatives in the
House. For example, the Nation Democratic Congress (NDC) could not come into
compromise with the New Patriotic Party (NPP) during the passage of the health
Insurance Bill in Ghana under Kufour’s regime and walked out of the house. Again, the
parliament of Ghana on Friday, 26th August,2011 endorsed the famous $3.00 billion
master facility (loan) agreement between the government of Ghana and the Republic
China Development Bank (CDB) but with members of the minority abstaining

TYPES OF LEGISLATURE
Legislature can be classified into two main types, namely; (a) unicameral legislature and (b)
bicameral legislature. Another less common type of legislature is the tricameral legislature (three
chambers) as normally practiced in South Africa before the first all races election.

UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
Unicameral legislature is a legislative body with only one house or chamber. This legislative
system is common in countries which are unitary states and not large countries. Examples of
countries which have adopted the unicameral system (legislature) include Ghana, Togo, the
Gambia, Sierra Leone, Greece, New Zealand and Turkey.

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF UNICAMERALISM

(i) It is economical to operate. Less public fund is required to run a unicameral legislature
as the money that would have been used to settle the salaries allowances of the second
chamber whose existence might even be super is saved. The salaries and allowances
which would have been paid members of the second chamber in a bicameral system can
be used for purposes such as building hospitals and schools.
(ii) Allows for speedy passage of laws: Unicameral legislature reduces the time it takes to
pass a bill into law since bills have to be considered by one legislative house. There is no
 second chamber which can delay bills passing them into law. Thus, laws are easily
passed to meet emergency situations such as wars, outbreak of epidemics, strikes etc.
(iii) It avoids conflicts: Unicameralism avoids conflicts associated with bicameralism where
there is constant rivalry and struggle between the two houses on who should yield
superior powers. Such a situation does not occur under unicameralism because of the
absence of the second chamber.
(iv) Unicameralism is democratic: It is democratic in the sense that all members are
elected. It involves the electorates in the selection process. It therefore avoids the
situation where some nominated and appointed members impose their will on the people
(v) Simple and useful for homogenous states: Unicameral legislature is simple and
suitable for small states with homogenous people. Examples of such states include
Ghana, Greece and Togo.
(vi) Useful during emergency situations: Unicameral legislature is more helpful during
emergency situations such as an outbreak of epidemics, civil wars, flood etc. since laws
can quickly be passed to salvage urgent situations.

DEMERITS/DISADVANTAGES OF UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE

(i) Hasty decision and legislation: Bills may not be subjected to thorough scrutiny before
they are passed into law. Unicameral legislature creates room for a single house to make
hasty and unpopular decisions and legislations. They may be moved by a strong passion
and excitement to hastily pass ill-conceived laws because of the absence of the second
chamber to act as check. These hasty decisions made by the unicameral legislature in
some countries have created much hardship for the citizens.
(ii) Members of the House may toe towards party lines: The single chamber sometimes
debate and vote based on party lines which is avoided in bicameral legislature where
members of the second chamber are not chosen on party considerations but based upon
their experience and knowledge. Unlike the single chamber, the second chamber
members sometimes consider issues much more objectively and in the interest of the state
rather than on party lines.
(iii) Absence of checks and balances leading to dictatorship: A one chamber legislature
could easily become despotic, due to the absence of a second chamber to check it. A
 party in power, with majority support in the one chamber legislature may use their
numerical advantage to rule the country tyrannically. Ghana experienced such a situation
under Dr. Nkrumah’s regime when the one-chamber passed laws like the Preventive
Detention Act (PDA).
(iv) Neglects of expert’s knowledge sad experience: Unlike a bicameral legislature,
unicameral legislature does not create room for experts and experienced statesmen who
because of some reasons could not contest in election to participate directly in the
legislature.
(v) Heavy work load: Since there is no second chamber to assist the first chamber in
undertaking its functions, the volume of work may be too heavy for them to deal with
within a short space of time. This sometime leads to the passage of ill-conceived
legislations.
(vi) Unsuitable for federal states: Unicameral legislature is not suitable for federal states
because it cannot ensure equal representation of all states. This is due to the fact that
representation in a single chamber legislature is based on population size.

BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
A bicameral legislature is a legislative body with two separate houses or chambers; the Lower
House or first chamber and the Upper House or the second chamber. Countries with bicameral
legislature include Britain, Liberia, USA, France, Japan and Nigeria. For instance, in Britain the
lower house is the House of Commons and the Upper House is the House of Lords. In the United
States of America (USA), the lower House is the House of Representatives and the upper house
is the Senate. In Japan, the lower house is the House of Representatives and the upper house is
the House of Councilors.
Note: The members of the lower house or the first chamber are directly elected, whist those of
the upper house or the second chamber might directly or indirectly be elected. In states that adopt
the Bicameral legislature, the two chambers share legislative powers. Bills are initiated at the
lower House or first chamber before passing into law.

ADVANTAGES OF BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE

(i) It reduces the burden or workload of the lower chamber: The second chamber helps
 the first chamber in undertaking its numerous tasks. The volume of work of parliament
may be too much for a single house to handle. Existence of a second chamber is therefore
necessary since it acts as supplementary body to the lower house in the face of increasing
legislative function of the state to relieve the burden of the single chamber in the making
of laws.
(ii) The second chamber revises hills: Bicameral legislature provides opportunity for the
second chamber to revise all bills passed by the house to ensure that the laws that are
passed to run the affairs of the state are meaningful.
(iii) It prevents hasty passage of bills: The presence of a second chamber helps to protect
the citizens by providing a check against hasty and radical legislation by the first
chamber. An elected lower house may be moved by election promises and manifestoes to
pass hasty and ill-conceived laws. But the presence of a second chamber, which is
differently constituted and made up of matured and experience men, may make a sober
and objective analysis of the intended law. It may even create a necessary delay between
the introduction and the final passing of a bill in order to seek public opinion on it as well
as bringing improvement on it.
(iv) Allows for the use of experienced statesmen: A second chamber where members of the
upper house is based on age and experience enables a country to benefit from the
knowledge and experience of people with political and administrative experience but who
due to old age, ill health, financial problems or fear of electioneering campaign may not
get chance to enter the legislature. These experienced statesmen bring their expertise to
bear on law making. They also introduce sobriety and wisdom into government.
(v) It promotes national interest: By the nature of its composition, it is national and
diffuses tension associated with partisan practices in the process of law making. In some
countries, the non-partisan nature of the second chamber makes it possible for members
to engage in debates on national issues objectively without bias and partisan
considerations. This helps to promote national interest.
(vi) Minority interests are protected: A second chamber helps to protect the interest of
minority in federation. In federal state, the second chamber makes it possible for all the
states, no matter their size to be equally represented. This is due to the fact that the
Upper House is based on equal representation but the lower house is composed, based on
 population, thus bigger states have more representation than the smaller states.
(vii) Difficult for executive to manipulate the two chambers: A single chamber is more
likely to fall to temptation and become despotic and radical as a result of uncontrolled
power. However, the existence of the second chamber in a bicameral legislature acts as a
cheek against such despotic tendencies on part of the Lower House or the first chamber
(viii) Helps to check arbitrary or tyrannical rule: A bicameral legislature helps to check
arbitrary or tyrannical rule. The existence of a second champ serves as a check on the
lower house that may be influenced by party to support unpopular policies and decisions
of the incumbent government.

DISADVANTAGES/DEMERITS OF BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE

(i) It is very expensive to maintain: Having a second chamber or upper house can be very
expensive to operate in terms of money and personnel since members of the second
chamber would also have to be paid.
(ii) Delays the work of the government: The time involved in the revision of bills and
undue check by the Upper House or second chamber tend to delay the work of the
government as the government has very limited time with which to implement its
programme or policies.
(iii) May delay the process of responding quickly to emergency situation: The presence
of a second chamber may delay the process of responding quickly during emergency
situations such as war, fire outbreak and outbreaks of epidemics since bills on such
emergency situations would have to be revised by the second house before they can
finally be passed into law.
(iv) It is undemocratic: The criterion used for recruiting members into the second chamber
may be undemocratic. This is due to the fact that in Britain, the Upper House is mainly a
hereditary body, in France, members are indirectly elected. The electorates are not
involved in the selection of members into the chamber. In states where members of the
second chamber are nominated or selected based on hereditary, such members do not
have the mandate of people to make laws for them.
(v) Conflict: There is possibility of conflict arising between the two chambers especially
where the two chambers are co-equal in terms of power as they rival each other. This can
 thwart the efforts of the government.
(vi) Mischievous and superfluous: It has been argued by a Frenchman, Sieyes that if a
second chamber disagrees with the first chamber, it is mischievous because the resulting
deadlock may prevent or delay transaction of government business. This is not fair since
the second chamber in most states is not democratically elected like the lower house,
which has the mandate of the people. On the other hand, if an upper house always agrees
with the decisions of the Lower house, then its existence is a mere duplication and is
therefore superfluous and unnecessary
(vii) Government may manipulate the second chamber in some countries: In countries
where most of the second chamber members are appointed or nominated by the
executive, the upper house may exist as a rubber stamp of the executive.

A BILL
A bill may be defined as a draft of legislative proposal introduced by a minister or a private
member which when passed by the House and assented to by the president becomes a law known
as an Act of parliament. In other words, a bill can simply be defined as a proposed legislation
that is yet to be passed by parliament. Drafting bill into legal language is done by the Attorney-
General’s Department.

KINDS OF BILL
The kinds of bills are Public hills, Private bills, Hybrid bills and money bills. Public bills deal
with matters of general public interest. In democracy, public bills are usually initiated by the
executive and introduced by a minister. Private hills deal with matters of local or personal
interest. Hybrid bills are once public and private. Private bills and hybrid bills are not now
patronized in our legislature. Motley bills deal with the raising and disbursement of public
money

PASSAGE OF A BILL
When the text of a bill has been published in the Gazette, it may be introduced in the house
fourteen days after the publication. A bill is presented to the House by a minister or a member
responsible for the bill to the clerk of the House for first reading.
STAGES OR PROCEDURES OF PASSING A

A bill must go through certain stages before it can passed into law. The stages include the First
Reading, Committee Stage, Second Reading, Consideration Stage, Third Reading and Assent
Stage.

First Reading: This is when the draft of a bill is presented to the clerk of the house by a minister
or a member of parliament depending on the type of bill. Members of the parliament will be
notified about the presence of such bill by the clerk of the House who will read out the long title.
No motion is moved after the first reading. It will be printed out in leaflets and circulated to all
members for them to study before the second reading, the date of which will also be fixed.

Committee Stage: According to Article 106 (4) of the 1992 constitution, when a bill has been
read the first time, it is referred to the appropriate committee of the House which will examine it
in detail. The committee invites the public for its views. Bills are closely scrutinized in the
committees. In some countries USA, the committee has the power to ”kill a bill”. That is they
can refuse to congress and that would be the end of the bill.

Second Reading: After the committee stage, the bill is read the second time. The minister or a
private member introducing the bill explains its principles and general merits. The chairman of
the committee which considered the bill then present his report which would form the basis of
the debate. If the motion is agreed to, the clerk reads aloud the long title of the bill and the bill is
then deemed to have been read a second time.

Consideration Stage: When the bill has been read the second time, it goes through the
consideration stage which is not taken until at least forty-eight hours have elapsed —which
period does not include days on which the House does not sit. At consideration stage, the bill is
examined in detail clause by clause and amendments proposed to it. The House does not discuss
the principle of the bill at this stage.
Third Reading: After a bill has passed through the consideration stage, it goes through the
whole house for a third reading. The bill is read the third time. It is then discussed in detail and
approved.

Assenting Stage (promulgation stage): The last or the final stage is the passed bill is sent to the
president or the head of state to assent to the bill. The bill has been passed by the legislature, the
text as passed is printed on vellum. On each of the four printed copies, the clerk certifies that the
printed impression is a true copy of the bill which the house has passed. The bill is then
presented to president after the presidential seal has been affixed to the copies. The president
signifies his assent to the bill by signing it under the words ”I hereby signify my assent to the
bill”. The bill automatically becomes a law being signed by the president.

GENERAL PROCEDURE OR STAGES FOR PASSING A BILL INTO LAW

(i) First Reading: This is when the draft of a bill is presented to the clerk of the House by a
minister or a member of parliament depending on the type of bill. Members of the
parliament will be notified about the presence of such bill by the clerk of the House who
will read out the long title. No motion is moved after the first reading. It will be printed
out in leaflets and circulated to all members for them to study before the second reading,
the date of which will also be fixed.
(ii) Second Reading: This is the stage that the minister or a private member introducing the
bill explains its principles and general merits. Members of the House will then debate for
or against the bill whether it should be read a second time. If the motion is agreed to, the
clerk reads aloud the long title of the bill and the bill is then deemed to have been read a
second time. No amendment of the bill would be proposed and made at this stage.
(iii) Committee Stage: This is the stage where the bill is referred to the appropriate
committee of the House which will examine the bill in detail. All the members in a
committee of the House consider the bill section by section and amendments proposed
and voted for. The committee sometimes invites the public for its views.
(iv) Reporting stage: At this stage, all the findings of the various standing committees are
reported to the House or the bill placed before the House after all the amendments have
been made. It is the speaker or the chairman of the standing committees as the case may
 be who would read the bill in the amendment form to the house
(v) Third Reading: In this final stage, a thorough look would be taken on the bill in order to
correct certain errors connected with the drafting or amendment. A final vote is also
taken on the bill at this stage. The bill is then taken to the president for his assent.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN PARLIAMENT

a) Prorogation: Prorogation is the practice of formally bringing a session of legislature to
an end without dissolving it. When parliament is prorogued, legislators (parliamentarians)
go on recess.
b) Session of parliament: A session of parliament is defined as the sitting of parliament
commencing when parliament first meets after a prorogation or dissolution and ending
when parliament is prorogued or dissolved. A session of parliament lasts for a year,
interrupted by adjournment and recess.
c) Sittings of parliament: A sitting of parliament is defined as a period during which
parliament meet to conduct its business. It involves a period during which parliament is
sitting continuously without adjournment and a period during which it is in committee. A
number of sittings constitute a meeting.
d) Dissolution: Dissolution of parliament is the act of formally bringing to an end
(terminating) the life of parliament. Members of parliament loose their mandate, their
seats and their titles on the dissolution of parliament.
e) Closure: Closure is the practice of bringing a debate to an end for a vote to be taken.
f) Adjournment: Adjournment refers to the period between the end of a meeting and the
commencement of the next meeting held in the same session.
g) Guillotine: This is where a time limit is placed on the discussion of the legislative
business, especially in the passage of emergency laws before a final voting is taken.
Within the time allotted for debates, there is no room for obstructive motion or other
business.
h) Hansard: Hansard refers to the official verbatim record of parliamentary debates and
proceedings. The Hansard is a full and a complete record of everything said or done in
parliament. The name Hansard is associated with a private printer and publisher Thomas
Hansard and Luke Hansard who became the compilers of parliamentary report of the
 House of Commons in 1812. The Hansard is a historical document from which we can
understand the roles played by successive legislature in the political and social- economic
development of the country. It tells us the reason why certain crucial decisions and
resolutions were taken. The proceedings in parliament are recorded into Hansards by the
clerk of parliament.
i) Adjournment sine die: Adjournment sine die means that the house adjourns a sitting
indefinitely without fixing a date for its next sitting of the conclusion, of a meeting or a
session.
j) Sub-judice convention: Sub-judice convention is a convention that requires members to
refrain from making references to certain matters pending before court.
k) Quorum: A quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly or
legislature necessary to conduct the business of the House.
l) Certificate of urgency: Certificate of urgency is usually issued by the executive to the
legislature for a bill of an urgent nature to be passed to meet emergency situations. In that
case, the bill may be taken through all the stages at the same time.
m) Recall: Recall is a process by which electorates withdraw their representatives from
parliament

DELEGATED LEGISLATION
Delegated legislation is the practice by which persons or other bodies besides the legislature are
given powers under an Act of parliament to make rules, regulations and bye-laws to govern their
areas of operation. These legislative powers are granted by an Act of parliament and parliament
reserves the right to supervise and control the powers granted.
OR
Delegated legislation is the practice whereby legislative powers are given to persons or bodies
other than parliament to make rules, regulations and bye-laws to govern their areas of operation

TYPES/FORMS OF DELEGATED LEGISLATION

(i) Order-in-council: These are orders issued by the British crown with the advice of the
Privy Council. For instance, the independence constitution of Ghana and Nigeria were
issued as Orders-in-Council by the Privy Council.
(ii) Bye-laws: Bye-laws are issued by local government authorities, public corporations and
other statutory bodies such as universities, polytechnics and institutions of higher
learning to govern their area of jurisdiction.
(iii) Executive instruments: These are statutory instruments which are rules, regulation and
orders made by individual ministers in relation to their departmental responsibilities.
(iv) Rules of professional bodies: Some professional bodies such as Ghana Bar Association,
Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT), are given legislative powers to make
rules to regulate the conduct of their members.

MERITS OR REASONS FOR THE PRACTICE OF DELEGATED LEGISLATION

(i) Delegated legislation reduces the cork load of thy legislature: The volume of work of
the legislature in modern state is so large and complex that the central legislature alone
may be overburdened to carry. Other bodies other than the legislature/parliament are
therefore empowered by the legislature to perform some of these law making functions
which helps to relieve or reduce the workload of the central legislature.
(ii) It ensures flexibility in law making: Delegated legislation enhances flexibility in law-
making. It makes it possible for rules, orders and regulations to be made or amended
quickly to suit local needs as well changing situations.
(iii) The need to cope with emergency situations: Delegated legislation is essential in
national emergency. Delegated legislation helps the government to deal with emergency
situations or unforeseen situations such as flooding, civil wars or outbreak of epidemics
where immediate or speedy legislation is required without going through the laborious
procedures in a legislature to secure a law to deal with such crisis or situations.
(iv) Delegated legislation permits the use of expert knowledge: Delegated legislation
makes it possible for experts’ knowledge to be used in the making of laws. Some of these
legislations are too technical which parliamentarians may lack the necessary expertise to
deal with; they therefore leave the detailed work on such legislations to appropriate
expertise and technocrats. Example of topics which parliament may require experts
include banking, nuclear energy and electrification of railway lines.
(v) It allows for experimentation: Delegated legislation enables bodies with delegated
authority such as local authorities to experiment certain laws or policies at the local level
 before being implemented in the national level. Delegated legislation thus makes it
possible that the resources of a country are not wasted, since the failure of a policy would
not affect the whole nation but rather a small area.
(vi) It serves as a mechanism for supplementing existing laws: Delegated legislation
provides extra-parliamentary bodies with a mechanism for supplementing existing laws
by giving details to an Enabling Act passed the legislature.
(vii) It affords the opportunity for approved bodies such as Association of Teachers (GNAT),
Ghana BAR Association (GBA) to make law to regulate the conducts of their members.

DEMERITS DISADVANTAGES OF DELEGATED LEGISLATION

(i) It violates the principles of parliamentary supremacy: Delegated legislation reduces
the supremacy of the legislature as the only body entrusted with law making. Ministers
who are part of the executive sometimes make rules and regulations to govern their
respective ministries which contravene the principle of separation of powers.
(ii) It is undemocratic: Delegated legislation is regarded as undemocratic because leaves
law making function in the hands of non-elected bodies that are not responsible to the
electorate.
(iii) It violates the principles of separation of powers: Delegated legislation violates the
principle of separation of powers. The principle of separation of powers stipulates that
parliament should be the exclusive and sole law-making body in order to ensure the
liberty of the individual. Delegated legislation violates this principle because the
executive and other bodies with delegated authority sometimes make laws that infringe
upon the liberty of the individual.
(iv) It may endanger the liberty of the citizen: The executive can use its delegated authority
to make rules that may violate the liberty of the individual. The abuse of delegated
legislation can also lead to dictatorship.
(v) Lack of publicity: Some of these laws made by delegated authorities are not publicized.
It therefore does not allow for certainty of rules.
(vi) It violates the principle of rule of law: According to the principle of certainty or
legality of the law, the laws of the state should be enacted by the elected body of the
people but under delegated legislation non-elected bodies are permitted to make laws
 which violate the principle of rule of law.
(vii) It may lack adequate consultations.

WAYS OF CONTROLLING DELEGATED LEGISLATION

(i) Parliamentary control: Parliament reserves the right to supervise and control the
power delegated to other bodies. The Scrutiny Committee of Parliament may inform
parliament any delegated legislation which may infringe the right and liberties of the
individual for debate. Parliament can revoke any authority it has granted to any extra
parliamentary body if it detects that such authority is being abused or misused.
(ii) Judicial control: Any aggrieved individual can challenge the legality of any executive
actions or that of public body acting under the delegated legislation at the court of law
if it considers such act to be contrary to the Parent Act. In countries where courts have
the power of judicial review, the courts has power to examine and declare abuse or
misuse of delegated powers ultra vires or null and void and such powers may be
withdrawn.
(iii) Public Opinion: Public opinion can also check abuse of power on the part of bodies
with delegated authority. Public opinion through the mass media or press and open
demonstration check the exercise of the powers of delegated legislation. The public
can resent to the exercise of delegated legislative power and may advocate for the
cancellation of the powers from being applied.
(iv) Financial control: Bodies like local government authorities are expected to seek
parliamentary approval before bye-laws relating to proposed taxes implemented.
(v) Ministerial control: A minister has a responsibility of supervising the work of his
department. The minister can hold any official liable for any abuse of power. For
instance, the District Assemblies fall under the ministry of local government, the sector
minister therefore has the right to control bye-laws the District Assemblies.

WHY DELEGATED LEGISLATION MUST BE CONTROLLED

i. To ensure the rules are within the ambit of the Enabling Act: Delegated legislation
must be controlled to ensure that all rules, bye- laws and regulations made by the non-
parliamentary bodies granted delegated power with govern their area of operation are in
 line with the constitution and the act empowered them.
ii. To prevent undue usurpation of the legislature’s power: Delegated legislation must
be controlled to prevent illegal encroachment of legislative powers. It helps to preserve
the supremacy of the legislature as far as law making is concerned.
iii. To prevent unnecessary duplication of laws: Delegated legislation must be controlled
to prevent undue duplication of laws, rules and regulations. If non-parliamentary bodies
granted with delegated powers to make rules and regulations to govern their area of
jurisdiction are not controlled they may end up duplicating the ordinary of the existing
laws.
iv. Safeguard citizens liberties from obnoxious laws: Delegated legislation must be
controlled to protect the citizens liberties from bad laws which bodies granted with
powers of delegated legislation may pass. If delegated legislation is not controlled, the
bodies with powers of delegated legislation may enact rules and regulations which may
infringe or violate the rights and liberties of the citizens
v. To make officials accountable for their actions: Delegate legislation must be
controlled to make officials with powers of delegated legislation responsible and
accountable for their actions. Thus, the officials can be held responsible if they make
laws that are not good.
vi. To maintain law and order: If rules and regulations that are made by bodies with
powers of delegated legislation are in line with the Enabling Act and it is given adequate
publicity, it will promote compliance and in effect promote law and order. On the other
hand if the rules are not in line with the Enabling Act and it is inimical to the rights and
liberties of the people, they may flout that rule which may result in chaos and anarchy in
the state.
vii. To present dictatorship: Delegated legislation must be controlled to prevent bodies
with powers of delegated legislation from being autocratic. If bodies granted with powers
of delegated legislation are made aware that parliament can revoke any authority it has
granted to any non-parliamentary body if it detects that such authority is being abused or
misused, it will help put them on their toes and prevent any abuse.
THE EXECUTIVE ORGAN (ARM) OF GOVERNMENT
The executive arm of government refers to the arm of government which is responsible for the
formulation and implementation of policies in a state. OR It is the arm of government which
carries out the day to day running of the affairs of a state. Executive comprises the president, the
vice president, cabinet ministers, the security agencies and the civil servants. In presidential
system, the executive is headed by the president whilst in parliamentary system; the executive is
headed by the prime minister.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE ARM OF GOVERNMENT

i. Maintenance of law and order: The basic function of the executive is to
maintain law and order. This is very important if the state is to enjoy internal
stability which is a necessary condition for development. The executive
establishes the police, other security agencies and the judiciary to maintain law
and order in the state.
ii. Formulation and implementation of policies: Another major function of the
executive is to formulate and implement good policies to ensure the smooth
running of the state. These policies could be internal or foreign policies. The
executive is assisted by the civil servants in the formulation and implementation
of government policies. As an administrative body, the executive also enforces
legislation in a state.
iii. Proposal of bills: Even though, law making is properly in the hands of the
legislature, the executive plays some direct or indirect role in the process of law
making. The executive normally initiates bills which are presented to the
legislature for consideration.
iv. Ceremonial functions: The chief executive performs ceremonial functions such
as receiving visiting heads of government, credentials of foreign diplomats, taking
salute on important national days such as Independence Day celebration,
conferring honours on deserving citizens, etc.
v. Provision of social amenities: The executive is responsible for the provision of
social amenities and infrastructure such as good roads, pipe- borne water,
recreational centres, schools and hospitals in a state. This is done to improve the
 standard of living of the people.
vi. Assenting to bills: Again, the executive, specifically the head of state, has to
approve every bill through his assent before it can become law. The president can
refuse to give his assent to a bill. (He can veto bills).
vii. Exercise the power of prerogative of mercy: The chief executive is
empowered to grant pardon to some convicted persons on the recommendation of
the appropriate bodies. This pardon could change a death penalty to a short term
imprisonment or even freeing the convicted person entirely.
viii. Defence of the state against external aggression: The executive is charged with
the responsibility of defending the state against external aggression. The
executive through the Armed Forces namely the Navy, the Army and the Air
Force protects the state against external aggression.
ix. Protection of citizens: The executive protects the rights of its citizens. The
Protection embraces the life, family and property of the citizen. Internally, the
citizens are protected through the police and court of laws. Externally, the citizens
are protected against attack through the armed forces namely the Army, the Navy
and the Air Force.
x. Conducts foreign relations: The executive conducts relations with other
countries. The executive acts as a representative within the country and abroad.
The executive communicates or negotiates treaties and international agreements
with foreign governments on behalf of the country.
xi. Preparation of budget: The executive prepares the annual budget (fiscal policy)
of the state which is presented to the parliament for approval.
xii. Creation of job opportunities: The executive is responsible for providing job
opportunities for the citizens. The government does this by establishing firms or
by encouraging and regulating private enterprises to establish firms in order to
reduce the unemployment rate in the country.

FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR THE INCREASE IN THE POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

OF THE EXECUTIVE
i. Constitutional structure: Some constitutions give wide powers to the executive. For
 instance, the 1960 Republican constitution gave extensive powers to the president that he
could even legislate directly.
ii. International relations: It is the executive that represents the nation in international
conferences and other world fora such as AU and UN. It also signs treaties on behalf of
the country. These popularize the executive and help to enhance its image, prestige and
influence.
iii. National crises and emergencies: The executive exercises discretionary powers in
dealing with emergency situations. The power to take quick decisions to arrest situations
that threaten life and property is vested in the executive.
iv. Control over the coercive powers of the state: The executive exercises control over the
Armed Forces, the police and other security agencies for internal and external defence of
the country and for the maintenance of law and order and all these have contributed to
the popularity and increase in its powers.
v. Administrative tribunals: The executive has become more powerful than the legislature
and the judiciary because the executive wields the quasi-Judicial powers of settling
disputes and trying casts under administrative tribunal.
vi. Delegated legislation: The power of ministers to make bye-laws to govern their area of
operation under the powers given to them by the legislature has also contributed to
increase in powers of modern executive at the expense of the legislature.
vii. Party system: The growth of political party system and party discipline has contributed
to an increase in the powers of the executive. Some parliamentarian vote on party lines
instead of national interest. Some of the parliamentarian especially those on the side of
the ruling government are there as rubber stamps who try to satisfy the whims and
caprices of the executive.

LIMITATIONS/WAYS OF CONTROLLING THE POWERS OF THEEXECUTIVE

i. Judicial review: The judiciary acts as a check on the Executive. This is dam through the
powers given to the superior courts especially the supreme court most especially in
presidential system to declare certain decisions and action taken by the executive that are
not in line with the constitution as null and void or ultra vires.
 ii. International Bodies: External powers and organizations such as Amnesty
International, UNO, AU and ECOWAS assist in controlling the powers of the modern
executive. Many heads of state are not able to make certain pronouncements or
implement certain policies in their countries due to fear of retaliation, attack or criticism
from external powers. For instance, unlawful detention of political opponents by an
executive can lead to condemnation by the Amnesty International. Again, International
organizations can put sanction on the executive for failure to implement agreed policies.

iii. Existence of vibrant and independent mass media: The executive also be criticized or
controlled through the mass media. The existence of independent and powerful press that
offers constructive criticism of the action of the executive as well as exposing bad deeds
of the executives helps to the executive on its toes. It also prevents the executive from
becoming a dictator.

iv. Legislative control: The legislature has a number of ways of controlling executives.
These include not approving bills presented by the executives, or delaying such bills,
approval of appointees and the budget. Furthermore, the legislature can impeach the
president or the vice president in the presidential system of government if it detects that
they have misused their powers. Again, in the parliamentary system, the legislature can
pass a vote of no to remove the prime minister and his cabinet if they fail to live up to
expectation.

v. Pressure groups: Interest groups or pressure groups sometimes use criticism

demonstrations, strikes and boycotts to exert influence on the work of the executive and
keep the executive on its toes. The actions of the executive are often challenged,
determined and remolded by pressure groups. For example, in 1995, a pressure called
Alliance for Change mounted pressure on the government to withdraw the Value Added
Tax (VAT).

vi. Electoral control: At elections, the executive may be voted out of power by the
electorate. The executive is accountable to the electorate. Periodic elections can therefore
 be used to control the executives.

vii. Constitutional limitations: The constitution that grants the powers to the executives
also provides some limitations on the use of those powers. The executive cannot go
beyond the powers set forth in the constitution due to fear of impeachment.

TYPES OF EXECUTIVE
Basically, there are two main types of Executive, namely, the Monocephalous Executive or
Single-Person Executive and the Bicephalous or Parliamentary Executive.

MONOCEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE (PRESIDENTIAL EXECUTIVE)

Monocepalous Executive is the type of executive in which only one person is recognized as the
head of the executive. He is then made to exercise the functions as head of state and head of
government. In effect, he is the ceremonial figurehead performing all the ceremonial functions of
a head of state whilst at the same time he is the real or active executive running the
administration of the country. This system is more noticeable in United States of America
(USA).

ADVANTAGES OF MONOCEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE

i. It is less expensive to operate: The monocephalous executive is relatively cheaper to
maintain. This is because both dignified and efficient powers combined in one person,
the expenditure for running the office in terms of salary, allowances and equipment is
one and therefore economical to run.
ii. It avoids conflict: Monocepalous Executive avoids possible conflicts and animosity as
there is only one executive unlike the bicephalous system where conflicts sometimes
crop up between the president and the prime minister over policy and ideology as well
as who should wield superior power.
iii. There is stability in the political system: The president is elected for a fixed term, and
except in the case of a serious crime, he cannot be constitutionally removed from office
before the end of that term. He is therefore free to pursue a continuous and a reasonable
policy.
 iv. It ensures fair representation of all interest group in the executive. The president elects
his ministers from every section of the community without regard to party affiliations.
v. It promotes efficiency: The practice of separation of powers under presidential
executive or monocephalous executive ensures that ministers concentrate on their
ministerial duties whilst parliamentarians concentrate on their parliamentary functions.
This promotes specialization leading to efficiency. It ensures quick decision making: It
ensures quick decision making and execution of policies, since there will be no need for
the president to consult the prime minister and vice versa.
vi. It promotes unity, loyalty and allegiance: Monocepalous executive promotes unity,
loyalty and allegiance to the single leader. It therefore gives room for strong executive
goovernment since the president can effectively control the appointed minister of the
state.
vii. It ensures responsibility and accountability: In monocephalous executive since the
president is popularly elected by the people, he is directly accountable and responsible to
them. The wishes of the people are therefore taken into consideration by the president
since anything short of that will set him out office in the next election.

DISADVANTAGES OF MONOCEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE

i. Emergence of Dictatorship: Due to too much power vested in the preside he may take
advantage of his powers and rule arbitrary or turn into a dictator and encroach on the
functions of the other organs of government as well as the rights and liberties of the
people.
ii. Disagreement between the President and the legislature: if the president does not have
the support of the majority in parliament, the legislators may thwart (sabotage) his effort
by rejecting his policies. There is a tendency on the part of the legislature even to pass
laws whose implementation by the executive be impossible.
iii. The executive may be overburdened: The fact that the president combines ceremonial
and administrative functions makes his workload too heavy. The president who is the
head of state would have to perform ceremonial functions such receiving foreign
dignitaries into the country, honour deserving citizens etc.
iv. Insensitivity of presidential officers to public opinion: Presidential officers such as
 ministers tend to be insensitive to public opinion. This is because the ministers are not
directly elected by the electorate but rather appointed by the president. These ministers
are not directly accountable to the electorate. They may therefore take certain decisions
which may not be in the interest of the people.

BICEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE OR CABINET OR PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

A bicephalous executive is the type where the executive organ of government is headed by two
persons, namely the head of state and the head of government as in the case of Britain. Another
good example is Ghana under the 1969 Constitution where the cabinet system was adopted.
Here, Edward Akuffo Addo was the president and Dr. K.A Busia was the prime minister. The
head of state can be a president as the case in Ghana in 1969 or a monarch as we have in Britain.
In bicephalous executive, the head of state performs the ceremonial functions while the head of
government performs the real executive or administrative functions.

FEATURES OF BICEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE (PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM)

i. The executive is headed by two persons, namely, the head of state and the head of
government. The head of state performs the ceremonial functions while the head of
government performs the real executive or administrative functions.
ii. The prime minister and his cabinet are collectively or directly responsible to the
legislature. A vote of no confidence can therefore be passed to take the prime minister
and his cabinet out of power if they fail to live up to expectation.
iii. Members of the cabinet are all selected from the legislature. There is therefore fusion of
powers as regards to the legislature and the executive go.
iv. There is an existence of opposition party to serve as watch dog over the activities of the
ruling government. The opposition party also serves as alternative government when the
ruling government no longer commands the support of the people or when a vote of no
confidence is passed to remove him.
v. There is an existence of the principle of collective responsibility: This implies that the
whole cabinet as a group is made responsible to parliament for any governmental
decisions or actions. It enjoins the cabinet to take blame or praise for the mistake of one
minister.
 vi. Unlike the presidential system where the president is elected for a fixed tenure of office,
the government under the cabinet or parliamentary system has unstable tenure of office
as he can be removed from office at any time when a vote of no confidence is passed by
the legislature.

ADVANTAGES OF BICEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE

i. Mutual checks: Bicephalous executive ensures effective checks of the two heads of the
executive namely the president and the prime minister on each other so as to avoid
dictatorship.
ii. Ensures continuity: Bicephalous executive promotes continuity in government. This is
because in most countries during a change of government, the head of state remains in
office to ensure a smooth transition as in the case of Britain.
iii. Reduces the workload of the heads: Bicephalous executive makes it possible for the
constitutional functions of the executive to be shared by two persons, namely head of
state and the head of government thereby relieving a single head of overload of functions.
The prime minister sees to the overall administration of the state while the Head of State
concentrates on ceremonial functions. This specialization also promotes efficiency.
iv. Co-operation between the executive and the legislature: Since the executive also
belongs to the legislature, there is cordial relationship and co-operation between the
legislature and the executive.
v. Consciousness of ministers in their action and statements: In bicephalous executive,
individual ministers are careful about their statements and actions due to their adherence
to the principle of collective responsibility. Thus, the whole cabinet is affected he the
mistake of one minister.

DISADVANTAGES OF BICEPHALOUS EXECUTIVE

i. Conflict between the two heads: Bicephalous executive often leads to conflict between
the head of state and the head of government. There could be disagreement between the
two heads over policy and ideology as well as who should wield superior power.
ii. Expensive to maintain: Unlike the monocephalous executive, bicephalous executive is
more expensive to run as it leads to unnecessary duplication and waste of resources. The
 system establishes two heads and maintains their salaries, gratitude and other conditions
of service which can create financial burden on the state.
iii. Ministers are often overburdened: Ministers in cabinet who are also parliamentarians
may be detracted in performing their functions. These ministers sometimes ignore their
constituencies due to numerous official duties. It is not easy to combine the two
functions.
iv. The tenure of office of the executive is unstable: This is because the cabinet holds
office only when it commands the confidence of parliament. Parliament can cause the
down fall of the executive through “vote of no confidence”.
v. Delays government process: Bicephalous executive tends to delay government
process because the system requires frequent consultation between the head of state and
the head of government, and if there is disagreement between the head, it may delay the
decision —making process.
vi. May neglect the know ledge and experience of some statesmen: There may be
experienced and knowledgeable people who because of one reason or other could not
contest election into parliament. Such people may not be selected for ministerial
positions because they are not parliamentarians.

THE JUDICIARY
The judiciary is one of the three organs of government constitutionally given powers to interpret
the law or the constitution and to settle disputes between the government and the citizens or
between citizens. In other words, judiciary is an organ of government constitutionally given
powers to administer justice. It consists of professionally trained judges from the inferior courts
to the supreme courts. The professional head is the chief justice.

STRUCTURE OF THE JUDICIARY

The judiciary can be classified into two. These are:
 The superior courts
 The inferior Courts
The Superior Courts: The superior courts comprise the Supreme Courts, Courts of Appeal and
High courts. These courts have unlimited jurisdiction. They can judge all sorts of cases (criminal
and civil cases) and prescribe any punishment in accordance with the law
The Inferior Courts: The inferior courts consist of the Circuit courts, District Courts,
Magistrate Courts and Juvenile Courts. These courts have limited jurisdiction. They judge cases
that arise from their own territory. They are also forbidden to prescribe certain punishment like
the death sentence.

FEATURES OF THE JUDICIARY

(i) Independence: The judiciary is given absolute independence or freedom to administer
justice impartially without any interference from either the legislature or the executive.
(ii) Impartiality: The judiciary is expected to settle all cases without any form of bias.
Judges must treat all persons appearing before them equally. In settling cases by the
judges, decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice, or preferring the benefits to one person over another for improper reasons.
(iii) Neutrality: The judiciary operates on the principle of neutrality. Judges are not expected
to take sides in the administration of justice. In view of this, a judge is expected to
disqualify himself from settling a case in which he is personally interested.
(iv) Non- partisan: A judge is expected to be politically neutral. A judge is not expected to
get himself involved in active politics such as mounting a political platform to campaign
for a particular political party or wearing party T-Shirt. The non-partisan nature of the
judges enables them to settle electoral disputes that are brought before them fairly
without any party considerations.
(v) Hierarchies emoted: The judiciary is hierarchically structured from lower cowls to the
superior courts. The lower courts have limited jurisdiction and cannot therefore settle all
cases. The superior courts (the High Court, Appeals Court and the Supreme Court) on
the other hand have unlimited jurisdiction and can therefore settle all cases (criminal and
civil cases) and prescribe any punishment in accordance with the law.

FUNCTIONS /IMPORTANCE OF THE JUDICIARY

(i) Interpretation of the law (constitution): The major (basic) function of the judiciary is
to interpret laws. The judiciary is mandated for interpreting the laws made by the
legislature and other governmental bodies like local authorities to the understanding of
 ordinary persons when administering justice.
(ii) Dispute adjudication: The judiciary settles disputes between the government (state) and
the citizens or between citizens. In federal system of government, it settles disputes
between the federal centre and the component units or between the units.
(iii) Protection of the rights of citizens: The judiciary protects the rights and liberties of the
citizens against executive and legislative encroachment. It thus prescribes punishment for
people who break the laws of the land. In some countries, the judiciary has the power of
judicial review. This enables the judiciary to examine the laws passed by the legislature
and actions taken by the executive and declare those not in lines with the provisions of
the constitution ultra vires or null and void. A classic example is what happened in Ghana
in 1969 under the Progress Party regime when the Prime Minister, Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia
was asked by the Supreme Court to re-instate Mr. I.K Sallah after considering his
dismissal as wrongful.
(iv) Law making function: One other function of the judiciary or courts of law is that it
performs legislative functions. In modern times, the judiciary helps in law-making by
making pronouncements on certain issues which are referred to as judicial precedents or
case laws and regarded as law.
(v) Ceremonial functions: The judiciary also performs some ceremonial functions such as
granting marriage licenses, administering estates and naturalizing aliens as well as
swearing of the head of State and other state officials before they assume duty.
(vi) Punishment of law breakers: The judiciary is empowered to punish people who are
found guilty of breaking an existing law. The punishment could take the form of life
imprisonment, short term imprisonment or fines. This is done to deter (prevent) others
from committing such similar offences.
(vii) Settling electoral disputes: In democratic countries, election petitions or disputes are
addressed by the judiciary.

CONSTRAINTS/PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE JUDICIARY IN GHANA

(i) Bribery and Corruption: Some of the judges or judicial officials are corrupt. Some of
them are influenced by monetary and other considerations when administering justice.
For example, two magistrates one from Berekum and the other from Accra were sacked
 by the Judicial Council in Ghana on 30th August, 2011 for collecting bribes from litigants
in cases they were presiding over. This reduces the public confidence in the judiciary.
(ii) Insufficient number of courts, judges or judicial officials: The courts in Ghana are
overburdened with too many cases. Some of the cases have been pending before the
courts for a number of years without attending to. This arises because of insufficient
number of courts and judges. Some of the courts in the District have no permanent judges
and as a result, justice is always delayed. The postponement of cases in our courts
prevents a lot of people from taking their cases to court.
(iii) Inadequate funding: There is also a problem of inadequate fund of the judiciary. They
are therefore unable to get the necessary materials and equipment to work with. Most of
these courts even lack basic necessities such as computers to keep essential information.
(iv) Lack of conducive infrastructure: The courts lack conducive infrastructure. Some of
the courts are housed in dilapidated buildings.
(v) Poor condition of service: The judges or court officials in Ghana are poorly paid. The
poor condition of service associated with the judiciary makes it unattractive which
prevents highly qualified judges from getting into the service. It also reduces the
efficiency of the judges to work.
(vi) Political interference: The judiciary is expected to be independent but in some West
African countries like Ghana, the judiciary is sometimes influenced by the executive. For
instance, in Ghana, judges are usually appointed by the executive in consultation with the
Judicial Service Commission or Judicial Council and for that matter could he
manipulated.
(vii) Negative work attitude: Some judicial service employees regard their job as
“government work” and therefore show poor work attitude towards it, lateness,
absenteeism and lack of commitment to duty are common because of the perception that
the work belongs to the government.
(viii) Lack of logistics, tools and equipment: There is an insufficient supply of tools,
equipment and working materials such as computers to promote effective functioning of
the judicial service.
(ix) Overstaffing of personnel: Some the courts in Ghana have overstaffed personnel which
hampers the effective functioning of the judiciary. Most of the workers go to their place
 of work to work lotto, read newspapers, eat and drink and return to their destinations.
Low or no productivity comes from them but they are all paid at the end of the month

JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE
Independence of the judiciary may be explained as the practice by which judges are given
absolute freedom to administer justice impartially without fear or favour of any external party or
force. In other words, it is the absence of any control or influence by either the legislature or the
executive in the administration of justice. The independence of the judiciary is an essential
ingredient in the practice of democracy. Thus, the principle is more practicable in democratic
government.
MEASURES TO BE PUT IN PLACE TO ENSURE JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE
(i) Security of tenure: To ensure judicial independence, judges must enjoy security of
tenure. This means that judges must not be removed from office until they reach the
compulsory or statutory retiring age. They can however be removed only if the judge is
infirm or incapable of doing his work or on proven grounds of misconduct. The security
of tenure enjoyed by the judges is to enable them acquire sufficient experience with
which they will be able to administer justice.
(ii) Mode of appointment or recruitment: The mode of appointment or recruitment of
judges can be used to determine their independence. Judges must be appointed by an
independent and impartial body such as Judicial Service Commission. This method
ensures the appointment of the best and experienced men of integrity and competence.
(iii) Salaries and allowances should be charged on consolidated fund: Another method
used to safeguard the independence of the judiciary is linked with their salaries and
allowances. The salaries, allowances, gratuities and pensions of judges should be charged
on Consolidated Fund (a constitutionally created account into which all public revenue in
Ghana is paid) and should not be reduced to their disadvantage while they are in office.
The remuneration of judges should not be controlled by the executive or the legislature.
(iv) Immunity from prosecution: Judges must enjoy immunity from prosecution in the
course of administering justice. Thus, they must be protected from legal action against
whatever they say or do when sitting on a case at courts or commission. The immunity
does not cover acts of misbehaviour or corruption on the part of the judges.
 (v) Non- partisan and self-disqualification: A judge is not expected to get himself involved
in active politics. He is also expected to disqualify himself from trying a case in which he
is personally interested.
(vi) Promotion of Judges should be based on merit: To ensure judicial independence, the
promotion of judges must be based on competence and seniority and not on party
considerations.
(vii) Total absence of control from the legislature and the executives: To ensure judicial
independence, judges must have total absence of control from the legislature and the
executive and the decisions of the Judges must be binding on both the legislature and the
executive.

IMPORTANCE OF JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE

(i) Enables judges to discharge their duties impartially: Independence of judiciary
enables judges to discharge their duties impartially and without fear or favour. Thus, it
enables judges to administer justice fairly according to objective evaluation and
application of law without the influence of outside factors.
(ii) To protect court from being intimated: The existence of judicial independence enables
the courts to perform their duties as expected without being intimidated. When judges
are protected from legal action against whatever they say or do when sitting on a case at
courts, they will be able to administer justice fairly since they are not intimidated.
(iii) To protect the liberty of the people: The existence of judicial independence helps to
protect the liberty of the people in a country. It helps to protect the weak from the
powerful and the minority from the majority. When people’s rights or liberties are
infringed upon, since they have confidence in the judiciary they can send their petition to
court to seek redress.
(iv) To ensure public confidence in the judiciary: When cases are settled fairly without any
bias, it helps to promote public confidence in the judiciary and this motivates majority of
the people to send their petitions or cases to court for redress instead of taking the law
into their own hands to do otherwise.
(v) To serve as an independent arbiter: The existence of judicial independence enables the
judiciary to serve as an independent arbiter for the interpretation the constitution.
(vi) To prevent abuse of power by government functionaries: The existence of
independence judiciary helps to prevent abuse of powers by government functionaries.
This is due to the fact that when there is an abuse of power, the court can prosecute those
government functionaries responsible for such action. This helps to prevent government
functionaries from going beyond the limit set forth in the constitution which eventually
helps to reduce dictatorship.
(vii) To strengthen democracy: The existence of independence judiciary helps to strengthen
democracy. For example in Ghana, after the 2012 presidential election, the New Patriotic
Party failed to accept the results declared by the Electoral Commission since they
accused the Electoral Commission of massaging the results in favour of the ruling
government led by John Mahama. The flag bearer of the opposition New Patriotic Party,
Nana Addo Danquah Addo, his running mate Dr. Mahamadu Bawumia and the party
chairman Jake Otanka Obetsibi- Lamptey sent the petition to the Supreme Court for
redress instead of resorting to violence and other unconstitutional means. This actually
helped to promote peace, stability and continuity in the country as well as strengthening
its democracy.

JUDICIAL REVIEW
Judicial review is the practice by which constitutional powers are granted to judiciary
particularly the Supreme Court to nullify unconstitutional acts of the legislature and executive.
The concept is more noticeable with the American system of government and has been adopted
by other countries like Ghana.

IMPORTANCE OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

(i) It acts as a check on excessive powers of government: The doctrine is important aspect
of checks and balances to restrain the legislature and executive from abusing their
powers. The power of judicial review can check on the legislature and executive from
exceeding their jurisdiction (borders). It checks or regulates the powers of the legislature
and the executive so that they operate within the confines of the constitution and do not
become despotic.
(ii) It protects the constitution: Judicial review makes the judiciary an institution with
 powers to act as custodian of the constitution. The application of judicial review helps to
ensure strict compliance. With the provisions of the constitution and thereby avoid any
abuse of the fundamental law of the land. It compels each organ of government to keep to
its limit set by the constitution.
(iii) It helps to preserve the federal bond: Through judicial review, the Supreme Court is
able to mediate between the central and state government in a Federal country. This
promotes the federal bond and makes the federation a lasting one while at the same time
helps to protect minority interest and rights especially the smaller and less populated
states.
(iv) It serves as a means of removing obnoxious laws or ambiguities in laws: Judicial
review serves as a means of removing obnoxious and unacceptable laws that the
legislature may pass.
(v) Helps to safeguard the fundamental human and liberties of citizen: Judicial review
helps to safeguard the basic rights and liberties of citizens a state as well as upholding
rule of law. It empowers the judiciary to redress infringements of the liberty of the
individual as happened in the Sallah’s case in which the judiciary in Ghana declared the
actions of the executive in dismissing Sallah’s from his job in 1970 as unconstitutional.

DANGERS/PROBLEMS/DEMERITS OF JUDICIAL REVIEW

(i) Breeds conflict among the organs of government: Judicial review sometime, bring
conflicts and animosity between the judiciary and the other government. These conflicts
may impede the smooth running of the state. A good example of such conflicts is what
happened in Ghana in 1969, under Busia’s regime when Busia refused to comply with the
orders of the Supreme Court to reinstate Mr. Sallah, who the court ruled had been
unlawfully dismissed. The judiciary may abuse their powers: The concept of judicial
review places too much power in the hands of the judges and these powers can be abused.
(ii) It is undemocratic: The practice is undemocratic since it makes it possible for judges
who are not elected by the electorate but appointed to exercise much influence and
control or overrule the decisions of elected representatives of the electorate such as the
president and the legislators.
(iii) Negates/violates separation of powers: The concept violates the doctrine of separation
 of powers which states that each of the three organs of government should be made to
work independently without any influence from the other. However, the principle of
judicial review allows judges who belong to the judicial arm of government to interfere
with the work of the legislature and the executive.
(iv) Deadlock/Stalemate: Conflicts which may come out of judicial pronouncements and
could lead to stalemate in the administration of the state especially when the executive
refuses to obey the decisions of the judiciary as happened in Sallah’s case during Busia’s
regime which impeded the smooth running of the state.
TRIAL QUESTIONS

Q2). Q3A). b)

Q4).

Explain the functions and limitations on the legislature. (SSSSCE, 1993; Q1) What are the
advantages and disadvantages of bicameral legislature? What is bicameral legislature?
Identify five advantages of bicameral legislature (WASSSCE NOV/ 13E0008; Q4) Why do
some countries adopt second chamber legislature?
a

QS). What is the independence of the lbw the independence

of the judiciary ensured in a state (SSSSCE, 1999: Q3) 06,a). What is judicial review”’
Highlight five importance of judicial review Q7). State and explain five functions of the
executive arm of government. I lighlight six constraints faced by the judiciary in Ghana.
Q9.3). Discuss four functions of the executive arm of government. b) Examine four
ways by which the executive is controlled in performing
its functions (SSSSCE200S, Q2. PRIVATE) Q10.a). What is judicial review? b)
Highlight five problems associated with judicial review QII.a). What is delegated
legislation? b). Identify three types of delegated legislation. c). Give three
reasons for the control of delegated legislation in West
Africa. Q12). What are the reasons for the practice of delegated legislation?
(SSSSCE,1994, Q 3) Q13). How is delegated legislation controlled in a state? (SSSCE,
1998, Q 2) Q14). Outline five reasons for the practice of delegated legislation (SSSCE,
2003 Q1) Q15). Highlight any three merits and three demerits of delegated legislation.
Q16a). What delegated legislation? b). Highlight five ways of controlling delegated
legislation.
 CHAPTER FIVE

CITIZENSHIP RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Citizenship means a membership of a state or country. A citizen is a member of a state who has
both legal and political rights in a stale and owes allegiance to that state.
A citizen is a legal member of a state who enjoys all rights and privileges and owes allegiance to
the state. An individual in the state who does not enjoy the legal status of a citizen is called an
alien, foreigner or non-citizen.

QUALIFICATIONS/ACQUISITION FOR CITIZENSHIP

Citizenship may be acquired in a number of ways. These include:
1. Birth: Citizenship is mainly acquired by birth. Citizenship may be acquired by birth or
on account of place of birth. In Ghana, one obtains citizenship by birth when one or both
parents are citizens of Ghana. In countries like United States of America (U.S.A),
citizenship by birth is also conferred on any person born within the borders of the country
regardless of the nationality of his or her parent. For example, a person born in the
territories of the United States of America of Ghanaian parents can he granted American
citizenship on the account of the place of birth.
2. Descent: Citizenship can also be acquired through descent. A person whose ancestors are
citizens of a country may claim citizenship of that country. This means that a person not
born in Ghana but has Ghanaian ancestry can claim Ghanaian citizenship through
descent. For example, the slaves who were taken from Elmina castle in Ghana to
Diaspora can trace their route to acquire Ghanaian citizenship through descent.
3. Marriage and registration: A female or male can become a citizen of his husband’s or
wife’s country by marriage. For example, Article 7 of the 1992 constitution of Ghana
states that a man or woman married to a citizen of Ghana may upon making an
application in the manner prescribed by parliament, be registered as a citizen of Ghana
4. Naturalization: Citizenship can be acquired through naturalization. By this method, an
alien may apply to be registered as a citizen of a country if he satisfies the basic
requirements. Before naturalization is conferred, the alien is made to swear an oath of
 allegiance and renounce his citizenship to new country.
5. Adoption: Citizenship may be acquired through adoption For example, under the 1992
constitution of the Republic of Ghana, a child of not more than sixteen years of age
whose parents are not Ghanaians and who is adopted by a Ghanaian citizen shall, by
virtue of the adoption, be considered as a Ghanaian citizen.
6. Honorary gesture/conferment: Some countries like Ghana confer citizen, on foreigners
who distinguish themselves in certain professions and sphere of life as a gesture of
hospitality.
7. Foundling: A minor who is found in the territory of a country and whose parents are
unknown may be decreed to be a citizen of the country. For example, according to the
1992 constitution of Ghana, a child of not than seven years of age found in Ghana whose
parents are not known be presumed to be a citizen of Ghana by birth.
8. Ceding/conquest: Citizenship can also be acquired through ceding or conquest. For
example, a person can become a citizen of a country through the decision of an
International Court of Justice e.g. Bakassi.

RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES OF CITIZENS

Rights are claims or entitlements recognized by law and nature which a citizen state must enjoy.
OR Rights are legal entitlements that citizens of a state enjoy
Rights are claims or entitlements recognized by law and nature on an individual because of his or
her membership of a community, state or organization. The conditions whose enjoyments are
necessary for the realization of human dignity
The rights that citizens of a country enjoy are determined by law.

FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS

Fundamental Human Rights are inalienable or natural rights or freedom individuals are entitled
to in the state. OR
Fundamental Human Rights are the minimum entitlements human being without which they may
cease to function as normal human beings. They at basis
Of life. Examples of fundamental Human rights include the right to right to privacy, right to
sustenance, freedom of speech, and freedom of movement and right to good health.
TYPES OF RIGHTS
The rights of citizens are classified into political rights, economic rights, legal rights, social
rights, civil rights and natural rights.
i. Political rights: Political rights include the right to vote and to be voted for (Franchise),
the right to form and join any political party of your choice, the right to criticize the
government constructively and to express an opinion on all political issues without
victimization and molestation from political leaders.
ii. Economic rights: A citizen enjoys economic rights such as the right to employment and
fair wages. the right to job security, the right to maternity leave and the right to engage in
economic activities to produce your own items and sell them subject to the details of the
law.
iii. Legal rights: A citizen is also entitled to legal rights. These arc rights associated with the
legal process. Legal rights include the right to open and fair trial, the right to legal aid, the
right to seek appeal. The right to be declared innocent until proven guilty and the right to
invoke the various writs such as habeas corpus (produce the body).
iv. Natural rights: A citizen enjoys natural rights such as right to life and personal liberty.
The most fundamental of the rights is right to life.
v. Civil rights: A citizen enjoys civil rights such as freedom of movement, Association and
worship.
vi. Social rights: Citizens enjoy social rights such as the right to marry, the right to
education and the right to use educational facilities, right to use public roads, library and
parks. Unrestricted use of public hospitals, dispensaries, toilet and telegraphs subject to
payment of prescribed fees charged.

MECHANISM FOR ENSURING/SAFEGUARDING/PROTECTING/ GUARANTEEING

HUMAN RIGHTS
There are several ways of ensuring or safeguarding human rights. These include:
1. Entrenchment of Fundamental Human Rights in a Constitution: The fundamental
human rights of citizens must be entrenched in a written constitution so that no
government can easily amend them to infringe upon the rights of his people.
2. Enforcement of law and order: Police force and others security agencies must be
established and should be well resourced to ensure effective enforcement of the law and
order and to facilitate the of rights and liberties
3. Independent and impartial judiciary: There must be properly constituted and
independent courts of law to settle all disputes impartially without fear or favour. All
cases must be properly investigated and the trial of the cases must be fair. The judiciary
should be given the power to review executive acts and legislative enactments to ensure
that they do not violate the rights of the individual.
4. Political education: The citizens must be educated to know their rights and duties. They
also should be educated to know where they can seek redress when their rights are
infringed upon or violated.
5. Freedom of the press. There should be an existence of bold and independent mass media
to safeguard the rights and liberties of the individual. The media can inform and expose
all dictatorial tendencies of the government and human right violations if the media is
free and independent from censorship and intimidation
6. Respect for the rule of law: The principle of rule of law must be observed and
respected. The rule of law implies justice, legality, impartiality and supremacy of the law.
In countries where rule of law is observed and respected people enjoy certain basic rights.
7. Provision of Socio-economic facilities: Socio-economic facilities such as hospitals,
schools, pipe-borne water and employment opportunities should be provided to enhance
the enjoyment of rights and to improve the living standards of the people in the state.
8. Practice of separation of powers and checks and balances: The doctrine of Separation
of powers must be practiced so that no single organ of government will exercise two or
more powers and functions at the same time. This helps to prevent the organs of
government from becoming too powerful which could result into dictatorship. There must
also be an existence of checks and balances. Each of the three organs of government must
be allowed to serve as a watchdog over the activities of other. This also helps to prevent
abuse of power by any of the organs.
9. Provision of legal aid to the poor and needy: For rights of citizens to be safeguarded,
free legal aid must be provided to people who cannot afford to pay for the service of
lawyers in court proceedings. Provision of legal aid to the poor and needy will facilitate
 fair administration of justice
10. Establishment of human rights institutions: Human rights institutions such as
Commission on Human Rights and in Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), Domestic
Violence and Victims Support Units (DOVVSU), National Commission for Civic
Education (NCCE), should be established and well-resourced to protect the rights and
liberties of the citizens. If the capacity of these human rights defenders and National
human rights institutions are strengthened, anyone whose rights is violated can go there
to seek redress.
11. Practice of a democratic government or administration: The rights of Citizens are
better guaranteed in a democratic government than in autocratic/military regime. In a
democratic government, leaders govern only by the laid down rules (constitution) and
cannot therefore trample on the rights and liberties of their citizens since the constitution
in a democratic government spells out clearly and entrenches the fundamental human
rights and liberties that citizens are expected to enjoy
12. Existence of prerogative writs: Certain prerogative writs such as habeas Corpus,
mandamus, Quo warranto, prohibito and certiorari should exist and should be allowed to
operate to enable the citizens apply when their rights are violated or infringed upon.

REASONS FOR ENTRENCHING HUMAN RIGHTS IN A CONSTITUTION

i. The entrenched clauses help to safeguard or protect the rights and liberties of the citizens.
Entrenchment of rights in a written constitution prevents greedy or selfish politicians
from amending the constitution so easily to violate or infringe the right of the citizens
ii. Entrenched clauses are, in some cases, justified as protecting the right of a minority from
the dangers of majoritarianism or in other cases, the objective may be to prevent
amendments to the basic law or constitution which would pervert the fundamental
principles enshrined in it, in particular to prevent the creation a legalistic dictatorship.
iii. The entrenchment of human rights provisions in our Constitutions aimed at creating a
society which protects political freedom as well as the social and economic well-being
HOW THE EFFICIENCY OF THE JUDICIARY CAN BE GUARANTEED IN
SAFEGUARDING THE RIGHTS OF THE CITIZENS
a. Dismissal: Judges should not be dismissed sacked by the executive if the efficiency of
the judiciary is to be maintained.
b. Separation: To guarantee the efficiency of the judiciary, the judicial arm of government
should be separated from the other two organs namely, the legislature and the executive
organ of government. Judges must be independent from absolute control of either the
legislature or the executive
c. Political neutrality: Judges must avoid engaging themselves in active partisan politics to
prevent influence by the waves of politics
d. Provision of security: Enough security should be provided in and outside the courts so
that judges will not be intimidated.
e. Remuneration: Salaries of judges and magistrates should be charged from the
consolidated fund.
f. Appointment: To ensure the independence of the judiciary, judges should be appointed
by an independent body but not the executive
g. Immunity of judges from prosecution: Judges and magistrates should enjoy immunity
from prosecution if the efficiency of the judiciary is to be ensured.
h. Promotion: Judges and magistrates should be promoted based upon merit and by
independent body and not the executive.

LIMITATIONS OF RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES

i. Security of the state: The individual’s right may be affected when the security of the
state is in danger. During such situations, people’s freedom of movement is curtailed
because they are at times prohibited from moving from one place to another especially
when a curfew is imposed. Again, in the interest of state security, people are prohibited
from going to places of vital installations such as military installations and presidential
residence. This also affects the individual’s freedom of movement.
ii. Encroachment on the rights of others: A citizen in his bid to enjoy rights has a
corresponding duty to refrain from encroaching on the rights of his fellow citizens, their
personal safety, security and property. In view of that, people who encroach on the right
 of others may have their rights taken away from them. For example, although there is
freedom of speech, speeches aimed at tarnishing the good name or image of a fellow
citizen can end in a suit defamation of character.
iii. Convicted criminals: Convicted criminals are denied of their rights. The state sometimes
uses its powers to remand people who have committed serious offences in custody
without bail. Such people are denied of their freedom of movement. Again, though there
is right to life, people who are found of committing serious criminal offences may be
sentenced to death by the court. This is done in order to free the society from those
people who make life unbearable for their fellow law abiding citizens.
iv. Outbreak of dangerous and contagious and infectious diseases: Even though there is
freedom of movement and association, people with contagious or communicable disease
such as Ebola, leprosy, swine flu, tuberculosis, Corona Virus (COVID-19) and chicken
pox may be confined to isolation wards to minimize the spread of such infectious
diseases to other people. The confinement restricts their freedom of movement.
v. Insane/lunatics: Sometimes, persons with certain disabilities such as lunatics or insane
may be confined to asylum for their own good and the good of the society. Such
confinement restricts their freedom of movement.
vi. Emergency situations: The outbreak of certain emergency situations which may threaten
life and property may lead to the adoption of certain measures which may restrict the
rights of the individual. Examples of such situations are war, natural disaster or political
upheavals like a coup d’etat.
vii. Swearing of oath of secrecy: In a state, citizens especially civil and public servants are
made to swear an oath of secrecy when they are recruited into the service. Though they
have freedom of speech, they have no right to disclose official information either in
speech or in their writings. For instance, they are prohibited from disclosing military
secrets to enemies. Anybody found of doing so is prosecuted by the state.
viii. Encroachment of Private property by the government: Private property of a citizen
may be encroached upon by government in the interest of the public and the payment of
lawful compensation. Example is land for school building.
ix. Illiteracy and ignorance: People who are illiterate or ignorance of their rights may have
their rights abused since these people may not know where to seek redress when these
 rights are violated.
x. The nature and system of government: The system practised in a state could affect the
rights of the citizens. For example, under military rule, fundamental human rights of the
citizens are curtailed and violated with impunity.
xi. Legal limitations: Certain legal provisions also limit the right of the citizens in a state.
For example, the law of libel, slander and sedition limit the individuals’ freedom of
expression
xii. Negative traditional practices: Negative traditional practices such as female genital
mutilation, trokossi system can limit the right of the individual
xiii. Economic and social condition: The level of economic and social development or
conditions in a state may limit the enjoyment of rights. Absence or inadequate social
amenities and infrastructures such as schools, hospital, market and public place of
convenience may limit the enjoyment of rights. Again, if people are unemployed the
enjoyment of rights may be limited.

INSTITUTIONS THAT SAFEGUARD THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENS

COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE JUSTICE (CHRAJ)

The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice was established to replace the
former Ombudsman established under the 1969 Constitution. CHRAJ was established within six-
months after the coming into force the 1992 Constitution of Ghana. It consists of a commissioner
and two deputy commissioners.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE

JUSTICE (CHRAJ)
i. The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) receives
complaints from individuals concerning administrative injustice and human rights abuses
such as wrongful dismissal, denial of promotion, denial, of payment of salaries, and
wages and sometimes denial of end-of- service benefits.
ii. The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) investigates
complaints of violation of Fundamental Human Rights and freedom, injustice, abuse of
 power, unfair treatment of persons by a public officer in the exercise of his official duties.
iii. The Commission takes appropriate steps to call for remedy, correction or find solution to
its investigation
iv. The Commission protects individuals from abuses of human rights, for instance trokosi
and female genital mutilation.
v. The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) educate the
public on human rights and freedoms by holding seminars, symposia and publications in
this regard etc.
vi. The Commission has power to investigate all instances of alleged or suspected corruption
and the misappropriation of public money by officials and to take appropriate steps,
including reports to the Attorney-General and the Auditor-General, resulting from such
investigations.
vii. Commission reports annually to parliament on its performance.

VIOLENCE AND VICTIMS SUPPORT UNIT (DOVVSU)

The Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) was originally referred to as
WAJU. It deals with domestic violence such as rape and defilement. Thy work together with the
Department of Social Welfare which deals with all irresponsibility and marital cases. They are
effective in the sense that they do not charge anything for their services which encourages
several people dress when their rights are violated.

FUNCTIONS OF DOVVSU
i. Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) protects the rights of women, children
and other vulnerable groups.
ii. They settle domestic disputes brought before them.
iii. They offer counseling to people.

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION

National Commission tor Civic Education was established by Act of Parliament within six
months after the first meeting and after coming into force the 1992 constitution Ghana. The
Commission consists of Chairman, two Deputies and four other members.
FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE)
i. The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) creates and sustains within the
society the awareness of the principles and objectives of the constitution as the
fundamental law of the people of Ghana.
ii. The Commission educates and encourages the public to defend the constitution at all
times from all forms of abuse and violations.
iii. The Commission formulates for the consideration of the Government, from time to time,
programmes at the national, regional and district levels aimed at realizing the objective of
the constitution.
iv. The Commission formulates, implements and oversees programmes intended to
inculcate in the citizens of Ghana awareness of their civic responsibilities and
appreciation of their rights and obligations as free people.

THE POLICE
The police contribute in several ways to protect the rights of citizens. These include:
a) By arresting criminals, the police protect the right to life, the right to property etc
b) The police monitor or patrol our roads to prevent drivers from driving recklessly. Even
when there is an accident on the road, they help passengers to pursue their insurance
claim. All these are done to protect the rights of the individuals.
c) The police again helps the law courts to prosecute criminals.

THE MASS MEDIA

The mass media consists of the electronic (Television, Radio, and Internet) and the print media
(newspapers and magazines). The mass media helps to protect or safeguard the rights of the
citizens in several ways. These include:
a) The media educates the people (public) on their rights and liberties and points out to
them the various ways of seeking redress when their rights are violated.
b) The media criticizes the unpopular policies of the government which may infringe upon
the rights of the citizens.
c) The media exposes evils in the society. These deter evil doers. CM. The media
sometimes contributes or advertise on donation to needy people in the society.
JUSTIFIABLE WRITS AND ORDERS
(i) Habeas corpus: Habeas corpus is a court order directing a detainee to be brought before
it. A writ of habeas corpus is a summon with the force of a court order, addressed to the
custodian (a person of trial for a example) demanding that prisoner be taken before the
court and that the custodian present proof authority, allowing the court to determine if the
custodian has lawful authority to detain the prisoner. If the custodian does not have
authority to detain the prisoner, then he must be released. The prisoner or another person
acting on his behalf may petition the court of a judge for a writ of habeas corpus. The
basic objective of habeas corpus is that persons detained without trial must be produced
before a court.
(ii) Mandamus: Mandamus is also a Latin word which means ”we command or order”.
Mandamus is one of the prerogative writs in the common law and is ”issued by superior
court to compel a lower court or a government officer to perform mandatory or purely
ministerial duties correctly. Mandamus may be a command to take an administrative
action or not to take a particular action and it is supplemented by legal law
(iii) Prohibito (prohibition): A writ of prohibito or prohibition is a writ directing a
subordinate to stop doing something that they may not do according to the law but are
doing. The writ is usually issued by a superior court to the lower court asking it not to
proceed with a case which does not fall under its jurisdiction.
(iv) Quo warranto (by what warrant?) Quo warranto is a prerogative writ requiring the person
to whom it is directed to show what authority they have for exercising some right or
power they claim to hold.
(v) Certiorari: Certiorari is also a Latin word meaning to be informed of or to be made
certain in regard to. It is also a name given to certain appellate proceedings for re-
examination of actions of a trial court or inferior appeals court. A writ of certiorari is a
decision by the Supreme Court to hear an appeal from a lower court.
DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS (RESPONSIBILITIES) OF CITIZENS
Citizens do not enjoy only rights but perform certain responsibilities (duties) as well.
Responsibility refers to the obligations of citizens and visitors to the country. These duties,
obligations or responsibilities of citizens include:
(i) Payment of taxes: Every citizen is expected to pay his taxes regularly and promptly
without fail. A citizen is required to declare his income honestly to tax agencies and pay
his legitimate tax. The payment of taxes by the citizens provides revenue for
development. It helps the government to realize revenue to provide security and needed
infrastructure such as hospitals, schools, good roads, electricity etc. for the benefit of all
the citizens.
(ii) Allegiance to the state: One of the obligations of a citizen is that of allegiance to the
state. Allegiance to the state encompasses respect for political leaders, the national flag
and the national anthem. It also implies loyalty to the government and devotions to the
ideals of the state.
(iii) Defend the constitution: A citizen is expected to uphold and defend the constitution of
his country always. He has the responsibility of resisting any person or group of persons
seeking to suspend, overthrow or abrogate the constitution of his country or aid and abet
any person in a manner to do any of such acts.
(iv) Cooperate with law enforcement agencies in maintaining law and order: A citizen is
expected to help law enforcement agencies such as the police to maintain law and order
in a state. For example, a citizen is expected to help prevent crime in the society by
refraining from committing crime and promptly reporting those who commit crime to the
law enforcement agencies.
(v) Defend the country: It is the responsibility of a citizen to defend the state when the need
arises. A citizen is required to defend the country in times of war. A citizen should be
ready to get enlisted into the Armed Forces when asked to do so, for the defence of the
country. Again, a citizen is expected to defend the good name of his country wherever he
finds himself
(vi) Obedience of the law: Every citizen is required to obey the laws in the state for the
common good of all. Failure to obey laws may bring about disorder, chaos and anarchy
and makes one a bad citizen. Compliance with the law promotes harmony and peaceful
 co-existence in the state.
(vii) Service to the state: One of the primary obligations of every citizen is to serve his
country in any capacity to be determined by the state. These services include recruitment
into the Armed forces, Police Service and National Service. They should be always
ready to serve the nation in any form.
(viii) Protection of public property: Every citizen is obliged to protect and preserve public
property and expose and avoid misuse and waste of public funds and property. A citizen
must ensure that public properties such as traffic lights, school desks, text books etc are
handled responsibly and with great care.
(ix) All citizens are expected to exercise their political rights: They must actively
participate in the political process of their country either as members of the legislature or
Local Assemblies and authorities or to vote others to be members of the legislature and
local Assemblies.
(x) Non- interference with other people’s rights: A citizen is expected not to interfere with
other people’s rights. A citizen in his bid to enjoy rights has a corresponding duty to
refrain from encroaching on the rights of his fellow citizens, their personal safety,
security and property. A citizen must respect the rights, freedoms and legitimate interest
of other persons.
(xi) Honouring communal labour: A citizen is expected to get himself involved actively in
communal activities undertaking in his or her community.
(xii) Promotion of national integration, peace and harmony: One of the responsibilities of
every citizen is to help to promote national integration, peace and harmony. He is
expected to foster national unity and cohesion and live in harmony with others. A citizen
must not engage himself in any activity that can bring chaos and anarchy in the state.

WHY CITIZENS OBEY THE LAWS OF THE STATE

a. Many citizens obey the laws of the state because of fear of sanctions like court lines, and
jail terms.
b. Some citizens obey the laws of the state like payment of taxes because they want
government to provide them essential services.
c. Individuals obey the laws of the state to enable them enjoy certain rights and liberties
 because every responsibility entails privileges.
d. Some people obey the laws of the state because they come from families which are
naturally law-abiding and have respect for law and authority.
e. Some individuals obey the laws of the state to show their loyalty to the government and
confer legitimacy on such government.
f. Citizens obey the laws of the state because of fear of harsh public opinion against them
when they disobey the laws.
What ate the duties and obligation of citizens? (SSSSCE., 1993; Q3) Outline four functions and
two limitations Commission on I luman Rights and Administrathe Justice (CI1RAJ).
(SS..SSCE, 1999: Q4, SSSSCE, 2004; private Exams Q6) Highlight six reasons why laws arc
obeyed in a state. Define fundamental human rights Highlight five means of safeguarding the
fundamental human rights in a state (WASSSCE, JUNE 2007; Q3) Outline any three
fundamental human rights of a citizen. What are the limitations of these rights? (SSSSCE, 2004;
Q4, NIGERIA) Define the rights of a citizen. Highlight five ways of safeguarding the rights of
citizens in the state. (SSSSCE, 2004; Q4 Nigeria) Highlight any six ways by which the rights of
citizens can be protected.(WASSSCE, JUNE 2008, Q3). Distinguish between rights and duties
Explain four duties of citizens (SSSSCE2005, Q1, PRIVATE) Who is a citizen of a country? (b)
Highlight five means by which citizenship can be acquired (WASSSCE NOV/DEC2010; Q4)
Highlight any four constitutional provisions that safeguard the rights of citizens. (WASSSCE
JUNE, 2011; Q2b) Who is a citizen? Highlight any five ways by which citizens rights can be
protected in a democracy (WASSSCE NOV/DEC 2009; Q4)

Onstouch GOVERNMENT FOR II 137

 CHAPTER SIX

STATE STRUCTURE AND TYPES/FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT (STATE STRUCTURE)

The various forms of government (states) include unitary or state, federal government or state
and confederal government or state.

UNITARY GOVERNMENT (STATE)

A unitary system of government (state) is a political arrangement whereby all governmental
powers are concentrated in the hands of the single authority or the central government. The
central government does not share governmental powers with other bodies but can delegate
powers to them. Examples of unitary states are Ghana. Britain and France.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF UNITARY STATE (GOVERNMENT)

1. One level of government: Unitary state has one level of government that rules the whole
country. Thus, in a unitary system of government or state, the constitution recognizes
only one level of government.
2. Homogenous societies: Unitary system occurs in a society with homogenous culture.
Thus, it occurs in societies with no sharp racial, linguistics or religious differences among
the sections of the population.
3. Flexibility of its constitution: Most unitary constitutions are flexible since there is no
fear or threat of secession as usually happen in federation. The constitution can therefore
be amended to meet changing situations or needs.
4. Powers are concentrated at the centre: In unitary states, all powers and authority for
the exercise of the functions of the states are concentrated in the hands of the central
government.
5. Unitary states are usually smaller in terms of size and population. Example is Ghana.
6. It produces strong central government: Unitary governed stronger than the &demi
government since powers art concentrated in the hands of one central authority and
secession is avoided
 7. The size of the country: Unitary system of government is adopted by many smaller
countries since one central government can easily administer.

ADVANTAGE MERITS OF UNITARY STATE/SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OR

REASONS FOR WHY SOME COUNTRIES ADOPT UNITARY SYSTEM
1. It is simple and cheap to operate: Unitary state or system of government is simple and
cheaper to operate because the political institutions at the national level are not duplicated
at the local level as is done in a federation. It therefore helps to conserve resources in
terms of personnel and finance.
2. It facilitates quick decision making and implementation: In a unitary state, all powers
are concentrated at the centre. The central government needs not to consult any other
bodies before decisions are taken. This enables the central government to take quick
decisions to meet changing needs.
3. It ensures uniformity in development: Unitary system of government or state ensures
even development throughout the country since the economic development of the country
is planned centrally.
4. Uniform rule and policies: In a unitary system, there is uniformity in rules and policies
since there is only one authority responsible for making rules and policies for the entire
country.
5. It promotes national unity and integration: In a unitary state or system of government,
individuals do not have conflicts of loyalties between a region or unit and the nation.
6. It avoids waste of human and material resources: Unitary system avoids waste of
human and material resources due to absence of duplication of administrative functions.
7. It promotes strong and stable government.

DISADVANTAGES OF UNITARY STATE/GOVERNMENT

i. It may lead to dictatorship: The concentration of governmental powers in the hands of
one central authority makes it possible for some political leaders to infringe upon the
rights of the citizens to achieve their selfish interests. This results in dictatorship.
ii. It encourages remoteness: Unitary system of government create remoteness at the
centre. It makes the at the became indifferent towanis the political issues of their cagily)
iii. It is unsuitable for large states: Unitary faint of government is unsuitable for countries
with large population because it is difficult to administer such large area from one central
point.
iv. Uneven distribution of resources: The system may lead to the neglect of some parts of
the country in the allocation of resources.
v. Lack of local participation: Unitary system does not encourage local participation in the
affairs of the country since all major decisions are taken at the centre,
vi. It is bureaucratic: A unitary system of government tends to delay the implementation
of government programmes because all directives/decisions have to come from the
centre.

CONDITIONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF UNITARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT BY

SOME COUNTRIES
i. Small size of the country: Many countries adopt unitary system of government because
of their smallness in terms of physical size and population since the system is more
suitable for countries which are relatively small in size. This is due to the fact that it is
easier to administer the people without much difficulty. For example, Ghana took a
logical reason for adopting a unitary system of government in 1957 due to its small size
and population.
ii. Limited natural and human resources: Unitary system of government is relatively less
expensive in terms of natural and human resources. This is because the political
institutions at the national level are not duplicated at the local level as done in a
federation and this helps to conserve resources.
iii. The need for national unity and cohesion: Some countries adopt unitary system of
government with the view of promoting national unity and integration. This is
achievable because individuals in the state do not have conflicts of loyalties between a
region or unit and the nation as happens in a federal system.
iv. Absence of fear of domination of minority group by the majority: Another condition
which accounts for the adoption of unitary system of government by some countries is
the absence of fear domination of minority group by the majority. If all things being
equal and the minority will not be dominated by the majority then a unitary system of
 government can be adopted. On the other hand, if there possibility of domination, then a
country will adopt a federal system of government.
v. Lack of marked economic inequalities in the country: Another condition for the
adoption of a unitary system of government is due to lack of marked economic
inequalities in the country.
vi. Absence of sharp ethnic or tribal differences/heterogeneity: If there is an absence of
marked ethnic, tribal, historical or racial differences among the people then unitary
system of government can be adopted.
vii. Identical culture and language: Existence of identical culture and language is also a
condition favourable for the adoption of a unitary system of government. If there is
uniformity in language and culture, then it is possible for one central government to rule
the people.

FEDERATION/FEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT/FEDERAL STATE

A federal system of government is a system of government in which governmental powers are
shared between the central government and the component units with some powers reserved
exclusively for the central government in the constitution known as Exclusive List. Such areas
include foreign affairs, defence, currency, immigration and emigration. Both the central
government and the component units legislate on concurrent list. The units exercise residual
powers. Countries with a federal system of government include the United States of America
(USA), Nigeria, Canada, Malaysia, Australia and Germany.

FEATURES OF FEDERATION
i. Supremacy of the constitution: In federation, the final authority lies in the constitution.
Each of the two levels of government operates within the legal framework defined for it
by the constitution.
ii. Division of powers: Another feature of federation is the formal division of government
powers by the constitution between the central or federal government and government of
the units or component states. Exclusive porkers such as foreign Affairs, defense,
currency, immigration and emigration are reserved for the central government and
concurrent powers such as internal security, internal trade and tariffs are shared by both
 the central and component
iii. It has a written and rigid constitution: The constitution used under federation is
usually written and rigid and the amendment of the entrenched clauses requires the
consent of both the central government and the government of the component units.
There is a written constitution in a federation which stipulates the powers and functions
of both the federal government and the component units. This helps to prevent abuse of
power by any level of government.
iv. Existence of bicameral legislature: In a federation, there exist two chambers of the
legislature, thus First and Second chambers or Lower House and Upper House. The
existence of a second chamber helps to prevent hasty passage of laws, prevents
dictatorship, ensures effective checks and balances and could give equal representation to
the units.
v. The right of secession is generally denied: Once units come together to form a single
united country, the federal constitution does not permit the unit to break away or secede.
Rigid constitution is therefore usually used in federation.
vi. Existence of Independent judiciary: In a federation the judiciary is made independent
from the legislature and the executive and all other parties to enhance fair administration
of justice.
vii. There are two levels of government: Two levels of government exist in a federal state.
They are the central or Federal authority and the Component units. Exclusive powers are
exercised by the central government, residual powers are exercised by the component
unit states and concurrent powers are exercised by both the central government and the
component units. In case of conflicts, the decision of the central government supersedes
that of the component units.
viii. Dual loyalty/allegiance: Federalism leads to the creation of dual loyalty on the part of
the citizens to the central government and component units or states government. In most
cases, a lot of them become more loyal to the component states/units than even the
central government because the component states or units are closer to them. They feel
being part of the governing process in the component states than the central government.
ix. The existence of a system of Revenue Allocation: In a federation, there is an existence
of a system for allocating revenue to both the federal government and the component
 units or states taking into consideration the principle of derivation and needs of both the
federal and the component units.

METHODS OF ALLOCATING POWERS IN A FEDERATION

Three main methods are used to allocate powers or functions between the central and the
component units of government in a federal structure. These include exclusive powers,
concurrent powers and residual powers.
I. Exclusive powers: This method specifies a number of functions or powers to either the
centre or the units exclusively to be performed. For example health, education etc are
usually given to the units while defence, currency, immigration, emigration, national
budget and foreign affairs are given to the central government.
II. Concurrent powers: With this method, both the centre and the component units are
expected to compromise on certain defined areas of activity to ensure uniformity and
smoothness in administration of the federal state. This implies that in some areas, both
the centre and units have power to control. This area may include internal security,
internal trade and tariffs.
III. Residual powers: These areas are often not clearly defined in the constitution of the
federal state. In a number of federal constitutions, such powers could be allocated to
either the centre or the units. Other federal structures reserve such powers to the central
government mainly to ensure that federal bond is sustained.

CONDITIONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF FEDERATION OR FACTORS NECESSARY

FOR THE ADOPTION OF A FEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
i. The need for common defense and security: The need for common defense system
against external aggression can make states adopt a federal system of government. For
example, the thirteen American colonies joined together in a federation following the
American War of independence for reason of security.
ii. Preservation of local autonomy: The federal system is adopted to provide considerable
amount of decentralization in the administration. It brings the government closer to the
door steps of the people and therefore encourages local participation in the political
process of their country.
 iii. Differences in level of economic development: Sharp differences in the level of
economic development between different units of a country may lead to the adoption of a
federation to enable each unit to have the freedom to develop at its own pace.
iv. The need to check dictatorship/Fear of domination: Different groups within a country
may adopt federalism as a means to prevent the over-concentration of power at the centre
which can lead to dictatorship.
v. Common culture and historical background: States with common cultural background
can come together to form a federation. For instance, the different parts of Nigeria
adopted federalism at independence on account of their common historical background.
vi. The desire to pool resources together for the development of the country as a whole:
Some states adopt federation because of the desire to pool resources together for the
development of the country as a whole. For instance, the desire to promote trade through
the removal of all internal trade barriers is a condition for successful federation. It was
this desire which contributed to the success of the American federation.
vii. Geographical contiguity or nearness/proximity: The various states which have a desire
to form a federation must be close to one another.
viii. Existence of adequate economic resources: A federation is relatively an expensive
mechanism. A state wishing to adopt a federation must have both human and economic
resources to support both the central and local governments.
ix. The size of the country/population: Many countries adopt a federal system of
government because of their largeness in terms of physical size and population size since
the system is more suitable for countries which are relatively large in size. Federalism is
usually formed in areas with very high population so that each component state can have
representative to promote local government. For example, Nigeria have a high
population, the adoption of federalism has helped reduce the work of the central
government.

ADVANTAGES/MERITS OF FEDERATION
a. It prevents dictatorship at the centre: Federation serves as a check on the emergence of
dictatorship in a state. The component governments have some amount of powers which
enables them to prevent the federal government from becoming a dictator.
 b. Common defence against external aggression: Federation enable the federating units to
come together to defend themselves against external attack.
c. It promotes local participation: Federation allows people at the grassroots to take part
in the political process of their country.
d. Pooling of resources: Federation is economically advantageous because it allows the
various federating units to pool their resources together for development.
e. It encourages rapid socio-economic development: Federalism promotes rapid social
and economic development in all the federation. Resources are distributed by the federal
government in a way that will ensure equitable social and economic development
throughout the federation.
f. It helps to bring together the diverse ethnic groups and religious groups in country
without destroying their identity.

DISADVANTAGES OF FEDERALISM
i. Disparity in the level of development: Some component states in a federation tend to
develop faster than others due to the fact that they have good administrators, more natural
resources and may be more favoured by the centre in the allocation of resources.
ii. Slows down decision- making process: Federalism may slow down the decision-making
process since the two levels of government would have to agree to a decision especially
in matters that fall into the concurrent list that involve both the central and the regional or
state governments before it can be accepted.
iii. It may result in dual loyalty: Federalism leads to the creation of dual loyalty on the part
of the citizens to the federal government and the state government.
iv. Duplication of institution: The existence of states governments in federal states creates
avenue for the setting up of legislature, executive, judiciary and other institutions in all
the state apart from the federal ones. The duplication of institution leads to waste of
resources.
v. The problem of co-existence: Most federal countries are faced with ethnic problems.
These differences make it difficult for the diverse groups to co-exist harmoniously,
leading to bitterness among them.
vi. Inter-state friction: One of the arguments against federalism is that it causes inter-state
 or regional friction. This is as a result of differences in opinion among these component
states into which powers are divided
vii. Difficult to amend the federal constitution: Most federal states often use written and
rigid constitution. This makes it difficult to amend certain clauses they wish to amend to
meet changing situations within a short time.
viii. Domination of larger states: The larger states in federation may try to dominate the
weaker or smaller ones through the legislative process.
ix. Expensive to operate: Federalism costs a lot in terms of material and human resources
required to operate it. It entails heavy expenditure because of the unnecessary duplication
in administration.

CONFEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OR STATE

A confederal system of government is a loose political arrangement whereby autonomous or
sovereign states come together to form a union in which almost all the major functions or powers
of government are reserved exclusively for the component units.

FEATURES OF CONFEDERATION
i. Union of states: A confederation is a union of two or more sovereign or autonomous
States. It is a league of sovereign nations with a loose political arrangement in which
autonomous states come together to form a union
ii. Exclusive powers belong to the component states: In a confederation, exclusive powers
notably those relating to foreign affairs; defence, currency, immigration and emigration
belong to the component states. The confederal (central) government is usually vested
with residual powers.
iii. It has a weak central government: In confederation, the central or confederal
government’s role is limited and defined by the component units. The central government
is useless as any of the states could secede (pull out) at short period since sovereignty or
ultimate power rests with the component units. The central government therefore has
limited means to enforce decisions on the component states.
iv. Legal right to secede: In confederation, component states have legal right to withdraw
from the union at any point in time which can eventually lead to the collapse of the
 confederation. A good example in Ghana was the disintegration of the Fante
Confederation following the withdrawal of the non-Fante states from the union, among
other factors
v. Loyalty of citizens: In a confederation, the citizens’ loyalty is to their component
(respective) states and not to the confederal government. The confederal government has
no direct control over the citizens of the component states.
vi. Control of army and police: In confederation, component states control their own army
and police. The confederal government has no direct control over the army and the police
of the component states. The confederal government depends upon the component states
to contribute soldiers and resources to defend the confederation. The component states
defend each other in times of crisis or external attack. For instance, Senegal sent troops to
Gambia in 1981 to assist it to suppress the coup d’etat that resulted in that year at a time
when the foundation of the Sene-Gambian confederation had already been laid.
vii. Politically unstable: Confederation is an unstable form of government. Confederation is
usually unstable because member states can withdraw (secede) from the union at any
time which can eventually lead to the collapse of the confederation.
viii. A confederation uses both written and flexible constitution: The component states in
a confederation are bound together by a constitution. Where the units are bound together
by a written constitution, the provisions of the constitution are usually flexible. The
constitution invariably recognizes the independence and sovereignty of the component
units.
ix. In confederation, residual powers are in the hands of the central government: These
powers enable the central government to perform some functions for the mutual benefit
of all the units.

ADVANTAGES OF CONFEDERATION
i. In confederation, member states are allowed to plan their own policies to suit their
developmental needs
ii. Conflict between the central government and the components units is reduced because
the units are allowed to pursue their own agenda without interference from the
confederal government
 iii. Confederation promotes unity in diversity because it makes it possible for independent
states made up of different culture, linguistic, tribal and racial considerations to come
together to form a union and pursue common interests or goals
iv. For common security and defense purpose: In confederation, one state at War may
receive military assistance from sister states To defend the confederation
v. Expertise and technical assistance can be exchanged to promote development

WEAKNESSES/DISADVANTAGES OF CONFEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

i. The confederal system of government has a weak centre. The central government
depends on the component units for implementation of policies.
ii. Component states are granted the legal rights to secede anytime they wish to do so.
iii. Political instability is inherent in a confederation. The right to secede makes
confederation unstable. The nature of the constitution prevents decisions to be backed by
any strong legal instrument. This makes it difficult for the confederal government to
enforce its decisions in member countries.
iv. Component states retain their identities and sovereignty instead of losing them to the
confederacy. No state is formed and members continue to exist as a sovereign nation.
v. The constitution makes the component state more powerful than the central government.
Thus, the component states take decision for the central government and not vice versa.
vi. Individual citizen’s allegiance is more to the component units than the centre.
vii. The confederal government does not have any direct control over the citizens of the
component states.
viii. It does not encourage even development. Member states in confederal system develop at
their own pace.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FEDERAL AND CONFEDERAL SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT
i. In a federal system of government, the centre is more powerful than the component units
whilst in confederal system of government the states making up the confederation
(component units) are more powerful than the centre.
ii. Federation has a strong centre whilst confederation has a weak centre. In a federal
 system, powers are shared between the central government and other component units
whilst there is no power sharing in confederation.
iii. Federal system of government makes use of supreme written and rigid constitution whilst
confederal system of government uses flexible constitution.
iv. In federation, sovereignty rests with the central government whilst in confederation
sovereignty rests with the component units.
v. In a federal system, the component units making up the federation cannot secede whilst
in confederation the right to secession is allowed.
vi. In the federal system, the central government controls the armed forces whilst in a
confederal system; component states still maintain their separate military establishment.
vii. In a federal system of government, there is a stable political system whilst a confederal
system has fragile and unstable political system

PRESIDENTIAL, PARLIAMENTARY, REPUBLICAN AND REPRESENTATIVE

GOVERNMENT

PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

A presidential system of government is a system of government in which the president is both
the Head of state and Head of government and is popularly or directly elected for a fixed tenure
of office. OR
Presidential system of government is a system of government in which one person known as the
president is both the Head of state and the Head of government. He is then made to perform both
ceremonial and real executive or administrative functions. Examples of countries which practice
presidential system of government are USA and Nigeria.

CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

1. There is Monocephalous Executive. Thus, one person known as the president is the
Head of State and the Head of Government. Ceremonial and executive (political) powers
are usually fused.
2. The president is directly elected by the people. The president is not drawn from
parliament but is popularly elected by the people and rules on the mandate of the people.
 He is therefore responsible and accountable to the electorate.
3. The president serves a fixed term of office. For example in Ghana, the president is
elected to serve for four years and can be re-elected to serve for another four years when
the people still like him.
4. There is separation of powers. Thus, the three organs of government namely the
executive, the legislature and the judiciary are independent of each other in terms of
personnel, powers and functions. A member of parliament who is appointed as a minister
resigns as a member of parliament before he or she can take the position as a minister
5. Ministers are selected from outside parliament. In strict presidential system of
government, the president appoints all his ministers from outside parliament.
6. In a presidential system of government, the president can be constitutionally
removed from office through impeachment. He can be removed from office on
grounds of committing serious crime, or when he contravenes the provisions of the
constitution or on the grounds of incompetence.
7. The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. In presidential system
of government, the president is the Commander in-Chief- of the Armed Forces
comprising the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. He can therefore deploy the Armed
Forces to embark on operation anywhere. He can even declare war but on the approval of
the legislature.
8. In presidential system of government, it is the president who appoints key officials such
as Inspector General of Police (IGP), Electoral Commissioner and Chief Justice in the
state.
9. In presidential system of government there is an existence of checks and balances.
Each of the three organs of government namely, the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary serve as watch dog on the activities performed by the other.
10. Unlike parliamentary system of government where there is a recognized opposition, in
presidential system of government, there is no official opposition.
11. There is supremacy of the constitution: In presidential system of government, the
constitution is the source of power of all the organs and institutions of a state. All organs
and institutions in the state are expected to work within the law. Any act by any
institution or organ that contravenes the provisions of the constitution is declared null and
 void.
12. In presidential system of government, the members of the executive are individually
responsible to the president. The president has the power to appoint, reshuffle or dismiss
any minister at any time he wants.
13. In a presidential system of government, the president can veto bills passed by the
legislature. Thus, the president may refuse to a bill deliberated and passed by the
legislature to become law.
14. Unlike parliamentary system in which party discipline is rigidly enforced, in a
presidential system of government, party discipline is weak.
15. In a presidential system of government, there is an existence of judicial review. This is
where constitutional powers are given to the superior courts to nullify unconstitutional
acts of the legislature and the executive.
16. In a presidential system of government, the appointment of cabinet members requires the
confirmation of the legislature.

ADVANTAGES OF PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

i. Existence of separation of powers: In a presidential system of government, each of the
three arms of government namely, legislature, executive and the judiciary is independent
of other in terms of functions and personnel. This arrangement allows each organ to
monitor and check each other, thereby preventing abuses.
ii. Promotes political stability: A presidential system of government by virtue of a fixed
tenure of office of the president promotes stability than a parliamentary system of
government in which the prime minister can be dismissed at any time through a vote of
no confidence.
iii. Promotes objectivity of members of parliament: In presidential system of government,
members of parliament can vote according to their conscience since the executive and the
legislature exist as two parallel structures.
iv. More democratic: A presidential system of government is more democratic than the
parliamentary system of government because the president is directly or popularly
elected.
v. Easy to hold one man accountable: Because the presidential system of government
 features monocephalous executive where only one person performs the function as head
of State and head of government, the president can be held responsible for misconduct or
incompetence in the state.
vi. Friction is reduced: The existence of monocephalous executive prevents friction in the
executive arm of government. The president does not share power with anybody and this
helps to reduce friction or conflict associated with parliamentary system where power is
shared between two people.
vii. Detraction is avoided: Members of parliament are not detracted from their
parliamentarian duties since they do not perform dual functions.
viii. Quick execution of government policies: There is effective control in the presidential
system of government which ensures quick execution of government policies.
ix. Direct mandate: In a presidential system, the president is often elected directly by the
people. This makes the president more legitimate than that of a leader appointed
indirectly.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

a) Emergence of Dictatorship: Due to too much power vested in the president, he may
take advantage of his powers and rule arbitrary or turn into a dictator and encroach on the
functions of the other organs of government as well as the rights and liberties of the
people.
b) Disagreement between the President and the legislature: If the president does not
have the support of the majority in parliament, the legislators may thwart (sabotage) his
effort by rejecting his policies. There is a tendency on the part of the legislature even to
pass laws whose implementation by the executive would be impossible.
c) The executive may he overburdened: The fact that the president combines ceremonial
and administrative functions makes his workload too heavy. The president who is the
head of state would have to perform ceremonial functions such receiving foreign
dignitaries into the country, honour deserving citizens etc. He is also charged with
responsibility of performing administrative functions such as formulation and
implementation of policies, maintenance of law and order etc.
d) Insensitivity of presidential officers to public opinion: Presidential officers such as
 ministers tend to be insensitive to public opinion. This is because the ministers are not
directly elected by the electorate but rather appointed by the president. These ministers
are not directly accountable to the electorate. They may therefore take certain decisions
which may not be in the interest of the people.
e) Difficult to remove the president when his tenure has not ended: Presidential system
of government makes it difficult for the president to be removed even when he becomes
unpopular. This is as a result of the fixed tenure of office accorded to the president.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESIDENT IN PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

a) Power of appointing, dismissing and reshuffling ministers: The president as the head
of the executive has been empowered to appoint ministers and deputy ministers from
outside parliament. He is also empowered to reshuffle or dismiss any minister any time
he deems it fit and bring in others to fill the position.
b) He assents to bills to become laws: The president assents to bills passed by parliament
before the bills could become laws. The president can also veto part or whole of a bill
presented to him by parliament.
c) Formulation and implementation of policies: The president is responsible for the
formulation and implementation of public policies as well as initiation of proposals to be
passed into laws by the legislature.
d) The president is the Commander- in-Chief of the Armed Force: As the Commander-
in-Chief of the Armed Forces, he can deploy troops to engage in an internal or external
operation when necessary. He can even declare war but with the approval of the
legislature.
e) He performs ceremonial functions: The president performs ceremonial functions such
as receiving foreign dignitaries into the country, taking salutes during Independence Day,
etc. Exercises the power of prerogative of mercy: The president acting in consultation
with the Council of State exercises the prerogative of mercy and pardons convicted
criminals.
f) Could open and dissolve parliament: The president is empowered to open, summon,
prorogue and dissolve parliament.
g) He appoints top state officials: The president acting in consultation with j the Council
 of State makes important state appointments such as heads of independent commissions,
judges of superior court of judicature and other top governmental officials.
h) He determines the salaries of top state officials: The president determines the salaries
and emolument of top government officials such as the Chief Justice and the Auditor
General.
i) He reads the State of the Nations address: The president reads the State of the Nations
address to parliament. The president is empowered to deliver a message to Parliament on
the state of the nation, at the beginning of each session of Parliament.
j) The president is the font of honour: Thus, he gives national awards and honours to
deserving citizens. Examples of such awards in Ghana include the National Best Farmer
Award, National Best Teacher Award, etc
k) Signing of treaties and conventions with other nations and maintaining foreign
relations: The president signs treaties, agreements or conventions on behalf of Ghana,
subject to parliamentary approval. He also maintains good foreign relations with other
states so that in times of needs the state can rely on them.
l) He presides over cabinet meetings: As the head of the executive, the president is
empowered by the constitution to chair all cabinet meetings.

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT/NON-PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT/CABINET SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
Parliamentary system of government is a system of government in which the executive is headed
by two people namely Head of State and Head of Government. The Head of State performs
ceremonial functions and the Head of Government performs the real executive functions.
The head of government is the prime minister and the head of state can be a president or a
monarch as we have in Britain. Examples of countries that practice this system of government
include Britain, Canada and Australia. Ghana adopted this system of government in 1969.

FEATURES OF PARLIAMENTARY OR CABINET SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

a) It features bicephalous executive. Thus, the executive is headed by two people namely
prime minister and the president or monarch.
b) There is no strict separation of the executive and the legislative organs of government in
 terms of personnel, powers and functions. What is usually practised is fusion of powers
as ministers are selected from the legislature and are collectively responsible and
accountable to the legislature.
c) In a parliamentary system of government, the prime minister and his cabinet are
collectively responsible to the legislature.
d) There is flexibility in the tenure of office of the government since the prime minister and
his cabinet can be removed from office by the legislature at any time through a vote of
no confidence when they fail to live up to expectation.
e) There is an existence of the principle of collective responsibility: This is where the
whole cabinet is either praised or blamed for a good thing or mistake made by one of
them. In a parliamentary system of government, all ministers are chosen from the
legislature (parliament).
f) In parliamentary system, party discipline is rigidly enforced: There is parliamentary
supremacy in the parliamentary (cabinet) system. In parliamentary system, the prime
minister is appointed from the majority party in parliament.

ADVANTAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY/CABINET SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

a) Mutual checks: Bicephalous executive ensures effective checks of the two heads of the
executive namely the president and the prime minister on each other so as to avoid
dictatorship.
b) Ensures continuity: Bicephalous executive promotes continuity in government. This is
because in most countries during a change of government, the head of state remains in
office to ensure a smooth transition as in the case of Britain.
c) Sharing of workload of the heads: Bicephalous executive makes it possible for the
constitutional functions of the executive to be shared by two persons, namely head of
state and the head of government thereby relieving a single head of overload of functions.
The prime minister sees to the overall administration of the state while the Head of State
concentrates on ceremonial functions. This specialization also promotes efficiency.
d) Co-operation between the executive and the legislature: Since the executive also
belongs to the legislature, there is cordial relationship and co-operation between the
legislature and the executive.
 e) Consciousness of cabinet ministers in their action and statements: In a Bicephalous
executive, individual ministers are careful about their statements and actions due to their
adherence to the principle of collective responsibility. Thus, the whole cabinet is affected
by the mistake of one minister.
f) Selection of ministers is simplified: Parliamentary system provides easy means of
selecting ministers since all ministers are selected from the legislature.

DISADVANTAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY/CABINET SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

i. Conflict between the two heads: Bicephalous executive often leads to conflict between
the head of state and the head of government. There could be disagreement between the
two heads over policy and ideology as well as who should wield superior power.
ii. Expensive to maintain: Unlike the monocephalous executive, bicephalous executive is
more expensive to run as it leads to unnecessary duplication and waste of resources. The
system establishes two heads and maintains their salaries, gratitude and other conditions
of service which can create financial burden on the state.
iii. Ministers are often overburdened: Ministers in cabinet who are also parliamentarians
may be detracted in performing their functions. These ministers sometimes ignore their
constituencies due to numerous official duties. It is not easy to combine the two
functions.
iv. The tenure of office of the executive is unstable: This is because the cabinet holds
office only when it commands the confidence of parliament. Parliament can cause the
down fall of the executive through ”vote of no confidence”.
v. Delays government process: Bicephalous executive tends to delay government process
because the system requires frequent consultation between the head of state and the head
of government, and if there is disagreement between the two heads, it may delay the
decision -making process.
vi. May neglect the knowledge and experience of some statesmen: There may be
experienced and knowledgeable people who because of one reason or other could not
contest election into parliament. Such people may not be selected for ministerial
positions because they are not parliamentarians.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRESIDENTIAL AND PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM OF
GOVERNMENT
i. In the presidential system, the president chooses his ministers from outside parliament
but in the parliamentary system of government, ministers are chosen from within
parliament.
ii. In the presidential system of government, the head of state is also the head of government
while in the parliamentary system of government the head of state is different from the
head of government.
iii. In the presidential system, there is fixed tenure for the government but in the
parliamentary system, there is flexibility in the tenure of the government.
iv. In the presidential system, there is the principle of separation of powers while in the
parliamentary system of government there is fusion of powers.
v. In the presidential system, ministers are individually responsible and accountable to the
president, while in the parliamentary system, the ministers are collectively responsible to
legislature (parliament).
vi. In the presidential system of government, the president can be removed by impeachment
while in the parliamentary system the prime minister can be removed through vote of no
confidence.
vii. In the presidential system of government, the role of the opposition is not constitutionally
determined but in the parliamentary system, the constitution provides a role for the
opposition. In the presidential system, there is constitutional supremacy while in the
parliamentary system, there is parliamentary supremacy.
viii. In a presidential system, the president performs both executive and ceremonial functions
while in the parliamentary system, the president performs only ceremonial functions. 00.
In the presidential system of government, the president is directly elected while in the
parliamentary system; the prime minister is appointed from the majority party in
parliament.
ix. In a presidential system of government, the president can veto bills passed by the
legislature whereas in the parliamentary system, there is no such veto.
x. In a presidential system, party discipline is weak whiles in the parliamentary system,
party discipline is rigidly enforced.
COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY
The principle of collective responsibility enjoins the cabinet to take blame or praise for their
action. The mistake committed by one of them affects the entire cabinet. The principle is usually
associated with the cabinet or parliamentary system of government. For example, in Britain
when a vote of no confidence is passed to remove the prime minister from office, he goes out
with the entire cabinet. Thus, if a vote of no confidence is passed in parliament, the government
is responsible collectively, and thus the entire government resigns. The consequence will be that
a new government will be formed, or parliament will dissolve and general election will be called.

ADVANTAGES OF COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY

1. Consciousness of cabinet ministers in their actions and statements: Individual cabinet
ministers are careful about their statements and actions due to their adherence to the
principle of collective responsibility. Thus, the whole cabinet is affected by the mistake
of one minister.
2. It helps cabinet to be united before parliament: A parliamentary system that uses
cabinet collective responsibility is more likely to avoid contradictions and disagreements
between cabinet members of the executive branch. Cabinet ministers are likely to feel
there is a practical and collective benefit from being part of a team.
3. It promotes party and personal loyalty to the prime minister: Cabinet collective
responsibility benefits party and personal loyalty to the prime minister. Solidarity within
the cabinet can strengthen the prime minister’s party and accelerate policy decisions and
interests of the party
4. It promotes quick decision-making: Cabinet collective responsibility allows decisions
to be made quickly by the prime minister and inevitably speeds up the process of passing
legislation.

DISADVANTAGES OF COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY

i. The practice could lead to instability and frequent change of government when the ruling
party has not secured effective majority in parliament
ii. When disagreements occur within the cabinet, collective agreements can be nearly
 impossible, resulting in the stoppage or policy change and legislation.
iii. Party majority loyalty and influence often make the practice of collective responsibility a
mere formality.

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE PRIME MINISTER

i. Formulation of policies: The prime minister and his cabinet formulate policies for the
people. The Prime Minister and his cabinet are charged with the responsibility of
formulating good policies to ensure smooth running of the state. These policies could be
internal or foreign policies
ii. He is the leader of government business: As leader of the government business, he
presides over cabinet meetings and leads debates that take place during cabinet meetings
iii. Recommends deserving citizens for honours: He recommends deserving citizens to be
awarded national honours to the Head of State. Thus, citizens who have distinguished
themselves in certain spheres of life and deserve to be honoured by the state are
recommended by the Prime minister
iv. He initiates bills: All public bills that are debated and passed into laws by the legislature
are initiated by the Prime Minister.
v. He gives advice to the head of state: The Prime Minister advises the ceremonial leader
(Head of State) on the appointment and removal of ministers.
vi. He conducts external relations with other countries and international
organizations: The Prime Minister sometimes acts as a spokesperson for the country on
important issues and represents his country at International Conferences like the
Commonwealth Prime Ministers conference
vii. He recommends the prorogation and dissolution of parliament: He advises the
Crown or Head of State on prorogation, dissolution and summoning of parliament.
viii. He prepares and implements the annual budget for the country: The Prime Minister
is responsible for the preparation of the annual budget for the country. Thus, he outlines
how money could be raised and how the money will be spent (income and expenditure)
and forward it to parliament for approval. He also ensures that the budget is implemented
after it has been approved by the legislature.
ix. He performs legislative functions: As a member of parliament, the Prime Minister
 takes part in parliamentary activities such as making of laws, debating on important
national issues etc.
x. He co-ordinates the activities of all ministers: The prime minister co-ordinates the
activities of all ministers to ensure harmony in the system. He sees to it that all ministers’
work up to expectation and within the policies set in order to achieve a common goal.

REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT
A Republican system of government is form of government in which sovereignty resides in the
people who elect agents to represent them in political- decision making.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT

a. Independent or sovereignty of the state: In a Republican government, the state is
sovereign or independent. The government formed therefore has authority to make and
enforce laws over all the people within its jurisdiction /borders without any external
influence or control.
b. Existence of a president: The head of state in a Republican state is called a president.
c. Supremacy of the constitution: In a Republican government, the constitution is
supreme. This implies that only the law rules and nothing else.
d. Conduct of periodic elections: In a Republican government, elections are conducted
periodically to select political office holders.
e. Observance of rule of law: In a Republican government, the principle of rule of law
must he observed and respected. The rule of law implies justice, legality, impartiality,
and supremacy of the law. In countries where there is rule of law people enjoy certain
basic rights.
f. Fixed tenure of office of the president: In a Republican government, the president is
elected for a fixed tenure of office. For example in Ghana, the president is elected to
serve for a four-year term.
g. Entrenchment of Fundamental Human Rights: In a Republican government,
Fundamental Human Rights or civil liberties are provided for and entrenched in the
constitution.
h. Universal Adult Suffrage: In a Republican government, elections are based on
 Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, all qualified adults are allowed to vote.
i. Responsibility and accountability of leaders: In a Republican government since leaders
are popularly elected by the electorate. They are directly responsible or accountable to the
people.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONARCHY AND A REPUBLIC

a. In a monarchy, the head of state is called a monarch while in a republic the head of state
is known as a president
b. Some legislators in a monarchy are appointed while others inherit their positions but
members of the legislature in a republic are all elected by the electorates and under no
circumstance can anybody be appointed to go and represent his/her people in the
legislature even if the seat is vacant
c. Monarchs in the monarchy comes to power through hereditary while that of government
in a republic is elected by the people, thus, the head of government is selected through
popular vote of the people usually through the use of universal adult suffrage.
d. In monarchy, the principle of rule of law does not always exist while in a republic, the
principle of rule of law is seriously adhered to.
e. In monarchy, laws are made by the monarch and his elders whereas in a republic, laws
are made by elected representatives.
f. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch only reigns but does not rule while in a
republic, the president /prime minister runs the day-to-day administration of the state.
g. In a monarchy, legal sovereignty resides with the monarch while in a republic
sovereignty resides either in the constitution or parliament.
h. In a monarchy, the monarch rules for life. The monarch rules as long as he or she lives
while there is fixed tenure of office for the leaders in a republic; who rule in a republic
are selected to rule for a specific period of time usually four years as in the case of
Ghana.
i. In a monarchy, the monarch cannot be removed by legal process while in a republic, the
head can be removed through a vote of no confidence or impeached
j. In absolute monarchy, the constitution may not be followed since the poles of the
monarch are not limited by the constitution while in a republic, the constitution is
 seriously adhered to. Those who rule are expected to rule in accordance with the law

PRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT
Representative government is a system of government whereby people elect those will represent
and govern them for a specific period through an election.

STRUCTURES OF A REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

i. Existence of recognized opposition parties: in representative government, there is an
existence of recognized opposition parties which serves as a check on the passing of ill-
conceived or hasty decisions by the ruling government. The opposition panics criticize
the unpopular policies of the government and offer alternative solutions
ii. Respect for human rights and freedoms: In representative government, fundamental
human rights are respected. The representative government respects the rights and
freedoms of the people. These rights and freedoms include right to privacy, right to life,
right to vote, freedom of speech, freedom of movement, freedom of association etc.
iii. Free and fair elections: In a representative government, free and fair elections based on
universal adult suffrage exist.
iv. Tolerance of varied views: Tolerance of dissenting views is another major important
feature of representative government. The government must be prepared to face
criticisms. All citizens must feel free to criticize the government constructively without
fear or favour.
v. Freedom of the press: There should be an existence of vibrant and independent mass
media to expose the bad and unpopular policies of the government. The press also
informs and educates the public.
vi. Establishment of representatives’ institutions: There should be existence of
representatives’ institutions like legislature and local government institutions. Selection
of representatives to fill these institutions must be based on acceptable franchise.
vii. Existence of rule of law: In representative government, the law of the state is supreme.
All individuals are equal before an existing law irrespective of colour, race, sex, religion
 or status.
viii. Periodic change of government: In a representative government, elections must be
conducted periodically to pave way for the citizens to change their representatives who
fail to live up to expectation
ix. Existence of an independent judiciary: In a representative government, the judiciary
should be independent of all forms of control from the executive or the legislature so that
it can administer justice without fear or favor.
x. Independent electoral commission: The conduct of election in representative
government should be entrusted in the hands of an independent and impartial electoral
commission.

FACTORS THAT MAY WORK AGAINST THE OPERATION OF A

REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT IN WEST AFRICA OR
PROBLEMS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT IN WEST AFRICA
i. Level of illiteracy and ignorance: High degree of illiteracy and ignorance on the part of
the electorate in West Africa derails the effectiveness of representative government.
Many people vote for political parties and candidates in West Africa during general
elections without knowing anything about their manifesto.
ii. Absence of an independent Electoral Commission: In many West African countries,
the electoral commissions are not independent to conduct free and fair elections. Most of
them are influenced with money and other items by especially the ruling government to
manipulate elections in their favour
iii. Rigging of election results: In many West African countries, the results of elections can
easily be manipulated by the ruling government.
iv. Absence of an independent and impartial judiciary: In many West African countries,
the judiciary is not made independent. Some of the judges are influenced by the ruling
government to settle cases to their advantage. This makes it difficult for the judges to
settle electoral disputes fairly.
v. Absence of free and fair press: To ensure effective representative government, the
press plays a major role in educating and enlightening the electorate on the electoral
process but in many West African countries the press is not given the needed freedom to
 perform their duties.
vi. Absence of Universal Adult Suffrage: For representative government to be effective
there should be an existence of Universal Adult Suffrage but in many West African
countries, children who have not reached the qualified voting age are registered to vote
during general elections which undermines representative government.
vii. Military coup & d’etat: Representative system of government in West Africa is faced
with problem of military coup d’etat leading to constant changes in government. Many of
the governments who were elected into office were overthrown before their tenure of
office ended. For example, in Ghana, the People’s National Party (PNP) government, Dr.
Hilla Limann was overthrown in 1981 by the PNDC government led by Flt. Lt. Jerry
John Rawlings.
viii. Improper delimitation of constituencies; Gerrymandering is common in West Africa
and this undermines effective representative government in the sub-region

CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF POWERS

CENTRALIZATION
Centralization of power is the concentration of political power in one sovereign authority called
the central government OR
Centralization of power is the concentration of the powers and functions of the state in a single
central authority.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALIZATION
i. Power is located at the centre: In a centralized system of government, power is vested
in a single central authority which is not required by law to share any part of the power
with any other authority. Powers can only be delegated to other bodies with full or
absolute control from the central government.
ii. Centralized planning: In centralization, decision making and national planning is
located in the central bureaucracy. For instance, planning takes place in a particular
ministry in the capital of the country but final decision is implemented in the regions and
districts by bodies to which powers have been delegated.
iii. Recruitment occurs at the nation’s capital: In centralization, recruitment of personnel
into especially public and civil services occurs at the nation’s capital.
iv. Resources are administered at central offices: In a central zed system of government
resources in the state are allocated at the central offices. The central offices decide how,
where and when resources should be distributed to the various regions and districts. It
has a weak local authority: In a centralized system of government all powers are vested in
a single central authority leaving only minimal powers to the local government. The
central government exercises strict control on all the aspects of governing.
v. Sub-governmental bodies are subordinated to the central government/ bureaucracy:
In centralization, all sub-governmental bodies take orders and instructions from the
central government. Sub-governmental bodies are not permitted by law to take decisions
on their own and all major decisions and planning occur at the centre.

MERITS/IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF CENTRALIZATION OF POWER

i. It strengthens the unity and loyalty of the country: Centralization promotes greater
unity and loyalty in a country since there is no conflict between the central government
and local government bodies as often happens in decentralization. In centralization, all
the people look to one central government for direction which promotes unity and
cohesion.
ii. It ensures uniform development: Centralization of power ensures even development in
all areas of the state since it is managed from a single central source. The policies of the
state are applied uniformly throughout the country and therefore avoid a situation where
by certain regions are left behind in terms of development. This helps to eliminate
unhealthy rivalry.
iii. It is economical to run in terms of personnel and material resources: Centralization
of power is less costly in terms of personnel and materials because it has only one centre
and does not make room for duplication of administrative officials and institutions.
iv. It secures the allegiance of its citizens easily: The people or the citizens owe allegiance
only to one central government and are therefore likely to be loyal to the government.
v. It makes for quick decision making: Centralization of power ensures effective and
speedy formulation and implementation of government policies. This is due to the fact
 that the central government does not consult the regional and district councils before
decisions are taken.
vi. Centralisation of power reduces divisive tendencies: In centralization, regionalism
and sectionalism is discouraged. This helps to reduce divisive tendencies and achieve
strong and stable government in a country.
vii. It promotes efficiency in the administration of the state: central government can be
more efficient since it has sufficient power to carry its functions without any interference
from the regional and district councils.

DEMERITS/DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRALIZATION
i. Centralization may lead to dictatorship: Centralization of power is undesirable
because it may lead to dictatorship. The concentration of power at one central position
can easily be abused by a greedy or lower-hungry chief executive which can eventually
lead to dictatorship rule.
ii. It stifles the development of local initiatives: Centralization does not encourage local
initiatives. The people at the local levels are not given the opportunity to use the available
local resources to solve problems confronting their communities.
iii. Heavy work load on the government: Centralization of power overburdens the central
government with much administrative overload. This derails the ability of the
government to satisfy the needs of all the units within the state.
iv. Problem of remoteness: Concentration of power at one central position brings about
problem of remoteness especially areas of distance from the centre. The people at the
local level are not given enough opportunity to take part in the political process of their
country
v. Little involvement of the local people: There is low involvement of the people at the
local levels in decision- making and implementation of government policies. This
adversely affects quick implementation of government policies at the localities.
vi. Discourages competition: Centralization does not promote healthy competition for
development at the local level.
vii. Minority interest is ignored: Since power is concentrated at the centre in one sovereign
authority, minority interest may not be catered for.
viii. Delay in the implementation of policies: Centralization can delay the implementation
of central government policies at the local level due to little or no involvement of local
people in policy implementation.
ix. Not suitable for heterogeneous societies: Centralization cannot work well in
heterogeneous societies.

DECENTRALIZATION
Decentralization refers to constitutional transfer of powers from a central government to a
subordinate level of government. OR

Decentralization is the practice of administration in a state by which considerable autonomy is

given to sub-political bodies at the local level to take decisions and Implement programmes and
policies.

FORMS OF DECENTRALIZATION
The various forms of decentralization include: Devolution, Delegation, Deconcentration

Devolution of power is a form of decentralization in which powers granted to sub-governmental

units by the central government is derived from the constitution. These powers cannot be
increased or decreased without amending the constitution. OR Devolution refers to powers
granted to local bodies by the constitution which cannot be easily amended or withdrawn without
amending the constitution.
Deconcentration: Deconcentration refers to the granting of administrative and supervisory
functions or powers from the central government to ministries, departments and agencies at the
local levels
Delegation: Delegation is also a form of decentralization in which powers are granted to the
subordinates units by the central government. These powers are not in the constitution and can be
withdrawn at any time.

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALIZATION OR REASONS FOR THE

PRACTICE OF DECENTRALIZATION
1. Decentralization promotes involvement of local people in the governing process: It
promotes effective participation of the local people in the administration of the country.
Local people take part in the planning and implementation of policies in that localities.
This makes them feel part of the decision- making process in their country.
2. It reduces the work load of the central government: Decentralization reduces the work
load of the central government through the delegation of powers to local bodies for the
purpose of Local administration.
3. It reduces remoteness/ it brings government closer to the people: Decentralization
brings the government closer or to the doorsteps of the people. It therefore saves time and
energy of the local people travelling from a long distance to national level to secure the
services needed.
4. It serves as training ground for future national/political leaders: Decentralization
serves as a recruitment place or training ground for the people at the local level. By
making bye-laws, by approving budget, etc the people learn how national leadership
works. The skill acquired at the local level enables them to be more efficient when any
national leadership role is assigned to them.
5. It reduces the emergence of dictatorship: Decentralization helps to check the
emergence of dictatorship. This is because the participation of the local people in the
running of their affairs helps to develop in the people a deep sense of political awareness
which enables them to fight against dictatorial tendencies.
6. It encourages local initiatives: It allows the local people to take initiative and
responsibility in finding solutions to their problems. It also makes it possible for the
people at the local level to adapt government policies to suit their local needs
7. It leads to efficient and effective use /utilization of local resources: Decentralization
encourages effective utilization of local resources. Instead of leaving everything for the
centre, the money can be given to the local people for the processing which will lead to
cost reduction. For instance, local contractors can be used to construct a school building
instead of bringing people from the central government.
8. It leads to quick implementation of government policies: Decentralization ensures
quick implementation of government policies since regional and local bodies are
empowered to implement government policies without delay.
 9. It ensures maintenance of law and order at the local level: Decentralization helps in
maintaining law and order at the local level through the enactment and enforcement of
bye-laws.
10. It serves as a link between the local people and the central government:
Decentralization serves as a link between the local people and the central government.
The petitions and grievances of the local people are carried to the central government
through their local authorities whereas the central governments also channel information
to the local people through decentralization.
11. It offers employment to people at the grassroots level: Decentralization offers
employment opportunities for people at the grassroots level. Some of the people are
employed to work at the local offices as clerks, typists, record keepers. Other are
employed as drivers, cleaners etc

DISADVANTAGES/DEMERITS OF DECENTRALIZATION
i. It is expensive to run: Decentralization is very expensive to run since it sometimes
duplicates institution and resources at the local level.
ii. It may encourage disintegration: Decentralization can lead to disintegration, if the local
units are given too much power or autonomy. Too much power on local authority could
cause the localities to disregard the central or national government. Some of them may
also try to secede from the centre to form their own state especially areas endowed with
resources.
iii. It promotes uneven development: Some units that are resourced or well-endowed with
resources can generate greater revenue and develop faster than those with limited
resources.
iv. Unhealthy competition: Decentralization may lead to rivalry or generate unhealthy
competition among the various states as a result of unequal wealth in terms of materials
and human resources.
v. Problem of supervision: In a highly decentralized political system, the central
government finds it difficult to effectively supervise and control the entire system. This
may hamper effective implementation of government policies and programmes.
 TRIAL QUESTION

Q1. Why do some countries adopt the federal system of government?

b) Explain the three methods of allocating powers in a federal system of government
Q2.(a) Distinguish between unitary and federal system of government.
b)) Why do countries adopt unitary system of government?
Q3. (a) What is a confederal system of government?
b) Highlight five weaknesses of confederal system of government.
Q4. (a) Define a unitary system of government.
b) Identify any five conditions for the adoption of a unitary system of
government. (WASSCE 2007; Q2. NOV/DEC)
Q5. Outline any six features of a confederal state (WASSCE, 2008, Q3)
Q6. Outline six masons for the adoption of federalism (WASSCE MAY/
JUNE 2014. Q4)
Q7.a). What is decentralization of power?
b) Identify five demerits of decentralization of powers
Q8.a). Differentiate between centralization and decentralization
b). Highlight four advantages of decentralization (WASSCE MAY/JUNE, 2012; Q1)
Q9). Give the reasons and problems for the practice of decentralization in a unitary system of
government. (SSCE 1997, Q 4)
Q10). Outline the merits of decentralization in a state (SSCE 2001, private exams Q1)
Q11.a). What is centralization of power?
b). Identify five merits of centralization of power.
Ql2.a). Highlight any three merits of centralization of power?
b). Outline two forms of decentralization of power
(WASSCE, June 2006,Q 2)
Q13). State and explain the three forms of decentralization.
a). What is centralization?
b). Highlight five demerits of centralization (WASSCE JUNE, 2011; Q4)
Q14.a). Define devolution. (b) Outline five demerits of decentralization (WASSCE NOV/DEC,
2012; QI)
Q15.a) What is a representative government?
b) Identify five factors that may work against the operation of a representative system of
government in West Africa.
Q16.a) What is presidential system of government?
b) Outline four advantages of presidential system of government.
Q17. Outline five features of a presidential system of government.
Q18. Outline any six characteristics of a Republican government (WASSCE NOV/DEC 2011)
Q19). Differentiate between presidential system of government and parliamentary system of
government.

CHAPTER SEVEN
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS

DEFINITIONS
A political party is an organized group of people with similar ideology who strive to capture
political power through elections in order to manage the affairs of the state. OR

A political party is as an organized group of citizens who share similar views on the running of
the state and who act with the main objective of capturing political power through elections in
order to control personnel of government and to implement their programmes or ideology.
Examples of political parties in Ghana are New Patriotic Party (NPP), National Democratic
Congress (NDC) and Conventions Peoples Party (CPP).

TYPES OF POLITICAL PARTIES

Basically, there are two main types of party, namely; Elite party and Mass Party. Other less
common types of parties include Charismatic Party, Religious Party, ideological party and broker
party

a. Elite party: An elite party is a type of party whose membership is not open.
Membership is restricted to certain categories of people and, once in power, elitist parties
prevent other parties from emerging. Party decisions are made by small group within the
party. A good example in Ghana is the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) which
was composed of lawyers and highly business tycoon men.
b. Mass party: The mass party is a party whose membership is open to all citizens of the
state regardless of ethnic or geographical origin, sex, economic or social status, or
religious affiliation. Where ever it exists, any citizen who wishes to join may do so by
complying with formal requirements. These requirements include formal application and
the payment of membership dues. The member is expected to participate in organizing
party rallies, meetings, and seminars. Again, the party member is expected to give
financial support to the party by subscribing to fund-raising activities sponsored by the
party. Examples in Ghana include; New Patriotic Party (NPP). National Democratic
Congress (NDC) and the Conventions Peoples Party (CPP) which was the first mass
political party formed in Ghana.
c. Charismatic parties: Charismatic parties air formed by individuals with unique and
enviable qualities as well as talents. A lot of people are attracted to these parties because
of the exceptional qualities of those individuals that formed them. Example of such
parties in Ghana is the Convention People’s Party (CPP) of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
d. Religious parties: Religious doctrines existing in a state determine the formation of these
parties. In some countries like Iran, religious parties are very strong in the political
process.
e. Ideological parties: Ideological parties are parties that are made up of people committed
to a particular set of beliefs and are dedicated to changing the life of the people rather
than just winning elections. Examples include communist party and socialist party.
Members of ideological parties are committed to a certain comprehensive set of beliefs
more than a set of policy preferences. Because of this, members of ideological parties are
not motivated by money or material incentives or even winning elections. They see
 themselves as invested in the long term and as a result, they are extremely committed to
the party itself.
f. Broker parties: Broker parties are parties that are not founded on any strong ideological
or social class. Broker parties tend to obtain support from many diverse elements, which
need to be reconciled, particularly where there are sectional influences as in the United
States of America (USA).

IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF POLITICAL PARTIES/REASONS WHY

POLITICAL PARTIES ARE FORMED
i. Political parties serve as pool for selecting/recruiting prospective political leaders:
Political parties help to recruit citizens for state offices. Apart from independent
parliamentary and presidential candidates, majority of members of parliament and
presidential candidates stand for election on the ticket of political parties before they are
elected by the people to represent them in the legislature and the executive. Again,
Regional ministers and District Chief Executives are mostly recruited from political
parties, especially from the ruling party.
ii. Political parties ensure accountability/ Political parties put the government of the
day on its toes: Political parties, especially when they are in opposition, help to make the
government accountable to the electorate by constructively criticizing the unpopular
policies of the government and offering alternative proposals. The criticism of the
government also helps to prevent the emergence of dictatorship.
iii. Political parties link the government and the governed: Political parties serve as a link
between the government and the people. They communicate the wishes and grievances of
the people to the government and also explain government policies to the people.
iv. Political parties provide an alternative government: Political parties provide an
alternative government if the ruling party no longer commands majority. The opposition
parties make it possible for another party to assume office when the need arises. This is
very important because it avoids political vacuum when a ruling party is defeated at
elections or through a vote of no confidence.
v. Political parties promote national unity: Political parties serve as a tool for national
unity and integration. This is because the membership of political parties goes beyond
 tribal boundaries, classes and religious groups. Political parties bring people of all walks
of lives together to strive and capture political power.
vi. Political parties provide competition leading to efficiency: Political parties provide
competition among the various political parties operating in a state, leading to efficiency
in government since the party in power would want to give its best in order to outclass
the achievements of another.
vii. Aggregation of views: Political parties help in the aggregation of views, pinions or
interests within the political society. Similar individual views, interests and opinions are
put together to achieve a collective goal, that is to capture political power and manage the
affairs of the state. They publish manifestoes which articulate their vision and translate
into their public policies.
viii. Provide political education and help to organize the electorate for elections: Political
parties help to give political education to a number of people who would have been
indifferent and ignorance in politics. They educate and enlighten• them through their
campaigns, rallies, symposia, publishing of articles, highlighting on important political
and current issues. By so doing, they help to educate and keep the electorate politically
alive as well as making them conscious of their political rights. Again, through their
educational campaigns, they help to keep the electorate well informed of political issues
and organize them for elections.
ix. Training of young politicians: Political parties train young politicians in the art of
governing. Political parties groom young people on the values and principles of the party
and leadership. Shadow cabinets are also a great platform for parties to teach members on
ministerial and other government positions
x. They seek to win elections and form government: The basic aim of all political parties
is to capture political power through elections in order to get the legitimacy of the people
to manage the affairs of the state. Political parties adopt different campaign strategies and
present attractive manifestoes to persuade people to vote for them so that they can win
election and form government.
xi. Provision of employment opportunities: Political parties provide employment
opportunities to their members. Some of the members are selected to work in the various
party offices as record keepers, drivers, cleaners. Also allowances are given to people
 who serve in diverse ways such as party secretaries, chairmen, research offices,
organizers, treasures etc. Provision of jobs by these political parties helps to improve the
lives of their people as well as reducing the unemployment rate in the country.
xii. Ensuring peaceful change of government: Political parties help to ensure a peaceful
change of government. Political parties provide a peaceful means of transferring power
from one political party to another without rancor. After the election, the party that wins
form government and the party that loses form the opposition party and assess why they
lost and adopt different strategies that will help them to win subsequent elections.

DISADVANTAGES/ PROBLEMS OR CRITICISMS AGAINST POLITICAL PARTIES

i. Divisive tendencies and unhealthy rivalry: Political parties tend to divide the country
during general elections, resulting in instability. The divisive tendencies tend to retard
national integration and development. At times, the rivalry leads to violent clashes
between the supporters of the various political parties, resulting in loss of life, injuries
and destruction of properties.
ii. Corruption and job for the boys (nepotism and favouritism): Most often, political
party leaders especially in Africa tend to be corrupt and use the state machinery to
acquire wealth. Some politicians exploit the state and deposit their ill- gotten wealth in
tiweign hanks. Others put up luxurious buildings and ”chase” small girls etc. the system
also result in the giving of jobs positions to party favourites., friends and relatives rather
than those who are of doing the work.
iii. to perpetuate themselves: In some countries, more especially Africa countries, once a
party gets into power, it results to all sorts of strategies to stay in power indefinitely.
iv. The exclusion of high caliber personnel: Electoral system based on political parties
may cause a state to loose the services of seasoned individuals who may not be able to
win partisan elections.
v. Encourage ethnicity: The heterogeneity and ethnicity of African states tend to make
political parties develop along tribal lines, sectional interest such as religious or regional
lines rather than national interest. This tendency or practice work against national
integration and nation building.
vi. Encourages falsehood and unnecessary propaganda: The party system encourages
 falsehood. This is due to the fact that party leaders and supporters sometimes tell lies in
order to gain political advantage, win the support of the rand and file of their party,
silence their political opponents or to cover their corruption. Politicians use various
propaganda, slogans and, argons to cheat and exploit the masses.

MANIFESTO
A manifesto is a document that outlines electoral promises or programmes of a political party
which it intends to fulfill when elected into office.

IMPORTANCE OF PARTY MANIFESTO

i. A manifesto serves as an important bench mark for measuring the performance of a
government and ensuring that it becomes accountable to the electorates based on the
promises outlined in the manifesto.
ii. Through party manifesto, the voters come to know about the policies of the competing
parties or candidates. The electorates can therefore make informed decision by voting for
the right party or candidate.
iii. A political party manifesto serves as a guide to the party when it is in power.
iv. It serves as a reference document which explains the party intends to implement its
programmes and policies.
v. A party manifesto gives the ideological direction of the party and how it intends to
achieve it.
vi. A party manifesto acts as a magnetic pull to attract members or supporters into the party.
vii. A political party with good and appealing manifesto can win the support of the electorate.

PROBLEMS OR DEMERITS OF A PARTY MANIFESTO

When development plans are clothed in political colours in the form of political party
manifestoes, it becomes sometimes difficult for other governments to use them even when the
issues discussed have all national importance. This is most probably due to the tendency for
some politicians to regard certain development strategies as owned by a particular party in
government and as such, their reluctance to embrace them. When this becomes the norm, the
nation is saddled with a cycle of uncompleted projects as a result of tagging of projects with
particular parties.
Some political parties present a manifesto because it is an electoral law requirement, when they
are elected into office they do otherwise. Some political parties are not able to achieve their set
manifesto due to time limitation.

PARTY ORGANIZATION OR STRUCTURE IN WEST AFRICA

a) The ward Branch: The ward branch is the smallest unit in the party structure. The ward
branch consists of individual party members in a particular village or town or a group of
villages put together for the purpose of party organization. A ward has its own officials
and secretariat. Its officials include the chairman, secretary, treasurer and the organizing
secretary. The members of the ward attend party meetings as well as participating in
decision-making process of the party.
b) Constituency Branch: The constituency is an electoral district which consists of a
number of wards. The constituency branch is the most effective level where local policy
recommendations are made to the party headquarters. It co-ordinates the ward branches
within the constituency and ensures that party decisions are carried throughout the
constituency. The constituency branch is responsible for selecting a candidate to contest a
general election subject to the approval of the regional and national executive.
c) Regional Branch: regional branch comprises all the constituencies in the region. The
regional branch is charged with the responsibility for co-ordinating all the constituency
branches within the region. It serves as a link between local and national centre of the
party. The regional branch is responsible for scrutinizing the candidates nominated by the
constituencies and recommends them to the national body for approval.
d) National Executive Committee: The National Executive Committee comprises all the
national officers of the party and all the party members in the legislature. It is charged
with the responsibility for ensuring the nationwide administration of the party and for
implementing the decisions and policies of the National Delegates’ Conference.
e) National Working Committee: The National Working Committee consists of the party
chairman and his deputies, the general secretary of the party and other members elected
by the National Executive Committee. The National Working Committee is responsible
for the day to day administration of the party. It superintends the organization of the party
 at all levels.
f) National Secretariat: The secretariat is the administrative organ of the party. It guides
and co-ordinates the organization of the party throughout the country; it collects funds
for the party; it advises them on the choice of candidates for general elections; it also
conducts research for the party and keeps close contacts with the branch and regional
branches.
g) National Delegate Conference: The National Delegate Conference is the highest
(supreme) decision making body of the party. It consists of representatives of all the
constituencies, regional branches, the national party officials, the affiliated bodies of the
party, the National Executive Committee members and the party members in the
legislature. It is responsible for approving the programmes and manifesto of the party
drafted by the National Executive Committee. The National Delegate Conference is also
responsible for electing the National Executive Officers and the flag bearer of the party.

SOURCES OF FUNDS/FINANCE FOR POLITICAL PARTIES

i. Dues from members: The primary of funds for all political parties is dues that are levied
on registered members of the party. All party members are obliged to pay their monthly
dues. This amount differs from party to party. Those who fail to honour their financial
obligations will forfeit all benefits entitled to them as full party members such as
contesting elections on the ticket of the party
ii. Fund raising: Fund raising activities serve as a source of finance for political parties. For
example, in Ghana, the Kumasi Branch of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) before 2016
elections, organized a special fund raising ceremony at Baba Yara Sports Stadium to
mobilize funds to finance the party’s campaign in the region. In attendance were the
kingpins of the party, Nana Addo Danquah Akufo Addo and his running mate, Dr.
Mahamadu Bawumia, Freddy Blay (National Chairman of the party), Antwi Bosiako
(a.k.a. Chairman Wontumi; party chairman of Ashanti Region) and other prominent
members of the party. The party raised a substantial amount of funds to embark on
massive campaign in the region which in no small way contributed to the electoral
success of the party in 2016. Again, Political parties sometimes organize dinner for their
members. At dinner, funds are raised to support the financial needs of the party.
 iii. Proceeds from sale of party paraphernalia/symbols: Political parties also generate
funds from the sale of their paraphernalia such as party badges, flags, key holders, party
cards, caps, T-shirts and brochures. The profits accumulated from the sale of these party
items are used to beef up the party campaign across the country to canvass for support.
iv. Picking of nomination forms and filing fees paid by aspirants: Nomination and filing
fees paid by aspirants seeking to contest parties primaries also serve as a source of fund
for political parties. For example, in Ghana, the National Democratic Congress (NDC)
during their primaries in 2020 imposed Three Hundred Thousand Ghana Cedis (GH
300,000.00) for male flagbearer aspirants and Two Hundred Thousand Ghana Cedis (GH
200,000.00) for female aspirants while persons with disability paid One Hundred and
Fifty Thousand Ghana Cedis (150,000.00). This generated huge sum of funds for the
party.
v. Donation from patrons and founding members of the party: Political parties
sometimes receive donations from their patrons and founding members to support the
financial needs of the party. The patrons and the founding members serve as the
backbone of the party. In times of financial difficulties, the party executive seek
assistance from them.
vi. Contributions from members of parliament: All members of parliament who contested
and won the elections on the ticket of a political party are obliged to contribute
financially to support the marching forward of the party. Those who fail to do so will not
be permitted to contest the subsequent elections in the name of the party.
vii. Profit accruing from properties and businesses owned by the political party: Some
political parties have invested in various sectors of the economy. Some engage in
business ventures such as operating hotels, large scale farming to enjoy economies of
scale, pure water production, transport business, etc. The profits generated from these
business ventures are used to run the affairs of the party.
viii. Loans from financial institutions: Political parties sometimes seek loans from
financial institutions such as banks, savings and loans, etc. to undertake their
programmes and activities especially during massive campaign and rally times and pay
back later with interest.
ix. Donation from pressure/interest groups: Pressure groups/interest groups sometimes
 support political parties with funds. Pressure groups exploit election times for their
advantage. They do not contest elections but may rally behind their favourite political
party who will respond positively to their demands when given the mandate and support
such party with funds.
x. Contributions from affluent or rich individuals of the party: Political parties
sometimes receive financial support from rich party members to undertake their
programmes and activities. At rallies, well to do or wealthy party members donate
generously to support the activities of the party. Some even donate vehicles to facilitate
effective campaigning while others donate their buildings to be used as party offices.
xi. Contributions from overseas branches of the party: Some of the major political
parties in Ghana such as New Patriotic Party (NPP) and National Democratic Congress
(NDC) have branches abroad. These overseas branch members also pay dues and make
other contributions to support the wealthy course of the party. They at times raise funds
especially during electioneering campaigns to support the party.

FACTORS THAT ENSURE THE ELECTORAL SUCCESS OF A POLITICAL PARTY

i. The caliber and reputation of party’s candidates: A party whose candidate is of high
caliber and reputation can win an election. For example, one of the factors that made Dr.
Kwame Nkrumah win the 1951, 1954 and 1956 general elections held in Ghana was due
to Nkrumah’s charming and captivating personality that endeared him to the masses. His
power of oratory also made him win the support of the masses.
ii. Well-organized party structures: A party with well-organized structures can win
election. For example, one of the factors that made the Progress Party win the 1969
general election conducted in Ghana is that it had offices in all the constituencies of the
country. They used these medium to propagate their policies and programmes to the
people across the country which in no small way contributed to their electoral success.
iii. Broad based membership: A party with members found across the country can easily
win elections since party success deals with numbers.
iv. Financial capacity of the party: A party with good financial base can embark on good
programmes and campaigns across the country which can contribute to its success in an
election.
 v. Massive sensitization and education of the electorate by the party: A political party
that is able to reach the masses by educating and sensitizing them can win the support of
the electorate and become successful in an election
vi. Well established and organized auxiliary bodies within the party: Well established
and organized auxiliary bodies within the party such as Youth and Women’s wings etc
can contribute to electoral success of a political party. For example, during the 1992
general election held in Ghana, the establishment of certain institutional structures by the
PNDC such as 31st December Women’s Movement, the Committee for the Defence of
the Revolution (CDR’s) benefited the NDC.
vii. Good party programmes or manifesto: A party with good and appealing programmes
or manifesto can win the support of the electorate.
viii. Impressive past performance: A party with a good track record can win an election
again. For example, in Ghana, the New Patriotic Party under the leadership of the then
president J.A Kufour won the election again by a wide in (4,524,074 votes representing
52.45% against 44.64 % obtained by the NDC presidential candidate Prof. John Evans
Mills) in 2004 due to good track record made by the NPP between 2000 and 2004
ix. Transparent electoral process: A party can win an election if the election is made to be
free and fair. This can be achieved if the conduct and supervision of the election is
entrusted in the hands of an impartial and independent electoral commission.
x. Effective and goal directed leadership: A political party that has strong, effective and
goal oriented leadership can win an election easier than a party whose leaders are
inefficient, inarticulate and less knowledgeable.
xi. Unity and cohesion in the party: If there is cohesion, unity and discipline among
members of a political party, it may help them to be successful in an election.
xii. Effective propaganda machinery such as the press.

THE PARTY SYSTEMS

The party systems are: the one- party system, the two- party system and multi -party system

ONE PARTY OR A SINGLE- PARTY SYSTEM

A single party or one party system is a system in which only one political party is allowed to
operate legally or one political party has become the dominant political party. Even if other
parties exist they are of no significance in the state. Thus, we have de-jure one party system and
de-facto one party system. Under the de-jure one party system, only one party is legally allowed
to operate. Opposition parties are not allowed and support of the party is also by force. A good
example is the party system adopted by Ghana under the leadership of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
from1964-1966. De-facto one party system on the other hand is a one party system in which only
one political party has become a dominant political party without the use of force. Though other
parties exist but cannot win election. Many African states like Ghana (1964-1966). Zimbabwe,
Zambia, Kenya etc adopted one party system after independence.

ADVANTAGES OR REASONS WHY SOME STATES ADOPT ONE PARTY SYSTEM

i. It promotes unity: One party system fosters national integration in the faux of
heterogeneity and ethnicity in African state. The advocates of one party system maintain
that, the one party system is more effective in bringing these groups with diverse ethnic
groups together as one nation than multi- party system which tends to encourage
divisions.
ii. It fosters quick and effective decision- making: One party system gives the opportunity
for quick and effective decisions to be taken. This is due to the absence of many political
parties to oppose to decisions. It is similar to African traditional system of government:
Another factor that accounts for the adoption of one-party system by some African states
is the belief that the system is in line with the African traditional political system where
no organized opposition exist against the traditional ruler and his council of elders.
According to the advocates, one party system tends to meet the modern state than the
multi -party system.
iii. Serves as instruments of mass mobilization: The advocates of one party system argue
that the one party system makes it possible to mobilize the people for sustained social and
economic development. It also helps to mobilize human and material resources towards
the task of nation- building.
iv. It is economical: Some countries adopt the one-party system because they are of the
view that the system is more economical and cheaper to operate than the multi-party
system. Elections would be less expensive because there would not be a need for run offs.
 Resources would be saved for the economic benefit of both citizens and the government.
v. Promotes strong and stable government: One party system promotes strong and stable
government since the leadership of one party system is not changed frequently. This
enables them to embark on long term projects.

DISADVANTAGES/ ARGUMENTS/ CRITICISMS AGAINST ONE-PARTY

i. Tends to lead to despotic rule/ dictatorship: It is argued that one-party system easily
lead to despotic rule. Absence of opposition from other political parties leads a one part-
state to dictatorship, fascism and totalitarianism. This is due to the fact that the political
leaders do not respect and tolerate opposing views. They suppress and crush all
opponents. When this happens such can only be removed by violence or unconstitutional
means such as coup d’etat.
ii. Limited choice: The one party system allows for limited choice in the selection of
political leaders since only the candidates of the ruling party are presented for elections to
be voted for.
iii. Absence of watchdogs to government: Viable opposition parties that act as watchdogs
of the people to the government, who subject governmental policies, programmes and
actions to continuous criticisms, which seek to improve the performance of the
government are absent in a one-party system. Due to that a one-party government tends
to become stack, complacent and even corrupt.
iv. It is undemocratic: One party system is undemocratic in the sense that one-party system
does not tolerate varied views in the political system. It is against democratic principles
such as freedom of association and conscience.
v. Encourages instability: A one-party system encourages instability in a state as a one-
party may be changed only through unconstitutional means like coup d’etat as happened
to the Conventions People Party (CPP) in Ghana in 1966.
vi. Limited scope of political education: Political education under one party system is
limited because no opportunity exists for alternative political views and policies. Again,
people may not be informed on many political activities of the government.
vii. Neglect of public opinion: Public opinion is hardly respected in a one-party state as all
the avenues of expressing such opinions are watched with eagle eye of the government,
 the press for instance is kept in shackles or shut altogether.
viii. It can breed corruption among the leaders since checks and balances are curtailed.

TWO- PARTY SYSTEM

A two-party system is a party system in which two parties are either legally allowed to operate
or are dominant in the electoral system of a country OR
A two- party system is a party system whereby only two political parties always emerge as the
dominant parties of all other parties that contest any election. Any of these two panics can win
election at any given time. USA and Britain are good examples of countries with two- party
systems. In the USA, the two main parties are the Democrats and the Republicans. In Britain, the
two main parties are the Conservatives and the Labour Party.

ADVANTAGES/ REASONS WHY SOME COUNTRIES ADOPT A TWO -PARTY

SYSTEM
i. It provides alternative government: A two-party system ensures availability of an
alternative government in the event of the ruling party losing the support of the
electorate or when there is a pass of vote of no confidence in the ruling government. For
example, in Britain, power alternates between the Conservative and the Labour parties,
with the victorious party forming government whilst the loosing party forms the
opposition.
ii. It is democratic: A two-party system is democratic in the sense that it provides
opportunity for electorate to choose between two alternative policies and candidates.
Again, the opposition party is allowed to criticize the unpopular policies of the ruling
government thereby putting the government on its toes.
iii. It prevents the emergence of dictatorship: A two party system prevents the emergence
of dictatorship associated with one-party system. Here, the constitution allows the
existence of other parties which serve as watch dog on the decisions and actions of the
incumbent party, and for that matter, one party cannot always dictate for the people.
iv. It enhances political education: A two- party system provides the most efficient way of
giving political education to the electorate. It simplifies political education into two main
alternatives for electorate during the campaigns for elections and after the elections, the
 rival parties present their programmes, attempt to show the shortcomings of their
opponent’s programme. This enables the electorate to know the pros and cons in each
alternative policy and helps them to make their choice in the subsequent elections.
v. Promotes political stability: A two- party system promotes stability in the political
system. This is simply because the contest is only between two parties. In this case, the
party that wins an election forms the government while the losing party forms the
opposition. This helps to avoid political upheavals in the state. For instance, in Britain,
power alternates between the conservative and labour parties, with the victorious party
forming the government while the losing party forms the opposition.
vi. Simplifies issues for the electorate: The two-party system simplifies issues the
electorate who would have to choose between only two alternatives alter studying the
manifestoes and personnel presented by the parties. It therefore makes the conduct of
elections easy and simple for both the electorate and electoral officials.
vii. It ensures accountability and responsibility: The practice of a two-party system
makes the government responsible and accountable to the people since it can be voted
out. Through constant criticisms by the opposition, the government gives accounts of its
stewardship.
viii. Provides strong opposition: A two-party system provides a strong opposition that can
check the abuse of power by the ruling party.
ix. It promotes political participation among the citizens.

DISADVANTAGES OF A TWO-PARTY SYSTEM

a) May divide society into two groups: The two party systems tend to divide society into
two rival or antagonistic groups. Sometimes, the divisive tendencies breed tribalism,
unnecessary competition, conflicts and violence among the supporters of the two parties
which may thwart the smooth running of the state. A good example is the case between
the Convention People’s Party and the National Liberation Movement that proceeded the
granting of independence in Ghana.
b) Encourages conservatism: A two party system may encourage conservatism. Since only
two parties are capable of winning elections, it may discourage other people from
forming other political parties. This may kill initiatives and make the people milv overly
 conservative as in the case of Britain.
c) Leads to political instability: The two-party system leads to political instability. This is
due to the fact that sometimes the opposition resorts to all sorts of means including
conspiracy to topple the government. The ruling party on its part may react by
intimidating and suppressing the opposition. This situation can result into political
instability.
d) Limits the scope of political choices: The two -party system does not provide the
electorate much programmes and candidates to choose from. This is because the system
reduces issues to only two camps, ruling out other alternatives.
e) Uneven distribution of national Cake: the two-party system leads to discrimination of
sharing the national cake (resources). The wining party or party in way decide to develop
only those areas that voted for it and discriminate against the Regions or areas that voted
for the opposition party in the provision of social amenities.
f) Excessive opposition: The two-party system may lead to excessive opposition, with the
opposition officially recognized, the main aim of the opposition becomes to unduly
criticize, oppose and undermine the ruling party even when certain policies or actions of
the ruling government deserve commendations.
g) National issues may become partisan: The party members in parliament may lose their
sense of independence and always toe their party lines.

MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM
A multi-party system is a political arrangement in which more than two political parties are
constitutionally or legally allowed to exist and operate in a country. Examples of countries that
practice multi-party system include Ghana, Nigeria, Italy, Holland, Germany, Japan and India.
Common feature of this system is that the parties nearly have equal strength, to the formation of
coalition government of two or more parties. This is to the fact that it is difficult to get a party
with a clear majority after an election form a government.

ITS/IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES/REASONS WHY SOME NTRIES ADOPT MULTI-

PARTY SYSTEM
a) It provides alternative government: A multi-party system ensures availability of an
 alternative government in the event of the ruling party losing the support of the electorate
or when there is a pass of vote of no confidence in the ruling government.
b) Prevents the emergence of dictatorship: A multi- party system prevents emergence of
dictatorship associated with one-party system. Here, the situation allows the existence of
other parties, which serve as watch dogs over the activities of the ruling government. The
opposition parties criticize unpopular policies and decisions that are taken by the
government. The existence of checks and balance helps the government to rule by the
provisions of the constitution and nothing else.
c) It enhances political accountability of government: Multi- party makes it possible for
the government in power to be responsible and to the people.
d) It widens political education: Multi-party system provides wide range political
education to the electorate. This is because both the ruling pan) and the opposition panics
educate the people on national issues.
e) It widens the scope of political participation and choice: Multi-party system gives
enough choice to the electorate. The system enables the voters to have a variety of
policies and programmes to choose from during elections.
f) It is democratic: The multi- party system is considered as democratic in the sense that it
creates conducive atmosphere for every individual in the state to belong to any political
party of his choice. The electorate arc also allowed to express their views on some
policies proposed by the ruling government before implementation.
g) It eaten for minority interest: Multi-party system gives adequate representation to all
groups and no political party can override the other.

DISADVANTAGES OF MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM

i. It encourages the formation of coalition government which is often weak and
unstable: In a multi- party system, it is often not easy for one party to get majority seats
in an election to enable it form government on its own. It therefore calls for the
formation of coalition government which is often weak and unstable and can break down
easily when the parties involved in the coalition withdraw their support, thus disrupting
the administration of the state.
ii. It may bring about unnecessary criticism: The desire of several opposition parties to
 come to power may put pressure on the ruling government. Opposition parties become
unduly, criticize, oppose and undermine the ruling government. Unnecessary criticisms
aimed at making the ruling government unpopular may impede the smooth running of
the state.
iii. Inability to embark on long term projects: Due to their unstable nature, coalition
governments are unable to embark on long term projects or policies. This is so because
frequent change of government and policies do not allow for sustained period necessary
for economic growth.
iv. It Creates divisiveness: The multi-party system tends to create divisiveness in society
as parties are sometimes formed along tribal or ethnic lines. These divisive tendencies
work against nation building and retards national development.
v. It can retard socio-economic development: The practice of multi-party system can
retard socio-economic development because coalition parties may spend time arguing on
party principles or ideology at the expense of development programmes.
vi. There is Problem of choice: Multi -party system provides wide range of policies,
programmes and personnel for the electorate to choose from which makes the selection
difficult. It also encourages undue fanaticm among some of the supporters of the various
political parties. It makes the conduct of election difficult: Multi-party system makes the
process of conducting elections complex for the electoral officials as well as voters.
vii. It makes the conduct of election expensive: The conduct of election under multi-party
system is expensive especially those involving run-offs which may drain the coffers of
the state.

OPPOSITION PARTIES
Opposition parties refer to parties that are not in power. After an election the that wins forms
government, the other party or parties that lost the election the opposition parties. opposition
party is the second largest party in parliament after the ruling political party.

FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF OPPOSITION PARTIES

i. Protect the rights of the minority: Opposition parties serve as watchdogs over the rights
and liberties of citizens especially minorities. It does this by ensuring that the rights
 guaranteed in the constitution are not infringed upon by the government or any of its
agents. They also criticize the decisions and policies that the ruling government initiates
which are inimical to the rights and liberties of the citizens.
ii. Serve as alternative government: Opposition parties serve as a credible alternative to
the ruling government. The opposition parties provide alternative government. which
can take over the administration of a state when the peril arises especially when the
electorate lose confidence in the ruling government or when a %ate of no
confidence is passed.
iii. Criticize and point out the weaknesses of the policies of the government: The
opposition is very helpful in the sense that it studies the policies of the incumbent
government critically and points out the weaknesses or defects of such policies.
Opposition parties bring to light every wrong actin taken by the sitting government
and oiler alternative solutions.
iv. Opposition parties prevent dictatorship: The presence of opposition parties act as a
check on the excessive use of power by the ruling party. They make sure that the
ruling party operates within the powers and functions conferred on it by the
constitution. (v). Opposition parties help to promote political education and
awareness:
v. The existence of opposition parties help to promote political education and
awareness. They educate the people on government policies and other issues of national
concern. They also help in educating the citizens on their rights and liberties. During
election period, they educate the electorate on the procedures and processes involved in
the election as well as how to vote.
vi. They hold government accountable: Opposition parties serve as watchdogs by
ensuring that government functions within the confines of the law, exposing the likes of
corruption, nepotism, and abuse of power. They pursue justice upon any deviation from
the law or constitution by government.
vii. They ensure that laws passed serve/promote national interest: Opposition parties take
part in the legislative deliberations and ensure that laws passed serve or promote national
interest. When parliament passes a law which is inimical to the rights and liberties of the
citizens, opposition parties can vote against it.
DANGERS/DEMERITS/PROBLEMS OF OPPOSITION PARTIES
The opposition parties sometimes create unnecessary tensions in the state by unnecessarily
criticizing the policies of the government. (ii). Opposition panics may create divisiveness in
society as they may be formed on ethnic, religious or regional lines. The criticisms offered
by opposition parties are sometimes not constructive.
Some opposition parties attempt to subunit the in mum., sane of them arc unable to accept
the leadership of the ruling party; they try all possible means to remove the elected
government from power. Excessive opposition creates disunity and division Which
impedes economic development.

TRIAL QUESTIONS

Ql.a) What is a political party?

b) Examine four roles that political parties play in Ghana (SSSCE, 2004;
PRIVATE EXAMS Q3)
Q2). Why do people form political parties in a state? (SSSCE, 1994; Q2) Q3). Outline
the merits and demerits of a multi party system of government.
Q4). What are the arguments against one-party system of government?
Q5. Examine the case for and against the adoption of one- party System in some African
countries today.
Q6.) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of multi- System.
Q7). What reasons accounted for the emergence of one-party system in
Cote d’Ivoire before 1993? (SSSCE2005, Q9)
Q8.a) What is a two party system?
b) Highlight four merits of a two party system (WASSCE NOV/DEC 2007; Q3)
Q9.a) What is multi-party system?
b) Identify any five merits of a multi-party system (WASSCE MAY/ JUNE, 2007)
Q10a) What is a political party?
b) Outline five functions of political parties in a democratic state.
 CHAPTER EIGHT
PRESSURE GROUPS
DEFINITIONS
a. A Pressure group is defined as an organization or voluntary association that seeks to
influence government policies towards the interest of its members or in other direction.

b. Pressure groups are organizations or voluntary associations of people with common interests
who organize and try to influence government policies, in order to protect the interest of their
members.
c. A pressure group is an organization of people with similar interest coming together to
influence government decisions or policies for the benefits of its members.

Examples of pressure groups in Ghana include Ghana National Association of Teachers

(GNAT). National Association of Graduate Teachers (NAGRAT), Ghana Registered Nurses
Association (GRNA) and Ghana Bar Association (GBA) which seek the interest of their
members and promotional groups like Amnesty International which seeks the interest of the
entire society.

TYPES OF PRESSURE GROUPS

The common types of pressure groups include:
i. Occupational pressure groups: An occupational pressure group is the association of a
group of people who belong to the same profession (occupation) and who act with the
main aim of protecting their profession and interest of their members. Examples of
occupational pressure groups in Ghana are: Ghana National Association of Teachers
(GNAT), Ghana Registered Nurses Association (GRNA), University Teachers’
Association of Ghana (UTAG), and Polytechnic Teachers Association of Ghana
(POTAG)
ii. Religious pressure groups: These are pressure groups formed with the main aim of
pursuing their religious interest and influencing government religious policies. These
 include the Christian, Muslim and traditional religious association.
iii. Educational pressure groups: These are groups or aim is to seek for the improvement
of the educational system and protecting the educational interest of their members.
Examples in Ghana include, National Union of Ghana Students (NUGS).
iv. Social Pressure groups: These include students union and Youth Clubs and are aimed at
promoting the welfare and interest of their members

METHODS /TECHNIQUES/TOOLS USED/EMPLOYED BY PRESSURE GROUPS TO

ACHIEVE THEIR AIMS
i. Lobbying: Lobbying is a very popular means used by pressure groups to achieve their
aims. Lobbying involves the art of cultivating the policy makers and legislators. Pressure
groups persuade members of the legislature in order to pass laws that are favourable to
their members. They also influence policy makers to formulate policies that will be in the
interest of their members.
ii. Use of Mass Media/Advertisement: Pressure groups sometimes sponsor adverts on
radio, television and other print media to create awareness. They use the media to
convince the citizenry to embrace their position as the most appropriate one for the whole
country. Through advertisement, pressure groups try to secure public attention towards
their demands and support for the campaign launched for securing such demands.
iii. Use of strikes: Strike is a very powerful weapon used by pressure groups to achieve their
objectives. Strike generally involves a temporary stoppage (quitting) of work by a group
of workers for the purpose of bringing the pressure on the government so that their
demands will be met. Pressure groups may use strike when they are dissatisfied with the
government policy, when they have problem with their salaries, wrongful discharge or
dismissal of their members, or lack of incentive package etc. The strike could be in the
form of sit strike (pen down or tool down), slow down strike and hunger strike. With the
sit down strike workers show up to their work places but refuse to……….
With the slow down strike, employees remain in their jobs but restrict rate of output in an
organized manner. The hunger strike is a form of industrial protest in which members of
the pressure group resort to fasting near the work place in order to influence government
to attend to their needs.
 iv. Pressure groups use demonstration as a means of members as for focusing the attention of the
public Pressure groups usually wear S or black attire with red strands of cloth tied to their wrist,
arm or forehead to express their displeasure. They’ march through the principal streets holding
placards stating their grievances and demands.
v. They Organize Debates, Seminars, and Lectures to Educate the Public: Pressure
groups sometimes organize debates, seminars and lectures to educate the public on their
aims in order to win the sympathy of the public to their count. Pressure groups like
society tier the mentally retarded often use this method
vi. Use of campaigns ad propaganda: Pressure groups often mount effective propaganda
on radio and television and in the press to create awareness among members of the public
about certain issues of public concern. Through lobbing and contacts with the press,
pressure groups try to secure favourable write-ups and editorials in leading newspapers
and periodicals. Pressure groups use propaganda and publicity through the means of mass
media for getting goodwill of public opinion which result in a change in government
policies in their interest.
vii. Support for political parties and candidates: Pressure groups exploit election times for
their advantage. They do not contest election but they rally behind their favourite
candidate or political party who will positively respond to their demands when given the
mandate.
viii. Ultimatum: These are final statements of conditions pressure groups issue to be accepted
by government without which they may deem necessary to take action, they give the
government a deadline to address their needs or face their wrath.
ix. Constitutional or legal means: Pressure groups may resort to court to press for their
demands. Pressure groups may sue the government when they feel cheated by the
government. For example, if the government wrongfully sacks some of their members,
they may go to court to seek redress. Pressure groups can also go to court to seek legal
interpretation when the government comes out with a policy which is detrimental to their
members.
x. Use of illegal means: Pressure groups may use illegal means as last resort to press for
their demands. If pressure groups try all the strategies and their demands are still not met,
they may use illegal means such as violence, sabotage, civil disobedience,
 raccissinations„ kidnapping to show their disgust and further press for their demands. For
example, the pressure groups can kidnap the relatives of front line political leaden such as
the president’s wife or daughter and ask that political leader to address their petition or
grievances before they will free them.
xi. Boycotts: Pressure groups may also resort to boycotts to enable them achieve their
objectives. If their request or demand presented to the government is not met, they may
refuse to honour government programmes. For example, if it is a professional pressure
group such as National Association of Graduate Teachers (NAGRAT) whose demands
are not attended to by the government, they may refuse to honour government’s invitation
to Independence Day Celebration neither would they organize students for the
programme.
xii. Writing petitions to the government: Pressure groups sometimes present memoranda
and petitions to the government requesting that certain conditions such as pay increase
should be made.

FUNCTIONS/ ROLES /IMPORTANCE OF PRESSURE GROUPS

a) Provide experts for appointment: Pressure groups act as a pool where experts can be
appointed from to serve the government. For instance, judges are appointed from the Bar
Association and educational experts from the Teacher’s Union.
b) Provision of free welfare services: Some pressure groups such as Legal and Medical
Associations sometimes provide free welfare services to the public.
c) Provide government with information: Pressure groups serve as a source of
information to the government. Through lobbying and regular consultations with
government, pressure groups place their knowledge and expertise at the disposal of
government. This helps the government to acquire a deeper understanding into certain
problems confronting the people and adopt appropriate policies for the betterment of a
large segment of the society.
d) Provide education: Pressure groups educate their members on many issues. They
educate their members on their political rights and important governmental decisions.
Some pressure groups even conduct professional courses and examination for their
members.
 e) Serve as a watch dog on the government: Pressure groups often serve as watchdogs on
the government and strongly criticize unpopular policies of the government. For example,
the government withdrew the Value Added Tax in 1995 (VAT) following its opposition
by the Alliance for Change as a pressure group.
f) Protect the fundamental rights of citizens: Through their activities, pressure groups
like the Amnesty International help to protect the rights and liberties of the individual and
those of minority groups.
g) Promote welfare of their members: Pressure groups help to improve the welfare of
their members by fighting for better conditions of service including wages and salaries.
h) Pressure groups influence government decisions: The major function of pressure
groups is to influence government policy, for the interest of their members. For example
if the union is a labour movement, they negotiate for better salaries and condition of
service for their members.
i) Promote Participation of citizens in decision making: Pressure groups promote
greater participation of citizens in national decision-making process.

PROBLEMS/DEMERITS OF PRESSURE GROUP

a) Pressure groups are usually selfish: Some of these pressure groups tend to pursue
parochial or sectional interest instead of national interest. Some of them are formed to
promote the interest that will satisfy their whims and caprices. They influence
government policies in the interest of a few groups of people to the detriment of the
general good of the people.
b) May be politically motivated: A particular group may represent pressure group but on a
careful scrutiny, it may represent the views of a small vociferous minority. Some of the
opposition parties hide behind pressure groups to criticize certain policies of the ruling
government with the view to score cheap political points.
c) Their activities could truncate government policies: The activities of pressure groups
may undermine the smooth running of the state thereby retarding the development
programme of the government.
d) Their activities may sabotage the economy: The activities of pressure groups such as
the use of demonstrations, strikes by workers may disrupt work leading to low
 productivity. Some even cause traffic jams disrupting the movement of people and goods
which in effect affect the business of the day. Their activities sometimes cost the state
huge financial loss.
e) Leads to instability: Persistent (continuous) strikes create an atmosphere of instability.
f) Problem of identification: It is sometimes difficult to clearly identify certain pressure
groups, as their intensions or agitations may be misconstrued. This is particularly true of
fly-by-night pressure groups.
g) Their activities May disturb public peace: The activities of some of these pressure
groups may bring disorder in the state thereby disturbing the general peace of the people
in the state. Some of these pressure groups resort to the use of methods like
demonstration through the principal streets which sometimes degenerate into violence
and create public disorder. Some even cause traffic jams disrupting the movement of
people and goods which in effect affect the business of the day.
h) Undemocratic: The activities of the pressure groups are said to be undemocratic in the
sense that they constitute a minority, yet they speak on behalf of the masses without their
mandate.

FACTORS THAT AID THE EFFECTIVE OPERATION OF PRESSURE GROUPS

i. Adequate funds: A pressure group must have good financial base so that it can carry out
effective lobbying and public relation campaigns to articulate their grievances or
demands.
ii. Capability of the leadership: A pressure group can achieve its aims if the leaders are
knowledgeable, articulate, and dedicated. Such leaders can mount pressure to influence
government policies to the interest of their members.
iii. Relevance of its services to the economy: A pressure group whose services are so
essential to the economy will be effective than those whose services are not all that
important. For instance, the government of Ghana is likely to respond quickly to labour
agitation by the Ghana Medical Association than it would respond to agitations of Tailors
Association of Ghana because of their strategic importance to the state.
iv. The size of the group: A pressure group should have a reasonable size in order to
achieve its goals. Pressure groups with too small or too large members may not be
 effective. If the number is too small, its petitions or demands may be ignored by the
government. On the other hand, if the number is too large, may be difficult to control and
organize its members and as a result will be able to achieve its set goals or objectives.
v. Level of education and enlightenment of members: A pressure group whose members
have high level of educational background and are well enlightened may achieve much.
Such leaders will be able to lobby well to influence the government policies to the
advantage of their members.
vi. Absence of corruption on the part of its leaders: A pressure group whose leaders are
not corrupt can achieve much for their members since such leaders cannot be bribed by
the government to withdraw their petitions when it is presented to the government, Such
leaders consider the group interest first before parochial interest.
vii. Unity: A pressure group whose members are more united is able to achieve its aims. On
the other hand, if the group lacks cohesion or concerted effort, it will not achieve its
objectives

FACTORS THAT WEAKEN THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PRESSURE GROUPS

i. Poor finance or funding: If the financial base of members of a pressure group is not
sound, they cannot carry out effective lobbying and public relation campaigns to
articulate their grievances or demands.
ii. Ineffective leadership: Some pressure groups have weak and ineffective leadership. If
the leaders are inarticulate, corrupt, undedicated and less knowledgeable, they may be
pushed over by the government when their petitions or grievances are submitted for
consideration. In such situations, they may not succeed in achieving their aims.
iii. Lack of unity: A pressure group whose members are more united is able to achieve its
aims. On the other hand, if the group lacks cohesion or concerted effort, it will not
achieve its objectives.
iv. The type of political ideology practised in the country: The type of political ideology
practised in the country namely, democracy, despotic, totalitarian or military regimes
determine the extent to which pressure groups would be allowed to carry out their
activities. For instance, under despotic regimes, pressure groups activities are curtailed.
v. Corruption: Pressure groups under corrupt leaders would not be able to work effectively
 to achieve its objectives since such leaders can easily be bought by the government to
withdraw their petitions.
vi. Lack of Strategic importance of the groups: If the pressure group is not strategically
relevant to national development it will not achieve much. For instance, the government
of Ghana is likely to respond quickly to labour agitation by the Ghana Medical
Association than it would respond to agitations of Tailors Association of Ghana because
of their strategic importance to the state.
vii. Absence of militant posture: A pressure group without militant posture may not achieve
its set goals.
viii. The size of the pressure group: Pressure groups with too small or too large members
may not be effective. If the number is too small, its petitions or demands may be ignored
by the government. On the other hand, if the number is too large, it may be difficult to
control and organize its members and as a result will not be able to achieve its set goals
or objectives.
ix. Level of education and enlightenment of members: A pressure group whose members
have low level of educational background and are poorly enlightened may not achieve
much. Such a group is likely to be handicapped when it comes to lobbying to influence
government policies to the advantage of their members.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS

i. A pressure group is different from political party because pressure groups only try to
influence government policies to the interest of their members without seeking to capture
political power but the basic aim of political parties is to capture political power through
elections for the purpose of implementing its policies and controlling the government
machinery.
ii. Political parties express opinions on several issues including educational, health and
agricultural issues whilst pressure groups are only concerned with matters affecting their
members such as seeking for salary increase and allowances for their members.
iii. The size of a political party is usually very big because it embraces all people in the
country but the size of a pressure group may be relatively small.
iv. While a pressure group may use methods such as strikes, boycott, and demonstrations to
 achieve their aims, a political party may organise door to door campaigns and rallies to
achieve their goal.
v. Political parties pursue goals and interests that will improve the lifestyle of many people
in the society whilst pressure groups pursue interests and goals that will improve the life-
style of only their members.
vi. Political parties especially mass parties tend to accommodate virtually different interest
in the society in terms of membership but pressure groups especially professional
pressure groups do not accommodate different groups in the society.
vii. A political party is organized to reach everybody in the society, not self- seeking but
pressure groups are basically self-seeking and not organized to reach everybody in the
society.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS

(INTEREST GROUPS)
i. Both political parties and pressure groups are voluntary organizations. Being voluntary
means that people are free to join or leave any political party or any pressure group as it
is not compulsory
ii. The methods that political parties and pressure (Interest) groups use to achieve their aims
are similar. Both institutions use methods such as debates, seminars, boycotts and
demonstration to strive for their goals
iii. Both interest groups and political parties try to shape political policies.
iv. Political parties and pressure groups seek to influence the government. They influence
the government policies and alert for changes that will be in the interest of the nation.
v. Both political parties and interests groups select their leaders through democratic means.
Both institutions sometimes select their leaders through elections
vi. Both political panics and pressure groups (interest groups) are financed from dues and
donations members contribute. Members of both institutions are required to pay monthly
dues which are used to run the affairs of both institutions.
vii. Organizationally, they both have similar pressure (interest) groups such as Ghana
National Association of Teachers (GNAT) have branches scattered throughout the
country at the National, regional and District levels as that of political parties.
Q1). Highlight six roles pressure groups play in the state? (SSSSCE, 1996; Q4)
Q2). Highlight six methods used by pressure groups to achieve their aims?
Q3). Outline six functions of pressure group? (SSSSCE, 2003; PRIVATE EXAMS)
Q4). Outline six major differences between pressure groups and political
party?
Q5). Highlight five factors that can ensure effective operation of pressure
groups
Q6). Highlight five factors that can weaken the effectiveness of pressure
groups
Q7). Outline five problems associated with pressure groups activities
 CHAPTER NINE
PUBLIC OPINION

DIFINITIONS
Public opinion is the aggregate views of people expressed on a national issue at a given period of
time OR
Public opinion can also he defined as the summation (sum total) of views held and expressed by
the people of a state over a national issue at a given period of time OR
Public opinion is the sum total of views held and expressed by a large section of people on a
public issue at a given time.

ADVANTAGES/ IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC OPINION

i. It promotes public participation in government: Public opinion creates an opportunity
for the citizens to take part in decision- making process of their country. The criticisms or
opinions expressed by the public on issues of public interest helps the government to
improve upon its performance.
ii. It checks dictatorship or political extremism: Public opinion helps to check
dictatorship or arbitrary use of power by the executive. It helps to moderate government
action in line with the demands of the public.
iii. To ascertain the popularity of the government: Public opinion is used to measure the
popularity, efficiency and performance of the government at a given period of time in
state.
iv. Helps to determine the popularity of those contesting elections: Public opinion
especially opinion polls helps to determine the popularity of those contesting elections. It
also helps voters to choose their candidates in elections.
v. It serves as a guide to government: Public opinion makes it possible for the government
to know the wishes of the people. This helps the government to formulate and implement
policies that would meet the needs and aspiration of the people.
vi. It ensures accountability in government: Public opinion ensures accountability and
 responsibility of government to the electorate. Public opinion makes the government
account for his actions. The opinion by members of the public can three a government to
give accounts of its stewardship by explaining the rationale behind its policies.
vii. It puts the government on its toes: Public opinion helps the government to know his
strength and weaknesses and therefore sit up to live up to the expectations of the people.
viii. It provides information to the government: Public opinion informs the government on
certain topics which even the government might lack the necessary information on. Thus,
it reveals certain areas of policy that may be unknown or escape the policy makers.
ix. Assists political parties to draft their manifestoes: The aggregate views of the people
expressed on national issue at a given period of time helps political parties to draft
manifestoes that will meet the wishes and aspirations of the people in order to win their
support during elections.

DISADVANTAGES/PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PUBLIC OPINION

i. It may threaten state security and defence: Too much reliance on public opinion could
be injurious to state security and defence. If the public constantly insist on slavish
compliance with public opinions, the states security may be threatened. For example, a
public opinion may favour a declaration of war on neighbour state which when
sometimes heeded to by the government may endanger the national security. For the
purpose of national security and national interest, public opinion could be ignored at
certain times in the process of governing
ii. It may be an impediment to progress: Over-reliance on public opinion by the
government or decision makers can slow down the smooth administration of the state and
retards national development.
iii. Difficulty in determining what constitute public opinion: There is usually uncertainty
about what really constitute public opinion on a given issue at a particular period of time.
There is also the possibility that what may be regarded as public may not be
representatives of the general public. It may represent the views of only an articulate
minority to satisfy their selfish motive or it may manipulated by the government to satisfy
its whims and caprices.
iv. It may expose national vital secrets: Public opinion may expose certain secrets which
 can be injurious to the state.
v. It may lead to frequent changes in policies: Over-reliance on Public opinion may lead
to frequent changes in government policies which may derail (hinder) the implementation
of development programmes. The government cannot embark on stable and long term
plan when he always relies on public opinion.
vi. Faulty measurement: The methods of measuring public opinion such as referendum,
elections and opinion polls may be manipulated by either the way the issues are presented
to the public or by outright rigging the or conducting a biased
vii. It may be based on emotional and irrational considerations: Public opinion may be
based on emotional considerations which when heeded to and implemented the
government may adversely affect the state.

MEASUREMENT OF PUBLIC OPINION

a) Conduct of opinion polls: Public opinion is mainly measured by the use of opinion
polls. This is the assessment of public opinion by questioning a sample of people. Here,
sample of people are made to give responses to a well prepared questionnaire. The
responses are collated and scientifically analyzed for the purpose of ascertaining public
opinion on that particular matter.
b) General views expressed in the mass media: Rulers can measure the opinion of the
people on a particular matter or issue through the mass media. The mass media including
radio, television, newspapers and magazines helps in determining public opinion as they
reflect the general views of the people in their operations especially in their editorial
comments.
c) Boycotts, Strikes and Demonstrations: In true democratic states, members of the public
arc permitted to make their feelings known to the rulers through boycotts, strikes and
demonstrations as long as they are orderly. Through this, certain decisions taken by the
government may be changed or withdrawn. For example, in Ghana the ”kumi preko”
demonstration which was embarked upon by the public in 1995 forced parliament to
withdraw the Value Added Tax (VAT) which was introduced.
d) Elections: One of the most effective means of measuring public opinion is the use of
elections. An election result serves as a yardstick with which the opinion of the public is
 measured. A non-performing government may be voted out and a new one voted in place.
The choice of a particular candidate represents the wishes of the people or public opinion
on the candidates.
e) Reactions of pressure Groups: Pressure groups are non-partisan organizations that seek
to influence government policies in their favour or interest. The reactions of these
pressure groups go a long way to measure public opinion on a particular policy.
f) Plebiscites: Plebiscites is one of the methods used for measuring public opinion. This is
where the public is called upon to vote on important national issues. The outcome of the
vote will determine the opinion of the public on that issue. For example, in 1956, the
British Trust Territory of Togoland voted to join Ghana through plebiscites.
g) Holding of referendum: Referendum forms another mechanism for measuring public
opinion. This is where the public is called to vote on particular constitutional issues
which contain entrenched clauses and for that matter, parliament alone cannot change or
amend it. Here the views of the public are collated to ascertain whether that constitutional
provision should be amended, changed or maintained.
h) Symposia, debates and public lectures: Symposia, debates and public lectures can be
organized to measure or determine the feelings of the people towards specific
governmental policies or national issues.
i) Civil disobedience: Public opinion can be measured through civil disobedience by the
citizens in the state. This is the refusal of citizens to comply with certain laws considered
unjust, as a peaceful form of political protests.
j) Recall: This is the process whereby a member of parliament can be asked out of
parliament by the electorate within his constituency before the end of his/her tenure as a
result of poor performance or when he brings the image or reputation of his constituency
into disrepute through his/her actions and inactions.
k) Public discussion: Public discussions such as debate, symposium, seminars and forum
can be used to determine the opinions of people on a particular national issue. For
example, through public debate, the proposed Comprehensive Sex Education in the Basic
levels of Education in Ghana was suspended in 2019.

HOW PUBLIC OPINION IS FORMED

 i. Mass media: Public opinion may be formed through the mass media namely radio,
television, newspapers, films, magazines and Internet. People form that opinions
generally on issues they read and watch from these media.
ii. Agents of socialization: People sometimes form their opinions based on their
interactions and experiences with those they come into contacts with including their
family members, co-workers, church members, etc These agencies influence a person’s
opinion on a number of issues within a given period of time.
iii. Political parties: Political parties make use of different strategies to convince their
members and sympathizers to rally behind them on variety of issues. Through speeches
and rallies, they try to persuade voters that their programmes are the best which
sometimes influence the opinions of the people.
iv. Pressure Groups: Pressure groups are non-partisan organizations that seek to influence
government policies to their advantage. Pressure groups such as Ghana National
Association of Teachers (GNAT), Ghana Bar Association (GBA) use all sorts of means
to educate the public in order to get them rally behind their course of action. They use
various methods to educate the people which may influence the formation of public
opinion.
v. Through Public lectures/seminars/symposia/conferences: People sometimes form
their opinions on issues they hear or listen to during seminars/lectures or conferences.
vi. Trade Unions: The trade unions that people belong to serve as a source of information
which eventually help them in building public opinion.
vii. Through influential people in our societies: Public opinion can sometimes be formed
through listening to issues that are raised and discussed by influential people or opinion
leaders in our societies.

WAYS OF ENCOURAGING PUBLIC OPINION

i. Guaranteeing freedom of speech and association: Members of the public should be
allowed to express their views on government policies, actions and inactions without any
intimidation or victimization
ii. Establishment of information bureau: Thus, platform should he created for people or
citizens to have access to information which will enable them form their opinion.
iii. Encouragement of democratic government: Democracy government allows for
freedom of association and expression and when such system of government is practiced,
people will not be afraid to air their views on government policies and actions.
iv. Guaranteeing press freedom: Public opinion can be encouraged if the media is given
independence to operate without intimidation and coercion. This will enable the policies
and actions of the government to be made known to members in their true perspectives.
v. Encouragement of functional civil society organizations: To promote public opinion,
functional civil society organizations such as Institute of Economic Affairs (lEA) and
Centre for Democratic Development (CDD) should be encouraged.
vi. Raising literacy level/Public education: The state must provide formal education to its
citizens. If citizens can read and write, they will be in a better position to view and assess
government policies.
TRIAL QUESTION

Q1. What is public opinion?

b) Why should democratic states embrace public opinion?
Q2)Public opinion retards the progress of development. Discuss
Q3 Highlight five importance of Public Opinion (WASSSCE NOV/DEC 2007, Q5)
Q4 What is public opinion?
b) Highlight five advantages of public opinion (WASSSCE MAY/JUNE 2012, Q3)

Q5) Outline six ways by which public opinion is formed.

Q6)Identify six demerits of public opinion.
Q7a) Define Public Opinion
b) Highlight three ways by which public opinion can be formed
c) In what three ways can public opinion be encouraged in your country?
 CHAPTER TEN
THE MEDIA
Mass media refers to various means of communication with a large audience the same time.
Examples of mass media include television, radio, magazines, newspapers and internet.

TYPES OF MEDIA
The types of media are the electronic media and the print media. The electronic media include
radio, television and Internet. The print media include newspapers and magazines.

PRINCIPLES OF THE MEDIA

The basic principles of the media include Fairness, Accuracy, Balance, Timeliness, Objectivity
and Truthfulness.
1. Fairness: One of the basic principles of the media is fairness. This means that the media
should treat all the parties involved in a particular issue equally or in a way that is right or
reasonable.
2. Accuracy: Another principle of the media is Accuracy. This implies that the information
the media disseminates or reports to the public must be exact and correct. The media is
not expected to exaggerate issues but to report exactly what they see and hear. Reporting
of exact and correct information makes the public have confidence in the media.
3. Balance: The media is expected to use the principle of balance in discharging its duties.
This means that the media should not take side or show bias in dealing with a particular
issue. It must give all parties equal platform on an issue under discussion.
4. Timeliness: This means that the media must provide timely information. Information
must be reported to the public at the right time. The media must deal with updated
information.
5. Truthfulness: The media must be guided by the truthfulness……ss must deal with facts
or reality without any falsehood this makes the public develop interest in the media.
ROLES/ADVANTAGES /FUNCTIONS/POSITIVE IMPACTS OF THE MEDIA
i. It educates the public: The media helps to educate the public about their duties and
obligations to the state. It also educates the individuals on their Fundamental Human
Rights and freedoms and where they can seek redress when their rights are abused or
violated.
ii. It disseminates information: One major role of the mass media is to disseminate
information. The media serves as a source of information to the government and the
general public. For example, the press draws the attention of policy-makers to certain
vital areas of public life that could have escaped their attention.
iii. It exposes corrupt practices: Investigative journalism helps in exposing corrupt
practices and allows government to take action. For example in Ghana, twenty-one of the
Magistrate and Circuit Court judges implicated in the judicial corruption scandal
exposed by journalist Anas Aremeyaw Anas were sacked. Some High Court judges who
were implicated in the scandal were also sacked in December, 2015. These judges were
filmed receiving bribes to influence judgments in certain cases before their courts.
iv. It Protects minority rights: The media serves as a watchdog over the rights and interest
of the people, especially those of minorities. It exposes violations of individual rights by
the government and its agents.
v. It serves as a link between the government and the people: The media serves as a link
between the government and the people because it publishes not only the work of the
government but also enables the government to know what the people think about its
policies.
vi. It serves as a medium of advertisement: The media makes advertisement possible.
New products can be made known to the public through the media. It therefore promotes
buying and selling of products. Also, through the media, employment avenues are
advertised to absorb those with the requisite qualifications.
vii. It promotes public opinion: The media assists in the formation and expression of public
opinion. People form their opinion on what they see and hear from the media.
viii. It serves as a source of entertainment: The media provides entertainment to the
people through movies shown on television and music played on TV and radio. This
 helps to reduce stress and depression.
ix. It creates political and social consciousness: The media creates awareness by helping
the public to know issues pertaining in the country and also exposes the had deeds of the
government
x. Promotion of democracy and good governance: The media promotes democracy and
good governance. Through the media, citizens are able to express their views on the
policies of the ruling government by criticizing unpopular policies made by the
government and offering alternative proposals which enhance democracy.
xi. It provides employment: The media provides employment opportunities to a large
number of people. Individuals with requisite qualifications are employed as script writers,
news broadcasters, pressmen, reporters, presenters, editors etc.
xii. It generates revenue for the state: The mass media generates revenue for the state
through the payment of taxes. Corporate bodies, individuals and multinational groups
who own mass media pay taxes which serve as a source of revenue for the state. The
revenue received from the payment of taxes could be used to provide social amenities
such as building schools, hospitals, providing electricity and portable water to the people.
xiii. Mass media broadens the scope of political participation: Mass media promotes
political participation or interest in the governance of our country. National issues of
concern are discussed on television, radio and the internet and people share their views
on those issues. This helps the citizens to take part in decision making process of their
country.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MEDIA OR WHY THE PRESS MUST BE

CONTROLLED
i. If the media is not controlled, some press houses may reveal state secret for public
consumption which can endanger the security of the state.
ii. There is tendency for the press to play up and well songs that are sensational such as sex
scandal, kidnapping etc just to sell their newspapers while issues that affect our lives and
the whole world receive attention.
iii. The media sometimes uses the press as yardstick to criticise any policy of the
government whether good or bad. Destructive criticism by the press sometimes results in
 chaos, anarchy and disorder in the state.
iv. It also puts too much pressure on government officials which may make them make
mistakes in undertaking their duties.
v. Absence of press control may make the press to incite the public to embark on
unwarranted civil disobedience which can jeopardize the state.
vi. If the press is not controlled it may publish and circulate profane and pornographic
materials which can bring moral degeneration among the people especially the youths in
a country.
vii. If the media is not controlled, it may lead to the publication and dissemination of false
information. Dissemination of false information may induce members of the public to act
in a way which may endanger the security of the state.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES

Electoral system is the process and procedure by which citizens of a democratic country select,
through either voting directly or indirectly, those who will represent them and make laws on their
behalf in parliament. OR
Electoral system can be defined as a composition of various methods and techniques involved in
the conduct of elections into a number of elective positions in a country. OR
Electoral systems are the procedures and mechanisms by which public elections arc conducted.

FEATURES OF A GOOD ELECTORAL SYSTEM

i. It should be economical: A good electoral system should be economical. Thus, the
procedure and process for the conduct of the election in the country should not be too
costly or expensive.
ii. A good electoral system should be easy to operate with: The voting process should be
easy to operate. Thus, the process and the procedure by which citizens of a state vote
should not be difficult but simple. The voting and counting process should be easy to be
executed by both literates and illiterates.
iii. It should be easily understood by the electorates: A good electoral system should be
easily understood by the electorates as regards to the processes and procedures associated
with the election and the voting process. Rejected ballot papers are reduced during
elections when people really understand the voting procedure.
iv. A good electoral system should be time saving: A good electoral system is designed in
such a way that it will not consume much of the voters’ time. The system must ensure
speedy voting and counting to reduce stress of both the electorate and the electoral
officials. The processes and procedures involved in the election must be fast since a time-
consuming voting process has the potential to induce apathy in voters.
v. It should provide enough choice of candidates: A good electoral system must provide
wide range of policies and candidates for the electorates to select from them. There
should be an existence of multi-party system to give wide range of policies to the
electorate.
 vi. It should be transparent: Thus, the electoral process and procedure should be clear and
understood by the electorates. All aspects of electoral processes and procedures should be
accessible to the electorates, the candidates, political parties and the general public.
Counting of cast ballot papers must be done in an open place.
vii. A good electoral system should ensure equitable representation: Thus, it must
provide equitable representation of the people in government as well as representative
institutions such as legislature and District Assemblies.

FORMS/TYPES OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

The various forms or types of electoral systems include simple majority or plurality, proportional
representation and absolute majority.

SIMPLE MAJORITY/ PLURALITY SYSTEM

This is an electoral system in which the candidate who obtains the highest number of valid votes
cast is declared the winner. It is sometimes referred to as first past the post system. It is the
commonest system used in Canada, India, and United Kingdom. In Ghana, simple majority
system is used to select members of parliament.
The illustration below shows the election results from a constituency.
Name of party Name of candidate Vote cast
A.C.P Tsibu Bright 14,500
G.R.P Charles Fordjour 15.000
G.C.P Michael Osei Bediako 11,000
F.M.P Osei llosea 10,000
A.S.P Addai Kennedy 2.000
Using simple majority or plurality, Charles Fordjour of is declared as the winner.
Using simple majority system, the party that won the election is G.R.P

ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE MAJORITY/PLURALITY SYSTEM

i. It is easy to practice: Simple plurality system is easy to practice it does not involve
much technicalities, voters arc used to the swim. it understood and works in an
uncomplicated manner. With simple majority system, the candidate with the highest vote
 is declared the winner. Thus, system produces a clear winner in the first round of
election.
ii. It is less expensive to operate: Simple majority or plurality system is less expensive to
administer since elections are held once. No second balloting is required so the money
that would have been used to conduct the second balloting is saved for other purposes.
iii. It encourages the emergence of dominant political parties: The competitive nature of
the system discourages the formation of many political parties. A clear-cut option or
alternative for voters between two main parties is provided. The voter can obviously
express an opinion on which party should form the subsequent government.
iv. It is suitable for homogeneous countries: Simple plurality system is suitable for
homogenous countries where people have many things in common.
v. It discourages conflicts: Simple plurality system discourages conflicts arising from
election results. Simple plurality or majority system promotes political stability because it
discourages post-election protests by sections of the state.
vi. Discourages coalition government: Simple plurality or majority system discourages the
formation of coalition government which is often weak and can breakdown easily when
members withdraw their membership from it thereby disrupting the smooth running of
the state. Simple majority system contributes to a rise in single-party governments which
do not depend on sustenance from other parties to pass legislation. The system produces
steady majorities and resilient government with a rational amount of support.
vii. Simplifies voting procedure: It simplifies the voting procedure. In simple majority
system, there is no difficulty in voting. The procedure involved in voting via this system
is so simple to both literate and illiterate electorate to participate in an election. Counting
of votes and the results may be declared faster than it pertains in other complex systems.
viii. It ensures stable government: Simple majority or plurality system ensures the
emergence of a stable government. The system produces steady majorities and resilient
government with a rational This mains that a single government can count on a full term,
enabling them to formulate and implement programmes without fear of a coup
Candidates elected have a close link with their constituencies.
ix. Simple majority system makes the elected candidates to be more responsible and
accountable to the electorate. They have the notion that if they fail to be accountable and
 responsible, any of their competitors can take the power from them.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SIMPLE MAJORITY/PLURALITY SYSTEM

i. It is undemocratic: The practice of simple majority system is undemocratic because the
combined votes of losers may exceed that of the winner.
ii. It is easier to manipulate or rig elections conducted under this system: A greedy or
corrupt candidate can easily influence the electoral officials to rig or manipulate the
system to enable him or her get a little more than his competitors.
iii. Simple majority system may work against the wishes of the majority of the voters:
The wishes of the majority are sometimes ignored. Representatives can get elected with
small amount of public support, as the size of winning margin is irrelevant. For example
if in an election 100 people vote and the winner obtains say 35 votes whilst the losers
votes put together is 65, it means the wishes of the majority is ignored.
iv. Smaller parties have little chance of winning election: Minority parties or smaller
parties may have limited opportunity of winning election and are therefore
underrepresented since the party that is very strong need a little more than its competitors
to emerge as a winner. Here, there are no run-offs elections which could help smaller
parties come together to kick against the strongest party.
v. The system does not reflect clearly the strength of the political parties. All that the
party needs is to get a little more than its competitor. Even one vote can make a
difference. The winner does not need to get absolute majority.
Simple majority system gives a wrong impression about the popularity and legitimacy of
the winner. The winner may not be accepted and recognized by majority of the people since the
combined votes of losers may exceed that
of the winner. Majority of the people may therefore fail to rally behind the elected candidate.

(vii). Simple majority system gives room gerrymandering: This is the practice of delimiting or
demarcating constituency boundaries to deliberately give one political party unfair advantage
over the others in an election.

(viii). It promotes ethnicity in national politics. Simple majority system may encourage the
development of political parties based on clan, ethnicity or region which may base their
campaign and policy on conceptions that are attractive to the majority of people in their district,
region or ethnicity but exclude or are hostile to others. The country is thus divided into
geographically separate party strongholds, with little incentive for parties to make appeals
outside their home region and cultural-political base.
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION
Proportional representation is an electoral system in which representatives are elected in such a
way as would ensure a meaningful relationship between the votes cast and seats secured in
parliament after a general election. It is designed to give each political party in election equal
legislative seats proportional to the number of vote cast. The types of proportional representation
include second balloting, single transferable vote, the cumulative system, the list system and the
alternative vote.

(i). The second ballot system is used if after the end of an election, no candidate secures an
overall majority to win the election. A second ballot (run-off election) is then organized for the
two leading candidates with a higher percentage of the votes at a later date. During the run-off,
voters who supported the less successful candidates are able to switch their support to either of
the two leading candidates until a candidate secures the majority votes and wins.

(ii). The single transferable vote system operates in multi-party member constituencies where
each voter has a single vote which can be transferred to other candidates.

(iii). The cumulative system: This is whereby the voter is given as many votes as there are
many seats to be filled in the constituency. The voter can then spread his votes over several
candidates or give all to his favourite candidate. The candidates who get the highest number in
relation to the seats to be filled are elected.

The alternative vote: The alternative vote operates in a single-member constituency. It is

designed to secure majority representation of the Under this system, voters are issued ballot
papers in which they must their preferences in order of importance by marking 1, 2, 3 etc. The
candidate with the lowest number of votes eliminated and his votes are transferred to the next
choice if none of the candidates secures an absolute majority votes. The process continues until a
winner emerges.

The list system: This is where the whole country is considered as a constituency. The various
political parties are then asked to nominate their candidates from their list before the election is
conducted. The seats are distributed to the parties in proportion to the votes obtained after the
conduct of the election. Amongst the countries that use this system include Netherland, Italy and
Australia.

ADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

1. Proportional representation ensures the representation of groups in a state proportionate

to the vote cast. In other words, the system satisfies the large number of citizens who
might otherwise be unrepresented in the legislature and whose views would otherwise be
moderated by the large parties

2. Proportional representation is democratic because it gives a surprising accurate reflection

of the strength of the various political parties within the constituency.
 3. Members of parliament are supposed to prove their merit to be elected there is nothing
like safe constituency as contestants will be many, representing many parties.

4. The system weakens the domination of a single party or a few big parties in the formation
of government as no party can win a bigger majority to form a government.

5. Proportional representation provides an opportunity for non-party candidate to be elected.

This is because emphasis is placed on candidates and not on political parties.

DISADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

1. It promotes the formation of coalition governments which are often weak and can
breakdown easily when members withdraw their membership thereby disrupting the
smooth running of the state. Coalition government does not therefore provide for political
stability.

2. It is very expensive to operate because it involves multi-member constituency. It cannot

therefore be afforded by many poor or developing countries.

3. It encourages sectional and local interest rather than national interest.

4. The system is complex and cumbersome. It involves complex electoral computation

which may make it difficult for it to work successfully in illiterate and poor societies.

5. Proportional representation system does not ensure personal contacts between the
representative and their electorate because of the existence of large and multiple
constituencies.

ABSOLUTE MAJORITY SYSTEM

Another form of electoral system is the use of absolute majority. In this system, a candidate is
expected to obtain a pre-determined percentage (usually more than 50%) of the total valid votes
cast in an election before he can be declared as a winner. If no candidate polls the required
percentage, a run off election is held for the two leading candidates. This is the rule in the 1992
constitution for electing president in Ghana.

A good example is what is illustrated in the table below:

Candidate Number of Votes Percentage of votes (%)

Douglas Amo 104 52%
Nana Amoako 42 21%
Bright Antwi 54 27%
Total 200 100
From the table above, Douglas Amo is declared the winner having gained more than half of the
total valid vote cast. Where no candidate is able to secure absolute majority (that is 50%+l) the
two leading candidates, in most cases, will go for a second round in which a winner emerges
through a simple majority votes.
ADVANTAGES OF ABSOLUTE PLURALITY

1. The outcome of the election reflects popular will. Since an absolute majority of votes is
required for a candidate as a winner. it makes it possible for the winning candidate to
enjoy the legitimacy of the majority of voters.

2. The method produces capable and credible candidates for public offices.

3. Representatives or candidates tend to identify with predominant interest knowing that

they need clear majority of votes to win election.

DISADVANTAGES OF ABSOLUTE PLURALITY

1. It is expensive to run especially when there is a need for runoff. Additional funds would
be required when a second ballot is to be conducted.

2. It tends to encourage abuse: A second balloting compels leading candidates to woo the
support of other candidates withdrawing from the second election.

3. It is complex and cumbersome. It is more difficult to operate than the simple plurality
system.

4. It is time consuming. It requires another length of time to plan when there are run-offs.

ELECTIONS
An election is a formal decision-making process by which eligible voters select personnel to
hold vacant positions in the state. An election can also be described as a mechanism by which
personnel are elected to manage the affairs of the state.

Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy operates
since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive
and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other
private and business organizations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.

TYPES OF ELECTIONS
The types of elections include
1. general elections,
2. bye elections,
3. run-off elections,
4. referendum,
5. local elections,
6. direct and
 7. indirect elections.

(a). General Elections: A general election is a type of election which is conducted nationwide to
elect members of the legislature, and the executive at the same time.

(b). Bye- Election: A bye- election is an election held in a constituency or district to fill a vacant
seat in the legislature or local council due to the resignation or death of a member.

(c). Run-off election: If after an election, no candidate secures the required percentage of the
valid votes cast to emerge as the winner. another election called run-off election is held for only
the two leading candidates with higher percentage of valid votes cast to determine the winner. A
good example is what happened in Ghana in the 2008 general election when run-off election was
conducted for the two leading candidates namely, Nana Akuffo Addo of the New Patriotic party
(NPP) and Prof. John Evans Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) who later
became the winner.

(d). Re-run election: This is a type election which is conducted if after the conduct of the first
election, the entire results is cancelled.

(e). Supplementary election/inconclusive election: This is a type of election which is

conducted if it is realized that after the election a lot of people in some polling stations could not
vote, all the electorate in those polling stations that could not vote will be allowed to vote and
their votes added to those who had already voted before the final declaration is made.

(fl. Local election: A local election is a type of election conducted within a local council area to
select members of local council or to decide on a policy issue.

(g). Primaries: Primaries refer to elections held among candidates of the same political party
before a general election.

(h). Direct and indirect election: A direct election is the type of election by which the electorate
are given the chance to vote directly to select political leaders. An indirect election on the other
hand is the type of election in which an electoral college is used. Here, the electorate vote for
their representatives and the representatives in turn vote on behalf of the people. Those who vote
on behalf of the people constitute the Electoral College. It is usually associated with the
American political system.

Recall: Recall is a process by which electorate withdraw their representatives from parliament

ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF DIRECT ELECTIONS

1. It is democratic: Direct election is democratic because it offers opportunity for the

electorate to choose candidates of their choice without any interference. Since all
qualified adult citizens are allowed to vote directly, the outcome of the election will
reflect the sovereign will of the people.
 2. Promotes political consciousness of the people: Direct election stimulates and arouses
the interest and curiosity of the people in the political affairs of their country, since they
are actively involved in the selection process.

3. It Promotes responsibility and accountability: Direct election makes representatives

selected responsible and accountable to the electorate. The chosen representatives work
hard to meet the wishes and aspirations of the people so that they can be re-elected in
subsequent elections.

4. It promotes vote equality: Direct election promotes equality of votes since the principle
of one-man-one vote is applied. This also enhances democracy.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT ELECTIONS

1. It is expensive to operate: Direct election is expensive to operate since a huge amount of

money and material resources are needed to organize presidential, parliamentary and
local government elections.

2. It is associated with violence: Wrong and undesirable means such as campaign of lies,
unnecessary party propaganda and victimization of political opponents are used by
competing candidates to score political points which negatively affects the outcome of
the election.

3. Problem of rigging: Direct election is characterized by electoral malpractices such as

rigging. The outcome of the election may at times be falsified to favour a particular
political party.

4. It paves way for illiterate voters to vote wrongly to select political office holders:
Some of the electorate vote for candidates without even knowing the manifesto of the
competing candidates or the issue they have been called upon to vote on. The chosen
representatives may not therefore be qualitative and competent enough to meet the needs
and aspirations of the people.

ELECTORAL COLLEGE SYSTEM

An electoral college is an elected body who in turn elects an official. Those who vote on behalf
of the people constitute the Electoral College. A good example is the system used by the United
States of America to elect the president. In Ghana the Electoral College system was used in the
Second Republic when Edward Akuffo Addo was chosen as a president of Ghana by an Electoral
College system. Again, in the colonial period, the Provincial Council of Chiefs served as
Electoral College to elect representatives into the Legislative Council.

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF ELECTORAL COLLEGE SYSTEM

i) Less expensive to operate: The Electoral College system of voting is less costly to operate
because few people are allowed to vote on behalf of the general public. The state therefore does
not spend so much in organizing elections.

ii) Time saving: Electoral College system of voting is time saving because voting is usually
done and completed within a short period of time since few people are involved.

iii) Less difficult to operate: The Electoral College system is easy to operate se the body
charged with the responsibility for conducting the election would have less work to do as
provision is made for few delegates to vote. With this, counting of vote, collation and
announcing of electoral results can be done as quickly as possible.

iv) Ensures easy and proper identification of candidates: The candidates are easily identified
and properly known to the voters. The system therefore makes it easier for the voters to choose
candidates who command the greatest electoral support.

v) Electoral malpractice is reduced: Electoral malpractices such as rigging, gerrymandering,

impersonation and violence are reduced since only a few people vote.

vi) The system usually produces competent candidates: In an Electoral College system,
eminent and knowledgeable people vote on behalf of the general public. The few people who
are given the chance to vote on behalf of the people can assess the qualities of the competing
candidates well before making decision on them.

Vii) In a highly illiterate society, the system gives the few well-informed electorate the
opportunity to vote wisely to elect their representatives.
DEMERITS OR DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTORAL COLLEGE SYSTEM

i. The system is undemocratic: The Electoral College system of voting is undemocratic in the
sense that it undermines the principle of “one-man-one vote”. Majority of the people are not
given the chance to directly elect their leaders but some people rather decide on their behalf.

ii. It may encourage bribery and corruption: The Electoral College system may encourage
bribery and corruption. Members of the Electoral College may be easily identified and
influenced with bribes by power hungry politicians, since the voter population is small.

iii. The outcome of the election may not reflect the wishes of the people: The outcome of the
election may not reflect the wishes of the people, since those selected to vote on behalf of the
people may vote according to their whims and caprices without considering the choice of the
people who selected them.

iv. Cumbersome and time consuming: The Electoral College system is cumbersome and time
consuming since elections are held in stages. The electorate first vote and select a small group of
people who constitute the Electoral College and later those selected would in turn vote and elect
an official on behalf of the people.

v. Denial of political rights of the citizens: The Electoral College system of voting denies the
political rights of the citizens to vote directly to select their representatives since some people
decide for them. This may bring apathy on the part of the ordinary citizens who may not take any
interest in the activities of the state.

vi. It erodes the confidence of the people: Because the representatives selected by the Electoral
College may not reflect the wishes or choice of the general public, the electorate may lose
confidence in the practice and may not regard the leader selected as legitimate.

vii. It does not establish direct link between the voter and the candidates: Because those
elected to hold office are not directly elected by the entire electorate but rather through the
Electoral College, they may feel responsible only the Electoral College and not directly
responsible and accountable to people.
IMPORTANCE/PURPOSES OF ELECTIONS
1. Confer legitimacy on government and public office holders: Election conics
legitimacy on the government or office holders to administer the state. provides a means
of ensuring that those selected into office have the mandate and approval of at least,
majority of the electorate.
2. Ensure responsibility and accountability: Elections ensure responsibility and
accountability of the government and all political representatives to the electorate in a
state. Thus, it makes it possible for the government to give an account of its stewardship
or how resources in the state were utilized. If proper account is not given, the government
may fail to get the people’s mandate again when his tenure of office ends. This notion
keeps politicians on their toes so as not to incur the displeasure of the electorate.
3. Provide a mechanism for selecting rulers: Elections provide a universally accepted
mechanism for recruiting political leaders in a state from a number of competing
candidates.
4. Elections sent as an index to measure the popularity or acceptability of a
government: Election serves as a yardstick or index to measure the acceptability or
otherwise of the government at any given time. The performance of government is better
assessed by the people during election. It helps to determines whether the government
still possesses or commands the confidence of the people or not so as to sit up or work
hard.
5. Elections provide opportunity for a peaceful political change: Elections provide a
mechanism for a peaceful political change from the rule of one party to another. This is
due to the fact that, if the ruling party loses an election, it hands over the administration
of the country to the party that wins the general election. For example, the 2008 general
election held in Ghana made it possible for Ghanaians to change the government
peacefully from New Patriotic Party (NPP) to National Democratic Congress (NDC)
without rancour.
6. Elections provide an opportunity for the people to be given political education:
Elections make it possible for the electorate to be educated on major political issues and
the political system in the state. During electioneering campaign period, citizens get
enough political education on issues they are called upon to vote on through rallies,
symposia and lectures organized by competing political parties. They are also educated
by the electoral commission and political parties on their political rights and the voting
process.
7. Elections promote political participation: Elections provide a platform for the people
to exercise their franchise. The people are involved in all the processes of the elections
including. registration, attending rallies voting and that promotes their political
participation in the country.
8. Interest aggregation: Elections make it possible for diverse opinions and interests to be
brought together for the purpose of capturing political power. Thus, parties come together
and aggregate their views in a party manifesto and present them to the electorate.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ELECTIONS
1. Financial problems: A huge sum of money and materials arc spent in the conduct of
elections by the state especially those involving run-offs.
2. It may deny poor people their political right to contest election: The financing of
election is a problem for many aspiring candidates especially in some developing
countries and as a result many potential officers are prevented from contesting elections.
Some of these aspirants may not even be able to pay the registration fees imposed by the
Electoral Commission.
3. Corruption and electoral malpractices: Political parties may use money and other
electoral malpractices like rigging, impersonation, gerrymandering to influence the
outcome of elections. Conflicts usually arise when there are electoral malpractices as the
results may not be accepted if there are electoral malpractices.
4. Victimization and intimidation: Most political opponents are victimized and
intimidated especially by the incumbent government followers at other opponents’ strong
hold area leading to abstinence of majority of them from voting.
5. Illiteracy: The high level of illiteracy and low political education in many developing
countries may affect the outcome of elections as illiterate voters may not understand the
issues involved in elections.
6. Disunity: Election sometimes divides the country into antagonistic group with different
camps opposing each other. This can hinder national integration and development.
7. Violence: Most political opponents do not see eye to eye with one another especially with
their main opposition party members. They at times result to violent electioneering
campaign using intimidation and victimization suppress their opponents.

ELECTORAL MALPRACTICES/FRAUD
An electoral malpractice or fraud refers to illegal interference with the processor an election.
These electoral malpractices include rigging, gerrymandering, bribery, impersonation and
victimization.
i) Rigging: Rigging refers to the manipulation or influence of an election so that it produces a
result to favour one political party.

ii) Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering is the practice of demarcating constituency boundaries to

deliberately give one political party unfair advantage over the others in an election.

iii) Bribery: Bribery also constitutes an electoral malpractice. A person commits an offence of
bribery in an election if he/she gives or receives or causes to be given or receive money, gift or
something of value as a means of inducing a voter to vote or not to vote in a particular way.

iv) Victimization: Political victimization is the situation whereby a victorious candidate in an

election identifies and punishes those who failed to vote for him. For example. When an open
voting is used where voters show their support for a particular candidate by a mere show of
hands, a victorious candidate can easily identify those who failed to vote for him and punish
them. The punishment could take the form of making them sit back and not having any work to
do, depriving them of developmental projects or have their businesses destroyed.

V) Impersonation: Impersonation is also an electoral malpractice. A person commits an offence

of impersonation in an election if he or she casts his or her ballot or attempts to vote in the name
or with the ID card of another person living or dead.

ORGANIZATION AND STAGES OF ELECTION IN WEST AFRICA

The various stages involved in organizing general elections in Africa are outlined below:
1. Constituting of electoral body/board: The first stage is the appointment of the body
that oversees the administration and organization of the election. In Ghana that body is
referred to as the Electoral Commission. In Ghana, the commission consists of a
chairman, two deputy chairman and four other members.
2. Delimitation of constituencies: The second stage is the delimitation of the country into
electoral constituencies by the electoral management body for the purpose of selecting
members of the legislature and other political office holders.
3. Registration of voters: All qualified citizens are registered with their information
provided in the voters’ register book and issued with voters’ Identity Card which will be
used during the election.
4. Revision of voters register: The voters’ register is periodically updated to include the
names of new eligible voters and also delete names of those who are dead or have
changed residence.
5. Provision of electoral materials: All the materials needed for the conduct of the election
such as ballot boxes, ballot papers. pooling booths and indelible ink are provided.
6. Accreditation of voters for voting: The identity of voter is ascertained before voting.
This is done to prevent electoral malpractices.
7. Collation and declaration of results: After the vote, all results are collated by the
electoral commission or management board. The final declaration of the election is then
made by the chairman of the commission.

FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is considered as free and fair if the conduct of the election is absolutely free from
irregularities or malpractices such as rigging, double voting, impersonation, intimidation and
gerrymandering. The critical motive of free and fair election is to confer legitimacy on the
government

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

1. Existence of an Independent and non-partisan Electoral Commission: The
organization and supervision of elections should be entrusted in the hands of an
independent electoral commission. The commission must be free from the influence of
the executive and groups or individuals taking part in the election.
2. Availability of Electoral Materials: All materials needed for the election such as ballot
papers, ballot boxes, voters register and indelible ink must be adequately supplied to all
the polling stations at the appropriate time.
3. Existence of electoral law: To ensure free and fair elections, the rules governing the
election must be provided by the Electoral Commission and must be given adequate
publicity. All competing parties must be given copies of these electoral laws so that after
the election \\Then the winner is declared there will be peace and harmony.
4. Existence of an independent judicial system: Provision should be made for disputing or
 challenging election results under an independent judiciary. Such an independent
judiciary can handle electoral disputes and petitions effectively without fear or favour.

5. Proper demarcation of constituencies: The whole country must be divided into proper
constituencies, taking into consideration the total population of the country, to ensure that
all interest groups are properly represented. The demarcation of the constituencies must
be free from gerrymandering.
6. Provision of adequate security: There should also be a provision of adequate security
arrangements to protect voters, electoral officers, candidates and electoral materials from
harassment and intimidation. Voters should be protected from intimidation and
victimization so that they can vote for the candidate of their choice. This will enhance
free and fair election as well as promoting peace and harmony in the state.
7. Compilation, periodic review and public display of voters register: The election must
be preceded by the compilation of voters register. The voters register must be periodically
revised and displayed in the public for the voters to confirm their particulars. The voters
register must be devoid of ghost names, double entries and should include all the names
of eligible (qualified) voters.
8. Adequate political education: To ensure free and fair election, voters must be given
enough political education to enable them to understand the electoral process in terms of
the procedures to be followed and the purpose of the election.
9. Public counting and immediate announcing of certified results counted: 1b ensure
credible results, counting of votes should be done in public and the results of the election
should be announced immediately after counting is completed to avoid unnecessary
tension and suspicion.
10. Existence of Universal Adult Suffrage: To ensure free and fair elections, there must be
an existence of Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, all qualified adults citizens must be
allowed to vote.
11. Equal access to the media: All registered political parties and competing candidates
must be given equal access to the mass media, including the state -owned ones, and
private ones. Equal coverage of all rallies and campaigns must be given to all candidates
in their attempt to market their programmes and candidates to the electorate.
12. Adequate training and remuneration of electoral officials: To ensure free and fair
elections in a country, electoral official should be given adequate training as to how the
election must be conducted. These electoral officials recruited should be adequately
remunerated to help them administer their work effectively devoid of bribery and
corruption.
13. Existence of multi-party system: To ensure free and fair elections in a country, there
should be an existence of multy-party system which will give a wide range of candidates
and policies to the electorate. This helps the electorate to make informed decision from a
number of competing candidates and policies.
14. Conducive voting atmosphere: To ensure free and fair elections in a country, voting
atmosphere should be devoid of fear of molestation, intimidation and victimization.

FACTORS THAT IMPAIR/HINDER/IMPEDE FREE AND FAIR ELECTION

1. Absence of an independent Electoral Commission/Management Body: For an
 election to be free and fair, its organization and supervision should be entrusted in the
hands of an independent and non-partisan Electoral Commission. But in some countries
especially in Africa, the ruling government appoints its favourites who constitute the
Electoral Commission. Such officials are therefore not fully independent and work
according to the demands or wishes of the one who appointed them. Widespread
interference by the political elite especially the incumbent government negatively affects
the delivery of credible elections.
2. Unequal access to the media especially the state media: To ensure free and fair
election, all registered political parties and competing candidates must be given equal
access to the media including the state owned ones but in most cases, the ruling party
tends to control the mass media especially the state owned ones. The opposition parties
are given little or no time to market their programmes and candidates to the electorate.
3. Absence of an independent and impartial judiciary: When the work of the judiciary is
interfered by any of the competing candidates or parties especially the incumbent
government, it affects the conduct of free and fair elections. Violence is likely to happen
due to lack of credible and trusted judicial system that can quickly resolve election
disputes. Many judicial systems are not independent and there are backlog of cases which
delays amicable settlement of electoral disputes. This leaves violent protest as an
unfortunate alternative.
4. Poverty, illiteracy and ignorance: An impoverished electorate is easily bought and
hardly focuses on issue based policy but rather as the election gets near, it is about who
gives the biggest money or handout. Illiterate voters also find it difficult to read and
understand the manifestoes of competing candidates or parties. Again, such people even
find it difficult to vote properly ending up spoiling the ballot papers. If many spoilt ballot
papers are recorded, the outcome of the election may not give the true reflection of the
electorate’s choice.
5. Inadequate funding of the Electoral Commission or Management Body: For an
election to be conducted in a free and fair manner, the central government must release
adequate funds so that all the necessary logistics can be procured but in many cases, the
central governments are unable to provide the needed funds to the Electoral Management
Body which derails an effective conduct of free and fair election.
6. Electoral malpractices: The desire on the part of some political leadership in some
countries to remain in power indefinitely makes them adopt electoral malpractices such
as rigging, vote buying, impersonation and gerrymandering to influence the outcome of
an election.
7. Imposition of unaffordable/Prohibitive filing fees by the Electoral Management
Body: The initial deposit fees that candidates and political parties are required to pay
before they are allowed to take part in the election may be too much for some of them to
bear. A lot of experienced and knowledgeable people are left out due to the unaffordable
fee imposed by the Electoral Commission.
8. Inadequate political education: If voters are not provided with enough political
education to enable them understand the electoral process and procedures, they may end
up spoiling some of the ballot papers. A lot of them may also vote blindly since they may
not be conversant with the manifestoes of the competing candidates. Again, there will be
apathy on the side of the voters if they are not educated on the purpose of the election.
9. Poor means of communication: Poor means of communication especially in reverine
 and deprived areas militate against the conduct of free and fair elections. The poor means
of communication affects the sending and receiving of information which eventually
delays the declaration of election results.
10. Manipulation of electoral processes or High scale corruption among some electoral
officers: In some cases, electoral officers such as the returning officers, presiding officers
and the polling assistants are influenced with money and other considerations by
competing candidates to manipulate elections in their favour.

THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION/MANAGEMENT BODY/BOARD

The electoral commission or electoral management body is an independent body entrusted with
the responsibility of conducting and supervising elections in the state. OR The Electoral
Commission is a body charged with the responsibility of organizing and conducting elections in
a state.

COMPOSITION
In Ghana. the electoral commission consists of seven members. This includes the chairman, two
deputy chairmen and four other members.

FEATURES OF ELECTORAL COMMISSION

1. An independent body: The Electoral Commission is an independent body free from the
control of government, political party or any other institution and is charged with the
responsibility of organizing and conducting elections in a state. To ensure the
independence of the Electoral Commission, salaries of members are charged on the
Consolidated Fund.
2. Headed by a chairman: The electoral commission consists of a chairman, two deputy
chairmen and four other members. It is headed by a chairman.
3. Appointment: The members of the commission are appointed by the president on the
advice of the Council of state. (Article 70 of the 1992 constitution of Ghana).
4. Absolute neutrality/nonpartisan: The commission is a politically NUS and non partisan
organization. Members of the commission canto themselves in active partisan politics.
They cannot openly declare their support for a particular political party. They cannot
attend party rallies or campaign for any party or even wear a party T-Shirt.
5. Security of tenure: The appointment of its members is for a fixed term of office and the
chairman of the Electoral Commission shall have the same terms and conditions of
service as a Justice of the Court of Appeal. (Article 44 section 2 of the 1992 constitution).
6. Impartial in the conduct of elections: The commission must discharge its duties
effectively without showing any form of bias. Funding: Its operations are funded by the
state. Training of electoral officials, printing of ballot papers. provision of ballot boxes
and indelible ink are all funded by the state.
7. Established by law: it owes its existence to the constitution. It is the constitution that set
up the electoral commission. The commission is therefore expected to work within the
frame work of the constitution and nothing else.
8. It has a legal personality status: The Electoral Management body or commission has a
legal personality status. It can therefore sue and be sued. For example, in Ghana. four
major political parties namely, NPP, NDC, CPP and PNC sued the Electoral Commission
to prevent it from using the old register to conduct the by-election at Walensi and
 Kwabere West constituency in 2012.

FUNCTIONS OF ELECTORAL COMMISSION/MANAGEMENT BODY/ BOARD

1. It registers voters: The Electoral Commission is responsible for registering all eligible
(qualified) voters before an election is conducted. For example, in Ghana all citizens who
have attained the age of 18 years and are of a sound mind are registered by the electoral
commission before general elections are conducted.
2. It makes rules and regulations: The Electoral commission is responsible for making
rules and regulations to guide the conduct of elections to ensure free and fair election.
3. The electoral commission registers political parties: The Electoral Commission
approves the registration of all political panics and candidates for various elective
positions in an election and issues certificates to them.
4. It delimits electoral constituencies: The Electoral Commission demarcates the electoral
areas or boundaries for both national and local government elections.
5. Appointment of ad-hoc electoral officers: The commission appoints ad-hoc electoral
officers to help in the conduct of elections The Commission appoints electoral officials
including presiding officers, returning officers and polling assistants to supervise
elections in the country.
6. Prints ballot papers: The commission is responsible for the printing of ballot papers and
dispatching them to the various electoral areas during elections.
7. Educating the citizens: The commission educates and enlightens the electorate on the
electoral processes and the purpose of elections.
8. Compiling voters register. The Electoral Commission is responsible for the compilation
of voters register periodically and to revise it at regular intervals to include newly-
qualified voters.
9. Compilation and declaration of results: The commission is responsible for the
compilation and declaration of election results.
10. Acts as witness to electoral tribunals: It acts as witness to the tribunal when there is an
election result dispute to be settled by the courts.
11. Conducts elections and referenda: The electoral commission is charged with the
responsibility of conducting free and fair elections and referenda in a country.
12. Review of voters register: The commission reviews voters’ register periodically to
ensure that the register is devoid of ghost names. Also those who have reached the
qualified voting age are also registered.
13. Training of electoral personnel: The electoral commission again trains electoral
officials such as Polling Assistants, Presiding officers and Returning officers on how free
and fair elections must be conducted in the state.
14. Auditing the Financial Accounts of Political Parties: The electoral commission is also
responsible for auditing the annual financial accounts of political parties in a state.
PROBLEMS OF ELECTORAL COMMISSION/MANAGEMENT BODY
1. Inadequate funding by the government: For elections to be conducted ins free and fair
manner, the central government must release adequate funds so that all the necessary
logistics can be obtained by the electoral commission but in many cases, the central
governments are unable to provide adequate funds which derail effective conduct of
election by the electoral commission.
2. High scale corruption among some electoral officers: Some electoral offices are
influenced or manipulated by Political parties to rig the election in their favour. This
hinders the smooth conduct of free and fair elections in a state.
3. Insecurity as the job is sensitive and risky: Most electoral officers are victimized and
intimidated especially by the incumbent government follows to rig election in their
favour to the detriment of other competing candidates or panics.
4. Election malpractices by candidates and parties: Political parties and candidates may
use money and other electoral malpractices like rigging. impersonation, gerrymandering
to influence the outcome of elections.
5. Transportation difficulties: The electoral commission is faced with transportations
problems especially in the riverine and remote areas.
6. Political interference: Some political parties particularly the party in power sometimes
interfere in the activities of the electoral commission which derails the conduct of free
and fair election.
7. Poor means of communication: Poor means of communication in some counties
especially in reverine and deprived areas is also another problem faced by the electoral
commission. The poor means of communication can delay the declaration of election
results which sometimes creates unnecessary tension in some countries.
8. Problem with age determination: The commission does not have the means or
mechanism to determine the ages of voters and as such sometimes registers unqualified
voters.

HOW INADEQUATE FUNDING CAN AFFECT THE SMOOTH OR EFFECTIVE

OPERATION OF ELECTORAL COMMISSION/ELECTORAL MANAGEMENT
BOARD/BODY
1. Inability of the electoral management body or commission to employ qualified
personnel: If the Electoral Commission lacks adequate funds, the commission will find it
difficult to employ high caliber personnel to conduct and supervise elections. The ad hoc
electoral officials recruited may not also be well trained before the election is held since
the training may require huge sum of money.
2. Inability to purchase the needed electoral materials and logistics: If the electoral
commission lacks funds for their operation. the commission will not be able to provide
the needed electoral materials and logistics such as ballot boxes, indelible ink, polling
booths. biometric machines etc. If the right materials are not procured, it will impede the
smooth conduct of the election.
3. High scale corruption among some electoral officials: If the commission is not having
enough funds especially to pay the ad hoc electoral officials, some of them are likely to
 be influenced by greedy political leaders to manipulate the election results in their favour.
This will affect the conduct of free and fair election.
4. Transportation difficulties: Inadequate funds will hinder effective movement of
electoral materials and the electoral officials. If the commission lacks funds they will not
be able to purchase vehicles such as pickups to transport the electoral materials and other
logistics to the various polling stations. Declaration of results may also delay if there are
no vehicles to commute the results from the polling stations to the various coalition
centres.
5. Lack of publicity and political education: If the electoral commission lacks funds, it
will find it difficult to give adequate publicity on the media such as radio, television and
newspapers as to the process and procedures involved in the election. The electorate may
not get much education before the elections is held. Lack of public education may result
in low voter turnouts and increase in spoilt ballot papers.
6. To compile, exhibit and revise the voters’ register: The Electoral Commission or
management body needs money to compile, exhibit and revise the voters’ register
periodically. If the financial muscle of the Commission is weak, it will be very difficult
for them to carry out this function effectively.

ELECTORAL OFFICERS AND AGENTS

a) Chairman of the Electoral Commission/Commissioners: The chairman of the electoral
commission and his deputy commissioners move round to supervise the conduct of the election.
The chairman is also charged with the responsibility of declaring the certified results as well as
the winner of the election. For example. in Ghana after presidential election, it is only the
chairman of the electoral commission who has the sole mandate under the constitution to declare
the winner of the election.

b) Returning officer: The returning officer is responsible for the general supervision of all
public elections in a constituency. He is based at the constituency centre where the results of the
various polling stations in constituency are collated for the purpose of declaring the winner of an
election in a constituency. For example, in Ghana the elections conducted to select members of
parliament are usually announced and declared by the returning officer in each constituency.

c) The presiding officer: The presiding officer is also an electoral official charged with the
responsibility of conducting election at the polling station. lie is responsible for addressing
problems emanating from the polling station assigned to him. Again, he is responsible for
counting the votes cast at the polling station and announcing the provisional results to the people.

d) Polling assistants: The polling assistants are the officials selected and trained by the electoral
commission to assist the presiding officers to conduct free and fair elections at the various
polling stations. Two or more polling assistants may be assigned to a polling station depending
upon the size of that electoral area. The polling assistants check the names of the electorate from
the voters register. They also put indelible ink on the thumb of the electorate. Again, they tear the
voting sheet for the electorate and direct them to where they should place them after selecting
their preferences.

e) Polling agent/party agent/party representative: The polling agent is the representative of a

political party at a polling station during election. The party agent is there to ensure that his party
is not cheated during elections. He is there to ensure freeness or fairness.

OFFICIALS USED IN THE CONDUCT OF ELECTION ON THE POLLING DAY AND

THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Chairman of the Electoral Commission/Commissioners: The chairman of the electoral
commission and his deputy commissioners move round to supervise the conduct of the
election. The chairman is also charged with the responsibility of declaring the certified
results as well as the winner of the election. For example, in Ghana after presidential
election. it is only the chairman of the electoral commission who has the sole mandate
under the constitution to declare the winner of the election,
2. Returning officer: The returning officer is responsible for the general supervision of all
public elections in a constituency He is based at the constituency centre where the results
of the various polling stations in the constituency are collated for the purpose of declaring
the winner of an election in a constituency. For example, in Ghana the elections
conducted to select members of parliament are usually announced and declared by the
returning officer in each constituency.
3. The presiding officer: The presiding officer is also an electoral official charged with the
responsibility of conducting election at the polling station. He is responsible for
addressing problems emanating from the polling station assigned to him. Again, he is
responsible for counting the votes cast at the polling station and announcing the
provisional results to the people.
4. Polling assistants: The polling assistants are the officials selected and trained by the
electoral commission to assist the presiding members to conduct free and fair elections at
the various polling stations. Two or more polling assistants may be assigned to a polling
station depending upon the size of that electoral area. The polling assistants check the
names of the electorate from the voters register. They also put indelible ink on the thumb
of the electorate. Again, they tear the voting sheet for the electorate and direct them to
where they should place them after selecting their preferences.
5. Polling agent/party agent/party representative: The polling agent is the representative
of a political party at a polling station during election. The party agent is there to ensure
that his party is not cheated during elections. He is there to ensure freeness or fairness.
6. Security officers: Security officers such as the police, the military etc help in
maintaining law and order at the polling station. They protect the ballot papers, the
candidates, the electoral officials and the electorate during the polling day.
7. Election observers: During elections, independent observers such as Coalition of
Domestic Election Observers (CODEO) and those from international bodies such as
Commonwealth, ECOWAS and UNO monitor the conduct of elections and report on the
freeness or fairness or otherwise of the elections.

FRANCHISE
Franchise simply refers to the right of citizens to vote and be voted for in an denim It
forms an important clement of a democratic government. In British West Africa,
 franchise was first introduced in Nigeria in 1922. In Ghana, it was introduced 1925 under
Guggisberg constitution.
Enfranchisement: Enfranchisement refers to the right to vote for persons to represent
them in legislature and other offices. Disenfranchisement is the act of depriving persons
of their right to vote.

TYPES OF FRANCHISE
There are two types of franchise. They are limited or restricted franchise and the unlimited or
unrestricted franchise.

LIMITED OR RESTRICTED FRANCHISE

Limited or restricted franchise is a type of franchise which attaches ’some basic criteria to
eligibility. Restricted franchise could be based on educational qualification, sex qualification
(male or female), race qualification (black or white), wealth qualification etc. Example, the
elective principle introduced in the 1925 Guggisberg Constitution adopted a restricted franchise
based on property qualification.

FACTORS WHICH LIMIT FRANCHISE OR TYPES OF RESTRICTED FRANCHISE

1. Race/Colour/Ethnicity: Here, the right to vote is determined by one’s colour or race. For
instance, apartheid South Africa denied Africans the right to vote until 1994. The blacks
were exempted because their colour made them inferior.
2. Wealth/Property qualification: In some countries, the right to vote is limited to those
who have certain amount of property. For example, in Ghana when the elective principle
was introduced under the 1925 Guggisberg constitution, the right to vote was limited to
people who had property.
3. Sex: Here, the right to vote depends upon the sex of the person that is whether the person
is a male or a female. In some countries, women were not allowed to vote in the previous
years but were represented by the vote of their male counterparts since those people
perceived politics as the preserve of men.
4. Education: in some countries, one can only a be rood for when the person has attained a
certain requisite qualification. For example, until holders of university degree in Britain
had two one their home and one for the university. It was until 1948 that the university
vote was abolished and Britain adopted the principle of “one roan caw vote”.
5. Tax obligation: In some countries, the right to vote and be voted for is based on the
payment of one’s taxes. Only citizens who could show evidence of tax payment arc
allowed to vote or be voted for.
6. Residential status: In some countries, before one will be allowed to enjoy franchise, the
number of years or months the person has resided at the place (constituency) could be a
pre-requisite qualification.
7. Age requirement: A key dominant of eligibility to vote or be voted for in a democratic
state is age requirement. For example, in Ghana one can take part in voting when he has
attained 18 years or more. Again one can contest election as an Assemblyman only if the
person has attained 18 years or more, as a member of parliament only if the person is 21
years or more and as a president only if the person is 40 years or more. All the people
below the age required by law are disenfranchised.
MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF LIMITED OR RESTRICTED FRANCHISE
1. Restricted franchise ensures that those who vote during elections are mature enough to
engage in decision making. Minors should not be allowed to vote because they may not
understand the reason why they are voting.
2. Those who are likely to make dangerous use of votes should be exempted from voting.
For example, people who are insane or criminals should be disenfranchised.
3. Limited or restricted franchise prevents a situation whereby a large number of people
contest elections which makes the conduct of it tedious and cumbersome.
Here, few people who qualify are allowed to contest an election which makes, its conduct less
stressful than unlimited franchise.

DISADVANTAGES OR DEMERITS OR ARGUMENTS AGAINST RESTRICTED

FRANCHISE
1. It may engender apathy on the part of the citizens. Political apathy may crop up. Thus,
those who are disqualified from voting may be what happens on the political scene.
2. The political rights of the people are trampled upon since they are exempted from voting.
3. Political education may be hampered because those who may be disqualified by the
system may not even listen to political programmes or issues.

UNRESTRICTED OR UNLIMITED FRANCHISE

Unrestricted franchise is a type of franchise whereby the right to vote is given to everybody in
the state without disqualifications.

UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

Universal adult suffrage is a type of franchise in which all qualified adult citizens of a state have
the right to vote irrespective of wealth, race, sex, creed, education and political organization.

QUALIFICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

1. The person must be a citizen of the state.
2. The person must have attained the stipulated voting age. For example, in Ghana. the
voting age is pegged at 18.
3. The person must have a sound mind.
4. The person must be a registered voter.

DISQUALIFICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

a. Lunatics: People who are not of a sound mind are disqualified from voting.

b. Failure to register: People who fail to register and for that matter do not have their names in
the voters’ register are also disqualified from voting.
c. Aliens/Foreigners People who are aliens or foreigners or are not citizens of a particular
country are also disqualified from voting during general election of that country.
d. Below voting age: People who are below the minimum age established by law to vote or be
voted for are disallowed from voting. For example, in Ghana before one can be registered to take
part the person should have a minimum age required age are prevented from registering and
voting.
MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

i). Universal Adult Suffrage ensures the participation of all qualified adults in the political
affairs of their country. Those elected under this franchise system therefore have legitimacy and
the mandate of the people to rule.

ii) Universal Adult Suffrage ensures accountability and responsibility on the part of the elected
officials since they are popularly elected by majority of the people. The electorate reserve the
right to vote out any elected official who fails to meet the needs and aspirations of the people.

iii) The principle of Universal Adult Suffrage provides an opportunity for the right of the people
to be protected. For instance, minority groups usually elect their own representatives into the
legislature to speak on their behalf.

iv) It enhances the practice of democracy. Universal adult suffrage enhances the practice of
democracy because it affirms the principle of ”one man-one vote which ensures equality in
voting.

v). It is personal injustice to withhold from anyone, unless for the prevention of greater evils,
certain privileges, in matters in which he has the same interest as other people, if he is compelled
to fight, if he is required to obey the laws of the state, then he should legally be entitled to
express his opinion through voting.

DEMERITS OR DISADVANTAGES OF UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

(i). The system may he tedious and cumbersome since all qualified adults are allowed to vote.

ii) Illiteracy on the part of the electorate may militate against the system since such people may
not understand the issues involved in order to make good decisions.

iii) Because the system allows all qualified adults to vote, competing candidates may adopt any
possible means to score political points. Electoral malpractices such as rigging, harassment and
violence may emerge which will affect the outcome of the election.

TYPES OF VOTING
(a). Prints voting: Voting by proxy implies caning a ballot on behalf

(b). Postal voting: Postal voting is a type of voting which permits registered waters residing
abroad to vote through the postal system.

(c), Plural voting: Plural voting is a type of voting which allows some voters toad more than
one vote. For example, this type of voting was enjoyed by highly and wealthy heads of families
in Belgium before 1921.

(d). Secret voting: Secrete voting is a type of voting by which voters show their supper for a
candidate through the ballot box without anybody knowing how a particular voter voted.
(e). A referendum is a democratic tool related to elections in which the electorate vote for or
against a specific constitutional provision usually those entrenched provisions, rather than for a
general policy or a particular candidate or party.

(0. Plebiscite: The plebiscite, like referendum, is whereby people vote on an issue referred to
them, but unlike referendum, it is a vote on some important issue rather than on law.

ADVANTAGES OF SECRET VOTING

1. It protects voters from intimidation and victimization: Secret voting or balloting
protects voters from possible intimidation and victimization since a voter’s choice is
known only to himself or herself. The voter is therefore free to vote the way he/ she likes.
2. It promotes high voter turnout: Secret voting promotes high voter turnout and therefore
discourages voter apathy. Because the vote is secret and fear of intimation is reduced,
people feel safe to exercise their franchise.

3. It is democratic: Secret voting is democratic because it preserves the political right of

the voter. The voter makes decision alone without coercion.
4. promotes representative government: Secret voting promotes representative
government since many people show interest and elect their representative to the
legislature or the executive.

DISADVANTAGES OF SECRET VOTING

1. It is expensive to operate: Secret voting is expensive to operate as compared to open
voting since money is required to print ballot papers and to purchase pooling or voting
booth for the conduct of the election.
2. It does not work well in a highly illiterate society: Where illiterate level is very high,
this system may pose a problem. ones may vote blindly since they cannot read. Many
wets may be tended Invalid because the voters may not even know bow to wee.
3. Is time consuming: Secret voting may he time consuming because a voter would have to
be in a long queue for those ahead of him to finish the laborious process involved in the
voting before it reaches him. This tendency at times induces apathy in voters.
4. Open voting: This is a type of voting by which voters show their support for a candidate
at an election by show of hands. Prospective legislators, agents or observers get to know
how a particular voter voted because of the absence of secrecy.

ADVANTAGES OF OPEN VOTING

1. It is less expensive to operate: Open voting is less expensive to operate as compared to
secret balloting because ballot papers and pooling booths may not be required to run this
system. Most at time, voters demonstrate their preference by just hand raising or voice
raising which costs nothing.
2. Suitable for illiterate society: The open balloting system is convenient to operate among
a bulk of illiterate population where voters cannot read and understand the process
involved in voting.
3. Reduces spoilt ballot papers: Fewer or no ballot is/are destroyed especially where
voting is done by voice or show of hands.
 4. Immediate release of results: In an open voting system, the votes are counted on the
spot and the results declared before everybody.

DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN BALLOTING/VOTING

i) It tends to promote voter apathy: Since voters are exposed to intimidation and harassment,
the fear involve may keep more people away from voting.

ii) It tends to encourage victimization: Open voting makes room for political victimization. A
victorious candidate can identify and punish those who failed to vote for him.
Results can be manipulated: Electoral officials could manipulate die of the election by
declaring false figures since there is no documented evident to show how the people voted.

iii) It is usually difficult to use in a densely populated areas: Open balloting system of voting
may be difficult to use in an area where the ►oter population is high especially where voting is
done by hand raising or voice. h would be difficult for the electoral officers to determine the
winner.

COMPULSORY VOTING
Compulsory voting is a voting system where all qualified citizens are required by law to vote
during public elections whether the person likes it or not. It is no longer in practice in modern
times.

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF COMPULSORY VOTING

1. Compulsory voting helps to overcome apathy and indifference on the part of the
individuals during voting. It compels people to be fully committed to the political system.
This helps to instil a deep sense of political consciousness in the people.
2. It reduces the burden of political parties because they do not have to campaign across the
country to encourage or convince people to vote. This is due to the fact that the law
makes it obligatory for all qualified citizens to vote in public elections whether they like
it or not.
3. Compulsory voting helps to confer legitimacy on the government. Since all qualified
citizens are obliged to vote, after the election who ever emerges as the winner is
considered as a legitimate ruler and the people comply or accept his decisions or orders.
4. It is argued that because voting is a duty of a citizen to the state, it is an incumbent upon
every citizen to vote during public elections.
5. Compulsory voting ensures that the right candidate is elected. Here, voting is by force so
those elected may indeed reflect the wishes of the majority of the people.

DEMERITS OR DISADVANTAGES OF COMPULSORY VOTING

Expensive to operate: When all qualified citizens are forced to vote, the cost involve will be
high. This is due to the fact that a huge sum of money will be needed to print ballot papers and to
provide pooling booths. Again, a lot of electoral officers will be employed to conduct the
electron who would all have to be paid. This can drain the economy of the country
Compulsory voting can lead to insincere toting If people are forced to vote irrespective of their
political decision, some may even decide to spoil the ballot or do other things that may mar the
integrity of the electoral process.
Voting is not a natural right but a political right: A person has liberty to vote or not to vote and
for that matter it will be an infringement of the person’s liberty if he is forced to vote.
Compulsory voting may persuade the government to think that the people are solidly behind it,
though in reality it may be different.

iv). It is argued that people who are ignorant about the issue at stake should not be compelled to
vote. If such people are allowed to vote it could put undeserving persons in position of trust.

IMPORTANCE OF VOTING
i. Voting helps to confer legitimacy on the government. Since all qualified citizens are allowed to
vote, after the election, whoever emerges as the winner is considered as a legitimate ruler and the
people comply or accept his decisions or orders.

ii. Voting provides opportunity for citizens to take part in the political process of their country

iii. Voting provides a mechanism for citizenry to be effectively represented in the political
system

REASONS WHY SOME PEOPLE ABSTAIN FROM VOTING

1. Some people abstain from voting when they do not find candidates and party manifestoes
appealing enough to them to enable them make any meaningful choice.
2. Some people abstain from voting because of ignorance and illiteracy. Some of these
people do not understand the issues involved in voting due to illiteracy and ignorance. If
the electoral commission and political parties fail to educate them some of them may not
even know the essence of voting.
3. Sometimes, some potential voters are legally disqualified due to the franchise, If
restricted franchise is used, some people may be based on issues such as race, sex, colour
and property.
4. Some people do not vote due to their religious practices or doctrine. example people who
attend Jehovah Witness church do not due to religious belief.
5. Some people fail to vote because of the confidence they have lost in leaders. When the
people put their trust in leaders because of the promise made by such people to better
their life and on the assumption of office there is great gap between expectations and
performance, it may deter them to vote in subsequent elections.

VOTING AGE
A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain to be eligible to vote
in a public election. In many democratic states, the voting age is pegged at 18 years.

REASONS OR ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF FIXING THE VOTING AGE AT 18

YEARS
i. Fixing the voting age at 18 years will enable a large number of people to take part in the
decision-making process of their country.

ii. Lowering the voting age to 18 years will help the youth to acquire political experience at an
early stage. It therefore helps to prepare the youth mentally and psychologically to take up future
positions in their country.

iii. Fixing the voting age at 18 years will enable a lot of people to express their views on matters
of public concern and to be actively involved in the political affairs of their country.

iv. Fixing the voting age at 18 years enables the youth to bring fresh ideas into politics.

v) It is argued that at the age of 18 years, students especially those in university understand state
policies and can make meaningful input towards nation building. They should therefore be
actively involved in the decision-making process of their country.

vi) Is argued that in many countries, people work and pay taxes at 18 years.
They also contribute to the maintenance of law and order in their countries.
In reciprocation of that the state should allow them to enjoy their civic right which includes the
right to vote.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST FIXING THE VOTING AGE AT 18 YEARS

i) Some people have strongly argued that at the age of IS years many people may not understand
the issues involved in voting and cannot therefore make any meaningful choice. To them, if such
people are allowed to vote, it may put undeserving persons in position of trust.

ii) Some people argue that when the voting age is pegged at 18 years, it will increase the voter
turn-out which will make the conduct of election tedious and cumbersome for the electoral
officials.

iii) A large voter turn-out due to the reduction of the voting age to 18 years may make the
government think that the people are solidly behind it, but in reality it may be different.

iv) It is argued that at the age of 18 years, some of the people especially the students among them
are not independent and depend on their guardians or parents for their needs. To them, such
people are not sufficiently experienced and matured enough to be engaged in serious decision
making- process of their country.

CONSTITUENCY
A constituency is an electoral district or area delineated for the purpose of elections.

TYPES OF CONSTITUENCY
Basically, there are two main types of constituencies. These are single-member constituency and
multi-member constituency.

THE SINGLE MEMBER CONSTITUENCY

In this system of constituency, roughly equal population are delimited throughout a country and
only one member of parliament is selected from each constituency. The candidate that obtains
the highest number of votes in the constituency wins the seat to represent the people in the
legislature. Ghana is one of the countries that use a single-member constituency.

MULTI -MEMBER CONSTITUENCY

This is a type of constituency which is essentially large in sin and as demarcated to return two or
more members to the legislature,

DELIMITATION OF ELECTORAL CONSTITUENCY

Delimitation of electoral constituency is the practice of dividing the whole country into
constituencies for holding elections.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT/INFLUENCE THE DELIMITATION OF A COUNTRY

INTO CONSTITUENCIES IN WEST AFRICA

i. The number of people living in a particular area: In demarcating a country into

constituencies, the area to be delimited must have a specific number of people which qualifies it
for constituency. Areas with a high population density like urban centres are usually allocated
more constituencies than less densely populated areas. This is done to ensure proportional and
equitable representation in the legislature.

ii. Geographical size: An area must attain a certain geographical size before it can be made a
constituency. The land must be vast with many villages affiliated to it with short distances
between them.

iii. Historical experience: In delimiting an area into constituencies, people with common
historical experiences should be considered and grouped together under the same constituency.

iv. Administrative convenience must be considered: There must be qualified and competent
personnel to manage the constituencies.

v. Constitution and electoral laws: Delimitation of an area into constituencies must be

supported by the constitution and the electoral laws of the state.

vi. Topography/accessibility: An area which is to be delimited as a constituency must be

accessible. The road leading to the place and communication network should be good enough to
ensure free and fair election.

vii. Similar customs, conventions, traditions and culture: in delimiting an area into
constituencies, people with similar customs, conventions, traditions and culture must be
considered and grouped together in the same constituency.
viii. Geographical proximity: In the delimitation of constituencies, the towns involved in the
constituency should not be separated by tall mountains, rivers,
forest etc. It must be accessible to the voters to high and to ensure free and fair elections.

ix. Geographical contiguity or nearness: The component sections of a constituency must be

close to one another.

PROBLEMS OF DELIMITATION IN WEST AFRICA

i. Gerrymandering: There is a problem of gerrymandering. This is where delimitations of

constituencies may be manipulated to give favour or an advantage to one political party in future
elections.

ii. Absence of accurate population census: Absence of accurate and reliable data to guide the
demarcation process undermines the delimitation of a country into constituencies in West Africa.

iii. Religious intolerance: The people in a constituency may be affiliated to different religions
and they may have difficulty tolerating one another.

iv. Absence of historical experiences: Delimitation of constituency works better in areas where
people have common historical experiences. If there is an absence of historical experiences. It
may make the groupings difficult for the electoral commission.

v. Inadequate trained manpower: Administrative convenience is considered when delimiting

an area into constituencies but in many West African countries, most of the areas do not have
qualified and competent personnel to manage the constituencies.

vii. Poor town planning: In many West African countries, towns are not planned well, buildings
are poorly arranged on the roads and streets which make delimitation difficult for the electoral
commission

viii. Inadequate means of transport and communication: In many West African countries,
most of the areas to be demarcated lack adequate means of transport and communication which
creates inconvenience in delimiting such areas as constituencies.

ix. Spatial dispersion of people: In many West African countries, many areas have people
spatially dispersed which make delimitation of such areas difficult for the electoral commission.

VOTERS REGISTER
The right of all adult citizens to participate in the affairs of their governance one of the
cornerstones of democracy. Perhaps the most fundamental forma participation is voting in free.
fair, and regular elections. For citizens to exercise their democratic right to vote, relevant
authorities need to establish a comprehends and inclusive voters’ list, also called a voters’
register.
REASONS WHY THE VOTER REGISTER MUST BE REVIEWED PERIODICALLY

i. To remove ghost names (deceased) from the register.

ii. To help those who have changed residence to transfer their votes to their new places
iii. To include those who are now eligible to vote. For example, those who had not attained the
voting age during the previous registration and are now qualified to register are included.
iv. To remove aliens (foreigners) whose names are found in the register from it.
 CHAPTER TWELVE
LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION:
MEANING:
(1). Local government can be described as a government at the grassroots level established by an
Act of Parliament to perform specific functions within its area of jurisdiction.

(2). Local government can also be explained as a sub- governmental body created by an Act of
Parliament to perform certain functions to support the central government.

(3). Local government is a semi- autonomous body established by an Act of Parliament to

provide political administration at the local level.

STRUCTURE OF GHANA’S LOCAL GOVERNMENT

-Ministry of local government: The apex of Ghana’s local government structure is the ministry
of local government headed by a minister who supervises and controls the whole local
government system with respect to management of finances and the performance of the
personnel.
-Regional coordinating council: Each of the ten regions in Ghana has a Regional Coordinating
Council. The Regional coordinating Council consists of the Regional Minister, Deputy Regional
Minister, all District Chief Executives, all presiding members of District Assemblies, two chiefs
appointed by the Regional House of Chiefs and the Regional heads of the decentralized
ministries without voting rights. The RCC is an administrative and coordinating body rather
than a political and policy making body. The Regional Coordinating Council monitors,
coordinates and evaluates the work of the District Assembly within the region to ensure
efficiency.

-Metropolitan/Municipal/ District Assemblies: For the purpose of local government Ghana has
been divided into Districts. Among the districts are:

i. Metropolis (Metropolitan Assembly); Area or district with a minimum of 250,000 people

e.g. Tema metropolis, Kumasi Metro, Tamale Metro etc

ii. Municipality: Area or district with a minimum of 95,000 people. E.g. (Thuasi Municipality,
Mampong Municipal. Bekwai Municipal, Agona Swedru Municipal Assembly, Ashaiman
Municipal. Adana Municipal. Savelugu Municipal, Bolgatanga Municipal etc

iii. District Assembly: Area or district with a minimum of 75,000 people. E.g. Adansi North
District Assembly. Sekyere South District Assembly. /woks Central, Gomoa East District, Atiwa
West District, Ketu North District, Nkwanta South District, Ahanta West District etc.

The political head of the district is the District Chief Executive ( ) or Municipal Chief Executive
(MCE) or Metropolitan Chief executive who shall be appointed by the president with approval
from not less than two-thirds majority of members of the Assembly present and voting at
meeting.

- Zonal Area/Area Council: The Zonal or area Council consists of not less than fifteen and not
more than twenty members made up of not more than five persons elected from among the
members of the relevant Assembly, not more than ten representatives from the Unit Committees
and not more than five persons resident in the area or zone.

- Unit committees: The lowest subdivision of the local government structure in Ghana is the
Unit Committees. The Unit Committee is made up of five elected members ordinarily resident in
the unit.

FUNCTIONS OR IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

i. It brings government nearer to the people: Local government brings government nearer to
the people at the grassroots. Local government provides an opportunity for the local people to
participate in the political system and processes of their country. It provides an opportunity for
the people to secure the services they need within the locality instead of travelling a long
distance to the national capital. This helps to reduce the problem of remoteness of the central
government.

ii. It educates the people: Local government helps in educating people at the grassroots about
the policies and actions of the central and state governments

iii. It provides social services to the people: Local government helps to provide social
services to the people at the grassroots. Local government is created or established to
provide essential social amenities such as hospitals, schools, clinics, and public places of
convenience to the people at the grassroots.

iv. Serves as a link between the people and the central government: local government serves
as a link between the people at the grassroots central government. They carry the petitions and
grievances of die people the central government whilst at the same time explain the rational
behind the central government policies to the people at the grass root.

v. Facilitates quick decision making: Local government facilitates quid decision making in
matters exclusive to it. Local governments are empowered to take decisions affecting their own
interest without going to the central government

(vi)Provides an opportunity for training future leaders: Local government encourages

leadership training at the grassroots since some Assemblymen may be elected to represent them
in parliament where their experience as Assemblymen will help them to perform their functions
effectively as parliamentarians.

vii) Promotes self governing: Local government allows indigenes of different local areas to
govern themselves according to their traditions and cultures.
viii) Helps in preserving the traditional institutions: Local government helps in preserving the
traditional institutions of the people in a locality or area. tie.

ix) Mobilization of resources: Local government helps to mobilize both human and material
resources in the local areas for development.

x) Maintenance of law and order: Local government helps in the maintenance of law and
order at the local level through the enactment and enforcement of bye-laws.

SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR LOCAL AUTHORITIES/LOCAL GOVERNMENT

i. District Assembly Common Fund (DACF)/Central government Grant: One major source
of revenue for all local governments in Ghana is the District Assembly Common Fund. It is one
of the provisions of the 1992 constitution of Ghana that parliament shall annually make provision
for the allocation of not more than five (5%) percent of the total revenue of Ghana to the District
Assembly for development. This amount is paid in quarterly instalment into the Fund. The
money is disbursed among all the Districts Assemblies according to the formula approved by
parliament.

ii. Rates: Rates form another reliable source of local revenue. The forms of rates are the
property rates, poll tax and special levy. Property rate are paid by land lords on the ownership of
a private building and pieces of land according to their assessed value. Poll-tax is a sum of
money which every person above eighteen years pays to his or her local authority despite his or
her income.

iii. Taxes levied on individuals: In countries like Ghana, taxes levied on individuals in the
form of market tolls, lorry park tolls, fines and fees from the courts, registration of marriages and
births all provide revenue to the local authorities.

iv. Loans: Local authorities may obtain loan from the financial institutions or the central
government with the approval of the central government to undertake certain projects. M.
v. Royalties: Royalties from timber firms and mining companies in the area of jurisdiction of
local governments constitutes another source of revenue to the local authority. For example,
Obuasi municipal Assembly obtains royalties from Anglo Gold Ashanti to undertake certain
projects in the area.

vi. Licenses: Local governments/authorities obtain revenue from licenses of hotels, drinking
bars, slaughter houses, taxis, bicycles, motor-bikes etc

vii. Engaging in profitable business ventures: Local authorities engage in profitable business
ventures or economic ventures to raise revenue. They can establish business ventures such as
hotels or guest houses, super-markets/stores, toilet, large scale farming, pure water production
and embark on transportation businesses to generate revenue for the locality.

viii. Gifts and donations: Gifts and donations from individuals, government and other corporate
organizations form another good source of revenue for local authorities or government.
WAYS BY WHICH THE REVENUE BASE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT/ AUTHORITY
CAN BE IMPROVED

(i). Enlighten citizens on their programmes: There should be public public

enlightenment.programmes on the activities of the local government. The people should be
enlightened on the programme of activities of the local government and the need for them to pay
taxes and lees to

ii) Collecting fees at convenient time: Efforts should he made to collect the most convenient
time of the local government. For example, in the Cocoa growing areas where most residents are
cocoa farmers, property rates can be collected during the harvest season. At the same time in
localities where people are salary earners such taxes and fees can be collected at the beginning of
the month when the workers are paid.

iii. increase in the grants from the central government: The grants from
central government must he increased and paid in bulk to enable the local government undertake
effective developmental projects in their localities.

iv. Efficiency of official: Local government officials should he made to be more

efficient in the collection of revenue. All the needed logistics needed to make their work
effective should he provided for them. Proper supervision must also be instilled.

v. Engaging in profitable business ventures: Local authorities should engage in profitable

business ventures. They can establish business ventures such as hotels or guest houses, toilet,
large scale farming, pure water production and embark on transportation businesses to generate
revenue for the locality.

vi. Improving the relationship between Local government and community

Local government and community relationship should be improved for better understanding in
the payment and collection of local government revenues.

vii. Corrupt revenue officials should be sanctioned: Severe punishment should

be given to people who embezzle or misappropriate the local government funds to serve as
deterrent to others.

viii. Constant auditing: There should be constant internal and external auditing
of the accounts of the local government to prevent misappropriation and embezzlement of local
government funds.

ix. Stringent punishment for fee defaulters: Severe punishment must be meted out to people
who default fees and other taxes.

x. Provision of incentives: Revenue collectors should be given adequate

incentives to motivate them. Revenue collectors should be well paid. They should he provided
with motor bikes to facilitate their movement so that they can go to any place allocated to them
to collect taxes and levies. Award scheme must be set up for those people who are able to set
revenue target in certain respective areas to boost the morale of the collectors.

CONTROL OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES

i. Legislative control: Local authorities arc established by an Act of parliament.

The Act defines the powers, functions as well as their limitations. the local authorities are
expected to operate within the framework of the law the byelaws made by local authorities are
subject to legislative approval because their powers to make bye- laws are delegated. Again, the
financial needs of the local governments (e.g. the District Assembly Common Fund) are
determined and approved by parliament.

ii. Executive or ministerial control: Local authorities are also controlled by

the executive. The minister of local government supervises the administrative set up and finances
of the local authorities. For example, the minister of local government may be empowered by
law to examine and approve the loans and projects of the local authorities before they implement
them. The minister has power to investigate the financial administration of local authorities when
the need arises to check embezzlement and misappropriation of funds.

iii. Judicial control: Another body that controls the local authorities is the judiciary. Local
authorities are corporate bodies with legal entities and therefore subject to the ordinary law of the
land. The courts are empowered to declare the activity of local government null and void if it
contravenes the statutory powers granted to them or when they abuse their powers.

iv. Public control: The general public can also control the local authorities by criticizing any
form of misappropriation of funds or poor performance of the local government units. They
sometimes express their disgust through demonstrations.

v. Financial control: The finance of the local authorities is subject to both internal and external
auditing. The internal audit units established within local governments check the expenditure of
officials. On behalf of the central government, the Auditor General audits the accounts of local
authorities to check embezzlement, misappropriation of funds and fraud. Those found to have
engaged in financial irregularities are sometimes suspended, dismissed or prosecuted in the law
courts.
 PROBLEMS FACING LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ADMINISTRATION OR LOCAL
AUTHORITIES
i. Inadequate qualified and trained personnel: The right caliber personae and expertise to
administer the local areas are sometimes not easily ’matured due to poor condition of service of
the staff The works of the local areas therefore left in the hands of people with low technical
knowhow resulting in low output and mismanagement of the localities.

ii. Financial constraints: Another major problem facing local government’s administration in
Ghana and other West African countries is lack of funds to undertake its programmes and
policies. Some of these localities depend solely on grants from the central government which are
woefully inadequate to meet their demands. Again, some of the local governments have
difficulties in collecting local levies, market toils and other fees since people are not willing to
pay. To add to that, local authorities are not able to raise substantial loans from financial
institutions because of the high interest rate charged on these loans.

iii. Political interference: Another problem confronting local governments or authorities is

political interference. The central government may unduly interfere with the administration of
the locality. Frequent central government control deprives the local governments of the needed
independence for local self government, thereby killing local initiative, interest and pride of local
government affairs.

(iv). Misappropriation of financial resources: Misappropriation of funds and embezzlement is

also a problem facing most local authorities. Some of the staff recruited at the local areas use
the opportunity given to them to mismanage and embezzle huge sum of money belonging to the
local authorities thereby rendering the localities ineffective.

(v). Bribery and corruption: Most local governments or authorities in Ghana and many West
African countries are accused of bribery and corruption. Some of them take money and other
items from people before public contracts are awarded to contractors. The right caliber
contractors are therefore not obtained Leading to shoddy work in the local areas.

(vi). Nepotism and tribalism: Local authorities in Ghana and many West Africa are also
accused of tribalism and favouritism in the recruitment of staff into the local council offices.
Appointments, promotions and transfer of local council staff are made on tribal lines in many
cases rather than on merit. This accounts for inefficiency and poor administration within the
local authorities.

vii. Negative work attitude: Some local authority employees regard their job as ”government
work” and therefore show poor work attitude towards it. Lateness, absenteeism and lack of
commitment to duty are common because of the perception that the work belongs to the
government.

viii. Lack of logistics: Some of the local governments or authorities lack logistics such as
vehicles, motor bikes. computers, etc needed effective administration.
WAYS BY WHICH THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT CAN IMPROVE UPON LOCAL
GOVERNMENT SYSTEM IN WEST AFRICA

i. Appointment of qualified and competent local government personnel:

The central government should appoint competent, trained and qualified personnel to administer
the local government affairs. The local government must be managed by right caliber personnel
and experts to bring about higher output. The appointment of personnel into the local
government should be based on meritocracy.

ii. Provision of adequate logistics for local authorities: The central government can improve upon
local government system in West Africa by providing them with adequate logistics such as
vehicles, computer facilities and furniture. Providing this logistics will help promote efficiency
and effectiveness in the local government.

iii. Increasing central government grants to local authorities: The central government grants that
is allocated to the local government authorities for developmental projects must be increased and
must be paid in bulk. If enough grants are provided by the central government, the local
government authorities could use it to provide social amenities such as portable drinking water,
modern hospitals, good classroom blocks and other recreational facilities. This will help improve
the living condition of the people in the local areas.

iv. Minimizing central government interference and partisanship in local government

administration: Undue political interference in the day to day affairs of the central government
in local government activities should be avoided. Though, the central government is expected to
control the activities of the local government, frequent central government control deprives the
local government authorities the needed independence for local self- thereby killing local
initiative, interest and pride.

v. Evolving an action plan: The ministry of local government should evolve an action plan local
authorities to generate revenue internally. The bed authorities should be made to engage in
profitable business ventures such operating hotels, guest houses, large scale farming. pure water
production: to generate revenue internally to support the local government programmes and
projects.

vi. Improving service conditions/Motivation of local government employees:

The central government should improve on the service conditions of local government workers
in order to attract highly skilled personnel.

vii. Internal and external auditing: Local Government system in West Africa can be improved
through periodic internal and external auditing of the accounts of the local authorities. Effective
periodic auditing of the accounts of local authorities will help check embezzlement and
misapplication of local government funds.

viii. Providing refresher courses for local authorities: The central government can improve
upon the local government system in West Africa by providing enough funds to organize
refresher courses and in-service training for local government workers. Organizing refresher
courses and in-service training for local government workers will help the workers to be abreast
with the current trends and to stand the test of time. It will also help boost productivity.

ix. Effective monitoring/supervision: The central government can improve upon the local
government system in West Africa through effective ministerial control to avoid
misappropriation and misapplication of funds.

x. Election of District Assembly members: District Assembly members should not be

appointed but should be democratically elected by the people in the various local government
areas. If the people in the local levels are actively involved in the selection of the District
Assembly members, those elected will serve the interest of the people rather than their own
parochial interests.

DISTRICT ASSEMBLY
District Assemblies are sub-national administrative structures provided for under the 1992
constitution and an Act of Parliament to ensure effective local governance and decentralization.
Among the districts are:

i) Metropolis (Metropolitan Assembly): Area or district with a minimum of 250,000 people.

Examples include, Tema metropolis, Kumasi Metro, Tamale Metro, Cape Coast Metro, Sekondi-
Takoradi Metro, Accra Metro etc.

ii) Municipality: Arca or district with a minimum of 95,000 people. Examples include, Obuasi
Municipality, Mampong Municipal, Bekwai Municipal, Jacobu Central etc.

iii. District Assembly: Area or district with a minimum of 75000 people. E.g.Adansi North
District Assembly, Sekyere South District, etc
The political head of the district is the District Chief Executive (DCE) or the Municipal Chief
Executive (MCE) or Metropolitan Chief executive who by president with approval from not less
than two-thirds majority the Assembly present and voting at meeting.
-Zonal Area/Area Council and Unit Committees: The local government (urban zonal, area
council and unit committees) Establishment instrument L11589 has also been issued to establish
these sub-district structures. The lowest in the hierarchy is the Unit Committee.

COMPOSITION OF THE DISTRICT ASSEMBLY

District Assembly consists of the following members:
i. One person from each local government electoral area within the District elected by universal
adult suffrage.

ii. The District chief Executive (DCE) for the district or Municipal Chief Executive (MCE) for
the municipal assembly or municipalities and metropolitan chief Executive for the metropolis or
metropolitan Assembly.

iii. The member or members of parliament from the constituencies that fall with the area of
authority of the District Assembly as members without the right to vote.
iv. Other members not being more than thirty percent (30%) of all the members of the District
Assembly, appointed by the president in consultation with the traditional authorities and other
interest groups in the district.

QUALIFICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP INTO A DISTRICT ASSEMBLY IN GHANA

1. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must have from the area and
also resided in the area for a period of time. At least the person must have lived in the
area for five years.
2. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must be a citizen of Ghana.
One qualifies to be a member of the District Assembly if he is a citizen of Ghana either
by birth, adoption or naturalization.
3. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must be a registered voter. One
qualifies to be a member of the District Assembly it’ he or she is a registered voter who
can vote during general election of his or her country.
4. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must be at least 18 years of age.
The person should be 18 years or more
5. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must be of sound mind. The
person must be able to reason up well.
6. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly should not be a criminal or a
declared wanted person.
7. A person seeking membership into the District Assembly must have fulfilled all tax
obligations. A person qualifies to be a member of the District Assembly if he has fulfilled
all his tax obligations to the state or has made arrangement satisfactorily to the
appropriate authority for the payment of his taxes.

THE DISTRICT CHIEF EXECUTIVE (DCE)

Every district has District Chief Executive (DCE) appointed by the president with prior approval
of not less than two- thirds majority of the members of the Assembly present and voting.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DISTRICT CHIEF EXECUTIVE

i) The District Chief Executive presides at meetings of the Executive Committee of the
Assembly.
ii) The District Chief Executive is responsible for the day-to-day performance of the executive
and administrative functions of the District Assembly.
iii) The District Chief Executive is the chief representative (political head) of the Central
Government in the district.
PRESIDING MEMBER
All the District Assemblies haw presiding members, the pleading member is elected by the
Assembly from among its members The member elected by at least two-thirds majority of all the
members of the Assembly.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESIDING MEMBER

i) The presiding member presides over the meeting of the Assembly
ii) The presiding member is the spokesperson of the district.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF DISTRICT ASSEMBLIES

i) Implementation of government policies: District Assemblies are charged with the
responsibility of implementing government policies. District Assemblies coordinate, integrate
and harmonize the execution of programmes and projects under approved development plans for
the district, any and other development programmes promoted or carried out by Ministries.
departments. public corporations and any other statutory bodies and non-governmental
organizations in the districts.
ii) Enactment of bye-laws: District Assemblies enact and enforce bye- laws to regulate the
behaviour of people and institutions within the districts
iii) Maintenance of security: District Assemblies are responsible, in cooperation with the
appropriate national and local security agencies, for the maintenance of security and public
safety in the district.
iv) Promote political participation: District Assemblies provide opportunity at the grassroots
for political participation. District Assemblies allow people at the local level to take active part in
the decision making process of their country.
v) Ensuring effective mobilization of resources: District Assemblies formulate and execute
plans, programmes and strategies for the effective mobilization of the resources necessary for the
overall development of the districts
vi) Initiate programmes for the development of basic infrastructure: District Assemblies
initiate programmes for the development of basic infrastructure such as good roads, providing
school building and hospitals and provide municipal works and services in the district $010.
Vii) Responsible for the overall development of the district: District Assemblies are
responsible for the overall development of the district and ensure the preparation of development
plans of the district as well as the annual and medium term budgets of the district related to as
plans.
viii) Exercise political and administrative authority in the district: District assemblies
exercise political and administrative authority in the district, provide guidance, give direction to,
and supervise the other administrative authorities in the districts.

ix. Promote and support productive activity and social development in the district: District
Assemblies help to promote and support productive activity and social development in the
districts and remove any obstacles to initiative and development.

x. Management of human settlements: District Assemblies are responsible for the

development. improvement and management of human settlements and the environment in the
district.

CHALLENGES OR PROBLEMS FACING DISTRICT ASSEMBLIES IN GHANA

i. Inadequate qualified and trained personnel: The right calibre personnel and expertise to
administer the District Assemblies in Ghana are sometimes not easily procured due to poor
condition of service of the staff The works of the District Assemblies are therefore left in the
hands of people with low technical Knowhow resulting in low output and mismanagement of the
Assemblies.

ii. Inadequate revenue base: Another major problem facing District Assemblies administration
in Ghana and other West African countries is inadequate revenue base to undertake its
programmes and policies. Some of the District Assemblies in Ghana have difficulties in
collecting local levies, market tolls and other fees since people are not willing to pay. This
derails the effectiveness of the Assemblies in undertaking its numerous projects.

iii). Political interference: Another problem confronting District Assemblies in Ghana is

political interference. The central government may unduly interfere with the administration of
the various District Assemblies in Ghana. Frequent central government control deprives the
local Assemblies the needed independence for local self-government, thereby killing local
initiative, interest and pride of the District Assemblies.

iv) Misappropriation of financial resources: Misappropriation of funds and embezzlement is

also a problem facing District Assemblies Some of the staff recruited to man the work of the
Dual so Assemblies at times take the opportunity given to them to mismanage and embezzle
huge sum of money belonging to the District Assemblies thereby rendering the Assemblies
ineffective.

v. High level corruption: Some District Assemblies in Ghana and many West African countries
are accused of bribery and corruption. Some of them take money and other items from people
before public contracts are awarded to contractors. The right calibre contractors are therefore not
obtained leading to shoddy work in the local areas.

vi. Nepotism and tribalism: District Assemblies in Ghana and many West Africa countries arc
also accused of tribalism and favouritism in the recruitment of staff into the local council offices.
Appointments, promotions and transfer of local council staff are made on tribal lines in many
cases rather than on merit. This accounts for inefficiency and poor administration within the
District Assemblies.

(vii). Negative work attitude/Non-challant attitude of staff: Some District Assembly

employees regard their job as ”government work” and therefore show poor work attitude
towards it. Lateness, absenteeism and lack of commitment to duty are common because of the
perception that the work belongs to the government.

viii). Inadequate logistics: Some of the District Assemblies are faced with inadequate logistics
like vehicles, motorbikes etc. to foster the work of the District Assemblies and to attract qualified
staff to work in the decentralized departments.

ix. Inadequate motivation on the part of the staff: The right calibre personnel and expertise to
administer the District Assemblies in Ghana are sometimes not easily procured due to inadequate
motivation on the part of the staff.

x. Inability to manage waste effectively: Some of the District Assemblies in Ghana are not able
to manage waste effectively. Wastes are disposed anyhow which at times result in outbreak of
diseases such as cholera and malaria.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN

THE PUBLIC SERVICE, CIVIL SERVICE AND

REGULATORY AGENCIES
PUBLIC SERVICE: Public service refers to all service organizations that are created to render
specific essential services on behalf of government. Employees of public services are recruited
by government and paid from the consolidated fund.

The public services in Ghana according to Article 190 of the 1992 constitution include the
Civil service, the Judicial Service, the Audit Service, the Educations Service, the Prison Service,
the Parliamentary Service, the Health Service, the Statistical Service, the National Fire Service,
the Customs, Excise and Preventive Service, the Internal Revenue Service, the Police Service,
the Immigration Service and the Legal Service.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

The public service commission is an independent body appointed by the government under the
constitution to supervise the operation of the various public services including the civil service.

COMPOSITION OF THE COMMISSION

It is the constitution that prescribes the membership of the commission. Its membership includes
a chairman, a vice chairman, and three other members who are all full-time members of the
Commission. Others are the chairman of the National Council of Tertiary Education, three others
with extensive experience in the operation of the public service.

The commission is directly responsible to the cabinet in matters relating to appointments,

promotions, dismissals and discipline within the public service since it is part of the executive.

LIMITATIONS OF MEMBERSHIP INTO THE COMMISSION

According to the 1992 Constitution of Ghana, a person shall not be qualified to be a member of
the Public Service Commission.

(a). If he is not qualified to be elected as a member of parliament.

(b). If he is otherwise disqualified from holding public office.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

i. Recruitment of personnel into the civil services: The Public Service Commission is
responsible for recruiting personnel into the various civil services. This recruitment is done
through competitive examinations and interviews.

ii. Advisory body: The commission serves as an advisory body to the government on a wide
range of matters relating to the administration of the public service. For example. the Public
Service Commission advices the government on criteria for appointing public officers.
iii. Promotions: The commission secs to the promotion and upgrading of its members. It
formulates guidelines for the promotion of personnel within the public service.

iv. Discipline of personnel: The commission maintains high standard discipline among its
members. It is empowered to discipline any member who goes contrary to the rules and
regulations governing public service. The discipline could take the form of suspension,
dismissal, transfers and demotions.

v. Attending to the welfare of personnel: The commission ensures the welfare of personnel of
the public service by way of improvement in their remunerations and conditions of service as
well as resolving the grievances or petitions of the personnel.

vi. Review of organization structure and manpower requirement: The Public Service
Commission (NC) is required in its enabling Act (Act 42) to review organization structures and
manpower requirements of agencies and bodies in the public service.

vii. Establishes standards and guidelines: The Public Service Commission (PSC) establishes
standards and guidelines on the terms and conditions of employment in the public services
CIVIL SERVICE
The civil service is a supportive institution under the executive arm of government responsible
for designing, formulation and implementation of government policies.

Civil servants are employees of the state who help ministers or political appointees to manage
governmental ministries. departments, and agencies whose services are not consumed directly by
the members of the public. The chief Director. principal secretary and all other ranks within the
ministries, Districts and Regional administrative offices are all civil servants.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

There are five classes or grades in the civil service arranged hierarchically. They are the
administrative class, the professional class, the executive class, the clerical class and the
messenger’s class

i. Administrative Class: The apex of all the classes is the administrative class. The
administrative class is opened to university graduates who are recruited through competitive
examination. A good example is the Chief Director in the ministries. Members of this class assist
ministers to formulate policies. They also advice the ministers on policy matters.

ii.The Professional Class: Below the administrative class is the professional class. This class
consists of doctors, architects, lawyers, engineers. They advise the government on technical
matters.

iii. The Executive Class: The executive class comes after the professional class. The highest
rank is the Chief Executive Officer. Recruitment into this class is based on qualifications,
competitive examinations and interviews. Members of the executive class help to execute or
implement policies which have been approved by the ministry in which they are employed.

iv. The clerical class: This class is made up of clerical officers, typist, account clerks and others
employed to perform secretarial duties. Qualification of members into this class is usually
SSSCE or ’0’ level certificate. Members of this class perform a number of routines works such
as record keeping, typing, checking forms and collecting information.

v. Messenger Class: The last class on the hierarchy is the messenger class or labour force class
consisting of carpenters, painters, drivers, cleaners and security men. •

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF CIVIL SERVICE

i) Permanence: The Civil Service is a permanent organization whose staff remain in office
permanently despite the frequent changes in government. A minister’s office is temporal. He
comes and leaves office depending upon the success or failure of his party in elections. Civil
servants remain permanently office until they reach retirement or they are fired. The security of
tenure enjoyed by civil servants is to enable them acquire sufficient experience with which they
will be able to advise incoming politicians or ministers.
ii. Anonymity: The civil service is characterized by the principle of anonymity. Civil Servants
arc anonymous in the sense that while the political head of a ministry is known to the public, the
civil servant identity is unknown. Civil servants have hidden or undisclosed identity to the public
for the effect of the policy advice they offer to the politicians or ministers. The minister remains
constitutionally responsible for his or her ministry to parliament. If something is wrong in his
ministry, he has to give satisfactory account of it even if he is not personally responsible. All
blames or praises are given to the minister since he is known to the public.

iii. Political Neutrality (non-partisan): Another characteristic of civil service non-partisan

nature or political neutrality of the staff Civil servants not permitted by the ethics of their
profession to take part in active party politics such as organizing political party rallies, contesting
elections, mounting political party platforms, wearing party T-shirt, making statements or doing
act which will openly demonstrate their support for a particular political party unless they resign
their appointment.

iv. Impartiality: The civil servants are expected to be impartial or unbiased in the discharge of
their duties at all times. They must behave like hospital blanket which does not complain but
accepts all patients irrespective of any ailment that have affected them. They are the servants of
the state and as such they would not allow their party affiliations to influence their work. They
must faithfully serve all parties that come into power whether their favourites or not.

v. Secrecy: The work of the civil service involves the handling of very important or delicate
information on government activities, policies and programmes as well as other secret
information about the state which are classified. The civil servants are therefore made to swear
an oath not to disclose such vital information for public consumption.
 vi) Hierarchical conformation: The civil service is hierarchically structured. Thus, it is
arranged in classes or levels with some at top and others at the bottom. The staff at the bottom
take instructions from their superiors at the top.

vii. Professional or expertise: Bureaucracies are professionally trained and are also experts in
administration who go about their work with greater competence and expertise. This stems from
the mode of their recruitments which is based on merits rather than on patronage or any other
party considerations.

IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL NEUTRALITY AND ANONYMITY OF THE CIVIL

SERVICE
i). Total loyalty is needed to achieve government policies and programmes and therefore civil
servants should always remain non-partisan or politically neutral. The principle ensures that
irrespective of whatever party the civil servant supports, he serves the ruling government
diligently and with the maximum loyalty and allegiance.

ii) The civil servants are relatively permanent as compared to the political heads, and therefore
work with different governments at different times. Hence, there is the need for total
commitment and political neutrality to all governments.

(iii). The civil servant is expected to be an expert who always remains in an advisory position to
the political heads hence there is the need for neutrality to all governments.

iv) Civil Servants are made to be anonymous so that they cannot be influenced by people to leak
delicate information for public consumption.

v). The principle ensures stability and continuity in a state. This is due to the fact that whenever
there is a change of government, civil servants remain in office to continue the process of
government until new government is put place.

vi). The principle of political anonymity helps to make ministers or the government who are
elected by the electorate to be responsible to the electorate for their policies. The minister
remains constitutionally responsible for his or her ministry to parliament and the electorate as a
whole. If something goes wrong in his or her ministry, he has to give satisfactory account of it
even if he is not personally responsible. All blames or praises are given to the minister since he is
known to the public.

vii) The civil servants arc expected to be impartial or unbiased in the of their duties at all times.
This makes them to faithfully serve all panics that come into power whether their favourites or
not.

MEASURES THAT CAN BE PUT IN PLACE TO MAKE THE CIVIL SERVICE NON-
PARTISAN
i) Civil servants must be appointed strictly through examinations and interviews conducted by
the Public Service Commission. Civil servants must not be appointed on party lines or
considerations but those who really excel in the exams and interviews that are conducted by the
Public Service Commission.

ii). Civil servants who want to engage in active partisan politics must be made to resign. Civil
servants who want to engage themselves in active partisan politics must resign honourably. For
example, in Ghana Alhaji Jawura resigned as a civil servant when he decided to engage in active
partisan politics.

iii). The Public Service Commission must apply impartial rules to transfers, promotions and
dismissal of public servants. The laid down rules associated with transfers, promotions and
dismissal of public or civil servants must be strictly followed by the Public Service Commission
and must be applied to all manner of persons equally. There shouldn’t be any form of
discrimination in the application of rules.

iv). Civil servants should be conversant with and adhere to the General Orders and Code of
conduct. The General orders and code of conduct for members of civil servants must be made
known to them and if possible, all civil servants must be issued with copies to serve as a guide to
them when discharging their duties.

v). Patronage and sponsorship by politicians should be avoided. Under no circumstance should
civil servants allow politicians to sponsor them in any means if they want to be non-partisan. If
civil servants seek sponsorship from politicians they may be influenced by such people.

vi) Periodic civic education on the role of the civil service as a neutral and impartial body
serving any government that comes into power must be provided. This will help serve as a
reminder to them whenever they are deviating from their core mandate and the rules that govern
them.

vii) Permanence of Appointment: Civil servants must be appointed permanently in office until
they reach retirement or fired. The security of tenure enjoyed by civil servants is to enable them
acquire sufficient experience with which they will be able to advise incoming politicians or
ministers.

FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL SERVICE OR SERVANTS

i) Assists in the formulation public policies: The civil servants assist ministers or political
heads to formulate good policies. The administrative class also advice ministers on policy
matters.

ii) Implementation of public policies and decisions: Civil servants have duty of implementing
the policies and decisions that have been approved their ministers or governments. They also
monitor and evaluate government policies to find out whether there is a need to modify or vary
its means implementation in order to ensure efficiency.

iii) Supervises agencies: Civil servants perform supervisory role of other agencies such as
financial institutions, public corporations, local government authorities and the private sector in
relation to the economic and social activities within the state.

iv) Preparation of speeches and answering parliamentary questions: Civil servants prepare
speeches and answer parliamentary questions for their ministers to be used in parliament and
other public gatherings.

v). Ensures continuity in government: Civil service ensures continuity in government.

Governments come and go when their tenure of office end or when they are voted out of power
but civil service remain permanently to help in administering the state whether there is a
government or not.

vi) Employment: The civil service provides employment to vast number of people in the state.

vii) Negotiate treaties and agreements: Civil servants negotiate treaties and agreements on
behalf of the government.

viii) Serves as a link between the people and the government: The civil servants serve as an
intermediary between the government and the members of the public. For example, the civil
servants enlighten the general public on government policies. The views of the people are also
carried to the government.

ix) Conducting Research: The civil servants carry out considerable research into issues
affecting the state and help find solution to address those issues. They also conduct research on
the kind of policy to formulate and developmental projects to be put in place by the government.

x) It provides experts advice on government policies and programmes: Members of the civil
service especially the administrative class members provide expert advice to ministers on policy
matters.

xi) Drafting of bills: The civil service helps the government to prepare and draft new legislation
before it is taking to the legislature for consideration or approval.

xii) Keeping records and files: Civil servants have the responsibility of keeping records and
files of the state for future purposes. Some of these documents are very vital and for that matter
civil servants are guided by their code of conduct not to leak such information for public
consumption.

PROBLEMS OF CIVIL SERVICE

The civil service in Ghana and other West African countries are faced with a number of
problems. These include:

i) Inadequate qualified or trained personnel: In West Africa, most of the Civil Service fail to
attract qualified or trained personnel. This is due to unattractive or relatively low salaries or the
absence of motivational packages for civil servants. Lack of qualified personnel of the right
calibre produces inefficiency and poor administration
ii) Political interference: One major problem confronting Civil Service in West Africa is
political interference in the work and appointments of civil servants. Most appointments,
promotions and transfers in the civil service are influenced by political heads. Undue political
control and interference kill initiative within the service. Also, if politically appointed civil
servants are placed above career and better qualified Civil Servants it will affect morale and
discipline within the service.

iii) Bribery and corruption: The civil services in many West African countries are accused of
bribery and corruption. Many civil servants take money and other items from people before
attending to their needs or process their documents for them. Some senior civil servants also take
bribes before public contracts are awarded to contractors.

iv) Poor remuneration: The morale of civil servants is low. is because of lack of incentives, low
salaries and poor condition of service. Many professors are not attracted into civil service
because of their poor condition of say we.

v). Nepotism and tribalism: The civil se vice in Was Africa is accused of tribalism and
favouritism in the recruitment of staff into the service. Appointments, promotions and transfer of
civil savants are made on tribal lines in many cases rather than on merit. This accounts for
inefficiency and poor administration within the civil service.

vi) Overstaffing: In West Africa, overstaffing of personnel in the civil service hampers the
effective functioning of the civil service. Most of the workers go to their place of work-to-work
lotto, read newspapers. eat and drink and return to their destinations. Low or no productivity
comes from them but they are all paid at the end of the month.

vii) Negative work attitude: Many civil servants regard their job as government work” and
therefore show poor working attitude towards it. Lateness. absenteeism and lack of commitment
to duty are common because of the perception that the work belongs to the government.

Inadequate materials: Some of the Civil service/servants do not have adequate materials, tools
and equipment to work with. This also accounts for low productivity in the civil service.

BUREAUCRACY: Bureaucracy is a pattern of administration by the governments departments

in which complicated official routine is observed in carrying out responsibilities.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC SERVICE AND CIVIL SERVICE

i) A public service is managed by members of Board of Directors while the civil service or
ministry is managed by a minister advised by a permanent secretary (Director General)

ii)The administrative head of the public service is the General Manager while that of the civil
service is the Director General.

iii) While workers of a public service are appointed or employed by the Board of Directors, those
of civil service are employed by the Public Service Commission.
iv) While a public service does not pay its revenue into the consolidated fund, a civil service
does.

v) A chairman acts as the political head of a public service while a Minster the political head of
the civil service.

vi) While a public service provides social services and amenities, a ministry civil service
performs administrative functions.

vii) Employees of civil service are called civil servants whilst those of public service are called
public servants.

REGULATORY AGENCIES
Regulatory agencies are institutions or bodies established to monitor and check the activities of
service providers for quality, safety, and efficiency e.g. Ghana Standard Authority, Public Utility
Regulatory Commission, Food and Drugs Authority.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

PUBLIC CORPORATION

A public corporation is an enterprise established by an Act of Parliament to provide certain

essential services to the people at a reduced cost_ OR

A public corporation is a statutory body established by an Act of parliament to render certain

essential social services to the populace at a minimum cost. It is a corporate body which can sue
and be sued. Examples of public corporation in Ghana are the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation
(GBC) and Ghana National Petroleum Authority (G.N.P.A).

KINDS OF PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

There are two main kinds of public corporations. These are the non-commercial (service type)
and the commercial type.

The Service Type: These include those corporations established to provide essential services for
both domestic and industrial use. They are purely service -oriented and profit making is not of a
high motive in their operation. Examples in Ghana include, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation and
State Housing Corporation.

The Commercial Type: These include public corporations set up to generate profit for the state.
They are purely commercial in nature with profit motivation. Examples of these corporations in
Ghana include Ghana Commercial Bank, The State Transport Corporation, Ghana International
Airlines and the State Hotels Corporation.
FEATURES /CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

i) Ownership: Public corporations may be fully owned by the state or jointly owned by the state
and private organizations/individuals. Examples of public corporations that are fully owned by
the state in Ghana arc the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation and Ghana National Petroleum
Authority. Examples of public corporations that are jointly owned in Ghana are the Ashanti
Goldfields Corporation and Ghana International Airline.

ii) Statutory bodies: Public corporations are statutory bodies created by either Act of parliament
or Military decree enacted by military juntas. The statutes which set them up specify their
powers and their mode of operation. They are expected to operate within the framework of the
law

iii) Management: Public corporations are managed by Board of Directors appointed by the
government. The Board of Directors supervise the activities of the corporations. The general
policies of public corporations are determined by Board of Directors. Ministers arc given the
power to issue general policy directions but the day-to-day administration of the corporation is
done by the management because undue intervention by the minister could tend to destroy the
corporation’s commercial freedom of action.

iv) Body corporate status: A public corporation assumes body corporate status.
That is, it has legal personality status. it is thus regarded as a separate entity for legal purposes. It
therefore has the capacity or power to sue and be sued. It can enter into contract and acquire
property on its own. This status normally gives such entities greater freedom to make contract,
acquire and dispose of property than ordinary government department.

v) Employee status: In majority of cases, the employees of public corporations Are not civil
servants; they are rather public servants who are recruited and remunerated under terms and
conditions determined by the corporation itself. Such conditions are however governed by
Public Service Act.

vi) Administration: The day-day administration or business of the corporation is done by a

management team headed by the Chief Executive Officer also known as Managing Director or
the Executive Director.

vii). Funding: Except for the initial appropriation (seed capital) which is used to establish it and
in some cases annual appropriations and subventions, it is usually and independently financed. It
can finance its operations by borrowing from the public vault or from the treasury or from the
sale of its products. It is authorized to use and raise its revenue or plough back its profit to
expand its operational capacity.

(viii). Government control: Government acting through the sector ministries exercises full
control over the operations of public corporations that fall under their respective ministries. The
government may define their mission as state institution and issue directives that will help them
to fulfill the broad national objectives.
IMPORTANCE OR REASONS FOR ESTABLISHING PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

i) Provision of essential services: Public corporations arc established certain essential services to
the people at relatively cheaper cost especially, areas where private investors could not get the
needed capital, technology expertise to undertake. E.g. liquefied petroleum gas, Electricity etc.

ii) To provide employment: The government at times establishes son corporations with the pure
motive of creating jobs to a number of people to reduce unemployment rate in the country. For
example, the establishment Ghana Broadcasting Corporation has provided employment to many
people.

iii) Generation of revenue: Public corporations such as Ghana Commercial Bank provide
revenue or capital for the government which can used to boost the economy.

iv) Preventing undue exploitation: Public corporations are established to prevent undue
exploitation of the public by a few. Certain goods and services such as liquefied petroleum gas,
electricity and water are so essential to the public that their supply cannot be left completely in
the hands of private entrepreneurs for fear of possible exploitation of the public

v) For strategic and defence considerations: Public corporations are also established to
undertake strategic projects for security reasons. Certain industries like arm production industry
must be fully owned and controlled by the state for the purpose of security.

vi) For accelerating economic development and industrial growth: Public corporations are
set up to help accelerate economic develop’ industrial growth in a state by capturing what is
referred to as ’the commanding heights of the economy in certain vital areas such as oil
production and mining.

vii) To ensure even development/desire to achieve regional balance: Public corporations may
be set up to ensure even economic development in a country. It was based upon this that various
regional development corporation were set up in Ghana in the 1970’s,

viii) To enjoy economies of scale: The state at times takes advantage of the large capital at the
government’s disposal and establishes large scale firms. The largeness of the enterprises enables
it to enjoy internal economies of scale and use nation’s scarce resources efficiently.

CONTROL OF PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

Public corporations are controlled in many ways. These include:
(i). Legislative control: Public corporations arc established by a statute or law and should
therefore operate within the provisions of the law which established them. The legislature
controls public corporations by either increasing or reducing the powers and functions allocated
to them. The legislature is empowered by the constitution to end the operation of a public
corporation if its activities do not produce the set goals and objectives.
ii) Judicial control: The courts are empowered to determine whether a corporation
is operating within its limits of powers and functions as provided by law. This could be
determined when an individual or another institution brings an action against the corporation. If
the actions of the public corporations exceed it power. such actions can be declared null and void
by the courts of law.

iii) Executive control (ministerial control): Public corporations are supervised and controlled
by a minister. The minister can set commissions of enquiry into their activities. The minister
recommends the appointment and dismissal of the members of the board of directors. Again, any
resolution to borrow money and acquisition or disposal of landed property requires the approval
of the minister. Besides that, the ministry gives general direction of the corporation in the
national interest.

iv) Public opinion: In situations where the public is not satisfied with the work or services of
public corporations, they could make complaints to the sector minister or to parliament for the
necessary action to be taken to address the problems.

v) Quality Assurance Control: The Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) exercises control over the
activities of public corporations. They check the quality of products produced by these public
corporations. If the product fails to meet their standard, they will not allow the product to be sold
to the populace for consumption.

(vi). Financial control through the Auditor-General: The Auditor General audits the
accounts of public corporations to check financial malfeasance. Effective periodic auditing of the
accounts of public corporations helps to check embezzlement and misappropriation of public
corporation’s funds.

v) Media: The mass media including radio, televisions and newspapers serve as a check on the
operations of public corporations. They see to it that the corporation does not deviate from the
Act which established it. They she make the public aware of any abuse of power and corrupt acts
within the corporation.

PROBLEMS FACING PUBLIC CORPORATIONS

Many public corporations in Ghana and other countries confront a number of problems. These
problems include:

i) Inadequate funds: Most of these public corporations are poorly financed and as a result they
cannot import the needed raw materials and logistics to work with. For example, G.B.C
embarked on a number of strikes before their subventions were given to them. Inadequate fund
derails the effectiveness of public corporations.

ii) Poor supervision or management: Many public corporations are poorly managed.
Supervision of these corporations is also not strict as compared to the private enterprises. Due to
poor supervision workers tend to do what they like resulting in low output.
iii) Undue political interference from the government: In many cases, government and the
ruling party functionaries unduly interfere in the day-to-day activities of public corporations.

iv) Inadequate qualified staff: Some of these public corporations fail to attract sufficient
number of qualified personnel. This comes from unattractive or relatively low salaries, absence
of attractive packages and favouritism. Lack of qualified personnel of the right calibre produces
inefficiency and poor administration.

v) Overstaffing: Some of the public corporations are overstaffed which hampers the effective
functioning of the public corporations. Most of the workers go to their place of work-to-work
lotto, read newspapers, eat and drink and return to their destinations. Low or no productivity
comes from them but they are all paid at the end of the month.

vii) Corruption, Nepotism and tribalism: Many public corporations in Ghana and other West
African countries are accused of tribalism and favouritism in the recruitment of staff into the
service. Appointments, promotions and transfer of employees are made on tribal lines in many
cases rather than on merit This accounts for inefficiency and poor administration within the
corporation.

viii) Negative work attitude: Some of the employees of public corporations regard their job as
“government work” and therefore show poor work attitude towards it. Lateness, absenteeism and
lack of commitment to duty are common because of the perception that the work belong to the
government. These practices usually result in low productivity.

MEASURES THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO MAKE PUBLIC CORPORATIONS MORE

EFFICIENT

i) Favouritism in the appointment of general managers and members of board of directors which
leads to the enthronement of mediocrity in place of meritocracy should be avoided. Thus, to
ensure the efficiency of public corporations all appointments of members into public
corporations should be ’based on competence or merit but not on the basis of whom you know.

ii) Frequent government or political interference in the administration of public corporations

which result in inefficiency should stop. To make public corporations more efficient, government
should not interfere in the day-today running of the affairs of the corporation. Undue political or
government interference could tend to destroy the corporation commercial freedom of action.
Government should allow the management and board of directors to operate freely and act as a
referee.

iv) Professionals and technical staff should be employed. To ensure the efficiency of public
corporations, those employed should be professionals and they must have the technical know-
how to undertake the work entrusted in their care. If technical staff and professionals are
employed, it would help improve productivity and make the corporation stand the test of time.

(iv). The working conditions of public corporations should be improved. To ensure efficiency in
public corporations, working conditions of staff of public corporations should be improved to
attract high calibre personnel into the corporation. Salaries, allowances and other fringe benefits
of the staff of public corporations should be enhanced to attract professionals and highly skilled
personnel to boost productivity.

(v) The problem of red-tapism should be tackled. Thus, excessive regulations or rigid conformity
to formal rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic and hinders or prevents action or
decision-making should be checked.

(vi). Public corporations should tackle the problem of wastage. Public corporations can be made
to be more efficient if the problem of wastage is checked. They should employ a reasonable
number of people to work in the corporation. If the employees are overstaffed, some of them will
go to the work place having nothing to do but will still receive salary at the end of the month.
This can affect the financial muscle of the corporation. Again. public corporations should
produce quantity of goods needed by the consumers to avoid wastage. Non-challant attitude or
negative work attitude of staff such as lateness to work, absenteeism and lack of commitment to
duty must also be checked.

(vii) Political victimization of officials of public corporations should also be avoided. Thus, a
situation where a victorious candidate in an election identifies and punishes employees of public
corporations who failed to vote or support him and therefore replace them with his favourites
supporters should be avoided.

(viii) Ethinicism and sectionalism that hamper the effective performance of public corporations
should be curbed.

PRIVATIZATION OF PUBLIC CORPORATION

Privatization involves the transfer to private ownership an economic enterprise or public utility
that has been under state ownership.

THE NEED FOR PRIVATIZATION OF STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISE

i. To ensure efficient and effective management: Sometimes the poor performance of state-
owned enterprises result from inefficiency and poor supervision. Because of the perception
people have that the enterprises belong to the state and not to any person or group of persons,
employees do not give out their best and management provides poor supervision. To ensure
efficient and proper supervision, these state-owned enterprises are sometimes privatized.

ii. To promote higher competition: The government may aim at breaking government
monopoly and encouraging competition in order to improve upon efficiency. If the state enjoys
monopoly in the provision of certain goods or services, inefficiencies may result to the
disadvantage of the consumer, and privatization could solve the problem

iii. Inability of the state to meet the capital needs of some enterprises: Sometimes the state
may not be able to meet the capital of some enterprises and therefore sell them to private
individuals or companies can adequately finance them to make them perform better.

iv. To avoid waste: Sometimes these enterprises are characterized by waste. Avoidable
expenses are made, more people than necessary are employed, some labourers doing very little
work. In order to avoid this waste or disguised unemployment, the government privatizes such
state-owned enterprises.

v. To promote private sector initiative: The aim may also be to promote private sector
initiative: Thus, the government may do that to encourage the private sector to play a greater role
in the economy to accelerate economic growth.

vi. To eliminate certain poor practices at work places: Privatization helps to eradicate or
reduce certain practices at work places such as red-tapism or bureaucracy, tribalism, nepotism
and favouritism that often characterizes state owned enterprises.

vii) The need for money for urgent purposes: Sometimes, the need of money by the
government for urgent purpose and other, and in the absence of more convenient source of
income. may make the government resort to the sale of state-owned enterprises to raise the
needed income.

viii) To create more jobs for the people: Sometimes these state owned enterprises are
privatized with the view of providing employment to vast number of people.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES AND PRIVATE OWNED

ENTERPRISES
(i) State owned enterprise is set up by the central government while private owned enterprise is
set up by the private individuals

(ii) The motive of setting up state enterprise is to provide essential services to the people at low
prices while the private owned enterprise is set to make profit

(iii) State owned enterprises are controlled/ managed by board of directors appointed by
government while private owned enterprises are controlled /managed by board of directors
appointed by shareholders /owners of the business

(iv) Government bears the loses of state-owned enterprises while owners/ shareholders bear
losses of private owned enterprises.

(v) Government pays profit into consolidated account of state-owned enterprises while private
owned enterprises profits are paid to owners or shareholders

(vi) Government influences pricing of products of state-owned enterprise while private owned
enterprises fix their own prices

(vii) State owned enterprise is established through the Act of parliament while private enterprise
is established through the Registrar General’s Department
(vii) Huge capital is involved in the setting up and operation of state-owned enterprises while
minimal capital is involved in the setting up and operation of private owned enterprises.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

TRADITIONAL GOVERNANCE IN GHANA

PRE-COLONIAL TRADITIONAL SYSTEM
Pre-colonial traditional system refers to the traditional system of government or administration
before the advent of colonial rule.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF PRECOLONIAL WEST AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Pre-colonial West African societies were classified into two. They were the centralized societies
and the Acephalous or stateless or non-centralized societies.

CENTRALIZED SOCIETIES
Centralized societies were those societies which had identifiable or distinct states or government.
Each society had a single political leader who had enough concentration of powers in his hands
to administer and control the activities of the members of the group. All the sub-chiefs owed
allegiance to their respective paramount chiefs. Land was controlled by the paramount chiefs.
The centralized societies had centralized system of taxation.

The centralized societies consisted of ethnic or tribal groups bound together by common
language, religion, and loyalty and who realized and felt they had a common destiny. In Ghana,
the Akan ethnic group, the Ewe ethnic group, the Dagomba ethnic group and the Ga Adangbe
ethnic group had centralized societies.

ACEPHALOUS SOCIETIES (NON-CENTRALIZED SOCIETIES)

The acephalous or stateless society refers to those societies which had no single political superior
who had enough concentration of powers in his hands to control the activities of all the members
of the group. Simply put, acephalous society is a society with no single individual as the leader.
In acephalous societies, each clan or family was administered by the clan or family head and it
was independent of the other clans or families. Among such societies were the Talensi of
Northern Ghana, Tives of Binue state and some communities in Igboland of Nigeria.

THE AKAN ETHNIC GROUP 1

The Akan constitutes the largest ethnic group in Ghana. It is made up of a number of divisions
which include; Asante, Adansi, Assin, Akyem. Akuapem, Akwamu, Ahanta. Awowin, Bono,
Fante, Kwawu, Nzema, Sehwi, and Twifo.

FEATURES OF PRE-COLONIAL AKAN POLITICAL SYSTEM

(i). Existence of paramount chief: The head of the Akan pre-colonial political set up was the
paramount chief who occupied his position through the royal line of succession. The paramount
chief was the head of all the indigenous rulers and he owed no allegiance to any other power.
The paramount chief performed administrative, military, judicial, legislative and religious
functions.

(ii) Divisional and sub-chiefs: Under the pre-colonial Akan traditional system, the kingdom was
divided into chiefdoms ruled by divisional and sub-chiefs. The divisional chiefs, sub-chiefs and
the village chiefs were responsible for the day-to-day administration of their representative areas
on behalf of the paramount chief. They owed allegiance to the paramount chief.

(iii) Existence of Queen mother. The pre-colonial Akan traditional system had a queen mother
who was selected from maternal royal family. The Queen mother played a key role in the Akan
political system. She was responsible for the nomination of successor to the paramount chief for
the approval of the Council of Elders who were the kingmakers. The queen mother also sat
alongside the chief in the settlement of disputes. They also advised the chiefs on all matters
affecting the chiefdom. In the absence of the chief, the queen mother together with the Council
of Elders administered the kingdom.

(iv) The Linguist: Under the pre-colonial traditional system, there was a linguist, the chief’s
spokesman who was versed in the tradition, history and customs of the kingdom. The position of
the linguist was not hereditary but based on special abilities possessed by the individual.

(v). Existence of native treasury: Each kingdom had a treasury into which revenue from all
sources was paid. One third of the revenue received was used for the upkeep of the chief, one
third for the maintenance of the stool and provision of social amenities whist the remaining
amount was reserved for the people.

(vi). Existence of superior and lower courts: Under the pre-colonial Akan traditional system,
there was an existence of both superior and inferior courts. The superior courts dealt with major
cases presided over by the paramount chief. The minor cases were settled at the local courts
presided over by divisional and sub-chiefs.

(vii) Existence of Asafo companies: Under the pre-colonial Man traditional system. there was
an existence of Math companies which Paramilitary functions.

(viii) Existence of Council of Elden: Each divisional or sub-chief within the Akan state had its
own Council of Elders.

ROLES/FUNCTIONS OF A QUEEN MOTHER IN THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

(i) Nomination of a chief: The queen mother was responsible for the nomination of a successor
to the chief for the approval of the Council of Elders. The queen mother nominated candidate
from the royal family as the next chief if the chief’s stool became vacant. She was also
empowered to destool or depose a non-performing and recalcitrant chief or a chief who brought
the chieftaincy into disrepute.
(ii) Helped in settling disputes: The queen mother sat alongside the chief and the Council of
Elders in the settlement of disputes. The chief, queen mother and the Council of Elders settled all
major and minor disputes that were brought before them. The queen mother was part of the
seven-member committee entrusted to settle all major cases in the kingdom. Besides, she
oversaw any issue relating to women such as rape, adultery and marital conflicts.

(iii) Administered the kingdom in the absence of the chief: The queen mother acted as a chief
and occupied the stool in the absence of the chief. With the help of the council of elders, the
queen mother administered the kingdom when the king died or resigned or when the chief’s stool
became vacant until a new chief or king was enstooled.

(iv) Mobilized the women to undertake communal labour: The queen mother was responsible
for organizing all the women within her jurisdiction to undertake communal labour such as
weeding, sweeping the environment and scrubbing gutters. She also mobilized the women within
her territory to sing praises and heroic songs to show their solidarity to those selected to
represent their kingdom at war before they embarked on the journey.

(v) Provided education and advice: The queen mother educated the king or the chief on the
history of the throne or kingdom as well as the dos and don’ts of the kingdom. She also provided
wise to the chief and the council of elders on all matters affecting the kingdom.

(vi) Examining the will he wives of tee royals before Marriage: The queen mother examined
the matrilineal lane of women that were to be married by the royals within her jurisdiction.
Again, when the ladies reached their puberty age, the queen mothers had to assess the ladies to
ensure that they were not pregnant and were of rightful age before the puberty rites could be
performed for them.

(vii) Helped in the formulation and implementation of policies: The queen mother together
with the chiefs and the council of elders formulated and implemented good policies to better the
lives of people within their jurisdiction.

FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL OF KING MAKERS/COUNCIL OF ELDERS OF THE

AKAN DURING THE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD
(i) Assisted chiefs to adjudicate cases/disputes: The Council of Elders during the pre-colonial
Akan political system helped the chiefs to settle disputes emanating from their communities. The
chiefs and the Council of Elders settled cases brought before them and imposed punishments
ranging from payment of drinks, animal, banishment or even pronouncing death penalty on the
offenders.

(ii) Served as intermediary between the people and the chiefs: During the pre-colonial period,
the Council of Elders of the Akan served as a link between the chiefs and the people. For
example, the petitions and grievances of the people in the communities were channelled to the
chiefs through the Council of Elders whilst the chiefs also passed information to the people
through the Council of Elders.
(iii) Organized the age grades/Asafo companies and assigned them duties: Council of Elders
during the pre-colonial Akan political system organized the Asafo companies/age sets to
undertake communal labour to ensure good environmental sanitation and community
development as well as construction of infrastructure such as markets, bridges, public places of
convenience and clinics.

(iv) Approved the nomination of the ruler: The Council of Elders of the Akan during the pre-
colonial period approved the chief nominated by the Queen mother before he could be enstooled.
They could also disapprove or reject the chief nominated.

(v) Performed advisory and deliberative functions: The Council of elders of the Akan during
the pre-colonial period/era advised the chiefs on a number of issues. For example, they advised
the chiefs on the kinds of policies to be formulated and implemented.

(vi) Helped chiefs and fetish priests/ priestesses (okomfo) to perform religious functions:
The Council of Elders during the pre-colonial Akan political system helped their chiefs and the
fetish priests to perform certain religious functions such as observing “Akwasidae”, pouring of
libation and offering sacrifice to the gods.

(vii) Could impeach/depose/dethrone the chief: During the pre-colonial Akan political system,
a chief could be impeached/deposed/dethroned by the Council of Elders if he abused his powers
or when he was found to have engaged in immoral acts which could bring chieftaincy into
disrepute.

(viii) Maintenance of law and order: During the pre-colonial period, the Council of Elders of
the Akan helped the chiefs in maintaining law and order in their respective communities. The
chiefs in consultation with the Council of Elders made laws to regulate the behaviour of people
in their communities.

(ix) Assisted the chiefs in organizing traditional festivals: During the precolonial period, the
Council of Elders of the Akan helped the chiefs in organizing traditional festivals such as
”Addaekese”.

(x) Could act in the absence of the chief: In the absence of the chief, the Council of Elders
together with the Queen mother under the pre-colonial Akan political system administered the
Kingdom.

ROLES/ FUNCTIONS OF THE ASAFO COMPANIES IN THE PRE:OLONIAL

PERIOD/ERA

(i) Defence of the community: The Asafo companies defended their communities against
internal and external attacks. The primary reason for the establishment of the Asafo companies
was for defence. The Asafo Companies helped in ensuring peace and tranquillity in their society.
The Asafo Companies did this by making sure that all opposing forces and attacks that were
motivated internally and externally were quashed.
(ii) They performed social duties: The companies assisted the chiefs and the council of elders
to perform some social responsibilities such as construction of bore-holes, toilet and markets.
They were also responsible for clearing bush, footpath roads and organizing general exercises.
The Asafo companies such as the Akan Asafo companies responded and acted on emergencies
that befell the society. For instance, when a person was reported missing or when there were
occasional accidents on the sea such as capsizing of canoes and drowning of amateur swimmers,
the Asafo Companies had the responsibility of saving survivors and retrieving bodies from the
sea.

(iii) They served as a source of public opinion: The Asafo companies served as a mouthpiece
through which the problems of the indigenes were heard. Most of the policies formulated or
initiated by the chiefs and the council of elders were made known to the people through the
Asafo companies. Again, the community members sometimes presented their displeasure and
grievances through the Asafo Companies.

(iv) Serving as a check on the exercise of power by the paramount chief: The Asafo
companies served as a check on the exercise of power by the chiefs and the entire council of
elders. They ensured that the chiefs would not abuse the powers entrusted to them. They could
even demonstrate against any despotic or autocratic chief and call for his removal from the
throne.

(v) Maintenance of law and order: The Asafo companies were also responsible for helping the
chiefs and the entire council of elders to maintain law and order in their communities. The Asafo
Companies were in charge of policing the community, maintaining peace and security in markets
and other public places. In criminal occurrences, the Asafo Companies were called upon to
search for the criminals and get them arrested.

(vi) Provision of communal entertainment: The Asafo companies provided communal

entertainment. Each company had its own ensemble of drums, gongs and other accessories such
as bells and rattles which they used to provide communal entertainment through drumming,
singing and dancing. During festivals or state functions, the Akan Asafo Companies turned out in
their respective outfits parading all their paraphernalia, including flags and banners. In the
procession, the Asafo Companies entertained the public with various antics in marching, dancing
and mock combat.
(vii). Assisted the queen mother in installing and dethroning chiefs: The Asafo companies
helped the queen mother during installation and dethronement of chiefs. On the question of
instalment of chiefs. the Asafo Companies were responsible for fetching the selected chief from
his house to where the people had gathered. As farewell to the elect chief, they gave him a last
ceremonial flogging, smeared him with white clay and brought him before the assembly.
Afterwards, the Akan Asafo Companies then perform rituals associated with the installation of
the new chief in the unfortunate event of a paramount chief found guilty of a crime or
misconduct and sentenced to be deposed, the execution of that order was the sole preserve of the
Asafo Companies. These roles in the indigenous political process enhanced their influence over
the paramount chief.

(viii). They helped in the implementation of policies: The Asafo companies helped in the
implementation of policies made by the chiefs and the council of elders.

WAYS IN WHICH THE AKAN TRADITIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEM CAN BE

DESCRIBED AS CENTRALIZED
(i). The Akan Traditional political system had a distinct state: It was made up of a number of
divisions or states which included; Asante, Adansi. Assin, Akyem, Akuapem, Akwamu. Ahanta,
Awowin, Bono, Fante, Kwawu, Nzema, Sefwi, and Twifo. Each division had a paramount chief
who supervised the activities of the subchiefs. All the sub-chiefs owed allegiance to their
respective paramount chiefs.

(ii) The Akan kingdom had a single political leader who had enough concentration of powers to
administer and control the activities of the members of the group.

(iii) The Akan traditional political system can be described as centralized because there was an
existence of sub chiefs who were answerable to the paramount chiefs. Thus, all the sub chiefs
owed allegiance to their respective paramount chiefs. No sub-chief could be enstooled or
distooled without the consent of the paramount chief of that area.

(iv) Again, the Akan kingdom was bound up together by several ethnic groups who were
answerable to the paramount chief

(v) The Akan traditional political system consisted of ethnic or tribal groups bound together by
common language, religion and loyalty and who realized and felt that they had a common
destiny.

(vi) The Akan traditional political system can be described as centralised since these ethnic
groups had a common descent. Thus, all the ethnic groups could trace their route from a common
source.

(vii) Land was controlled by the paramount chief. The paramount chiefs had authority to
distribute land to the people for purposes of farming, building houses and for economic
activities. No parcel of land could be leased or sold out without the consent of the respective
paramount chief.

(viii) The Akan traditional political system can be described as centralized because there was
centralized system of taxation and tribute payment. All taxes were imposed by the centralized
leader.

DEMOCRATIC FEATURES OF THE AKAN TRADITIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

(i) Right to demonstration: in the Akan traditional political system. the people, age-grades and
Asafo companies could demonstrate against the chief or the entire Council of Elders.

(ii) Existence of acceptable procedures for destoolment of chiefs: In the Akan traditional
political system, acceptable procedures existed for the destoolment of an autocratic and corrupt
chief.

(iii) Nomination: As normally happens in a democratic state, a leader is usually nominated

before a vote is cast on him. In the Akan traditional political system too, the chief was nominated
by the queen mother after which the King-makers and Council of Elders would deliberate over
the nomination to either accept or reject him.

(iv)Rules and regulations: In the Akan traditional political system, rules and regulations were
made in consultation with the Council of Elders and Divisional Chiefs.

(v) Forum for people to express their grievances: In the Akan traditional political system,
observance of traditional festivals helped the sub- chiefs and the entire people to express their
grievances.

(vi)Existence of open arbitration, mediation and conciliation: In the Akan traditional political
system, settlement of dispute was administered through open arbitration, mediation and
conciliation.

(vii) Accountability of the chiefs to the people: In the Akan traditional political system, the
swearing of oath of investiture on installation made the accountable to the people.

(viii) The role of the Asafo companies: The Asafo Company was made up of the youth and
able- bodied men. The Asafo companies served as a check on the arbitrary use of power by the
chief. When the chief did something wrong, the Asafo companies could demonstrate and this
sometimes led to the destoolment of some chiefs.

FACTORS THAT MADE SOME TRADITIONAL AFRICAN POLITICAL SYSTEM

UNDEMOCRATIC
(i) Ascension into political office was based on selection: Some African political systems
became autocratic because ascension into political office was based on selection rather than
popular election. The leaders were selected by only few people rather than the entire populace.
They were therefore not directly accountable and responsible to the entire people.
(ii) No separation of powers amongst the institutions of government: Some African political
systems became autocratic due to the absence of separation of powers amongst the institutions of
government. All powers were fused. The traditional rulers exercised legislative powers,
executive powers and judicial powers and functions at the same time.

(iii) The powers of the traditional rulers had no limit: The traditional rulers had enormous or
wide powers. They could exercise any power since there was no recognized constitution to limit
their powers.

(iv) No provision of Fundamental Human Rights: There was no provision of fundamental

human rights and freedoms since there was no written constitution. The rights of the citizens
were sometimes violated since these rights were not entrenched in any written constitution.

(v) There was no fixed tenure of office of the leaders: The traditional rulers and the Council of
Elders had no fixed term of office. They stayed in power till death.

(vi) Laws were based on customs and conventions: Some African political systems became
autocratic because some of the laws which they used for governing the people were based on
customs and conventions rather than a generally acceptable principle like constitution.

(vii) Only few had the chance to participate in the governance: Some African political
systems became autocratic since only few privileged subjects had the right to participate in
government.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF THE CHIEFS/TRADITIONAL RULERS IN THE AKAN PRE-

COLONIAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

(i) Judicial functions: The chiefs performed judicial functions such as settlement of disputes
among the subjects. The chiefs were the fount of justice and the supreme judge in their kingdom.
The chiefs and their elders settled cases brought before them and imposed punishment ranging
from payment of drinks, animal, banishment or even death penalty on the offenders.

(ii) Spiritual or religious leader: The chiefs were the spiritual or religious leaders of the people.
They performed religious and ritual functions based on moral values and norms of the society.
The chiefs assisted by the fetish priest served as a link between the people and the ancestors (the
living and the dead). As spiritual or religious leaders, the chiefs poured libation to the ancestors
and asked for blessing. prosperity. good health, long life. potency. and fertility for their people.

(iii) Custodian of the land: The chiefs were the custodian of the land and had authority to
distribute, allocate or lease land to the people for purposes of farming, building houses and for
economic activities.

(iv) Law making: The chiefs in consultation with their Council of elders made laws for the
people. The laws were in the form of customs, norms, taboos and conventions. These laws were
made public by oral pronouncement usually through the medium of a gong-gong announcer to
the people.
(v) Commander-in-Chief of the People’s Army: The chiefs served as the commander in-Chief
of the People’s Army. As Military commanders, they led their people in times of war. They
recruited and organized warriors whom they personally led in both defensive and offensive wars.
For instance, Osei Tutu, the then Asantehene, was believed to have been killed while he was
leading his people in a war against the Akyem in the early 18th century.

(vi) Conferment of honoury titles: The chiefs were the font of honour and were empowered to
bestow honours on deserving citizens as reward for bravely or distinguished service to the
community. For example, those warriors who really fought and survived were rewarded after the
war by the chiefs and those who died in war might be honoured by the chief as their deaths were
deemed as an honourable death.

(vii) Mobilization of people for community development: The chiefs were also charged with
the responsibility of mobilizing their subjects to undertake community development. For
example, they organized their people for communal labour to ensure environmental sanitation
and community development as well as for construction of infrastructure such as roads, clinics,
bridges, markets, public place of convenience etc.

(viii) Maintenance of law and order: It was also the duty of the chiefs to ensure that law and
order was maintained at all times. Those who broke the laws were punished to serve as deterrent
to prospective breachers.

(ix)Holding traditional festivals: The chiefs held traditional festivals to renew the relationship
with the ancestors.

(x) Organizing durbars: The chiefs again organized durbars where subjects paid homage.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF A TRADITIONAL RULER IN THE PRE-COLONIAL ERA

(i) Settlement of disputes: The traditional ruler (chief) was the fount of justice and the supreme
judge in his kingdom. The chief and his elders settled cases brought before them and imposed
punishment ranging from payment of drinks, animal, banishment or even death penalty on the
offenders.
(ii) Spiritual or religious leader: The traditional ruler was the spiritual or religious leader of the
people. The chief assisted by the fetish priest served as a link between the people and the
ancestors (the living and the dead). As spiritual or religious leader, the chief poured libation to
the ancestors and asked for blessing, prosperity, good health, long life, potency, and fertility for
his people.

(iii) Custodian of the land: The traditional ruler was the custodian of the land and had authority
to distribute, allocate or lease land to the people for purposes of farming, building houses and for
economic activities.

(iv) Law making: The chief in consultation with his council of elders made laws for the people.
The laws were in the form of customs, norms, taboos and conventions. These laws were made
public by oral pronouncement usually through the medium of a gong-gong announcer to the
people.
 (v) Military commander: The chief was the Commander in Chief of the People’s Army. As
a Military commander. and organized warriors whom he wars. For instance, Osei Tutu. the
then been killed while he was leading his people in a war against the Akyem in the early 18th
century.

(vi) Conferment of honoury titles: The traditional ruler was the font of honour and was
empowered to bestow honours on deserving citizens as reward for bravely or distinguished
service to the community. For example, those warriors who really fought and survived were
rewarded after the war by the chiefs and those who died in war might be honoured by the
chief as their deaths were deemed as an honourable death.

(vii) Mobilization of people for community development: The traditional ruler was
charged with the responsibility of mobilizing his people for communal labour to ensure
environmental sanitation and community development.

(viii) Maintenance of law and order: It was also the duty of the traditional ruler to ensure
that law and order was maintained at all times. ’Those who broke the laws were punished to
serve as deterrent to prospective bleachers.

LIMITATIONS OR WAYS IN WHICH THE TRADITIONAL RULERS WERE

CONTROLLED IN THE EXERCISE OF THEIR POWERS DURING THE PRE-
COLONIAL PERIOD/ERA

(i) The role of the youth groups: In the pre-colonial era or period, the traditional rulers were
controlled in the exercise of their duties by the youth groups such as age-grades and Asafo
companies. These groups could demonstrate against the chief or the entire Council of Elders if
they fail to live up to expectation.

(ii) The Oath taken on assumption of office: During the pre-colonial period, the swearing of
Oath of investiture on assumption of office by the rulers prevented them from being autocratic.

(iii) The role of the queen mother: The role of the queen mother acted on the powers of the
ruler. In the pre-colonial era, the chief was nominated by the queen mother after which the King-
makers and Council of Elders would deliberate over the nomination to either accept or reject
him. The queen mother could also call for the destoolment of any traditional ruler who failed to
live up to expectation.
(iv) Dethronement of despotic rulers by their subjects: In the pre-colonial era, the traditional
rulers were controlled in the exercise of their powers by the subjects. The subjects could
demonstrate against despotic rulers which could lead to the dethronement of such despotic rulers.
Autocratic rulers could even be forced by their subjects to commit suicide.

(v) Fear of ancestral wrath: Fear of ancestral wrath such as outbreak of strange diseases,
poverty, rampant pre-mature death that could emerge as a result of action and inactions of the
traditional rulers restricted them in the exercise of their powers.

(vi) The role of the chief priest: The chief priest served as a check on the excesses of the
traditional rulers. in the pm-colonial era, the chief priest served as a link between the gods of the
land and the traditional rulers and was therefore close to the traditional ruler. The chief priest
advised the traditional ruler whenever there was an abuse of power and the consequences that
could emerge from that action. This helped to keep the traditional ruler on his toes.

(vii) Existence of taboos: During the pre-colonial era, the existence of taboos regulated the
conduct of both the rulers and the subjects. Traditional rulers went contrary to an existing taboo
were severely dealt with.

viii). Cautions giving during installation: Admonitions and warnings against mal-
administration during enstoolment helped to regulate the powers of the traditional rulers during
the pre-colonial era.

FUNCTIONS OF TRADITIONAL RULERS (CHIEFS) DURING THE COLONIAL

PERIOD IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA / HOW TRADITIONAL RULERS SUPPORTED
COLONIAL RULE IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

The British regarded chiefs (traditional rulers) in the Gold Coast as their natural allies and used
them as agents or heads of various communities through whom they could rule the territory.
Chiefs thus formed integral part of British administration. Their functions included:

(i) Maintenance of law and order: The traditional rulers, maintained law and order at the local
level during the colonial period. The paramount chiefs had police assisted in ensuring peace, law
and order. They established prisons where those convicted of committing offence were sent to.
This was done to deter others from committing similar offences.

(ii) Collection of Taxes: The traditional rulers were empowered to collect taxes which were paid
into the native treasury established by the British to provide funds to finance the local
administration and developmental projects. Market tolls, fines and fees were also received by the
traditional rulers. The funds in the treasury were controlled by the traditional rulers though they
paid a portion to the central government.

(iii) Mobilization of people and Supervision of communal labour and developmental

projects: The chiefs mobilized people at the local for communal work as a way of encouraging
speedy development of the communities. They also performed supervisory role on
developmental projects such as schools, hospitals, roads and markets.

(iv). Settlement of disputes: Through the adoption of the native court, the chiefs were
empowered to settle disputes, try offenders of the law and imposed punishment under the
supervision of British officials.

(v) They served as intermediary/link between the colonial government and the people:
Traditional rulers served as a link between the colonial government and the local people. The
colonial government implemented its policies programmes in the colonies through the chiefs.
The petitions and grievances of the local people were also channelled through the chiefs to the
central government.

(vi) They acted as a symbol of unity: By virtue of their position, they symbol unity among the
people.

(vii) The traditional rulers were the custodian of the land: As custodians of the land, they
were mandated to distribute, lease or allocate land to the people for various activities such as
housing, farming and other economic activities.

(viii) Implementation of policies: The traditional rulers implemented the poll and programmes
of the colonial leaders.

(ix) Served as Electoral College: The chiefs (traditional rulers) were members of the Provincial
Council of Chiefs and served as Electoral College or consultative body on African opinion.
LIMITATIONS/ WAYS IN WHICH COLONIAL RULE CONTRIBUTED TO
DECLINE/WEAKEN/SUBVERT THE POWERS OF THE TRADITIONAL RULERS
UNDER COLONIAL RULE/INDIRECT RULE IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

(i) Lacked power of legislation: The establishment of Legislative Council by the British
reduced the law-making functions of the chiefs/ traditional rulers, The Legislative Council
became the principal law making body in the Gold Coast

(ii). Chiefs could not impose tax but were made tax collectors: The power of imposing tax
was reserved for the Governor and the colonial government. The governor introduced native
authority which took over traditional rulers’ absolute control over taxation and disbursement.
The chiefs could not impose tax on the people. They were made only to collect taxes approved
by the Governor. The use of the chiefs as tax collectors made them unpopular in the eyes of the
people. The respect accorded to them initially also declined.

(iii). The introduction of cash economy: During the pre-colonial period, chiefs were usually
known to be the richest people in the society but the introduction of cash economy during British
colonial rule led to the emergence of new class of rich people who had no respect for traditional
authority or institution.

(iv) Lacked power of raising Army: The British colonial rule weakened the military roles of
the chiefs as they could not raise army. Under colonial rule, the chiefs were not allowed to raise
Army. The power of raising Army was reserved for the Governor. Again, chiefs could no longer
declare war or lead their people to war.

(v). The Governor controlled their installation and disposition: Indirect rule empowered the
British Authorities to enthrone and dethrone chiefs. The installation and disposition of chiefs
were subject to the approval of the Governor. This reduced the prestige of the traditional rulers
and misdirected their loyalty.

(vi). The passing of colonial ordinances: The passing of colonial ordinances such as the Native
Jurisdiction Ordinance (NJO) of 1883, the Native Authority Ordinance (NAO) of 1927 etc.
eroded the powers of traditional rulers.

(vii). Introduction of Christianity: The influence of foreign religion (Christianity) scaled down
the power of the chiefs or the traditional rulers as the spiritual leaders of the people. During the
colonial period, the traditional rulers were no more regarded as the spiritual and religious leaders
of the people. Those who became converts to Christianity and followed the teachings of the
missionaries regarded the missionary leaders as their religious and spiritual leaders but not the
chiefs. The introduction of Christianity undermined the powers of the traditional rulers as they
were perceived as pagans.

(viii) Introduction of Western education/culture: The impact of Western Education led to the
breakdown of traditional norms and values of society. Example, homage to and respect for the
traditional rulers. Again, through the introduction of Western education, the people got to know
their rights and freedoms and therefore resisted to certain orders from the chiefs that could
infringe upon their rights. The people also considered the Western culture as superior while that
of African culture was seen as inferior.

(ix) Reduction in judicial powers/power to dispense justice: The establishment of law courts
by the British to adjudicate cases eroded the judicial functions of the traditional rulers. Chiefs
could only settle minor issues under their jurisdiction. All major cases were settled by the courts
established by the British.

(x) Signing of treaties: The treaties and agreements signed between the chiefs and the British
contributed to decline the powers of the chiefs. Signing of treaties such as the Bond of 1844 and
the Fomena Treaty of 1875 weakened the powers of the traditional rulers.

(xi) Lacked power of formulating policies: Under colonial rule. chiefs or the traditional rulers
could not formulate policies for their own people. All major policies were formulated by the
Executive Council without consulting the traditional rulers. Policies formulated were therefore in
the interest of the colonial masters.

FUNCTIONS OF MODERN OR CONTEMPORARY CHIEFS

(i) Serving as a link between the people and the government: Traditional rulers (chiefs) in
present-day Ghana serve as a link between their people and the government. They explain
government policies on matters such as bush fire and payment of taxes to the people whilst at the
same time transmit the opinions, feelings and grievances of their subjects to the government
through the District Assemblies.

(ii) Mobilizing people for communal labour: Modern or contemporary chiefs mobilize their
people in performing communal work. They sometimes mobilize their people to undertake
community development projects such as building community centres, clinics and schools in
their communities. Again, traditional rulers sometimes organize their people to undertake clean
up exercise in their communities to prevent an outbreak of diseases.

(iii) Custodians of cultural heritage: The modern or contemporary chiefs are the embodiment
of the rich culture and traditions of the people. They help to preserve and perpetuate the culture
and traditions of their people.

(iv). Advisory role: Modern or contemporary chiefs advise the government on chieftaincy and
customary matters. Again, some chiefs are appointed as members of the Council of State which
is primarily responsible for advising the president on a number of issues.

(v) Settlement of disputes: Modern or contemporary chiefs help to settle minor disputes such as
family disputes, breach of customs, marriage disputes etc. especially in remote areas which lack
police stations and courts of law. Again, as members of the House of Chiefs, the chiefs have the
sole responsibility of settling chieftaincy disputes in the country.
(vi) Ceremonial functions: Modern or contemporary chiefs perform ceremonial roles such as
receiving dignitaries into his community. Chiefs also attend important functions such as
Independence Day celebration.

(vii). Hold land in trust for class and families: Chiefs hold in trust stool regalia. They also
keep in trust lands for class and families. Rules and regulations governing lands are made by the
chiefs and elders of the traditional area. No parcel of land can be leased or sold out without the
consent of the respective chief.

(viii). Religious roles: Traditional rulers (chiefs) perform religious roles. They serve as a link
between the living and the dead. They pour libation and offer food to the ancestors and the gods
of the land at special occasions such as Akwasidae. They also pacify the spirits of the ancestors
as well as the gods when a member of the society commits an abomination.

(ix) Maintenance of law and order: Traditional rulers cooperate with law enforcement agencies
to maintain law and order in their areas of jurisdiction. They ensure that their people comply
with the laws of the land. People in their localities who abuse the fundamental laws of the land
are reported to the law enforcement agencies.

(x) Honour deserving citizens: Chiefs bestows honour on citizens for their distinguished
services to the community. People who devote their time, energy and money towards community
developments are honoured by the traditional rulers. For instance, Agona Asante Traditional
Council in 2012 honoured Dr. Frannie Leautier, the Executive Secretary of African Capacity
Building Foundation as Nkosouhemaa of Agona for her commitment and dedication towards the
development of Agana community.

INFLUENCE OR EFFECTS OF MODERN POLITICAL

AUTHORITY(GOVERNMENT) ON THE TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
(i) Loss of law-making function: The pre-colonial chiefs were empowered to make laws to
govern the areas under their jurisdiction but in modern government, the power to make laws is
vested in the legislature and other bodies it may designate to make laws in the state.

(ii) Loss of power of taxation: During the pre-colonial era, the power of taxation was entrusted
in the chiefs but in modern government, this has been taken over by the central government.
Metropolitan and District Assemblies. The central government has established certain
institutions such as the Value Added Tax (VAT) service, and the Custom, Excise and Preventive
Service for the collection of taxes.

(iii) Loss of administrative functions: Under pre-colonial rule, the traditional rulers were
responsible for the day-to-day administration of their respective chiefdoms. In modern system of
government, the administrative function is performed by the central government (executive)
through ministries and other local government bodies such as the metropolitan and District
Assemblies.

(iv) Restricted to settle only minor disputes: During the pre-colonial period, the judicial
functions were exercised by the chief in-council. They could settle both major and minor cases
and prescribe punishment for offenders. In modern system of government, the judicial authority
of traditional rulers in Ghana has been reduced to purely customary issues. No traditional ruler in
Ghana has power over criminal cases neither can any traditional ruler punish offenders by
imprisonment. The judiciary has taken over the judicial functions of the chiefs.

(v) Loss of military powers: Under the pre-colonial period, the chiefs were regarded as the
Commander-in- Chief of the people’s Army who could declare wars and lead their people to war
but in modern system of government; the president is regarded as the Commander- in-Chief of
the Armed Forces and empowered to declare wars on the approval of the legislature. No chief
can declare war. They have also lost the power to maintain a police force and a prison service.

CRITICISMS AGAINST CHIEFS

(i) Perennial conflicts: Some people have been criticizing the chiefs as one of the major causes
of conflict in their respective communities. The institution has been associated with conflicts
which often result due to factions which emerge anytime a new chief is to be installed.

(ii) Corruption: Some of these chiefs are accused of corruption. Some of them sometimes even
sell the same piece of land to two or more people. Again, royalties received from mining and
other companies are not used for the benefit of the entire society but to satisfy their own selfish
desires.

(iii) Interference in politics: Chiefs are regarded as the fathers of the people and are therefore
expected to unify them. Chiefs are expected to be politically neutral but some of them get
themselves actively involved in partisan-politics. Those who are not in the same party with them
therefore try to sabotage them.

(iv) Immorality: Some of the chiefs engage themselves in immoral acts. Some sleep with other
people’s wives and others chases small girls which reduces the respect accorded to them.

(v) Lack of modernization of the institution.

CAUSES OF CHIEFTANCY DISPUTES

The main causes of chieftaincy disputes in Ghana are highlighted below:

(i) Failure to perform traditional rites: If a traditional ruler fails to perform traditional rites
such as pouring of libation it can result in chieftaincy disputes.

(ii) Chiefs actively involved in partisan politics: Chiefs are regarded as fathers of the people so
if they engage in active partisan politics it will create division in the kingdom or community
because some of the people may oppose him resulting in disunity and eventually lead to dispute.

(iii) Arbitrary sale of stool lands and state regalia: If chiefs or traditional rulers arbitrary or
wrongfully sell stool lands and state regalia, it can cause chieftaincy disputes.
(iv) Political interference: A chief is a person who halls the appropriate family and lineage who
has been validly nominated, elected or selected and enstooled, enskinned or installed in
accordance with relevant customary law and usage so if because of political interference
someone who does not possess these features is selected as chief to the detriment of the qualified
people, chieftaincy dispute would be resulted.

(v) Bribery and corruption: If king makers are found of collecting bribes or engage in corrupt
activities, chieftaincy dispute may be resulted.

(vi) Wrongful succession to the throne: If someone succeeds the throne wrongfully, chieftaincy
dispute can be resulted. For example, the Ashanti Kingdom belongs to the Oyoko Family so if
someone who does not belong to that family (non-royal) succeeds the throne, chieftaincy
disputes could be resulted.

(vii) Failure of some chiefs to protect the interest of their subjects: If traditional rulers fail to
promote or protect the interest of their subjects it can result into chieftaincy dispute.

REASONS WHY CHIEFS MUST ABSTAIN FROM ACTIVE PARTISAN POLITICS

(i) Chiefs are the fathers of the people: Chiefs are the fathers of the people and as such should
limit their role to that of giving advice to the various groups in the state.

(ii) Chiefs are recorded as symbol of unity: Chiefs are regarded as symbol of unity in the
traditional area and are therefore expected not to do anything that will divide their people.

(iii) A chief may lose respect if he indulges in partisan politics. In situations where the chief
indulges in corrupt practices or tells lies to win support for his party. he is likely to receive
insults from his political opponents.

(iv) Partisan politics involves opposing groups. Traditional rulers should therefore remain
politically neutral to reconcile opposing groups, when they engage in petty quarrels.

(v) Chiefs perform judicial functions such as settlement of disputes and are therefore expected
not to engage themselves in active politics so that their people may have confidence in them
when they settle cases involving opposing parties.

(vi) If a chief engages in active politics and finds himself in the opposition party, it can adversely
affect the development of the area.

(vii) The functions performed by chiefs are numerous. These include pouring of libations,
attending funerals, durbars and festivals. They will be overburdened and cannot perform these
duties up to expectation when they get themselves engaged in active partisan politics.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN

BRITISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION

IN WEST AFRICA

Colonialism is a process by which foreign powers create economic, political and cultural
systems are restructured to serve the foreign powers interest. OR Colonialism means taking
control of the administration of a country or people by another country.

By 1900, all West African countries had been colonized by Britain, France, Portugal or Germany
except Liberia. The British acquired their territories through settlement, purchase, conquest and
cession. The territories of British West Africa were The Gambia, Gold Coast (Ghana), Nigeria
and Sierra Leone. The British colonial administration started in the Gold Coast colony in 1874.

REASONS FOR COLONIALISM

1. The need for new market to sell their surplus product& One of the r reasons for the
acquisition of colonies was to search for overseas mart absorb the surplus goods
manufactured by the European countries including Britain, France, Germany, Russia and
Italy as a result of the introducing of industrial revolution. During the second half of the
nineteenth century when industrial revolution was at its peak, these European countries
produce far more than they could absorb locally and since these European cows produced
more or less the same things, no industrialized country was prepared to allow other
industrialized country to export her finished product in her country. In order not to work
in vain, these industrialized countries decided to come to Africa to search for new market
to sell their surplus product.
2. The search for raw materials for European industries: Europe. during 19th century
became the workshop of the World with insatiable appetite raw materials to teed her
industries. There was an acute shortage of raw materials such as rubber, cotton, and
minerals which the Europeans need their industries. Africa which had enough of these
raw materials bet target of the Europeans colonialism and the need on the part of the Euro
powers to ensure adequate supply of such raw materials to feed their industries made
them partition Africa.
3. The need for field for investment of surplus capital: As more and profit was
accumulated from industrialization in Europe. the need for nets areas where surplus
capital could he invested became necessary and this accounted for colonialism.
4. To spread Christianity and western civilization: The Europeans considered their
culture and civilization as superior to that of Africans. African culture was considered as
barbaric and was therefore looked down upon by the Europeans. They therefore decided
to export Christianity and their so-called -civilization’ to Africans through colonialism.
5. The quest for national prestige or glory: The quest for national prestige or glory also
accounted for colonialism. The acquisition of colonies was regarded by European nations
as a symbol of a nation’s greatness. During the time, the more colonies a nation had the
more powerful and great such a nation was considered to be. In view of this, Britain and
France sought to have more colonies.
6. Outlet for surplus labour: Colonialism was seen as a means of securing employment
 for British and French personnel. The industrial revolution and the capitalist mode of
production did not produce only surplus capital but also surplus working power or labour.
With the invention of machines, a lot of works could be done by few hands which created
unemployment problem for the Europeans. In 1870’s alone, it was estimated that about
one million people were jobless in England. The acquisition of colonies was therefore
intended to serve as an outlet where the jobless population could settle and be
rehabilitated.

TYPES OF COLONIES
Two types of colonies existed. They were the crown colony and the protectorate.
Crown Colony: Crown colonies refer to the areas acquired by the British in West Africa either
by cession, settlement or conquest. These colonies acquired by the British were considered as a
legal possession of the British crown.
Protectorate: Protectorate refers to a territory or a colony whose traditional rulers by treaty
surrounded certain rights to the British crown in exchange for protection

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CROWN COLONY ARO THE PROTECTORATE

1. Crown Colony was a legal possession of the British Crown while the protectorate
remained under the authority of the traditional rulers.
2. The Crown Colony was a form of direct control by a foreign power while, the
Protectorates were governed indirectly.
3. An Act of parliament created a Crown Colony whiles a Protectorate was established by
treaties or agreement and proclamation.
4. A Crown Colony was a territory invaded by a larger power example Britain sets its own
government in the colony headed by a Governor while a Protectorate was a territory that
was protected by a stronger power.
5. Crown colony had no sovereignty but the Protectorate retained their sovereignty: and had
their defense and external relations handled by the Protector.
6. All the activities of the Crown Colony were controlled by the sovereign country whiles
the Protectorate received only protection and acted independently.
7. The Africans in the Crown Colony were British subjects while those in the Protectorates
were protected persons.
8. Crown colony was dominated and exploited unlike the Protectorate which was semi-
autonomous
9. A crown colony was administratively well structured with Legislative an Executive
Councils while the Protectorate were largely ruled by percepts traditional authorities.
10. The Crown Colony had a lot of infrastructural developments while the Protectorate
hardly experienced such developments.
11. The administration of the Crown Colony was expensive compared to protectorate which
was run on low budget.
12. The Crown Colony was ruled by uniformed British laws while protectorate was subjected
to traditional institutions.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM/COLONIZATION.

1. It led to the introduction of a common currency: Colonialism led to introduction of a
common currency as a medium of exchange to replace the barter trade system. Thus, the
 form of trade where participants directly exchanged goods or services far other goods
services without using a medium of exchange such as money which sometimes created
disagreement and conflicts was done away with.
2. It led to the introduction of formal education: Most of the missionaries introduced
formal education in Africa by establishing mission schools such as primary schools.
secondary schools and colleges in their colonies to educate the local people.
3. It led to the introduction of official language: Colonialism led to the introduction of
official languages such as English Language, French and Portuguese. Many Africans
learned the languages of their colonial masters which has given them more advantage to
be able to communicate in the present globalised world without difficulties.
4. It led to the introduction of machines: Colonization led to the introduction of machines
such as tractors, computers, etc. to make work easier and faster. It led to the introduction
of plantation farming: Colonialism led to the introduction of plantation farming for
growing of cash crops like cocoa, coffee. rubber and cotton. The introduction of
plantation farming contributed immensely in reducing unemployment rate in the colonies.
5. It led to the introduction of Christianity: Colonization led to the introduction of
Christianity in Africa to uplift the moral standard of the people in the various colonies.
6. It led to the abolition of had/outmoded cultural practices: Colonization led to the
abolition of certain outmoded cultural practices such as the female genital mutilation,
trokossi system and throwing of twins into evil forest which were inimical to the rights
and liberties of the people in the various colonies of Africa.
7. Provision of infrastructural/architectural development: The Europeans provided more
infrastructures like medical facilities, transport and communication networks, schools,
forts and castles, roads, railways, telegraphs, postal services, telephone, airports, etc
which were non-existent in pm-colonial Africa.
8. Introduction of judicial system: The Europeans introduced the use of law courts in
Africa to administer justice for peace to prevail. In all the independent States, except the
Muslim ones. the higher courts introduced by the colonial masters have been retained.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF COLONIALISM/COLONIZATION

1. It made us lose our true identity: Colonialism took away our pride and our collective
identity as dignified persons with some of the richest history known to man. There is a
line in Ghanaian hi-life song by Amandzeba Nat Brew (wogbe joke) that captures this
very succinctly. It translates to “they came to wipe our tears and sweat; instead they
wiped away our dignity”. Colonialism has made Africans to be like Europeans. They
have given us foreign names. languages, religion and dresses. Our true identity as
Africans is lost.
2. It destroyed our native or indigenous system of government: The weakening of the
indigenous system of government was another visible negative impact of colonialism.
The powers that the traditional rulers had to rule their people were destroyed. The means
through which most of the African states were acquired such as conquest and deposition
of some chiefs brought the whole institution of chieftaincy into disrepute. What further
deepened this disrespect was the way in which the colonial administrators used the
traditional rulers to collect taxes and enforce certain measures such as force labour which
was most hated by the subjects.
3. It made us develop taste for foreign goods: Colonialism has made Africans develop
 taste for foreign goods instead of locally manufactured goods. The concentration on the
production of cash crops during the colonial period compelled Africans to ignore the
production of food crops for their own consumption. Food therefore had to be imported
for the ordinary people to buy at high prices to feed themselves. Thus, Africans were in
most cases made to produce what they did not consume and to consume what they did not
produce. The inordinate taste and crave for European goods and services which have so
indelibly contributed to the weakening of the economy of many African states owe their
genesis to this phenomenon.
4. It destroyed the local industries and crafts: Colonialism led to the destruction of local
industries and crafts that existed in Africa in pre-colonial times. African pre-colonial
industries produced all that Africans needed, including building materials, beads, iron
tools, soap and cloth. In North Africa, handicraft advanced before colonialism in spheres
ranging from brass work to woolen production. Colonialism destroyed these craft and
industries, through the importation of cheap commodities produced on a mass scale into
the continent and thereby threw thousands of people out of jobs.
5. It led to the creation and widening of the gap between the urban rural areas: the
enormous increase in urban population was as a result of the push and pull factors. The
pull of young men and women to the urban centres front the rural areas was facilitated
factors such as the need education, employment and better social facilities while the push
from the rural areas was propelled by famine, epidemic, poverty, taxation and lack social
amenities. This gap between the urban and rural areas still exists today.
6. It reduced our human resources: The Europeans through Trans-Atlantic slave trade
took our active persons who could have worked for us for development away to work in
their plantations.
7. It exploited our natural resources: Our natural resources such as timber, cotton. rubber
and minerals were taking away by the Europeans to feed their industries and thereby
making Africans poor.
8. It led to the destruction of African culture and traditions: The Europeans regarded
our culture, customs and traditions as inferior so they changed some of them such as
marriage. family systems and religion and replaced with theirs. The African culture was
diluted. traditions were taken away and their ways of life were destroyed. Many Africans
abandoned their own traditional ways of eating habits and dressing and used that of the
Europeans. The African traditional religion was also destroyed as a result of the
introduction of Christianity.

THE CROWN COLONY SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH WEST

AFRICA
The British named the system of administration she adopted in her West Africa colonies as
crown colony system because those colonies were regarded as legal possession of the British
Crown. The British labeled the system of administration of its dependencies as crown to
emphasize that the colonies had political system controlled from Britain and the indigenous
people in the colonies had little or no part to play in the system, All major policies, decisions and
laws implemented in the colonies were made by the British government under the crown colony
system. Under the British Crown Colony System, colonies were acquired in the name of the
Monarch.
FEATURES/STRUCTURE OF THE CROWN COLONY SYSTEM
The crown colony system was hierarchically arranged. It consisted of monarch, the Secretary of
State for the colonies. the colonial governor, the Executive and the Legislative Council,
Provincial and District Commissioners and the chiefs (local authorities)
1. The Monarch: The apex of the administration of the British crown system was the
Monarch. The monarch was the head of each of the colonies and the head of state of the
United Kingdom. The mona represented by the Governor who saw to the day-to-day
administration colony entrusted to her care. The monarch was responsible for the
appointment of the Secretary of State for the colonies and any other appointments
Governor. They were all responsible to her.
2. The Secretary of State: Next to the monarch was the Secretary of State for the colonies.
The British had Secretary of State for the Colonies who was based in the Colonial Office
in London. The Secretary of State for the colonies was a cabinet minister who
represented the British Crown and also supervised the various governors on behalf of the
crown. The Secretary of State supervised and co-ordinated the work of the governors and
was also responsible for the posting, promotion, discipline and dismissal of governors of
the colonies. He was responsible for the formulation and introduction of British policies
for the approval of parliament. He also saw to their implementation when the policies
were approved by parliament.
3. The Governor: Next to the Secretary of State was the Governor appointed by the crown
upon recommendation of the Secretary of State for the colonies. The Governor was
responsible for the day-to-day administrative the colony. He was the president of the
Legislative and the Executive of the colonies and made sure that laws passed or policies
formulated were acceptable to the British Crown.
4. The Executive Council: There was an existence of an Executive which was made up of
the heads of the important government department such as the Attorney General, the
Financial Secretary, Director of Services, the Colonial Secretary and the Officer
Commanding the Local troops. The Executive Council was an advisory body which
advised the governor on formulation of policies and assisted him in administering the
colonial territories. Again, the council members were heads of important government
departments and saw to it that policies formulated were executed in their respective
department.
5. The legislative council: There was existence of legislative council that helped the
Governor to administer the British colonies. The was made up of Senior British officials
heading the various others representing special interests such as mines, commerce,
industry. The Legislative Council helped the governor in making laws as ordinances for
administering the dependencies or colonies. It also as a forum for discussion of matters of
national interest.
6. Provincial Commissioners and District Commissioners: For effective and efficient
administration, the colonies were divided into regions and districts headed by Regional
and District Commissioners respectively. The District Commissioners implemented
official policies at the local level through the chiefs in the performance of their duties.
The Regional and District Commissioners had considerable freedom without necessarily
consulting the governor before taken actions.
7. Local Authorities: At the bottom of the hierarchy were chiefs who were in direct contact
with the people. They enforced official policies as instructed by the District
 Commissioners at the local level. The District Commissioners therefore reached the
people through the chiefs.

DETAILED STUDY OF THE CROWN COLONY SYSTEM

THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES THE STATUS, POWERS AND
FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES

The Secretary of State for the colonies was a member of the British Parliament and a cabinet
minister in charge of British colonies. The Secretary of State was based in the colonial office in
London and was entrusted with the administration of the colonies to resident governors who
reported to him.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES

1. Recommended people to the crown to be appointed as governors: The Secretary of
State was charged with the responsibility of advising the British Crown on persons he
considered fit to be appointed as Governors for the British colonies. It could also
promote, transfer and dismiss colonial governors who failed to live up to expectation. For
the governor. Sir Fredrick Hudgson of the Gold Coast was transferred from the Gold
Coast to Barbados on the recommendations of the Secretary of State (or his involvement
in the Ashanti Golden stool episode,
2. Approved the drafting of a new constitution for the colonies: The secretary of state
had to give his approval before a new constitution could be drafted and implemented in
the colonies.
3. Received grievances and petitions from the colonies on behalf of the British
parliament: The Secretary of State was responsible for receiving the grievances and
petitions from the local people in the course of administering the colonies. For instance,
the Land Bill ordinance of 1897 was withdrawn by the then Secretary of State for the
colony, Joseph Chamberlin when the leadership of the Aborigines Right Protection
Society (ARPS) sent petition to him.
4. Supervised the colonial administration by giving directives to the Governors based
on the British policies: The Secretary of State was responsible for supervising the work
of all the Governors in the British colonies, with the view of ensuring that the
dependencies were administered in accordance with the British colonial policies.
5. Controlled the finances of the colonies: The Secretary of State for the colonies
controlled the finances through approval of budgets and auditing of accounts. The
Secretary of State was charged with the responsibility of approving the budget prepared
by the Executive Council of the colonies and Governors before they could be
implemented.
6. He approved major projects to be undertaken in the colonies: The Secretary of State
approval was sought before any major public work could be initiated in the colonies.
7. Set up Commission of Enquiry to investigate issues in the colonies: He was
empowered to establish commission of enquiry to investigate any unusual occurrence in
any colony. For example, the Watson Commission was set up to investigate the causes of
the 1948 Riots in the Gold Coast (Ghana).
8. He could override the Governor’s veto and power of certification: The Secretary of
 State could override the Governor’s veto power and power of certification on legislative
decisions when necessary.

(ix). Prepared and submitted reports: The Secretary of State for the colonies prepared and
submitted annual reports to the British government on the colonies to the British crown through
the British parliament.

(x). He could disallow certain laws: The Secretary of State for the colonies could disallow any
law which was not consistent with British colonial policies.

(xi). Responsible and accountable to the British parliament: The Secretary of State for the
colonies was responsible and accountable to the British parliament. He could be called at any
time by the British parliament to answer questions on certain issues concerning the colonies.

LIMITATIONS OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES

(i). The Secretary of State was a cabinet member and was therefore responsible to the British
parliament. He had to submit every policy of legislation and administration of the colonies to the
cabinet for approval before he could implement them. The cabinet could oppose any bad policy
that would put the cabinet into disrepute.

(ii). Parliamentary control: The Secretary of State for the colonies was responsible and
accountable to the British parliament and could be criticized and questioned for specific
occurrences within the colonies in which he was responsible. For example, the Secretary of state
for the colonies was called upon by the British parliament to answer questions when the 1948
riots of Gold Coast took place.

(iii) The Secretary of State for the colonies was limited by the British public opinion expressed
by the mass media and the electorate.

(iv). He was empowered to work within the frame work of the constitution. He could not
exceed the power given him by the constitution.

(v). As a cabinet member, if there was a cabinet reshuffle, he could be changed or sent to
another department by the prime minister.

(vi). The monarch appointed the Secretary of State for the colonies and was made to be
answerable to the British Crown.

THE COLONIAL GOVERNOR IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

The Governor was next to the Colonial Secretary in the hierarchy of the Crown Colony system.
The Governor was appointed by the British Monarch upon the recommendation of the Secretary
of State for the colonies and was therefore responsible to the British Crown through the
Secretary of State for the colonies_ The Governor was assisted by the Executive and the
Legislative Council in performing its functions.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNOR

(i) The Governor prepared the annual budget or fiscal policy of the colony to be approved by the
Secretary of State for the colonies.

(ii) As the head of the administration of the colonies, the Governor was responsible for the
formulation and implementation of policies for the colony under his control. He was assisted by
the executive council in undertaking this function.

(iii) The Governor was empowered to appoint, discipline and dismiss public servants including
judges who held office by royal connection.

(iv) As the head of the Legislative Council, he played a major or leading role in the initiation of
bills to be passed into laws or ordinances in the legislative council. The laws enacted needed to
be approved by the Secretary of State.

(v). The Governor was the Commander-in- Chief of the colonial troops and he could mobilize
them to engage in any operation in his colony so as to maintain peace and order.

(vi). The Governor was also charged with the responsibility of sending annual progress report of
the territory under his care to the Secretary of State for the British government to be abreast with
events in the colonies.

POWERS OF THE COLONIAL GOVERNOR IN WEST AFRICA WHICH MADE HIM

A DICTATOR

(i) Formulation and implementation of policies: As head of the colony, he formulated and
executed policies which he considered appropriate for good administration.

(ii) Exercising the royal prerogative of mercy: As sole crown representative in the colony, he
exercised the royal prerogative of mercy on prisoners and convicted persons.

(iii) Appointment of council members: He was the head of the Executive and therefore
appointed all the members of the Council.

(iv). Appointment of official and un-official members: Officials and most official members of
the legislative council were also appointed or nominated by him.

(v) Power to discipline and dismiss public servants: He appointed, disciplined and dismissed
public servants including judges who also held office by connection,

(vi) Presiding over both the executive and legislative council: He presided over both the
executive and legislative council, thus had absolute control over both legislative and executive
policies.

(vii). He was not bound to take advice from the Executive Council: The Executive Council
was a mere advisory body so the Governor could reject their advice, The British colonial
governor was not hound to take every advice.

(viii). Assenting to bills: Any legislation by the legislative council was subject to the Governor’s
assent, which could be withheld at his discretion.

(ix). Exercise of veto power: The governor had the veto power and also reserved powers over
all colonial legislative measures.

(x). Allocation of land: He allocated land which was not controlled by any legislation.

(xi). He approved the appointment of traditional rulers.

(xii). Making recommendations: He could make recommendations to the Secretary of state for
changes to be made in the constitution.

(xiii). Making decisions relating to defense and external affairs: He had the power to make
decisions relating to defense and external affairs.

LIMITATIONS OF THE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR

(i). The annual report prepared by the Governor needed to be approved by the Secretary of State
for the colonies.

(ii). The Governor was required to work only within the framework of British colonial policy
drawn by the British government.

(iii). The Secretary of State could override the Governor’s veto power and power of
certification on legislative decisions when necessary. For example, Governor Maxwell of the
Gold Coast was stopped by the Secretary of State Joseph Chamberlin from passing the Land Bill
of 1897 as presented to the Legislative Council.

(iv) The Governor needed to seek the Secretary of State approval before any major public work
could be carried out in the colonies.

(v). The Executive and the Legislative Council also served as a check on the activities of the
Governor. They advised the Governor on many aspects of the colonial administration though, the
Governor not bound to take their advice.

(vi) The natives reserved the right to petition the colonial office in London against certain
policies of the Governor. For instance, the leaders of Gold Coast sent petitions to the Secretary of
State in London when the Land Bill was introduced in 1897 which was heeded to by the
Secretary of State and called for its withdrawal.
THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL
Before 1942, all members of the Executive Council were whites or Europeans. In Ghana, it was
1942 that two Africans were appointed to the Executive Council. They were Nana Ofori Atta
and Sir Arku Korsah. In 1943, Nana Tsibu Darko was included in the executive council. The
executive council was one of the two institutions which assisted the colonial Governors to
administer the dependencies.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

(i). The Executive council advised the Governor on the formulation of policies. It also assisted
him in administering the colonies.

(ii) The Executive Council members were mainly heads of important governmental departments
and therefore saw to it that policies formulated and approved were executed in their respective
departments.

(iii) The Executive Council also advised the Governor on the exercise of the prerogative of
mercy.

(iv) It advised the Governor on the allocation of land to people who needed land for commercial
purposes.

(v) The Council played some intermediary role between the Governor and the Legislative
Council.

LIMITATIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

(i). The Governor was not bound to take the Executive Council’s advice. He could reject their
advice.

(ii). Because the Governor was the head of the Executive Council and made most of the
appointments, most of them were mere rubber stamp. They always supported the decisions of the
Governor in order to maintain their positions.

(iii) Before 1942, Africans were excluded from the Executive Council. The exclusion of African
prevented the natives in having a say in the initiation of policies.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

There was an existence of Legislative Council that helped the Governor to administer the British
colonies. The Legislative Council was made up of Senior British officials heading the various
departments and others representing special interests such as mines, commerce, banking and
industries. The Governor was the head of the Legislative Council.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

(i). The legislative Council helped the Governor in making laws known as ordinances for
administering the dependencies or colonies.

(ii). It also served as a forum for discussing matters of national interest.

(iii). The Legislative Council debated and approved the policies and the annual budget of the
territory.

LIMITATIONS ON THE POWERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

(i) Veto power: The Governor had veto power and could therefore veto the bills passed by the
legislative council to become laws.

(ii). The Colonial Validity Act of 1865: The legislative Council was limited by the Colonial
Validity Act of 1865. This Act enabled the crown to disregard or declare null and void any law
made in the colony which was found to be contrary to the laws operating in Britain of natural
justice.

(iii) Casting vote: The Governor being the head of the legislative Council had a casting vote,
this enabled him to decide whether a decision should hold or not when there was a tie of votes in
the council.

(iv). Drafting of bills: The Secretary of state for the colonies had the power to approve the
drafting of all important bills.

(v). Power of certification: The Governor had power of certification which enabled him to
enforce bills that had been rejected by the Legislative Council.

(vi). The Governor was the head of the Council and could therefore maneuver his way through
the decisions of the Council.

(vii). Money bills: The legislative council could not introduce money bills. The Governor had
the exclusive rights to introduce money bills.

(viii). Revision of laws: Revision of laws passed by the council was the sole responsibility of
the Secretary of State for the colonies.
.
(ix). Official control: The legislative council was mainly controlled by the official members
who were in the majority.

INDIRECT RULE IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

Indirect rule refers to a local administration system by which British administered their colonial
territories through the use of traditional institutions and personnel. The critical aim of indirect
rule in West Africa was to establish western democratic institutions and practices in the
territories of West Africa. In West Africa, Indirect Rule was introduced by Fredrick Lord Lugard
in Northern Nigeria and was extended to other parts of West Africa. The system was least
successful in Eastern Nigeria but worked better in Northern Nigeria. The main agents of indirect
rule were the traditional rulers (chiefs).

FEATURES OF INDIRECT RULE OR INSTITUTIONS USED UNDER INDIRECT

RULE

(i) Existence of native authorities: Under indirect rule, native authorities existed. The native
authority consisted of the paramount chief, the leading sub-chiefs and the Council of Elders. The
British gave them recognition, extended their powers and made them integral part of the
machinery of government Areas like Iboland in Eastern Nigeria which had no chiefs, the British
established artificial or warrant chiefs. The native authorities saw to the maintenance of law and
order and were therefore permitted to maintain a small body of police known as the Native
Authority police. They were also made to administer the local areas by formulating and
implementing decisions and policies in line with the British colonial policy.

(ii) Existence of native treasury: As part of local administration, native treasuries were
established which served as a repository for taxes, court fees and fees collected in the locality.
The traditional rulers collected the taxes, fees and fines and paid into the native treasury. Each
native authority was allowed to retain a fixed proportion of the proceeds of tax for its local
development and the rest paid to the central government.

(iii) Existence of native courts: Under indirect rule, each native authority had a system of native
courts for the administration of justice. The courts were composed of the chiefs and their elders
who were supervised and guided by British officials who were the District Commissioners. In
Northern Nigeria, the native courts applied sharia law in the dispensation of justice.

(iv). Existence of Governor: Under indirect rule system, there was an existence of a governor
who was the highest political figure in the territory.

(v). Existence of Regional and District Commissioners: The system featured Regional and
District Commissioners who assisted the Governor to transmit British colonial policies to the
local people through the chiefs.

(vi). Recruitment of Local officials from the same units: Under indirect rule, officials of
native authority including court registrars, treasuries, clerks and health inspectors were usually
recruited from within the same tribal unit.

REASONS WHY INDIRECT RULE WAS ADOPTED IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

(i) Inadequate British personnel:

One major reason that made Fredrick Lugard introduce indirect rule in Nigeria and other parts of
British West Africa was due to inadequate British personnel. The British could not get sufficient
number of British staff for administering the territories. Most Europeans were not willing to
come to West Africa which was regarded as ’the white-man’s grave’ due to its poor climate and
the presence of deadly insects like mosquito and tsetse flies.

(ii). Inadequate funds: British adopted indirect rule in West Africa because they considered it to
be relatively cheaper and convenient to maintain than direct administration. Direct administration
whereby British officials would have to be sent down to West Africa territories could cost them a
lot of money. In order to cut down cost, they adopted indirect rule which was economically
cheaper.

(iii). Language barrier/differences: The British officials found it difficult to communicate

directly with the natives. Indirect rule was therefore adopted by Lugard and the British
administrators so that the traditional rulers could transmit colonial policies to the people in their
own language.

(iv) The existence of an effective tax system: The British found that the Emirates in Northern
Nigeria and other parts of Gold Coast had an effective tax system. The British found it prudent
to adopt indirect rule so that they could use the chiefs to collect the taxes. Because the natives
were already conversant with the payment of taxes, the British were optimistic that the
introduction of taxation by the colonial administration would not be opposed.

(v) It had already been successful in other parts of the world: The British thought it wise to
use the system because of the significant success the system recorded in countries like India.
Uganda and Burma where it was first introduced.

(vi) Vast areas involved: Direct rule was impossible because the territory was very large and
there were few British officials who were ready to work in West Africa so the only convenient
means to get the territories administered was to use the indirect rule.

(vii) Existence of favourable political atmosphere: There existed traditional political system
with well-organized administrative authority which was capable of maintaining law and order.
There was a well-organized hierarchy of native officials whose authority was obeyed without
question. The British did not want to attract the hatred of the people by destroying the premier
position occupied by their leaders and therefore adopted the indirect rule system.

(vii). Poor transportation and communication system: Lack of good roads, airports, postal
system and communication system etc. prevented the British from adopting direct rule instead
they opted for indirect rule.

(viii) The fear of rebellion or opposition from the people: The British adopted indirect rule to
prevent any possible opposition from the rulers and subjects that direct administration might
generate.

FUNCTIONS OF TRADITIONAL RULERS (CHIEFS) DURING THE COLONIAL

PERIOD IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA/HOW THE TRADITIONAL RULERS
SUPPORTED BRITISH COLONIAL RULE

The British regarded chiefs (traditional rulers) in the Gold Coast as their natural allies and used
them as agents or heads of various communities through whom they could rule the territory.
Chiefs thus formed integral part of British administration. Their functions included:

(i) Maintenance of law and order: The traditional rulers-maintained law and order at the local
level, during the colonial period. The paramount chiefs had police assisted in ensuring peace, law
and order. They established prisons where those convicted of committing offence were sent to.
This was done to deter others from committing similar offences.

(ii). Collection of taxes: The main duty of chiefs under the indirect rule policy of the British
was to collect taxes. The traditional rulers were empowered to collect taxes which were paid into
the native treasury established by the British to provide funds to finance the local administration
and developmental projects. Market tolls, fines and fees were also received by the traditional
rulers. The funds in the treasury were controlled by the traditional rulers though they paid a
portion to the central government.

(iii) Mobilization of people and Supervision of communal labor and developmental projects:
The chiefs mobilized people at the local level for communal work as a way of encouraging
speedy development of their communities. They also performed supervisory role on
developmental projects such as schools, hospitals, roads and markets.

(iv). Settlement of disputes: Through the adoption of the native court, the chiefs were
empowered to settle disputes, try offenders of the law and impose punishment under the
supervision of British officials.

(v). They served as intermediary/link between the colonial government and the people:
Traditional rulers served as a link between the colonial government and the local people. The
colonial government implemented its policies and programs in the colonies through the chiefs.
The petitions and grievances of the local people were also channeled through the chiefs to the
central government.

(vi). They acted as a symbol of unity: By virtue of their position, they symbolized unity
among the people.

(vii). The traditional rulers were the custodian of the land: As custodians of the land, they
were mandated to distribute, lease or allocate land to the people for various activities such as
housing, farming and other economic activities.

(viii). Implementation of policies: The traditional rulers implemented the policies and
programs of the colonial leaders.

(x) Served as Electoral College: The chiefs (traditional rulers) were members of the Provincial
Council of Chiefs and served as Electoral College or consultative body on African opinion.

LIMITATIONS/ WAYS IN WHICH COLONIAL RULE CONTRIBUTED TO

DECLINE/WEAKEN/SUBVERT THE POWERS OF THE TRADITIONAL RULERS
UNDER COLONIAL RULE/INDIRECT RULE IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA
(i). Lacked power of legislation: The establishment of Legislative Council by the British
reduced the law-making functions of the chiefs/ traditional rulers. The Legislative Council
became the principal law making body in the Gold Coast.

(ii) Chiefs could not impose tax but were made tax collectors: The power of imposing tax was
reserved for the Governor and the colonial government. The governor introduced native
authority which took over traditional rulers’ absolute control over taxation and disbursement.
The chiefs could not impose tax on the people. They were made only to collect taxes approved
by the Governor. The use of the chiefs as tax collectors made them unpopular in the eyes of the
people. The respect accorded to them initially also declined.

(iii). The introduction of cash economy: During the pre-colonial period, chiefs were usually
known to be the richest people in the society but the introduction of cash economy during British
colonial rule led to the emergence of new class of rich people who had no respect for traditional
authority or institution.

(iv) Lacked power of raising Army: The British colonial rule weakened the military roles of
the chiefs as they could not raise army. Under colonial rule, the chiefs were not allowed to raise
Army. The power of raising Army was reserved for the Governor. Again, chiefs could no longer
declare war or lead their people to war.

(v) The Governor controlled their installation and disposition: Indirect rule empowered the
British Authorities to enthrone and dethrone chiefs. The installation and disposition of chiefs
were subject to the approval of the Governor. This reduced the prestige of the traditional rulers
and misdirected their loyalty. The passing of colonial ordinances: The passing of colonial
ordinances such as the Native Jurisdiction Ordinance (NJO) of 1883, the Native Authority
Ordinance (NAO) of 1927 etc. eroded the powers of traditional rulers.

(vii). Introduction of Christianity: The influence of foreign religion (Christianity) scaled down
the power of the chiefs or the traditional rulers as the spiritual leaders of the people. During the
colonial period, the traditional rulers were no more regarded as the spiritual and religious leaders
of the people. Those who became converts to Christianity and followed the teachings of the
missionaries regarded the missionary leaders as their religious and spiritual leaders but not the
chiefs. The introduction of Christianity undermined the powers of the traditional rulers as they
were perceived as pagans.

(viii). Introduction of Western education/culture: The impact of Western education led to the
breakdown of traditional norms and values of society. Example, homage to and respect for the
traditional rulers. Again, through the introduction of Western education, the people got to know
their rights and freedoms and therefore resisted to certain orders from the chiefs that could
infringe upon their rights. The people also considered the Western culture as superior while that
of African culture was seen as inferior.

(ix). Reduction in judicial powers/power to dispense justice: The establishment of law courts
by the British to adjudicate cases eroded the judicial functions of the traditional rulers. Chiefs
could only settle minor issues under their jurisdiction. All major cases were settled by the courts
established by the British.

(x). Signing of treaties: The treaties and agreements signed between the chiefs and the British
contributed to decline the powers of the chiefs. Signing of treaties such as the Bond of 1844 and
the Fomena Treaty of 1875 weakened the powers of the traditional rulers.

(xi). Lacked power of formulating policies: Under colonial rule, chiefs or the traditional rulers
could not formulate policies for their own people. All major policies were formulated by the
Executive Council without consulting the traditional rulers. Policies formulated were therefore in
the interest of the colonial masters.

WHY THE EDUCATED ELITE OPPOSED THE INDIRECT RULE

(i). The system sidelined the educated elites in the administration of their territories: The
educated elites of British West Africa opposed the system because it excluded them from taking
part in colonial administration. The elites felt that by their education and experience, they were
more qualified to be partners in the administration than the chiefs, who did not understand the
intricacies of most colonial policies, and used as stooges to implement colonial exploitive
policies. This led to rancor, bitterness and conflicts between the chiefs and the educated elite.

(ii) Discrimination in the Civil Service: The Indirect Rule system did not encourage Africans to
join the Civil Service. Almost all the important positions civil service were headed by the British
officials and other Europeans to the exclusion of the African educated elite.

(iii) The mode of selecting people into the legislative council was regarded by the elites as
undemocratic: Indirect rule system did not provide represent representative government. The
system did not give Africans the opportunity to vote and elect their representatives into the
Executive and the Legislative Councils. Even when elective principle was introduced, it was
dishearteningly limited and grossly discriminately.

(iv) The system recognized and gave more powers to traditional rulers or chiefs through whom
they implemented their policies. This promoted division in communities and drew the
chieftaincy institutions into disrepute as the chiefs and elite saw each other as enemies.

(v) The system failed to enhance the socio- economic development of the colonies especially in
the provision of health and educational facilities.

(vi) The educated elite were not happy with the advisory nature of both the executive and
legislative councils in relation to the divide and rule system.

(vii) The educated elite opposed the indirect rule system because it retarded/delayed the
constitutional and political development in the various colonies. The puppet chiefs did not want
any change that might have denied them the enormous powers they were enjoying.

(viii). Most traditional rulers embezzled funds kept in the native treasuries. Most of the
traditional rulers became corrupt and enriched themselves at the expense of their subjects as
there were cases of mismanagement and embezzlement of tax money.

(ix) The system slowed down the pace of nationalism and the attainment of independence. The
stoogy/puppet chiefs were reluctant to join the educated elites in seeking for nationalism and
immediate independence because of the enormous powers and benefits they were enjoying at the
expense of their subjects.

(x) The Indirect Rule system interfered with the institution of chieftaincy as District and
Regional Commissioners recognized chiefs through gazetting.

FACTORS THAT MADE THE EDUCATED ELITE DEMAND FOR ARTICIPATION IN

THE BRITISH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION

(i) Influence of Western Education: The educated elite in Africa such as lawyers, doctors,
engineers and others who understood democratic practices in Western Europe and the United
States demanded for participation in the British colonial administration.

(ii) Introduction of Pan-Africanism and the policy of self-determination: Most educated elite
in Africa were influenced by Pan-Africanism. Pan Africanism and self-determination advanced
after the Second World War by the African Nationalist which contributed to the demand for
participation in the British colonial administration.

(iii) Frustration of the educated elite in the colonial administration: The educated elite were
frustrated with the colonial administration due to their denial to take active part in the
administration of their own area.

(iv) Racial discrimination in the public service and places: Another factor which made the
educated elite in Africa demand for participation in the British colonial administration was due to
racial discrimination in the public service and places. Almost all senior staff positions in the
public service were reserved exclusively for Europeans. Again, African lawyers were not made
state Attorneys.

(v) Economic exploitation of natural resources by the colonialist: In order for Africans to
eradicate the economic exploitation of their own natural resources by the colonialist, the
educated elite saw the need to partake in the colonial administration.

(vi) Introduction of indirect rule: The educated elite were unhappy with the introduction of
indirect rule which made use of traditional rulers as stooges of the colonies.

(vii) Domination of both the Legislative and Executive Council by whites: The educated
elite in African were unhappy with the domination of both the Legislative and the Executive
Council by the whites and therefore demanded for their participation in the British colonial
administration.
(viii) Limited franchise in the various constitutions: The educated elite were not comfortable
with the restricted franchise in the various constitutions and therefore demanded for their
participation so that they could fight for the political rights of their people.

(ix) Inadequate educational and health institutions: Socially, the people were unhappy with the
available facilities which resulted in lack of access to secondary and tertiary education for many
Ghanaians. Medical or health facilities were woefully inadequate.

ADVANTAGES OR POSITIVE EFFECTS OF INDIRECT RULE

(i). Indirect rule hastened the emergence and development of nationalism in West African
countries. The exclusion of many Africans from taking part in the administration of their own
territories more especially the educated elites led to early attack on colonial rule hence beginning
of nationalism in British West Africa

(ii). The indirect rule system was not so harsh as compared to the French policy of assimilation.
This is due to the fact that, under indirect rule system, all Africans were treated equally and were
given some degree of freedom unlike the French policy of assimilation where the people were
divided into citizens and subjects with citizens enjoying preferential treatment to the detriment of
the subjects.

(iii). The British system of indirect rule was relatively cheaper to maintain than direct
administration. By relying on the paramount chiefs, sub-chiefs and their Council of Elders, the
British were able to administer their vast colonial territories without incurring much cost. CM.
Under indirect rule, certain desirable West African institutions, traditions and customs were
preserved.

(iv) The system inculcated in the natives the spirit of self-help needed to develop their own
territories.

DEMERITS OR NEGATIVE EFFECTS OR CRITICISMS OF THE BRITISH

INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM

(i) The system excluded educated Africans from the political process. The total exclusion of the
educated elites from the administration of their own territories led to rancor, bitterness and
conflicts between the chiefs and the educated elites. These educated elites resented to the
maintenance of indirect rule.

(ii). Indirect rule resulted in the slow pace of constitutional rule in some parts of West Africa.
This is because the stogy (puppet) chiefs did not want any change that may deny them of the
enormous powers they were enjoying.

(iii). Traditional rulers under the system of indirect rule became corrupt and enriched themselves
at the expense of their subjects. Thus, the powers given to the chiefs to collect taxes corrupted
them and made them unpopular.
(iv). The indirect rule system created disunity and disorder between the local chiefs and the
educated elites thereby strengthening the policy of divide and rule.

(v). The system encouraged tribalism and sectionalism at the expense of national consciousness,
no wonder one part of Nigeria opposed independence when other parts were clamoring for it.

(vi). The system failed to enhance the infrastructural development in the British colonies
especially in the provision of educational and health facilities.

(vii). The system did not provide the Africans opportunity to vote and elect their representatives.
Again, the British Governor reserved the right to approve the enstoolment and destoolment of
chiefs through gazzeting.

WHY INDIRECT RULE WAS SUCCESSFUL IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

(i) Existence of a favourable political atmosphere: Indirect rule was successful in Northern
Nigeria because there was an existence of favourable traditional political system in Northern
Nigeria with well-organized administrative authority which was capable of maintaining law and
order. Again, there was a well-organized hierarchy of native official whose authority was obeyed
without question.

(ii) Existence of an effective tax system: The existence of well-established native treasury or
tax system contributed immensely to the success of indirect rule system in Northern Nigeria. For
example, the Emirates in Northern Nigeria had an effective tax system. Because the natives were
already conversant with the payment of taxes, introduction of tax system by the British was not
anything new and was therefore not opposed.

(iii). The existence and non-interference of the Islamic religion in Northern Nigeria: The
existence and non-interference of the Islamic religion contributed to the success of indirect rule.
Lord Lugard demonstrated great respect and tolerance for Islamic religion. He did not make any
attempt to interfere with the Islamic religion and this enabled him win the support of the
Muslims in Northern Nigeria.

(iv) Effective communication: Indirect rule system was successful in Northern Nigeria because
traditional rulers could transmit colonial policies to the people in their own language.

(v) Lack of opposition from the educated elite: Indirect rule system also succeeded in Northern
Nigeria because of lack of educated elite to oppose it. The system was wholly accepted in
Northern Nigeria as there was little criticism from the educated elite.

(vi). Retention of the powers of the traditional rulers: Lugard and the British administrators
did not do anything to reduce the powers of the chiefs. They recognized and allowed the
traditional system method of selecting, enskinment and disenskinment of chiefs based on the laid
down customary laws and traditions. The council of elder’s system who gave advice to the Emirs
was also maintained and the small towns and villages were headed by headsmen. With Lugard
not disturbing the traditional system, indirect rule was almost trouble free and worked to
perfection.

TRIAL QUESTIONS

Qt. Q2. Q3. Q4.(a) b)

Q6.

Highlight any six reasons for the practice of indirect rule in British West Africa (SSSCE
1995, Q5)
Highlight any six reasons why the educated elite opposed the system of indirect rule (SSSCE
1996, Q5, WASSCE NOV/DEC 2012)
Estimate six roles of traditional rulers in Ghana during the indirect rule. What is
colonialism?
Highlight any five factors that accounted for colonialism in British West Africa.
Identify any six powers of the colonial governor in West Africa which made him a dictator
(WASSCE 2010, Q7)
Outline three merits and three demerits of indirect rule system.
331
 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

FRENCH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION IN WEST AFRICA

Whilst the British adopted indirect rule system for administering her territories. French used a
direct rule system. France regarded her territories as overseas territories and therefore ruled them
as part of France.

In 19th and 20th century, France took over some territories in West Africa. Among the territories
(colonies) of France were Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Mauritania, Niger, Dahomey (Benin), Ivory
Coast, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) and Togo.

THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSIMILATION Assimilation was one ideological basis of

French Colonial Policy in the 19th and 20th century.

Assimilation can be defined as a form of French policy in which French laws, culture
civilization was to be applied to all her colonies outside France regardless of distance from
France, the size of the colony, the organization of the society, the nomic development, race or
religious beliefs. The concept was based on the ideas of expanding French culture and
civilization to the colonies outside France and to clop them to become equal and acceptable in
French society. The French West African colonies under the policy of assimilation were regarded
as an integral part of France. Examples of assimilation in practice in the colonies were in
Senegal’s four communes namely, Dakar, Goree, Rufisque and St. Louis which had direct
representation in the French parliament.

1TURES OF THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSIMILATION

(i) Divisions in the status of people in the colonies: Under the French policy of assimilation.
Africans under France were classified into citizens and subjects. A citizen was an individual
who was born in any of the four communes of Senegal namely Dakar, Goree, Rufisque and St.
Louis or an individual who had the basic requisite qualifications and was elevated to a
citizenship status which endeared him to all the rights associated with French citizenship. The
subjects were those people who were born outside the four communes of Senegal and did not
have the basic requirements to be elevated as French citizens

(ii) Centralized administration: The French assimilation policy was a high centralized system
of administration. The system was managed from France through the Minister of Colonies who
was based in Paris, France and was assisted by the Governor-General who was the head of the
federation. Thus, the policies and laws of the federation were made in France and transmitted to
Dakar which were further transmitted to the Lt. Governors in the various colonies for
implementation.

(iii) Direct rule: Unlike the British who used indirect rule and administered the territories
through the chiefs, the French administered directly from France. Under French rule, colonial
policies formulated in Paris were transmitted through the chain of French officers heading the
various sub-divisions at the federal, territorial, cercles and cantons level.

(iv) Existence of force labor: The French introduced force labour in their territories except the
four communes of Senegal namely Dakar, Rufisque, St. Louis and Goree. Those who lived
outside the four communes and did not have the basic requirements to be elevated into
citizenship status were regarded as subjects and were engaged in force labour. Those who
refused were punished through the law of indignat.

(v) Considered the French culture as superior: The French policy of assimilation placed
emphasis on the superiority of the French culture whilst that of Africa was seen as inferior. The
French sought to change all Africans inhabitants in their colonies into French by forcing them to
accept and practice the French culture. Africans in the French colonies had to speak like French,
dress like French and dance like French.

(vi) Centralized federation: For an effective implementation of the policy assimilation, the
French classified all the nine territories in West Africa under a centralized federation popularly
referred to as Federation of French West Africa with its headquarters in Dakar, Senegal. The
system was however managed from France through the Minister of Colonies and to the Governor
General who was the head of the federation. Thus, the policies and laws of the federation were
made in France and transmitted to Dakar which were France and transmitted to the Lt. Governors
in the various colonies for implementation.

(vii) The economic system that prevailed in the Metropolitan France had to reflect the economic
structures of the French African colonies.

DETAILED STUDY OF THE FRENCH WEST AFRICAN COLONIAL OFFICERS

THE FRENCH MINISTER OF COLONIES

French Minister of Colonies was a resident in Paris, France. He was appointed by the French
president. He was a cabinet member charged with the responsibility of ministering the French
overseas territories. His roles were similar to that of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in the
British colonial system of administration.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF THE FRENCH MINISTER OF COLONIES

(i) He approved major projects to be undertaken in the colonies. The French Minister of Colonies
approval was sought before any major public project could be implemented in the colonies. The
implementation of developmental projects such as construction of roads, railways and airports
needed the Minister of Colonies’ approval.

(ii) The French Minister of Colonies was responsible for the appointment, promotion, transfer
and discipline of Governor-Generals, Lieutenant-Governors and Chief Financial officers.

(iii) As a minister charged with the responsibility of administering the colonies, he exercised the
right to confer French citizenship status on inhabitants of African territories who possessed the
requisite qualifications and had applied to be elevated as citizens of French.

(iv) French Minister of Colonies received progress reports from the colonies. Both the Governor
—General and the Lieutenant —Governors were required to submit progress and situational
reports to the Minister of Colonies to abreast him of events in their respective areas of
jurisdiction.

(v) The French Minister of Colonies issued decrees and directives regarding colonial policies to
be undertaken in the overseas provinces. These policies bordered on taxation, trade, construction
works and growing of cash crops which were to be implemented in the colonies to strengthen the
colonial bond.
THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL
Hierarchically, the Governor-General was under the minister of the colonies in the French
colonial administration. The Governor-General was appointed by the government of France on
the recommendations of the minister of the overseas territories to ensure the administration of the
Federation of French West Africa. He was the head of the federation and was therefore stationed
in Dakar, Senegal, the headquarters of the federation. The Governor-General was a
representative of the French government and therefore acted as a link between metropolitan
France and French West Africa. He was accountable to the French government through the
minister responsible for the colonies.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL

(i) Implementation and enforcement of indignat and general policies: As an administrative
head, the Governor-General was responsible for overseeing the general implementation and
enforcement of the obnoxious indignat and general policies of the colonies.

(ii). Appointment and discipline of senior government officials: As the head of the
administration of French West Africa, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint,
discipline and dismiss senior government officials as commandant du cercles and top public
servants except the Lt. Governors, Magistrates and the Director of local services in the territories
within the federation.

(iii) Financial role: The Governor-General was responsible for drawing the budget of the entire
federation for onward transmission to France for approval. He also gave approval to all bills
passed by the various colonies before they become laws. He could therefore veto any bill that
might not be in the interest of France.

(iv). Served as a link between the federation and the metropolitan France: The Governor-
General was a representative of the French government and therefore acted as link between
Metropolitan France and the French West Africa. He acted as the spokesperson for French West
Africa. Any Lt. Governor could communicate with the French government through him.

(v) Supervisory role: As the head of the French federation in West Africa supervised the whole
federation from Dakar by coordinating and directing the work of his subordinate officials like the
Lt. Governors. Commander du cercles etc.

(vi). Exercised the prerogative of mercy: The Governor-General exercised the royal
prerogative of mercy. He could therefore pardon convicted criminals.

(vii). Recommendation of citizenship position: The Governor-General recommended for the

elevation to the status of citizens in the federation of French West Africa. Under the policy of
assimilation, all people in the colonies who applied for citizenship status had to pass their
application through the Governor-General.

LIMITATIONS OF THE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL

(i)Parliamentary control: As the administrative head of the Federation of French West Africa,
the Governor-General was subject to the control of metropolitan parliament through the minister
of colonies in undertaking its functions. The French National Assembly could cause his dismissal
if he failed to live up to expectation.

(ii). Public opinion from the people in the colonies: The Governor-General was limited by the
public opinion expressed by the people in the colonies. The citizens and subjects in the various
colonies could report on his conduct and behaviour to Metropolitan France.

(iii). Accountable to the Colonial Minister: The Governor-General was responsible and
accountable to the minister for overseas territories who appointed him. He could be transferred,
dismissed or be demoted by the Colonial Minister.

(iv). Could not formulate policies for the colonies: The Governor-General did not have any
power to formulate policies for the colonial administration as this was entrusted in the Colonial
Minister.

(v). Superior Council control: The Governor-General was in a way limited by the superior
council which acted as an advisory body to both the Governor General and the Colonial Minister.
His decisions could be nullified by the superior council in Paris.

THE LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR

STATUS
The next political figure after the Governor-astral in the Federation of French West Africa was
the Lieutenant Governor. various colonies in the French West Africa were administered by
Lieutenant Gammon. The Lieutenant Governors were appointed by the Minister for overseas
territories. In each colony, the Lieutenant Governor posted there was the thief administrator.
They assisted the Governor General in administering the federation.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS

(i). Implementation of French policy and directives: The Lieutenant Governor was charged
with the responsibility of implementing the French policies and directives in his colony. The day
to day administration of the colony was under his care.

(ii). Receiving reports: The Lt. Governors received reports from the commandant de cercles.
The commandant de cercles who were the heads of the administrative divisions of the colonies
were all responsible and accountable to the Lt. Governor.

(iii). Maintenance of law and order: The Lt. Governor was responsible for maintaining law and
order in the territory assigned to him. He was assisted by the police, commandant de cercles, the
Army and the Advisory Council to carry out this function.

(iv) Drawing of budget of the colony: The Lt. Governor was responsible for drawing up the
colony’s budget which was approved by the Governor-General.
(v). Control of civil service in the territory: The Lt. Governor was responsible for controlling
civil service in his territory.

(vi). Making of bye- laws: The Lt. Governors made bye-laws for the territory assigned to him.
He was assisted by the Advisory Council in undertaking this function.

(vii). Served as a link between the Governor-General in Dakar and the colony under his
care The Lt. Governor served as a link between the Governor General in Dakar and the colony
under his care. lie carried information and policies from the Governor-General in Dakar to the
colony for implementation whilst the grievances and the petitions of the people in the colony
were also carried by the Lt. Governor to the Colonial Minister through the Governor-General.

COMMANDANT DE CERCLE
In the French system of administration, each colonial territory was divided into cercles with each
cercle headed by Commandant de Cercle.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF THE COMMANDANT DE CERCLE

(i) The Commandant de Cercle was charged with responsibility of appointing village chief (chef
de villa) who executed colonial policies at the grassroots.

(ii). The Commandant de Cercle ensured the collection of taxes from the inhabitants of French
West African territories. Taxes were imposed on French inhabitants, both citizens and subjects to
raise revenue for the colonial office to administer the overseas territories (provinces)

(iii) The Commandant de Cercle served as a link between his immediate superior, the
Lieutenant-Governors and the traditional rulers as well as their subjects. He received directives
from his superiors for implementation from the cercles and also submitted regular reports about
events in the cercles for the attention of the Lieutenant-Governor.

(iv). He ensured that African subjects were recruited to undertake the compulsory prestation
(compulsory labour) in which people were made to work at plantation sites and for the
construction of railways.

CITIZENS AND SUBJECTS

Citizenship of French was granted to all people who were born in the four communes of Senegal
namely Dakar, Goree, St. Louis and Rufisque. Apart from them, people who were born outside
the four communes of Senegal but could read and write the French language, had completed
compulsory French Military Service and had accepted the French culture and civilization were
also granted French citizenship.

PRE-CONDITIONS/QUALIFICATIONS/REQUIREMENTS FOR GRANTING FRENCH

CITIZENSHIP DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD (POLICY OF ASSIMILATION) IN
WEST AFRICA
(i). Ability of the person to speak and write the French language proficiently: French
citizenship during the colonial period (during the policy of assimilation) was granted to people
who could proficiently speak, read and write the French language. Prospective citizens had
citizens had to apply for the new status (as French citizens) in their own handwriting and also
had to pass an oral French interview before they could be considered for the granting of French
citizenship.

(ii) One had to denounce polygamy: One qualified to be granted French citizenship if he could
denounce polygamy and accept the French policy of marrying only one wife. Anybody who
married more than one wife did not qualify to be assimilated into French citizenship.

(iii) One had to be an inhabitant of any of the four communes of Senegal:

Automatic citizenship was granted to the inhabitants of the four communes of Senegal namely;
Rafisque, Goree, St.Louis and Dakar. Automatic French citizenship was granted to the
inhabitants because of their long contract with the French. The citizens from these four
communes were known as originaries that is, people who became French citizens by virtue of
their place of birth.

(iv) One had to be 18 years or above: The applicant had to be eighteen (18) years or above.
This implies that the person seeking French citizenship status must be an adult resident in a
French overseas territory. All persons below the required age (18 years) did not qualify to be
assimilated into French citizenship.

(v) One had to shun the Africa culture and embrace French culture: Anyone who wanted to
be assimilated into French citizenship had to shun the Africa culture and accept that of the
French. Africa culture was perceived as barbaric and was therefore looked down upon whilst that
of French was considered superior. For this reason, prospective citizens were expected to
embrace French culture. One had to speak like French, dress like French and dance like French.

(vi) One should have lawful/gainful employment: The person seeking French citizenship
status had to possess adequate means of livelihood. Citizenship status was exclusively reserved
for hardworking persons who had gainful employment. Lazy people and others who had no
reliable means of living were denied this opportunity.

(vii) Demonstrate evidence of sound moral character: The applicant seeking French
citizenship had to demonstrate evidence of sound moral character. Criminals, uncouth and people
of bad moral character and criminal records were thus denied the privilege of being absorbed
into French citizenship status.

(viii) The person should have done requisite period of military service: Anyone who wished
to be assimilated into French citizenship should have done requisite period of military service
and should have been decorated with the Legion of Honor.

(ix) The person must have served the French colonial government for a period of ten years:
The individual wishing to be accorded the French citizenship should have served the colonial
government for about ten years. This requirement was to equip the individuals with the requisite
skills and training to work in any government institution in Metropolitan France.

(x) The person had to be a Christian: An applicant seeking French citizenship status had to be
a Christian and preferably profess the catholic faith. By this requirement, Muslims, practitioners
of the African Traditional Religion and people who shared religious faith other than the
Catholics did not qualify to be assimilated into French citizenship

RIGHTS/PRIVILEGES ENJOYED BY THE CITIZENS

(i) A citizen was regarded as equal to the Frenchman and therefore enjoyed equal rights as
French citizen. For example, those who were elevated to French citizen had the right to vote and
to be voted for to be a member of the French parliament as well being appointed to serve as a
minister of state in France.

(ii) A citizen possessed the right to be appointed to serve in the French Chamber of Deputies in
Paris. For instance, in 1914, Blaise Diagne became the first Senegalese to be appointed to serve
in the French Chamber of Deputies.

(iii) A citizen was regarded as a full legal member of France and was governed by French laws.
The citizens therefore had access to French courts.

(iv) A citizen enjoyed higher education and respectable social status in French West Africa. The
citizens had access to further their education in French schools abroad. Examples of such schools
were Ecole de Medicine de L’Afrique Occidental Francais and Ecole Normale William Ponty
both in Dakar, Senegal.

(v) A citizen could be appointed to hold any top position in the Public and Civil Services such as
administrative officer and was entitled to fair wages.

(vi) A citizen was exempted from the obnoxious indignat, force labour and prestation

(vii) A citizen could join political party, association or trade union of his choice and could
criticize the policies of the French government.

(viii) The black Frenchmen had the privilege to marry French spouses. Considering the wide
racial gap between the French and the blacks, it was indeed considered to be a great privilege for
a black Frenchman or woman to marry a white.

(ix). The citizens could commute compulsory labour for monetary payment. That is, they were
remunerated for rendering force labour which attracted no financial reward in the case of the
subjects.

THE SUBJECTS
The subjects were those Africans who were born outside the four communes of Senegal and did
not have the basic requirement to become French citizens. The subjects were people with tow
educational background and were considered to be inferior. They were denied all the rights and
privileges enjoyed by the citizens and were subjected to inhuman treatment.
(i). The subjects were engaged in force labour on French plantations and construction of roads

(ii) The subjects had no representation in the French parliament. This means that they could not
vote or be voted for in the French parliament. Again, they could not be appointed to serve as
ministers in France.

(iii) The subjects were subjected to obnoxious indignat laws; thus, on the spot trial and
punishment meted out by the French officials to the subjects that could lead an offender to
imprisonment or a fine without trial by the courts.

(iv) The subjects had no access to higher position in the Public and Civil services.

(v). The subjects had no right to join political party, association or trade union of their choice and
could not criticize the policies of the French government.

(vi). They were made to pay huge taxes which were calculated in lump sum of money but not
assessed on their income. Despite the huge amount they were made to pay, their contributions
were not recorded in the tax register.

(vii) They were subjected to prestation. Thus, they were made to pay huge sum of money in the
absence of force labour.

MERITS/ADVANTAGES OR POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH POLICY OF

ASSIMILATION

(i). Integration of African into the French system: The French policy of Assimilation as
practiced in French West Africa enabled Africans to be integrated into the French system and
even be elected to the French Chamber of Deputies.

(ii). Improving the standard of living of the citizens: The French policy of Assimilation as
practiced in French West Africa raised the standard of living of the citizens who were
successfully assimilated.

(iii) Promotion of peace: Relative peace prevailed in French West Africa because of the rigid
and harsh measures adopted by the French.

(iv). Improving economic development: The French policy of Assimilation as practiced in

French West Africa led to an improvement in economic development in French West Africa. It
led to the improvement in the construction of roads, railways and growing of cash crops.

(v). Emotional attachment: A strong emotional attachment was created by the educated elite
under the French policy of Assimilation.

(vi). Enjoyment of higher education: The French policy of Assimilation enabled most of the
assimilated Africans to enjoy higher education.
DEMERITS/NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSIMILATION
(i). Division of Africans: Under the French policy of Assimilation as practiced in French West
Africa; Africans were divided and ruled separately because of the division of Africans into
subjects and citizens.

(ii) Dehumanization of Africans: The French policy of Assimilation dehumanized the Africans
through the indigenat and the force labour.

(iii) It degraded and abused African culture: African culture was considered as inferior and
was therefore looked down upon under the French policy of Assimilation.

(iv). Denial of Fundamental Human Rights: Under the French policy of Assimilation, majority
of Africans especially those who were regarded as subjects were denied their fundamental rights
of association, speech, movement etc.

(v). Promotion of inequalities: The French policy of Assimilation promoted socio-political and
economic inequalities. Those who were regarded as citizens enjoyed better conditions than the
subjects.

(vi) Delayed the development of nationalism: French policy of Assimilation delayed the
development of nationalism in French West Africa because the educated elite who were
assimilated could not oppose colonial rule.

(vii) Self-reliance was undermined: The French policy of Assimilation made the colonies to be
dependent to the extent that it could not be broken even after independence.

REASONS WHY ASSIMILATION FAILED OR WAS ABANDONED

(i). Dehumanization of Africans: The French policy of assimilation dehumanized Africans
through the indignat and the force labor. Many African scholars such as Leopold Senghor
severely criticized the policy which made the French abandon it.

(ii). High cost involved: As the French Territories expanded, the French government found it
expensive to continue the policy of assimilation. They did not have enough financial resources to
carry assimilation to a logical conclusion of full-scale assimilation which involved the provision
of more schools and hospitals for the territories.

(iii). The effect of the Second World War: The effect of the Second World War taking into
accounts the increasing demands for independence in British West Africa compelled France to
abandon the policy of assimilation in favour of the policy of association in order to forestall any
rebellion from her colonies.

(iv). Opposition from West African Moslems: Substantial number of Africans in the French
speaking countries were moslims who could not become fully assimilated without destroying
their Islamic religion. The French received a strong opposition from these Muslims who were not
readily adaptable to French culture and civilization.
(v). Disregard for African culture: The French policy of assimilation was abandoned because
it failed to realize that Africans had a strong attachment to their cultural values. Since Africans
cherished their culture, the policy of assimilation was attacked by many scholars which made it
difficult to get the people’s co-operation to implement a policy that would finally demean them.

(vi) The rise to power of President Charles De Gaulle: The rise to power of President Charles
De Gaulle and his intentions to replace assimilation with association contributed to persuade the
French to abandon the policy of assimilation.

(vii) Comparison with the British system of indirect rule: The practice of indirect British
West Africa greatly influenced the French authorities to abandon the policy of assimilation
considering the vast area involved. It was realized British system of indirect rule was far cheaper
and convenient since already existing institutions and personnel were used. This made the French
abandon assimilation and replaced it with the policy of association where African political
institutions and native personnel could be put into effective

(viii) Opposition from the French industrialists and businessmen: The French thinkers more
especially the industrialists and the Businessmen strongly opposed the policy of assimilation
since the policy sought to equate French to uncivilized people. To these people, giving French
citizenship rights to some Africans would defeat the main objective for which they colonized
Africa which was purposely for exploitation of human and material resources of the colonies for
the enrichment of the economy of the exploiters.

THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSOCIATION

In 1946 after the Second World War, the policy of Association was established to French policy
of Assimilation. The policy of Association was designed to make use of local customs and
institutions as the British had done under Indirect Rule. Under the policy of Association, the
political and economic features of the localities were to be encouraged with the view to
narrowing the gap which existed between the subjects and the citizens.

FEATURES/ADVANTAGES/IMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF THE FRENCH POLICY

OF ASSOCIATION
(i) Repressive laws such as indigenat, corvee and prestation were abolished: Under the
policy of Association, the obnoxious indigenat, corvee and force labor meted out to the subjects
under the policy of Assimilation were abolished.

(ii) Granting of citizenship to all the people of French West Africa: Under the policy of
Association, conditions were liberalized and France granted citizenship to all the people of
French West Africa.

(iii) French West African Territories became autonomous: The policy of Association granted
autonomy to all the French West African colonies to develop according to their policy of
centralization of French West Africa was established.

(iv) Formation of trade unions and political parties: Under the policy of Association, trade
unions and political panics formed and all the people had the right to join any trade union or
political party of their choice.

(v) Decentralized Administration: Under the policy of Association. The decentralized

administration of French West Africa was established. Territorial Assemblies were established in
each Territory and Federal legislature was also established for all the territories.

(vi). Representation in French parliament: Under the policy of Association, Territories could
send representatives to the French Parliament to take part in deliberations. The whole of French
West Africa was granted representation in both the House of Deputies and the Senate in the
French National Assembly in Paris to participate in deliberations.

(vii). Extension of franchise to more people: Under the policy of Association, the principle of
Universal Adult Suffrage was introduced which enabled all qualified adults the right to vote to
elect their representatives to the local assemblies.

(viii) Recognition of chieftaincy: Under the policy of Association, local institutions were
recognized. A system of indirect rule using local chiefs but with French supervision in control
was used. Here, chiefs were made to collect taxes imposed by the French government and to
keep a register of tax payers.

(ix) Respect for African culture: Unlike the policy of Assimilation which disregarded African
culture, the French policy of Association gave enough recognition to African culture. Africans
were permitted to observe their customs and traditions.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FRENCH POLICY OF ASSOCIATION AND

ASSIMILATION
(i) Assimilation imposed French culture and policy on Africa while Association recognized
Africa culture.

(ii) Assimilation relegated the position of the chiefs to the background while Association
recognized the status of the chiefs.

(iii) Association allowed for a gradual devolution of powers and eventual independence while
Assimilation created one central administration at Paris and later at Dakar for the Federation of
French West Africa.

(iv) Assimilation encouraged obnoxious practices of forced labour, indigenat, while Association
promoted some degree of freedom.

(v). Assimilation suppressed the formation of political associations and other social activities
while association promoted it.

(vi). Assimilation discriminated against Africans by categorizing them into subjects and citizens
whereas Association removed the distinctions and recognized all African as citizens e.g. in the
provision of education.
(vii). Assimilation disallowed the creation of local legislative assemblies while Association
encouraged the establishment of territorial assemblies.

(viii). Assimilation limited franchise to male adults whereas Association extended franchise to
all adults.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE FRENCH COLONIAL

POLICIES IN WEST AFRICA
(i). Britain regarded its colonies as separate entities, while the French regarded its colonies as an
extension of France.

(ii). The British system of administration latter allowed their subjects to agitate for independence
but the French system did not.

(iii) The British were more practical and flexible in the enforcement of their policies but the
French were rigid and strict in the application and enforcement of their policies.

(iv). The British did not assimilate the citizens of their colonies but the French did.

(v). The British allowed each of her colonies to have its own administrative set up while the
French brought all her colonies together to form a Federation of West African states.

(vi). The British introduced indirect rule in her colonies but the French used direct rule.

(vii). The French introduced the policy of indigenat and forced labour on its subjects, but the
British never introduced anything of such.

(viii). The British allowed the missionaries to set up schools in their colonies but the French did
not.

LOI-CADRE REFORMS
The Loi Cadre (1956 Overseas Reform Act) was a French legal reform passed by the French
National Assembly on 23s June. 1956. It marked a turning point in relations between France and
its overseas empire. The law was enacted to ostensibly give control over economic development,
internal and external defense and foreign policy to the French government hut allowed self-
autonomy over other matters.
Felix Houphouet-Boigny of Cote d’ivoire who became the president of Rassemblement
Democratique African (RDA) was very influential in getting the law passed.

REASONS/ FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR LOI-CADRE

i). Formation of mass organization: Right after the 1946 constitutional reforms, effective mass
political parties, Trade unions and Youth movements were formed in French West Africa.
Examples of such parties include the Rassemblement Democratigue African (RDA) led by Felix
Houphouet-Boigny of Cote d’ivoire. These mass political organizations rallied behind the
African leaders and mounted considerable pressure on France to grant them internal self-
autonomy.

ii) The UN factor: The United Nations (UN) enshrined in its charter the territorial sovereignty
of member states. For instance, the UN mounted pressure on France to grant independence to
Togo which boosted the morale of other French colonies to agitate for reforms.

iii) The impact of constitutional Reforms in British West African Colonies:

After the Second World War, a lot of political reforms were made in British West African
territories due to increasingly impatient of members of the colonies. For example, Sudan was
granted independence in 1956, the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) attained full internal self -
government in 1954 while Nigeria and Sierra Leone were negotiating for self-government.
France was influenced by this development to grant similar concessions to her colonies in West
Africa through Loi Cadre.

(iv) The impact of USA and Russia: The position of USA and Russia who were the World
super -powers at the time contributed to Loi Cadre. These superpowers advocated for
decolonization thereby mounting pressure on France at least to make reforms to provide some
kind of self-autonomy or gran independence to her colonies.

(v) Economic potentials of the colonies: The French found out that the territories in West
Africa had economic potentials. For instance, France realized that colonies such as Guinea,
Mauritania and Ivory Coast were endowed with natural resources. In order to continue to exploit
these resources of French West Africa. France enacted Loi-Cadre to satisfy the constitutional
demands of the colonies in order to keep those colonies in their fold.

(vi). The impact of wars of liberation: In 1945, Indochina began her war of independence with
France which lasted for about ten years in which France was defeated. The Algeria war of
independence also began in 1954. Again, trouble flared up in Morocco and Tunisia in 1953 and
France was forced to grant independence to both countries. In order to prevent the spread of the
wars to French West Africa, France was compelled to show flexibility on her reactions to the
demand of self-government by the French West African countries.

SIGNIFICANCE/EFFECTS OF LOI-CADRE IN FRENCH WEST AFRICA

(i) Development of political parties in the territories: The Loi-Cadre reforms led to the
recognition and formation of political parties to capture political power in order to control the
new Territorial Assemblies. Examples of such panics include the Rassemblement Democratique
Afican (RDA) led by Felix Houphouet Boigny.

(ii) The Loi-Cadre reform led to the establishment of Territorial Assemblies. The territory
became the essential unit of the French union and not the Federation of French West Africa. The
Territorial Assembly became the primary unit of government and not the Federal Grand Council.

(iii) The principle of universal adult suffrage was introduced. Thus, the reform paved way for all
qualified adult citizens to vote during elections. The reforms provided for a single electoral
college for all elections that were to be held in the colonies.
(iv) The Loi-Cadre reforms paved way for nationalist activities to take place as a result of
granting territorial self-government.

(v) The Loi-Cadre reforms increased the Legislative powers of Territorial Assemblies from
limited consultative, budgetary and financial powers to include many areas. The Territorial
Assembly could now legislate on areas of primary and secondary education, urbanization, health,
co-operation, forestry and fisheries.

(vi) The reform led to the abolishment of the policy assimilation. The division of the people into
citizens and was abolished and French citizenship was granted to all the people.

(vii) The reform led to the reduction in the powers of the Governor-General. The office of the
Governor-General was abolished when the Loi-Cadre Reform was introduced and two offices
created, the office of the High Commissioner and the head of the territories combined in one
person and was made responsible and accountable to the French Minister for overseas territories,

(viii) Poor colonies had to depend on France for financial needs.

TRIAL QUESTION;

Ql. Identify six differences between the French policy of Assimilation and

Association. Q2. Highlight three merits and three demerits of the French policy of

Assimilation (WASSCE NOV/DEC, 2011, Q7). Q3.(a) Explain the French policy of
Association

Outline five features of the French policy of Association Q4. Highlight any six reasons
why the French Policy of Assimilation was

abandoned. Q5. In what six ways was Loi Cadre significant in French West Africa? Q6.
Highlight any six differences between the British and the French

colonial policies in West Africa.

GOVERNMENT FOR S 349

 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

NATIONALISM IN WEST AFRICA

Nationalism can be defined as the feeling of belonging and commitment to one’s country. In
African contest, nationalism refers to the patriotic desire and the struggle of colonized Africans
to free themselves from foreign rule and to take their destiny into their own hands.

FORMS OF NATIONALISM
Two forms of nationalism existed in West Africa namely, proto-nationalism and militant
nationalism.

PROTO-NATIONALISM
Proto-nationalism was the nationalistic political activities before the end of the Second World
War characterized by protests against social, political and economic discriminations but did not
seek for political independence.

MILITANT/MODERN NATIONALISM
Militant or modern nationalism refers to nationalism after the Second War which involved the
use of nationalist political agitation and activism to demand total abolition of colonial rule in
West Africa. The nationalist leaders such as Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and Kojo
Botsio were very militant and their strategies sometimes led to violent agitation. Again, under
militant nationalism, radical mass nationalist movements such as political parties were formed to
achieve self -government. Nationalism in West Africa after the Second World War was aimed at
ending colonial rule and to get political independence for their countries. Nationalism after the
second world war was characterized by strikes and demonstrations.

FEATURES OF PROTO-NATIONALISM IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA

(i). It was led by nationalist groups: Proto-nationalism was led by several organizations
including the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) and Aborigines Right
Protection Society of the Gold Coast, which was inter-territorial in outlook as well as various
youth movements such as African Youth League.

(ii) It opposed to racial discriminatory practices: Proto-nationalism demanded an end to the

racially discriminatory practices of the British Colonial Government in relation to the
appointment of Africans to key positions within the Civil Service.

(iii) It demanded for African representation in the Executive Council: The proto-nationalism
demanded African representation in the Executive Councils of the various colonies which were
exclusively European in composition. They also called for an enlargement of African
representation in the Legislative Council whose membership was largely European.

(iv) The use of constitutional methods: The proto-nationalists made use of constitutional and
non-violent means to seek solutions to their grievances. The methods included sending
delegations to the Colonial Office in London to present petitions to the British Colonial
Authority, sending dispatches to the Colonial Office in London. They were also engaged in
newspaper publications, symposia as well as various educational activities to raise the
consciousness of Africans.

(v) Opposition to obnoxious legislation: The nationalists campaigned for the withdrawal of all
obnoxious legislations such as the Gold Coast Land Bill of 1897 which was withdrawn following
the agitation of the Aborigines’ Right Protection Society.

(vi). The outlook of the proto-nationalists: The proto-nationalists were conservative, legal-
minded and urban-based and were led by the educated elites including Joseph Casely Hayford of
the Gold Coast and Herbert Macaulay of Nigeria. The educated elites were strongly lawyers,
businessmen and teachers.

CAUSES OR FACTORS THAT PROMOTED PROTO-NATIONALISM BEFORE THE

END OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
(i) Success of African missionaries: The success of the African missionaries in the hinterland as
elders and leaders of churches demonstrated the capabilities of the Africans and therefore
stimulated Africans to agitate for their inclusion at the top hierarchy of the Civil Service.

(ii) The teachings of the missionaries: The teachings of the missionaries which condemned
discrimination among others amused the sentiments of the African nationalists.

(iii) High Rate of unemployment: Western education brought about unemployment which was
blamed on the colonial government refusal to create jobs. The colonial government could not
provide enough employment avenues to absorb the school leavers and was blamed for that.

(iv) Discriminations against Africans in the Civil Service: Although, Africans possessed the
same or better qualifications, they were discriminated against in the Civil Service in the colonial
administration. They were denied access to deserved positions in the Civil Service and the
judiciary. The educated African expressed their disgust against that action.

(v) Abolition of slave trade: Another factor which contributed to proto-nationalism was the
abolition of the slave trade. The abolition of slave trade enabled some educated ex-slaves to
return to their homes. These people joined their members and called on the colonial masters for
social, economic and political changes.

(vi) Economic reasons: Economic reasons also accounted for proto-nationalism as foreign firms
like UAC, SCOA and UTC monopolized the import and export trade resulting in the
marginalization of the African businessmen. The educated elites resented to this act.

(vii) Introduction of certain obnoxious laws: The colonial government introduced certain
obnoxious laws such as laws on taxation and the land bill which received strong opposition from
the nationalists.

(viii). Exclusion of the educated elite from the administration: The educated elites became
aggrieved as they were excluded from both the central and local governments’ administration.
(ix). Discrimination against good health care: Africans were discriminated against good
housing and health care.

PROTO-NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS

ABORIGINES RIGHT PROTECTION SOCIETY (ARPS)

The Aborigines Right Protection Society (ARPS) was formed in 1897 by Mensah Sarbah at Cape
Coast to protect the rights of Ghanaians. The prominent members of Aborigines Right Protection
Society (ARPS) included John Mensah Sabbah, JP Brown, Jacob Wilson Sey, Kobina Sekyi and
J.E Casely Haford.

It was formed with the major aim of protesting against the introduction tithe Land Bill in 1897
which sought to invest all public or unoccupied land in the crown. Since there was nothing like
public or unoccupied lands in the Gold Coast and all land belonged to individuals or families, the
people began to suspect that the government wanted to deprive them of their lands. To prevent
this, the chiefs and the educated elites in the colony formed the society to fight for the
withdrawal of the bill.

The society adopted Western methods of constitutional protest. It wrote petition and sent
delegations to London to protest against the dreaded Land Bill. In the end, the Bill was
withdrawn and the main objective of the ARPS was achieved. However, the society remained as
an ad hoc political organization championing the rights of the people of the Gold Coast against
colonial abuses.

OBJECTIVES OF THE ABORIGINES RIGHT PROTECTION SOCIETY (ARPS)

(i) The Aborigines’ Right Protection Society (A.R.P.S) was formed to oppose the Land Bill of
1897 which the colonial government passed empowering it to claim the ownership of land in the
Gold Coast.

(ii) To promote the customs and traditions of the people. It aimed at encouraging the people to
study the history, the laws, customs and institutions of their country.

(iii) To promote the unity of purpose among the people of the Gold Coast. The society aimed at
uniting the traditional rulers and the educated elite to fight for a common goal.

(iv) To fight for African representation in the Gold Coast Legislative and Executive Council.

(v). To safeguard the right and welfare of the people of the Gold Coast through legal means.

(vi) To promote sound education among the natives.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ABORIGINES RIGHT PROTECTION SOCIETY (ARPS)

(i) The society succeeded in getting the Lands Bill of 1897 withdrawn. The society sent
delegations led by John Mensah Sarbah to meet the Secretary of State for the colonies on the
Lands Bill which was consequently withdrawn. The withdrawal of the bill promoted the prestige
and influence of the society and earned it respect and recognition of the colonial government
which frequently consulted it on policy matters.

(ii) It succeeded in making the forest bill unenforceable. The A.R.P.S mounted pressure on the
colonial government to suspend the forest ordinance which considered as another attempt by the
British to deprive the people of their lands.

(iii) The A.R.P.S became the opposition group and mouthpiece of the people of Gold Coast. The
society became the mouth piece for local interests and a forum for demanding social and
constitutional reforms. It remained as an adhoc political organization championing the rights of
the people of the Gold Coast against colonial abuses. All the grievances of the people were
channeled through them to the colonial government and information were sent through them
from the colonial administrators to the people of Gold Coast.

(iv) It aroused national consciousness among the people. The ARPS strengthened the political
and national consciousness of the people. It awakened their political consciousness by exposing
the evils associated with the colonial rule and the consequences of the land bill as well as the
forest ordinance. The raising of political and national consciousness of the people of the Gold
Coast led to constitutional reforms in 1920’s.

(v) It united both the educated elite and traditional rulers to fight for the rights of the people of
Gold Coast. The ARPS created an atmosphere of peace and harmony between the chiefs and the
educated elite. It created a fruitful working relationship between the chiefs and the educated elite
to fight for a common course. Both the chiefs and the educated elites in the colony formed the
society to fight for the withdrawal of the Land Bill as well as the forest bill.

(vi) It promoted education and culture among the people in the colony. For example, the ARPS
contributed to the establishment of Mfantispim School. It also encouraged the people of Gold
Coast to embrace their culture and traditions.

(vii). It established a publication: The Aborigines Right Protection Society (ARPS)

established a publication known as “The Gold Coast Aborigines” through which the grievances
of the people of the Gold Coast were expressed. They also used the newspaper to expose the
evils of colonial rule and the need for the people to be united in fighting against certain decisions
taken by the colonial government.

(viii) Breeding ground for future political leaders: Aborigines Society became the breeding
ground for future political Coast and beyond. A lot of their prominent members plays political
roles in their country and beyond. A good example of such leaders includes Caseley Hayford
who led the formation of National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), the first extra-
national body that attempted to promote unity of purpose among the nationalists of British West
Africa namely; Ghana, Nigeria, Gambia and Sierra Leone.

(ix) It played an active role in the repatriation of Prempeh 1 back to the Gold Coast: Prempeh 1,
the king of Asantes or Asantehene as he was known in the Gold Coast was exiled by the British
to the Seychelles Island in 1896. He was a victim of the feverish acquisition of territory that later
became known as the scramble for Africa. ARPS fought for his return and to be re-instated as
Asantehene in 1926.

FAILURES OF THE ABORIGINES’ RIGHT PROTECTION SOCIETY (ARPS)

(i) The movement collapsed as a result of British divide and rule tactics.
(ii) The British succeeded in bringing the chiefs to their side whilst the elite were relegated to the
background. It therefore became difficult to bring the Chiefs and the educated elite together to
fight for a common goal.
(iii) The formation of the National Congress of British West Africa retarded the growth of the
society.

THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRITISH WEST AFRICA (NCBWA)

The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was formed in 1920. It was the first
major extra-national body that attempted to promote unity of purpose among the nationalist of
British West Africa. It brought together delegates from the four British West Africa colonies
namely, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and consolidated grievances independently expressed
through the agencies of diverse organizations into a single petition. The idea of founding the
Congress originated from Caseley Hayford of Ghana and Dr. Akiwande Savage of Nigeria who
was then a resident in Ghana. The Congress was organized along the lines of the Indian National
Congress to promote constitutional reforms as well as be visible evidence to unity among
English speaking West African nationalists.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NCBWA

(i) To promote a federation of the British West African territories namely, Gold Coast, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone and Gambia.

(ii) To seek for improvement in the social field like improvement in health facilities, educational
facilities and improvement in other social infrastructures like roads.

(iii) To put pressure on the government to end the discriminations and inhuman treatment that
the Africans suffered in the hands of the Europeans.

(iv) To seek for an establishment of university of British West Africa.

(v) To seek for the introduction of an elective principle to enable the people to elect their
members into the Legislative and the Executive Council.

(vi) The congress aimed at seeking internal self-government for the people of British West
Africa.

(vii) To provide a medium which would serve as a united expression mouth piece through which
the political, economic and social aspirations of the growing urban classes, that is, Lawyers,
Doctors, Teachers, Businessmen and the like in all the four British West African to express their
grievances.
DEMANDS OF THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRITISH WEST AFRICA (NCBWA)

(i) The Congress called for an establishment of university for the four colonies of British West
Africa namely. Gold Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Gambia to provide higher education and
training in all fields of human endeavors. In addition to this, the congress called for the
introduction of compulsory education and the need to improve the quality of primary and
secondary education in West Africa.

(ii) The congress demanded for the introduction of elective principle in the colonies to enable the
people to elect their representatives to the Legislative and the Executive Council

(iii) The members called for the Africanization of the Civil and Public service. The movement
demanded that more Africans should be allowed to work in the civil service.

(iv) They demanded for the creation of financial institution such as bank for British West Africa
which would enable British West Africans to take control of the financial and monetary affairs of
the dependencies.

(v) They demanded for the appointment of qualified British West African nationals as
magistrates and judges to administer justice in the established courts and the establishment of
West African Court of Appeal (WACA)

(vi) They also called for a clear separation of the judicial service from the administration and
also for the promotion of Africanization of the judiciary as quickly as possible.

(vii) They demanded that a legislative assembly be set up for the Gold Coast, Nigeria.

(viii) They called for the granting of self-determination and West Africa including those in
mandated territories

(ix) The congress members called for an end to the monopolistic practice of the European firms
in their discrimination against African traders.

(x) They sought for improvement in the social field like improvement in health facilities,
educational facilities and improvement in other social infrastructures like roads.

(xi). It demanded that the colonial government should not interfere in the installation and
destoolment of chiefs

(xii). It demanded that the Municipal Councils should be established with an African majority.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRITISH WEST AFRICA

(NCBWA)
(i) Through the efforts of the Congress, the elective principle was introduced for the first time by
the British government under the 1922 Constitution of Nigeria, the 1924 Constitution of Sierra
Leone and the 1925 Constitution of Ghana.
(ii). It aroused national-consciousness of the people of Wesi attempt to unite the educated people
of West Africa to rule.

(iii). In response to the demands of the congress, higher educational institutions were set up in
British West Africa. Examples include Achimota College in Accra (Gold Coast), Fourah Bay
College in Free Town (Sierra Leone) and Ibadan University in Nigeria.

(iv). The West African Court of Appeal (WACA) was also established for the British colonies.
This was a maiden attempt to separate the judiciary from the executive. Some Africans were
appointed to the bench magistrates.

(v) The National Congress of British West Africa promoted unity among the four British West
African colonies namely, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Gambia and Sierra Leone.

FAILURES/PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF BRITISH WEST

ARICA
(i) Opposition from the traditional rulers: The traditional rulers failed to rally behind the
Congress since the Congress was composed of educated Africans and did not incorporate the
traditional rulers into its fold. Some prominent chiefs like Nana Ofori Atta I denounced the
activities of the Congress.

(ii) Due to the death of Casely Hayford: The death of Casely Hayford in 1930 also accounted
immensely for the collapse of the movement since he was the main man behind the Congress
through whom every major activity of the movement was organized.

(iii). Inadequate funds: The Congress was plagued with financial problem which negatively
affected its operation.

(iv) Opposition from the colonial governors: The governors of West Africa opposed the
Congress as they saw it as a threat to colonial rule. The British government failure to recognize
the delegation sent to London by the Congress in 1930 to present its demand to the Secretary of
State for the colonies on the grounds that the congress did not represent the majority of the
population attest to that fact.

(v) Internal rivalry: The Congress was plagued with internal rivalry among its leaders which
undermined its effectiveness. The members of the Congress fought for positions in the colonial
administration like the Legislative and Executive Councils of their respective countries rather
than forge unity of the four colonies.

(vi) Opposition from the Aborigines Right Protection Society: Some members of the ARPS
opposed the activities of the Congress as they saw it as a rivalry movement. For example, the
ARPS attacked the Congress by sending a cable to the Secretary of State Lord Milner that the
delegation of the NCBWA in London had no mandate of the people of Gold Coast.

(vii) Elitist movement: The congress was mainly an elitist movement as it failed to involve the
masses in its activities.

(viii) Conservatism: As a proto-nationalist movement, the Congress tried to use only

constitutional means to achieve political reforms without seeking for immediate self-
government. The Congress was therefore regarded as conservative.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF CASELEY HAYFORD TOWARDS NATIONALIST

ACTIVITIES IN WEST AFRICA

(i) He assisted in the introduction of elective principle in the colonies: The activities of
Caseley Hayford and his colleagues led to the introduction of elective principle. With
collaborative effort of Caseley Hayford and his colleagues, the elective principle was introduced
in Nigeria in 1922, Sierra Leone in 1924 and in Ghana in 1925.

(ii). He contributed towards the Africanization of the Civil/Public service: Caseley Hayford
and his colleagues fought hard for more people with the requisite qualification to be recruited
into the civil/public service.

(iii) He contributed to the creation of West African Court of Appeal: As a lawyer, he led the
struggle for the creation of West African Court of Appeal (WACA) in 1925. This was a maiden
attempt to separate the judiciary from the executive. Some Africans were appointed to the bench
as magistrates.

(iv). He initiated constitutional reforms: Caseley Hayford initiated constitutional reforms

towards representation of Africans in both Legislative and Executive Councils. Africans for the
first time took part in the policy formulation and law-making functions.

(v). Contributed towards the Aborigines Right Protection Society (ARPS): Caseley Hayford
contributed actively towards the Aborigines Right Protection Society (ARPS) after the death of
John Mensah Sarbah

(vi). Initiated the sending of delegation: Caselcy Hayford initiated the sending of delegation of
West African nationalists to present a petition and resolution to the Secretary of State for the
colonies in 1920.

(vii). He contributed in promoting political and social consciousness: Casely Hayford,

through the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBA), promoted political awareness
and social consciousness based on the ideals of Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Dubois. MR
EIGHTEEN- NATIONALISM IN WEST AFRICA

:=:;,

(viii). He provided leadership for the formation of National Congress of British West
Africa: The idea of founding the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) originated
with Caseley Hayford. He also organized and mobilized Gold Coast elite to become members of
the NCBWA.
(ix) He contributed to the establishment of higher institutions in British West Africa:
Caseley Hayford contributed to the establishment of higher institutions in British West Africa:
Examples of such institutions established include Achimota College in Ghana, Fourah Bay
College in Free Town (Sierra Leone) and Yaba College in Nigeria.

WEST AFRICAN STUDENTS’ UNION (WASU)

The West African Students Union (WASU) was founded on 7th August, 1925 in London by
twenty-one (21) law students studying abroad led by Ladipo Solanke and assisted by Herbert
Bankole-Bright and Ademola Thomas. Membership was open to all Africans and people of
African origin in Great Britain and Ireland.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF WASU

(i) To provide and maintain hostel facilities for West African Students studying in the United
Kingdom.
(ii) To foster unity among West African Students and to co-operate with the National Congress
of British West Africa in its effort to create a United West Africa.
(iii) To foster the spirit of national consciousness and racial pride among its members.
(iv). To act as a center of information and research on African History and culture.
(v). To present to the World, a true picture of African life and philosophy, in order to correct
some of the wrong impressions about Africa.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF WASU

(i) The West African Students Union (WASU) served as a political training ground for training
some leaders of West Africa. Some key personalities of WASU such as Kwame Nkrumah, J.B
Danquah, Wallace Johnson and Bankole Awoonor later became famous politicians and some
even led political parties when they returned home. For example, J.B Danquah became the vice-
chairman of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), Kwame Nkrumah became the leader of
the Convention People’s Party and later the first Prime Minister and president of Ghana and
Obafemi Awolowo became a leading member of the Action Group in Nigeria.

(ii) It provided hostel facilities for students West Africa having accommodation problems as well
as new arrivals. This paved way for more people to be educated in London.

(iii) WASU submitted series of Memoranda to the Secretary of State for the colonies advocating
for self-government for all the four British West African colonies namely, Gold Coast, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone and Gambia within five years. This move put pressure on the colonial office in
London and influenced the constitutional changes in British West Africa.

(iv). WASU served as a link between the West African opinion leaders and British Members of
Parliament who were sympathetic to the demands by Africans for rapid and political
developments. It influenced British public opinion on the plights of the colonized Africans.

(v). WASU helped in arousing political and social consciousness among West African students
through its activities.
(vi) WASU united students from British West Africa including Ghana. Sierra Leone, Nigeria and
The Gambia in their common struggle.

(vii). WASU set up scholarship schemes for African students abroad. This paved way for a lot of
people to get access to formal education in London.

(viii) WASU established research bureau on African culture, history and tradition. This paved
way for people from all walks of life to read and know more about Africa in order to correct
some of the wrong impressions about Africa.

(ix) WASU published a magazine which served as propaganda instrument for the nationalists.

PROBLEMS/FAILURES OF WASU
(i). WASU became disintegrated when many of its active members completed their studies
and returned to their respective countries.

(ii) Financial problem: WASU was plagued with financial problem which derailed its effective
functioning.

(iii) The Union was mainly an elitist movement composed of intellectuals as it failed to involve
the chiefs and other ordinary people in its activities. It therefore created suspicion and tension
between the chiefs and the intellectuals.

(iv). The leaders of WASU were also divided on the type of approach to use. Whilst some
members demanded the use of constitutional means to achieve its aims, some agitated for the use
of radical approach.

YOUTH MOVEMENTS IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA BEFORE THE END OF THE

SECOND WORLD WAR (1920-1945)
The rise of Youth Movements was another manifestation of early West African nationalism. The
Youth Organizations arose as a reaction against the domination of the old parties by the aging
elite who were fast drifting into conservatism. Among the Youth Movements were the Gold
Coast Youth Conference, the Nigerian Youth Movement, and the West African League of Sierra-
Leone.

THE GOLD COAST YOUTH CONFERENCE (GCYC)

The Gold Coast Youth Conference was a periodic gathering of clubs, societies, and unions
launched in 1929 by J.B Danquah (the Doyen of Gold Coast politics) and other prominent
members to discuss the problems confronting the people of Gold Coast. Its membership was
opened to corporate bodies and clubs but not individuals. Its prominent members include J.B
Danquah, W.B Van Lare, K.A Korsah, R.S Way, K. A Bossman, Brakatu Ato, J.0 De Graft
Johnson and Dr. F.B Nanka Bruce. Most of them were lawyers and active members of WASU.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF GOLD COAST YOUTH CONFERENCE (GCYC)

(i). The Gold Coast Youth Conference aimed at addressing the rift between the chiefs and the
educated elites who opposed each other in 1920’s due to the introduction of the Indirect Rule
system by the British.

(ii). To inculcate in the youth the need for development and progress of the country.

(iii). To bring all the different groups of people in the Gold Coast together to discuss problems
associated with colonial rule and appeal to the colonial government to find possible means of
resolving the problem.

(iv). To fight to remove all forms of discriminations and victimization against Africans in the
public service.

(v). It aimed at arousing national consciousness to demand certain economic, social and
constitutional reforms.

(vi). It called for an improved salaries and better conditions of work for civil servants.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE GOLD COAST YOUTH CONFERENCE

(i) Addressing the rift between the chiefs and the educated elite: The Gold Coast Youth
Conference addressed the rift between the chiefs and the educated elite by reconciling them to
oppose unpopular British policies.

(ii) Intensification of national agitation against the colonial system: The Gold Coast Youth
Conference succeeded in the intensification of national agitation against the colonial system.

(iii) It contributed immensely in the integration of Asante into the Gold Coast: The Gold
Coast Youth Conference was instrumental in the integration of Asante into the Gold Coast
Legislative Council under the 1946 to fight for a common cause.

(iv) It aroused national consciousness: It aroused national consciousness demanding economic,

social and constitutional reforms. The moment increased the momentum for national activities in
the Gold Coast.

(v) Improving political reforms and social-economic well-being of the people: They
organized periodic meetings, seminars and conferences aimed at improving political reforms and
socio-economic well-being of the people, for example, the movement held conferences at
Achimota College in 1930, Cape Coast in 1938 and Kumasi in 1939.

(vi) Contributed towards improved salary: The Gold Coast Youth worked for improved
salaries and better condition of work for civil service.

(vii) Agitation for a university: It agitated for a university which led to the establishment of the
University College of the Gold Coast in 1948.

(viii) Provision of spring board for the formation of political parties: The movement
provided spring board for the formation of political parties in the Gold Coast such as the United
Gold Coast Convention (UGCC)

(ix) Creation of cultural awareness: It created cultural awareness among the people of Gold
Coast.

(x) It fought for equal opportunities and also for the removal of discrimination against Africans
in Public employment and for more say in the Legislative Council.

(xi) Education of the public: The Gold Coast Youth Conference published a newspaper to
educate the general public on their programmes.

FAILURES OF THE GOLD COAST YOUTH CONFERENCE

(i) Elitist movement: The membership of the conference was predominantly educated people. It
did not make any positive move to incorporate the masses into its programmes and activities.
Some members therefore described it as an advance discussing group operating on a national
scale.

(ii) The Gold Coast Youth Conference failed to get the colonial authorities to implement any of
its demands for local and central government or economic reforms. This is due to the fact that the
conference did not use any radical method to put pressure on the colonial government to provide
solutions to the economic and social problems. The leaders adopted diplomatic approaches
which did not threaten the colonial government.

(iii) The movement lacked a well defined ideology. Even though the movement had common
aims, it lacked a clearly defined ideology. Its programmes and ideas were formulated on weak
grounds which negatively affected its effectiveness.

(iv) The movement failed to retain the support of the young men which it won in the early
1930’s.

THE WEST AFRICAN YOUTH LEAGUE

The West African Youth League (WAYL) was a political organization founded by I.T.A
Wallace Johnson of Sierra Leone in 1934 with branches in Sierra Leone and Gold Coast. Its
prominent members include; I.T.A Wallace Johnson, Bankole Awoonor Renner, R. B Wuta Ofei,
J.W Cudjoe, C.J Myers, Mary Lokko, Ellis Brown, J. A Bart-Plange.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF WEST AFRICAN YOUTH LEAGUE

(i) To seek for full independence for British West Africa countries through all possible means.
The West African Youth League called for the abolishment colonial rule in British West Africa.

(ii) To demand higher salaries and improved condition of service for workers.
(iii) To call for an end to racial discrimination especially in the public service.
(iv) To create national consciousness among the people through the use of newspapers.
(v) To mobilize the masses in West Africa to defend their natural and constitutional rights.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE WEST AFRICAN YOUTH LEAGUE (WAYL)

(i) The League was successful in securing improved condition of service for workers especially
in the Gold Coast.

(ii) It created national consciousness among the people. The league established newspapers such
as the African Morning Post or African Standard to create national consciousness in the people.

(iii) The communist thinking of its leader, Wallace Johnson, helped to introduce an element of
radicalism into the nationalist agitation of the time.

(iv). It was the first movement to openly ask for and openly work towards the overthrow of
British colonial rule in West Africa.

(v). The WAYL published many anti-imperialist Articles in the “African Morning Post” by a
Nigerian, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. This enabled it to attract large followers including traders,
farmers and teachers in the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.

(vi). The WAYL united the educated and traditional rulers to oppose unpopular policies
introduced by the British.

THE NIGERIAN YOUTH LEAGUE (NYL)

The Nigerian Youth League (NYL) was Nigerian’s first genuine nationalists’ organization,
founded in Lagos in 1933 with the name Lagos Youth Movement and was renamed the Nigerian
Youth Movement in 1936. Its founding members include; Ernest Ikoli, James Churchill
Vaughan, Hezekiah Oladipo Davies and Samuel Akinsanya. The activities of the movement
were later influenced by the presence of Nnamdi Azikiwe and Obafemi Awolowo.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE NIGERIAN YOUTH LEAGUE (NLM)

(i). The Nigerian Youth League aimed at protesting against the inferior status of the Yaba Higher
College. The movement sought for international recognition and university status for the
institution.
(ii). It called for the appointment of qualified Africans to senior positions in the civil service and
an end to discrimination against Africans truck drivers.
(iii). It aimed at fostering political advancement of the country and enhancing the socio-
economic status of the Nigerian citizens.
(iv). It aimed at fighting against racial discrimination in Nigeria.
(v). It also campaigned for independence for Nigeria.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NIGERIAN YOUTH MOVEMENT

(i) The movement succeeded in attracting to its fold nationalists from all over the country
irrespective of their regional or tribal origin.

(ii) Through dedication and commitment of its members, the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)
was able to take over the leadership of the nationalist cause from the Nigerian National
Democratic Party.
(iii). The movement disseminated information to people on its activities through its established
newspapers such as the “Daily Service” and the West “African Pilot”. This endeared the masses
to its activities.
(iv). In 1938, the NYL contested the Legislative Council elections and won all the three elected
seats for Lagos.
(v). The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) successfully attacked the Cocoa Pool in order to
break the monopolistic buying agreement enjoyed by the expatriate buying houses in 1938 in
Nigeria. The Cocoa Pool ordinance was introduced in 1933 which sought to dictate the prices of
cocoa by European commercial houses.

PROBLEMS/FAILURES OF THE NIGERIAN YOUTH LEAGUE (NYL)

(i). By 1944, some of the prominent figures such as Dr. Azikiwe had withdrawn from the
movement and it remained henceforth a predominantly Yoruba movement.

(ii). The movement did not adopt a radical method in seeking solutions to the economic and
social problems confronting the Nigerians. It was therefore regarded as conservative and
therefore did not appeal to the masses but served as a forum for the youth for the discussing of
current problems.

(iii) In 1944, a split occurred in the movement over the contest between Samuel Akinsanya, an
Ijebu Yoruba and Ernest Ikoli, an Ijiw, for a vacant seat in the legislative council. This derailed
the effectiveness of the movement to fight for a common goal.

(iv). Internal wrangling within the movement adversely affected the movement. The launching of
the “Daily Services” as official mouthpiece of the party did not go down well with Dr. Nnamdi
Azikiwe, the publisher of the West African Pilot.

NATIONALISM AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The factors that accounted for the increase in nationalist activities after the Second World War
can be grouped into internal and external factors.

INTERNAL FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR NATIONALISM IN BRITISH WEST

AFRICA AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR (BETWEEN 1946 AND 1951)
(i) Formation of political parties: After the Second World War, both elite and mass parties
were formed by the nationalists. Examples of such parties in Ghana included the United Gold
Coast Convention (UGCC) and the Convention People’s Party (CPP). These parties enlightened
the people on the evils of colonialism and enabled them to get the people to rally behind them to
fight against colonial rule.

(ii) Discrimination in the Civil Service: The reluctance of the colonial government to
Africanize the top positions in the civil service was another factor which accounted for the rise of
nationalism in Africa. Europeans occupied all civil service top positions. In some cases, Africans
who held higher positions lost their jobs because such positions were reserved for Europeans.
For example, in 1933, Dr. Akiwande Savage, the then medical officer of the Cape Coast
municipality was kicked from the post because he was an African.
(iii) The growth of indigenous press: The rise of nationalist press contributed immensely to the
agitation of the nationalism in West Africa. Through the press, the people in West Africa were
enlightened on their rights and freedoms as well as exposing the evils of colonialism. The
activities of these press greatly influenced the nationalist struggle against colonial rule.

(iv). Discrimination in Trade: West Africans were unhappy with the preferential treatment
given to the expatriate firms to the detriment of African businessmen and their monopoly of
export and import trade. The exclusion of Africans in the fixing of the prices of their own
produce and the domination of the retail sector by Lebano-Syrians businessmen all contributed to
the rise of nationalism in West Africa.

(v) The role of Christianity: The activities of the missionaries played a major role in arousing
nationalist feelings in West Africa. The missionaries through Christianity made it clear to
Africans that before God all men are equal. If so, the Africans did not find it reasonable why
people from foreign land should rule them.

(vi) Introduction of western education: The introduction of western education also contributed
to the rise of nationalism in West Africa. Through education, Africans acquired new ideas about
freedoms, liberty of the individual and liberty of conscience. This enabled them to break down
tribal barriers which were necessary to pull the people together in the fight against colonialism.

(vii). The shortcomings of the Burns constitution also accounted for nationalism after the Second
World War.

EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT PROMOTED NATIONALIST ACTIVITIES IN THE

GOLD COAST AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1946-1951)
(i) The formation of the United Nations Organization: The formation of the United Nations
Organization helped in several ways to arouse nationalism in Africa. Most member states were
not colonial masters. Among them were the two super-powers of the time- Russia and America.
These states spoke against the maintenance of colonies and advocated for the decolonization of
the colonies. Some other members of the organization e.g., South Eastern Asia states had just
attained their independence. They had their bitter experiences of colonial rule and were bitterly
against colonial rule. This inspired the nationalist leaders in West Africa including Ghana to
fight harder.

(ii) The defeat of Britain by Japan in Asia also influenced the nationalist struggle after the
Second World War: The blacks were inspired by the defeat of the White men by yellow men.
The myth surrounding the superiority of the white men was broken and this promoted the fight
for nationalism by the leaders of the Gold Coast.

(iii) Due to the independence of India, Burma and Pakistan. In Asia, India and Pakistan won
their independence from Britain in 1947. In 1948, Ceylon (SriLanka) and Burma also became
independent of Britain. During the period millions of people broke the shackle of colonialism
and the whole atmosphere became laden with the spirit of independence and this inspired the
nationalist of Gold Coast that they could also get their independence through hard work.
(iv) The formation of the West African Students Union: The activities of the West African
Students Union had great influence on the nationalist struggle. The union brought students of
West Africa together to tight against colonial rule.

(v). The effect of Atlantic Charter of 1941: Getting to the end of the Second World War,
Britain, France and the U.S.A signed the Atlantic charter, which promised in its third clause or
article “the right of all people to clime the form of government under which they live....” These
proclaimed their beliefs in the equality of man and his right to self-determination in the Atlantic
charter of 1941. This had great influence on the nationalist activities after the Second World
War.

(vi) The impact of the Second World War on West Africa: The World War II had a great
deal to do with the awakening of the people of Africa. During the war, the Africans came into
contact with practically all the people of the Earth. He met on a life and death struggle basis. He
saw the so-called civilized and peaceful and orderly white people mercilessly butchering one
another just as his so called savage ancestors had done in tribal wars. The Africans saw no
difference between the primitive and civilized man. This had a revolutionary psychological
impact on the Africans.

(vii) The experience of the African soldiers of the Europeans during the Second World War
was another important factor: West African soldiers saw some Europeans doing the same type
of manual jobs done by Africans. They also saw the filth and poverty among Europeans and
some of them even had sex with European women. With these, the myth that surrounded the
Europeans was broken. When the soldiers came back home, they propagated the new idea that
often all Europeans were not super human. They therefore joined hands with the nationalist
leaders in the struggle against colonial rule.

(viii). The intellectual write-ups: The intellectual write-ups by people like Roosevelt, Henry
Wallace and Wendell Willkie also influenced nationalism. These writers strongly criticized
colonial rule in their books which inspired the people of Gold Coast to fight against colonial rule.

WHY NATIONALISM STARTED LATER OR DELAYED IN FRENCH WEST AFRICA

THAN IN BRITISH WEST AFRICA
(i). The adoption of policy of assimilation by the French contributed to the late development of
nationalism in French West Africa. The citizens who were assimilated enjoyed certain rights and
privileges which did not motivate them to struggle for self-rule. These assimilated Africans
regarded themselves as Frenchmen without considering themselves as Africans and could
therefore not make any agitation against colonial rule.

(ii) That was a weak sense of national identity in French West Africa because of the centralized
political organization of French West Africa with its headquarters in Dakar. The centralized
federal system of administration in French West Africa created regional consciousness instead of
national consciousness and therefore retarded the development of nationalism in French West
Africa.

(iii) The creation of French community under the 5th Republican Constitution delayed nationalist
activities. The Republican constitution which introduced the policy of Association to replace
Assimilation made the colonies integral parts of metropolitan France. In 1958, when the French
West African colonies were given the option to choose between political independence and
membership of the French community, only Guinea was bold enough to vote against union with
France to demand self- government. The rest voted in favour of the French Community.

(iv) Suppression of political parties’ freedoms in French West Africa also accounted for the
delay of nationalism in French West Africa. In French West Africa, ‘the formation of political
parties and associations was not allowed until 1946. The people of French West Africa therefore
did not enjoy political freedom until 1946. Even the political parties that were formed in French
West Africa were branches of the political parties in France and were therefore unable to
criticize French rule and demand for independence.

(v) Another factor which accounted for the delay of nationalism in French West Africa was due
to the use of oppressive measures such as force labour and indigent which put some fear and
panic into the colonial people to agitate for nationalism.

(vi) The political parties formed even after the World War were off-shoots of the parties in
France and therefore could not mobilize the people for self-rule.

(vii) The incorporation of the French West African economy into that of France was another
factor that accounted for the late development of nationalism in French West Africa. It did not
pave way for the various colonies to use their own resources to develop at their own pace. 10.

(viii) The policy of assimilation limited Africans access to education: Under the policy of
assimilation, those people who were regarded as subjects had no
right to higher formal. In view of that the French created only few educational facilities in the
colonies. Because majority of the people were denied access to formal education and knew
nothing about governance, they were reluctant to demand for self-rule.

(ix) Late development of newspapers: Unlike the British Indirect Rule system where newspapers
were established in the early days, there was late development of newspapers in French West
African colonies. The absence of newspapers prevented them from getting a medium to create
political awareness and to expose the evils of the French colonial administration to the people in
order to get the masses to rally behind them to struggle for self -rule.

EFFECTS OR SIGNIFICANCE OF POST WORLD WAR II NATIONALISM ON

GHANA
(i) Nationalism after the Second World War led to the formation of political parties such as the
United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) in 1947 and Convention People’s Party (CPP) in 1949.
The formation of these parties brought the people together to fight for a common goal such as
seeking for constitutional reforms, attaining self-government and finally achieving independence
for the country.

(ii) It also led to increase in radical constitutional reforms in the Gold Coast which contributed to
certain political changes in the country. For instance, the 1946 constitution granted African
unofficial majority in the Legislative Council and the 1951 constitution removed Europeans from
both the Legislative Assembly and the Executive Council. Only the governor and three
Europeans were retained. Again the 1954 Constitution granted full internal self- government to
the Gold Coast.

(iii). Nationalism after the Second World War led to the introduction of Universal Adult Suffrage
in 1951 which was fully established in all parts of the country in 1954.

(iv) It led to the overthrow of colonial rule in 1957. The country attained independence in 1957
and the destiny of the people was no more in the hands of the Europeans.

(v) It led to the creation of political consciousness and social awareness through out the country.

(vi) The agitations made by the nationalists led to improvement in social development. More
schools, roads and health facilities were provided.

(vii). It led to the attainment of internal self-government for the people of Gold in 1954.

(viii) It led to the use of militant and radical approach to demand for self-government. Examples
of such militant and radical approach include the 1948 riots and Positive Action of 1950.

STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE NATIONALISTS TO ACHIEVE SELF-RULE IN

THE GOLD COAST AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

(i). Legitimate political actions: The nationalists used legitimate political actions to fight for
independence. For example, they sent delegations to the Secretary of State for the Colonies to
articulate the people’s grievances and demands.

(ii) Formation of Political parties: The nationalists formed political parties which enabled them
to mobilize the masses to rally behind them to fight for self-rule.

(iii) The use of demonstrations: The nationalists sometimes used demonstrations as a strategy
to fight for self- rule.

(iv) Newspaper publications: The nationalists mounted pressure on the colonial government
through speeches in the Legislative Assembly and in the newspapers for further constitutional
reforms leading to the attainment of independence.

(v) The use of strikes-- The nationalists used positive action such as strikes, boycotts and non-
co-operation to fight for independence.

(vi) Lobbying members of British parliament: Another strategy used by the nationalists to
fight for self-rule was through lobbying members of parliament to consider their demands.

(vii). Boycott of European goods: The nationalists boycotted Europeans goods at times to show
their disgust and to seek for self-rule.
(viii). The use of riots and looting. The nationalists used riots and looting to press for self-rule.
A good example is the 1948 riots in Gold Coast.

NEWSPAPERS FOUNDED BY NATIONALISTS IN GOLD COAST AFTER THE

SECOND WORLD WAR
(i) The Evening News

(ii). The Talking Drum

(iii). The Ashanti Pioneer

(iv) The African Morning Post

(v) The West African Pilot

ROLES PLAYED BY LOCAL NEWSPAPERS IN THE STRUGGLE AGAINST

COLONIAL RULE
(i) Exposing the ills of colonialism: The nationalists used the local newspapers to expose the
evils of colonialism. Thus, certain bad deeds of colonialism were made known to the people
through the newspapers. The nationalist used the local newspapers to criticize some unpopular
policies that were by the British to be implemented in the colonies.

(ii) Giving political and civic education to the people: The nationalists used the local
newspapers to enlighten the people on their political rights as their civic rights.

(iii) Mouthpiece of the nationalists: The local newspapers served as piece of the nationalists.
The grievances of the people were channeled to the colonial governors through the newspapers.
Information could also be passed from the governors to the people through the local newspapers

(iv) Pressing for political, social and economic reforms: The nationalists used the local
newspapers to demand certain reforms in the political, social and economic fields. For example,
politically, Africans used the local newspapers to demand for self-government for the people in
the colonies. Economically, they used the local newspapers to demand inclusion of more
Africans in the Civil service and better conditions of service for workers in the civil service.
They also used the local newspapers to seek for improvement in the social fields such as
improvement in health facilities and educational facilities in the colonies.

(v) Promotion of African values: The nationalists used the local newspaper to present to the
world, a true picture of the African life and philosophy and why we should cherish it. It also
helped to correct some of the wrong impressions of the Europeans about African culture.

(vi) Mobilizing the people against colonial rule: The nationalists used the local newspapers to
promote unity of purpose among the people of Gold Coast. It united both the educated elite and
the traditional rulers to fight against colonial rule.
(vii). Providing information on developments of the colonies: The nationalists used the local
newspapers to provide updated information on the development of the colonies.

(viii) Popularizing political ideology and manifestoes of political parties: The nationalists
used the local newspapers to create awareness of their political ideology and manifestoes. For
example, the Convention People’s Party used the Evening News to popularize its socialist’s
ideology to the people whilst the United Coast Convention used the Talking Drum to propagate
and popularize their programmes and policies.

(ix). Expressing the grievances of the people: The nationalists used the load newspapers to air
the grievances of the people for the colonial administrators to address them.

’TRIAL QUESTIONS

QI. What were the demands and achievements of the National Congress of

British West Africa (NCBWA)? (SSSCE 1993, Q 6) Q2.(a) What is proto-nationalism? b)

Identify any five features of proto-nationalism Q3. Highlight any six causes of proto-
nationalism before the end of the

Second World War Q4. Discuss any two proto-nationalist movements. Q5. Outline any
three objectives of the Aborigines Right Protection

Society. Q6. Highlight any six achievements of Aborigines Right Protection

Society. Q7.(a) What is nationalism? b) Highlight five reasons why nationalism started
later or delayed in

French West Africa than in British West Africa Q8. Identify six strategies adopted by the
nationalists to achieve self-rule

in the Gold Coast after the Second World War Q9 Outline any four major achievements of
West African Students Union. Q10a). Highlight any three aims and three achievements of the
West African

Students Union (WASU).

Highlight any

West African Students Union (WASU)

Highlight any six ii

before the end of the Second Wotid

Highlight any six external factors dui

nationalist. Highlight six factors that promoted nationalist activities in the Gold Coast between
1946 and 1951 (WASSCE MAY/JUNE 2012, 9X). Identify any six effects of nationalism on
Ghana
 CHAPTER NINETEEN
PRE - INDEPENDENCE POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN GHANA

THE 1916 CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION

Governor Sir Hugh Clifford introduced a new constitution in 1916.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1916 CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION

(i) The 1916 Clifford Constitution provided for a legislative council made up of 20 members
excluding the governor. Out of the 20 members, 11 were white officials and 9 were unofficial
members.

(ii). The constitution made provision for the position of Governor who presided over both the
Executive and the Legislative Councils.

(iii). The constitution provided for the representation of chief and educated elite in the
Legislative Council. There were 3 chiefs and 3 educated elite representing the municipal towns
of the colony including Accra, Sekondi-Takoradi and Cape Coast.

(iv) The 1916 Clifford constitution provided for Executive Council made up of 5 members
excluding the Governor but there was no African representation in the Executive Council.

(v). The constitution did not apply to Ashanti and the Northern Territories. Ashanti and Northern
territories had no representation in the Legislative Council. The governor made laws in the form
of proclamation to govern Ashanti and the Northern Territories.

(vi). The governor had veto power and power of certification: Under the 1916 Clifford
constitution, the governor had the power to reject any ordinance that was passed by the
Legislative Council. The governor also had the power of certification where he could force a law
to be passed and enforced even if the members of the Legislative Council thought otherwise.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The 1916 Clifford Constitution provided for a legislative council made up of 20 members
excluding the governor. Out of the 20 members, 11 were white officials and 9 were unofficial
members. The official members composed of Senior British officials heading the various
departments such as Attorney General, Director of Medical Services, Colonial Secretary, Officer
commanding the local troops and Treasurer who were selected from the Executive Council and
other appointees. Both the official and unofficial members were appointed by the Governor.

The 9 unofficial members were made up of 3 Europeans representing special interest such as
banking, industry and mines, 3 paramount chiefs and 3 educated elite.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL UNDER THE 1916 CLIFFORD
CONSTITUTION
(i) The Legislative Council advised the governor on legislative matters but the Governor was not
bound to heed to their advice.

(ii). It was responsible for discussing the grievances of the people of Gold Coast.

(iii). The Legislative Council also had the responsibility of approving bills initiated by the
Executive Council such as bills connected with the Council budget of the territory and other
policies which the government intended to pursue.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The 1916 Clifford constitution provided for Executive Council made up 5 members excluding
the Governor but there was no African representation in the Executive Council. The Executive
Council was composed of the Attorney General, the Colonia Secretary, the Treasurer of the State
Bank, the Director of Medical Services am the officer commanding the Local Troops. The
Executive Council served as at advisory body to the Governor and helped the Governor in the
formulation am implementation of policies

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL UNDER THE 1916 CLIFFORD

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i) Executive Council served as an advisory body to the Governor. It advised the Governor on
policy formulation and implementation but the Governor was bond to take their advice.

(ii) The Council members were heads of various important departments who made sure that
policies formulated were implemented in their respective departments.

MERITS/ADVANTAGES/STRENGTHS OF THE 1916 CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION

(i) There were equal number of chiefs and educated elite. The constitution made provision for 3
paramount chiefs and 3 educated elites.

(ii) It was the first important constitution that was drawn by the colonial power in the Gold Coast
to solve the problems raised by the educated elites.

(iii) The 1916 Clifford Constitution had a number of Africans on the legislative council for the
first time. Six out of the nine unofficial members in the legislative council were Africans.

DEMERITS/PROBLEMS/WEAKNESSES OF THE 1916 CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION

(i) The constitution failed to provide for elective principle. The people of Gold Coast were
denied the franchise. Thus, their political right to vote to select members into the executive and
the legislative council was not guaranteed under the 1916 constitution.

(ii) There was no African representation in the Executive Council. All policies were imposed on
them since they had no power to initiate policies in the executive Council.

(iii) All official and unofficial members in the Legislative Council were nominated by the
Governor and were answerable to the Governor.

(iv) The Legislative Council was dominated by official members. There were 11 white officials
against 9 unofficial members. It was the duty of the Legislative council to make laws for the
colony so the colonial officials were able to pass ordinance even if the Africans were not in
support of the Ordinance. The simple reason was that the white outnumbered the Africans.

(v) The application of the constitution limited to the colony only, Ashanti and the Northern
Territories had no representation in the Legislative Council.

(vi) The Governor had veto power and power of certification. Under the 1916 Clifford
constitution, the Governor was given the power to reject any Ordinance that was passed by the
Legislative Council. The Governor also had the power of Certification where he could force a
law to be passed even if the members of the Legislative Council thought otherwise.

THE 1925 GUGGISBERG CONSTITUTION OF GOLD COAST

Sir Gordon Guggisberg was a British Canadian who became the Governor of Gold Coast in
1919. In 1925, he introduced a new constitution in Gold Coast which was named after him. The
1925 Guggisberg Constitution was adopted to replace the 1916 Clifford Constitution. It was
introduced because of the nationalist agitation for changes in many aspects of the colonial
administration. For example, the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) and the
Aborigines Right Protection Society (ARPS) criticized the 1916 constitution on the grounds that
no member of the Legislative Council was elected.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1925 GUGGISBERG CONSTITUTION

(i) The constitution provided for a legislative council of 30 members including the governor as
president and 29 members excluding the governor. There was an astronomical increase in the
membership from 21 in the previous constitution to 30 members including the governor under
Guggisberg constitution.

(ii). The legislative council was composed of 15 white official members and 14 unofficial
members. This implies that the official majority was retained whilst relationship with unofficial
minority was considerably improved.

(iii) British officers who held important offices such as financial secretary, the colonial secretary
and the secretary of justice were appointed as official members.

(iv) The unofficial members were made of 5 Europeans, representing mining, banking, shipping
and commerce and they were nominated by the governor. 6 paramount Chiefs who were
indirectly elected by the Provincial Council of Chiefs created under the constitution to represent
the Western, Central and Eastern provinces of the colony. 3 elected Africans representing the
municipalities of Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi Takoradi.
(v) The official majority had some support from the live nominated Europeans representing the
interests of commerce, banking and industry.

(vi) The constitution introduced the elective principle for the first time in the municipalities of
Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi-Takoradi.

(vii) The franchise was limited and was based upon income and property qualification.

(viii) The constitution did not apply to Ashanti and Northern Territories. The Governor made
laws to govern Ashanti and the Northern Territories.

(ix) The constitution provided for an executive council comprising the governor as president and
five other Europeans as official members.

(x) The constitution established the Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs consisting of paramount
chiefs who advised the governor on customary matters. It also ensured the application of indirect
rule in the Gold Coast.

(xi) The 1925 Guggisberg constitution of Gold Coast established municipal and town councils
for the administration of the local units.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

(i) The constitution provided for a Legislative Council of 30 members including the governor as
president. There was an astronomical increase in the membership from 21 in the previous
constitution to 30 members including the Governor under Guggisberg constitution.

(ii) The Legislative Council was composed of 15 white official members and 14 unofficial
members. This implies that the official majority was retained whilst relationship with unofficial
minority was considerably improved.

(iii) British officers who held important offices such as financial secretary, the colonial secretary
and the secretary of justice were appointed as official members.

(iv) The unofficial members were made of 5 Europeans, representing mining, banking shipping
and commerce and they were nominated by the governor. 6 paramount Chiefs who were
indirectly elected by the Provincial Council of Chiefs created under the constitution to represent
the Western, Central and Eastern provinces of the colony. 3 Africans representing the
municipalities of Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi-Takoradi.

(v) The official majority had some support from the five nominated Europeans representing the
interests of commerce, banking and industry.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL UNDER THE 1925 GUGGISBERG

CONSTITUTION
(i). The Legislative Council advised the governor on legislative matters In Governor was not
bound to heed to their advice.

(ii). It was responsible for discussing the grievances of the people of Gold Coast.

(iii). The Legislative Council also had the responsibility of approving bills initiated by the
Executive Council such as bills connected with the Council of the territory and other policies
which the government intended to pursue.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The 1925 Guggisberg Constitution provided for an Executive Council comprising the Governor
as president and five other members who were all Europeans until 1942/43 when three African
were added. The members of the Executive council were heads of the various important
government departments including the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney General, the Treasure,
the Officer Commanding the Local Troops and the Director of Medical Services. All members
composing the Executive Council were Europeans and were all nominated by the Governor
except the Attorney General who was appointed by the colonial office in London.

In 1942 two Africans were appointed into the Executive Council for the first time. They were
Nana Ofori Atta and Sir Arku Korsah and in 1943, Nana Tsibu Darko was also added.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

(i) The Executive Council served as an advisory body to the Governor. It advised the Governor
on policy formulation and implementation but the Governor was not bond to take their advice.

(ii) The Council members were heads of various important departments who made sure that
policies formulated were implemented in their respective departments.

MERITS/ADVANTAGES/STRENGTHS OF THE 1925 GUGGISBERG CONSTITUTION

(i) The constitution introduced for the first time in the history of Gold Coast, the elective
principle by which some members of the Legislative Council elected by the people in the
municipalities of Accra, Cape Coast and Sekondi-Takoradi. The franchise was based on property
qualification.

(ii) Membership of the Legislative Council was enlarged. The 1925 Guggisberg Constitution
enlarged the membership of the Legislative Council from 21 to 30 including the Governor as
president.

(iii) The 1925 Guggisberg Constitution of Gold Coast instituted a yearly conference of
Provincial Council of chiefs for the purposes of sharing common ideas and conformity to British
colonial policy.

(iv) The 1925 Constitution of Gold Coast established municipal and town councils the
administration of local units.

(v) The inclusion of two un-official Africans in the Executive Council for the first time in 1942
was unique. Though, the two Africans appointed namely Nana Ofori Atta and Sir Arku Korsah
were there in an unofficial capacity, their membership made African presence to be felt in the
highest level of decision-making.

(vi) The constitution established the Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs consisting paramount
chiefs who advised the Governor on customary matters. It also ensured the application of indirect
rule in the Gold Coast.

DEMERITS/WEAKNESSES/SHORTCOMINGS OF THE 1925 GUGGISBERG

CONSTITUTION
(i) The elective principle was limited to the major urban centres of Cape Coast, Accra and
Sekondi-Takoradi and was based on property qualification. A lot of people were therefore
disenfranchised.

(ii) The 1925 Guggisberg Constitution failed to integrate the Ashanti and the Northern
Territories because they did not have representatives in the Legislative Council. This negatively
affected the unification of the country (Gold Coast).

(iii) The 1925 Constitution failed to reform the Executive Council. The Executive council was
exclusively composed of white British officials until 1942 when two Africans were appointed as
unofficial members. The exclusion of Africans from the Executive Council prevented them from
participating in policy formulation.

(iv) Both the Legislative and the Executive Councils were advisory bodies to the Governor. The
Governor was not bond to heed to their advice.

(v). The provision of Joint Provincial Council under the 1925 Constitution strengthened the
position of the chiefs to the detriment of the educated elites and the ordinary people. The
educated elites were excluded from participating in indirect rule. They therefore resented to this
imbalance, creating a wedge between the educated elites and the chiefs.

(vi) The Legislative Council still maintained an official majority and unofficial minority. Thus,
the official members continued to outnumber the unofficial members. There were 15 official
members as against 14 unofficial members.

(vii). The constitution did not apply to Ashanti and the Northern Territories. Ashanti and
Northern territories had no representation in the Legislative Council. The governor made laws in
the form of proclamation to govern Ashanti and the Northern Territories.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUGGISBERG TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

OF GHANA
(i). The 1925 Guggisberg Constitution introduced the elective principle for first time in Gold
Coast. The introduction of the elective principle formed basis of the development towards
eventual establishment of Universal Adult Suffrage.

(ii) The 1925 constitution increased the membership for unofficial representation from nine to
fourteen.

(iii). The 1925 Guggisberg constitution created Provincial Council of Chiefs. This strengthened
the position of chiefs and ensured the application of indirect rule in the Gold Coast.

(iv). Under the 1925 Guggisberg Constitution, the native Administrative Ordinance was passed.
This ordinance affected chieftaincy by defining the roles and powers of traditional rulers. It also
protected the offices of chiefs as it made it an offence for anybody to undermine the authority of
the chiefs.

(v). The ordinance again empowered provincial council to settle inter-provincial disputes.

(vi) The 1925 constitution established Municipal/Town Councils with definite functions for the
management of local units.

(vii) The constitution also enlarged the membership of the legislative council from 21 to 30
including the Governor.

PROVINCIAL COUNCIL OF CHIEFS IN THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL UNDER

THE GUGGISBERG CONSTITUTION OF THE GOLD COAST

COMPOSITION
(i) The Provincial Council of Chiefs consisted of 6 elected representatives in the Legislative
Council. The six paramount chiefs were indirectly elected by the Provincial Council created
under the Constitution to represent the Western, Central and Eastern Provinces of the colony.

(ii) Three members were elected from the Eastern province, two members from the Central
province and one member from the Western province.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PROVINCIAL COUNCIL OF CHIEFS UNDER THE 1925

CONSTITUTION
(i) Hearing of appeals: The provincial Council of Chiefs under the 1925 Guggisberg
Constitution heard appeals over election and destoolment of chiefs.

(ii) Serving as means of co-operation among paramount chiefs: The Provincial Council of
Chiefs under the 1925 Guggisberg Constitution served as a means of co-operation among
paramount chiefs in the colony by enabling them hold consultations on national issues.

(iii) Hearing disputes: The governor referred matters such as local disputes to Council for
hearing.

(iv) Assisting in training of chiefs: The provincial Council of Chiefs under the 1925
Guggisberg Constitution helped in the training of chiefs in modern art of government.
(v) Preserving indigenous institutions: The provincial Council of Chiefs under the 1925
Guggisberg Constitution helped to preserve indigenous institutions of the people.

(vi) Serving as Electoral College: The provincial Council of Chiefs under the 1925 Guggisberg
Constitution served as an electoral college for the election of chiefs into the Legislative Council.

THE 1946 ALAN BURNS CONSTITUTION OF GOLD COAST

Sir Alan Burns became the Governor of Gold Coast 1942-1947. In 1946, the Governor, Sir Alan
Burns introduced a new replace the 1923 Guggisberg Constitution. The constitution was
promulgated to improve upon the weaknesses of the 1925 constitution and to address the post-
World War II problems. This constitution was described by the nationalist as “outmoded at
birth” since it failed to address the post-world war problems.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1946 ALAN BURNS CONSTITUTION OF GOLD COAST

(i) The 1946 Burns constitution provided for a Legislative Council of 31 members including the
Governor and 30 members excluding the Governor. The membership comprised 6 official
members and 24 unofficial members.

(ii) The Burns constitution also made provision for an Executive Council. It was made up of
eleven (11) members. Eight (8) of them were officials and the remaining three (3) were
unofficial members.

(iii). The introduction of Africans mainly educated elite and some chiefs in the Executive
Council was significant as Africans were to participate in policy formulation in the governing
process of the Gold Coast.

(iv). The constitution united Ashanti and Northern Territories with Gold Coast colony in terms of
constitutional and political activities.

(v). The Governor continued to exercise his reserved and veto powers. The Governor was given
the power to reject any Ordinance that was passed by the Legislative Council. The Governor also
had the power of Certification where he could force a law to be passed even if the members of
the Legislative Council thought otherwise.

(vi) There were no representatives for the Northern Territories and Trans-Volta Togoland. The
Governor continued to legislate for the areas in consultation with the Provincial Commissioners

(vii) The franchise remained largely limited to the municipal areas based on property and
income. The Burns Constitution of 1946 limited franchise to the major urban centres of Cape
Coast, Sekondi-Takoradi, Accra and Kumasi and was based on property qualification.

(viii) Chiefs were more than the educated elite. There were 13 chiefs as against 5 educated elite.
The 1946 Burns Constitution therefore sidelined the educated elite in the Legislative Council

(ix) The nominated chiefs from Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs (JPCC) and the Territorial
Council of chiefs basically represented themselves and not the people.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION
The constitution provided for a Legislative Council of 31 members including the governor as
president. The membership comprised 6 official members and 24 unofficial members. Out of the
24 unofficial members, 9 members were paramount chiefs indirectly elected by the Joint
Provisional Council of Chiefs (JPCC), 6 members nominated by the governor of whom three (3)
were Europeans representing special interests such as mining and banking and three (3) being
Gold Coasters. Four members were also paramount chiefs indirectly elected by the Asanteman
Council. 5 members were educated elites representing the municipal towns of Accra (2), Cape
Coast (1) Sekondi-Takoradi (1) and Kumasi (1).

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL UNDER THE 1946 CONSTITUTION

(i) Legislative Council was responsible for discussing the grievances of the people of Gold
Coast.

(ii) Legislative Council advised the Governor on the making of laws known as ordinances for the
colony.

(iii) Legislative Council was responsible for approving bills initiated by the Executive Council
such as bills connected with the annual budget of the territory.

THE ECUTIVE COUNCIL

COMPOSITION
The 1946 Burns Constitution made provision for an Executive Council comprising 11 members
excluding the Governor who presided over the Council. Out of the 11 members, 8 were British
officials and the remaining 3 were unofficial African members.
The Governor was the president of both the Legislative and the Executive Council.
He also retained his veto and reserved powers.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL UNDER THE 1946 CONSTITUTION

(i) The Executive Council advised the Governor on policy formulation and implementation but
the Governor was not bond to heed to their advice.

(ii) The Executive Council members were heads of the various important government
departments and made sure that policies formulated were implemented in their respective
departments.

MERITS/ADVANTAGES/STRENGTH/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1946 ALAN BURNS

CONSTITUTION
(i) The constitution provided for an unofficial African majority in the Legislative Council for the
first time. It was composed of 24 unofficial members as against 6 official members. Gold
Coasters were 21 out of the 30 members. The domination of Africans in the Legislative Council
enabled them to influence the ordinances in the colony.

(ii) Ashanti as a region for the first time had 4 representatives in the Legislative Council. This
enhanced the political and constitutional unification of the Gold Coast colony and Ashanti. Gold
Coast could therefore provide a united front in the Legislative Council.

(iii) Three (3) Africans namely; Nana Tsibu Darku, Mr. C.W Tachie Menson and Dr. I.B Asafu-
Adjaye were included in the Executive Council. This enabled Africans to take part in policy
formulation in Gold Coast.

(iv). The elective principle which was introduced in 1925 under Guggisberg
constitution was for the first time extended to Ashanti (Kumasi) under the 1946 Burns
Constitution. This increased the number of urban places where people were allowed to vote from
three (3) to four (4) namely; Accra, Cape Coast, Sekondi-Takoradi and Ashanti (Kumasi).

(v). The constitution introduced the committee system in the politics of Gold Coast. Such
committees included the Finance Committee and the Education Committee. These committees
enabled members of the Legislative Council to gain practical experience in committee system in
the legislature.

(vi) The creation of Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs which served as an advisory body to the
Governor on customary matters helped to present the culture and customs of the Gold Coasters.

(vii) Democratic process was deepened under the 1946 Rums constitution. This is because, direct
election from the municipalities into the Legislative Council increased from 3 under the
Guggisberg constitution to 5 under the 1946 Burns Constitution.

(viii). The constitution created territorial council for the Northern territories, The 1946 Burns
constitution introduced a territorial council for the Northern territories, thus bringing some
inclusiveness to the people in the northern boarders of the colony.

(ix) The constitution extended Joint Provincial Council of Chiefs to the Asanteman Council.

DEFECTS/DEMERITS/WEAKNESSES/SHORTCOMINGS OF THE 1946 BURNS

CONSTITUTION
(i) The Executive Council was dominated by the official members who were all Europeans while
Africans were in the minority. It was made up of eight (8) official members as against three (3)
African unofficial members. The three Africans on the Executive Council were appointed by the
Governor and were responsible to him. Because Africans were still in the minority and were also
not part of the heads of departments, they could not influence policies and programmes in the
colony.

(ii). The Burns constitution of 1946, excluded the Northern Territory and the British mandatory
Togoland from the Legislative Council. Laws applying to these areas were issued by the
Governor by means of proclamation instead of those passed in the Legislative Council.
(iii). The constitution did not favor the principle of self-determination. The 1946 Burns
constitution did not grant self-rule or self-determination to the people of Gold Coast. It was
based upon this reason which made the nationalist describe the constitution as outmoded at birth.

(iv) The franchise was limited and was based on property qualification. The Burns constitution
1946 limited the urban centers of Cape Coast, Sekondi-Takoradi, Accra and Kumasi was based
on property qualification.

(v) The constitution gave wide powers to the Governor. The Governor still held the power of
veto and certification. The power of veto enabled the Governor to either accept or reject bills
passed by the legislative council. The power of certification also enabled the governor to bring
into fruition a bill which has been rejected by the legislative council, if he considered it
necessary.

(vi) The Burns constitution of 1946 sidelined the educated elite in the Legislative Council. The
number of chiefs used in the Legislative Council outnumbered that of the educated elite and the
traditional rulers (chiefs) were given more roles to play under the policy of indirect rule to the
detriment of the educated elite.

(vii) Both the Legislative and the Executive Councils were mere advisory bodies to the
Governor. The Governor was not bound to heed to their advice. He could take or reject the
advice of both councils. The council members not compel the governor to take any action he felt
was not in the interest of the British and the Act upon which the colonies were established.

(viii). Majority of the members of the Legislative Council were either nominated or appointed
by the Governor. This made most of the members nominated or appointed serve the interest of
the governor; thus their appointment master instead of their own people.

FORMATION OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS IN GOLD COAST

THE UNITED GOLD COAST CONVENTION

The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was the first political party formed in Gold Coast
(Ghana) by the intelligent who were mostly lawyers and highly tycoon businessmen. The UGCC
was formed on 4th August, 1947. Its prominent members included Mr. George Grant (chairman),
Joseph Boakye Danquah (vice chairman), Kwame Nkrumah (General —Secretary), Mr. R.A
Awooner Williams (Treasure), Mr. Edward Akuffo Addo (member), Mr. Obetsebi Lamptey
(member), Mr. Ofori Atta (member), Mr. Cobbina Kesse (member), Krobo Adusei (member)
J.W De Graft Johnson (member), Mr. Arko Adjei (member) and Mr. John Tsiboe (member). The
UGCC was predominantly an elite party with the slogan “self-government within the shortest
possible time”. Its official mouth piece was the “Talking Drums”

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF UGCC

(i) To ensure that by all legitimate and constitutional means the direction and control of
government should pass into the hands of the people and their natural rulers in the shortest
possible time.

(ii)To oppose the 1946 Alan Burn’s Constitution since it failed to grant self-government for the
people of Gold Coast neither did it prescribe solutions to the numerous post World War political,
social and economic problems facing the country.

(iii) To ensure that persons selected to represent the people and their natural rulers in the
Legislative Council shall be elected based upon their competence.

(iv) To achieve constitutional advancement for the Gold Coast through a gradual process.

(v) To oppose the dominance of chiefs in the Legislative Council at the expense of the educated
elite and the ordinary people. There were 13 indirectly elected chiefs in the 1946 Legislative
Council as against 5 directly elected educated elite.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNITED GOLD COAST CONVENTION (UGCC)

(i). It provided an opportunity for uniting the nationalist in opposing British colonial rule. The
UGCC provided an opportunity for the educated elite and the nationalist to organize themselves
as one people to oppose British colonial rule.

(ii). It established its own newspaper known as “Talking Drums” for political education of the
people. They used the newspaper to propagate their programs as well as exposing the evils of
colonialism.

W. It established branches in the Southern areas of the country and Ashanti where it undertook
serious political mobilization through rallies.

(iv). Five of the members of the UGCC served on the Coussey Committee that drafted the 1951
constitution. They included; Obetsebi Lamptey, E. Arko Adjei, W. Ofori Atta, Dr. J.B Danquah
and Edward Akuffo Addo. Out of the “big six”, only Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was excluded.

(v) The United Gold Coast Convention was the first political party in Gold Coast from which
other political parties such as Convention Peoples Party (CPP) and United Party (UP) emerged.

(vi) The rest Of the members the UGCC helped to popularize the party through their
participation in the 1948 riots.

(vii) The UGCC promoted the political consciousness of the people in the Gold Coast through
their political education and campaign.
.
(viii) The party leadership recommended the name Ghana to replace Gold Coast at
independence.

FAILURES OF THE UNITED GOLD COAST CONVENTION (UGC)

(i) The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) faced a separatist from within. The people were
separated on the ideology of the party as well as its slogan. For example, Kwame Nkrumah
demanded “self- government which was contrary to the other leaders of the party’s agitation “
self-government within the shortest possible time” This intra-party disagreement accounted for
Nkrumah’s break away from the party to form the CPP.

(ii) The UGCC took a conservative nature of nationalism. The approach used by the UGCC was
not radical and aggressive enough to gain independent for the people of Gold Coast. It wanted to
achieve self-government constitutional means in the shortest possible time. This move was
pleasing enough to the impatient youth and the ex-servicemen who saw independent as the only
remedy to their plight.

(iii) The UGCC could not achieve independence for Ghana which was its principal aim. It was
the CPP that achieved ultimate independence of Ghana.

(vi). The UGCC failed to make itself a truly national party by establishing branches throughout
the country. It limited its activities to the educated people and was urban based. It failed to admit
young men in its working committees dominated by lawyers, businessmen, drawing its support
from leaders and their elders, professionals and disgruntled businessmen.

(iv) The UGCC lacked organizational ability or skills as the leader had little or no time for the
party. The leaders of the party approached politics as a part- time job.

(v) The slogan of the UGCC” self-government within the shortest possible time” was not
appealing and attractive to the masses as compared to the CPP’s slogan of “self- government
now”. No wonder the CPP received massive support as soon as it was inaugurated.

WHY KWAME NKRUMAH BROKE AWAY FROM UGCC TO FORM THE

CONVENTION PEOPLE’S PARTY (CPP)/REASONS FOR THE FORMATION
CONVENTIONS PEOPLE’S PARTY (CPP)

(i) The desire for self-government nos. against UGCC’s position of self- government within
the shortest possible time: While the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) leaders thought
that the country was not ripe for independence at that time and wanted to prepare for achieving it
through gradual process (within shortest possible time), Kwame Nkrumah wanted and asked for
self -government now. This disagreement contributed to the breakaway of Nkrumah from the
UGCC to form CPR

(ii) Nkrumah’s desire for militant approach to wrestle power from the colonial authorities:
Kwame Nkrumah preferred radical methods like demonstrations, strikes and boycotts in the fight
against British colonialism while the leading members of the United Gold Coast Convention
insisted on constitutional and legitimate means in pursuing the nationalist’s struggle. The idea of
using constitutional and legitimate means did not go down well with Nkrumah and contributed to
his break away from UGCC to form the Convention People’s Party (CPP).

(iii) Ideological clash: The UGCC leaders were not willing to accept Nkrumah’s socialist,
radical and pan Africanist ideas, Kwame Nkrumah on the other hand could not also agree with
the capitalist ideas of the United Gold Coast Convention’s leaders.

(iv) Nkrumah’s removal as the General Secretary of the UGCC: The internal disagreements
between Nkrumah and the leading members of the UGCC led to the suspension of Nkrumah as
General- Secretary and he was subsequently made Honoury Treasurer. The decision taken by the
leaders of UGCC did not go down well with Nkrumah and resulted to his breakaway from the
UGCC to form the Convention People’s Party in 1949.

(v)Exclusion of Nkrumah from the Coussey Committee: Another reason which accounted for
Nkrumah’s breakdown from the UGCC was due to his exclusion from serving on the Coussey
Constitutional Review Committee. After Watson Commission had submitted their report on the
causes of the 1948 riots, the government appointed all African Constitutional Proposal to come
out with a new constitutional proposal for Gold Coast. Kwame Nkrumah was conspicuously left
out of the committee because of his radical and socialist ideas while the other leaders of UOCC
were appointed into the committee. Nkrumah himself, his supporters and sympathizers were not
happy with this and contributed to their breakaway from UGCC to form CPP

Support and encouragement received from the Committee of Youth Organization

(C.Y.0): While Nkrumah was the secretary for UGCC, he organized the youths of the party into
a movement known as “the Committee on youth organization” Nkrumah was asked to dissolve
the youth organization by the leading members of the UGCC but he refused. These youths rallied
behind Nkrumah and later supported him to resign from the UGCC. Kwame Nkrumah together
with this group on the 12st of June, 1949 launched the Convention People Party (CPP) in Accra.

(vii). Personality and power clash: Personality and power clash between Nkrumah and other
leaders of UGCC especially between Nkrumah and J.B Danquah also contributed to his
breakaway from the UGCC to form CPP.

THE CONVENTION PEOPLE’S PARTY (CPP)

On the 11th of June, 1949, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah broke away from the United Gold Coast
Convention due to a number of reasons and formed the Convention People Party on the I2’h
June, 1949. The CPP was the first mass party formed in Ghana. It included people from all walks
of life. Membership was open to labor organization, farmers, workers, youth movements,
teachers, students, petty traders etc. The prominent members of CPP included Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah (chairman), K.A Gbedemah (vice chairman), Kojo Botsio (General-Secretary), A.Y.K
Djin (Financial Secretary), Kofi Baako (member), Dzenkle Dzewu (member), Kwasi Mange
(member), Krobo Edusei (member). The slogan of the party was “self -government now” and the
official mouthpiece of the party was the “Evening News”.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF CONVENTION PEOPLE’S PARTY (CPP)

(i) To fight for self- government now: The CPP aimed at fighting relentlessly by all
constitutional means for the achievement of full “self-government now” for the Chiefs and
people of Gold Coast
(ii) To remove all forms of oppression: The CPP aimed at serving as the vigorous, conscious
political vanguard for removing all forms of oppressions.

(iii) To establish democratic form of government: They aimed at establishing a democratic

government.

(iv) To secure and maintain their unity of the chiefs and people of the colony: Again, the
CPP aimed at securing and maintaining a complete unity of the chiefs and people of the colony,
Ashanti, Northern Territories and Trans-Volta.

(v) To work for better employment condition: The CPP aimed at working for a better
employment condition and proper reconstruction of the country in which people would have the
right to live and govern themselves as free people.

(vi) To work for a realization of united self-governing West Africa: It also aimed at working
for a realization of united self- government for West Africa.

(vii) To abolish imperialism, colonialism and all forms of racism: The CPP aimed to work
with other nationalists in Africa and other continents to abolish imperialism, colonialism and all
forms of racism.

(viii) To work and support Pan-Africanism: The CPP aimed to support Pan-Africanism by
promoting the unity of the peoples of Africa and of African descent.

METHODS USED BY CPP TO FIGHT FOR INDEPENDENCE

(i) Legitimate political actions: The CPP used legitimate political actions to fight for
independence. For example. the party sent petitions and delegations to the local colonial
administration and the Colonial Office in London and the United Nations to articulate the
people’s grievances and demands. The party also took part in the various elections held in 1951,
1954 and 1956 which it won all.

(ii) Political educational campaigns: The CPP used effective political education campaigns
which enabled them to get substantial number of Ghanaians to rally behind them to fight for
independence.

(iii) Dissemination of anti-colonial information through newspapers: The CPP used the
press extensively to disseminate anti-colonial information to the people. Notable among the
CPP’s stable of newspapers were the Accra Evening News, the Sekondi Morning Telegraph and
the Cape Coast Daily Mail. The CPP used these newspapers to verbally attack the colonial
government. The contents of the newspapers with their cartoons and slogans were in line with
the aspirations ordinary purple who consequently rallied behind the CPP to tight for
independence.

(iv) Constitutional processes: Between 1951 and the attainment of independence in 1957, the
CPP mounted measure on the colonial government through speeches in the Legislative Assembly
and in the newspapers for further constitutional reforms leading to the attainment independence

(v). Positive action: The CPP used positive action such as strikes, boycotts non-co-operation to
fight for independence.

(vi) Violent confrontation: The declaration of positive action in 1950 by Nkrumah

degenerated into rioting, demonstrations and violence confrontation when an ex-servicemen’s
demonstration clashed with the police and resulted in death of two African policemen. Nkrumah
and some of his party colleagues were tried and imprisoned.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF CPP
(i) Achieving independence for Ghana: The CPP through its able leaders of Osagyefo Dr.
Kwame Nkrumah achieved independence for Ghana in which was its major aim.

(ii). Promotion of education: The CPP built a number of schools and introduce free primary
education for the people of Gold Coast. It established the Kwa Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology (KNUST) and the University of Cape Coast (UCC).

(iii)Infrastructural Development: The party contributed immensely to improve upon the

infrastructural development of the country•. It built the Tema Harbor and Akosombo Dam.
Again, several roads and railway lines such Kade Hunni Valley and Tema Motorway were
constructed to facilitate the movement of the people and goods.

(iv) Improving the health sector: The CPP succeeded in providing free medical care to
Ghanaians. Hospitals and health sectors such as AKomfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (KATH)
were built to improve the health needs of the people.

(v) Uniting the people of Ghana: As a mass party, the CPP succeeded in unit the people of
Ghana. Its support for the adoption of the unitary system government as against the federal
system advocated by the National Liberal Movement (N LM) attests to that fact.

(vi). The CPP was able to sensitize, mobilize and educate people on the evils of colonialism as
well as the defects of the Burns constitution which led the change of the 1946 Burns constitution.

(vii). Liberating other African countries from the shackles of colonialism: The CPP led by
its able leadership Dr. Kwame Nkrumah spearheaded the liberation of other African countries
from the shackles of colonialism. For instance, it assisted other African countries such as Mali,
Togo and Guinea to gain their independence.

(vii) It succeeded in rekindling the nationalist spirits in the Cold Coast: The CPP created
political consciousness in the people of Ghana and other colonies of Africa as well as educating
them on the evils of colonialism so as to oppose it.

FAILURES OF THE CONVENTION PEOPLE’S PARTY

(i) Suppression of individual freedom by Nkrumah: Nkrumah suppressed the freedoms of
Ghanaians. arrested and detained his political opponents. He introduced obnoxious Preventive
Detention Act in 1958 which culminated in the exile of prominent opposition members like
Busia and others as well as the death of Dr. J. B Danquah in detention. Cases of torture and
abuse of fundamental human rights were reported all over the country. This made Nkrumah and
his CPP very unpopular. Many of the supporters came to sympathize with the opposition and
supported the overthrow of Dr. Nkrumah.

(ii). Intra-party dispute: Internal conflict within the CPP contributed to their overthrown. On
the day of elections to parliament in 1965, Nkrumah went to radio station and announced the
names of people whom he had selected as members of parliament (MPs) and for which
constituencies. Some of the members of the party who were selected as MPs could not even
locate their constituencies. This increased the tension and confusion in the party. On 16th
October, 1961, K. A Gbedemah who was a prominent member of the party spoke against
Nkrumah in parliament and left for exile on the same day.

(iii). Creation of one- party state: In 1964, Nkrumah made Ghana a one- party state. Under
this system, no other political parties existed besides the Convention People’s party and
Ghanaians could not change their leaders without the physical removal of Nkrumah and his
associates. This is exactly what happened on 24th February, 1966.

(iv) Economic mismanagement: The CPP economic mismanagement, bribery and corruption.
The county’s foreign reserves were used on unnecessary prestigious projects, awarding
scholarship of national African countries, funding the training of African freedom fighters in
Ghana, granting of loans and financial aid to other African countries like Guinea Kinshasa and
Mali, and dissipation of funds on creation of security guards. All these activities resulted in the
accumulation of substantial national debt. All the time of the overthrow, Ghana was at the verge
of bankrupt. The 200 Euro reserve accumulated in Landon during the colonial period had I
exhausted and Ghana had piled debts upon debts.

(v). The judiciary was undermined: The CPP made effort to undermine administration of
justice in Ghana. The independence of the judiciary threatened under Nkrumah’s regime. A good
illustration is the dismissal o then Chief Justice, Sir Arku Korsah over the trial of Tawiah
Adarnafio, Crabbe, and Arku Adjei in the Kulungu assassination attempt on Nkrumah. This act
was an affront to the judiciary and against the due process of the

(vi) Economic hardships and high inflation in the country: Economic hard and high inflation
also accounted for the coup in 1966. In 1960, the economy started deteriorating. Deficit
financing came to be a feature of government fiscal policy and severe inflation hit the country.
The price of locally food rose by as much as 400% in some parts of Ghana between March 1963
and December, 1964. As price of certain essential goods rose sharply, the net income of farmers
as well as wage-earners fell resulting in severe hardship. Many employees including workers of
railway and harbor embarked on strike in 1961 to express their protest against the hardship they
were going through. One thing that annoyed most Ghanaians is that, whist Nkrumah urged them
to lighten their belts; he and his ministers led a life of luxury, rode in expensive cars and erected
buildings in the main towns from funds received from corrupt practices and bribes.
(vii) Disregard for traditional institutions: Nkrumah disregarded traditional institutions and
rulers who consequently withdrew their support from his party, particularly, among the Ashanti’s
and other Akan chiefs.

(viii) The creation of special guard: There was generally a feeling of discontent among the
forces. The Armed Forces suspected that the Presidential guard created by the president was
meant to replace them. Besides the suspicion they were unhappy about members of the
Presidential Guard enjoying better facilities than them. Also, they resented Nkrumah’s idea
sending them to fight against Ian Smith’s Unilateral Declaration of independence in Zimbabwe
(Rhodesia) in 1965 and to fight against America in the Vietnam War. They saw these moves as
an attempt to wipe them off and replace them with the Presidential Guard

(ix)Successful nature of coup in neighboring countries: The contagious effect of the successes
of the military coups in neighboring countries such as Nigeria also inspired the Armed forces to
overthrow Nkrumah through a coup d’état.

(x) The attention of Nkrumah to the interest of African continental unity: The attention of
Nkrumah to the interest of African continental unity and the use of foreign reserves to promote
liberation movements led to internal hardship for the Ghanaians.

(xi). Bad foreign policies: Nkrumah pursued foreign policies which were condemned by some
western countries as well as some African leaders. His socialist policies and his attempt of
creating a continental union government for Africa invited more external enemies for him.

EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE

THE 1948 RIOTS The 1948 riots started from Accra and spread to other regional capitals. On
the 28th February 1948, a group of ex-servicemen in the Gold Coast marched to present a
petition to the Governor over their release and settlement scheme. There was a shooting incident
at the Christiansburg castle which claimed the lives of some of these ex-servicemen including
Sergeant Adjeitey, Corporal Attipoe and Private Odartey. This resulted in looting and rioting.

CAUSES OR FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR THE 1948 RIOTS IN GOLD

COAST (GHANA)

(i) The shooting incidence: The immediate cause of the 1948 riot was the shooting incident at
the Christiansburg cross road on 28th February 1948, which claimed the lives of some ex-
servicemen who marched to the castle to present their grievances to the Governor. The three ex-
servicemen who were shot included Sergeant Adjeitey, Corporal Attipoe and Private Odartey.

(ii) Problem or dissatisfaction of the ex-servicemen: Another cause of the 1948 riot was
due to the inability of the colonial government to resettle the ex-servicemen who fought
during the Second World War side by side with British. The British government could not
provide any meaningful resettlement scheme for this ex -servicemen after the war. The-
servicemen felt cheated and demanded for resettlement scheme.

(iii) General dissatisfaction with the Burns constitution: The nationalists and educated elites
were not happy with the Burns constitution which was unrealistic to the social and political
situations at the time. The constitution was described by them as “outmoded at birth”.

(iv). The cutting down of the cocoa trees attacked by swollen shoot diseases: One of the
major economic causes of the 1948 riot was the destruction all cocoa trees afflicted by swollen
shoot disease by the British with consent of the people.

(v). High rate of unemployment: Unemployment situation in the country in after the Second
World War. Most school levers became stranded. Some of these school leavers travelled far and
near to the urban centers to look for job but all their effort proved futile.

(vi). Exploitative price disparity between imported and locally produced goods: Foreigners
(Syrians and Lebanese) controlled the exportation and importation of goods. They purchased
locally produced goods at low prices whilst imported goods were sold at high prices. Ghanaians
expressed their disgust such practices.

(vii). Acute shortage of essential goods: There was an acute shortage essential goods as a result
of drastic cut in the importation of consume such as canned fish, candles and sugar. The shortage
of these essential goods resulted in black marketing which led to looting and boycott of foreign
in protest against high cost of living.

(viii). Monopoly of firms: Ghanaians resented to the indigenous trader tow association of West
African Merchants (AWAM). The Gold Coast Company was monopolized by Europeans.

(ix). Racial discrimination: Racial discrimination also contributed to1948 riots. Africans were
discriminated against in many areas of the society example, they were discriminated against in
the civil and public service especially in terms of condition of service.
(x) Inadequate educational anti health institutions in the country: Socially the people were
unhappy with the available facilities which resulted in lack of access to secondary and tertiary
education for many Ghanaians. Medical or health facilities were woefully inadequate. The
people also complained about providing separate hospitals for Africans and whites.

(xi) High inflation: After the Second World War, inflation increased astronomically which
resulted in high cost of living in the country. The people accused the colonial government for not
salvaging the situation.

MAJOR EFFECTS OF THE 1948 RIOTS

(i) The arrest and detention of the six members: After the riots, six (6) members of the United
Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) were arrested and detained. These people were referred to as
the ’big six’. They included; Obetsebi Lamptey, E. Arko Adjei, W Ofori Atta, Dr. J.B Danquah
Edward Akuffo Addo and Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.

(ii) It led to an increase in the tempo of political awareness and agitation: After the 1948
riots, the political awareness and agitation of the people aggravated and contributed to their zeal
to fight against colonial rule.

(iii) It contributed to the Africanization of the civil service: After the riots, the commission
for the Africanization was set up in 1950 to expedite the Africanization of the civil service.

(iv) Introduction of the universal adult suffrage: The 1948 riots led to the introduction of
Universal Adult Suffrage in 1951 which was fully established and extended throughout the
country in 1954.

(v). It led to the establishment of the Watson Commission to investigate the causes of the riots.

(vi). It led to the adoption of a new constitution: The government appointed the Coussey
Committee to draw up a new constitution for the Gold Coast. The Committee was an All-African
Committee which was chaired by Sir Henley Coussey. The report of the committee led to the
promulgation of the 1951 constitution.

(vit). Expatriate firms like U.A.C and CFAO initiated Africanization programs to co-opt the
most articulating members of the community.

THE WATSON COMMISSION

A tier the 1948 Riots. the Licht Coast Sir Creasy commission of enquiry to investigate the
causes the riots to avoid the recurrence of such incidents in the Gold Coast. The commission was
named after the chairman A.K. Watson.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMISION

The commission upon identifying the causes of the riots proceeded to make the following
recommendations:
(i) The Commission recommended the enlargement of the Legislative with an African majority.
The Legislative Assembly was to be composed of 45 elected members. 15 members elected from
each Regional Council established.

(ii) The Commission called for the establishment of new system of local government to replace
the native authorities which would give more influence to elected, educated elites and less to the
chiefs.

(iii) The Commission identified the defects of the 1946 Burns Constitution and recommended for
the adoption of a new constitution that would country the beginning of self-government.

(iv). It recommended an expansion and improvement of facilities for higher to prepare Africans
to take active part in the administration of Gold Coast.

(v). It recommended that the grievances of the ex-servicemen must be addressed.

(vi). It called for the establishment of an Executive Council with five ministers who should be in
charge with the departments. It recommended that the Executive Council should be answerable
to the legislature no more to the Governor.

(vii). The Commission recommended that the rate of Africanization in Services should be
accelerated and that Africans must be given top in the Public Service if they had the requisite
qualification.

THE COUSSEY COMMITTEE OF 1949

After the submission of the report by the Watson Commission, the then of Gold Coast Sir Gerald
Creasy set the All African Committee in 1949 as directed by the Secretary of State for the
colonies to study the recommendation for the Watson Commission and to put forward its
proposal for constitutional reforms. The Committee consisted of forty members and all were
Africans. It was chaired by Mr. Justice Coussey, a renowned and respected Gold Coast judge.
Members of the Committee were selected from the Joint Provincial Council, the Ashanti
Councils and the Northern Territorial Councils to represent traditional elements. The
Committee’s all African membership also included all the “Big with the exception of Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah. On the 26thOctober 1949, the Committee submitted its report in the form of proposal
to the Governor.

PROPOSALS OR RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COUSSEY COMMITTEE.

(i) The Committee recommended that a new system of local government should be established to
give more influence to elected and educated Africans and less to the chiefs.

(ii). It recommended that the Governor’s veto and reserved powers should be maintained. This
enabled him to reject the bill passed by the Legislative Council to become law if it was not in his
favor and at the same time give certification to laws which the legislature refused to pass as
being very necessary.

(iii) It proposed that the executive council should be reconstituted and be made to be answerable
to the Legislative Assembly and not to the Governor.

(iv). It proposed that the right to vote should cover all those who were twenty- five (25) years or
above who had paid central government taxes or local rates and were not disqualified on grounds
of physical and mental incapacitation.

(v). It proposed the setting up of legislature with two-thirds of its membership elected by
popular franchise and one —third of its members were to be elected by the Territorial Council of
chiefs.

(v0. The Committee also recommended that a bicameral legislature could be adopted. It further
stated that if a bicameral legislature was to be adopted, there must be an establishment of Senate
consisting of chiefs and eleven statesmen as well as a House of Assembly that would be
composed of elected members.

POSITIVE ACTION

On the 8th of January 1950, Kwame Nkrumah declared a “Positive Action” in Gold Coast.
Positive Action implies a civil disobedience campaign of agitation, Propaganda, and a last resort
strikes, boycotts and non-cooperation based on the principle of non -violence to fight
imperialism or colonial rule. However, when Nkrumah launched the campaign, riots out the
capital, Accra. It led to general strike and the boycott shops belonging to the British. Kwame
Nkrumah and some prominent members Conventions People’s Party (CPP) were arrested,
charged with sedition, tried and detained. The CPP news Paper the “Evening News” was also
banned. The campaign ended with Nkrumah’s election and the transformation from British
colony to independent nation, hence the decolonization process.

THE 1951 ARDEN CLARKE CONSTITUTION

Following the report submitted by the Coussey Committee, a new committee was promulgated
in 1951 to address some of the proposals of the Coussey Committee. The constitution was named
after the Governor Arden Clarke. It is sometime referred to as Coussey constitution due to its
influence on it.

THE MAIN FEATURES OF 1951 ARDEN CLARKE CONSTITUTION OF THE GOLD

COAST

(i) The constitution provided for a Legislative Assembly with a total membership of 84 made up
of 70 elected members to represent the colony, Ashanti and the Northern Territories.

(ii) It provided for the post of a speaker. He was to be elected from among the members of the
Assembly or from outside.
(iii). It provided three (3) official members which included the Chief Secretary, the Financial
Secretary and the Attorney — General.

(iv). It provided three (3) Special members elected by chamber of Mines.

(v). There were five (5) Municipal members directly elected by the 4 municipals towns of
Accra, Cape Coast, Sekondi and Kumasi.

(vi) The constitution provided for an Executive Council known as the cabinet and was presided
over by the Governor.

(viii) The constitution provided three (3) Ex-Officio members which included the Chief
Secretary as the Minister for Defense and External Affairs, The Financial Secretary as Minister
of Finance, the Attorney-General as Minister justice Eight (8) African Ministers appointed by the
Governor with the approval the Assembly.

(viii). Members of Executive Council had ministerial responsibilities. They were heads of
government ministries and were therefore responsible for the administration of their various
departments.

(ix) The constitution provided for the post a Governor. The constitution allowed the Governor to
retain his reserved and veto powers that was to be used with the advice of the Executive Council.

(x)The constitution provided a Universal Adult Suffrage. The franchise for the direct and indirect
elections was extended to all adults over the age of 21, who were not disqualified by virtue of
property, conviction etc.

(xi) The constitution provided for the post of leader of government business. The leader of the
majority in the legislature was appointed leader of government business by the Governor. 1)r.
Kwame Nkrumah became the first Ghanaian to hold such position in 1951.

THE LEGISLATURE
Under the 1951 Arden Clarke constitution, a unicameral legislature was adopted and the
Legislative Council was renamed Legislative Assembly. The constitution provided for a
Legislative Assembly with a total membership of 84. It was made up of 70 members elected
through Electoral College to represent the colony (33), Ashanti (i8) and the Northern Territories
(19). There were five (5) municipal members directly elected by the 4 municipal towns of Accra.
Cape Coast, Sekondi Takoradi and Kumasi. The number of Europeans under the 1951
constitution was 9.

It provided 3 official members namely the Chief Secretary, the Financial Secretary and the
Attorney-General. It also provided 3 special members elected by chamber of mines and 3 special
members representing commerce.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

(i). The Legislative Assembly enacted laws for Gold Coast.

(ii) The Legislative Assembly debated and approved all government bills and policies.

(iii). It approved the annual budget presented by the cabinet.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

The 1951 Constitution provided for an Executive Council. The Executive Council under the
1951 constitution consisted of the Governor as president, 3 Ex-officio members namely the Chief
Secretary as the Minister 4 Defense and External Affairs and the Attorney-General as Minion of
hamlet There S African ministers appointed by the with the approval of the Assembly

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (CABINET) UNDER THE 1951

CONSTITUTION

(i). The cabinet was responsible for the formulation of policies of the colony.

(ii) It prepared the annual budget for the colony.

(iii) It maintained peace. law and order in the country.

MERITS/STRENGTHS OF THE 1951 CONSTITUTION

(i). For the first time in the history of Gold Coast, the Legislative Council could legislate for the
whole country, since the constitution brought together representatives of all sections of the
colony into the Legislative Council. Ashanti, Northern Territories, were all represented in the
Legislative Assembly.

(ii) The 1951 Arden Clarke Constitution provided for African majority in the Executive Council,
thus, 8 Africans as against 3 Europeans. This gave Gold Coasters enough say in policy
formulation.

(iii) The franchise was extended since majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly were
elected. For the first time, Universal Adult Suffrage was used both direct and indirect elections.
The voting age was pegged at 21 years or above.

(iv) The membership of the old Legislative Council was increased from 31 including the
Governor to 84 with African majority. This paved way for the Gold Coasters to dominate
proceedings in the Legislative Assembly.

(v) The 1951 Constitution provided for the post of a speaker to replace the Governor as
president. The speaker was elected from among the members of the Assembly or from outside.

(vi). For the first time, a Ghanaian was appointed the head of government business in the
Legislative Assembly. 04 It introduced African Ministerial Responsibility to the Legislative
Assembly.
DEMERITS/DEFECTS/WEAKNESSES OF THE 1951 ARDEN CLARK
CONSTITUTION
(i) The constitution still allowed the Governor to retain his reserved and veto powers and could
therefore veto bills passed by the Legislative Assembly.

(ii) The Governor still controlled the cabinet since the cabinet members were appointed by him
and could dismiss any member who failed to live up to expectation.

(iii). The constitution failed to grant the country full internal self-government. Certain ministerial
functions like Finance, Defence, External Affairs and Internal Security were still under the
control of the Europeans minister rather than Africans.

(iv). The system of parliamentary democracy was not fully practised. This is because the
Legislative Assembly contained nominated members who were not directly responsible or
answerable to the electorate as a whole.

(v). The constitution denied some Gold Coasters the political right to vote since an indirect
election (Electoral College) was used to elect the 70 Africans to represent the rural areas of Gold
Coast.

(vi). The Prime Minister had no control over the white ministers

(vii). The Trans-Volta Togoland was placed under the control of the Governor.

THE 1951 GENERAL ELECTIONS

In 1951, the colonial government set up a Commission known as the Ewart Commission to
supervise the conduct of elections. The Commission divided the country into 38 elected
constituencies and gave voting right to all Gold Coast citizens of 21 years and above. In
February 1951, the election was held. The parties that contested the elections were:

(i). The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) led by Joseph Boakye Danquah.
(ii). The Convention People’s Party (CPP) led by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
(iii). The National Democratic Party (NDP) led by Nanka Bruce.
(iv). The Asante Kotoko Group that concerned itself with managing the traditions of the
Asante’s.

THE RESULTS OF THE ELECTION

The result the of election was declared 9th February, 1951. The CPP won convincingly by
capturing 34 out of the 34 out of 38 seats. UGCC won 3 seats and the independent won 1 seat.

FORMATION OF NEW LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

Following the outcome of the election, a new Legislative Assembly based on the 1951
constitution was formally opened on 26th February, 1951. It was made up of 34 CPP members
including Dr. Kwame Nkrumah who won the Accra seat, 3 UGCC members, 1 independent
member, 37 Territorial Council representatives, 6 Europeans representing the Chamber of
Commerce and Mines and 3 European officials.
To avoid constitutional impasse, the then Governor, Sir Noble Arden-Clark had no alternative
but to order Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and other CPP members who were detained for declaring a
positive action on January 8th 1950 leading to a general strike and boycott of shops belonging to
the British from prison. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was made the leader of government business in
1951 and in March 1952, he became the first Gold Coast Prime Minister and the first Black
Prime minister when the position of Prime Minister was created.

SIGNIFICANCE/RELEVANCE OF THE 1951 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN THE GOLD

COAST
(i) Politics ceased to be a part-time activity as it had been under the UGCC. The 1951 general
election transformed the phase of party politics in Ghana as a part-time affair into a full-time
activity for many politicians. Nkrumah and his people devoted their whole time and energy to
politics.

(ii) The 1951 general election in the Gold Coast paved way for achieving full internal self-
government for the people of Gold Coast in 1954. It also paved way for Nkrumah and the CPP to
form government and lead the nation to independence.

(iii) It ushered in a new crop of political leaders such as Kojo Botsio and Gbedemah who were to
direct the political life of Ghana.

(iv) It marked the first official struggle between the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and
Nkrumah’s Convention People’s party (CPP)

(v) The basis of power was shifted from chiefs and the conservative upper-class elites such as
Doctors, lawyers, highly tycoon businessmen to the common people led by the CPP

(vi) The 1951 election terminated the political ambition of some leading members of the MCC.

(vii). The 1951 general-election was the first nation-wide general election in political history of
the Gold Coast.

(viii). It weakened the United Gold Coast Convention and finally led to its collapse. The
overwhelming defeat suffered by the UGCC gave it a shock from which it never recovered.

(ix) The 1951 general election demonstrated the importance and effectiveness of the organization
of the masses as a tool against colonial rule.

THE 1954 NKRUMAH’S CONSTITUTION OF GOLD COAST

When Nkrumah became the Prime Minister in 1952, he appealed to the Secretary of State for the
colonies for permission to revise the 1951 constitution due to some defects in it. This appeal was
heeded to and a new constitution was adopted for the country in 1954. It was named after Dr.
Kwame Nkrumah. The 1954 constitution gave Ghana an all-African cabinet for the first time.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1954 NKRUMAH’S CONSTITUTION

(i). The 1954 constitution provided for a legislature which was renamed National
Assembly. The membership of the legislature was enlarged from 84 in the 1951 constitution to
104 members.

(ii). For the first time in the history of Gold Coast, all the 104 National Assembly members were
elected on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, the principle of Universal Adult Suffrage
was first applied throughout Ghana under the 1954 Constitution.

(iii) The Legislature was presided over by a speaker.

(iv) The 1954 Nkrumah’s constitution made provision for a prime minister. The prime minister
was the leader of the majority party in the legislature.

(v). The constitution provided for a cabinet or Executive consisting of 8 ministers who were all
Africans (Ghanaians).

(vi) The cabinet was to be collectively responsible to the legislature and not to the Governor.

(vii). The constitution allowed the Governor to retain his reserved and veto powers but was to be
exercised with the advice of the Executive Council.

(viii). The constitution provided Ghana with full internal self-government. Thus, both the
legislature and the executive were Africanized.

THE LEGISLATURE

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The legislature was renamed National Assembly consisting of 104 members elected on the basis
of Universal Adult Suffrage. The 104 members comprised 7 members elected from
municipalities of Accra (3), Kumasi (2), and one each representing Cape Coast and Sekondi-
Takoradi, 97 rural members comprising 39 from the colony, 13 from the Trans-Volta Togoland,
19 from Ashanti and 26 from the Northern Territories. The National Assembly was presided over
by a speaker who was selected from within the Assembly.

EXECUTIVE/CABINET

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The 1954 Nkrumah’s Constitution made provision for a cabinet which was to be composed of
the Prime Minister, the Governor and at least eight (8) ministers selected from the National
Assembly by the minister. The cabinet was to be collectively responsible to the National
Assembly and not to the Governor.

MERITS/STRENGTHS OF THE 1954 NKRUMAH’S CONSTITUTION

(i). The 1954 Nkrumah’s constitution granted full internal self-government for the people of
Gold Coast. The people of Gold Coast had control over internal political administration.
(ii) The cabinet was collectively responsible to the National Assembly and not to the Governor
as happened in the previous constitution. This ensured son some degree of accountability and
responsibility on the part of the cabinet members.

(iii). The principle of Universal Adult Suffrage was fully implemented in the Gold
Coast. For the first time in the history of Gold Coast, all the 104 members of the legislature were
elected on basis of one-man-one vote.

(iv) Membership of the legislature was increased from 84 in the 1951 Coussey constitution to
104 members in Nkrumah’s constitution which ensured that majority interests were represented.

(v) The constitution also established full parliamentary democracy because the official and
nominated members were removed from the Executive and the Legislature. All the members
occupying these positions were elected by the people.

(vi) The constitution also established multi-party democracy in Gold Coast. As many as eight (8)
parties were allowed to exist to compete for elections.

(vii) It provided for a cabinet of all-African members.

(viii) It abolished the Electoral College system. Membership of the National Assembly was no
longer based on special privileges

WEAKNESSES OF THE 1954 NKRUMAH’S CONSTITUTION

(i) The constitution allowed the Governor to retain his reserved and veto power. These powers
enabled him to reject or veto the bills passed by the legislature by not assenting to it. He could
also legislate by order-in council especially in matters of extreme interest in Britain.

(ii) The constitution granted only internal self-government to the people of Gold Coast and not
absolute national independence.

(iii) The Governor still presided over the cabinet and was still in charge of policy, army, defence
and external affairs.

(iv) Legislative enactments that were considered inconsistent or repugnant to British laws were
quashed under the Colonial Validity Act of 1965.

(v) Key ministerial portfolios namely, defence, external affairs and finance were held by white
officials

(vi) The National Assembly had no power to dismiss British officials in the Executive

FEATURES OF INTERNAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN THE GOLD COAST FROM

1954
(i) Most of the Governor’s powers except those related to defence and external affairs were
delegated to the African ministers

(ii) There was a cabinet of at least eight ministers headed by a prime minister who was the leader
of the majority party in the legislature (parliament)

(iii) The cabinet was responsible to the Legislature. The cabinet was collectively accountable to
the legislature.

(iv) Both the executive and the legislative council were Africanized. Thus, both councils were
made up of only African members.

(v) In the exercise of his remaining executive powers, the Governor acted as the advisor of the
ministers.

(vi) The Governor’s veto power was reduced and his reserved powers could only be used on the
resolution of the cabinet or with the consent of the Secretary of State for colonies.

(vii) Universal Adult Suffrage and secret ballot system of elections was introduced throughout
the country.

LIMITATIONS OF INTERNAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN THE GOLD COAST FROM

1954
(i). The Governor was still in control of Defence and External Affairs.
(ii). The Governor retained his reserved powers and could still legislate by Order-in-Council
especially in matters of extreme interest to Britain.
(iii). Legislative Assembly enactments that were considered inconsistent or repugnant to British
laws were quashed under the Colonial law Validity Act of 1865.

THE 1954 GENERAL ELECTION

In 1954, another election was held in Gold Coast. This election was supervised by Vare Lare
commission. The Commission delimited the country into 104 constituencies. The parties that
contested the elections were as follows:

(a). Ghana Congress Party (GCP) which emerged from the UGCC and was led by J.B.Danquah,
K.A. Busia and William Ofori Atta

(b) Northern People’s Party (NPP) led by J.A.Braimah

(c) Anlo Youth Organization (AYO) led by Modesto Apaloo

(d) The Convention People’s Party (CPP) led by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah

(e) The Togoland Congress (TC) led by SG Anto, Kojo Ayekes and Rev. Father Ametowobla

(f) Some independent candidates.

THE RESULTS OF THE 1954 ELECTIONS
The results of the elections were as follows:
CPP won 72 out of the 104 seats
NPP won 15 seats
GCP won 1 seat
TC won 3 seats
AYO won 1 seat
Independent candidates won 11 seats

WHY CPP WON THE 1951, 1954 AND THE 1956 GENERAL ELECTIONS IN GOLD
COAST
(i) Charisma and dynamic leadership style of its leader Dr. Kwame Nkrumah: Nkrumah’s
captivating and charming personality overshadowed the other presidential candidates and
endeared him to the masses. His power of oratory also made him win the hearts of the masses.

(ii). Effective organizational role played by political strategists within the party: Another
factor which contributed to CPP domination in Ghanaian politics is due to effective
organizational role played by political strategists within the party such as K. A Gbedemah and
Kojo Botsio.

(iii). The imprisonment of its leadership after Positive Action: The imprisonment of its
leadership after Positive Action endeared to the hearts of the people who regarded them as
heroes.

(iv). Strong financial base of the party: The financial base of the party was strong as party
members were registered and paid monthly and annual dues. This enabled them to undertake
good and effective campaigns across the country.

(v). Involvement of many identifiable groups: The involvement of many identifiable groups
such as Farmers organizations and women’s groups which became affiliated to the party
contributed to the electoral success of the party.

(vi). Support from the youth: The youth offered their support to the party through the
Committee for Youth Organization (CYO). The various organizations and the youth associations
that Nkrumah formed helped his party to sweep the votes during the 1951 general election.

(vii). Attractive Slogans and Campaigns: The election manifesto of the Convention People’s
Party (CPP) based on the theme “Self-Government Now” was more appealing to the Gold
Coasters than the UGCC’s “Self-Government within the Shortest Possible Time”.

(viii). The manifesto and development agenda of party: The manifesto and development
agenda of the party was convincing to the ordinary Ghanaians who were in the majority.

(ix). The CPP had incumbency advantage Due to incumbency which the party enjoyed in 1954
and 1956. The CPP benefited from the state machinery and resources to the detriment of the
other opposition parties.
THE NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT (NLM)
The National Liberation Movement (NLM) was formed in September 1954, in Kumasi under the
leadership of then chief linguist of Asantehene. Baffour Osei Akoto and some prominent Asante
chiefs. It was formed after the 1954 general election. The movement was dominated by
Ashanti’s. It was formed to challenge the CPP hegemony and to put forward other demands.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT (NLM)

(i). To quicken the achievement of self-government and help build a prosperous,
(ii). healthy, tolerant and God-fearing Gold Coast nation. Clip
(iii). To banish lawlessness, intimidation, hooliganism and disregard for age and authority.
(iv). To establish respect for efficiency, integrity and honest labour.
(v). To safeguard the interest of farmers to ensure incentive for their labour.
(vi). To foster friendly relations between the Gold Coast and the Commonwealth and other
democratic nations.
(vii). To respect and be loyal to traditional rulers and to uphold the best of Asante culture.

DEMANDS OF THE NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT (NLM)

(i). The desire to establish a federal system of government: The NLM was formed to demand
a federal system of government which they thought would give Ashanti a large measure of
autonomy so that they could use their resources to develop their regions instead of the entire
country.

(ii). They also demanded higher cocoa prices: During the 1954 electioneering campaign, the
CPP had promised to increase the price of cocoa to five pounds but after the election, the price of
cocoa was pegged at three pounds twelve shillings. This came about as a result of the
introduction of the Cocoa Duty and Development Bill which was sought to check inflation at a
time when the world price had risen to 450 pounds a ton or 12.10 pounds a load. The N.L.M
which had cocoa pod as a symbol agitated higher producer prices of cocoa.

(iii). They demanded that a Council of State should be set up: The N.L.M wanted a set-up of
Council of State to advice the governor on such matters like appointing judges, which they said
should not become matters of party politics.

(iv). They also demanded for a new constitution and fresh elections: A lot of C.P.P
parliamentarians were not permitted to contest for elections on the ticket of CPP in previous
Legislative Assembly. It was this group of CPP “Rebels” who laid the foundation of the
formation of the NLM. To satisfy the interest of these “Rebels”, the NLM demanded a new
constitution and fresh elections.

(v) They called for the adoption of bicameral legislature: The idea of incipient dictatorship of
the C.P.P and the need to nip in the bud the dictatorship, and for that reason, federal structure
was to provide considerable decentralization to break the front of the C.P.P. The NLM leaders
claimed that under unitary government, the C.P.P would be too powerful. They therefore
demanded the adoption of bicameral legislature and a federal government as a means of
safeguarding regional interest against dictatorship from too much centralized administration.
(vi). Fear of domination: Another reason that accounted for the formation of NLM was due to
fear of domination by the Southerners in post independent Ghana. The fear came about due to
the report presented by the Van Lare Commission. The Van Lare Commission on electoral
reforms was not very pleasing to the Ashantis. The Ashantis had 21 out of 104 seats in the
country and demanded an increase in the number of scats to 30 but the Van Lare Commission
refused to increase the number of seats but accepted increase for Southern Ghana and the
Northern Territories. The Ashanti’s felt they were going to be dominated by the Southerners
which contributed to the formation of NLM.

(vii). Dissatisfaction of the new local government system: Ashanti chiefs were dissatisfied
with the new local government reforms introduced in 1957 which deprived them of their
traditional powers and sources of wealth.

FREDRICK BOURNE’S COMMISSION

Frederick Bourne’s Commission was established to determine whether Ghana should adopt a
unitary or a federal system of government, following the National liberation Movement’s (NLM)
demand for a federal system of government in I954.

RECOMMENDATIONS MADE BY THE COMMISSION

(i) The Commission recommended a unitary system of considering the small size of the country.

(ii). It recommended that a Federal system of government will result in sectionalism and
regionalism which will result in sectionalism and regionalism which will thwart economic
development.

(iii) It recommended the establishment of Regional Assemblies to promote and protect Regional
interests in the fields of education, health, agriculture and rural development

(iv). It recommended for devolution of powers.

(v). It recommended the recognition of traditional rulers to play effective role in the development
of their communities.

(vi). It recommended the creation of adequate District Councils.

(vi). It recommended that Regional Assemblies should act as a link between the central and
local government for the coordination and implementation of government policies.

(viii). The Commission recommended that Regional House of Chiefs should be made to perform
advisory roles in the Regional Assemblies.

(ix). It recommended that the powers granted to the Regional Assemblies should be guaranteed
in 1957 constitution.

THE 1956 GENERAL ELECTIONS HELD IN GOLD COAST

On the 12th of July 1956, another general election was held in Gold Coast to select a leader who
would lead the Gold Coasters to gain independence for the country. There were 104 seats to be
contested for. Below are the parties that contested the election and the results obtained by each
party:
(a). Convention People’s Party (CPP) won 71 out of the 104 seats
(b). Northern People’s Party (NPP) won 15 seats.
(c). National Liberation Movement (NLM) won 12 seats.
(d). Moslems Association Party (MAP) won 1 seat.
(e). Togoland Congress (TC) won 2 seats
(f). Anlo Youth Organization (AYO) won 2 seats.
(g). FAO won 1 seat.

ROLES PLAYED BY POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR

INDEPENDENCE IN 1957
(i). Mobilization of the masses: The political parties mobilized the masses to have a common
voice against colonial rule. The Carnation of political parties brought people from all walks of
life together. It united both the chiefs and the educated elite to fight for a common goal. The
message they carried spurred the masses on to join forces with the nationalists in their effort
aimed at the overthrow of the colonial government.

(ii) Organized demonstrations and boycotts: Pre-independence political parties organized

demonstrations, boycotts and civil strikes to pressurize colonial authorities to grant independence
to the people of Gold Coast. For example, the leader of the Convention People’s Party, Dr.
Kwame Nkrumah declared a Positive Action on the 8th January, 1950 which led to the boycott of
shops belonging to the British.

(iii) They helped the colonial government to determine the type of government suitable for
Ghana: In 1954, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) demanded the adoption of a unitary
system of government for the people of Gold Coast while the Convention People’s Party were
also in support of a unitary system of government, Fredrick Bourne’s Commission was
established to determine whether Ghana should adopt a unitary system of government or a
federal system of government, in the end, the commission recommended a unitary system of
government considering the small size of the country.

(iv) Promotion of education: The political parties contributed to political and civic education
through campaign and rallies. The people were educated on their rights and liberties. They also
educated the people on the policies of the colonial government especially those policies that were
detrimental to the people of Gold Coast and the need for the people to join hands to fight against
colonial rule.

(v) Pressing for constitutional reforms: Pre-independence political parties pressed for
constitutional reforms for the people of Gold Coast. The 1946 Burns Constitution which was
described by the nationalists as “outmoded at birth” was abrogated and a new constitution was
adopted in 1951. The 1951 constitution brought a lot of reforms which contributed to the
independence in 1957. Examples of such reforms include the introduction of universal adult
suffrage, provision of African majority in the Executive Council (8 Africans against 3
Europeans), provision for the post of a speaker to replace the Governor as president. The 1954
Nkrumah’s constitution granted full internal self-governmental for the people of Gold Coast
which eventually led to the independence in 1957. The people of Gold Coast had control over
internal political administration. The cabinet was collectively responsible to the General
Assembly and not the Governor. The universal adult suffrage which was introduced in 1951 was
fully implemented nation-wide under 1954 constitution.

(vi) Sending of petitions and delegations: Pre-independence political parties sent petitions and
delegations to Britain on issues concerning the granting of independence.

(vii) Provision of dynamic leadership: Pre-independence political parties provided dynamic

leadership such as J. B Danquah and Kwame Nkrumah who used various strategies and
techniques such as the use of lobbying, legitimate political actions, strikes, boycotts and
demonstrations to pressurize the colonial authorities to grant independence to the people of Gold
Coast

TRIAL QUESTIONS

QI. Q2. Q3. Q4. Q5. Q6.

Describe the composition and functions of the Legislative Council under the 1925 Constitution
of Ghana. (SSSSCE 1997; QS). Highlight six main features of the 1925 Guggisberg
Constitution of Ghana. Outline any three strengths and three weaknesses of the 1925
Guggisberg Constitution of Ghana. Describe the contributions of Guggisberg towards the
constitutiona development of Ghana (SSSSCE 1994, Q 5) Identify three features of the 1916
Clifford Constitution of Ghana. Highlight three demerits of the 1916 Clifford Constitution of
Oh= Identify six main features of the 1946 Burn’s constitution of Ghana
 CHAPTER TWENTY

THE 1957 INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

THE 1957 INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
Ghana attained her independence status on 6Th March, 1957 front the British. It adopted a new
constitution to signify her attainment of a new status.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1957 INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

(i). The 1957 independence constitution of Ghana was monarchical. Thus, it recognized the
queen of Britain as the Head of State. The queen was represented by the Governor-General.

(ii). It operated a cabinet or parliamentary system of government. Thus, it had a prime minister
and a monarch. Cabinet members were selected from the legislature.

(iii). Establishment of public service commission: The 1957 constitution of Ghana established
the Public Service Commission which was charged with the responsibility of advising the
Governor-General on matters relating to appointment, discipline, transfer, promotion and
dismissal of members of the civil service.

(iv). Entrenchment of fundamental human rights. The fundamental human rights of the people
such as right to life, right to privacy etc were entrenched which made it difficult for the leaders to
amend them easily to infringe upon the citizen’s rights.

(v). The constitution made provision for acquisition of citizenship. Thus, the various ways by
which one could be granted Ghanaian citizenship was enshrined in the constitution. These ways
included birth, adoption and naturalization.

(vi). It made provision for judiciary: The 1957 Constitution provided for judiciary with the
highest Court of Appeal being the Judicial Committee of Privy Council.

(vii) The cabinet was collectively the legislature. The legislature could therefore pass a vote of
no confidence to remove the prime minister before his tenure of office would come to an end.

(viii) The Governor-General gave assent to bills passed by the legislature. Thus, the governor-
general had to append his signature to all bills passed by legislature before it could become law
or an Act of parliament.

(ix) The constitution established Judicial Service Commission. The Judicial Service Commission
consisted of the Chief Justice as chairman, the Attorney General the Senior Judge of the Court of
Appeal. the chairman of the Police Service Commission and other person who had been a judge
of the Appeal Court to be appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the prime
minister. The Judicial Service Commission was responsible for the selection, appointment and
promotion of the members of the judiciary.

The legislature was called “parliament” for the first time, and was made of elected members of
104 based on Universal Adult Suffrage and on the principle of “one man one vote”. It was the
first constitution of Ghana that gave all regions of Ghana representation in the legislature.

(xi). The constitution created a unitary system of government Thus, all governmental powers
were concentrated in the hands of a single authority or the central government

(xii). The 1957 Constitution of Ghana introduced the local government.

(xiii). The executive was headed by the prime minister

(xiv). The constitution created Regional Assemblies and Regional House of Chief

FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL UNDER THE INDEPENDENCE

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i) He performed ceremonial functions: The Governor- General as head of state performed
ceremonial functions. The Governor-General carried out ceremonial functions such as the receipt
of foreign dignitaries, attendance to national parades, etc.

(ii). He assented to bills: The Governor- General gave assent to bills passed by the National
Assembly to become laws. Without the Governor-General’s assent, the bills passed could not be
implemented.

(iii) The Governor -General the power of prerogative mercy: On the advice of the prime
minister, the Governor- General exercised the power of prerogative of mercy. He had the power
to set a convicted prisoner free or commute his/her death sentence to life imprisonment on
grounds such as compassion. Every year, a list of names was generated by the then Prisons
Service of people who qualified to be pardoned by the Governor-General under his prerogative
powers.

(iv) He was the commander in chief of the Armed Forces. As a Commander- in-Chief of the
Armed Forces he could deploy the armed forces to undertake peace- keeping operation or go to
war in and outside the country.

(v). He could dissolve and summon the National Assembly: The Governor-General could
prorogue, dissolve and summon the National Assembly on the prime minister’s advice.

(vi) Diplomatic functions: The Governor- General performed diplomatic function of receiving
diplomats accredited to Ghana.

(vii). Presentation of sessional address: He presented to the National Assembly the session
address which was usually prepared by the Prime Minister and his cabinet in government

(viii). He appointed the prime minister from the majority party in the National Assembly to form
the government. The Governor-General under the independent constitution of Ghana was to
appoint the Prime Minister. After each general election, the leader of the party that emerged
victorious at the polls and obtained majority seats in the National Assembly was appointed by
the Governor-General as the Prime Minister.

(ix). reserved the right to dismiss the prime minister and cabinet if they lost the confidence of the
National Assembly through a vote of no confidence.

(x). He appointed and disciplined civil servants on the advice of Public Service Commission.

(xi). He submitted periodic reports to the British Crown.

(xii). He appointed the Chief Justice and justices of the Court of Appeal on the advice of Prime
Minister.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRIME MINISTER UNDER THE 1957 INDEPENDENCE

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i) The prime minister reserved the right to reshuffle cabinet, without prior approval of the
Governor-General. The Prime Minister was the one who had the authority to reshuffle his
cabinet Thus, he could change the portfolio given to a minister anytime he thought it was
necessary. He could also dismiss a minister if that minister was performing below the standards
expected of him.

(ii). The prime minister was the head of the government and chairman of the cabinet and was
therefore responsible to report cabinet proceedings and decisions to the Governor-General.

(iii). As the chairman of the cabinet, the prime minister was charged with the responsibility of
supervising all the departments of the government. The Prime Minister was to supervise and
coordinate the work of the ministries and agencies that operated under his watch. Policies that
were fashioned out at the level of the Cabinet were implemented by these ministries and agencies
but someone must supervise them and that duty fell on the Prime Minister, according to the
constitution. Where a policy was failing, he was expected to give a new direction or to decide to
withdraw that particular policy altogether.

(iv). The prime minister prepared his list of cabinet ministers and other ministers and submitted
to the Governor-General for appointment. The prime minister was the one who recommended
qualified people to the Governor-General before they could be appointed. In the absence of these
recommendations, the hands of the Governor-General were tied and he could do nothing.

(v). He prepared and submitted lists of persons to be honoured to the Head of State for
consideration. The Prime Minister was charged with the responsibility of submitting to the
Governor-General the list of persons who deserved to be honoured.

(vi). As a member of parliament, the prime minister took part in parliamentary debates. He used
this medium to explain the rationale behind his policies to the people. He was expected to do this
in his capacity as a representative of the constituency from which he was elected at the general
elections. Under the Parliamentary system of government adopted by Ghana at independence. a
Prime Minister must himself be elected as a member of parliament before he could be appointed
as the Prime Minister. His appointment does not mean he should shirk his responsibility as
parliamentarian, representing his constituency.

(vii). Preparation of sessional address, it was the duty of the Prime Minister under the
independence constitution to help his cabinet to prepare the sessional address that would he read
by the Governor-General to the National Assembly. This duty was very crucial since any
mistakes could embarrass the Governor -General.

(viii) Implementation of policies: The Prime Minister under the constitution was to see to the
implementation of the policies of the government. Policies emanated from the cabinet after
careful deliberations hut until they were carried out, they remained on the drawing board. It was
the duty of the Prime Minister to ensure that such policies moved from the drawing board to see
the light of day. He achieved this through the various ministries under him working through the
Civil and the Public Service.

(vix). He represented his country at international conferences such as the UNO and
Commonwealth.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PRIME MINISTER AND THE GOVERNOR-

GENERAL UNDER THE 1957 INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). The Governor-General was appointed by the British crown on the advice of her Prime
Minister.
(ii). The Governor-General appointed the Prime Minister who usually, was elected head of the
majority party in parliament.
(iii) The Governor-General was the head of state whilst the Prime Minister was the head of
government.

(iv). The Prime Minister recommended his selected ministers from the National Assembly for
appointment to be made by the Governor-General.

(v). The Prime Minister was the chairman of the cabinet and therefore responsible to report
cabinet proceedings and decisions to the Governor- General

(vi). The Prime Minister reserved the right to reshuffle the cabinet, without any prior approval by
the Governor —General

(vii). The Governor-General could prorogue, summon and dissolve parliament on the advice of
the Prime Minister.

(viii). The Governor-General reserved the right advice, encourage and warn prime minister on
constitutional and policy matters, though the Prime Minister was not bound to take his advice.

REASONS WHY GHANA ADOPTED A UNITARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT AT

INDEPENDENCE

(i). Unitary state and constitution were adopted due to the small size of population of the country.
At the time of independence, Ghana’s population was very small and therefore the choice of a
federal system was not advisable. It made more sense for the country to adopt a unitary system.,

(ii). It was adopted because the people believed that unitary system could promote national
integration and rapid development than the federal system of government which could result in
sectionalism and regionalism which could thwart socio-economic development.

(iii). The apparent withdrawal of the opposition from political and constitutional conferences and
discussions enabled the CPP to carry out measures which eventually produced a unitary system
of government for Ghana. For example, the boycott of the Achimota conference, non-
participation at the Regional Assemblies by the opposition facilitated the amendment process for
establishment of a unitary system of government at independence.

(iv). The recommendations by Fredrick Bourne’s Commission were largely geared towards the
adoption of unitary system of government, even though considerable devolutionary powers and
institutions were to be used.

(v). The people of Ghana served to have preferred a unitary system of government to the federal
system of government as the 1956 election voted into power the CPP, which declare its desire for
a unitary system against the National Liberation Movement agitation for a federal system of
government.

(vi). The major political party at the time, CPP that won the election and for the central
government between 1951 and 1957 favoured a unitary government and therefore worked harder
towards its realization at independence.

Trial Questions

Outline five main features of the 1957 independence constitution Ghana Q2) Outline five
functions of the Governor-General under the 1957

independence constitution of Ghana. Q3) Highlight five functions of the Prime Minister
under the 1957

independence constitution of Ghana. Q4) Outline five relationship that existed between the
Prime Minister and

the Governor-General under the 1957 independence constitution of Ghana. Q5) Outline five
reasons vdiy Ghana adopted a unitary system of

government at independence
 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

POST - INDEPENDENCE POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA
THE 1960 FIRST REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
After Ghana had attained a Republican status in July 1960, it adopted a Republican Constitution
which established a system of government that was amalgam of the British parliamentary system
and the American presidential system of government with an executive president elected on
popular basis. The constitution did away entirely with any monarchical elements and
appointment process of the head of state.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1960 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION

(i). The constitution conferred on parliament the power to surrender the whole or any part of the
sovereignty of Ghana for the purpose of furthering African Unity.

(ii). Ministers were to be appointed from the National Assembly.

(iii). Special legislative powers were given to the first president to make laws during his term of
office.

(iv). The constitution provided for a legislature consisting of a Speaker and not less than 104
members.

(v). The 1960 constitution established Ghana as a Sovereign Unitary Republic.

Thus, every form of colonial rule was done away with.

(vi). Kwame Nkrumah was named as the first president of Ghana.

(vii). There was an establishment of House of Chiefs in each region of Ghana with functions
relating to customary laws

(viii). The president was required to make declaration of the Fundamental Human Rights of the
people on assuming office. The constitution recognized some forms of fundamental human rights
of the people though; they were not firmly and clearly entrenched.

(ix). The judiciary was made independent of the other two organs of government. This was done
to ensure fair administration of justice.

(x). The Supreme Court was given the power of judicial review. Thus, the Supreme Court was
given the power under the constitution to nullify unconstitutional acts of the executive and the
National Assembly.

(xi). The constitution created a monocephalous executive. Thus, only one person was recognized
as the head of the executive. He was therefore made to perform both administrative functions and
ceremonial flinctions.

(xii). The constitution provided for a unicameral legislature. Thus, there was an existence of only
one chamber or house for enacting laws.

(xiii). The president had sweeping discretionary powers. The president was given enormous
powers as head of the executive. He appointed ministers and other principal members of the civil
service.

(xiv). The constitution made provision for Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, all qualified adult
citizens were allowed to vote.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESIDENT UNDER THE 1960 REPUBLICAN

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). He assented to bills: The president under the 1960 Republican Constitution of Ghana gave
his assent to hills passed by the legislature to become laws. The president had the power to veto
part or whole of bill being passed into law.

(ii). He conferred state honours to deserving citizens: The president under the 1960
Republican Constitution of Ghana was the head of state, and the fount of honour. This power
offered him the opportunity to confer state honours on citizens of Ghana and foreigners who
merited them.

(iii) He could summon, prorogue and dissolve parliament: Under the 1960 Republican
Constitution of Ghana, the president was empowered to summon, prorogue and dissolve
parliament as he considers necessary and he could attend the sittings of the National Assembly to
which he delivered the annual address and messages.

(iv). He appointed ministers to head the various ministries: As chief executive officer, the
president appointed his ministers from among the members of the National Assembly and gave
them ministerial head. He could dismiss any minister who fails to live up to expectations and
could also reshuffle his cabinet meetings and coordinated the activities of ministers and
governmental departments.

(v). The president was the font of justice: The president was the font justice; he was
empowered to grant amnesty and pardon to convicted criminals.

(vi) Passing of laws: He had special powers to pass laws by himself, which he considered
appropriate for the country, at all times.

(vii). The president formulated and implemented policies: As the head of government, he
formulated and implemented policies for the good governance of the country. He was also
responsible for the day- to- day administration of the country.

(viii). The president was the embodiment of the sovereign power of the state: Under the
1960 Republican Constitution of Ghana, the president was the embodiment of the sovereign
power of the state. lie represented the state in its dealings with other states and also represented
the state in the meetings of international organizations such as the United Nations Organization.

(ix). He was the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: Under the 1960 Republican
Constitution of Ghana, the president was the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and
could therefore instruct them to engage in peacekeeping operations in anywhere of the world.

THE STRUCTURE OF COURTS UNDER THE 1960 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION

OF GHANA
Under the 1960 Republican Constitution, there were two (2) categories of courts namely
Superior Courts and Lower Courts.
(a). The Superior Courts: The superior courts under the 1960 Republican Constitution were
made up of Supreme Court and High Court. There was no Court of Appeal.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT

(i). It was the final Court of Appeal in both civil and criminal cases.

(ii). It interpreted constitutional provisions.

(iii). It supervised the lower courts.

(iv). It could make order, issue writs or give directives to the lower courts; examples include
Mandamus, Certiorari, and Prohibition.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HIGH COURT

It had original jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases.

It heard civil and criminal appeals from Circuit and District Courts.

The lower Courts: The Lower Courts under the 1960 Republican Constitution were made up of
Circuit Court, District Court and Juvenile Court.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LOWER COURTS

Both Circuit and District Courts had original jurisdiction in the civil and criminal cases. Whilst
the District Courts dealt with cases of lower degree, the Circuit Courts handled cases of
relatively higher degree. Both courts were courts of summary jurisdiction and were to expedite
action on cases brought before them.
District Courts in addition dealt with committal proceedings in criminal cases such as murder,
robbery. It also conducted coroners’ inquest.
Juvenile Court dealt with persons who were minor and could make recommendation for such
persons to be sent to Borstal Institute or Remand Home.
Family Tribunal and Local Courts dealt with marriage matters such as child maintenance and
custody.
PROVISIONS MADE FOR JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE UNDER THE 1960
REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

(i). Security of tenure: To ensure judicial independence, judges were to enjoy security of tenure.
This means that judges were not to be removed from office until they had reached the
compulsory or statutory retiring age. The retiring age of the Supreme Court Judges was 65 and a
judge of the High Court was at 60 years. They could however be removed only if the judge was
infirm or incapable of doing his work or on proven grounds of misconduct.

(ii). Mode of appointment or recruitment: Under the 1960 First Republican Constitution, the
president was given the power to appoint judges but a judge could be removed only by two-
thirds majority of members of the National Assembly, stating clearly the reason for removing
him.

(iii). Salaries and allowances were to be charged on consolidated fund: Another method used
to safeguard the independence of the judiciary was linked with their salaries and allowances. The
salaries, allowances, gratuities and pensions of judges were to be charged on Consolidated Fund
and should not be reduced to their disadvantage while they were in office.

(iv). Immunity from prosecution: The judges were to enjoy immunity from prosecution in the
course of discharging their duties or administering justice. Thus, they were to be protected from
legal action against whatever they say or do when sitting on case at courts or commission.

(v). Impartiality: Under the 1960 Constitution, to ensure judicial independence, judges were
expected to impartial in the dispensation of justice. Decisions of the Courts were not to be varied
by the other organs of government.

(vii). Separation of the judiciary from the Legislature: Another provision made under the
1960 Constitution of Ghana to ensure judicial independence is that the judiciary was separated
from legislature in terms of membership and functions.

WHY GHANA ADOPTED A REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION IN 1960

(i). To create a position of president: Ghana adopted a Republican Constitution in 1960 to
create a position of president who is a Head of State and head of government. They wanted to
remove the practice whereby assent to bills were given by the Monarch who was represented by
the Governor -General.

(ii). As a symbol of statehood: Ghana adopted a Republican Constitution to emphasize a

symbol of statehood and complete independence and absolute sovereignty of Ghana.

(iii). To remove the Governor-General as the Head of State: Ghana adopted a Republican
Constitution to remove the Governor-General as the Head of State, acting on behalf of the British
crown.

(iv)To make the Supreme Court the final Court of Appeal: Ghana adopted a Republican
Constitution in 1960 to replace the Judicial Committee of Privy Council which was the highest
Court of Appeal in the 1957 constitution with a Supreme Court.

(v). To remove constitutional limitations on the Prime Minister: Ghana adopted a Republican
Constitution in 1960 to eliminate the constitutional limitations placed on the powers and
functions of the Prime Minister and to create the executive presidential system of government.

(vi). To enable the country pursue its foreign policy independently: Ghana adopted a
Republican Constitution in 1960 to enable her pursue her foreign policy and ideology without
any interference from the British.

REASONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF ONE-PARTY SYSTEM IN GHANA IN 1964

(i). To help in quick and effective decision- making: Ghana adopted one party system in 1964
to foster quick and effective decision-making since the opposition is no longer in existence to
criticize.

(ii). As a tool to curb the evil intentions of irresponsible opposition: Ghana adopted one party
system in 1964 as a tool to curb the evil intentions of an irresponsible opposition that was bent
on subversion and unconstitutional Means to overthrow Kwame Nkrumah.

(iii). To help eliminate diverseness and acrimony: One party system was adopted in Ghana to
help eliminate divisiveness, acrimony and to opt for peaceful coexistence which was absent
under multi-party system.

(iv). To facilitate the mobilization of the people: It was adopted to help facilitate the
mobilization of people for economic and social development.

(v). To fulfill the desire of Kwame Nkrumah to eliminate all forms of opposition: One party
system was adopted in 1964 due to the desire of Nkrumah to eliminate all forms of opposition in
order to perpetuate his power.

(vi). To be in tune with African political system: It was adopted to be in tune with African
political system since multi-party system was seen to be alien to African political tradition.

(vii). As an instrument to unite the various ethnic groups: One party system was seen as an
effective instrument to unite all the different ethnic groups in Ghana.

(viii). To establish a socialist ideology: One party system was adopted in Ghana in 1964 to
establish a socialist ideology by concentrating authority in a single party.

(ix). It was economical: Ghana adopted one-party system because they were of the view that the
system was more economical and cheaper to operate than the multi —party system. Elections
would be less expensive because there would not be a need for run offs. Resources would be
saved for the economic benefit of both citizens and the government.

WHY THE CONVENTION PEOPLE’S PARTY (CPP) DOMINATED GHANAIAN

POLITICS FROM 1951 TO 1966

(i). Charisma and dynamic leadership style of its leader Dr. Kwame Nkrumah: Nkrumah’s
captivating and charming personality overshadowed the other presidential candidates and
endeared him to the masses. His power of oratory also made him win the hearts of the masses.

(ii). Effective organizational role played by political strategists within the party: Another
factor which contributed to CPP domination in Ghanaian politics is due to effective
organizational role played by political strategists within the party such as K.A Gbedemah and
Kojo Bosio.

(iii). The imprisonment of its leadership after Positive Action: The imprisonment of its
leadership after Positive Action endeared to the hearts of the people regarded them as heroes.

(iv). Strong financial base of the party: The financial base of the party was strong as party
members were registered and paid monthly and annual dues. This enabled them to undertake
good and effective campaigns across the country.

(v). Involvement of many identifiable groups: The involvement of many identifiable groups
such as Farmers organizations and women’s groups which became affiliated to the party
contributed to the success of the party.

(vi). Support from the youth: The Youth offered their support to the party through
the Committee for Youth Organization (CYO). The various organizations and the youth
associations that Nkrumah formed helped his party to sweep the votes during the 1951, 1954 and
the 1956 general elections.

(vii). Attractive Slogans and Campaigns: The election manifesto of the Convention People’s
Party (CPP) based on the theme “Self-Government Now” was more appealing to the Gold
Coasters than the UGCC’s “Self-Government within the Shortest Possible Time”.

(viii). The manifesto and development agenda of the party: The manifesto and development
agenda of the party was convincing to the ordinary Ghanaians who were in the majority.

(ix). The creation of one-party state in 1964: The creation of one-party state also made the
CPP dominant. In 1964, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah banned all political parties in the state with the
exception of CPP which contributed in no small way to their domination.

(x). The CPP bad incumbency advantage: Due to incumbency, the CPP benefited from the
state machinery and resources to the detriment of the other opposition parties.

FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR THE 24TH FEBRUARY, 1966 COUP

D’ETAT/FACTORS THAT LED TO THE FALL OF DR. KWAME NKRUMAH/
REASONS FOR THE FALL OF CPP

(i). Suppression of individual freedom by Nkrumah: Nkrumah suppressed

 the freedoms of Ghanaians, arrested and detained his political opponents. He introduced
obnoxious Preventive Detention Act in 1958 which culminated in the exile of prominent
opposition members like Busia and others as well as the death of Dr. J. Danquah in detention.
Cases of torture and abuse of fundamental human rights were reported all over the country. This
made Nkrumah and his CPP very unpopular. Many of the supporters came to sympathize with
the opposition and supported the overthrow of Dr. Nkrumah.

(ii). Intra-party dispute: Internal conflict within the CPP contributed to their overthrown. On
the day of elections to parliament in 1965, Nkrumah went to radio station and announced the
names of people whom he had selected as members of parliament (MPs) and for which
constituencies. Some of the members of the party who were selected as MPs could not even
locate their constituencies. This increased the tension and confusion in the party. On 16th
October, 1961, K. A Gbedemah who was a prominent member of the party spoke against
Nkrumah in parliament and left for exile on the same day.

(iii). Creation of one-party state: In 1964. Nkrumah made Ghana a one- party state. Under this
system no other political parties existed besides the Convention People’s party and Ghanaians
could not change their leaders without the physical removal of Nkrumah and his associates. This
is exactly what happened on 24th February, 1966.

(iv). Economic mismanagement: The CPP indulged in economic mismanagement, bribery and
corruption. The country’s foreign reserves were used on unnecessary prestigious projects,
awarding scholarships to nationals of other African countries, funding the training of African
freedom fighters in Ghana, granting of loans and financial aid to other African countries like
Guinea Kinshasa and Mali, and dissipation of funds on the creation of security guards. All these
activities resulted in the accumulation of substantial national debt. At the time of the overthrow,
Ghana was at the verge of bankruptcy. The 200 Euro resent accumulated in London during the
colonial period had been exhausted and Ghana had piled debts upon debts.

(v). The judiciary was undermined: The CPP made effort to undermine the administration of
justice in Ghana the independence the judiciary was threatened under Nkrumah’s regime A good
illustration is the dismissal of the then chief justice, Sir Arku Korsah over the trial of Tawiah
Adamafio, Kofi Crabbe, and Arku Adjei in the Kulungu assassination attempt on Nkrumah. This
act was an affront to the judiciary and against the due process of the law.

(vi). Economic hardships and high inflation in the country: Economic hardship and high
inflation also accounted for the coup in 1966. In 1960, the economy started deteriorating. Deficit
financing came to be a feature of government fiscal policy and severe inflation hit the country.
The price of locally grown food rose by as much as 400% in some parts of Ghana between
March 1963, and December, 1964. As price of certain essential goods rose sharply, the net
income of farmers as well as wage-earners fell resulting in severe hardships. Many employees
including workers of railway and harbour embarked on strike in 1961 to express their protest
against the hardship they were going through. One thing that annoyed most Ghanaians is that,
whilst Nkrumah urged them to tighten their belts; he and his ministers led a life of luxury, rode
in expensive cars and erected buildings in the main towns from funds received from corrupt
practices and bribes.
(vii). Disregard for traditional institutions: Nkrumah disregarded traditional institutions and
rulers who consequently withdrew their support from his party, particularly, among the Ashanti’s
and other Man chiefs.

(viii). The creation of special guard: There was generally a feeling of discontent among the
forces. The Armed Forces suspected that the Presidential Guard created by the president was
meant to replace them. Besides the suspicion, they were unhappy about members of the
Presidential Guard enjoying better facilities than them. Also, they resented Nkrumah’s idea of
sending them to fight against Ian Smith’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Zimbabwe
(Rhodesia) in 1965 and to fight against America in the Vietnam War. They saw these moves as
an attempt to wipe them off and replace them with the Presidential Guard.

(ix). Successful nature of coup in neighboring countries: Contagious effect of the successes of
the military coups d’etat in neighboring countries such as Nigeria also inspired the Armed forces
to overthrow Nkrumah through a coup d’etat

(x). The attention of Nkrumah to the interest of African continental unity: The attention of
Nkrumah to the interest of African continental unity and the use of foreign reserves to promote
liberation movements led to internal hardship for the Ghanaians.

(xi). Bad foreign policies: Nkrumah pursued foreign policies which were condemned by some
Western countries as well as some African leaders. His socialist policies and his attempt of
creating a continental union government for Africa invited more external enemies fill- him.

THE NATIONAL LIBERATION COUNCIL (NLC)

National Liberation Council (NLC) took over the administration of the country when the military
collaborated with the police to overthrow the Nkrumah’s regime through a coup d’etat on 24th
February, 1966. The Council consisted of senior military and police officers. The prominent
members of NLC included:

Lt. Gen. J.A Ankrah-Chairman

Mr. W.K Harley- Commissioner of police, Vice chairman
Lt. Col. K. Kotoka
Mr. B.A Yakubu, Deputy Commissioner of police
Major A.A Afrifa
Mr. J.E.O. Nunoo, Assistant Commissioner of police
Mr. A.K Deku, Deputy Commissioner of police

In a radio broadcast to the nation following the coup, the chief architect Gen. E.K. Kotoka
announced the dissolution of parliament, the dismissal of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his ministers
from office and the immediate disbandment of the Convention People’s Party (CPP). He went
further to announce the suspension of the 1960 Republican Constitution with all its amendments
and further still announced the formation of the National Liberation Council (NLC).

On the 3rd of September, 1969 the National Liberation Council handed over power to Dr. K. A
Busia, founder and leader of the Progress Party (PP). This marked the beginning of the Second
Republic of Ghana which was destined to travel not beyond twenty-one months.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL LIBERATION COUNCIL (NLC)

(i). To stamp out corruption in government. The National Liberation Council (NLA) aimed at
adopting different strategies and methods to help curb corruption which had become rampant at
the time of take-over. In order to assess the extent of damage done to the economy through
corrupt practices by Nkrumah and his ministers, a number of commissions of enquiry were put in
place to probe them. Among the commission were the Ollenu Commission which probed alleged
malpractices and irregularities in connection with the granting of import licenses and the Apallo
Commission to probe into the properties of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.

(ii). To revitalize the economy. Restoration of the economy was the first major preoccupation of
the Council. The National Liberation Council (NLC) was faced with a serious task because by
the time of the take-over, the nation was bankrupt and the economy in a state of stagnation.
Between 1960 and 1965, the nation’s foreign exchange reserves had declined from 424 million
pounds to 37.4 million pounds. Government borrowing from the banking sector rose within the
same period from a negative position to -191.8 million pounds. NLC aimed at saving the
economy from total collapse and the abyss of despair

(iii). To create conditions for people’s participation. The National Liberation Council aimed at
creating condition that would enable the people of Ghana to take active part in the political
affairs of the country.

(iv). To purge the nation of Nkrumahism. The National Liberation Council aimed at removing all
traces of Nkrumah from the country. To achieve this, the CPP and its entire auxiliary structures
such as Ghana Young Pioneers, the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute at Winneba, the
Young Farmers League and the Market Women’s Union were dissolved.

(v). To promote and guarantee citizens liberties and freedoms. They wanted to return the country
to a government that would protect the rights and liberties of the citizens such as right to privacy,
right to life, freedom of movement, freedom of speech etc. To make this a reality, the 1969
constitution made provision for Ombudsman to promote citizens’ rights and liberties.

(vi). To decentralize administration and power.

MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE NLC TO TRANSFER POWER TO THE CIVILIAN

GOVERNMENT
(i). Announcing a time table for return to constitutional rule. As soon as National Liberation
Council took over, they announced a time table which would be followed to return the country to
constitutional rule. The date for establishing the electoral commission, drafting the constitution,
dates for the parliamentary elections and dates for handing over power to civilian government
were all announced.

(ii). The establishment of a constitutional committee headed by Justice Akuffo-Addo to draft a

constitution to return Ghana to a civilian rule. The National Liberation Council created a
constituent assembly headed by Justice Akuffo Addo to draft a new constitution for the country.
The constitution was promulgated on August, 1969.

(iii). Creation of centre for Civic Education headed by Dr. K.A. Busia to undertake mass civic
education. The National Liberation Council (NLC) appointed Dr. K.A Busia to undertake civic
education across the country. The people were educated on their rights and liberties and where
they could seek redress when those rights were violated or infringed.

(iv). The formation of a constitutional Assembly of 154 members to discuss the provisions of the
draft constitution.

(v). Lifting of the ban on political activities: The National Liberation Council lifted the ban on
political activities on May 1, 1969 followed by the registration of political parties and
campaigns.

(vi). Appointment of electoral commissioner: The National Liberation Council set up an electoral
commission under the able chairmanship of Justice Crabbe to conduct and supervise the
elections in the country. The commission demarcated the country into 140 constituencies and the
election was based on the principle of Universal Adult Suffrage.

(vii). Conduct of parliamentary elections on 29th August, 1969 which was won by the Progress
Party (PP). In 1969, parliamentary elections were conducted across, the country under the
supervision of the established electoral commission with Justice Crabbe as chairman. The
Progress Party (PP) won a whooping 105 seats out of the 140 seats and formed the government.
The leader of the Progress Party (PP), Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia became the Prime Minister with
Edward Akuffo Addo elected as the president.
THE 1969 SECOND REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
When the Convention People’s Party (CPP) was overthrown on 24th February, 1966 through a
coup d’etat, the National Liberation Council which took over the administration of the country
between 1966 and 1969 suspended the 1960 First Republican Constitution and established a
constitutional Assembly headed by Justice Akuffo Addo to solicit views and memoranda from
the citizens in order to come out with an acceptable constitution for Ghana. The final constitution
was given approval by the Constituent Assembly and was promulgated by the NLC on the 22nd
August, 1969.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1969 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

(i). The 1969 Second Republican Constitution provided for a parliamentary of government with a
president who was the lead of State and a Prime Minister who was the head of government. The
Prime Minister was appointed by the president from the party with majority seats in parliament

(ii). The Constitution provided for the office of the Ombudsman under Article 100/101 who
investigated complaints of citizens against poor public management in various departments,
corporations, organizations and rights violations.

(iii). The Independence of the Judiciary was guaranteed and the Supreme Court was endowed
with the power of declaring the acts of parliament and unconstitutional if it deemed fit.

(iv). The president was not popularly elected but was to be elected by an electoral college. The
Electoral College consisted of all members of the Assembly, not more than three chiefs elected
by each House of Chiefs of the Regions, and not more than fifteen persons from each region
elected by the District Councils.

(v). The 1969 Second Republican Constitution guaranteed Individual Freedoms. These rights
were based on the Universal Declaration of Rights of 1948 and the European Convention of
Human Rights.

(vi). The 1969 Constitution established the National Security Council charged with responsibility
for ensuring both internal and external security of the country. It was presided over by the Prime
Minister.

(vii). The 1969 Constitution created a single house legislature of 140 members with a term of
five years and endowed it with the power to scrutinize the activities of the government and
absolute power to remove the prime minister trough the casting of a vote of no confidence if he
failed to live up to expectation.

(viii). Under the 1969 Constitution, the president appointed the Ministers on the recommendation
of the Prime Minister,

(ix). The 1969 Second Republican Constitution created the Council of State which consisted of
the Prime Minister, leader of the opposition, the speaker of the National Assembly, the president
of the National House of Chiefs and 11 appointed members. The Council of State was an
advisory body to the president.

(x). The institution of chieftaincy together with its Traditional Councils as established by
customary law and usage was guaranteed by the constitution. Regional and National House of
Chiefs was established. Its main function was to advice the government on customary matters.

(xi) It established the Presidential Commission, which included three members of the National
Liberation Council (NLC) acting collectively as the presidency until a new president was elected.
This was part of the transitional arrangement to enhance an orderly transfer of power to a duly
elected civilian government in office.

(xii). It introduced judicial review. This is the power given to the superior courts to nullify
unconstitutional acts of the legislature and the executive.

(xiii). It established an Independent Electoral Commission to supervise the conduct of elections

in the country.

THE PRESIDENT

STATUS AND QUALIFICATIONS

(i). A candidate for the presidency must be a citizen of Ghana who owed no allegiance to any
other country.

(ii). He should have attained the age of forty (40)

(iii). He was to be sufficiently educated to enable him undertake and perform the functions of a
president of Ghana.

(iv). His tenure of office was four years and he could hold office for two terms only

(v). He took precedence over all other persons in Ghana.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESIDENT

(i). Font of honour: The president was the font of honor and therefore empowered to give
awards and honours to deserving citizens.

(ii). Appointment of the Prime Minister. The presided was empowered by the constitution to
appoint the leader of the party with majority of seats in parliament as Prime Minister.

(iii). Exercising the prerogative of mercy: The president reserved the power to exercise the
prerogative of mercy in consultation with the Council of State.
This enabled him to grant pardon to convicted offenders and criminals.

(iv). Ceremonial functions: The president was the head of state and as such
performed ceremonial functions such as taking salute at national ceremonies like Independence
days. As a head of state, he also received the credentials from foreign representatives designated
to Ghana.

(v). Appointment of Auditor-General and Ombudsman: The president was empowered to

appoint the Auditor General, the Ombudsman and the Governor of the Bank of Ghana.

(vi). Delivering the state of the Nations Address: The president acting in accordance with the
advice of the cabinet was required to give annually to the National Assembly a message on the
state of the nation.

(vii). Assenting to hills: All bills passed by the National Assembly (parliament) had to be
assented to by the president before they could become laws.

(viii). Power to declare state of emergency: The president could declare state of emergency in
any part of Ghana by proclamation on the advice of the cabinet.

(ix). Could summon, prorogue and dissolve parliament: The president under the 1969
Constitution could summon, dissolve or prorogue parliament on the advice of the Prime
Minister.

(x). Commander- in- Chief of the Armed Forces: The president was the commander in chief
of the Armed Forces and could therefore deplore the Armed Forces to embark on operation
anywhere on the approval of the National Assembly.

(xi). Determining salaries of Superior Court Judges, Auditor-General and the Electoral
Commissioner: The president was empowered by the constitution to determine the salaries of
the Judges of the Superior Courts, the Auditor-General, the Electoral Commissioner, the
Ombudsman and other members of the Public Service Commission.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT

(i). The president could not dissolve parliament without the advice of the prime minister.
(ii). He exercised the prerogative of mercy in consultation with the Council of State,
(iii). He could be removed from office on certain grounds such as acting contrary to the
constitution, or if he conducted himself in a manner likely to bring the presidency into disrepute
or if he was incapable of performing his functions because of physical and mental illness.

THE PRIME MINISTER

The 1969 Second Republican Constitution of Ghana made provision for the position of a prime
minister and cabinet under Article 60 and 61. The leader of the party with majority of seats in the
National Assembly was appointed by the president as Prime Minister.

TENURE OF OFFICE OF THE PRIME MINISTER

The Prime Minister vacated office in dissolution of parliament, death or when incapacitated as a
result of physical and mental illness or when a vote of no confidence was passed by the National
Assembly to remove him and his cabinet.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PRIME MINISTER UNDER THE 1969 SECOND REPUBLICAN
CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). As an elected member of parliament, the prime minister took part in parliamentary business.

(ii). The Prime Minister and his cabinet were responsible for the formulation and implementation
of policies.

(iii). The Prime Minister was empowered to reshuffle, discipline and dismiss his ministers.

(iv). He was responsible for the maintenance of law and order with the help of the Security
agencies. He was the chairman of the National Security.

(v). The Prime Minister served as an advisor to the president on several issues, such as assenting
to bills, appointment of top civil servants and honoring deserving citizens.

(vi). The Prime Minister was responsible for conducting external affairs of the country.

(vii). The Prime Minister recommended to the president people to be appointed cabinet ministers
and other ministerial positions.

(viii). As a member of parliament, he represented his constituency and worked towards their
welfare.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRIME MINISTER

(i). The Prime Minister and the cabinet could be removed from office by the National Assembly
through a vote of no confidence if he failed to live up to expectation.

(ii). The Prime Minister operated within the frame work of his party’s manifesto approved by the
electorate.

MERITS/STRENGTHS OF THE 1969 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION

(i). The 1969 constitution made adequate provisions for safeguarding the Fundamental Human
Rights of citizens.

(ii). An independent Electoral Commission was established to ensure representative system of

government.

(iii). A bicephalous executive on the British Parliamentary system was adopter to prevent
concentration of power in a single executive. This helped to avoid dictatorship rule.

(iv). The constitution guaranteed independence of the Judiciary. This helped them to administer
justice fairly without any fear or favour.

(v). It provided for a multi-party system to prevent the emergence of one-party system which
could eventually lead to arbitrary rule.

(vi). It established the Council of State to deal with national issues on non-partisan basis.

THE LEGISLATURE
The 1969 Constitution created a single house legislature of 140 members with a term of five
years.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE

(i). The basic function of the legislature (National Assembly) was to pass laws to regulate the
conduct of the rulers and the ruled.

(ii). The National Assembly was responsible for approving the annual estimates of the various
ministries.

(iii). The National Assembly could pass a vote of no confidence to remove the Prime Minister
and his cabinet from office.

(iv). Parliament controlled public purse. It was charged with the responsibility of scrutinizing the
annual budget of the executive and to give authorization for money to be raised and disbursed.

(v). It served as a forum for discussing matters of public concern and the grievances of the
people.

LIMITATIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE UNDER THE 1969 CONSTITUTION

(i). Parliament had no power to pass a law establishing a one-party state. The constitution
recommended for the adoption of multi-party system and parliament was disallowed from
passing any law establishing one party state.

(ii). Parliament had no power to pass retrospective laws. Under the 1969 Constitution of Ghana,
parliament had no power to pass a retrospective law. Thus, the constitution forbade parliament
from passing a law making a previously committed lawful act now unlawful.

(iii). Parliament had no power to amend the constitutional provisions relating to liberty of the
individual and the representation of the people.

(iv). Matters regarding the supremacy of the constitution, enforcement of the constitution and
defence of the constitution could not be amended by parliament.

JUDICIARY UNDER THE 1969 CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

The 1969 Second Republican Constitution made provision for the Judiciary which was headed
by the Chief Justice.

STRUCTURE OF THE JUDICIARY (COURTS) UNDER THE 1969 CONSTITUTION

Under the 1969 Constitution, there were two categories of courts namely, Superior Courts and
Inferior or lower courts.

(a). The Superior Courts consisted of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal and the high
Court.

(b). The Inferior or Lower Courts consisted of Circuit Count, District Courts, Juvenile Court and
Local/Family Courts

FUNCTIONS OF THE COURTS

(a) Supreme Court
(i) The Supreme Court was the final Court of Appeal in both civil and criminal cases.

(ii). It Was charged with the responsibility of interpreting constitutional provisions

(iii). It supervised the lower courts

(v). The Supreme Court had appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine any matter, which had
been determined by the National House of Chiefs.

(vi). It could make order, issue writs or give directives to the lower courts, example Mandamus,
Certiorari, Prohibition.

(b) Court of Appeal

(i). The Court of Appeal handled appeals from any judgment, decree or order the High Court and
the Circuit Court.

(ii). It supervised the lower courts under it.

(c). High Court

(i). The High Court had original jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases including murder and
other cases of felonies.

(ii). It heard civil and criminal appeals from Circuit and District Courts.

(iii). It had supervisory jurisdiction over the lower courts such as Circuit and District Courts,
Juvenile Courts and Local or Family Tribunal Courts.

(d). Circuit and District Courts: Both Circuit and District Courts had original jurisdiction in
civil and criminal cases. Whilst the District Court dealt with cases of lower degree, the Circuit
Court handled cases of relatively higher degree. Both courts were courts of summary jurisdiction
and were expected to expedite action on cases brought before them.

(e). Juvenile Court: Juvenile Court dealt with persons who were minor and could make
recommendation for such persons to be sent to Borstal Institute or Remand Homes.

(f).Family Tribunal and Local Courts: Local Courts dealt with marriage matters such as Child
Maintenance and Custody.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY UNDER THE 1969 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA
Measures put in place to ensure the independence of the Judiciary under the 1969 constitution
include:

(i). Emoluments were charged on Consolidated Fund: To ensure the independence of the
Judiciary, salaries, allowances, gratuities and pensions of Judges of Superior Courts were
charged on the Consolidated Fund. The Remuneration of the judges could not be varied to their
disadvantage.

(ii). Immunity of Judges from prosecution: To ensure Judicial Independence under the 1969
Constitution. Judges enjoyed immunity from prosecution in the course of discharging their
duties. They were protected from legal action against whatever they say or do when sitting on
case at court. However, the immunity did not cover acts of misbehavior or corruption on the part
of the Judges.

(iii). Security of tenure: To ensure judicial independence, Judges were given security of tenure.
This means that judges could not be removed from office until they reached the compulsory or
statutory retiring age. They could however, be removed if the Judge was infirm or incapable of
performing his work or on proven grounds of misconduct.

(iv). Retirement benefits: A judge of the Superior Court of Judicature on retiring from office
was paid. in addition to any gratuity payable to him, pension equivalence to the salary to which
he was entitled immediately before retiring.

(v). Total absence or control from the Legislature and the Executive: To ensure the
independence of the judiciary, the judiciary was vested with the power to settle all disputes fairly
without any interference from the executive and the legislature.

(vi). Appointment: The president in consultation with the Council of State appointed the Chief
Justice. The president on the advice of the Judicial Council appointed the other Judges of the
Supreme Court of Judicature.

PROVISIONS MADE IN 1969 CONSTITUTION TO PREVENT DICTATORSHIP IN

GHANA
(i). Establishment of Ombudsman: The 1969 constitution established the Ombudsman to
redress administrative grievances and human rights abuses such as wrongful dismissal, denial
and sometimes denial of end-of-service benefits.

(ii)Supremacy of the constitution: Under the 1969 Constitution, provisions were made for the
supremacy of the constitution, its enforcement and defense.

(iii). Independent Electoral Commission: There was an establishment of an independent and

non-partisan electoral commission to ensure representative system of government.
(iv). Existence of a bicephalous executive: In 1969, Ghana adopted a bicephalous executive,
based on the British Parliamentary System to prevent concentration of power in a single
executive which could lead to dictatorship.

(v). Liberty of the individual: The 1969 Constitution made provision for fundamental human
rights and freedoms of the citizens such as right to life, right to privacy, freedom of movement,
freedom of association, freedom of speech etc and were entrenched to prevent greedy politicians
from easily amending them to satisfy their selfish desire.

(vi). Provision of multi-party system: The 1969 constitution provided for a multi -party system.
Thus, more than two political parties were allowed to operate in the state. This was done to
prevent the emergence of one-party system which could result into dictatorship rule.

(vii). Establishment of the Council of State: The 1969 Second Republican Constitution created
the Council of State which consisted of the Prime Minister, leader of the opposition, the speaker
of the National Assembly, the president of the National House of Chiefs and 12 appointed
members. The Council of State was an advisory body to the president. The Council of State dealt
with national issues on non-partisan basis.

(viii). Independence judiciary: The Independence of the Judiciary was guaranteed and the
Supreme Court was endowed with the power of declaring the acts of parliament and executive
unconstitutional if it deemed fit.

THE 1969 GENERAL ELECTIONS

In 1969, the National Liberation Council (NLC) lifted the ban on political campaign and set up
an electoral commission under the able chairmanship of Justice Crabbe to conduct and supervise
the elections in the country. The commission demarcated the country into 140 constituencies and
the election was based on the principle of Universal Adult Suffrage.

The parties that contested the elections included the Progress Party (PP) led by K. A. Busia, the
National Alliance of Liberals (NAL) led by K.A Gbedemah, the United Nationalist Party (UNP)
led by Dr. H.S Barnmarsko, the People’s Action Party (PAP) led by Imoro Ayarna and All
Peoples’ Republican Party (APRP). The election was held on 29th August, 1969 and the Progress
Party (PP) Led by K.A Busia won a whooping 105 out of the 140 contested seats. The detailed
results were as follows:

Name of Party Number of seats won

Progress Party (PP) 105

Nationals Alliance of Liberals (NAL) 29
United Nationalist Party (UNP) 2
Peoples’ Action Party (PAP) 2
All Peoples’ Republican Party (APRP) 1
Independent Candidate 1
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE ELECTORAL SUCCESS OF PROGRESS
PARTY (PP) IN 1969
(i). Busia’s chairmanship of the centre for Civic Education: Busia’s chairmanship of the
centre for Civic Education gave him and later his party advantage over his opponents. Dr. Busia
used his position as the chairman of the centre for Civic Education to build a strong political base
for himself. His position as chairman of the centre sent him to different parts of the country. This
offered him the opportunity to popularize himself. Before the ban on political parties was lifted,
he had endeared himself to the people. This offered him advantage over his opponents and
contributed to the electoral success of his party.

(ii). Support of the military government: The Progress Party (PP) had the support the military
government. Thus. the National Liberation Council (NLC) rallied behind the Progress Party.

(iii). Strong financial base of the party: The progress party had strong financial base. Through
financial contributions from members, fundraising activities and sale of party souvenirs, the
Progress Party (PP) obtained good financial resources to undertake campaigns which contributed
to the electoral success of the party.

(iv). The proscription of the CPP through a military decree: The proscription of the CPP
through a military decree reduced the election context to all PP affairs. In February 1969, the
National Libation Council (NLC) promulgated the Election and Public Officers Act disqualified
leading members of the Convention Peoples Party. The proscription of the party and the
disqualification of most of its members from taking part in actions and also from appointment to
high offices in the country helped in no small way to the victory of the Progress Party.

(v). Support from some existing organizations: The progress party had the support of existing
organizations like the Ghana Bar Association, mutual-Aid groups, churches, students association
and intellectuals.

(vi). The ideology of the party: The capitalist ideology of the progress party attracted the
electorate since the socialist ideology of Nkrumah could not help them achieve much.

(vii). Anti CPP and anti-Nkrumah sentiments helped the PP to win the election.

(viii). The unpopularity of the National Alliance of Liberals: The unpopularity of the
National Alliance of Liberals (NAL) which was considered as closely related to the CPP helped
the Progress Party to win the election.

(ix). The electoral promises: The electoral promises made by the party convinced the electorate
to vote for it, e.g. reducing youth employment.

(x). The anti-Ewe and Ga sentiments: The Progress Party (PP) took advantage of the anti-Ewe
and Ga sentiments fueled by the predominance of those groups in the National Liberation
Council (NLC) and succeeded in rallying the Coastal and inland Akan under one umbrella
movement. The PP was a Pan-Akan Party. The National Alliance of Liberals (NAL), the main
opposition or challenger of the PP, was headed by Gbedemah who broke from the CPP in the
1960’s. This contributed greatly to the electoral success of the Progress Party.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF PROGRESS PARTY/BUSIA’S GOVERNMENT

Even though the government lost popularity shot after its birth and kept power for only twenty-
sewn months, it left some indelible prints in the sand of history. These include:

(i). Rural development: The regimes greatest achievement was the creation of a separate
ministry for Rural Development. One thing dear to the heart of the government was the
development of the rural area. Using the ministry as a vehicle, the regime carried some
development projects to rural communities. Notable among them were the provision of
electricity and boreholes for portable water and the construction of feder roads. In view of this, a
Rural Development Fund was created where a levy of 40 new pesewas from the salary of every
worker whose salary was 34.00 cedis and above was paid into the fund. This fund was used to
provide the rural areas with good drinking water, through the Ghana Water and Sewerage
Corporation. Latrine pits, markets and health posts.

(ii). The introduction of the Family Planning Programme: The introduction of the Family
Planning Programme is also an important achievement of the Busia regime. The programme was
introduced as a response to the population problem that faced Ghana. The programme brought
tremendous improvement in rural health services.

(iii). Water and Sewerage Projects: A 6 million cedis underground sewerage pipes project was
laid in Accra towards the proper disposal of sewerage. Under the Department of Rural Water
Development, three major city supply plants for water were established. One was established in
Kpong which served the Kumasi environs; and Daboase which served the Sekondi environs.34
urban and 48 rural plants were also constructed to serve over 35 per cent of the country’s
population. 50 boreholes were constructed in 1971 throughout the regions of Ghana.

(iv). Agriculture development: The ministry of Agriculture established commercial farming

estates for the production of cash crops like maize and oil palm. To this effect, in the Northern
Region, 50,000 acres of land was released; 35,000 acres in the Upper Region and 30,000 acres in
the Volta Region to facilitate the project. ”lb reduce rice importation into the country, more rice
farms were planted and by 1971 they were flourishing very well. A National Task Force was also
put in place to help in the distribution of foodstuffs countrywide. Government gave loans to
farmers to build better homes. This was part of their programme to develop the rural areas and
encourage the peasant farmers to feel the impact of Ghana’s Independence. 15 locomotive
engines, 300 trucks and 500 wagons were provided to Ghana Railways to speed up carting of
logs to harbours from railway sites to boost the timber industry.

REASONS FOR THE OVERTHROW OF THE PROGRESS PARTY GOVERNMENT IN

1972 OR FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR THE 1972 COUP
On the 3rd September, 1969, the National Liberation Council (NLC) handed over power to the
Progress Party (PP) led by Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia. It was generally assumed that the handing
over ceremony was going to mark the beginning of a new refreshing period in politics of Ghana.
But on 13th January, 1972, a coup d’etat led by Kutu Acheampong removed Busia and his
government from office. The following were some of the reasons why Busia and his government
were overthrown:

(i). Dismissal of 568 public servants: One factor that contributed in no small way in making
Busia’s government unpopular and contributed to his overthrown was his dismissal of 568 civil
servants usually referred to as Apollo 568. The Progress Party government was condemned for
the unwarranted dismissal of 568 public servants. Among the dismissal was one Mr. E.K. Sallah
who considering his dismissal to be arbitrary and wrongful filed suit against the government.
After long and complicated legal arguments, the Court of Appeal ruled that Sallah’s dismissals
was unconstitutional. Busia’s reaction to the nation on the court verdict on 20th April, 1970 was
a great disappointment to many Ghanaians and weakened his popularity. The Regime was
accused of undermining the 1969 constitution by refusing to uphold the decision of the judiciary
in the “Sallah Case”

(ii). Inhuman Implementation of Aliens compliance order: The Aliens Compliance Order was
another measure taken by the Busia’s regime for which it is often remembered with bitterness.
Several thousands of West Africans were expelled from Ghana. The law brought severe hardship
on those West Africans, which embittered the region. The government was accused of denting
Ghana’s image with the implementation of the Aliens Compliance Order.

(iii). Imposition of development levy: Busia also imposed a development levy of 5% on all
workers in the country. Besides, the government withdrew the car maintenance and rent
allowances for civil servants official residence. These measures did not go down well with the
workers of the country. The policy provoked a storm of protest from workers of the country.

(iv). Dissolution of Trade Union Congress (TUC): The Progress Party (PP) government was
accused of ruling arbitrary by dissolving the Trade Union Congress (TUC). The dissolution of
the Congress brought serious confrontation between the TUC and the Progress Party leaders.

(v). Bribery. corruption and economic mismanagement: Colonel Kutu Acheampong cited
bribery, corruption and economic mismanagement as one of the causes of the coup.

(vi). Neglect of the needs of the military: The Armed Forces did not fare well under the Busia
government. The 1971 budget slashed down defence expenditure by 10%. This affected the
operations of the forces. Air craft and naval ships lay idle as a result of lack of fuel maintenance.
Busia’s hasty decision to trim the defence budget and cut military spending sparked problematic
rumblings in the Armed Forces at a very early date.

(vii). Unpopular foreign policy: The prime minister’s advocacy of dialogue with apartheid
South Africa was opposed by many Ghanaians. This is because the policy of dialogue with South
Africa was contrary to OAU’s position of arms struggle.

(viii). Ethnicity: Busia’s government was accused of nepotism, favouritism and tribalism. For
example. his government did not have any minister from the Volta Region.

(ix). Banning of Nkrumah’s Portrait: The Regime was criticized over a bill passed by
parliament under a certificate of urgency banning the sale and public display of Nkrumah’s
portrait. The decision by the government made the supporters of Nkrumah furious.

(x). Devaluation of the cedi: The cedi was devalued by 44%. The devaluation of the cedi led to
high prices of goods and brought economic hardship to many Ghanaians under Busia’s regime.
The Progress Party regime was accused of incompetence.

(xi). Student’s Loan Scheme Act of 1971 under which University students were required to
contribute to maintenance charges did not go down well with students and parents.

(xii) Harassment of Journalists: Press freedom suffered during the tenure of the regime.
Editors of newspapers who criticized the Progress Party Government were dismissed. Example,
Cameron Duodu

(xiii). Lack of respect for independent judiciary: The Progress Party (PP) government was
accused of showing gross disrespect for judicial independence. Busia’s reaction to the nation on
the court verdict on 20th April, 1970 on Sallah’s case attests to that.

DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE OVERTHROW OF BUSIA’S GOVERNMEIS THE

NATIONAL REDEMPTION COUNCIL (NRC)
On 13th January 1972, the Second Coup d’edat was staged in Ghana to remove Progress Party
Government after only 27 months in office. The coup was led by Ignatius Kutu Acheampong of
the First Infantry Brigade Command at Accra. The architect of the coup immediately issued
proclamations establishing the National Redemption Council (NRC). He called for the
dissolution of parliament and the suspension of the 1969 Second Republican Constitution but the
general administrative provisions under the constitution pertaining to the courts and public
services was not affected by its suspension.

The list of the members of the Council at the initial stage included Colonel I.K. Acheampong,
chairman, Brigadier N.Y.R Ashley-Lawson, newly appointed Chief of Defence Staff, Colonel
E.A Erskine-newly appointed Army Commander, Commander P.E Quaye-Navy Commander,
Brigadier C. Beasoleli-Air Force Commander, Major Kwame Baah, Major Agbo, Major
Salomey and Lt. Col. C.D Benni. Military officers were appointed to head the various ministries.
Other important offices like Managing Director, Chairman of lucrative industries established like
the Tema Food Complex were all occupied by the military.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ACHEAMPONG REGIME

(i). Improvement in the Agricultural Sector: In the area of Agriculture, Acheampong
embarked on sophisticated but laudable policy. In a bid to make Ghana self-sufficient, in her
food needs, and thereby cut her dependence on the outside world for food, Acheampong
introduced “Operation Feed Yourself” which was later re-named “Operation Feed your
industries” during its second phase. The programme had the support of both urban and rural
folks. In the towns and cities, workers were encouraged to embark on backyard gardening.
In the rural areas, farmers were given soft loans to go into the production of crops. In the
Northern sector of the country, large scale cultivation of` rice was given serious attention and
soon, the nation produced a large proportion of its food requirements and by 1975, there was
hardly any food importation.
(ii). Improvement in the health sector. On health, a medical school was set up at Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi to train more medical
doctors to assist the health sector. Again, the Komfo Anokye Hospital was upgraded into a
teaching hospital.

(iii). Cutting down of imports: By August 1972, Ghana’s trade figures indicated a 40% increase
in exports and a 14% reduction in imports. While the fall in imports was the result of
government’s direct control of imports, the increase in World Cocoa prices and also from
considerable increase in the sales of timber, gold and diamond.

(iv). Construction of estate houses: To address the housing problems faced by Ghanaian
especially workers, many estate houses were built by Acheampong’s government throughout the
country. A good example is Dansoman estate in Accra.

(v). Cancellation of certain debts owed by Ghana: Acheampong set up a popular cry of
“Yentua policy” which implies “we will not pay” as a means of cancelling or repudiate debts
owed to foreign bodies in Europe. The debts totaled $166,400, in respect of contracts and the
servicing debts entered into before the fall of Nkrumah on the grounds that the transaction was
characterized by corruption.

(vi). Reviving the devaluation of the cedi: Acheampong and his government revived the
devaluation of the cedi, which had caused Busia’s downfall.

(vii). Boosting Morale of workers: As a measure to please a very restive labour front,
Acheampong’s government awarded high salary increases, withdrew the 5% development levy
imposed by the Busia regime on all workers of the country. He also restored the car maintenance
and rent allowances for workers who lived in official quarters. This boosted the morale of
workers to work harder.

REASONS FOR THE OVERTHROW OF ACHEAMPONG’S REGIME IN 1979 OR

REASONS FOR THE JUNE 4TH UPRISING
(i). Denial of Fundamental Human Rights: Fundamental Human Rights of the citizens were
denied under Acheampong regime. The government used repressive measures such as dismissal
of anti-government criticts from their jobs, suppression of political opponents, arrest and
detention of anti-Union Government (UNIGOV) activists to undermine human rights.

(ii). Bribery, Corruption, Favoritism and Nepotism: By 1974, a new word called “Kalabule”
emerged in Ghana. Oquaye (1980) explains ‘kalabule’ as the corruption, hoarding, profiteering
and the unbridled cheating meted out against the majority by the few. Kalabule manifested in the
management of foreign exchange. Acheampong authorized the issuing of import licenses to his
friends and business enterprise of dubious values to the economy. Also, import licenses were
issued to young women who obtained millions of cedis by selling them to genuine businessmen
and businesswomen who found it difficult to obtain them. Acheampong’s regime also introduced
a chit system under which special allocations of all goods of all sorts were made to wives,
girlfriends and relatives of Commissioners, some military officers and other big men. No one
could get anything to buy and sell except through those people.

(iii). Social problem: Social problem also accounted for the June 4th uprising or the fall of
Acheampong government. These included shortage of textbooks and other educational materials,
shortage of drugs and poor condition of hospitals in Ghana.

(iv). To do away with the unpopular Union Government (UNIGOV): The June 4th uprising
was staged to abort the unpopular Union Government (UNIGOV) system which the stratocrats
were bent on imposing on the people following the stage-managed referendum organized on 30th
March 1978, which was rigged.

(v). Mismanagement of the economy: Both the Supreme Military Council I&II under
Acheampong and General Akuffo were accused by the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council
(AFRC) of mismanaging the economy. Inflation set in and by the middle of 1978; it was running
at about 200%. There was acute shortage of consumer goods on account of hoarding; lack of raw
materials for local industries resulting in the collapse of many industries. This brought severe
hardships to Ghanaians.

(vi). Domination of the country’s economy by foreigners: The leader of the uprising detested
foreigner’s domination of the country’s economy especially by Arabs and Lebanese and the
failure of previous governments to do something about it.

SUPREME MILITARY COUNCIL (SMCI)

Intra-party conflict in the National Redemption Council (NRC) made some of its prominent
members to resign from the NRC. In 1975, Acheampong decided to restructure his government.
The name National Redemption Council was changed to Supreme Military Council (SMCI) with
General Acheampong as the head and chairman.

UNION GOVERNMENT (UNIGOV)

The idea (concept) of Union Government (UNIGOV) was introduced by General Acheampong
in 1978. The Union Government implies the adoption of a non-partisan system of government
which would include the Armed Forces and the police. According to Acheampong, the party
system was not good for Ghana because it brought division, nepotism and other evils into the
country.

The referendum was held on 30th March, 1978 as planned. It was held amidst intimidation, armed
brutalities and threat of violence. Though, the official results were 60.11% for and 39.89 against.
It was believed to have been rigged. Sensing danger, the Electoral Commissioner of the time
Isaac Kobina Abban got out of his office through a window to escape torture. A new
Commissioner was immediately appointed who immediately announced the results of the
referendum. UNIGOV had won. Immediately after the declaration of the results of the
referendum, Achcampong caused the arrest of some people including Dr. Sarfo-Adu, Mr.
William Ofori Atta, Mr.Agbele Gbedemah and Mr. Victor Owusu who were key opponents of
the Union Government concept.
SUPREME MILITARY COUNCIL II
On 5th July 1978, there was a palace coup during which Acheampong was forced out of gun
short to resign. Lt. General Fred Akuffo took over the chairmanship of the SMCII. He announced
that Acheampong had been forced to resign because he had been running a one man show
without heeding to the advice of the SMC. He also accused Acheampong of mismanagement and
incompetence.

Some steps were taken to return the country to constitutional rule. Among them was the lifting of
the ban on political parties which culminated in the formation of a number of political parties.

On the 4th of June 1979, the Supreme Military Council II was overthrown through a coup d’etat
by the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) led by Flight Lt. Jerry John Rawlings.

THE ARMED FORCES REVOLUTIONARY COUNCIL (AFRC)

Following the overthrow of the Supreme Military Council II, the Armed Force Revolutionary
Council (AFRC) was formed with Flight Lt. Jerry John Rawling as chairman. The official
spokesman of the AFRC was Captain Boakye Gyan.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF AFRC
(i). The Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) declared its main objective to clean the
Armed Forces and the Society at large of all forms of corruption injustice and trade malpractices
which had contributed to economic hardship in the country.

(ii). They also wanted to prevent members of the SMC from going away with their booty.

(iii). It also had the aim of returning the country to civilian rule in the shortest possible time.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE AFRC

(i). Execution of officers whose hands were tainted with corruption: In pursuit of their
mission, the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) used very drastic measures in dealing
with those caught in the net. They set up a special court known as The People’s Revolutionary
Court to try people who had committed various offenses against the state. On June 16th 1979,
Gen. Acheampong and E.K Utuka were executed by firing squad. This was followed on 26th
June,1979 when Gen. A.A Afrifa, major Gen. R.E.A Kotei, Gen. F.W.K Akuffo, Air Vice
Marshal George Yaw Boakye, Real Admired J.K Amedume and Col. R.J.A Felli were
pronounced and executed by firing squad.

(ii). Tax invaders were made to refund them: Individuals or organizations had amassed wealth
illegally or evaded taxes were made to refund them. The AFRC forced all those with tax arrears
and those who owed debts to settle them. They were made to pay it into the AFRC Account 48.

(iii). Organizing free and fair election: The AFRC did well to have organized free and fair
elections and returned the country to constitutional rule in accordant with its promise.

(iv). Deportation of foreigners who engaged in undesirable practices: Under the regime of
the AFRC, foreigners who were found engaging in undesirable practices such as currency
trafficking were deported and their businesses confiscated to the state.

(v). Dismissal, Confiscation of Assets and heavy fines: Corrupt public officers were dismissed.
For instance. Mr. Akwasi Kuna. the Managing Director of Ghana National Trading Corporation
(GNTC) and his two deputies were dismissed. Again, severe actions were taken against
contractors who had taken huge sums of money but had failed to perform their work. In the short
-life of the regime, several contracts were re-activated, buildings sprung up and roads were
constructed for the contractors were not prepared to face revolutionary actions.

(vi). Creation of political awareness: The AFRC government instilled a huge sense of political
awareness into the people of Ghana. It made people become aware of their political rights as
accountability was preached to the people.

(vii). Traders were forced to reduce prices of goods: The AFRC government forced traders to
reduce the astronomical increase in prices of goods, transport fares were also reduced to relieve
Ghanaians of hardships.

(viii). It instilled some sanity into the financial administration of the state: The AFRC
instilled some sanity into the financial administration of the state and brought to minimum the
malpractices that characterized the economic life of the nation. “Probity” and “accountability”
became the watch words in the financial and general administration in the state.

FAILURES/ WEAKNESSES OF AFRC

(i). The punishments meted out to civilians who were found of committing trivial offences were
excessive, inhuman and out of proportion to the gravity of the offenses. For example, women
were sometimes stripped naked and whipped in public. This did not please many Ghanaians and
led to an atmosphere of terror and insecurity.

(ii). The AFRC government activities were against the principle of rule of law and as a result had
no room for fundamental human rights of the people.

(iii). Monies collected from the vigorous tax procedures which were deposited in AFRC Account
number 48 were not accounted for after the revolution. The constitutional government led by Dr.
Hilla Limann complained of the coffers being empty when they took over. This attests to the fact
that the AFRC was also corrupt.

(iv). The indemnity meant that the AFRC members and their appointees could not be questioned
in any of the courts in the country and that was an infringement on the rights oldie people who
were treated unjustly out of the revolutionary zeal.

THE 1979 THIRD REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

The 1979 Third Republican Constitution was adopted to replace the 1969 Second Republican
Constitution which was suspended by Col. Acheampong after the coup d’etat which occurred on
the 13th January,1972. The Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) which took over the
administration of the state after the June 4th uprising promulgated the 1979 Constitution on 18th
September,1979 and was inaugurated on 24th September, 1979. The 1979 Constitution was
modeled along the presidential system of government with strict adherence to the theory of
separation of powers.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1979 REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

(i). Separation of powers: The 1979 Third Republican Constitution provided for a strict
adherence to the theory of separation of powers. The three organs of government namely,
legislature, executive and judiciary were separated in terms of personnel, powers and functions.
This was done to prevent abuse of powers by any of the organs.

(ii). Provision for a presidential system of government: The 1979 Republican Constitution
provided for a presidential system of government like the American type. The president
performed the functions of Head of State and Head of Government. Thus, the president
performed both ceremonial and real executive functions. The president was elected on the
principle of Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, all qualified persons were allowed to vote during
the presidential elections.

(iii). The constitution made provision for Independent and impartial judiciary. That is the
judicial arm of government was separated from the legislature and the executive. This enabled
the judiciary administer justice fairly without fear or favour.

(iv). Means of acquiring citizenship was provided for: The 1979 constitution outlined the curious
means by which one could be granted citizenship status in Ghana. Some of these means included
birth, adoption, naturalization, etc.

(v). The constitution provided for a unicameral legislature: Thus, the constitution provided for
only one chamber or house responsible for the enactment of laws in the state. The constitution
provided for a unicameral legislature with at least 140 elected members on the basis of Universal
Adult Suffrage.

(vi). Establishment of Council of State: The 1979 Third Republican Constitution established the
Council of State charged with the responsibility of advising the president on state policy issues.

(vii). Establishment of Chieftaincy institution: The Institution of Chieftaincy together with its
Traditional Councils as established by customary law and usage was guaranteed by the
constitution.

(viii). Fundamental Human Rights of the Citizens were guaranteed and entrenched under the
constitution. The 1979 Third Republican Constitution made provision for Fundamental Human
Rights of the citizens and these rights were made rigid to prevent easy amendment by greedy or
selfish politicians to the detriment of the citizens. It enshrined a clause, which empowered the
citizens to take the government to court when their rights were infringed upon.

(ix). Constitutional amendment procedure was clearly stated. The 1979 Third Republican
Constitution clearly stated the procedures that could be followed to amend any provision of the
constitution.
(x). Ministers were appointed from outside parliament: All ministers of state were to be
appointed from outside the parliament House. Under no circumstance could a minister be
appointed from the legislature. This provision was made to reduce the work load of the members
of parliament and to ensure proper separation of powers between the executive and the
legislature.

(xi). The 1979 constitution made provision for Public Service Commission: The constitution
made provision for Public Service Commission to supervise the operation of various public
services including the civil service. They were responsible for recruitment, promotion and
discipline of personnel of the various public services.

(xii). Provision for multi-party system: The 1979 Third Republican Constitution made provision
for the practice of multi-party system. Thus, a political arrangement in which more than two
political parties are constitutionally or legally allowed to exist and operate in a country was
enshrined in the constitution.

(xiii). Provision for Electoral Commission: The 1979 Third Republican Constitution made
provision for the establishment of an independent and impartial Electoral Commission to
supervise the conduct of flee and fair elections in the country.

THE EXECUTIVE (PRESIDENT)

The 1979 Third Republican Constitution provided for a presidential system of government like
the American type. In this case, the president was the head of state and the head of government.

QUALIFICATIONS AND STATUS OF THE PRESIDENT

(i). A candidate contesting for the presidency should be a citizen of Ghana by birth.
(ii). The candidate vying for the presidency should have attained the age of forty (40 years) or
more.

(iii). He should be qualified to be elected as a member of parliament and must be nominated by

not less than 128 persons qualified to be elected as a member of parliament.

(iv). A candidate vying for the presidency should not have any criminal records. He should not
have been convicted for offences which are indictable or involve fraud or security of the state.

MODE OF APPOINTMENT
The president was to be elected on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage (popular vote). He was
to obtain at least 50% of the vote cast and if none of the candidates obtained the required
percentage, provision was made for a run-off election between the two leading candidates to
select one of them as the president. If it happened that the two leading candidates obtained the
same number of votes in the run-off, parliament was empowered to elect one of them as
president by secret ballot. The president was elected with a fixed term of four years in the first
instance and was eligible for re-election for another term but not more.

FUNCTIONS/POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA
(i). Power of appointing, dismissing and reshuffling ministers: The president as the head of
the executive was empowered by the constitution to appoint ministers and deputy ministers from
outside parliament. He was also empowered to reshuffle or dismiss any minister any time he
deemed it fit and bring in others to fill the position.

(ii). He assented to bills to become laws: The president assented to bills passed by parliament
before the bills could become laws. The president could also veto part or whole of a bill
presented to him by parliament.

(iii). Formulation and implementation of policies: The president was responsible for the
formulation and implementation of public policies as well as initiation of proposals to be passed
into laws by the legislature.

(iv). The president was the Commander- in-Chief of the Armed Force: As the Commander -
in —Chief of the Armed Forces, he could deploy troops to engage in an internal or external
operation when necessary. He could even declare war but with the approval of the legislature.

(v). He performed ceremonial functions: The president performed ceremonial functions such
as receiving foreign dignitaries into the country, taking salutes during Independence Day, etc.

(vi). He exercised the power of prerogative of mercy: The president acting in consultation
with the Council of State exercised the prerogative of mercy and pardons convicted criminals.

(vii). Could open and dissolve parliament: The president was empowered to open, summon,
prorogue and dissolve parliament.

(viii). He appointed top state officials: The president acting in consultation with the Council of
State made important state appointments such as heads of independent commissions, judges of
superior court of judicature and other top governmental officials.

(ix). He determined the salaries of top state officials: The president determined the salaries
and emolument of top government officials such as the Chief Justice and the Auditor General.

(x). He read the State of the Nations address: The president read the State of the Nations
address to parliament. The president was empowered to deliver a message to Parliament on the
state of the nation, at the beginning of each session of Parliament.

(xi). The president was the font of honour: Thus, he gave national awards and honours to
deserving citizens. Examples of such awards include the National Best Farmer Award, National
Best Teacher Award, etc

460
(xii). Signing of treaties and conventions with other nations and maintained foreign
relations: The president signed treaties, agreernents or conventions on behalf of Ghana, subject
to parliamentary approval- tic also maintained good foreign relations with other states so that in
times of needs it could rely on them.

txiii). He presided over cabinet meetings: As the head of the the president was empowered by
the constitution to chair all cabinet meetings.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

(i). Judicial control: The judiciary, especially the Supreme Court through the power of judicial
review could nullify any action or decision of the president which was not in line with the
constitution.

(ii). Parliamentary control: The president could be impeached by parliament when he failed to
live up to expectation or when his actions were likely to bring the office of the president into
disrepute.

(iii). Constitutional limitations: The president was expected to rule in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution and nothing else.

(iv). Public opinion: The opinions held by the majority of the people which were expressed
through the newspapers, radio and magazines could force or induce the president to review or
withdraw certain public policies which were considered undesirable to majority of the populace.

(v). The press: The media also served as a watch dog over the activities of the president.
Constructive criticisms from the media on unpopular policies undertaken by the president could
induce him to withdraw such policies.

(vi). The opposition parties: Opposition parties exercised some degree of control on his powers
through constant criticism which at times induced him to review or withdraw some policies.

THE LEGISLATURE
The 1979 Third Republican Constitution provided for a unicameral legislature with 140 elected
members from a single member constituency and on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage.

QUALIFICATIONS AND STATUS OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT

(i). A candidate contesting tier a parliamentary seat should be a citizen of Ghana,
(ii). The person should have attained the age of 21 years or above.
(iii). The person should be a registered voter.
(iv). The person must have been a resident in the constituency where he wished to stand for the
election or must have resided in that constituency for a reasonable period of time, at least for five
years.
(v). The person must be able to speak and read the English Language with a degree of
proficiency sufficient to enable him take active part in the proceedings of parliament.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION
(i). Law- making or Legislation: The basic function of the legislature was to enact laws for the
administration of the state. It was also charged with the responsibility of amending and repealing
laws that were considered outmoded and did not serve the needs and aspirations of the society.

(ii). Control of finance (public purse): Another function of the legislature was to control the
raising and spending of money by the executive. The legislature was responsible for authorizing
the raising and spending of public money. It is the legislature that was responsible for the
approval of taxes imposed on the people. It approved financial estimates or budget presented by
the executive every year. The legislature could increase or decrease the financial estimates or
budgets of the executive. Loans contracted by the government or the executive were also subject
to legislative control. Again, it monitored public expenditure through the Public Accounts
Committee of parliament to ensure financial sanity.

(iii). Vetting and approving key presidential nominees: The legislature through the Vetting or
Appointment Committee of Parliament examined and approved key nominees made by the
executive. The presidential nominees for appointment including Judges of the Supreme Court
and ministers of state needed parliamentary approval. Parliament could refuse to approve any of
the nominees if found to be unqualified. For example, the parliament of Ghana refused to
approve the appointment of Mr. Riley-Poku as Minister of Defence

(iv). An institution for discussing and redressing grievances: As a representative body,

members of parliament conveyed the grievances of their constituencies to the house for
discussion and recommendations. Thus, People who were dissatisfied with certain actions of the
gmernment might have their grievances redressed in the legislature through their elected
representatives.

(v). Power of impeachment: The legislature in Ghana could impeach the president when he
abused his official powers or if found bringing the presiders.), into disrepute.

(vi). Constitutional amendment: The legislature was also charged with the responsibility of
changing a constitution that was outmoded.

(vii). Serving as Electoral College: The legislature was empowered to constitute itself into an
Electoral College body to elect the president when the need arose. For instance, if after the run-
off presidential election, the two leading candidates still obtained the same number of votes,
parliament was empowered to elect one of them as president by secret ballot.

(viii). Approving of treaties, conventions and agreements: All treaties, conventions and
agreements entered into by the president on behalf of the nation needed the approval of
parliament.

(ix). Raising Armed Forces and Police Service: Parliament was responsible for raising Armed
Forces and Police Service in Ghana and no person was expected to raise any such force without
the authority of parliament.
(x). Deliberative and discussive institution: The legislature served as a forum for debates on
international issues. It served as a forum where matters of public concern were discussed to find
solutions.

LIMITATIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA

(i). Could not pass law turning Ghana into one- party state: The 1979 Constitution of Ghana
disallowed parliament from enacting any law establishing a one-party state in Ghana

(ii). Could not establish a state religion: Again, the 1979 Third Republican Constitution of
Ghana forbad parliament from passing any law establishing a state religion in Ghana.

(iii). Judicial review or decisions: The judicial power of judicial review weakened the position
of parliament as a law-making body. This is due to the fact that the judiciary especially the
Supreme Court could examine and declare certain actions or laws made by parliament null and
void under the power of judicial review.

(iv). The power of the president: The president could also veto bills passed by the legislature
which in a way limited the sovereign power of the legislature to make laws.

(v). Inability to over-turn the decision of the law court: The parliament of Ghana under the
1979 Constitution of Ghana had no power to over-turn the decision of a law court.

(vi). Forbidden from amending Transitional provisions: Under the 1979 Constitution of
Ghana, parliament had no power to amend any section of the Transitional Provisions of the
Constitution.

(vii). Inability to pass retrospective law: Under the 1979 Constitution of Ghana, parliament
had no power to pass a retrospective law. Thus, the constitution forbad parliament from passing a
law making a previously committed lawful act now unlawful.

THE JUDICIARY
The 1979 Third Republican Constitution made provision for the judiciary to ensure fair
administration of justice.

STRUCTURE OF THE COURTS UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION

The 1979 Third Republican Constitution established two categories of Courts namely the
Superior Courts and the inferior or lower courts.

(a). The Superior Courts consisted of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal and the High
Court.
(b). The Inferior or Lower Courts consisted of Circuit Courts, District Courts, Juvenile Court,
and Local/Family Courts.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COURTS
(a). Supreme Court
(i). The Supreme Court was the final Court of Appeal in both civil and criminal cases.

(ii). It was charged with the responsibility of interpreting constitutional provisions

(iii). It supervised the lower courts

(iv). The Supreme Court had appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine any matter, which had
been determine by the National House of Chiefs.

(v). It could make order, issue writs or give directives to the lower courts, example Mandamus,
Certiorari, Prohibition.

(b). Court of Appeal

(i). The Court of Appeal handled appeals from any judgment, decree or order the High Court and
the Circuit Court.

(ii). It supervised the lower courts under it.

(c). High Court

(i). The High Court had original jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases including murder and
other cases of felonies.

(ii). It heard civil and criminal appeals from Circuit and District Courts.

(iii). It had supervisory jurisdiction over the lower courts such as Circuit and District Courts,
Juvenile Courts and Local or Family Tribunal Courts.

(d). Circuit and District Courts: Both Circuit and District Courts had original jurisdiction in
civil and criminal cases. Whilst the District Court dealt with cases of lower degree, the Circuit
Court handled cases of relatively higher degree. Both courts were courts of summary jurisdiction
and were expected to expedite action on cases brought before them.

(e). Juvenile Court: Juvenile Court dealt with persons who were minor and could make
recommendation for such persons to be sent to Borstal Institute or Remand Homes.

(f). Family Tribunal and Local Courts: Local Courts dealt with marriage matters such as Child
Maintenance and Custody.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY UNDER THE 1979 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA
Measures put in place to ensure the independence of the Judiciary under the 1969 constitution
include:

(i). Emoluments were charged on Consolidated Fund: To ensure the independence of the
Judiciary, salaries, allowances, gratuities and pensions of Judges of Superior Courts were
charged on the Consolidated Fund. The remuneration of the judges could not be varied to their
disadvantage.

(ii). Immunity of Judges from prosecution: To ensure Judicial Independence under the 1979
Constitution, Judges enjoyed immunity from prosecution in the course of discharging their
duties. They were protected from legal action against whatever they say or do when sitting on
case at court. However, the immunity did not cover acts of misbehavior or corruption on the part
of the Judges.

(iii). Security of tenure: To ensure judicial Judges were given security of tenure. This means
that judges could not be removed from office until they readied the compulsory or statutory
retiring age. They could however, be removed if the Judge was infirm or incapable of performing
his work or on proven grounds of misconduct

(iv). Retirement benefits: A judge of the Superior Court of Judicature on retiring from office
was paid, in addition to any gratuity payable to him, pension equivalence to the salary to which
he was entitled immediately before retiring.

(v). Total absence or control from the Legislature and the Executive: To ensure the
independence of the judiciary. the judiciary was vested with the power to settle all disputes fairly
without any interference from the executive and the legislature. Appointment: The president in
consultation with the Council of State appointed the Chief Justice. The president on the advice of
the Judicial Council appointed the other Judges of the Supreme Court of Judicature.

PROCEDURE FOR AMENDING THE PROVISIONS OF THE 1979 CONSTITUTION

To safeguard the rights of individuals, the amendment of the Third Republican Constitution was
made rigid. The amendment procedures were as follows:

(i). The proposal of the amendment had to be debated through the normal parliament law making
procedure which formed a resolution in the house.

(ii). The proposal and the amendment bill had to be gazette by the speaker of parliament for not
less than six (6) months from the time that the proposal was introduced in parliament.

(iii). The proposal and the amendment bill had to be debated in each district or local council and
accepted not later than six months after the proposal had been introduced in parliament. Two
thirds of the District Councils were to approve it through secret balloting.

(iv). The Council of State was to approve the amendment bill not less than six months after the
introduction of the bill in parliament. Two thirds majority of the Council of state was needed to
approve the amendment through secret ballot.

(v). Parliament was required to approve the bill after these processes by not less than two-thirds
of all the members through secret ballot.
(vi). The president was then required to sign the amendment bill if;
(a). The bill was exclusively made for amendment of the constitution.

(b). The speaker of parliament certified that the laid down procedures had been followed by the
House.

THE 1979 GENERAL ELECTIONS

On 18th June 1979, another general election was held in Ghana to return the country to a
constitutional government. The election was conducted by the electoral commission under the
chairmanship of Mr. Justice Kingsley Nyina.

In all, ten (10) candidates contested for the presidential election. There were four independent
candidates. Six political parties sponsored candidates for both presidential and parliamentary
elections. The parties that contested the elections were as follows:

(a). People’s National Party (PNP) led by Dr. Hilla Limann with Dr. J.W.S de Graft Johnson as
running mate.

(b). The Popular Front Party (PFP) led by Mr. Victor Owusu with Alhaji Yakubu Tali, Talon
Na as his running mate.

(c). The United National Convention (UNC) led by Mr. William Ofori Atta with Alhaji
Mahama Iddrisu as his running mate.

(d). The Action Congress Party (ACP) led by Frank Bernasko with Mr. Attoh Okine as his
running mate.

(e). The Social Democratic Party (SDP) with Alhaji Ibrahim Mahama as flag bearer and Prof.
J.M. Dake as his running mate.

(f). The Third Force Party (TFP) led by John Bilson and Dr. John Kportugbe as his running
mate. The four independent candidates that stood for the presidency induced Dr. R.P Baffoe.
Alhaji Imoru Aryena, Mr. Kwame Nyante and Nii Diamond Addy.

In all, 140 parliamentary seats were contested for. The results of the parliamentary elections were
as follows:

Party Number of seats won

P.N.P 71
P.F.P 42
U.N.0 13
A.C.P 10
S.D.P 3
T.F.P 0 (No seat)
Independent 1
In the presidential election, none of the candidates obtained the required majority as Dr. Hilla
Limann who obtained the highest number of votes obtained 35.3% which was not up to the 50%
of the total vote required by the electoral law. A runoff election was therefore conducted for the
two leading candidates on the 9th of July, 1979. It was a battle between Dr. Hilla Limann of the
PNP and Mr. Victor Owusu of the PFP. Dr. Hilla Limann of the PNP won the run-off election
convincingly by obtaining 1,118,306 votes representing 61.98% as against 686,095 representing
39.02% obtained by Mr. Victor Owusu.

FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR THE ELECTORAL SUCCESS OF PNP WHY

PNP WON THE 1979 GENERAL ELECTIONS
(i). The quest for new faces and fresh blood: Many Ghanaians were expecting to see new faces
and fresh blood in the future politics of the country as they were tired of the “old guards”. Unlike
the other parties, the Peoples National Party met this demand because almost all the
parliamentary candidates that contested the election on the ticket of PNP were unknown in the
political scene. The party’s presidential candidate Dr. Hilla Limann and his running mate Dr.
J.W.S de Graft Johnson were also youthful exuberance with new faces in the political scene.

(ii). Effective organization of the party: The People’s National Party was organized at the
grass root involving all sort of people and groups like workers, traders, farmers, fishermen and
students. It had offices in all the constituencies of the country which they used to propagate their
programmes to the people across the country. It organized door to door campaigns throughout
the towns and cities of the country which in no small way contributed to its success in the
election.

(iii). The appealing nature of the party’s manifesto: The manifesto of the PNP was more
appealing to many voters. It promised a welfare state and a restoration of Ghana’s proud
international image.

(iv). The symbol of the party: The symbol used by the Peoples National Party (PNP) was
more appealing and easily understood by the people than those used by the other political parties.
The PNP used the oil palm flanked by two vertical red bands as its symbol. Many ordinary
people found the palm tree as a tree which serves several purposes and thus fell in love with the
party.

(v). The elitist nature of its main rival, Popular Front Party (PFP): The PFP was regarded as
an elite party and its leader Mr. Victor Owusu was also accused of being arrogant, a lot of the
people especially the Ewes, did not want such a person to occupy the presidency. This made
them vote massively for the PNP.

(vi). The credentials of the People’s National Party (PNP) leaders: The PNP had very
distinguished scholars and professionals including their parliamentary candidates. The flag
bearer of the party and his running mate were all having doctorate degree.

(vii). Association with the CPP: Many ordinary people wanted the return of a political party
which would follow the ideals of and continue the great work of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. Since the
PNP was an off-shoot of the CPP tradition, it was seen as the party that would continue the great
works of Nkrumah and therefore most of them rallied behind the PNP.

(viii). The split in the camp of former Progress Party members: Members of the former
Progress Party were divided into two camps namely UNC and PFP. The split prevented the PFP
from getting votes which would have gone to it if the two parties had been under one leadership.
This immensely paved way for the PNP to win the election.

FACTORS THAT ACCOUNTED FOR THE MILITARY INVOLVEMENT IN THE

POLITICAL ADMINISTRATION OF GHANA IN 1981 OR WHY THE PNP
GOVERNMENT WAS OVERTHROWN

(i). Lack of unity and cohesion within the party: Lack of unity and cohesion or internal
bickering between the old guards and the new members within the ruling party accounted for the
military involvement in the political administration of Ghana in 1981. The ruling party was
perceived as a house divided against itself, plagued by internal squabbles. There were serious
disagreements between the factions in the party. There were old laces of the CPP including Kojo
Botsio, Krobo Edusei, Akwasi Armah and Imoro Egala who exerted great influence on the
youthful group that Limamn represented. This affected the credibility of the government,

(ii). Mismanagement and misadministration: There was high level of corruption or

mismanagement of funds. Mismanagement and misadministration as evidenced by non-
utilization of loans for purposes they were procured. Limamn’s government registered
unprecedented corruption at high places.

(iii) Trade malpractices: Trade malpractices such as black-marketing, smuggling and the sale of
goods far above the controlled prices were rampant in the country. Again, there were trade
malpractices in the issuance of special unnumbered licenses.

(iv). Weak leadership: Weak leadership also accounted for the fall of the PNP government. Dr.
Limann, the president was weak making him unable to control his ministers and party
functionaries. Dr. Limann could not establish a power-base in the PNP.

(v). Economic crisis: Another problem which accounted for military involvement in the
political administration in 1981 is economic crisis. The economic situation in the country under
Dr. Hilla Limann’s government was appalling. Economically, there was high inflation and
shortage of essential commodities. The cedi also devalued which brought economic hardships in
the country.

(vi). Injustice: There was a general breakdown of law and order which arose out of Armed
Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) legacy of violence resulting in considerable injustices.

(vii). The Constitutional crisis arising out of the appointment of the Chief Justice:
Constitutional crisis in the appointment of Chief Justice, and other related issues affected the
image of the government. For example, PNP members of parliament rejected Justice Apaloo as
Chief Justice on the grounds that he had not been properly appointed by the AFRC government
which created constitutional crisis. In the long run when it was taken to court, the Appeals Court
of Ghana declared Justice Apaloo as Chief Justice. This adversely affected the image of the PNP.

(viii). The role of opposition parties: The role of opposition parties in being critical of the
government also accounted for the fall of Dr. Hills Limann and PNP government. The increasing
criticism of the party by the opposition parties exposed the weaknesses of the party and placed it
in a bad light.

(ix). The inordinate ambition of the military to come back to power. The ambition of the
military. particularly for not being patient enough to experiment the 1979 constitutional
government. The impatience of Ghanaians and the military with the new administration after the
three-month House —Cleaning Exercise also accounted for that.

(x). Inability of the PNP to implement some of its major policies: The PNP was not able to
implement some of its major policies because it did not command an effective majority in
parliament. The PNP had only 71 out of 140 parliamentary seats. This led to the rejection of
some of its major policies and budget when presented to parliament. For example, the
government’s budget was rejected in 1981 by parliament which made him unpopular.

(xi). The dismissal of about 2500 Accra-Tema GIHOC workers: The dismissal of about 2500
Accra-Tema Ghana Industrial Holding Corporation (GIHOC) workers also accounted for the
military involvement in 1981. Sporadic demonstrations and strikes from the civil servants were
prevalent as a result of inadequate salaries. After a strong warning from major Acquah (Director
of personnel) to the workers of GIHOC not to strike, they struck and that led to the dismissal of
about 2500 GIHOC workers. Joachim Amartey Kwei who was the secretary-General of the
GIHOC workers union, was irate. His fight through the courts to get his members reinstated was
an exercise in futility so when Rawlings intimated his intension of killing the three justices of the
high court, namely, EP Sarkodie, K.A Agyepong, Cecilia Koranteng, the inclusion of major
Acquah became a gift to Joachim and subterfuge to the nation

(xii). The constant harassment of members of the previous military regime: The constant
harassment of members of the previous military regime by the PNP government led by Dr.
Limann also accounted for their overthrown.

THE PROVISIONAL NATIONAL DEFENCE COUNCIL (PNDC)

The Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) was formed on 31st December, 1981 after Dr.
Hilla Limann’s government had been overthrown through a coup d’etat led by Flight Lieutenant
Jerry John Rawlings.

FEATURES OF THE PNDC

(i). The Council was headed by a chairman The PNDC was established as the supreme legislative
and executive authority in Ghana headed by a chairman.

(ii). The Ruling Council also comprised civilians, retired and serving military officers.

(ii). The Council created regions. administered by Regional Secretaries. The Regional
Secretaries held annual conferences moving from one region to another to consider matters
common to the regions, share ideas and make recommendations to the PNDC.

(iv). There were District Secretaries who controlled the Districts.

(v). It established People’s Defence Committee (PDCs) and Committee for the Defence of the
Revolution (CDRs) to ensure grassroots democracy and political participation at the district,
regional and national levels.

(vi). It established Citizen’s Vetting Committees to investigate the lifestyles and expenditure of
suspected corrupt citizens. Illegal assets were confiscated.

(vii). There was an existence of People’s Tribunal (PNDCL2) to check corruption and
dishonesty. People found guilty were jailed.

(viii). There was formation of the 31” December Women’s Movement as a women’s wing of the
PNDC.

(ix). There was fusion of legislative and executive functions. Thus, there was no strict separation
between the legislative and executive functions.

(x). Restrictions on press freedom. More journalists were arrested and detained for writing and
criticizing the regime.

(xi). Ruled by decrees/edicts. The PNDC government ruled by issuing decrees or edicts since
there was no parliament to enact laws. Some of the decrees took retrospective effect and were
repressive.

TRIAL QUESTIONS
1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11. 12 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Outline five main features of the 1960 republican constitution Highlight five functions of the
president under the 1960 republican constitution of Ghana Describe the structure of courts
under the 1960 republican constitution of Ghana Highlight five provisions made for judicial
independence under the 1960 republican constitution of Ghana. Outline five reasons for the
adoption of one-party system in Ghana in 1964 Highlight five reasons why the Convention
People’s Party (CPP) dominated Ghanaian politics from 1951 to 1966 Highlight five factors
that accounted for the 24tth February, 1966 coup d’c►tat/factors that led to the fall of Dr.
Kwame Nkrumah/ reasons for the fall of CPP Outline six aims of the National Liberation
Council (NLC). Highlight six measures adopted by the National Liberation Council (NLC) to
transfer power to the civilian government. Highlight five main features of the 1969 republican
constitution of Ghana Highlight five powers and functions of the president under the 1969
constitution of Ghana Highlight five measures put in place to ensure the independence of the
Judiciary under the 1969 constitution Outline five provisions made in 1969 constitution to
prevent dictatorship in Ghana Highlight five factors that contributed to the electoral success of
progress party (pp) in 1969 Outline five reasons for the overthrow of the progress party
government in 1972 or factors that accounted for the 1972 coup State four reasons for the
overthrow of Acheampong regime in 1979 or reasons for the June 4th uprising Outline five
achievements of Ignatius Kutu Acheampong Outline five main features of the 1979 constitution
of Ghana
Highlight five functions of the executive president under the 1979

constitution of Ghana 20. Outline five limitations of the executive president under the
1979

constitution of Ghana 21. Highlight five functions of the legislature under the 1979
constitution

of Ghana 22. Outline five limitations of the legislature under the 1979 constitution

of Ghana 23. Describe the structure of the courts under the 1979 constitution of

Ghana 24. Outline five measures that were put in place to ensure judicial

independence under the 1979 constitution of Ghana 25. Outline the procedures for
amending the 1979 constitution of Ghana 26. Highlight five factors that accounted for
the electoral success of PNP

in 1979 27. Highlight five factors that accounted for the military involvement in

the political administration of Ghana in 1981

GOVERNMENT FOR S S 475

 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO

MILITARY IN THE POLITICAL PROCESS

(1966-1991)
Military: The term military refers to the armed forces comprising the Army (Land troops), the
Navy (Sea troops) and the Air force (air troops) and their main function is to protect the state
against external attack or aggression.

Military coup diktat/Military intervention: Military intervention is the seizure of political

power of a legitimate government by a group of soldiers and sometimes police through the barrel
of the gun and not through constitutional means OR

Military coup diktat is a forceful or violent overthrow of a constitutional or legitimate

government by the armed forces.

Coup diktat simply refers to sudden violent change in government of a state by the military.
Examples of military regimes in Ghana are The National Liberation Council (NLC), The
National Redemption Council (NRC), The Supreme Military Council 1 (SMCI), The Supreme
Military Council 11 (SMC11), The Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), and The
Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC).

Political instability: Political instability is a process by which the peace of a country is disturbed
as a result of violent military intervention or rebel disturbances in the politics of the state which
might result in frequent changes in government.

FEATURES OF MILITARY RULE/REGIME/NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF MILITARY

RULE
(i). Abuse of Fundamental Human Rights: Under military regimes, the Fundamental Human
Rights of the citizens are abused in a number of ways. These include restriction on the
movement of the people and freedom of expression, confiscation of assets or properties of
citizens without compensation, banning some voluntary groups and associations, unlawful
detention and torture and extra judicial killings under mysterious circumstances.

(ii). Banning of political parties: Under military regimes, all political parties are banned.
People cannot form or join any political-party, they only have to be loyal to the military ruler and
obey his commands.

(iii). Suspension of the constitution: Military rulers suspend the constitution as soon as they
seize power. Thus, they don’t operate art the laid down rules set by the state but rather rule based
on their own and caprices. The ruler suspends the constitution, dissolves parliament and rule by
decrees.

(iv). Fusion of both legislative and executive functions: Unlike democratic rule where the
principle of separation of powers is applied and upheld, in military regimes, powers are fused.
There is no clear distinction between the legislative and executive functions.

(v). Perpetuate itself in office: Military rulers stay in power and sometimes transform into a
civilian government. For example, in Ghana the former president Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings
seized political power from Dr. Hilla Limann on 31st December, 1981 and ruled till 1992 when
the country entered into democratic dispensation. He again contested in the 1992 presidential
election and won it. He continued to rule till the year 2000 when his two-year term of office as
mandated by the constitution came to an end.

(vi). Characterized by instability: Military rule is not a stable government. There is usually
coups and counter coups.

(vii). The regime is characterized by dictatorship: Military rule is characterized by

dictatorship. Whatever the ruler says is final. The views of the people are not tolerated or
accommodated.

(viii). A highly centralized system of government: Military rule is highly centralized. Thus,
their administration is such that all powers are concentrated in one central authority. All major
decisions and policies are made by the central authority

(ix). Military rule is characterized with control and use of means of violence: Thus, the
regime is characterized with unlawful detention and brutalities. The rule involves unlawful
arrest and imprisonment of people suspected to be behind certain corrupt activities without any
evidence. Some people are killed unlawfully. The punishments meted out to people who are
suspected of committing trivial offences are excessive, inhuman and out of proportion as
compared to the gravity of the offences. For example, women are sometimes stripped naked and
whipped in public.

(x). Undermines the independence of the judiciary: The regime undermines the independence
of the judiciary in the sense that, they establish their own military tribunal to try certain cases
instead of allowing the judiciary to work on those cases.

CAUSES OF MILITARY INTERVENTIONS/ REASONS FOR THE COMING OF THE

MILITARY INTO POLITICS/ REASONS FOR POLITICAL INSTABILITY AFTER
INDEPENDENCE

(i). Dissatisfaction of the military: The military intervene in politics when they are dissatisfied
with the civilian government actions. For example, under Nkrumah’s regime. there was generally
a feeling of discontent among the forces. The Armed Forces suspected that the Presidential
Guard created by the president was meant to replace them. Besides the suspicion, they were
unhappy about members of the Presidential Guard enjoying better facilities than them. Also, they
resented Nkrumah’s idea of sending them to fight against Ian Smith’s Unilateral Declaration of
Independence in Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) in 1965 and to fight against America in the Vietnam
War. They saw these moves as an attempt to wipe them off and replace them with the
Presidential Guard. Again, in Ghana the Armed Forces did not fare well under Busia’s regime
which made them support I.K Acheampong to remove the Progress Party Government. The 1971
budget slashed down the defence expenditure by 10%. This affected the operations of the forces.
Air craft and naval ships lay idle as a result of lack of fuel maintenance. Busia’s hasty decision to
trim the defence budget to cut down military spending sparked problematic rumblings in the
Armed Forces at a very early date.

(ii). Mismanagement of the economy: The military may intervene in politics when they realize
that the civilian government is mismanaging the economy. For example, one of the reasons that
accounted for the military involvement in the politics of Ghana in 1966 was that the CPP
government was accused of mismanagement, bribery and corruption. The country’s foreign
reserves were used on unnecessary prestigious projects, awarding scholarships to nationals of
other African countries, funding the training of African freedom fighters in Ghana, granting of
loans and financial aid to other African countries like Guinea Kinshasa and Mali, and dissipation
of funds on the creation of security guards. All these activities resulted in the accumulation of
substantial national debt. At the time of the overthrow, Ghana was at the verge of bankruptcy.
The 200 Euro reserve accumulated in London during the colonial period had been exhausted and
Ghana had piled debts upon debts. Again, Colonel Kutu Acheampong cited bribery. corruption
and economic mismanagement as one of the reasons for toppling the Progress Party government

(iii). Tribalism. Favoritism and Nepotism: Tribalism, favoritism and nepotism on the part of
the civilian government in the administration of the state can make the military intervene in
politics. Fix example, sane at the soldiers who supported Colonel Kutu Acheampong in 1972
coup to overthrow Busia’s government accused the regime of being anti-Ewe. For example,
Busia’s government did not base any minister from the Volta-Region.

(iv). External influence: Some foreigners sometime hide behind the military and push them
into making coups. For instance, Nkrumah’s overthrow in 1966 was believed to have been
financed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of USA just because of Nkrumah’s Marxist
convictions, his Non -Aligned Policy in relation to the Pan-Africanism. all of which were
inimical to American interest in Africa.

(v). Lack of respect for independence Judiciary: The military intervene in politics when the
judiciary is undermined by the civilian government. For example, some of the soldiers who
supported Colonel Kutu Acheampong to topple the Busia regime accused the regime of showing
gross disrespect for judicial independence. Busia’ reaction to the court verdict on 20th April,
1970 to re-instate Mr. E.K Sallah for wrongful dismissal attested to that fact. Again, Nkrumah
was accused of undermining the independence of the judiciary. A good illustration is the
dismissal of the then Chief Justice Sir Arku Korsah, over the trial of Tawiah Adamafio, Kofi
Crabbe and Arku Adjei in the Kulungu assassination on Nkrumah. The Army saw this as an
affront to the judiciary and against the due process of the law.

(vi). Suppression of individual right and freedoms: The military sometimes intervene in
politics when it detects that, individual rights and freedoms are trampled upon. This is one of the
factors that resulted in the military intervention in the politics of Ghana in 1966. Nkrumah
suppressed the freedoms of Ghanaians, arrested and detained his political opponents. He
introduced obnoxious Preventive Detention Act in 1958 which culminated in the exile of
prominent opposition members like Busia and others as well as the death of Dr.. J. B Danquah in
detention. Cases of torture and abuse of fundamental human rights were reported all over the
country. This made Nkrumah and his CPP very unpopular. Many of the supporters came to
sympathize with the opposition and supported the overthrow of Dr. Nkrumah.

(vii). Economic hardship and high inflation: Economic hardship and High inflation in a
country also account military intervention in politics. In Ghana, economic hardship and high
inflation also accounted for the coup on 24th February, 1966. In 1960, the economy started
deteriorating. Deficit financing came to be a feature of government fiscal policy and severe
inflation hit the country. The price of locally grown food rose by as much as 400% in some parts
of Ghana between March 1963, and December, 1964. As price of certain essential goods rose
sharply. the net income of farmers as well as wage earners fell resulting in severe hardships.
Many employees including workers of railway and harbour embarked on strike in 1961 to
express their protest against the hardship they were going through. One thing that annoyed most
Ghanaians is that, whist Nkrumah urged them to tighten their belts; he and his ministers led a life
of luxury, rode in expensive cars and erected buildings in the main towns from funds received
from corrupt practices and bribes.

(viii). Successful nature of coup in neighboring countries: The contagious effect of the
success of the military coup d’etat in neighboring countries can sometimes inspire the Armed
Forces to intervene in politics. For example, the 1966 coup d’etat in Ghana is believed to have
been influenced by the successful military coup in Togo and Nigeria.

FACTORS THAT MAKE MILITARY INVOLVEMENT IN POLITICS UNPOPULAR IN

WEST AFRICA
(i). Military regimes spend huge sums of a country’s resources on defence to the neglect of other
important areas like health, transportation, education etc.

(ii). The success of a coup opens the gate for counter-coups creating political instability and
distorting economic planning and programmes.

(iii). Donor creditor countries and International Financial Institutions no longer extend financial
assistance to military governments.

(iv). There is the danger of Me military perpetuating themselves in power resulting in lack of
sense of direction.

(v). Involvement in politics lowers the professional standards of the military and renders them
operationally ineffective.

(vi). Soldiers in politics eventually indulge in the flees which they toppled the civilian regimes.

(vii). Military regimes are often dictatorial and abuse the rights of citizens. Under military
regime, orders and commands are issued, even where they have not been adequately deliberated
upon. Again. under military regime, fundamental human rights and freedoms such as right to life,
right to privacy, freedom of movement, freedom of speech and freedom of association are often
violated or abused.
(viii). Military regimes disregard the principles of democracy and rule of law. Under military
rule, democratic principles such as rule of law, separation of powers, respect of fundamental
human rights and freedoms of the people and press freedom are undermined by the military
government since he is not elected by the people.

HOW MILITARY REGIMES ABUSED HUMAN RIGHTS IN GHANA

(i). Confiscation of assets/properties of citizens without compensation: Under military

regimes, the right of citizens to own properties was undermined. Some innocent Ghanaians had
their properties unlawfully taken away from them without compensation.

(ii). Imposition of curfews: The right of citizens to move freely was also abused under military
regimes. Military regimes made use of curfews to restrict the movement of people. Some people
were forced to sleep at 6pm and wake up at 6am. Those who went contrary to that were severely
punished.

(iii). Restriction on press freedom: The freedom of the press to constructively criticize the bad
policies and deeds of the government was restricted under military regimes. Any press or media
that existed during military regimes was controlled by the military rulers hence, they could
publish only what pleased these military rulers or face their wrath. This prevented the press and
the citizens to voice out their opinions on certain policies which affected them adversely.

(iv). Banning some voluntary groups and associations: Under military regimes, the right of
the citizens to form and join voluntary associations were banned which violated their freedom of
association.

(v). Enactment of obnoxious decrees: Military regimes such as PNDC ruled by issuing decrees
or edicts since there was no parliament to enact laws. Some of the decrees took retrospective
effect and were repressive.

(vi). lack of respect for the independence of the judiciary: Military regimes showed gross
disrespect for independence judiciary. They undermined judicial independence by setting up
military tribunals.

(vii). Unlawful detention and torture: Military regimes suppressed the freedom of Ghanaians,
arrested and detained innocent citizens without any justification.

(viii). Extra-judicial killings under mysterious circumstances: In pursuit of their mission,

military regimes used very drastic measures in dealing with people caught in their net. Some of
them set up special courts to try people who had committed various trivial offences against the
state. For example, On June 16th 1979, Gen. I.K Acheampong and E.K Utuka were executed by
firing squad under the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) regime. This was followed
on 26th June,1979 when Gen. A.A Afrifa, major Gen. R.E.A Kotei, Gen. F.W.K. Akuffo, Air
Vice Marshal George Yaw Boakye, Real Admired J.K Amedume and Col. R.J.A Felli were
pronounced and executed by firing squad.
TRIAL QUESTIONS

1.a

b. c.

2.

3.

15.

Explain the term military Explain military coup d’etat Outline five features of military rule
Highlight fives reasons why military enter into politics Outline five factors that make military
involvement in politics unpopular in West Africa Highlight five ways in which military regimes
abused the rights of the citizens in Ghana Outline five measure that can be put in place to
prevent the military from coming into politics

II

482 Onetouth GOVERNMENT FOR S H S

 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE

THE 1992 FOURTH REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

The 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana came into being after the Provisional
National Defence Council (PNDC) established a consultative Assembly to review the draft report
of the 1992 constitution. On April 1992, the draft constitution was given appendage by the
people through a referendum and was finally promulgated on the 7th January, 1993 when J.J.
Rawlings was sworn in as the president of Ghana.

MAIN FEATURES /PROVISIONS OF THE 1992 FOURTH REPUBLICAN

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). The 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana provides for a presidential system of
government like the American system. The president performs the functions of Head of State and
Head of Government. Thus, he is responsible for both ceremonial and real administrative
functions.

(ii). Fundamental Human rights of the citizens are enshrined or guaranteed under the
constitution. All the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the citizens are specified in
chapter five of the constitution. Most of these rights contain entrenched clauses to prevent greedy
politicians from amending them to meet their selfish desires.

(iii). Article 89 of the constitution has made provision for the Council of State to counsel the
president in the performance of his functions.

(iv). The president is elected on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage. Thus, all qualified citizens
are allowed to take part in the selection of the president.

(v). The constitution has made provision for judicial independence to ensure fair administration
of justice.

(vi). The constitution has vested the sovereignty of Ghana in the people of Ghana in whose name
and for whose welfare the powers of government are to be exercised in the manner and within
the limits laid down in the constitution.

(vii). The constitution has established the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative
Justice to replace the former Ombudsman established under the 1969 Constitution. The
Commission is charged with the responsibility of dealing with human rights abuse and
administrative injustice.

(viii). Article 162 of the constitution guarantees freedom and independence of the media.

(ix). Ministers of the state arc appointed by the president with prior approval by parliament. The
ministers can be appointed either from within or outside parliament.

DETAILED STUDY OF THE MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE 1992 CONSTITUTION

THE EXECUTIVE PRESIDENT

Status and Composition
The 1992 Constitution provides for an executive president who is charged with the responsibility
of performing both the functions of Head of State and Head of Government as well as being Pie
Commander-in —Chief of the Armed Forces of Ghana. The president is elected for a fixed term
of office not exceeding four years and can be re-elected for another term, but not more.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT

According to Article 62 of the constitution, a person shall not qualify to be a president unless-

(a). He is a citizen of Ghana.

(b). He has attained the age of forty years
(c). He is a person who is otherwise qualified to be elected as a member of parliament.

MODE OF THE ELECTION

Under the 1992 constitution of Ghana, the president is elected by popular vote. A person shall
be elected as president if at the end of the presidential election the number of votes cast in his
favour is more than fifty percent (50 %+) of the valid vote cast at the election. if none of the
parties obtains the required percentage, a run-off election is held for the two leading candidates
within twenty-one (21) days after the previous election.

POWERS/FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE PTRISSOLNT UNDER THE 1992

CONSTITUTION
(i). Power of appointing, dismissing and reshuffling ministers: The president as the head of
the executive is empowered by the constitution to appoint ministers and deputy ministers from
outside and within parliament with the approval by parliament. He is also empowered to
reshuffle or dismiss any minister any time he deems it fit and bring in others to fill the position.

(a). He assents to bills to become laws: The president assents to bills passed by parliament
before the bills can become laws. The president can also veto part or whole of a bill presented to
him by parliament.

(iii). Formulation and implementation of policies: The president is responsible for the
formulation and implementation of public policies as well as initiation of proposals to be passed
into laws by the legislature.

(iv). The executive president is the Commander- in-Chief of the Armed Force: As the
Commander -in —Chief of the Armed Forces. he can deploy troops to engage in an internal or
external operation when necessary. He can even declare war but with the approval of the
legislature.

(v). He performs ceremonial functions: The president performs ceremonial functions such as
receiving foreign dignitaries into the country, taking salutes during Independence Day, etc.

(vi). He exercises the power of prerogative of mercy: The president acting in consultation with
the Council of State exercises the prerogative of mercy and pardons convicted criminals.

(vii). Can open and dissolve parliament: The president is empowered to open, summon,
prorogue and dissolve parliament.

(viii). He appoints top state officials: The president acting in consultation with the Council of
State makes important state appointments such as heads of independent commissions, judges of
superior court of judicature and other top governmental officials.

(ix). He determines the salaries of top state officials: The president determines the salaries
and emolument of top government officials such as the Chief Justice and the Auditor General.

(x). He reads the State of the Nations address: He reads the State of the Nations address to
parliament. The president is empowered to deliver a message to Parliament on the state of the
nation, at the beginning of each session of Parliament.

(xi). The president is the font of honour: Thus, he gives national awards and honours to
deserving citizens. Examples of such awards include the National Best Farmer Award, National
Best Teacher Award, etc

(xii). Signing of treaties and conventions with other nations and maintains foreign
relations: The president signs treaties, agreements or conventions on behalf of Ghana, subject to
parliamentary approval. He also maintains good foreign relations with other states so that in
times of needs it can rely on them.

(xiii). He presides over cabinet meetings: As the head of the executive, the president is
empowered by the constitution to chair all cabinet meetings.

(xiv). He maintains and order: The president is responsible for maintaining peace, law and
order in the state. He establishes institutions such as the police force, other security agencies and
the judiciary for the maintenance of peace, law and order.

(xv). He attends international conferences on behalf of the state: The president under the
1992 constitution of Ghana is responsible for attending international conferences such as United
Nations (UN) General Assembly Meetings and African Union (AU) summit, Commonwealth
Heads of States and Government meetings, on behalf of the state

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION

(i). Judicial control: The judiciary, especially the Supreme Court through the power of judicial
review can nullify any action or decision of the president which is not in line with the
constitution.
(ii) Parliamentary control: The president can be impeached by parliament when he fails to live
up to expectation or when his actions are likely to bring the office of the president into disrepute.
Again, all top nominees by the president need the approval of the legislature. All treaties,
agreements or conventions entered into by the president need the approval of the legislature.

(iii). Constitutional limitations: The president is expected to rule in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution and nothing else.

(iv). Public opinion: The opinions held by the majority of the people which are expressed
through the newspapers, radio and magazines could force or induce the president to review or
withdraw cation policies which are considered undesirable to majority of the populace.

(v). The press: The media also serve as a watch dog over the activities of the president.
Constructive criticisms from the media on unpopular policies undertaken by the president could
induce him to withdraw such policies.

(vi). The opposition parties: Opposition panics exercise degree of control on his powers
through constant criticism which can at times induce him to review or withdraw some policies.

THE LEGISLATURE

STATUS AND COMPOSITION

The 1992 Constitution provides for a unicameral legislature of not less than one hundred and
forty (140) elected members. However, the number of members increased to 200 under a
Legislative Instrument before the constitution became operational. Again, in 2004, the
membership of parliament was again increased to 230 due to a review of constituencies by the
Electoral Commission.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT

(i). A person shall qualify to be a member of parliament if he is a citizen of Ghana.

(ii). A person shall qualify to be a member of parliament if he has attained the age of twenty-one
(21 years) or above.

(iii). He must be a registered voter.

(iv). A person shall qualify to be a member of parliament, if he is a resident in the constituency

for which he stands as a candidate for election to parliament has resided there for a total period
of not less than five years out of the ten years immediately preceding the election for which he
stands, or he hails from that constituency.

(v). A person shall qualify to be a member of parliament if he has paid all his taxes or made
arrangements satisfactory to the appropriate authority for the payment of his taxes.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA
(i). Law- making or Legislation: The basic function of the legislature is to enact laws for the
administration of the state. also amends and repeals laws that are outmoded and do not serve the
needs and aspirations of the society.

(ii). Control of finance (public purse): Another function of the legislature is that it controls the
raising and spending of money by the executive. The is responsible for authorizing the raising
and spending of public money. It is the legislature that is responsible for the approval of taxes
imposed on the people. it approves financial estimates or budget presented by the executive
every year. The legislature can increase or decrease the financial estimates or budgets of the
executive. Loans contracted by the government or the executive are also subject to legislative
control. Again, it monitors public expenditure through the Public Accounts Committee of
parliament to ensure financial sanity.

(iii). Vetting and approving key presidential nominees: The legislature through the Vetting or
Appointment Committee of Parliament examines and approves key nominees made by the
executive. For instance, Ghana’s Fourth Republican Constitution makes it mandatory for the
president to secure prior approval of parliament for his key appointments such as those of
ministers, Administrator of the District Assembly Common Fund, the Chief Justice and other
Justices of the supreme courts.

(iv). An institution for discussing and redressing grievances: As a representative body,

members of parliament convey the grievances of their constituencies to the House for discussion
and recommendations. Thus, People who are dissatisfied with certain actions of the government
may have their grievances redressed in the legislature through their elected representatives.

(v). Power of impeachment: The legislature in Ghana can impeach the president when he
abuses his official powers or if he misconducts himself.

(vi). Constitutional amendment: The legislature is also charged with the responsibility of
changing a constitution that is outmoded.

(vii). Approving of treaties, conventions and agreements: All treaties, conventions and
agreements entered into by the president on behalf of the nation must be approved by parliament.

(viii). Deliberative and discussive institution: The legislature serves as a forum for debates on
international and external issues. It serves as a forum where matters of public concern are
discussed to find solutions.

(ix) Passing vote of no confidence: The legislature can, by resolution backed by 2/3 of its
members, pass a vote of no confidence on a minister.

LIMITATIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA

(i). Cannot pass law turning Ghana into one- party state: The 1992 Constitution of Ghana
prohibits parliament from enacting any taw establishing a one-party state in Ghana (Article 3
section 1).

(ii). Cannot establish a state religion: Again. the 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution of
Ghana forbids parliament from passing any law establishing a state religion in Ghana.

(iii). Judicial review or decisions: The judicial power of judicial review weakens the position of
parliament as a law-making body. This is due to the fact that the judiciary can examine and
declare certain actions or laws made by parliament null and void under the power of judicial
review if they are not in line with the provisions of the constitution.

(iv). The Mass Media: Parliament cannot pass legislation that is intended to censor the
operations of the media.

(v). Assent by the president: Parliamentary laws can only be valid if parliament passes bills and
is given assent by the president. The president can veto bills passed by the legislature by refusing
to assent to it which in a way limits the sovereign power of the legislature to make laws.

(vi). Inability to over-turn the decision of the law court: The parliament of Ghana under the
1992 constitution of Ghana has no power to over-turn the decision of a law court.

(vii). Forbidden from amending Transitional provisions: Under the 1992 constitution of
Ghana, parliament has no power to amend any section of the Transitional Provisions of the
Constitution.

(viii). Inability to amend entrenched provisions without reference to a referendum: Under

the 1992 constitution, parliament has no right to amend the entrenched provisions of the
constitution without reference to a referendum.

(ix). Inability to pass retrospective law: Under the 1992 Constitution of Ghana, parliament has
no power to pass a retrospective law. Thus, the constitution forbids parliament from passing a
law making a previously committed lawful act now unlawful.

WAYS IN WHICH THE PRESIDENT RELATES TO THE PARLIAMENT UNDER THE

1992 CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). The president assents to bills passed by parliament to become laws.

(ii). The presidential nominees for appointment are vetted by parliament.

(iii). The president delivers the state of the nation’s address to parliament at the beginning of
each session.

(iv). The president implements policies approved by parliament.

(v). As Commander-in- Chief of the Armed Forces, whenever he deploys the Armed Fortes of
the nation to engage in an internal or external operation, he seeks the approval of parliament.
(vi). The president can be impeached by parliament if he violates the constitution.

(vii). The president swears an oath of allegiance to parliament during his inauguration.

(viii). The president submits his annual budget for parliamentary approval

(ix). The president notifies parliament each time he is travelling out of the country.

(x). The president signs treaties, agreements and conventions on behalf of Ghana subject to
parliamentary approval.

THE PROCEDURE FOR APPOINTING MINISTERS UNDER THE 1992

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). The president nominates a person to be appointed as minister. The person can be appointed
from within parliament or from outside parliament but majority of the members must come from
parliament. The nominee must have attained twenty—one (21) years or above, he must be a
citizen and a registered voter.

(ii). The president nominee is taken to the Appointment Committee of Parliament for vetting.
The Appointment Committee examines the nominees’ integrity, moral standard and his
intellectual capacity in the field where he is to be sent to. If the person fulfils all the basic
requirements, then he is recommended for appointment but if he fails to fulfill the basic
requirement he may not be recommended.

(iii). Where the nominee is recommended for appointment as a minister by the Appointment
Committee, parliament proceeds to approve the nominee by consensus.

(iv). Finally, the president issues the nominee with an appointment letter and the appointee is
made to swear the oath of allegiance to the president.

THE JUDICIARY
The 1992 Constitution has made provision for the judiciary to ensure fair administration of
justice. The head of the Judiciary is the Chief Justice.

STRUCTURE OF THE JUDICIARY

Two categories of courts are provided under the 1992 Constitution of Ghana. They are:

(a). The Superior Courts of Judicature consisting of Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High
Court and Regional Tribunals.

(b). The lower or inferior courts as parliament may by law established. The inferior courts or
lower courts consist of the District and Circuit Courts. Juvenile Court and Family Tribunal or
Local Courts.

THE SUPREME COURT

COMPOSITION OF THE SUPREME COURT UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION OF
GHANA
The composition of the Supreme Court under the 1992 Constitution of Ghana includes:
(i). The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and not less than nine other Justices of the
Supreme Court

(ii). There shall not be less than five Justices of the Supreme Court to be constituted for its work.
That is, when a petition or a case is sent to the Supreme Court for adjudication, the minimum
number of Justices who can adjudicate it is five.

(iii). The Chief Justice shall preside at sittings of the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice who is
the head of the Judiciary chairs all sittings of the Supreme Court.

(iv). In the absence of the Chief Justice, the most senior Justice of the Supreme Court shall
preside. For example, In Ghana in the absence of the Chief Justice, her Ladyship Justice Sophia
Akuffo, the most senior Justice, will chair or preside at sittings of the Supreme Court.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SUPREME COURT UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION OF

GHANA
(i). The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction to the exclusion of the Court of Appeal. to
determine matters relating to the connection or otherwise of a person for high treason or treason
by the High Court.

(ii). It is the final Court of Appeal in both criminal and civil cases. The Supreme Court is the last
place where all criminal and civil cases can be settled.

(iii). The Supreme Court has supervisory jurisdiction over all courts and over all any
adjudicating authority and may, in the exercise of that supervisory jurisdiction, issue orders and
directives for the purpose of enforcing or securing the enforcement of its supervisory power.

(iv). The Supreme Court is charged with the responsibility of interpreting constitutional
provisions.

(v). The Supreme Court has an appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine any matter, which
has been determined by the National House of Chiefs.

(vi). It can make orders, issue writs or give directives to the lower courts, example Mandamus,
Certiorari, Prohibition etc.

(vii). The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court may review any
decision, made or given by it on certain grounds and subject to certain conditions as may be
prescribed by rules of court. The Supreme Court also has the power to examine the actions taken
by the executive and the legislature and declare null and void or utra- vires those actions or
decisions that contravene the provisions of the constitution.

(viii). The Supreme Court has power to hear petitions challenging the validity of the election of
the president. A good example in Ghana is what happened after the 2012 presidential election
when some members of the opposition New Patriotic Party (NPP) accused the Electoral
Commission of massaging the results in favour of the ruling government candidate, John
Dramani Mahama. The flag bearer of the opposition New Patriotic Party, Nana Addo Danquah
Akufo Addo, his running mate Dr. Mahamadu Bawumia and the party chairman the late Jake
Obetsibi-Lamptey sent the petition to the Supreme Court for redress.

COURT OF APPEAL
According to Article 136 of the 1992 the Court of Appeal consists of the; Chief Justice, not less
than ten Justices of the Court of Appeal, such other Justices of the Superior Court of Judicature
as the Chief Justice may, for the determination of a particular cause or matter by writing signed
by him, request to sit in the Court of Appeal for any specified period.

FUNCTIONS OF THE COURT OF APPEAL

The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction throughout Ghana to hear and determine appeals from a
judgment, decree or order of the High Court and Tribunals and such other appellate jurisdiction
as may be determined by the constitution.

THE HIGH COURT

The High Court consists of the Chief Justice, not less than twenty (20) Justices of the High Court
and such other Justices of the superior court of Judicature as the request to sit as High Court
Justices for any period.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HIGH COURT

(i). The High Court has jurisdiction in all matters and in particular, in civil and criminal matters
and such original appellate and other Jurisdiction as may be conferred by the constitution or any
other law.

(ii). The High Court has jurisdiction to enforce the Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms
guaranteed under the constitution. It has supervisory jurisdiction over the lower courts such as
Circuit Court, District Court, Juvenile Courts, Family and local Tribunal Courts.

REGIONAL TRIBUNALS
Article 142 of the constitution establishes Regional Tribunals in each region of Ghana.

COMPOSITION
The Regional Tribunal consists of the Chief Justice, one chairman and such members who may
or may not be lawyers as shall be designated by the Chief Justice to sit as panel members of a
Regional Tribunal and for such period as shall be specified by the Chief Justice.

FUNCTIONS OF THE REGIONAL TRIBUNAL

A Regional Tribunal has jurisdiction to try such offences against the state and the public interest
as parliament may by law, prescribe.
It also has appellate jurisdiction in criminal matters.

CIRCUIT AND DISTRICT COURTS

Both Circuit and District Courts have original jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases. Whilst the
District Court deals with cases of lower degree, the Circuit Court handles cases of relatively
higher degree. Both courts are courts of summary jurisdiction and are expected to expedite action
on cases brought before them.

JUVENILE COURT
Juvenile Court deals exclusively with misconduct by minors and can make recommendation for
such persons to be sent to Borstal Institute or Remand Homes.

FAMILY TRIBUNAL AND LOCAL COURTS

Local Courts deals with marriage matters such as Child Maintenance and Custody.

INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION

Provisions made for the independence of the Judiciary under the 1992 Constitution of Ghana
include:

(i). Security of tenure: To ensure judicial independence, judges must enjoy security of tenure.
This means that judges must not be removed from office until they reach the compulsory or
statutory retiring age. They can however be removed only if the judge is infirm or incapable of
doing his work or on proven grounds of misconduct. The security of tenure enjoyed by the
judges is to enable them acquire sufficient experiences to administer justice fairly.

(ii). Mode of appointment or recruitment: Judges must be appointed by the executive on the
recommendations of an independent and impartial body such as judicial council or judicial
service commission. This method ensures the appointment of the best and experienced men of
integrity and competence.

(iii). Salaries and allowances should be charged on consolidated fund: Another method used
to safeguard the independence of the judiciary is linked with their salaries and allowances. The
salaries, allowances, gratuities and pensions of judges should be charged on Consolidated Fund
and should not be reduced to their advantage while they are in office. The remuneration of
judges should not be controlled by the executive or the legislature.

(iv). Immunity from prosecution: Judges must enjoy immunity from prosecution in the course
of discharging their duties or administering justice. Thus, they must be protected from legal
action against whatever they say or do when sitting on case at courts or commission. The
immunity does not cover acts of misbehavior or corruption on the part of the judges.

(v). Non- partisan and self-disqualification: A judge is not expected to get himself involved in
active politics. He is also expected to disqualify himself from trying a case in which he is
personally interested.

(vi). The legislature cannot not pass any law and the executive could not take any action with the
intention of undermining the independence of the judiciary.

COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE JUSTICE (CHRAJ)

The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice was established to replace the
former Ombudsman established under the 1969 Constitution. CHRAJ was established within six-
months after the coming into force the 1992 Constitution of Ghana. It consists of a commissioner
and two deputy commissioners.

FUNCTIONS OF THE COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE

JUSTICE (CHRAJ)
(i). The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) receives complaints
from individuals concerning administrative injustice and human rights abuses such as wrongful
dismissal, denial of promotion, denial of payment of salaries, and wages and sometimes denial of
end-of- service benefits.

(ii). The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) investigates
complaints of violation of Fundamental Human Rights and freedom, injustice, abuse of power,
unfair treatment of persons by a public officer in the exercise of his official duties.

(iii). The Commission takes appropriate steps to call for remedy, correction or find solution to
its investigation

(iv). The Commission protects individuals from abuses of human rights, for instance Trokossi
and female genital mutilation.

(v). The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ ) educates the public
on human rights and freedoms by holding seminars, lectures, symposia and publications in this
regard etc.

(vi). The Commission investigates all instances of alleged or suspected corruption and the
misappropriation of public money by officials and to take appropriate steps, including reports to
the Attorney-General and the Auditor-General, resulting from such investigations.

(vii). The Commission reports annually to parliament on its performance.

LIMITATIONS OF THE COMMISSION HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE

JUSTICE (CHRA.1)
(i). First, the commission has no power to investigate any matter which is pending before a court
or judicial tribunal.

(ii). Secondly, the commission is not allowed to investigate any matter involving the relations or
dealings between the government of Ghana and any other government or international
organization.

(iii). Thirdly, the commission is not allowed by the constitution to investigate a matter relating to
the exercise of the prerogative of mercy.

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE)

The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) was established by an Act of parliament
within six months after parliament first met after the coming into force of the 1992 Constitution.

COMPOSITION
The Commission consists of a Chairman, two Deputy Chairmen and four other members.
Members of the Commission are appointed by the President acting on the advice of the Council
of State.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE)

(i). The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) creates and sustains within the
society the awareness of the principles and objectives of the constitution as the fundamental law
of the people of Ghana.

(ii). The Commission educates and encourages the poblic at all times against all forms of abuse
and violations.

(iii). The Commission formulates for the consideration the Government, time to time,
programmes at the national, and district levels aimed at realizing the objective of the
constitution.

(iv). The Commission formulates, implement and oversee programs intended to inculcate in the
citizens of Ghana awareness of their civic responsibilities and appreciation of their rights and
obligations as free people.

ENTRENCHED PROVISIONS OF THE 1992 CONSTITUTION

The Territories of Ghana, The Constitution, Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms, The
Executives, The Legislature, The Judiciary, Freedom and Independence of the Media, Finance
i.e; Taxation and Office of the Auditor General.

PROCEDURE FOR AMENDING THE ENTRENCHED PROVISIONS OF THE 1992

CONSTITUTION OF GHANA
(i). A bill for the amendment of entrenched provision shall, before parliament proceed to
consider it, be referred by the Speaker to the Council of State for its advice and the Council of
State shall render advice on the bill within thirty days after receiving it.

(ii). The bill shall be published in the Gazette but shall not be introduced into parliament until the
expiry of six months after the publication in the Gazette.

(iii). After the bill has been read the first time in parliament, it shall not be proceeded with
further unless it has been submitted to a referendum held throughout Ghana and at least forty
percent (40%) of the persons entitled to vote, voted at the referendum and at least seventy-five
percent (75%) of the persons voted cast their vote in favour of the passing of the bill.

(iv). Where the bill is approved at the referendum, parliament shall pass it.

(v). Where the bill has been passed by parliament, the president shall assent to it.
THE 1992 GENERAL ELECTIONS
On the of November, 1992 another general election was held in Ghana to elect the president of
Ghana. The election was conducted under the Chairmanship, of Mr. Kwadwo Afari Gyan, the
electoral commissioner. The parties that contested the elections were as follows:

(a). National Democratic Congress (NDC) led by Fit Li Jerry John Rawlings.
(b). New Patriotic Party (NPP) led by Professor Albert Adu Boahen.
(c). The People’s National Convention (PNC) led by Dr. Huila Limann.
(d). The People’s Heritage Party (PHP) led by General Emmanuel Erskine.
(e). The National Independence Party (NIP) led by Mr. Kwabena Darko.

RESULTS OF THE 1992 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS

Results of the elections Were as follows:
National Democratic Congress (NDC) led by Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings obtained 2,323,135 out
of the 4,127,876,100 vote cast representing 58.4%, the New Patriotic Party (NPP) led by
Professor Albert Adu Boahen obtained 1,204,764 representing 30.3%, The People’s National
Convention (PNC) led by Dr. Hilla Limann obtained 266,710 representing 6.7%, The National
Independence Party (NIP) led by Mr. Kwabena Darko obtained 113,629 representing 2.9% and
The Peoples Heritage Party (PHP) led by General Emmanuel Erskine obtained 69,827
represensing 1.8%. The number of invalid votes was 149,811 and the voter turn-out
4,127,876,100 representing 52%.
Based on the results, the NDC’s presidential candidate Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings declared the
winner and was sworn in on the 7th January, 1993.

THE 1992 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS

It must be noted that most of the opposition parties especially, the New Patriotic Party (NPP)
claimed that the presidential election was fraudulent and therefore boycotted the parliamentary
election. The parliamentary election was held on 29th December, 1992. In all 200 seats were
contested for by the remaining parties.
The results of the parliamentary elections were as follows:

Party Seats Won Percentage

NDC 189 77.5%
NCP 8 19.2%
Every Ghanaian Living Everywhere 1 0.5%
Independent 2 2.7%

REASONS FOR THE ELECTORAL SUCCESS OF NDC IN 1992

(i). Incumbency advantage — The NDC being off shoot of the Provisional National Defence
Council (PNDC) enjoyed gait Willies the NDC benefited immensely from the state machinery
and resources while its opponents had limited resources. For instance, state funds made available
for the provision of pipe borne water, electricity and construction of roads in areas where the
party lacked electoral support to influence voters in those areas to vote massively for J.J
Rawlings, the party’s presidential candidate.

(ii). Good campaign strategies of the NDC: The NDC adopted effective campaign strategies
in canvassing for support. The most notable among them was the timing of the commissioning of
development projects actors the country to coincide with the electioneering campaign. This
strategy was adorned to assure the electorate that the NDC was a development-oriented party.
Again, the party concentrated its campaigns in the rural areas where they got a lot of voters
rallying behind the party.

(iii). The good financial status of the party: Through financial contributions from members,
fundraising activities and sale of party souvenirs, the NDC obtained good financial resources to
assist them to embark on effective campaign which accounted for their success.

(iv). The NDC enjoyed enormous grass root support: The enjoyed enormous support among
the grassroots who perceived the party as a mass party dedicated to the cause of the ordinary
people.

(v). The charismatic personality of Rawlings: Rawlings’ charismatic personality completely

overshadowed the other Presidential candidates. He had a charming and captivating personality
that endeared him to the masses. His power of oratory also made him win the hearts of the
masses, hence they voted massively for the NDC.

(vi). The establishment of institutional structures: The establishment of certain institutional

structures by the PNDC benefited the NDC during the campaigns e.g. the Committees for the
Defence of the Revolution (CDR’S), the 31st December Women’s Movement etc.

(vii). Effective leadership of the Party: The party had a strong and effective leadership which
contributed to its electoral success.

(viii). The appealing nature of the Party’s manifesto: The party’s manifesto was more
appealing to many voters in terms of social justice and equity in the distribution of the national
resources.

(ix). Effective organization of the Party: The NBC was well organized than the other opposition
parties. Rawlings and the foot soldiers of NDC devoted their whole time and energy to politics
and considered it as a vocation. The leadership of the NIX’ toured every nook and corner of the
country to establish branches of the party e.g. training of party agents and grassroots
mobilization.

(x). Unity and cohesion within the party: The leaders of the party instilled a sense of unity,
cohesion and discipline among its members which contributed to their success.

TRIAL QUESTIONS

Q1- Highlight six ways by which the president relates to parliament under
the 1992 Constitution of Ghana. Q2. Outline any six functions of the Commission on
Human Rights and

Administrative Justice under the 1992 Republican Constitution of Ghana. Q3. Outline
six provisions made for Independence of the Judiciary under

the 1992 Constitution of Ghana (WASSCE NOV/DEC 2010, Q11). Q4. Highlight six
main features of the 1992 Republican Constitution of

Ghana. Q5. Outline five functions of the legislature under the 1992 constitution of

Ghana Q6. Outline five functions of the legislature under the 1992 constitution of

Ghana Highlight five limitatons of the President under the 1992 constitution

of Ghana Q8. Highlight five limitatons of the Legislature under the 1992 constitution

of Ghana

500 Onetouch GOVERNMENT FOR S H

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATIONS (UNO)

BACKGROUND OR HISTORY OF THE UNO

The United Nations Organization was formed on 24th October, 1945 at San Francisco to replace
the League of Nations which failed to achieve world peace. From 25th April to 26th June 1945, a
total of 50 countries met in San Francisco to draw the charter of the United Nations. The charter
was signed on the 2611 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland which was
not represented at the conference signed it later and became one of the original member states.
The United Nations officially came into existence on the 24th October, 1945 after the charter had
been ratified by a majority of the signatories. Examples of countries that drew up the charter in
1945 include Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, United Kingdom, USA, France, Iraq etc.
The name United Nations was coined by American president Franklin D. Roosevelt. The United
Nations has its headquarters (office) in Manhattan, New York City. With the addition of
Montenegro on 28th June, 2006 and Southern Sudan on 14th July. 2011, there are currently one
hundred and ninety three (193) member states. Ghana joined the United Nations on the 8th
March, 1957.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE UNITED NATIONS
The aims and objectives of the UN as set forth in the charter include:

(i). To maintain international (world) peace and security through the principle of collective
security. Maintenance of world (global) peace is the primary objective of UNO.

(ii). To develop friendly relations among nations based upon the principle of equality of nations,
large as well as small and the principle of self- determination for all people.

(iii). To promote international cooperation in order to solve international economic, social,

cultural and humanitarian problems.

(iv). To promote and encourage respect for human rights and freedoms in all countries of the
world.

RULES OR PRINCIPLES OF NEW MEMBERS

The United Nation’s charter spells out clearly four conditions needed for the admission of new
members. These include:

(i). The state seeking admission/ membership must be a sovereign independent state that is
transparently capable of enforcing its will within its territorial boundaries and can offer more
than a token resistance in the event of attack on its territory.

(ii). A sovereign state that has declared its intention to contribute to the maintenance of world
peace and security.

(iii). A sovereign state that accepts all the obligations of the United Nations charter and is
willing and capable of carrying out the obligation.

(iv). A sovereign state that is willing to comply with all the rules and regulations enshrined
(specified) in the charter

PRINCIPLES UPON WHICH THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION WAS

FOUNDED
(i). The United Nations Organization was founded to promote democratic principles through
observations of elections in member states, donation of electoral materials and discouragement
of military rule

(ii). Member states pledged to give assistance to the United Nations in any action it takes in
accordance with the charter and to refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the
organization is taking enforcement actions.

(iii). The organization is based on the principle of sovereign equality of member states
(iv). Members to fulfill the obligation they have assumed under the charter in good faith.

(v). All member states must settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a way
as not to endanger international peace and security.

(vi). The organization is to ensure that permanent members and non-permanent members of the
United Nations Organization do not act in any way that can be prejudicial to the maintenance of
international peace and security.

(vii). Military assistance should be provided by the organization in times of need

(viii). The member states are to refrain from threat or use of force in their internal relations in
any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations (UN).

THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations charter established six principal organs at its inception. These are:
(1). The General Assembly
(2). The Security Council
(3). The Economic and Social Council
(4). The Secretariat
(5). The International Court of Justice
(6). The Trusteeship Council

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

STATUS AND COMPOSITION

The General Assembly is one of the principal organs of the United Nations responsible for
deliberating (discussion) issues of the United Nations. The General Assembly is made up of five
(5) representatives of each member state which meet once every year in September. It may also
meet in emergency sessions at the request of the Security Council or by majority of the member
states.

Each member state has one vote. Decisions on important matters such as those on peace and
security, admission of new members and budgetary matters require a two thirds majority.
Decisions on other matters (minor matters) require a simple majority. At the beginning of every
session, the Assembly elects a president who holds office for the duration of the session. (ie.
between mid-September-mid December).

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

(i). It discusses or deliberates issues affecting world peace and security

(ii). The General Assembly has the power to admit new members into the United Nations on the
recommendations of the Security Council.

(iii). It discusses and approves the annual budget of the United Nations and apportions the
contributions among member states.

(iv). It makes recommendations for international-operation in other to foster the maintenance of

word peace and security through peaceful settlements of disputes among member states

(v). It discusses and approves the annual report from the other organs including Security
Council, Economic and Social Council etc and the specialized agencies like W.H.O, UNESCO.

(vi). It is empowered by the charter to discuss and make recommendations to the Security
Council on all matters covered by the charter or matters relating to the organs of the United
Nations.

(vii). It controls and coordinates the activities of the specialized agencies of the UN such as
W.H.O, UNESCO to ensure maximum attainment of results.

(viii). It elects the ten non-permanent members of the Security Council. The Assembly and the
Security Council elect the judges of the International Court of Justice.

(ix). The General Assembly appoints the Secretary General on the recommendations the Security
Council.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL

STATUS AND COMPOSITION

The Security Council consists of (fifteen) 15 members. It comprises five permanent members
and ten (10) non- permanent members who are elected to serve a two-year term. The
permanent members (veto powers) include USA, United Kingdom (Britain), France, China
and Russia. The five permanent members of the Security council of the United Nations
Organization enjoy the veto power as a means of maintaining world peace and security
collectively.

Decision of the council requires nine votes. But any one of the permanent members can veto an
important decision. This authority is known as the veto right of the great powers and as a result
the council is only effective when its members reach consensus.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL

(i). The Security Council is responsible for maintaining world peace and security and restoring
peace when conflict arises.

(ii). The Security Council has the power to determine what a threat to security is, determine how
the U.N should respond and to enforce decisions by ordering UN members to take certain
actions. The council can impose economic sanctions on recalcitrant states such as halting trade
with a country it considers an aggressor. For example, Iraq was sanctioned over her illegal
military occupation with Kuwait in 1990.

(iii). The Security Council considers the budget of the UN and recommends it to
the General Assembly for approval.

(iv). The General Assembly appoints the Secretary General on the recommendation of the
Security Council.

(v). It directs and supervises the contributions of soldiers and weapons by UN members for use
of the organization. The Security Council sends UN peacekeeping forces to help reduce tensions
in troubled areas, keeping opposing forces apart and create condition of calm in which peaceful
settlement of dispute may be sought.

(vi). The Council has the power to investigate any international dispute or situation which could
result into conflict. It may encourage disputing states to settle their differences through
negotiation, mediation or arbitration. It may refer legal disputes to the International Court of
Justice for consideration.

(vii). It adopts the policy of collective security to check countries which unduly would want to
open aggression on relatively weaker nations. Example, the Gulf war against Iraq invasion of
Kuwait in 1990.

(viii). It also takes decisions on matters relating to disarmament.

(ix). Again, new members are admitted and expelled (suspended) by the General Assembly on
the recommendation of the Security Council.

FUNCTIONS OF THE VETO POWERS IN THE SECURITY COUNCIL

(i). Encourages the permanent members to contribute more: The veto power in Security
Council serves to encourage the permanent members to contribute more in terms of finance
towards the maintenance of the UNO body.

(ii). Helps to check some radical decisions taken by the non- permanent members: The veto
power forestalls a situation where the majority of the non-permanent members would vote to
coerce the permanent members to undertake unpleasant tasks. As it is now, all the five
permanent members of the council, hereto referred to as the super powers, must agree to effect
the decision.

(iii). Helps to maintain world peace collectively: The veto power Spew maintain world peace
in that, a decision by a single member of the Permanent Members to do something that will
disturb world peace is nipped in die bud by the veto of other member (s). In this case, peace is
maintained in the world.

(iv). To take acceptable policies and actions of the UNO which require the use of military power
and personnel so that none of them will refuse to contribute.
THE SECRETARIAT
The secretariat of the United Nations is the administrative organ of the UN. The secretariat is
located in New York and is headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the General
Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The Secretary General serves for a
period of five (5) years and can be re-appointed based on his performance.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARIAT

(i). The secretariat is responsible for the day-day administration of the UN including preparing of
the agenda.

(ii). It is responsible for preparing the annual report of the UN

(iii).; It is responsible for preparing the annual budget of the UN

(iv). It administers peace keeping operation in any part of the world. Even though, it is the
Security Council that establishes the peace keeping operation in all parts of the world, it is the
secretariat that administers it.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL OF THE UNITED NATIONS (UN)

(i). The Secretary-General is the chief administrative executive of the United Nations (UN). He
is therefore responsible for ensuring the day-day administration of the organization.

(ii). He directs and controls the secretariat which is the administrative headquarters of the
organization.

(iii). He presents the annual report to the General Assembly.

(iv). He represents and presents address on behalf of the organization at other international
organizations like Commonwealth, OAU, Non-Aligned, etc.

(v). He acts as the secretary to the meetings of the organs.

(vi). He brings situations that threaten world peace and security to the attention of the Security
Council.

(vii). He is in charge of the organization’s property The Secretary-General has the organization’s
property at his disposal and charged with the responsibility of taking good care of the properties.

(viii). He appoints and directs members of the staff of the secretariat.

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the UN and is charged with
the responsibility of settling cases affecting only states. It was established in 1945. It has its
headquarters at Peace Palace in The Hague in Netherland (Holland). Out of the six organs, it is
the only one not located in New York (USA).
COMPOSITION AND STATUS
The International Court of Justice is made up of 15 independent, eminent and high moral
character judges with highest judicial qualification and experience. One of them serves as the
president. The judges are elected by the UN Security Council on the recommendation of the
General Assembly of the UN on the basis of their performance in their respective countries and
their reputation as jurists on the international scene. Each judge serves for a period of nine years
and can be reelected upon satisfactory performance. The official languages of the International
Court of Justice are English and French.

FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

(i). The International Court of Justice settles or mediates disputes among member states of the
UN. Example is the dispute between Nigeria and Cameroun over Bakassi Peninsula.

(ii). The court gives advisory opinions on legal issues referred to it by the various organs and
specialized agencies of the UN.

(iii). The International Court of Justice interprets international conventions, agreements or laws
and takes decisions on matters thereby making international law.

(iv). The Court determines the amount of reparation to be paid by a member in case of a breach
of international law.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)

The Economic and Social Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations
responsible for co-ordinating the activities of the UN in the fields health, education, cultural,
social and economics. The members of the Council serve for three years. Decisions of the
council are made by majority of the members.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSOC

(i). The Council is responsible for co-coordinating the work of the UN in the fields of health,
education, social, cultural and economics. It conducts research in these fields and submits its
report to the General Assembly for consideration.

(ii). The Council has the power to arrange international conferences to discuss matters affecting
the interest of member states.

(iii). The ECOSOC promotes the observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

(iv). It encourages co-operation among member states on matters relating to standard of living.

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
The United Nations Trusteeship Council (French: Le Conseil de tutelle des Nations unies). one
of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to help ensure that trust territories
were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and
security. The trust territories—most of them former mandates of the League of Nations or
territories taken from nations defeated at the end of World War II—have all now attained self-
government or independence, either as separate nations or by joining neighbouring independent
countries. The last was Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which
became a member state of the United Nations in December 1994.

HISTORY OF THE UN TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

The Trusteeship Council was formed in 1945 to oversee the decolonization of those dependent
territories that were to be placed under the international trusteeship system created by the United
Nations Charter as a successor to the League of Nations mandate system. Ultimately, eleven
territories were placed under trusteeship: seven in Africa and four in Oceania. Ten of the trust
territories had previously been League of Nations mandates; the eleventh was Italian Somaliland.

In March 1948, the United States proposed that the territory of Mandatory Palestine be Placed
under UN Trusteeship with the termination of the British in

May 1948. However, the US did not make an effort to implement this proposal, which became
moot with the declaration of the State Israel. Under the Charter, the Trusteeship Council was to
consist of an equal number of United Nations Member States administering trust territories and
non-administering trust states. Thus, the Council was to consist of (1) all U.N. members
administering territories, (2) the five permanent members of the Security Council, and (3) as
many other non-administering members as needed to equalize the number of administering and
non-administering members, elected by the United Nations General Assembly for renewable
three-year terms. Over time, as trust territories attained independence, the size and workload of
the Trusteeship Council was reduced and ultimately came to include only the five permanent
Security Council members (China, France, the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, the United
Kingdom. and the United States).

With the independence of Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. in
1994, there presently are no trust territories, leaving the Trusteeship Council without
responsibilities. (Since the Northern Mariana Islands was a part of the Trust Territory of the
Pacific Islands and became a of the USA in 1986, it is technically the only area to have not
joined as a part of another state or gained full independence as a sovereign nation.)

The Trusteeship Council was not assigned responsibility for colonial territories outside the
trusteeship system, although the Charter did establish the principle that member states were to
administer such territories in conformity with the best interests of their inhabitants.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF UN

Prevention of third world war- The most significant achievement of the United Nations
Organization (UNO) since its formation is the prevention of another World War. It has achieved
this through amicable settlements of disputes and peace keeping operations.

Decolonization of Africa: The United Nations has assisted many African Countries to gain
independence. Examples of countries that have received such assistance from the UN are Angola
and Namibia.
(iii) Forum for sharing ideas and grievances- The UN has provided a forum for countries to
meet to share ideas and grievances and to articulate their views on global issues.

(iv) Provision of grants and loans-The UN has been striving to promote a higher lent of
economic development in all countries around the world, in view of that the UN has been
working through various agencies like the Regional Economic Commissions such as Economic
Commission of Africa, World Rank and the International Monetary Fund by providing loans and
grants to member states.
(v) Peace —keeping- The UN has undertaken peace-keeping operations in war tone countries.
War tone countries like Sierra Leone and Liberia have benefited from the peace- keeping
operations of the UN

(vi) Improving the status of people: The UN has been working hard to improve the status of all
people, including refugees, in the areas of education, health, nutrition and social welfare through
agencies like United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). World Health
Organization (WHO) etc

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GHANA TOWARDS THE GROWTH OF THE UNITED

NATIONS (UN)
(1). Provision of high profile personnel for the UN staff: Ghana has been

providing high profile personnel to serve in the United Nation. For example, Mr. Quayson-
Sackey was the first Ghanaian to become the president of the United Nations General Assembly
in June 1962 and again in July 1963. He was elected as chairman of the United Nations
Committee on information in-Non-Self-Governing Territories in 1960 and as a second vice-
chairman of the Governing Council of the United Nations Special Fund. Again, Mr. Kofi Annan
became the Secretary General of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. Kofi Annan became the
first black African to hold the position of UN Secretary-General.

(ii) Financial contributions: Ghana pays her dues regularly to the United Nations. These dues
paid by member states enable the UN to carry its programmes and policies.

(iii) Contribution of troops: Ghana is a major contributor of troops for UN peace-keeping

operations. For example, Ghana assisted the UN with troops
to undertake peacekeeping operations in War torn countries like Lebanon, Sierra Leone and
Liberia.

(iv) Giving of humanitarian assistance to suns of states: Ghana gives humanitarian assistance
to citizens of UN states base been displaced as a result of wars. E.g. Provision of Refugee Camps
such as Buduburam camp to accommodate the refugees from Liberia.

(v) Attending UN summits: Ghana attends the United Nations General Assembly summit
regularly.

(vi) Participating in UN activities: Ghana has been participating in UN sponsored

activities like attending General Assembly meetings, promoting democracy, promoting disaster
management etc.

(vii). Hosting of LINO agencies and diplomats who visit Ghana.

FACTORS THAT MAKE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION A USEFUL

INTERNATIONAL BODY
(i) Prevention of a Third World War: The United Nations (UN) has been able

to prevent the outbreak of a Third World War by maintaining World peace and security.
(ii) Provision of forum for articulation of views: UN has provided a forum for

states to articulate their views on world issues.

(iii). Promotion and observance of Fundamental Human Rights: UN promotes

and ensures the observance of Fundamental Human Rights in member states.

(iv). Catering for refugees: UN caters for refugees and offers relief items to victims

of wars and disasters through the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

(v) Decolonization of Africa: The United Nations has assisted many African

countries to gain independence. Examples of countries that have received such assistance from
the UN are Angola and Namibia.

(vi). Promoting economic development: The UN promotes economic development

through the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Member states sometimes
receive loans and grants from these financial institutions to promote their economic
development.
(vii) Providing technical assistance: UN gives technical assistance through its specialized
agencies.
(vii). Improving the status of people: The United Nations has been striving to

improve the status of all people, including refugees, in the areas health, nutrition and social
welfare through agencies like United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF). World Health Organization (WHO) etc
(ix). Undertaking research: UN undertakes research into causes of communicable

diseases and makes findings available to member countries e.g. HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis etc
Undertaken peace keeping operations: UN undertakes peace -keeping

operations in war-torn countries such as Sierra Leone.

ROLES OF UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION IN IMPROVING THE SOCIO-

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF GHANA
(i). Assisting in Educational Sector: The United Nations has been assisting

Ghana in Education Sector through the United Nations International Children’s Emergency
Fund, (UNICEF) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), etc
(ii) Collaborating in developmental projects: The UN has been collaborating

with Ghana in developmental projects through the United Nations Development Programmes
(UNDP).
(iii). Provision of essential service: The UN has been providing Ghana with

essential services such as water projects.

(iv). Provision of advice: The UN has been assisting Ghana in areas of micro

and macro-economic policies through provision of advice on economic mismanagement.

(v). Promotion of medical health services: The UN has been promoting medical

health services in Ghana through the World Health Organization (WHO).

(vi). Provision of grants and loans: The UN has been providing Ghana with

loans and grants through the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

(vii). Promotion of democracy: The UN has been promoting democracy in Ghana

through monitoring of elections.

...
(viii) Supporting the Agricultural sector: The UN has been supporting the Agricultural sector
of Ghana through the and Agricultural Organization (FAO)

(ix) The UN has been assisting Ghana in disaster management.

WEAKNESSES/CHALLENGES/FAILURES OR PROBLEMS FACING THE UN

(i). The use of the veto power by the five permanent members: The use of the veto powers
by the permanent members of the Security tends to delay decisions of the UN. It makes it
difficult for the UN to take quick decisions on issues such as terrorism and disarmament since all
the five veto powers have to reach a consensus before such decisions arc taken.

(ii) Financial Problems/Inadequate funds/Financial constraints: The failure and inability of

many member states to pay their dues to the UN antes financial difficulties for the organization.
The UN is unable to generate sufficient funds for its operations. The financial problems derail
the organization from achieving its numerous goals.

(iii). Ideological differences/rivalry: Ideological differences and vast disparity in the level of
technology and development of member states also constitute a problem. For instance, it is not
easy to secure agreement between countries with capitalist persuasions and those with socialist
or communist persuasions.

(iv). Lack of effective coercive powers to enforce its decisions: UN lacks effective coercive
powers to enforce its decisions and sanctions against member states that go contrary to the
organization’s charter. It most at times resort to persuasion in its effort to implement its
decisions, though it applies force occasionally. Lack of sufficient power and machinery to
enforce resolutions has rendered the organization into a toothless bull-dog.

(v). The principle of non — interference: The principle of non-interference in internal affairs
of member states renders the enforcement of UN resolutions ineffective. The adherence to this
principle has made the UN ineffective in taking concrete decisions and actions. Some of these
internal conflicts may result into international conflicts but the UN may find it difficult to deal
with them.

(vi). Inability to resolve conflict: Another problem facing the United Nations is its inability to
resolve certain conflicts amicably among some member states. The despicable violations of
sovereignty and territorial integrity of member- nations, existence of wars testify to UNO’s
inability to maintain peace. A good example is the conflict between Israel and Palestine.

(vii). Poverty: UN has not been able to effectively address the issue of poverty among member
states. Extreme poverty persists in many parts of the world, despite the fact that world gross
domestic product has increased by roughly 60 per cent since 1992.

(viii). Lack of standing Army/military force/military high command: United Nations

Organization (LINO) has no standing army to enforce its decisions. In times of war, UN
depends on the willingness of member countries to assist the organization with their troops to
restore peace. Lack of standing army makes the organization to make use of the peace keeping
force that comprises troops with diverse training and discipline which affects their efficiency and
effectiveness.

(ix). Problem of disarmament: United Nations Organization (UNO) has failed to find a solution
to arms build-up and race for arms production among the big powers of USA, Russia, Britain and
France. For example, the UN has not been able to bring the arm proliferation of North Korea
under control.

(x). Unwillingness of member states to surrender their sovereignty: Many member states of
the United Nations Organization are unwilling to surrender their sovereignty in the interest of a
world international body.

(xi). The problem of inequality among member states: Economic inequality among member
states of UN possess a challenge to the organization. Some member states of the United Nations
Organization such as United States of America, Britain, and China etc. are more developed than
others. During decision making, these developed countries sometimes try to lord over the
developing countries.

(xii). Challenges of Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: UN faces a challenge of biosecurity. That

is, UN has not been able to come out with measures to stop the spread or introduction of harmful
organisms to humans, animals and plant life. Bioterrorism is also a challenge to the organization.
Bioterrorism involves the intentional release of biological agents such as bacteria, virus, insects
and fungi to certain parts of the world. A lot of people have died and some are still suffering as a
result of biosecurity and bioterrorism.

(xiii). Confronting transnational organized crimes: Transnational crimes are crimes that have
actual or potential effect across national borders and crimes that are intrastate but offend
fundamental values of the international community. The United Nations Organization has not
been able to eradicate completely transnational crimes such as sex slavery, cybercrime, terrorism
offences, human trafficking, people smuggling, trafficking of goods (Such as arms trafficking
and drug trafficking and illegal animal and plant products and other goods prohibited on
environmental grounds such as banned ozone depleting substances)

Trial Questions.
QI. DL-scribe the composition and functions of the Security Council of the

United Nations Organization (UNO) Q2. What problems do the UNO in the search for
world peace face? Q3. Describe the composition and functions of the General Assembly of

UNO Q4. Highlight six achievements of the United Nations Organization since

its creation in 1945. Q5. Identify six factors that make the United Nations Organization a

useful international body (WASSSCE 2011, Q12) Q6. Highlight six weaknesses of the
United Nations Organization

(WASSSCE MAY/JUNE 2009) Highlight six contributions of Ghana towards the

development of UN. Q8. Highlight six roles being played by the UN in improving the Socio

Economic development of Ghana.

THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

The Economic Community of West African states (ECOWAS) is an economic union of West
African states formed on 28th May, 1975. The treaty of the union was originally signed in Lagos
by 15 countries but Cape Verde signed it later as the member state of ECOWAS. The
Economic Community of West A.frican states (ECOWAS) has its headquarters at Abuja in
Nigeria. The two countries that jointly promoted the formation of ECOWAS are Nigeria and
Toga Former Nigerian president Yakubu Gowon and Togo president, the late Cnasingbe
Eyadema initiated the formation of the sub-regional economic grouping. Mauritania was once
a member of ECOWAS but in December 1999, it withdrew from ECOWAS because of
conflicting decisions that were made during the summit lowering the number of member states
back to fifteen (15). The member states are grouped as follow:

Ghana, The Gambia, Nigeria, Liberia and Sierra Leone are the English speaking countries
(Anglophone countries) , Senegal, Mali, Togo, Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Niger, Guinea and
Benin Republic are the French speaking countries(Francophone countries), Guinea Bissau and
Cape Verde are the Portuguese speaking countries (Lusophone countries).

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF ECOWAS

(i). Promoting co-operation and development: ECOWAS aims at promoting co-operation,

integration and development to raise the living standards of its people and to maintain and
enhance economic stability, foster relations among member states and contribute to the progress
and development of the African continent.

(ii). Abolition of trade barriers: ECOWAS aims at abolishing trade barriers to ensure free
movement of goods, persons and services among member states. ECOWAS aims at promoting
liberalization of trade by the abolition among member states, of customs duties levied on imports
and exports and the abolition among member states, of non-tariff barriers in order to establish
free trade area at the community level

(iii). Establishing common external custom tariffs: ECOWAS aims at establishing common
external custom tariffs on import and export among member countries.

(iv). Harmonizing Agricultural policies: ECOWAS aims at harmonizing Agricultural policies

and to promote common projects in member states notably in the field of marketing, research and
agro-industrial enterprises.
(v). Implementation of joint infrastructural ventures: The Community aims at establishing
joint infrastructural projects/schemes in the fields of transport and communications and energy
requirements.

(vi). Harmonizing the resources of member states for development: ECOWAS aims at
harmonizing the resources of member states for development in the subregion. The secretariat
will work towards harmonizing Industrial, Agricultural and Mining policies

(vii). Establishing a common fund: ECOWAS aims at establishing a common fund for co-
operation, compensation and development.

(viii). Peacekeeping: ECOWAS also aims at ensuring peacekeeping in the sub- region. It must
serve as a peacekeeping in the region.

(ix). Harmonizing economic and industrial policies: ECOWAS aims at harmonizing the
economic and industrial policies d member states and eliminate disparity in the levels of
development member states.

INSTITUTIONS OF ECOWAS
The ECOWAS treaty established these institutions:
(1). The Authority of Heads of States and Government
(2). The Council of Ministers
(3). The Executive Secretary (now the commission)
(4). The Community Tribunal
(5). The ECOWAS Parliament
(6). The Technical Specialized Commission

THE AUTHORITY OF HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The Authority of Heads of States and Government is the supreme institution of the community.
It is made up of sixteen Heads of States and Government of member states. It meets at least
once a year in ordinary session. An extraordinary session may be convened by the chairman or at
the request of a member state provided such request is supported by a simple majority of the
member states. The Authority is headed by a chairman who holds office for only one year.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

(i). The Authority of Heads of States and Government is responsible for the general direction and
control of the general work of the organization. The Authority of Heads of States and
Government determines the general policy direction and control of the community, gives
directives, harmonizes and coordinates the economic, scientific, technical, cultural and social
policies of member states.

(ii). The Authority of Heads of States and Government appoints the External Auditors of the
community on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers.
(iii). It considers the ECOWAS annual report and the report of the other organs.

(iv). It is responsible for the appointment of the president of the ECOWAS commission
(formerly Executive Secretary) in accordance with the provisions of Article 18 of ECOWAS
treaty

(v). It approves proposals initiated for the amendment of the charter establishing the community.

(vi). The Authority of Heads of States and Government oversees the functioning of community
institutions and follow-up implementation of the community objectives.

(vii). The Authority of Heads of States and Government refers where it deems necessary any
matter to the community Court of Justice when it confirms that a member state or institution of
the community has acted beyond its limits of its authority or has abused the powers conferred on
it by the provisions of the treaty.

(viii). The Authority of Heads of States and Government by its decisions or a regulation of the
Council of ministers may request the community Court of Justice as and when necessary to give
advisory opinion on any legal question.

THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

COMPOSITION AND STATUS

The Council of Ministers comprises the minister in charge of ECOWAS Affairs and any other
minister of each member state. The Council meets at least twice a year in ordinary session. One
of such sessions shall precede the ordinary session of the community. An extraordinary session
may be convened by the chairman of the Council or at the request of a member state provided
that such request is supported by a simple majority of the member states. The office of the
chairman of the Council is held by the minister responsible for ECOWAS Affairs of the member
state elected as chairman of the Authority.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

(i). The Council of Ministers approves the work programmes and budgets of the community and
its institutions.

(ii). The Council of Ministers appoints all statutory appointees other than the Executive
secretary.

(iii). By the powers delegated to it by the Authority Heads of States and Government, the
Council issue directives on matters concerning coordination and harmonization of economic
integration policies.

(iv). The Council of Ministers makes recommendations to the Authority of Heads of States and
Government on the appointment of External Auditors

(v). The Council makes recommendations to the Authority of heads of States and Government on
any action aimed at attaining the objectives of the community.

(vi). The Council adopts the Staff Regulations and approves the organizational structure of the
institution of the community.

(vii). It may request the community Court of Justice, where necessary to give advisory opinion
on any legal question.

(viii). It also carries other functions assigned to it under the ECOWAS Treaty and exercises all
powers delegated to it by the Authority.

THE COMMUNITY TRIBUNAL

The ECOWAS Treaty provides for a community tribunal, whose composition and competence
are determined by the Conference of Heads of States and Government

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

The Community Tribunal interprets the provision of the treaty and settles disputes between
member states that are referred to it.

THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT (NOW THE ECOWAS COMMISSION)

The Executive Secretariat (now the ECOWAS Commission) is the administrative organ of the
ECOWAS. The executive secretariat has been changed into a nine-member commission headed
by a president. The president is assisted by a vice president and seven commissioners. The
members hold office for a four-year term and can be reappointed only once for another four- year
term. The president is appointed by the Authority of Head of State and Government. The vice
president and the seven commissioners are appointed by the Council of Ministers. The
commission is located at Abuja in Nigeria.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE COMMISSION (EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT)

(i). It is responsible for carrying out the day-day administration of the community.

(ii). It is responsible for preparing agenda for the meeting of the Council of Ministers. The
commission prepares what will be discussed bean the meet.

(iii). It prepares the budget of the commission. It also receives the contributions of members.

(iv). It prepares and submits periodic reports on the work of the secretariat to the Council of
Ministers. It is responsible for implementing all decisions of the Authority of Heads of States.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY (NOW PRESIDENT

OF ECOWAS COMMISSION)

(i). He is the chief administrative executive of ECOWAS and is therefore responsible for
carrying out the day-day administration of the community.

(ii). He is responsible for preparing agenda for the meeting of the Council of Ministers. The
Executive Secretary (president of the ECOWAS Commission) prepares what will be discussed
before the commission meets.

(iii). He prepares the annual budget of the community. He also receives the contributions of
members.

(iv). He prepares and submits periodic reports on the work of the secretariat to the council of
ministers. He is responsible for implementing all decisions of the Authority of Heads of States.

(v). He coordinates and harmonizes the activities of the Community.

(vi). He is in charge of the properties of the community. The Executive secretary now the
president of the ECOWAS Commission is mandated to take care of all the community
properties.

(vii). He appoints and directs members of staff of the Secretariat.

SPECIALIZED COMMISSIONS
Specialized Technical Commissions established within the Community of West African States
include; Food and Agriculture; Industry, Science and Technology and energy; Environment and
Natural Resources; Transport, Communication and Tourism; Trade, Customs, Taxation,
Statistics, Money and Payments; Political. Judicial and Legal Affairs; Regional Security
integration; and the Administrative and Finance Commission.

Each Commission comprises representatives of each member state.

BENEFITS EXPECTED FROM ECOWAS

Member states of EOUWAS expect to derive a number of benefits from the community. These
include:

(i). Creation of large market: The size In many West African states is small due to the small
population and the low- income level, the existence of ECOWAS is expected to provide mental
states with an expanded market within the West African sub-region fix produced by the member
states. Economic co-operation will create a market of 160 million consumers. The expansion of
the market will boost industrialization in the member states. The member states would produce
on large scale and therefore enjoy economies of scale.

(ii). Free trade: The existence of ECOWAS will help member countries to benefit from free
trade in the sub-region. The abolition of tariffs in the sub region will pave way for the flow of
different commodities and services into the markets of member states. What cannot be produced
in one country can be obtained from another country without much difficulty at relatively cheap
prices. For example, Ghana could sell her hydro-electric power and her edible salt to member
states on soft terms.

(iii). Reducing imports: By depending on goods from member countries. West African States
will reduce the over-dependence on imports from developed economies. The money which could
be used to purchase import goods from these developed countries would remain in the sub-
region.

(iv). Creation of jobs: The increase in the size of the market as a result of setting up large scale
industries would result in the creation of jobs which would help reduce unemployment rate in
West African sub-regions.

(v). Embarking on common economic activities: Member states of ECOWAS can pool their
resources together to undertake common projects for the benefit of all the states. A good example
is the West African Gas Pipe Line involving Ghana, Nigeria, Togo and Benin.

(vi). Uniform pricing system: The existence of ECOWAS could help member states to adopt a
common basis for determining the price of their exportable goods. This could result in the
standardization of the prices of similar goods by member states,

(vii). Closer ties: All the people of West Africa will form closer ties. This will make them feel
that they are part of one big family. It will also help to reduce the ill treatment meted out to
citizens or other countries of the community. No West African will feel like a stranger in any
part of West Africa.

(viii). Attraction of foreign investors: More foreign investors are likely to be attracted to the
production sectors of the community such as Agriculture, Mining exploitation. By coming
together. trade will flourish which will attract investors.

(ix). Political advantage: Member states of the community can present one voice on
international fora and that could make their views more respected.

(x). Common currency: The intention of member states of ECOWAS to adopt a common
currency called Eco will facilitate financial transactions among member states and help promote
trade in the sub-region.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GHANA TOWARDS THE GROWTH OF THE ECONOMIC

COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS).
The contributions of Ghana towards the growth of the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS) include:
(i). Contribution of troops to ECOMOG: Ghana is a major contributor of troops for ECOWAS
peace -keeping in Liberia and Sierra Leone

(ii). Financial contributions: Ghana pays her dues regularly to both the secretariat and the
ECOWAS Fund. Dues paid by member states enable the Community embark on effective
programmes.

(iii) Participation in ECOWAS activities: Ghana has been actively participating in ECOWAS
-sponsored activities like ECOWAS Trade fair, etc.

(iv). Attending ECOWAS summits: Ghana attends ECOWAS summits regularly.

(v). Giving of humanitarian assistance to citizens of ECOWAS States: Ghana gives
humanitarian assistance to citizens of ECOWAS States who have been displaced as a result of
wars e.g. provision of Refugee Camps like Buduburam camp.

(vi). Implementation of ECOWAS protocols: Ghana has been implementing ECOWAS

protocols such as protocols on Democracy and good governance, protocols on the fight against
corruption etc.

(vii). Provision of high profile personnel for the ECOWAS staff: Ghana has been providing
high-profile personnel for the ECOWAS staff since its inception. E.g. Dr. Mohammed lbn-
Chambas.

(viii). Provision of chairmen for ECOWS: Ghana’s Heads of states such as Jerry John
Rawlings and J. A Kufour have served as chairmen of ECOWAS.

(ix). Hosting ECOWAS summits and conferences: Ghana contributes to the development of
ECOWAS by hosting ECOWAS summits and conferences.

(x). Ghana’s membership of ECOWAS parliament enables it to contribute to sub-regional issues.

(xi). Supported in the formation of ECOWAS: Ghana played an active role in the formation of
ECOWAS as well as being an initial signatory to the Lagos treaty.

WAYS BY WHICH GHANA HAS BENEFITED FROM HER MEMBERSHIP OF THE

ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

(i). Creation of a larger market for Ghana: The Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) has created a larger market for the sale of goods produced in Ghana and vice versa.
Now Ghanaian companies like Ashfoam, Kasapreko and UT financial services to mention a few
have all opened branches in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. Again, Ghana exports its
edible salts to Nigeria. Besides, Ghana exports electricity to neighbouring ECOWAS countries
such as Togo and Burkina Faso which provides foreign exchange to Ghana.

(ii). Creation of jobs: ECOWAS has created job opportunities for some Ghanaians. Some
Ghanaian citizens are employed by the Economic Community of West African States to serve in
various capacities. For example. Dr, Mohammed Ibn Chambas was employed to serve as the
Executive Secretary of ECOWAS. The expansion in production of goods for export to the sub-
region has also created jobs for many Ghanaian citizens.

(iii). Free movement of Ghanaians and goods in the sub-region: ECOWAS has helped
facilitate the free movement of Ghanaians and goods to other member states. Member states have
waived Visa requirements for citizens of ECOWAS countries so Ghanaian citizens who intend to
travel to any ECOWAS state and stay there for ninety (90) days can do so. This has to some
extent eased the hustle associated with travelling across the boarders surrounding Ghana.

(iv). Sports and Culture benefit: Ghana has benefited from the sporting and cultural activities
of the organization. The West African Football Union (WAFU) organizes the WA FU Nations
cup that is contested by representative teams of the West African Football Union. A lot of
Ghanaian participants through these games have been able to unearth their talents

(v). Financial benefit A good number of Ghanaian soldiers served in ECOWAS mission in both
Sierra Leone and Liberia who returned home with a lot of experience and financial benefits.
Again, with the establishment of ECOWAS Bank (ECOBANK), Ghana has been obtaining
financial assistance from the organization.

(vi). Benefits derived from hosting ECOWAS meetings in Ghana: Ghana has benefited from
hosting ECOWAS Heads of Government and States meeting in Ghana. Hotel operators gain
much during such meetings which has been contributing to boost the economy of Ghana.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATE

(ECOWAS)
(i). Free movement of people and goods: The Economic Community of West African State
(ECOWAS) has succeeded in removing barriers impeding the free movement of people, goods
and services and to a large extent facilitate regional trade among the West African countries.
There is now free movement of the citizens across the borders of member states, the protocol of
free movement. Member states have waived visa requirements (visa-free movement) for citizens
of ECOWAS countries who intend to travel to other ECOWAS countries and stay there for up to
ninety days.

(ii). Establishment of ECOWAS Bank: The Community has succeeded in establishing its own
bank known as the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) located in Lome-
Togo. The Bank emerged as a banking group after the transformation of the erstwhile Fund for
Cooperation, Compensation and Development of the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS Fund). The ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) aims to
contribute to the economic development of West Africa through the financing of ECOWAS
projects and programmes in particular, those related to energy, telecommunications, poverty
alleviation, the environment and natural resources. The Bank intervenes in the public sector by
issuing direct, medium and long-term concessionary or non-concessionary loans; and in the
private sector by issuing direct, short term, medium and long -term loans. EBID also involved in
the financing of intra-regional trade to enhance trade among community member states. It
supports agriculture in order to enable community member states achieve food sufficiency.

(iii). Security, integration and peace (military achievement): The Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS) has achieved much in area of ensuring peace within the sub-
region. ECOWAS has succeeded in extending military assistance to member states facing
Internal crises to help restore peace in those countries. For example. the communty set up
ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in 1990 to assist in the search for peace in war —torn
Liberia.

(iv). Unity among member states: The establishment of ECOWAS has succeeded in creating a
measure of unity among the member states in the sub-region. The Community has succeeded in
bridging the divide between the Francophone and Anglophone countries. ECOWAS has
succeeded at fostering regional integration by launching the ECOWAS passport which has
facilitated regional movements between the West African Francophone and Anglophone
countries. The Community has achieved also integration among themselves through sporting
activities.

(v). Formulation of economic programmes: ECOWAS has established a number of joint

ventures for adoption by member states in order to bring some development to the sub-region.
For example, the community has established ECOWAS fund to provide financial assistance to
member states. It has also set a clearing House to streamline payment between member states. A
centre for monitoring studies has also been set up to research into specific problems within the
economies of member states.

(vi). Harmonization of transportation: With the establishment of ECOWAS, there is now a

greater co-operation and interaction among the countries in the sub region in the fields of
transportation. ECOWAS has contributed in the construction of highways linking major cities
across the region. The community has helped in sponsoring a number of roads. ECOWAS
sponsored the construction of two Trans West African Highways. These are a coastal road from
Lagos to Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania and a Sahelian road from Nouakchott to
Ndjadena with a branch to Lagos. Another example of such road network built by the ECOWAS
is the Lagos-Abidjan highway. The construction of these highways has made commuting of
people, goods and services much easier than before.

(vii). Energy and mining: With the world oil crises. the community has adopted an energy
programme which Involves energy efficiency and the use of natural gas (West African Gas Pipe
Line with Ghana, Benin, Togo and Nigeria as the participating countries), electric power grid
inter-connection and the pulling of resources for explorations.

(viii). Forum for sharing grievances: The Community has provided a forum for member states
to meet so as to share ideas and grievances of member states in the sub-region and find solutions
to them. The annual summit of the Economic Community of West African States has made
possible for the Heads of States within the sub-region to proffer solution towards the myriads of
problems confronting member states and the region at large.

(ix). Direct inter-communication Network: ECOWAS has done much in building a robust
regional telephone network. ECOWAS member states now have an effective and efficient
telephone network that directly connects all the African countries. Before the formation of
ECOWAS, there was no existence of telephone inter connectivity between the member states and
phones were basically routed first from Europe and connected to countries in West Africa.

CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS FACING ECOWAS

(i). Inadequate Funds/Financial constraints: The effectiveness of the institution of the
community to carry out their work largely depends on the funds or resources available to them.
Unfortunately, many member states are unable to pay their financial contribution (dues)
regularly and promptly to ECOWAS because of their own economic difficulties and the high
level of poverty. This hampers the implementation of approved programmes.

(ii). Restrictions on trade: The community has failed to eliminate restrictions on trade
completely among member states. Traders continue to experience considerable difficulty in the
hands of immigration and customs officers at the borders of the member states when crossing the
borders with their goods.

(iii). Language harrier/differences in language: Differences in language have greatly militated

against t
he efficient functioning of the community. Member states of ECOWAS have problem of
language whether for trading, education or for communication. Member states have French,
English or Portuguese as their official language. In trading, language problem might lead to
cheating in some cases. At meetings, money and time is wasted in getting translators and
translating equipment. This makes it difficult for people from French peaking West African
countries to associate themselves freely with people from English speaking West African
countries.

(iv). The issue of sovereignty and ideological differences: Many member states are unwilling
to surrender their sovereignty in the interest sub-regional integration. Besides, ideological
differences between states affairs or delay decision making at EC OWAS conferences. Whilst
some states believe in a capitalist ideology, other members believe in socialist ideology. This
makes it difficult for member states to blend their ideas to run the community.

(v). Political instability in member states: Despite all the effort put up by the community, there
is still the problem of political instability in the sub-region and this has undermined effort of
integration since member states are more concerned about their national survival than about
ECOWAS.

(vi). Absence of common currency: There is the absence of a common currency and the
difficulty of converting one currency to another to encourage trade in the sub-region. This derails
business and commercial transaction between member states.

(vii). Mistrust among member states: There is often distrust and misunderstanding among
member states. For example, in 1992 and 1993, Ghana and Togo accused each other of trying to
destabilize the other.

(viii). Inadequate human and material resources in some member states.

(ix). Border dispute: Border dispute still exist between member states which militate against the
effective functioning of the Community.

(x). Foreign interference: Foreign interference in the domestic affairs of member states also
derails the effectiveness of the Community.

•TRIAL QUESTIONS
QI• What have been the major problems of Economic Community OF

West African States (ECOWAS)? (SSSSCE, 199K; Q10, GOV’T) Q2• What benefits do
states derive from their membership of Economic

Community of West African states (ECOWAS)? (SSSSCE, 1997; Q10, GOV’T)

Q3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the economic

community of West African States (ECOWAS) to the member countries (SSSSCE, SOC ST.) 4.
What arc the economic effects of integration amongst West African countries? (SSSSCE,
SOC .ST) Q5. Assess the achievements of the Economic Community of West

African States (ECOWAS) (SSSSCE, SOC. ST) Q6. Describe the composition of the
Economics and Social Council of the United Nations organization and four of its functions
(SSSSCE 2005,

Q9) Q7.(a) Identify any three aims of the Economic Community of West African

States. (ECOWAS) b) Outline any three duties and functions of the Executive Secretary of

ECOWAS (WASSSCE MAY/JUNE 2007) Q8. Describe the composition and function of
the Authority of Heads of

State and Government Describe the composition and functions of the ECOWAS Commission
Q10. Outline any six contributions of Ghana towards the growth of

the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) (WASSSCE. NOV/DEC 2010,
Q12 AND WASSSCE MAY/JUNE 2010. and Q12)

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (NOW AFRICAN UNION)

The Organization of African Unity now (African Union) is a political union formed on 25th
May, 1963 in Addis Ababa. It has its headquarters in Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. The first
meeting of the Organization of African Unity was chaired by Emperor Halle Selassie.
Membership of OAU is open to all independent African states

PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE OAU

The AU charter has these principal organs/institutions:
(1). The Assembly of Heads of States and Government
(2). The Council of Ministers
(3). The General Secretariat
(4). The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.
(5). Specialized commission for co-operation in Economic, Social, Educational, Cultural, Health,
Defence and scientific matters.

EXAMPLES OF CHAIRPERSONS/CHAIRMEN OF OAU

Haile Selassie (Ethiopia) 25th May. 1963-17s July 1964 (First chairman)
Gamel Abdul Nasser (Egypt) July 1964-21st October 1965
Kwarne Nkrumah (Ghana) 21st October 1965-24th February 1966.
Joseph Arthur Ankrah (Ghana) 24th February, 1966-5th November 1966.
John Agyekum Kufour (Ghana) 30th January, 2007 to 31st January 2008
Yayi Boni (Benin) 29th January 2012-27th January 2013

AFRICAN UNION (AU)

The African Union (AU) is a political union consisting of 53 African states. The only all-African
state not in the AU is Morocco.

The African Union was established on 9th July, 2002 as a successor to the Organization of
African Unity (OAU).

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF AFRICAN UNION

(i). AU aims to promote peace, security and stability on the continent

(ii). To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.

(iii). To achieve unity and solidarity between the African countries and the people of Africa

(iv). To promote international cooperation within the framework of the United Nation. Thus, the
AU aims to encourage international cooperation, taking due account of the charter of the United
Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

(v). To accelerate political and social-economic integration of the continent.

(vi). To adopt coordinated position on matters of common concern to the continent in

international fora and defend the interest of Africa collectively.

ORGANS OF THE AFRICAN UNION

The constitutive Act of the African Union lists the main organs of the Union as;
(i). The Assembly of the Union
(ii). The Commission
iii). The Executive Council
(iv). The Pan-African Parliament
(v). The Court of Justice
(vi). The Permanent Representative Committees
(vii). The Economic, Social and Cultural Council
(viii). Financial institutions
(ix). Specialized Technical Committees
(x). Peace and Security Council
THE ASSEMBLY OF THE AFRICAN UNION
The Assembly of the African Union which was formerly known as the African Union Assembly
of Heads of State and Government is the supreme organ of the African Union.

The AU Assembly consists of Heads of State and Government or their duly accredited
representatives of member countries. The Assembly meets once a year at the AU summit.
Presently, the chairman of the Assembly is President Yayi Boni of Benin.

Decision of the Assembly is taken by consensus or failing which, by a two-thirds majority of the
member states of the Union. However, procedural matters, including question of whether a
matter is one of procedure or not, shall be decided by a simple majority. Two thirds of the total
membership of the Union’s Hall forms a quorum at any meeting of the Assembly.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY OF AFRICAN UNION

(i). The Assembly appoints the chairman of the AU Commission, Commissioners of the
Commission, all respective deputies and determine how long they will serve and what duties
they will perform.

(ii). The Assembly provides direction to the Executive Council on conflict, war and other
emergency situations and the restoration of peace.

(iii). The Assembly selects judges and withdraws judges of the Court of Justice.

(iv). The Assembly adopts the budget of the Union.

(v). The Assembly of the African Union monitors the implementation of policies and decisions
of the Union as well as ensuring compliance by all member states.

(vi). The Assembly considers membership request into the Union. Thus, they admit new
members into the Union. At the same time, recalcitrant members are all expelled from the union
by the Assembly.

(vii). The Assembly decides on what action to take after consideration of reports and
recommendations from the other organs of the union.

(viii). All major policies are formulated by the Assembly.

THE AFRICAN UNION COMMISSION (FORMERLY THE SECRETARIAT)

The Commission of the African Union acts as the administrative, executive or secretariat of the
AU. The Commission consists of a chairman, deputy chairperson, eight commissioners and staff
members.
The Commission has its headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FUNCTIONS OF THE AFRICAN UNION COMMISSION

(i). It arranges for meetings of the Union. This encompasses the meetings of the Executive
Council and the Assembly of the Union.

(ii). It prepares agenda for the meeting of the Executive Council. The commission meets and
outlines matters to be discussed by the Executive Council before they meet.

(iii). It is responsible for all correspondence of the Union. It keeps records, documents and files
of the organization.

(iv). It implements all decisions taken by the Assembly.

(v). It prepares the budget of the Union. It also receives contributions of member states.

(vi). It elaborates, promotes, coordinates and harmonizes the programmes and policies of the
Union with those of the Regional Economic Communities (REC) such as SADC.

(vii). The Commission of African Union submits reports requested by the Assembly, the Council
of Ministers and the Specialized Commissions.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CHAIRMAN OF AU COMMISSION (FORMERLY

SECRETARY GENERAL)
(i). Submitting reports: The Chairman of the Commission of the African Union submits reports
requested by the Assembly, the Council of Ministers and the Specialized Commissions.

(ii). Convening meetings: He convenes meetings of the Council of Ministers and of the
Assembly of Heads of State and Government.

(iii). Acting as the organization’s spokesman: The chairman of the Commission of the AU acts
as the organization’s spokesman at the International Fora.

(iv). Preparation of the organizations budget: He is chatted with the responsibility of

preparing the organization’s budget.

(v). Drawing up the provisional agenda: The chairman of the commission of AU is responsible
for the drawing up the provisional agenda for meetings and communicates to the member states

(vi). Consulting member states on internal issues: The chairman of the commission of AU
consults with member states on various internal issues affecting the continent.

(vii). Taking care of the organizations properties: He takes custody of the organization’s
property and records.

(viii). Submitting statement on payment of dues: The chairman of the commission of AU

submits to member states, a quarterly statement on payment of contributions and outstanding
contributions.
(ix). Directing the activities of the secretariat: He is responsible for the general direction of the
activities of the secretariat

PAN-AFRICAN PARLIAMENT
The Pan-African Parliament is the legislative body of the African Union. Initially, the seat of
Parliament was in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia but was later moved to Midrand, South Africa.

The Pan-African Parliament has 265 representatives that are elected by the legislatures of
member states rather than being elected in their own capacity.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PAN-AFRICAN PARLIAMENT

(i). The Pan-African Parliament is charged with the responsibility of letting the people of Africa
know what the AU objectives and policies are so that they might be able to integrate themselves
well while still working within the framework of the Union.

(ii). They see to it that the policies and programmes of AU are implemented.

(iii). They promote self-reliance and economic recovery so as to lead to a more prosperous future
for the people of Africa.

(iv). The Pan-African parliament estrus full of Altman peoples’ in governance, development and

(v). They strengthen a sense of solidarity and destiny among the people of Africa.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

The Executive Council of the African Union is made up of Foreign Ministers or such other
Ministers or Authorities designated by the governments of member states.

The Executive Council meets at least twice a year in ordinary session. It also meets in an extra-
ordinary session at the request of any member state and upon approval by two-thirds of all
member states. Decision of the Council is taken by consensus or, failing which, by two thirds
majority of the member states. However, procedural matters, including the question of whether a
matter is one of procedure or not, shall be decided by a simple majority. Two-thirds of the total
membership of the Union shall form a quorum at any meeting of the Executive Council.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

(i). The Executive Council considers issues referred to it, by the Assembly, the Commission or
the Representative Committee.

(ii). The Executive Council coordinates and takes decisions on policies in areas of common
interest to member states.

(iii). It monitors the implementation of the policies formulated by the Assembly.

(iv). It is empowered to elect the eight commissioners of AU Commission.

(v). The Executive Council may delegate any of its powers and functions to the Specialized
Technical Committees established under Article 14 of the Act.

WAYS IN WHICH MEMBERS STATES OF AFRICAN UNION (AU) COOPERATE

WITH ONE ANOTHER
(i). Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation and arbitration.
Example border disputes

(ii). Eradication of all forms of colonialism from the countries of West Africa.

(iii). Unreserved condemnation in all forms of political assassination as well as subversive

activities on the part of neighboring states or any other state

(iv). Taking collective decisions at international bodies such as United Nations Organization
(UNO)

(v). Educational, sports and cultural co-operation. A good example is African Cup of Nations

(vi). Provision of military aid and support for countries in need. Examples include Sierra Leone,
Liberia and Democratic Republic of Congo

(vii). Economic co-operation including joint projects and communication through agencies like
ADB, ECA, ECOWAS etc.

(viii). Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state

ACHIEVEMENTS OF AFRICAN UNION (AU)

(i). Conflict prevention and peaceful settlement of disputes: African Union (AU) has been
very instrumental in conflict prevention and peaceful settlement of violence in the continent
Through its Peace and Security Council, elections observations, the early warning system, the
Panel of wise, the Pan-African Panel of the wise and the Regional Economic Communities
(RECs), the African Union (AU) has influenced in challenging political situations in Africa,
preventing them from exploding into full- blown violence. The African Union contributed
immensely in saving civilians lives in African countries including Burundi. Kenya, Sudan.
Somalia and Ivory Coast. It has also contributed in changing the attitudes of many governments
in Africa from the culture of indifference to a new culture of caring about the African peace and
security as a whole.

(ii). United front at international fora: African Union has been helping the African groups in
the UN system and other international organizations to coordinate their actions, harmonize
positions whenever necessary and take a common position on pertinent global issues. To enable
the Africa Union to play its role effectively, the AU has established permanent representational
offices in the headquarters of the UN in New York, the World Trade Organization (WTO) in
Geneva, etc. The voice of Africa has now become relatively loud in major international
organizations because of the coordinating work of the African Union (AU).
(iii). Promotion of democracy and good governance: The African Union’s unique voluntary
“Peer Review Mechanism” by which individual member states agree to be assessed by a team of
experts drawn from other states is designed to encourage democracy and good governance. AU
observer missions are now sent as a matter of routine to cover elections in all member states, in
accordance with the African Charter on democracy, elections and good governance.

(iv). Provision of forum for sharing grievances: African Union (AU) has provided a forum
where African leaders meet to discuss and seek solutions to wave of the pertinent issues
confronting the continent.

(v). Promotion of international co-operation and world peace: African Union (AU) in
collaboration with other international organizations like United Nations (UN) has helped in
promoting international co-operation among the countries of the world which has contributed in
maintaining world peace.

(vi). Improvement in the quality of life of Africans: The African Union through its effort of
promoting economic integration at sub-regional and regional levels has contributed to the
development of the quality of life of the people of Africa.

PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES OF AFRICAN UNION

(i). Financial Constraints/Inadequate funds/financial problem: The African Union (AU) is
financially weak because a number of African states are reluctant or unable to pay their financial
contributions regularly and promptly due to their own economic hardships and high level of
poverty. This hampers the effectiveness of the Union in undertaking its numerous functions.

(ii). Ideological differences: Differences in ideologies among member states of the African
Union weaken its effectiveness. Whilst some states believe in a capitalist ideology, other
member states believe in socialist ideology. Ideological differences among member states
weaken the unity of the organization. It usually delays decision making of the union since the
two antagonistic groups would want the decision to be in their favor.

(iii). Political instability/ civil wars/intra and inter states conflicts: The AU has not been able
to achieve real political and economic unity on the African continent because of political
instability within member states. The continuous change of leadership especially through coup
d’etat r derails the effectiveness of the organization. Examples include the situations in Somalia,
Rwanda, Burundi and Liberia.

(iv). Divided loyalty/ membership of other international organizations: The African Union
(AU) is faced with a problem of divided loyalty. Most of the member states of the African Union
also belong to other international organizations or bodies such as Commonwealth, Organization
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), etc; and this makes it difficult them implement
certain decisions and policies that will affect their membership in other international
organizations.

(v). Absence of common language: Member states have English. French, Portuguese, and
Arabic etc as their official languages. This makes communication among member states difficult
and also hinders the development of a true sense of unity. Diversity of language. cultural and
traditions also constitute real obstacles to unity among the member states.

(vi). Allegiance to former colonial masters: Sonic member states still owe allegiance to their
former colonial masters. The absence of modern technology and capital in many member states
make many African states still rely on their colonial masters for financial support. This tendency
undermines African unity.

(vii). Lack of standing Army/Absence of African High Command: There is lack of standing
army to enforce political decisions of the organization. The African Union leaders have not been
able to form an African High Command (unified army). The Union has no standing Army to
solve major conflicts on the continent. The absence of a unified army protracted liberation
struggle in South Africa. Problem of refugees: The AU is faced with problem of refugees due to
numerous conflicts in the sub-region: A lot of people have been displaced and taking care of
their welfare has become a serious burden or challenge for the Union

(ix). Poverty, ignorance and disease: The AU has not been able to eradicate completely the
problem of poverty, ignorance and disease. Many member states of the African union are poor
and mostly depend on other external sources for even their basic needs such as food and shelter.
Diseases such as H1V/AIDS have also become a challenge to the union.

(x). The principle of non-interference: The principle of non-interference enshrined in the AU

charter, makes the Union impotent to check the excesses in member states.

(xi). Frequent boarder disputes: Boarder disputes exist between member states which
militate against effective functioning of the union. Examples include Ghana and Ivory Coast,
Ghana and Togo, Nigeria and Cameroon etc.

(xii) The issue of sovereignty: Many members slates are unwilling to sovereignty in the interest
for continental unity.

(xiii) Mistrust among member states: Constant mistrust among member states militates
against achieving a complete unity among African leaders. For example, in 1992 and 1993,
Ghana and Togo accused each destabilize the other of trying to destabilize the other.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GHANA TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT/GROWTF OF

AFRICAN UNION (AU)

(i) Provision of chairman for African Union: Ghana’s former president Joh Agyekum
Kufour became the chairman of African Union (AU) from 30 January 2007 to 31st January,
2008.

(ii) Contribution of troops: Ghana is a major contributor of troops for Africa Union (AU)
peace —keeping. Ghana’s troops contributed immensely in saving civilians lives in African
countries where civil wars emerged including Burundi, Kenya, Sudan, Somalia and Ivory Coast.
(iii) Financial contributions: Ghana pays her dues regularly to the African union. The payment
of dues enables the organization to carry out its numerous programs and policies effectively.

(iv) Participation in AU activities: Ghana has been actively participating in AU-sponsored

activities such as promoting sports and culture in the continent.

(v) Attending AU summits: Ghana attends AU summits regularly and has been contributing
immensely to the marching forward of the African Union (AU)

(vi) Giving of humanitarian assistance to citizens of AU States: Ghana give humanitarian

assistance to citizens of AU States who have been displaced a result of wars e.g. provision of
Refugee Camps like Bujumbura camp accommodate refugees.

(vii). Provision of high-profile personnel for the AU staff: Ghana has been providing high-
profile personnel for the AU staff since its inception. For example, United Nations Secretary
General Antonio Guterres on l0th December, 2018 announced the appointment of Ms. Hanna
Serwa Tenth of Ghana to serve as Special Representative to the African Union and Head he
United Nations Office to the African Union (UNOAU)

(viii) Hosting AU summits and conferences: Ghana contributes to the development of AU

by hosting AU summits and conferences. For example, Ghana hosted a three-day summit
of the African Union (the 9th summit of the Assembly of the African Union) in Accra,
Ghana’s capital in 2007 which was attended by more than 30 heads of state, including the
president of Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Again, the African Continental Free
Trade Area (Afefta) secretariat is located in Ghana.

TRIAL QUESTI

Q1) What problems confront the Organization of African Unity (OAU) or African Union (AU)?
(SSSSCE, 2000; Q10, GOV’T)

(Q2) Discuss the achievements of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (SSSSCE SOC.ST)

(Q3) What are the major problems facing the organization of African Unity (OAU)? (SSSSCE.
SOC .ST)

(Q4) Outline any four challenges facing African Union (AU) (WASSSCE MAY/JUNE 2011
Q11)

(Q5) Highlight six functions of the Secretary General of the OAU (WASSSCE NOV/DEC
2011)

Q6) State four aims of OAU

Q7) Describe the powers and functions of the Assembly of Heads of States and Government of
OAU.
Q8) Highlight six contributions of Ghana towards the growth of OAU.

Q9) Highlight six functions of the Chairman of AU Commission

COMMONWEALTH
Commonwealth means association of former colonies of Britain. It is a voluntary sociation of
independent British colonies except the United Kingdom itself, mozarnbique and Rwanda. The
origin of the Commonwealth could be traced 1907 when representative governments of five
countries namely, Australia, nada, New Zealand, Ireland and South Africa met for the first time
in London. le meeting became regular by 1926. The Association was formally known as British
Commonwealth of Nations. The modern Commonwealth began in 1, when British parliament
created the statute of West Minster. The head of Commonwealth is the British Monarch
recognized by each member state.
Currently Queen Elizabeth II is the head of commonwealth. Because of their past colonial
relationship with Britain, all member states of the commonwealth use English as their official
language. though in some countries like India, local language have replaced English language,
they still use the English languages as their second language.

FEATURES OF COMMONWEALTH

(i) It has a common official language. Member states of Commonwealth use English as their
official language, However, other countries each as India have replaced it with their local
language, though the English is used as the second language in those countries.

(ii) The Head of Commonwealth is the British Monarch. The British monarch is recognized by
all member states of Commonwealth as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth. This position
however does not imbue her with any political or executive power over any commonwealth
member states; the position is purely symbolic. The British Monarch links the Commonwealth
countries together.

(iii) It has a common legal system. The legal systems in member states are similar to the British
legal system.

(iv) Member states of Commonwealth have common historical ties with Britain. Member states
are all former British colonies except the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique.

(v) Member states exchange High Commissioners. Member states have high commissioners
who represent them in their respective countries. A high commissioner implies a representative
of one country in another within the Commonwealth of Nations. For example, Ghana’s
representatives in Canada, United Kingdom, Nigeria, India etc. are all High Commissioners.

(vii) It has similar educational and civil service practices. The educational system and civil
service practices are similar to that of the British system.

(viii). Member states hold periodic meetings to discuss matters of common interest. The Prime
Ministers and Presidents of member states of Commonwealth hold periodic meetings biennially
(once every two years) to discuss matters of common interest.

(viii). Written charter: The Commonwealth now has a written Charta adopted by member states
on 19th December, 2012 and was officially signed by Qum Elizabeth at Marlborough house,
London, on the Commonwealth Day on 11th March, 2013. The charter of the Commonwealth is a
charter setting out the values of the Commonwealth of Nations as well as the commitment of its
54 member states to equal rights, democracy and so on. A total of sixteen core beliefs are drawn
up in the charter namely, democracy, human right, international peace and security, tolerance,
respect and understanding, freedom of expression, separation of powers, rule of law, good
governance, protecting the environment, sustainable development, access to health, education,
food and shelter, gender equality, recognition of the needs of smaller states etc.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COMMONWEALTH

(i) To bring together independent nations which have the common heritage of having been
former British colonies.

(ii) To take advantage of the common language (English) to meet and discuss problems of
common interest.

(iii). To create an avenue for co-operation in the fields of sports, education, culture, health,
science and technology among member states.

(iv). To promote those aspects of the British political system. Examples include; parliamentary
democracy and rule of law.

THE COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT

The Commonwealth secretariat was set up in 1965 with its headquarters in London. The
secretariat is headed by a Secretary- General elected by member states. The Secretary-General is
the chief executive of the organization. The secretariat makes information on matters of common
interest available to member states.

THE COMMONWEALTH HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT

The Commonwealth Heads of State and Government consists of heads of states and governments
of all member states. The meetings of the Commonwealth Heads of State and Government are
held biennially to discuss political, economic and social issues affecting the members. Until
1971, all meeting of the Commonwealth were held in London, but later meetings of the Heads of
States and Government are held in different countries with the heads of government of the host
country presiding over the meeting.
BENEFITS OE COMMONWEALTH

(i)Get opportunity to have wider market for promotion of trade: Because Commonwealth
countries arc members of one family, members enjoy reasonable terms of trade. They gay
preferential tariffs and concessionary payment terms to one another in their trading I bus, taxes
imposed on goods traded between member states lower than those imposed on goods traded
member states and non-member states

(ii) Receive opportunity for education and training: Member countries co-operate in the
fields of education and training. Some developed countries of the Commonwealth such as
Canada and Britain offer scholarship to students from other member countries especially
developing countries to study in institutions of awarding countries. The developed member states
such as Britain and Canada sometimes donate books and Science equipment to less developed
member states like Ghana to promote education in those countries.

(iii) Gat technical assistance for developmental programs: Technical assistance is provided
by many of the specialized agencies of the Commonwealth to member countries on a wide range
of subjects including oil exploration, forestry, agriculture, fisheries and water resource
development. The developed nations in Commonwealth help the developing nations in
globalization in terms of information technology. They make available the services of experts
and consultants, financing of technical training programs, supply of equipment, finding research
and development in Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.

(iv) Receive financial aid to meet developmental needs: Ghana enjoys financial security
because Ghana is able to obtain grants and loans from the developed member states such as
United Kingdom and Canada to promote development in the areas of education, sanitation,
health, mining etc. The loans usually attract smaller interest

. (v) Get the platform for the sharing of ideas: The Commonwealth provides member
countries with the opportunity to share ideas, experiences and to discuss matters of common
interest and to adopt a common policy on such matters.

(vi) Promotion of democracy: Ghana’s membership in the Commonwealth entreats her to the
practice of democratic governance. Commonwealth helps in promoting democracy and good
governance in Ghana through sponsoring of observer teams to monitor the conduct of elections.

(vii). Get opportunity to participate in sports: Ghana gets opportunity to participate in the
commonwealth games. This has helped to unearth their talents

(viii) Receive volunteer services from member states: Ghana’s membership of the
Commonwealth has provided her opportunity to receive volunteer services from member states
such as Canada. Britain etc. to assist the country in many fields such as education and health.

(ix)Get opportunity for military training /assistance: Ghana’s membership of the

Commonwealth has provided opportunity for her to receive military training from the developed
member states such as Canada and Britain. The country sometimes also receives military
equipment and other logistics to facilitate effective operation of the military

(x) Receive investors from other Commonwealth countries: For example, Britain and other
Commonwealth countries have invested in Ghana. Examples of areas where these
Commonwealth countries have invested in Ghana include; Unilever, Twifo Palm Oil Company,
Accra Brewery etc.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GHANA TOWARDS THE GROWTH/DEVELOPMENT OF

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
(i) Hosting Commonwealth conferences: Ghana has been hosting commonwealth conferences.
For example, in May 1994, Ghana hosted a Commonwealth conference on local government that
attracted participants from several West African countries. Again, Ghana hosted the 15th
Commonwealth Speakers and Presiding Officers Conference (CSPOC) in the African Region in
Accra from 1st November, 2015 to 6th November, 2015.

(ii) Financial contribution/payment of dues: Ghana pays her dues regularly to the
Commonwealth. Dues paid by member states enable the Commonwealth to carry out its
programs and policies.

(iii) Participating in Commonwealth Games: Ghana has been participating in Commonwealth

games. For example, Ghana sent people to represent the country in the various disciplines such
as table tennis, hockey, swimming, etc. at the 2018 Commonwealth games in Gold Coast,
Australia. The game organized by the Commonwealth has helped in promoting unity among
member nations. It has also helped a lot of participants to unearth their talents.

(iv). Provision of profile for the commonwealth staff: Ghana has been providing high profile
personnel to serve in various capacities in the commonwealth. For example, Betty Mould Iddrisu
became the Head of Legal and constitutional affairs of the commonwealth secretariat in London.
Dr. Ekwow Spio-Garbrah also served as the chief Executive officer (CTO) of the Ekwow Spio-
Garbrah also served as the chief Executive officer (CEO) of the commonwealth
Telecommunications Organization (CTO) based in London.

(v). Giving of humanitarian assistant to citizens of commonwealth countries: Ghana gives

humanitarian assistance to citizens of Commonwealth states who have been displaced as a result
of war. Example of such assistance the provision of shelter and Refugee Camp at Gomoa East
District of the Western Region of Ghana for hosting refugees from Liberia, Togo etc.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF COMMONWEALTH
1. Commonwealth of nation has provided scholarships to citizens of member states to
pursue further studies. some developed countries of the common such as Canada and
Britain offer scholarship to students from other member states to study in institutions of
awarding countries.
2. It has helped in promoting democracy among member states. The Commonwealth of
Nations has the of democracy through its sponsoring of observer teams to monitor the
conduct of elections in member countries. For example, On 29’h April. 2014, the
Commonwealth of Nations appointed Nana Akufo- Addo, Dorothy Pine McClarty, O. J
 of Jamaica and Sheik Abdul Carimo Nordine Sau. the president of the National Electoral
Commission of Mozambique as observer mission for the South African election which
was held on May 7th, 2014. Nana Addo was appointed as the chairman of the observer
mission.
3. Commonwealth has helped in promoting unity or closer ties among member states
through the Commonwealth games. The Commonwealth game has also promoted sports
in member countries.
4. Commonwealth has helped war devastated countries which are member states to rebuild
their economies. A good example of countries which have benefited from this is Sierra
Leone.
5. Th Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation has sent experts to member
countries to help in their social and economic development.
6. Commonwealth has assisted many member states through the adoption of preferential
trade policies. Because, taxes imposed on goods traded between member states are lower
than those levied between member states and non-member states. The trades between
member states have improved.
7. It has helped in providing military assistance to member countries. Commonwealth has
provided military assistance to member countries especially in the areas of training of
military personnel as well as supply of military hardware and other logistics.

8. The commonwealth parliamentary Association conferences have assisted member nations

in the area of parliamentary activities.

WAYS BY WHICH GHANA HAS BENEFITED FROM HER MEMBERSHIP OF THE

COMMONWEALTH
1. Economic benefits: Commonwealth has provided Ghana with a lot of economic benefits
in the fields of trade and investment
2. Education and training: Scholarships and fellowships have been provided to Ghana for
the training of teachers, doctors, police, the military and engineers
3. Receiving scientific and technical assistance: Ghana has benefited from commonwealth
through its scientific and technical assistance. It makes available the services of experts
and consultants, financing of technical training programmes, supply of equipment, books
and journals, funding research and development in agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
4. Promotion of sports through Commonwealth games: Ghana’s Participation in sporting
activities organized by commonwealth has contributed in promoting sports in the country.
it has helped young and talented men and women of Ghana who have participated to
unearth their talents.
5. Promotion of democracy: Member countries helped Ghana in democratic governance
through sponsoring of observer teams to monitor the conduct of elections in Ghana.
6. Loans and grants: Member countries such as Ghana enjoy financial security because
they are able to obtain grants and loans from the developed member states such as United
Kingdom and Canada to promote development in the areas of education, sanitation,
health mining etc. The loans usually attract smaller interest.
7. Employment: Commonwealth has offered employment to a lot of Ghanaian citizens. A
good example is Mad. Betty Mould- Iddrisu who served as the head of legal services of
the Commonwealth for many years. Again Ekow Spio-Gabrah was employed by the
 Commonwealth as the Director of Telecommunications organization for several years.

PROBLEMS FACING THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

1. Lack of enforcement power/Inability to enforce its resolutions: Since the
Commonwealth is only associations of countries once ruled by Britain and are considered
on equal plain, it does not have the power to force member states to comply with its
decisions or resolutions. It counts on the willing cooperation of member states in the
implementation of its decisions or resolutions.
2. Ideological differences of member states: The member states of
Commonwealth have different ideologies and interests. Some of them believe in
socialism, some in capitalism and others believe in communism. Again, some countries
after gaining their independence, abandoned the parliamentary system of government
inherited from Britain in favour of the presidential system. These differences among
member states weaken the unity of the organization.
3. Political instability: Another problem facing Commonwealth is political instability.
Most countries of the Commonwealth especially the developing member countries have
experienced political instability as a result of ethnicism and incidence of military coup
d’état. Political instability discourages many Heads of States and Governments of
member states to attend summit conferences personally for fear of being removed from
office in their absence. For example, General I. K Acheampong never attended any
summit conference during his regime. The heads of states and governments are therefore
represented at meetings by delegates. As such, issues and decisions that arc to be taken
by Heads of States and Governments art left in the hands of representatives who may not
be efficient.
4. Lack of standing Army: The Commonwealth of Nations has no standing Army to
provide military assistance to member states in times of political crisis. It mostly relies on
the troops of member states and offers them military equipment.
5. Inadequate Funds/Financial constraints: The effectiveness of the organization to carry
out its work largely depends on the funds or resources available to them. Unfortunately,
many member states are unable to pay their financial contributions (dues) regularly and
promptly to Commonwealth because of their own economic difficulties and the high level
of poverty. This hampers the implementation of approved programmes and policies.
6. Divided loyalty: There is an absence of complete loyalty on the part of member states to
the course and activities of the Commonwealth. Some member states of Commonwealth
belong to other world organizations such as African Union, The United Nations
Organization (UNO), North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO) etc, and such situations
make the member states have a divided loyalty.
7. Strict pursuance of national interest: Another major problem facing the
Commonwealth is strict pursuance of national interest by member states at the expense of
the Commonwealth.
8. Introduction of visas: Introduction of visas discourages free movement of people and
technology from one state to another. This also weakens the effectiveness of the
organization.
9. Economic inequality among member states: Economic inequality among member
states also poses a problem for the commonwealth. Some member states of the
Commonwealth such as Britain, Canada and India are more economically developed than
countries like Ghana, Nigeria etc. During decision making, these developed countries
sometimes try to lord over the developing countries.
NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM)
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states considering themselves not aligned formally
with or against any major power bine.

Non-Aligned Movement is the ides of group of nations in Asia. Africa, Latin America,
Caribbean and Europe to be neutral in the cold war between the Western capitalist and the
Eastern socialist powers.

The policy is based on neutrality. As of 2011 the movement had 120 members and 17 observers.

The organization was founded in Belgrade in 1961 and was the brainchild of Yugoslavia’s
president, Joseph Broz Tito, India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, Egypt’s second
president, Gamal Abdul Nasser, Ghana’s first president Kwame Nkrumah and Indonesia’s first
president Sukarno. All the five leaders were prominent advocates of a middle course for states in
the Developing World between the Western and Eastern bloc in the cold war.

The countries of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) represent nearly two-thirds of the United
Nations members and contain 55% of the world population. Membership is particularly
concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World. Brazil has
never been a formal member of the movement, but shares many of the aims of the Non-Aligned
Movement and frequently sends observers to the Non-Aligned Movement summit.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

The aims of NAM enumerated during the Belgrade Summit include:
1. To oppose the establishment of foreign military bases on the territories of member states.
2. To oppose apartheid rule in South Africa, the Zionist policies of Israel and Jews in
general, as well as to racism in all of its manifestations throughout the world.
3. To oppose the on-going arms race between the super-powers.
4. Opposition to formal military alliances between member-states and the super powers and
as well as among its members.

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS OF NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

1. Non-Aligned Movement helps its members to pursue their own political economic and
social development without any interference.
2. The movement helps its member-nations to participate in trekking glad decisions that
affect their future.
3. Non-Aligned Movement helps member -nations to safeguard their national independence,
sovereign equality and refraining from the use of threat of use of force in international
affairs and all forms of aggression.
4. Non-Aligned Movement helps to fight for the eradication of racism and all forms of
discrimination on the bases of sex, colour, class, religion and creed,
5. Non-Aligned Movement has contributed to the elimination of all vestiges of colonialism,
neo-colonialism and all forms of imperialism.
 6. Non-Aligned Movement helps to oppose the division of the World into two antagonistic
blocs namely the Western and the Eastern bloc.

NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD)

The New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) is a programme of the African Union
created by Africans, for Africans and implemented by Africans. NEPAD is a radically new
intervention, spearheaded by Africa leaders to pursue new priorities and approaches to the
political and socio-economic transformation of Africa. The NEPAD was adopted at the 37th
session of the Assembly of Heads of States and Government in July 2001 in Lusaka, Zambia. It
is meant to develop values and monitor their implementation within the framework of the
African Union. NEPAD is a merger of the Millennium Partnership for the African Recovery
Programme (MAP) and the Omega plan. The funding member countries of NEPAD include
South Africa, Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt and Senegal.

SUMMARY OF THE MEANINGS OF NEPAD

1. NEPAD is a vision and strategic framework for the socio-economic and political
development of Africa.
2. NEPAD is a vision and programme of action for the redevelopment of the African
continent NEPAD is a comprehensive integrated development plan that addresses key
social, economic and political priorities in a coherent and balanced manner
3. NEPAD is a commitment that African leaders are making to Africa people and to the
International Community on a path of sustainable development.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NEPAD

1. To promote accelerated growth and sustainable development NEPAD ID place Africa
continents, both individually and collectively on development. This will help to address
poverty and regional
2. To halt the marginalization of Africa in the globalization NEPAD aims to halt the
marginalization of Africa in the globalization process and enhance its full and beneficial
integration into the global economy
3. To accelerate the empowerment of women: NEPAD aims to promote the role of women
in all activities. it is for this reason that the NEPAL) Spanish Fund for African Women
empowerment was established. It aims to unlock their economic potential, fight poverty,
create wealth and contribute to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals,
economic growth and sustainable development.
4. To develop a new partnership with industrialized countries and multilateral institutions
on the basis of mutual commitments, obligation, interest contributions and benefits
5. To strengthen Africa’s capacity to lead her own development: NEPAD aims at
strengthening Africa’s capacity to lead her own development and to improve co-
ordination with development partners
6. To achieve and sustain an average of GDP growth of 7%. NEPAD aims at achieving and
sustaining Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate over 7% per annum for the next
15 years.
7. To eradicate poverty: NEPAD seeks to undertake mutually reinforcing actions to help
Africa accelerate growth and make lasting gains against poverty
 8. To ensure the continent achieves the agreed International Development Goals
9. To promote sound economic management and people-centered development
10. To make Africa attractive to both domestic and foreign investors

PRINCIPLES OF NEPAD
1. Good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and sustainable political and
socio-economic development.
2. African ownership and leadership, as well as broad and deep participation by all sectors
of the society.
3. Anchoring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its people
4. Acceleration of regional and continental integration
5. Forging a new international partnership that changes the unequal relationship between
Africa and the developed world.
6. Ensuring that all partnerships with NEPAD arc linked to the Millennium Development
Goals and other agreed development goals and projects.

STRUCTURE OF NEPAD
1. The Heads of States and Government: The highest authority of the NEPAD
implementation process is the Heads of States and Government summit of the African
Union (AU), formally the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

2. The Heads of States and Government implementation Committee (HSIC): The

Heads of states and Government Implementation Committee (HSIC) consist of three (3)
states per AU region as mandated by the OAU Summit of July 2001 and ratified by the
AU Summit of July 2012. The HISC reports to the AU Summit on an annual basis.

3. The Steering Committee of NEPAD: The Steering Committee of NEPAD comprises

the personal Representatives of the NEPAD Heads of State and Government. The
Committee oversees projects and programmes development.

4. The NEPAD Secretariat: The NEPAD Secretariat coordinates implementation projects

and programmes approved by the Heads of States and Government Implementation
Committee.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEPAD AND AFRICAN UNION

NEPAD is a mandated initiative of the African Union. The NEPAD Heads of State and
Government Implementation Committee has to report annually to the union summit. The chairs
of the union as well as the chair of the commission of the union are ex-officio members of the
Implementation Committee. The commission of the union is expected to participate in Steering
Committee meetings.

IMMEDIATE DESIRED OUTCOMES /BENEFITS EXPECTED FROM NEPAD

BENEFITS AFRICA COUNTRIES HOPE TO ACHIEVE FROM THEIR MEMBERSHIP
OF NEPAD
1. NEPAD will make Africans more effective in conflict prevention and the establishment
of enduring peace on the continent.
 2. It will enable Africans to adopt and implement principles of democracy and good
political, economic and col pantie governance, and the human rights will be further
entrenched in very Africa country.
3. NEPAD will help Africa to develop and implement effective poverty eradication
programmes and accept the peace of achieving set African development goals,
particularly human development.
4. Through NEPAD, Africa will achieve increased levels of domestic savings, as well as
investment, both domestic and foreign.
5. Africa is likely to achieve desired capacity for policy development, coordination and
negotiation in the international arena to ensure its beneficial engagement in the global
economy, especially on trade and market issues.
6. Regional integration will be further accelerated and higher levels of sustainable economic
growth in Africa will be achieved.
7. Genuine partnership will be established between Africa and the developed countries
based on mutual respect and accountability.
8. Creating more opportunities for the empowerment of women.

CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS OF NEPAD
1. Existence of conflict on the continent. The existence of conflict on the continent poses a
serious problem for NEPAD. There are numerous border disputes and civil wars in the
continent. Examples of such conflict areas in the continent include Democratic Republic
of Congo, Zimbabwe, Somalia and Sudan’s Darfur. The numerous conflicts within the
sub-region make it difficult for effective mobilization of human resources for the
realization of NEPAD goals.
2. Wide spread of pandemics such as HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and malaria in the continent
poses a great problem for NEPAD.
3. There seems to be more awareness about NEPAD and its contents in the donor
community than among Africans who the initiative is meant to serve.
4. The over-dependence on foreign aid such as Spanish Fund for African Women to finance
the programmes and policies of NEPAD poses a serious problem for economic
prosperity. The NEPAD therefore becomes ineffective when donor inflow is not
forthcoming.
5. The economies of member states in Africa are still not growing fast even with the
implementation of the NEPAD programmes. This prompted one of the founding fathers
of NEPAD, president Olunsengu Obasugo of Nigerian to opine that “NEPALI has raised
a lot of high expectation and people are somewhat disappointed by the slow pace of its
implementation”.
6. NEPALD faces problem of mobilizing financial resources both domestic and foreign
needed to undertake its numerous infrastructural projects.

PROBLEMS GHANA FACE AS A RESULT OF HER CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER

NATIONS
1. Financial problems: Payment of dues to international bodies such as the UNO. AU,
ECOWAS and Commonwealth creates financial problem for Ghana.
2. Receiving assistance which may not be in the interest of the nation: Ghana’s co-
 operation with other nations sometimes results in receiving financial and technical
assistance which may not be in the interest of the nation example coming with
commodities.
3. Bad agreements: Ghana’s co-operation with other nations sometimes lead to accepting
agreements (conventions) that may not be in the interest of the country.
4. Providing men for peace-keeping: Ghana has been providing military men to assist
international organizations to restore peace in war torn areas. Some of these military men
sometimes even lose their lives at the war front.
5. Dumping of harmful/inferior goods: Trade liberalization encourages inflow of imports.
Unrestricted imports stifle our local industries and entrepreneurship because foreign
goods very often out-compete the local ones by way of mass production and lower prices,
over-shadowing advertisement and sometimes superior quality of local goods.
Consequently, the local markets may be a dumping ground for imported inferior goods
example Second hand fridges and cars with resultant environmental pollution
6. Increase in crime: Ghana’s co-operation with other nations has contributed to the
increase crime such as drug trafficking, armed robbery and smuggling in the country.
7. Stifling of local industries through trade liberalization: Importers may over depend on
foreign goods to the detriment of locally produced goods. The local producers may feel
reluctant to engage in any form of investment since not many people will patronize the
home-produced goods. The result of this is the collapse of many indigenous enterprises.
For instance, many garment industries have collapsed because of influx of imported used
clothing on the market.
8. Effects of donor fatigue when aid is withdrawn: In where there are differences
between the donor and the recipient country may have failed to comply with certain
policies of the donor country, then aid may curtailed or reduced.
9. It has also led to cultural adulteration. A good example is lesbianism
10. Self reliance is undermined to a large extent
 CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
DIPLOMACY
Diplomacy is a technique used by representatives of states to conduct negotiations with a view to
resolving conflicts and enhancing international co-operation.

Ambassadors, High Commissioners, Special Envoys and Honorary Consults are appointed to
improve upon a state’s relation with the rest of the world.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE DIPLOMACY

Membership of an international organization
Religious factors
Level of technology
Resources of the country
Military might

FUNCTIONS OF GHANA’S EMBASSIES ABROAD

Ghana’s embassies abroad perform a number of functions. These include:
1. Seeking the interest of Ghanaians abroad: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries are
the point of contact of Ghanaians abroad when they are in trouble. They provide services
to Ghanaians abroad such as renewing passports, replacing passports that have been lost
or stolen, helping with evacuation and other types of assistance in emergency situations.
2. Serving as a link between Ghana and other countries: Ghana’s embassies in foreign
countries are the instruments of communication and quite often, of negotiation between
Ghana government and the countries they are variously accredited. They inform Ghana
government accurately on the political, economic, social and cultural policies of the state
to which they are accredited and to carry the position of Ghana government on specific
issues to their host.
3. Promoting better trade links: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries help in dealing
with creating better trade links between Ghana and other countries
4. Advertising economic potentials of Ghana: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries
advertise Ghana’s economic potentials in terms of national resources.
5. For example, they advertise Ghana’s mineral resources such as oil, bauxite outside to
attract customers.
6. Advising government on foreign policy matters: Ghana’s embassies in foreign
countries advice the government on foreign policy matters, they advise the government
on the decisions, steps, measures and actions to take in relations to other states.
7. Searching for markets for Ghana’s exports: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries
search for foreign markets for Ghana’s exports.
8. Overseeing immigration and emigration: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries
oversee immigration and emigration. They see to the welfare of people coming into the
county or leaving the country where they have been accredited to.
9. Ensuring peaceful co-existence: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries are also
responsible for ensuring peaceful co-existence between Ghana and other nations.
10. Negotiation for loans and grants: Ghana’s embassies in foreign countries negotiate for
foreign loans, grants and aid on behalf of Ghana.
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
FOREIGN POLICY

DEFINITION
1. Foreign policy refers to the decisions, steps, measures, and actions which the officials of
a state take in relation to other states.
2. Foreign policy is the sum total of decisions, practices and actions taken by a country
towards other countries.
3. Foreign policy refers to the principles, guidelines and strategies adopted by a country in
conducting her relationship with other states while pursuing her national interest.
The foreign policy of a country determines whether the relationship with other states should be
friendly or hostile. The foreign policy of a country is formulated mainly by the party in power.

TOOLS/ INSTRUMENTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

The tool or instrument of foreign policy refers to the various means or methods used by states to
achieve their foreign policy objectives. The various tools or instruments used by states include:
1. Economic pressure: Some states use their economic potentials to win new adherents,
reward friends and to punish enemies. States invariably give aid, grants and preferential
terms of trade to their friends and also use the same means to win new friends. A
powerful state may impose an embargo on trade with a potential enemy state in order to
bend its will. In 1973, for example, the Arab states withheld crude oil from the United
States of America in order to make them reduce their support for Israel against
Palestinian Arabs.
2. The information and propaganda means: The information and propaganda means
consist of all those media means through which a government seeks to make other
nations appreciate and perhaps, envy its domestic institutions and the ways of life of the
people. Through publications, radio broadcast, exchange of students. artistes and sporting
activities, governments seek acceptance and understanding of their structure and policies
abroad.
3. Military intervention: Military intervention another powerful instrument or tool that
some countries use to achieve their foreign policy objectives The Soviet invasion of
Czechoslovakia in 1969 and U.S invasion of Panama are good examples.
4. Diplomacy: This is whereby states seek friendship, understanding and cooperation
through personal contacts with government representatives and relevant group of people
abroad. States through this medium enter into mutually beneficial partnerships and
alliances for economic and strategic purposes.
5. Other instruments: These include the use of religious sects to operate in other countries,
educational programmes, sending volunteers to other countries etc.

GENERAL DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

A number of factors determine a country’s foreign policy. These include:
1. Geographical factors: The geographical location of a country may determine or
influence its foreign policy towards other countries. Countries which are near each other
try to maintain a harmonious foreign policy with another. For example, Ghana and Togo,
Mexico and United states of America, Ghana and Burkina Faso.

2. Religious factor: Foreign policy of a country towards the other can greatly be influenced
 by the kind of religion the country practices. Countries that practice the same religion
usually maintain closer ties with one another. For example, the Arab states maintain and
adopt friendly relation towards each other because they all practice and preach Islam a
religion based on the revelations given by God to the Prophet Mohammed.
3. Membership of international relation: A country’s membership of international
organizations such as UN, ECOWAS, AU and Common Wealth of Nations influences its
foreign policy. A country is likely to maintain friendly relations with others in an
organization. A country is expected to respect the charters of such organizations and
abide by the decisions of such organizations in the formulation of her foreign policies in
order to retain its membership which greatly affect its foreign policy direction.
4. Common historical and cultural links: Countries that have common history, tradition
and cultural ties or similar ancestral descents, language and religion are more united and
have peaceful and friendly foreign policy toward each other than countries with diverse
history and cultural ties.
5. The level of technological advancement: The level of technological development of a
country can also determine its foreign policy. Technologically advanced countries have
investment in different countries: These countries try to maintain good and friendly
relations with countries where they have invested.
6. Treaty relationship and defence pacts: The kind of treaty relationship that exists
between a country and another county or countries influences its foreign policy. As a
result of signing of treaties for security, defence and trade and other commercial
purposes. the behaviour of a nation may be peaceful, friendly and supportive towards
others. For example, a member of NATO is likely to be peaceful, friendly and supportive
to another member nation.
7. The role or influence of pressure groups and public opinion: The role or influence of
pressure groups in a state can affect its foreign policy. Some pressure groups like labour
union and students union sometimes exert pressure on the government to adopt some
policies on the international scene which affects its foreign policy.
8. The military might of the state: The military might of a state may determine its foreign
policy towards the other. A powerful state will act differently from a state with little
power. For example, the military power of USA has influenced its foreign policy towards
states with little power. USA can compel little power nations to accept its policies. A
good example is the USA recent war with Iraq.
9. The personality of the political leadership or idiosyncratic: The personality of the
political leadership or idiosyncrasies of the leaders can affect its foreign policy
determination. For example, Ghana’s foreign policy was greatly influenced after
independence by the Pan- Africanist Ideals of Kwame Nkrumah.
10. Ideological factors: The ideological similarities or differences can affect a country’s
foreign policy toward the other. Countries that have the same or similar ideology are
more likely to be friendly and supportive in the international scene than countries with
diverse ideologies.
11. Demographic factors: Demographic factors such as the size of a country’s population
can determine its foreign policy. A country with large population can provide a large
potential market for producers. A large populated country is more difficult to conquer.
For instance, China and USA do not agree ideologically but due to china’s large
population which serves as a ready market to America’s goods, these two countries now
 relate to each other peacefully.

12. International Ian and Conventions: The foreign policy of a country can also be
influenced or determined by international law and convent is guided by the international
law and conventions. A state the policies. Every state is required to observe and respect
international conventions for the sake of World peace.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE OR INFLUENCE THE EXTERNAL RELATIONS

(FOREIGN POLICY) OF WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES
1. Geographical nearness/ factors: The geographical location of a country may determine
or West African countries that practice democracy may relate well with other democratic
West African countries and those that practice autocratic may also relate well influence
its foreign policy towards other countries. Countries West Africa which are near each
other try to maintain a harmonious foreign policy with one another. For example, Ghana
and Togo.
2. Religious affiliation: Foreign policy of a country towards the other can greatly be
influenced by the kind of religion the country practices. Countries practice the same
religion usually maintain closer ties with one another. For instance, Ghana relates well
with Christian countries because Ghana has a reasonable number of people who are
Christians. Similarly, she relates with Islamic countries because there are several
Moslems in Ghana.
3. Membership of international relation: Membership of international organizations such
as AU, ECOWAS influences the external relation among West African countries. A
country is likely to maintain friendly relations with others in the same organization. A
country is expected to respect the charters of such organizations and abide by the
decisions of such organizations which greatly affect its foreign policy direction.
4. Common historical and cultural links: Countries that have common history tradition
and cultural ties or similar ancestral descent, language and religion are more united and
have peaceful and friendly foreign policies towards other than countries with diverse
history and cultural ties. For example Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone have come
together to write the same examination thus, WASSSCE since they were all colonized by
the British and for that matter have a common official language thus, English language.
5. The level of technological advancement: The level of technology development of a
country can also determine its foreign policy. Technologically advanced countries have
investment in different countries. These try to maintain good and friendly with country
where they have invested.
6. Natural resource endowment: West African countries that are endowed with natural
resources such as gold, oil, diamond, bauxite, salt etc may try to establish good rapport
with other countries who are lacking those resources so that they can export their
resources to such countries. For example, Ghana imports crude oil from Nigeria whilst
we also export salt to them and this has strengthened the external relation between these
two countries
7. The military might/strength of the state: The military might of a state may determine
its tbreign policy towards the other. West African countries with weak military strength
 may relate well with countries with strong military might so that in times of trouble such
as war they can rely on those countries for military assistance.
8. The personality of the political leadership or idiosyncratic: The personality of the
political leadership or idiosyncrasies of the leaders can affect its foreign policy
determination. For example, Ghana’s foreign policy was greatly influenced after
independence by the Pan- Africanist Ideals of Kwame Nkrumah.
9. Political ideology: The ideological similarities or differences can affect the external
relations of West African countries. West African countries that have the same or similar
ideology are more likely to be friendly and supportive in the international scene than
countries with diverse ideologies.
10. Demographic or population size: Demographic factors such as the size of a country’s
population can determine its foreign policy. A country with large population can provide
a large potential market for producers. A large populated country is more difficult to
conquer. For instance, Ghana and Nigeria do not agree ideologically but due to Nigeria’s
large population which serves as a ready market to Ghana goods, these two countries now
relate to each other peaceful
11. International law and convention: The foreign policy of a country can also be
influenced or determined by international law and conventions. West African countries
take into consideration the international laws and conventions when formulating their
foreign policies for the sake of world peace.
12. The system of government in operation: The system of government in operation can
affect the external relations among West African countries that practice democracy may
relate well with other autocratic states.

OBJECTIVES/AIMS/PRINCIPLES AND TENETS OF GHANA’S FOREIGN POLICY

Article 40 of the 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana outline’ the objectives of
Ghana’s foreign policy as:
1. To promote and protect the interest of Ghana.
2. To seek the establishment of a just and equitable international economic and social order
3. To promote respect for international law, treaty obligations and the settlement of
international disputes by peaceful means
4. To adhere to the principles enshrined in or as the case may be, the aims and ideals of the
Charter of the United Nations, the Charter of the Organization of African Unity, the
Commonwealth, the Treaty of the Economic Community of West African State and any
other international organization of which Ghana is a member.

FEATURES OF GHANA’S FOREIGN POLICY SINCE INDEPENDENCE

1. Total liberation and decolonization of Africa: Total liberation and decolonization of
Africa is one of the features of Ghana’s foreign policy since independence. Ghana has
since independence declared its unflinching support towards total liberation and
decolonization of Africa. It was based upon this that Kwame Nkrumah made the assertion
that “the independence of Ghana is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total
liberation of Africa continent”.
2. Committed to the ideals of the Non-Aligned Movements: Ghana’s foreign policy since
independence has been influenced by the country’s commitment to the ideals of non-
alignment. Ghana has since independence tried not to align to East or West. For example,
 during the Cold War, Ghana took a neutral stand not to align with either the Eastern or
Western bloc. Because of this, Ghana acts as she sees fit on any issue on the international
scene without being influenced by either the Western or Eastern bloc.
3. Committed to international peace and security: Ghana’s foreign policy since
independence is characterized by the country’s commitment to international peace and
security through its membership in international such as LINO, AU, ECOWAS and
Commonwealth of Nations.
4. Attracting foreign investment and assistance: Ghana foreign policy since
independence is characterized by the need to search foreign investment and other
assistance as well as seeking overseas markets for her locally produced goods.
5. Commitment to political and economic development of Africa: Ghana’s foreign
policy is characterized by the country’s commitment to political and economic
development of Africa. To make this real, Ghana has been a member of the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to promote economic development in the
West African sub-region. Ghana was also a founding member of OAU and has since its
formation maintained her membership with the African Union to promote political
development of Africa. Opposition to racism: Ghana has since independence declared
her intention to maintain friendly and peaceful relations with people from all walks of
life. Ghana has been opposing racism of whatever kind in any part of the world.
6. Contributions to international organizations: Ghana’s foreign policy since
independence is characterized by the country’s commitment to make financial, human
and material contributions to international organizations such as UNO, AU etc. For
example, Ghana pays her dues to support the activities of these organizations. Again,
Ghana has been providing personnel to serve on these organizations. A good example of
such personalities is Dr. Kofi Annan who became the Secretary-General of UN from
1996-2007.
7. Peaceful co-existence with her neighbouring countries: Ghana has since independence
pledged to maintain friendly and peaceful relations with her neighboring countries.
8. Ghana’s foreign policy since independence is characterized by the country’s commitment
to the UNO Charter on Universal Declaration on Human Rights.

INTERNAL FACTORS THAT DETERMINE OR INFLUENCE GHANA’S FOREIGN

POLICY
1. The personality of the political leadership or idiosyncratic: The personality of the
political leadership or idiosyncrasies of the leaders can affect Ghana’s foreign policy
direction. For example, Ghana’s foreign policy was greatly influenced after independence
by the Pan-Africanist Ideals of Kwame Nkrumah
2. Religious factor: Ghana maintains good and harmonium countries that share similar
religious belief with he instance, Ghana relates well with Christian countries because
Ghana has a of people who are Christians. Similarly. she relates well with because there
are several Moslems in Ghana.
3. Historical experiences: Ghana maintains a harmonious foreign policy with countries it
has common historical and cultural links with. For example, Ghana and Britain have
good relations because historically, Britain happens to be Ghana’s colonial master.
4. National Interest: Ghana’s foreign policy direction is influenced by the interest she
seeks to satisfy. The domestic and external environment as decided by policy makers in
 government sometimes influences the foreign policy direction of Ghana.

5. Internal Pressure Groups/Public Opinion: The activities of pressure groups and public
opinion may influence the direction of Ghana’s foreign policy. For example, during the
Second Republic, Busia’s foreign policy of dialogue with Apartheid South Africa created
serious problem for his government. As a result of groundswell of public opinion, the
Busia government policy of dialogue with Apartheid South Africa was abandoned.
6. Economic resources: Ghana’s foreign policy direction is influenced by the quality and
quantity of her natural resources and wealth.
7. Population size: The population of Ghana influences the shaping of her foreign policy.

EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE FOREIGN POLICY OF GHANA

1. Membership of international organization: Ghana is a member of AU, UNO,
ECOWAS, and Commonwealth. Such organizations are committed to the promotion of
peace, economic emancipation, the promotion of human rights etc. Ghana’s membership
in these organizations constrained her from pursuing hostile policies towards them. This
is because they came to assume certain relationship that does not allow them to pursue
harsh policy relations to their fellow members. In the formulation of her foreign policy,
Ghana is expected to respect the charters or treaties of such organization in order to retain
her membership.
2. External Geographical location of the country: Ghana’s foreign policy direction is
affected by its geographical location. For example, due to geographical nearness, Ghana
maintains a harmonious foreign policy with Togo, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Nigeria
despite their differences.
3. International law and conventions: Ghana is guided by international law and
conventions in the formulation of her foreign policies. She observes and respects
international law and conventions for the sake of World peace.
4. External commitments: Ghana’s foreign policy is influenced by external commitments
that the country has made. A good example is the trade links Ghana has with other states.
In formulating her foreign policy, Ghana makes friendly foreign policy with such
countries.
5. International Public Opinion: The activities of International public opinion may
influence the direction of Ghana’s foreign policy. For example, during the Second
Republic, Busia’s foreign policy of dialogue with Apartheid South Africa created serious
problem for his government. As a result of groundswell of public opinion, the Busia
government policy of dialogue with Apartheid South Africa was abandoned.
6. Economic resources of the target state: Ghana’s foreign policy direction is influenced
by the quality and quantity of natural resources the country seeks to gain from the target
state. Ghana’s foreign policy direction is greatly influenced by countries with abundant
resources that has intention to help Ghana develop her economy.
7. Military might of the target state: The relative military strength of Ghana shapes her
relations with other nations.
8. Safety of lives and property of citizens abroad. Another good external factor that
influences Ghana foreign policy direction is the safety of lives and properties of her
citizens abroad. Ghana maintains a good friendly external relation with countries where a
reasonable number of Ghanaians live and also considers investment made by her citizens
 in those countries. Under no circumstance can Ghana pursue a hostile foreign policy with
countries such as Britain and United States of America where a lot of Ghanaians have
travelled to seek greener pastures and have properties there.
9. Fear of sanctions: In formulating foray, pity. Ghana takes into the sanctions such as
economic sanction that could be imposed on her when certain policies are formulated and
this influences her polity direction.
10. Foreign investment of the state: Ghana’s foreign policy is influenced by the investment
that the country has made in other states. Ghana tries to maintain cordial relationship with
such states with the view of protecting her investment. Under no circumstance will Ghana
declare war against a country what Ghana has hugely invested her capital.