Nepal

Demographic and Health Survey

2022

Ministry of Health and Population

Ram Shah Path, Kathmandu, Nepal

New ERA
Kathmandu, Nepal

The DHS Program

ICF
Rockville, Maryland, USA

June 2023

New ERA Ministry of Health and Population

The 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (2022 NDHS) was implemented by New ERA under the aegis
of the Ministry of Health and Population of Nepal. The funding for the NDHS was provided by the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID). ICF provided technical assistance through The DHS Program,
a USAID-funded project providing support and technical assistance in the implementation of population and
health surveys in countries worldwide.

Additional information about the 2022 NDHS may be obtained from the Ministry of Health and Population, Ram
Shah Path, Kathmandu; telephone: +977-1-4262543/4262802; Internet: http://www.mohp.gov.np; and New ERA,
Rudramati Marg, Kalopul, P.O. Box 722, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal; telephone: +977-1-4513603; email:
[email protected]; Internet: http://www.newera.com.np.

Information about The DHS Program may be obtained from ICF, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, MD
20850, USA; telephone: +1-301-407-6500; fax: +1-301-407-6501; email: [email protected]; Internet:
www.DHSprogram.com.

The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and
ICF and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID, the United States Government, or other donor agencies.

Cover photo: This mural was commissioned by the Australian Embassy in Kathmandu to celebrate the Mithila art
tradition and Nepali women’s perspectives on the Sustainable Development Goals. The mural was painted by
Nirmala Jha, Raj Kumari Singh, Anjina Yadav, and Binita Jha from Relative Nepal with the support of Sarangi
Social Enterprise and is located at the Australian Embassy entrance wall.

Recommended citation:

Ministry of Health and Population [Nepal], New ERA, and ICF. 2023. Nepal Demographic and Health Survey
2022. Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health and Population [Nepal].
CONTENTS

TABLES AND FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... ix

MESSAGE .................................................................................................................................................. xxi
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................... xxiii
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................ xxv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................xxvii
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY TECHNICAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE AND TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP .................................................... xxix
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT ................................................................................................. xxxi
READING AND UNDERSTANDING TABLES FROM THE 2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC
AND HEALTH SURVEY (NDHS) .........................................................................................xxxiii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................xli
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS INDICATORS .............................................................. xliii

1 INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 1

1.1 Survey Objectives ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Sample Design ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Questionnaires ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Anthropometry, Anemia Testing, and Blood Pressure Measurement ................................. 4
1.5 Training of Trainers and Pretest .......................................................................................... 5
1.6 Training of Field Staff ......................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Fieldwork............................................................................................................................. 7
1.8 Data Processing ................................................................................................................... 7
1.9 Response Rates .................................................................................................................... 8

2 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND HOUSEHOLD POPULATION ................................ 9

2.1 Housing Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Use of Clean Fuels and Technologies .................................................................. 10
2.1.2 Cooking ................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.3 Heating and Lighting ........................................................................................... 10
2.1.4 Primary Reliance on Clean Fuels and Technologies............................................ 10
2.2 Household Wealth ............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 Household Durable Goods ................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Wealth Index ........................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Household Population and Composition ........................................................................... 12
2.4 Children’s Living Arrangements and Parental Survival .................................................... 13
2.5 Birth Registration .............................................................................................................. 14
2.6 Education ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.6.1 Educational Attainment ....................................................................................... 15
2.6.2 Primary and Secondary School Attendance ......................................................... 16
2.6.3 Participation Rate in Organized Learning among Children Age 4 ...................... 17
2.7 Possession of Mosquito Nets ............................................................................................. 17
2.8 Food Insecurity .................................................................................................................. 18

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................. 39

3.1 Basic Characteristics of Survey Respondents.................................................................... 39
3.2 Education and Literacy ...................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Mass Media Exposure and Internet Usage ........................................................................ 41
3.4 Employment ...................................................................................................................... 42

Contents • iii
 3.5 Occupation......................................................................................................................... 43
3.6 Health Insurance Coverage ................................................................................................ 44
3.7 Tobacco Use ...................................................................................................................... 44
3.8 Alcohol Consumption ........................................................................................................ 45
3.9 Place of Birth and Recent Migration ................................................................................. 45
3.9.1 Type of Migration ................................................................................................ 46
3.9.2 Reason for Migration ........................................................................................... 46
3.10 Spousal Separation ............................................................................................................ 46
3.11 Knowledge and Attitudes regarding Tuberculosis............................................................. 47
3.12 Knowledge and Attitudes regarding COVID-19 ............................................................... 48

4 MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY .................................................................................. 93

4.1 Marital Status..................................................................................................................... 93
4.2 Marriage Registration ........................................................................................................ 94
4.3 Polygyny ............................................................................................................................ 95
4.4 Age at First Marriage......................................................................................................... 95
4.5 Age at First Sexual Intercourse ......................................................................................... 96
4.6 Recent Sexual Activity ...................................................................................................... 97

5 FERTILITY ................................................................................................................................. 109

5.1 Current Fertility ............................................................................................................... 109
5.2 Children Ever Born and Living ....................................................................................... 111
5.3 Birth Intervals .................................................................................................................. 111
5.4 Insusceptibility to Pregnancy........................................................................................... 112
5.5 Age of First Menstruation................................................................................................ 113
5.6 Arrival of Menopause ...................................................................................................... 113
5.7 Age at First Birth ............................................................................................................. 113
5.8 Teenage Pregnancy .......................................................................................................... 114
5.9 Pregnancy Outcomes and Induced Abortion Rates ......................................................... 115

6 FERTILITY PREFERENCES................................................................................................... 129

6.1 Desire for Another Child ................................................................................................. 129
6.2 Ideal Family Size ............................................................................................................. 130
6.3 Fertility Planning Status .................................................................................................. 131
6.4 Wanted Fertility Rates ..................................................................................................... 132

7 FAMILY PLANNING ................................................................................................................ 141

7.1 Contraceptive Knowledge and Use ................................................................................. 141
7.1.1 Use of Emergency Contraception ...................................................................... 143
7.1.2 Knowledge of the Fertile Period ........................................................................ 143
7.2 Source of Modern Contraceptive Methods ...................................................................... 144
7.3 Informed Choice .............................................................................................................. 144
7.4 Discontinuation of Contraceptives .................................................................................. 145
7.5 Demand for Family Planning .......................................................................................... 145
7.6 Decision Making about Family Planning and Opinion about Using Family
Planning ........................................................................................................................... 147
7.7 Pressure to Become Pregnant and Future Use of Contraception ..................................... 147
7.8 Exposure to Family Planning Messages .......................................................................... 147
7.9 Contact of Nonusers with Family Planning Providers..................................................... 148

8 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY ...................................................................................... 169

8.1 Infant and Child Mortality ............................................................................................... 170
8.2 Perinatal Mortality ........................................................................................................... 172
8.3 High-risk Fertility Behavior ............................................................................................ 173

iv • Contents
9 MATERNAL AND NEWBORN HEALTH CARE.................................................................. 179
9.1 Antenatal Care Coverage and Content ............................................................................ 180
9.1.1 Skilled Providers ................................................................................................ 180
9.1.2 Timing and Number of Antenatal Care Visits ................................................... 181
9.2 Components of Antenatal Care........................................................................................ 182
9.2.1 Deworming and Iron-containing Supplementation during Pregnancy ............... 184
9.2.2 Source of Iron-containing Supplements ............................................................. 185
9.3 Protection against Neonatal Tetanus ............................................................................... 185
9.4 Delivery Services............................................................................................................. 185
9.4.1 Institutional Deliveries ....................................................................................... 185
9.4.2 Delivery by Cesarean Section ............................................................................ 187
9.4.3 Skilled Assistance during Delivery .................................................................... 188
9.5 Postnatal Care .................................................................................................................. 190
9.5.1 Postnatal Health Check for Mothers .................................................................. 190
9.5.2 Postnatal Health Check for Newborns ............................................................... 191
9.5.3 Postnatal Health Checks for Mothers and Newborns ........................................ 192
9.5.4 Newborn Care Practices ..................................................................................... 192
9.6 Men’s Involvement in Maternal Health Care .................................................................. 193
9.7 Breast and Cervical Cancer Examinations ...................................................................... 194
9.8 Uterine Prolapse and Obstetric Fistula ............................................................................ 194
9.9 Problems in Accessing Health Care ................................................................................ 195
9.10 Distance and Means of Transport to the Nearest Health Facility .................................... 195

10 CHILD HEALTH........................................................................................................................ 245

10.1 Child’s Size ..................................................................................................................... 245
10.2 Vaccination of Children................................................................................................... 246
10.2.1 Vaccination Card Ownership and Availability .................................................. 246
10.2.2 Basic Antigen Coverage .................................................................................... 246
10.2.3 National Schedule Coverage .............................................................................. 248
10.3 Symptoms of Acute Respiratory Infection and Care-seeking Behavior .......................... 249
10.4 Fever and Care-seeking Behavior .................................................................................... 250
10.5 Diarrheal Disease............................................................................................................. 251
10.5.1 Diarrhea and Care-seeking Behavior ................................................................. 251
10.5.2 Feeding Practices ............................................................................................... 252
10.5.3 Oral Rehydration Therapy, Zinc, Continued Feeding, and Other
Treatments ......................................................................................................... 252
10.6 Treatment of Childhood Illness ....................................................................................... 254

11 NUTRITION OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS ........................................................................ 273

11.1 Nutritional Status of Children.......................................................................................... 273
11.2 Growth Monitoring and Promotion ................................................................................. 277
11.3 Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices ...................................................................... 279
11.3.1 Ever Breastfed, Early Initiation of Breastfeeding, and Exclusive
Breastfeeding for the First 2 Days after Birth .................................................... 279
11.3.2 Exclusive Breastfeeding and Mixed Milk Feeding ............................................ 280
11.3.3 Continued Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding .................................................... 281
11.3.4 Introduction of Complementary Foods .............................................................. 282
11.3.5 Minimum Dietary Diversity, Minimum Meal Frequency, Minimum Milk
Feeding Frequency, Minimum Acceptable Diet, and Egg and/or Flesh
Food Consumption ............................................................................................. 282
11.3.6 Sweet Beverage Consumption, Unhealthy Food Consumption, and Lack
of Vegetable or Fruit Consumption among Children ......................................... 284
11.3.7 Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) Indicators .......................................... 285

Contents • v
 11.4 Infant and Young Child Feeding Counseling .................................................................. 285
11.5 Anemia Prevalence in Children ....................................................................................... 286
11.6 Micronutrient Supplementation and Deworming among Children ................................. 287
11.7 Adults’ Nutritional Status ................................................................................................ 289
11.7.1 Nutritional Status of Women ............................................................................. 290
11.7.2 Nutritional Status of Men................................................................................... 290
11.8 Women’s Dietary Practices ............................................................................................. 291
11.9 Anemia Prevalence in Women ........................................................................................ 293
11.10 Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation .............................................................................. 293
11.11 Presence of Iodized Salt in Households........................................................................... 294
11.12 Health Mothers’ Group and Child Grant ......................................................................... 294

12 DISABILITY ............................................................................................................................... 331

12.1 Disability by Domain and Age ........................................................................................ 331
12.2 Disability among Adults by Other Background Characteristics ...................................... 332
12.3 Functional Disability According to Domain.................................................................... 333

13 KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR RELATED TO HIV AND AIDS .......... 341
13.1 Knowledge of HIV or AIDS ............................................................................................ 341
13.2 Knowledge and Attitudes about Medicines to Treat or Prevent HIV .............................. 342
13.3 Discriminatory Attitudes towards People Living with HIV ............................................ 343
13.4 Multiple Sexual Partners ................................................................................................. 344
13.5 Coverage of HIV Testing Services .................................................................................. 345
13.5.1 Provision of Information and HIV Testing of Pregnant Women ....................... 345
13.5.2 Experience with Prior HIV Testing ................................................................... 345
13.6 Self-reporting of Sexually Transmitted Infections .......................................................... 346
13.7 Knowledge and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS among Young People................... 347
13.7.1 Knowledge about HIV Prevention ..................................................................... 347
13.7.2 First Sex ............................................................................................................. 348
13.7.3 Premarital Sex .................................................................................................... 349
13.7.4 Multiple Sexual Partners .................................................................................... 349
13.7.5 Recent HIV Testing ........................................................................................... 349

14 BLOOD PRESSURE .................................................................................................................. 373

14.1 High Blood Pressure or Hypertension ............................................................................. 373
14.2 History of High Blood Pressure or Hypertension ............................................................ 374
14.3 Blood Pressure Status ...................................................................................................... 375
14.4 Controlled Blood Pressure Status .................................................................................... 377
14.5 Awareness, Medication, and Control of Hypertension .................................................... 378

15 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT ................................................................................................ 393

15.1 Married Women’s and Men’s Employment .................................................................... 394
15.2 Control over Women’s Earnings ..................................................................................... 395
15.3 Control over Men’s Earnings .......................................................................................... 395
15.4 Women’s and Men’s Ownership of Assets ..................................................................... 396
15.4.1 Ownership of a House or Land and Documentation of Ownership ................... 396
15.4.2 Ownership and Use of Mobile Phones and Bank Accounts............................... 397
15.5 Participation in Decision Making .................................................................................... 398
15.6 Attitudes toward Wife Beating ........................................................................................ 399
15.7 Negotiating Sexual Relations .......................................................................................... 399
15.8 Women’s Participation in Decision Making regarding Sexual and Reproductive
Health .............................................................................................................................. 400

vi • Contents
16 HOUSEHOLD WATER, SANITATION, AND HYGIENE ................................................... 423
16.1 Drinking Water Sources, Availability, and Treatment .................................................... 423
16.1.1 Drinking Water Service Ladder ......................................................................... 424
16.1.2 Person Collecting Drinking Water ..................................................................... 425
16.1.3 Availability of Drinking Water .......................................................................... 426
16.1.4 Treatment of Drinking Water ............................................................................. 426
16.2 Sanitation ......................................................................................................................... 426
16.2.1 Sanitation Service Ladder .................................................................................. 427
16.2.2 Removal and Disposal of Excreta ...................................................................... 428
16.3 Disposal of Children’s Stools .......................................................................................... 429
16.4 Handwashing ................................................................................................................... 430
16.5 Menstrual Hygiene .......................................................................................................... 430
16.5.1 Restrictions on Activities during Menstruation ................................................. 431

17 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ........................................................................................................... 447

17.1 Measurement of Violence ................................................................................................ 448
17.2 Women’s Experience of Physical Violence .................................................................... 449
17.2.1 Perpetrators of Physical Violence ...................................................................... 450
17.2.2 Experience of Physical Violence during Pregnancy .......................................... 450
17.3 Experience of Sexual Violence........................................................................................ 451
17.3.1 Prevalence of Sexual Violence .......................................................................... 451
17.3.2 Perpetrators of Sexual Violence......................................................................... 452
17.3.3 Experience of Sexual Violence by a Non-intimate Partner................................ 452
17.3.4 Age at First Experience of Sexual Violence ...................................................... 452
17.4 Experience of Different Forms of Violence .................................................................... 452
17.5 Forms of Controlling Behaviors and Intimate Partner Violence ..................................... 453
17.5.1 Prevalence of Controlling Behaviors and Intimate Partner Violence ................ 453
17.5.2 Intimate Partner Violence in the Last 12 Months Perpetrated by a
Husband/Intimate Partner .................................................................................. 456
17.6 Injuries to Women due to Intimate Partner Violence ...................................................... 456
17.7 Violence Initiated by Women against Husbands/Intimate Partners ................................ 456
17.8 Forms of Emotional Violence in the Household ............................................................. 457
17.9 Help Seeking among Women Who Have Experienced Violence .................................... 458

18 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES .................................................................................................. 481

18.1 Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes .................................................................................. 481
18.1.1 Deaths and Injuries from Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes ........................... 482
18.1.2 Types of Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes ..................................................... 483
18.1.3 Types of Injuries due to Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes ............................. 483
18.1.4 Continuing Health Problems due to Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes ........... 483
18.2 Other Incidents and Accidents ......................................................................................... 483
18.2.1 Deaths and Injuries from Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents ............. 484
18.2.2 Mechanism of Deaths and Injuries from Incidents other than Road Traffic
Accidents ........................................................................................................... 484
18.2.3 Types of Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents ...................................... 485
18.2.4 Types of Injuries due to Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents .............. 485
18.2.5 Continuing Health Problems due to Incidents other than Road Traffic
Accidents ........................................................................................................... 485

Contents • vii
 19 MENTAL HEALTH ................................................................................................................... 497
19.1 Symptoms of Anxiety ...................................................................................................... 498
19.1.1 Severity of Symptoms of Anxiety ...................................................................... 499
19.2 Symptoms of Depression ................................................................................................. 500
19.2.1 Severity of Symptoms of Depression................................................................. 500
19.3 Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression Among Women and Men (Using Country-
specific Cutoffs for Symptoms) ....................................................................................... 501
19.4 Treatment for Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression ..................................................... 502
19.5 Care Seeking for Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression ................................................ 502
19.6 Symptoms of Anxiety or Depression Adjusted for Treatment ........................................ 503

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 517

Appendix A SAMPLE DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 523

A.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 523
A.2 Sample Frame .................................................................................................................. 523
A.3 Sample Design and Implementation ................................................................................ 524
A.4 Sample Probabilities and Sampling Weights ................................................................... 528

Appendix B ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS ................................................................... 531

Appendix C DATA QUALITY TABLES ......................................................................................... 589

Appendix D PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE 2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND

HEALTH SURVEY....................................................................................................... 605

Appendix E QUESTIONNAIRES ..................................................................................................... 609

Household Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 611
Woman’s Questionnaire .................................................................................................. 633
Man’s Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 721
Biomarker Questionnaire ................................................................................................. 749
Remeasurement Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 781
Fieldworker Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 783

viii • Contents
TABLES AND FIGURES

1 INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 1

Table 1.1 Results of the household and individual interviews ............................................... 8

Figure 1.1 2022 Nepal DHS sample design ............................................................................ 2

2 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND HOUSEHOLD POPULATION ................................ 9

Table 2.1 Household characteristics .................................................................................... 20
Table 2.2 Household characteristics: Cooking..................................................................... 21
Table 2.3 Household characteristics: Heating and lighting.................................................. 22
Table 2.4 Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies ................................................ 23
Table 2.5 Household possessions......................................................................................... 24
Table 2.6 Wealth quintiles ................................................................................................... 25
Table 2.7 Household population by age, sex, and residence................................................ 26
Table 2.8 Household composition ....................................................................................... 27
Table 2.9 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood ................................................. 28
Table 2.10 Birth registration of children under age 5 ............................................................ 29
Table 2.11.1 Educational attainment of the female household population ............................... 30
Table 2.11.2 Educational attainment of the male household population .................................. 31
Table 2.12 School attendance ratios ...................................................................................... 32
Table 2.13 Participation rate in organized learning ............................................................... 34
Table 2.14 Household possession of mosquito nets............................................................... 35
Table 2.15 Source of insecticide-treated mosquito nets......................................................... 36
Table 2.16 Food insecurity .................................................................................................... 37

Figure 2.1 Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies by residence ........................... 10
Figure 2.2 Household wealth by residence............................................................................ 12
Figure 2.3 Population pyramid .............................................................................................. 13
Figure 2.4 Trends in birth registration................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.5 Birth registration by province .............................................................................. 14
Figure 2.6 Secondary school attendance by household wealth ............................................. 17

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................. 39

Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents .......................................................... 50
Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women .......................................................................... 52
Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men ............................................................................... 53
Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women ................................................................................................. 54
Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men ....................................................................................................... 55
Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women ........................................................................ 56
Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men ............................................................................. 57
Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women ........................................................................................ 58
Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men.............................................................................................. 59
Table 3.6.1 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Women .............. 60
Table 3.6.2 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Men ................... 61
Table 3.7.1 Employment status: Women ................................................................................ 62
Table 3.7.2 Employment status: Men ..................................................................................... 63
Table 3.8.1 Occupation: Women ............................................................................................ 64
Table 3.8.2 Occupation: Men.................................................................................................. 65

Tables and Figures • ix

 Table 3.9 Type of employment: Women ............................................................................. 66
Table 3.10.1 Health insurance coverage: Women .................................................................... 67
Table 3.10.2 Health insurance coverage: Men .......................................................................... 68
Table 3.11.1 Tobacco smoking: Women .................................................................................. 69
Table 3.11.2 Tobacco smoking: Men........................................................................................ 70
Table 3.12 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men .............................................. 71
Table 3.13 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use........................................................ 72
Table 3.14 Any tobacco use by background characteristics .................................................. 73
Table 3.15.1 Alcohol consumption: Women ............................................................................ 74
Table 3.15.2 Alcohol consumption: Men.................................................................................. 75
Table 3.16.1 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Women ........................................ 76
Table 3.16.2 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Men.............................................. 77
Table 3.17.1 Place of birth and recent migration: Women ....................................................... 78
Table 3.17.2 Place of birth and recent migration: Men ............................................................. 79
Table 3.18 Type of migration ................................................................................................ 80
Table 3.19.1 Reason for migration: Women ............................................................................. 81
Table 3.19.2 Reason for migration: Men .................................................................................. 82
Table 3.20 Spousal separation ............................................................................................... 83
Table 3.21.1 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Women ..................................................... 84
Table 3.21.2 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Men ........................................................... 85
Table 3.22.1 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Women .......................................... 86
Table 3.22.2 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Men ............................................... 87
Table 3.23 Source of treatment for TB .................................................................................. 88
Table 3.24.1 Knowledge about COVID-19: Women................................................................ 89
Table 3.24.2 Knowledge about COVID-19: Men ..................................................................... 90
Table 3.25 Source of knowledge on COVID-19 .................................................................... 91

Figure 3.1 Education of survey respondents ......................................................................... 40

Figure 3.2 Secondary education by household wealth .......................................................... 40
Figure 3.3 Secondary education by province ........................................................................ 41
Figure 3.4 Exposure to mass media....................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.5 Internet usage by wealth ...................................................................................... 42
Figure 3.6 Employment status by residence .......................................................................... 43
Figure 3.7 Occupation ........................................................................................................... 43
Figure 3.8 Any tobacco use by education ............................................................................. 45

4 MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY .................................................................................. 93

Table 4.1 Current marital status ........................................................................................... 99
Table 4.2 Marriage registration .......................................................................................... 100
Table 4.3.1 Number of women’s co-wives ........................................................................... 101
Table 4.3.2 Number of men’s wives ..................................................................................... 102
Table 4.4 Age at first marriage .......................................................................................... 103
Table 4.5 Median age at first marriage by background characteristics .............................. 104
Table 4.6 Age at first sexual intercourse............................................................................ 105
Table 4.7 Median age at first sexual intercourse by background characteristics ............... 106
Table 4.8.1 Recent sexual activity: Women.......................................................................... 107
Table 4.8.2 Recent sexual activity: Men ............................................................................... 108

Figure 4.1 Marital status........................................................................................................ 94

Figure 4.2 Median age at first sex and first marriage ............................................................ 96
Figure 4.3 Trends in early sexual intercourse ....................................................................... 97
Figure 4.4 Women’s and men’s median age at first intercourse by education ...................... 97

x • Tables and Figures

5 FERTILITY ................................................................................................................................. 109
Table 5.1 Current fertility .................................................................................................. 117
Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics .............................................................. 118
Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates................................................................... 119
Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates .................................................... 119
Table 5.4 Children ever born and living ............................................................................ 119
Table 5.5 Birth intervals .................................................................................................... 120
Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhea, abstinence, and insusceptibility .................................. 121
Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum
insusceptibility ................................................................................................... 122
Table 5.8 Age at first menstruation .................................................................................... 123
Table 5.9 Menopause ......................................................................................................... 123
Table 5.10 Age at first birth ................................................................................................. 123
Table 5.11 Median age at first birth ..................................................................................... 124
Table 5.12 Teenage pregnancy ............................................................................................ 125
Table 5.13 Sexual and reproductive health behaviors before age 15 ................................... 126
Table 5.14 Pregnancy outcome by background characteristics ........................................... 127
Table 5.15 Induced abortion rates ........................................................................................ 128

Figure 5.1 Trends in fertility by residence .......................................................................... 110

Figure 5.2 Trends in age-specific fertility ........................................................................... 110
Figure 5.3 Fertility by province ........................................................................................... 110
Figure 5.4 Fertility by household wealth............................................................................. 111
Figure 5.5 Birth intervals .................................................................................................... 111
Figure 5.6 Median age at first birth by education ............................................................... 114
Figure 5.7 Teenage pregnancy by household wealth .......................................................... 114
Figure 5.8 Pregnancy outcomes .......................................................................................... 115

6 FERTILITY PREFERENCES................................................................................................... 129

Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children ............................................ 134
Table 6.2.1 Desire to limit childbearing: Women ................................................................. 135
Table 6.2.2 Desire to limit childbearing: Men ...................................................................... 136
Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children ..................................... 137
Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children .......................................................................... 138
Table 6.5 Fertility planning status...................................................................................... 139
Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates.......................................................................................... 140

Figure 6.1 Trends in desire to limit childbearing by number of living children.................. 130
Figure 6.2 Desire to limit childbearing by number of living children ................................. 130
Figure 6.3 Ideal family size ................................................................................................. 131
Figure 6.4 Ideal family size by number of living children .................................................. 131
Figure 6.5 Fertility planning status...................................................................................... 132
Figure 6.6 Trends in fertility planning status ...................................................................... 132
Figure 6.7 Trends in wanted and actual fertility.................................................................. 133

7 FAMILY PLANNING ................................................................................................................ 141

Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods ................................................................ 150
Table 7.2 Current use of contraception according to age ................................................... 150
Table 7.3.1 Trends in current use of contraception ............................................................... 151
Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics .............. 152
Table 7.4 Timing of sterilization........................................................................................ 153
Table 7.5 Use of emergency contraception ........................................................................ 154
Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period ............................................................................... 155

Tables and Figures • xi

 Table 7.7 Knowledge of fertile period by age.................................................................... 155
Table 7.8 Source of modern contraceptive methods .......................................................... 156
Table 7.9 Use of social marketing brand pills and condoms ............................................. 157
Table 7.10 Informed choice ................................................................................................. 158
Table 7.11 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates ........................................... 159
Table 7.12 Reasons for discontinuation ............................................................................... 159
Table 7.13.1 Need and demand for family planning among currently married women ......... 160
Table 7.13.2 Need and demand for family planning among all women ................................. 161
Table 7.14 Decision making about family planning ............................................................ 162
Table 7.15 Decision making about family planning by background characteristics ............ 163
Table 7.16 Pressure to become pregnant ............................................................................. 164
Table 7.17 Future use of contraception ................................................................................ 165
Table 7.18.1 Exposure to family planning messages: Women ............................................... 166
Table 7.18.2 Exposure to family planning messages: Men..................................................... 167
Table 7.19 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers ......................................... 168

Figure 7.1 Contraceptive use ............................................................................................... 142

Figure 7.2 Trends in contraceptive use ............................................................................... 142
Figure 7.3 Use of contraceptive methods by residence ....................................................... 143
Figure 7.4 Modern contraceptive use by province .............................................................. 143
Figure 7.5 Source of modern contraceptive methods .......................................................... 144
Figure 7.6 Contraceptive discontinuation rates ................................................................... 145
Figure 7.7 Demand for family planning .............................................................................. 146
Figure 7.8 Trends in demand for family planning ............................................................... 146
Figure 7.9 Unmet need by province .................................................................................... 147

8 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY ...................................................................................... 169

Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates .......................................................................... 174
Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background
characteristics..................................................................................................... 174
Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according to additional
characteristics..................................................................................................... 175
Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality .............................................................................................. 176
Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behavior ................................................................................ 177

Figure 8.1 Trends in early childhood mortality rates .......................................................... 170

Figure 8.2 Childhood mortality by previous birth interval .................................................. 171
Figure 8.3 Under-5 mortality by province ........................................................................... 171
Figure 8.4 Under-5 mortality by household wealth............................................................. 172
Figure 8.5 Perinatal mortality by mother’s education ......................................................... 173

9 MATERNAL AND NEWBORN HEALTH CARE.................................................................. 179

Table 9.1 Antenatal care .................................................................................................... 197
Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit .................................... 199
Table 9.3 Reasons for not making at least four antenatal care visits ................................. 201
Table 9.4.1 Components of antenatal care among women receiving ANC .......................... 202
Table 9.4.2 Components of antenatal care among all women .............................................. 204
Table 9.5 Deworming and iron-containing supplementation during pregnancy ................ 206
Table 9.6 Reasons for not taking iron tablets for 180 days ................................................ 208
Table 9.7 Source of iron-containing supplements.............................................................. 209
Table 9.8 Tetanus toxoid injections ................................................................................... 210
Table 9.9 Place of delivery ................................................................................................ 211
Table 9.10 Reasons for not delivering in a health facility ................................................... 213

xii • Tables and Figures

 Table 9.11 Cash incentive for delivering in health facility .................................................. 214
Table 9.12 Cesarean section ................................................................................................ 216
Table 9.13 Assistance during delivery ................................................................................. 218
Table 9.14 Duration of stay in health facility after birth ...................................................... 219
Table 9.15 Respectful care from health care providers........................................................ 220
Table 9.16 Respectful treatment at the health facility during maternity care ...................... 222
Table 9.17 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother................................................... 224
Table 9.18 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother ................................... 226
Table 9.19 Content of postnatal care for the mother ............................................................ 228
Table 9.20 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn ................................................ 230
Table 9.21 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn ................................. 231
Table 9.22 Content of postnatal care for newborns ............................................................. 232
Table 9.23 Postnatal checks on mother and newborn .......................................................... 233
Table 9.24 Bathing newborns .............................................................................................. 234
Table 9.25 Cord cutting ....................................................................................................... 235
Table 9.26 Cord care ............................................................................................................ 236
Table 9.27 Use of chlorhexidine .......................................................................................... 237
Table 9.28 Men’s involvement in maternal health care ....................................................... 238
Table 9.29 Examinations for breast and cervical cancer ...................................................... 240
Table 9.30 Problems in accessing health care ...................................................................... 242
Table 9.31 Distance from health care .................................................................................. 243

Figure 9.1 Trends in antenatal care coverage ...................................................................... 180

Figure 9.2 Components of antenatal care by pregnancy outcome ....................................... 183
Figure 9.3 Trends in receiving specific components of ANC ............................................. 184
Figure 9.4 Trends in place of birth ...................................................................................... 186
Figure 9.5 Health facility births by province....................................................................... 187
Figure 9.6 Health facility births by education .................................................................... 187
Figure 9.7 C-sections by household wealth ......................................................................... 188
Figure 9.8 Assistance during delivery ................................................................................. 188
Figure 9.9 Trends in delivery assistance ............................................................................. 189
Figure 9.10 Skilled assistance at delivery by household wealth ........................................... 189
Figure 9.11 Postnatal care by place of delivery .................................................................... 192

10 CHILD HEALTH........................................................................................................................ 245

Table 10.1 Child’s size ........................................................................................................ 255
Table 10.2 Possession and observation of vaccination cards ............................................... 256
Table 10.3 Vaccinations by source of information .............................................................. 257
Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics ...................................................... 258
Table 10.5 Source of vaccinations ....................................................................................... 261
Table 10.6 Children receiving vaccinations impacted by COVID-19 ................................. 262
Table 10.7 Children with symptoms of ARI ........................................................................ 263
Table 10.8 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI ................... 264
Table 10.9 Children with fever and care seeking for fever .................................................. 265
Table 10.10 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever ....................................... 266
Table 10.11 Children with diarrhea and care seeking for diarrhea ........................................ 267
Table 10.12 Feeding practices during diarrhea ...................................................................... 269
Table 10.13 Oral rehydration salts, zinc, continued feeding, and other treatments for
diarrhea .............................................................................................................. 270
Table 10.14 Duration of treatment with zinc for diarrhea...................................................... 271
Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhea................................... 272

Tables and Figures • xiii

 Figure 10.1 Childhood vaccinations ...................................................................................... 247
Figure 10.2 Trends in childhood vaccinations ...................................................................... 248
Figure 10.3 Vaccination coverage by province ..................................................................... 248
Figure 10.4 Vaccination coverage by mother’s education .................................................... 249
Figure 10.5 Diarrhea prevalence by age ................................................................................ 251
Figure 10.6 Feeding practices during diarrhea ...................................................................... 252
Figure 10.7 Treatment of diarrhea ......................................................................................... 253
Figure 10.8 Symptoms of childhood illness and care seeking .............................................. 254

11 NUTRITION OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS ........................................................................ 273

Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children ............................................................................. 296
Table 11.2 Child growth monitoring.................................................................................... 298
Table 11.3 Discussions of child growth ............................................................................... 299
Table 11.4 Reasons for not having child measured for growth monitoring ......................... 300
Table 11.5 Growth monitoring and promotion .................................................................... 301
Table 11.6 Counseling at growth monitoring and promotion sessions ................................ 302
Table 11.7 Early breastfeeding ............................................................................................ 303
Table 11.8 Breastfeeding status according to age ................................................................ 305
Table 11.9 Infant feeding practices by age .......................................................................... 306
Table 11.10 Liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview ...... 306
Table 11.11 Foods consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview ......... 307
Table 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, and minimum
acceptable diet among children .......................................................................... 308
Table 11.13 Egg and/or flesh food consumption and unhealthy feeding practices
among children age 6–23 months ...................................................................... 310
Table 11.14 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators ............................................. 311
Table 11.15 Infant and young child feeding counseling ........................................................ 312
Table 11.16 Providers and time when IYCF counseling received ......................................... 313
Table 11.17 Topics discussed during IYCF counseling......................................................... 314
Table 11.18 Prevalence of anemia in children ....................................................................... 315
Table 11.19 Micronutrient supplementation and deworming among children ...................... 316
Table 11.20 Counseling on multiple micronutrient powders ................................................. 317
Table 11.21.1 Nutritional status of women age 20–49 ............................................................. 318
Table 11.21.2 Nutritional status of adolescent women age 15–19............................................ 319
Table 11.21.3 Nutritional status of men age 20–49 .................................................................. 320
Table 11.21.4 Nutritional status of adolescent men age 15–19 ................................................ 321
Table 11.22 Foods and liquids consumed by women in the day or night preceding the
interview ............................................................................................................ 322
Table 11.23 Minimum dietary diversity and unhealthy food and beverage consumption
among women .................................................................................................... 324
Table 11.24 Prevalence of anemia in women ........................................................................ 325
Table 11.25 Iron and folic acid supplementation among adolescent women age 15–19 ....... 326
Table 11.26 Presence of iodized salt in household ................................................................ 327
Table 11.27 Health Mothers’ Group ...................................................................................... 328
Table 11.28 Topics discussed during Health Mothers’ Group meetings ............................... 329
Table 11.29 Receipt of child grant ......................................................................................... 330

Figure 11.1 Trends in child growth measures ....................................................................... 275

Figure 11.2 Trends in stunting .............................................................................................. 276
Figure 11.3 Stunting in children by province ........................................................................ 276
Figure 11.4 Stunting in children by household wealth .......................................................... 277
Figure 11.5 Infant feeding practices by age .......................................................................... 280

xiv • Tables and Figures

 Figure 11.6 Trends in exclusive breastfeeding ...................................................................... 281
Figure 11.7 IYCF indicators on minimum acceptable diet by breastfeeding status .............. 283
Figure 11.8 Unhealthy feeding practices among children age 6–23 months
by residence ....................................................................................................... 285
Figure 11.9 Trends in childhood anemia ............................................................................... 287
Figure 11.10 Anemia in children by province ......................................................................... 287
Figure 11.11 Nutritional status of adolescent and adult women and men ............................... 290
Figure 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity among women by education................................... 292

12 DISABILITY ............................................................................................................................... 331

Table 12.1 Disability by domain and age ............................................................................ 335
Table 12.2.1 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Women ...... 336
Table 12.2.2 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Men ............ 337
Table 12.3.1 Functional disability according to domain: Women .......................................... 338
Table 12.3.2 Functional disability according to domain: Men ............................................... 339

Figure 12.1 Degree of difficulty in functional domains ........................................................ 332

Figure 12.2 Level of difficulty in at least one domain .......................................................... 332
Figure 12.3 A lot of difficulty or cannot do at all in at least one domain by education ........ 333

13 KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR RELATED TO HIV AND AIDS .......... 341
Table 13.1 Knowledge of HIV or AIDS .............................................................................. 351
Table 13.2 Knowledge of and attitudes about medicines to treat HIV or prevent HIV
transmission ....................................................................................................... 352
Table 13.3 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV ................... 354
Table 13.4 Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV ................................. 355
Table 13.5 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12
months: Men ...................................................................................................... 357
Table 13.6 Information on HIV provided during antenatal care visits ................................ 359
Table 13.7 Pregnant women tested for HIV......................................................................... 360
Table 13.8.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women ............................................................. 361
Table 13.8.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men .................................................................. 362
Table 13.9 Number of times tested for HIV in lifetime ....................................................... 363
Table 13.10 Knowledge and coverage of self-testing for HIV .............................................. 364
Table 13.11 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI
symptoms ........................................................................................................... 365
Table 13.12.1 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Women .................... 366
Table 13.12.2 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Men ......................... 368
Table 13.13 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people ......................................... 369
Table 13.14 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people........................................... 370
Table 13.15 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12
months among young people: Men .................................................................... 371
Table 13.16 Recent HIV tests among young people .............................................................. 371

Figure 13.1 Knowledge of medicines to treat HIV or prevent HIV transmission ................. 342
Figure 13.2 Trends in knowledge of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) ........................ 342
Figure 13.3 Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV by education ............ 344
Figure 13.4 Sex and condom use with noncohabiting partners ............................................. 344
Figure 13.5 HIV testing ......................................................................................................... 345
Figure 13.6 Trends in HIV testing......................................................................................... 346
Figure 13.7 HIV testing by education ................................................................................... 346
Figure 13.8 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people ................................... 348
Figure 13.9 Trends in age at first sexual intercourse among young people .......................... 349

Tables and Figures • xv

 14 BLOOD PRESSURE .................................................................................................................. 373
Table 14.1.1 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by women ...... 380
Table 14.1.2 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by men ........... 382
Table 14.2.1 Blood pressure status of women ........................................................................ 384
Table 14.2.2 Blood pressure status of men ............................................................................. 386
Table 14.3.1 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among women ...................................... 388
Table 14.3.2 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among men ........................................... 390

Figure 14.1 Trends in blood pressure measurement prior to the survey ............................... 375
Figure 14.2 Hypertension prevalence by age ........................................................................ 376
Figure 14.3 Prevalence of hypertension by nutritional status ............................................... 376
Figure 14.4 Hypertension by province .................................................................................. 377
Figure 14.5 Hypertension by household wealth .................................................................... 377
Figure 14.6 Awareness of hypertension and treatment status ............................................... 378

15 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT ................................................................................................ 393

Table 15.1 Employment and cash earnings of currently married women and men ............. 403
Table 15.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s
cash earnings ...................................................................................................... 404
Table 15.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings ...................................................................... 405
Table 15.3.1 House and land ownership: Women .................................................................. 406
Table 15.3.2 House and land ownership: Men........................................................................ 406
Table 15.4.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Women ............................ 407
Table 15.4.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Men ................................. 408
Table 15.5.1 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women .............................. 409
Table 15.5.2 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men ................................... 410
Table 15.6.1 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Women ................... 411
Table 15.6.2 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Men ........................ 412
Table 15.7 Participation in decision making ........................................................................ 413
Table 15.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics ....... 414
Table 15.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics ............ 415
Table 15.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women ............................................................... 416
Table 15.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men .................................................................... 418
Table 15.10 Attitudes toward negotiating safer sexual relations with husband ..................... 420
Table 15.11 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with husband ............................................ 421
Table 15.12 Women’s participation in decision making regarding sexual and
reproductive health............................................................................................. 422

Figure 15.1 Employment by age ........................................................................................... 394

Figure 15.2 Control over women’s earnings ......................................................................... 395
Figure 15.3 Ownership of assets ........................................................................................... 396
Figure 15.4 Women’s participation in decision making........................................................ 398
Figure 15.5 Women’s participation in decision making regarding sexual and
reproductive health by education ....................................................................... 401

16 HOUSEHOLD WATER, SANITATION, AND HYGIENE ................................................... 423

Table 16.1 Household drinking water .................................................................................. 433
Table 16.2 Drinking water service ladder ............................................................................ 434
Table 16.3 Person collecting drinking water........................................................................ 435
Table 16.4 Availability of sufficient drinking water ............................................................ 436
Table 16.5 Treatment of household drinking water ............................................................. 437
Table 16.6 Household sanitation facilities ........................................................................... 438
Table 16.7 Sanitation service ladder .................................................................................... 439

xvi • Tables and Figures

 Table 16.8 Emptying and removal of waste from on-site sanitation facilities ..................... 440
Table 16.9 Management of household excreta .................................................................... 441
Table 16.10 Disposal of children’s stools .............................................................................. 442
Table 16.11 Handwashing ..................................................................................................... 443
Table 16.12 Menstrual hygiene.............................................................................................. 444
Table 16.13 Restrictions on activities during menstrual period ............................................. 445

Figure 16.1 Household population drinking water service by residence............................... 425

Figure 16.2 Person collecting drinking water........................................................................ 425
Figure 16.3 Availability of sufficient quantities of drinking water by ecological zone ........ 426
Figure 16.4 Household population sanitation service by residence ...................................... 427
Figure 16.5 Household population sanitation service by province........................................ 428
Figure 16.6 Appropriate management of household excreta ................................................. 429
Figure 16.7 Appropriate management of household excreta by wealth ................................ 429
Figure 16.8 Menstrual hygiene by education ........................................................................ 431

17 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ........................................................................................................... 447

Table 17.1 Experience of physical violence by any perpetrator .......................................... 460
Table 17.2 Persons committing physical violence ............................................................... 461
Table 17.3 Experience of violence during pregnancy .......................................................... 462
Table 17.4 Experience of sexual violence by any perpetrator ............................................. 463
Table 17.5 Persons committing sexual violence .................................................................. 464
Table 17.6 Experience of sexual violence by any non-intimate partner .............................. 465
Table 17.7 Age at first experience of sexual violence ......................................................... 466
Table 17.8 Experience of different forms of violence ......................................................... 466
Table 17.9 Forms of controlling behaviors and intimate partner violence .......................... 467
Table 17.10 Controlling behaviors of husband/intimate partner by background
characteristics..................................................................................................... 468
Table 17.11 Intimate partner violence by background characteristics ................................... 470
Table 17.12 Intimate partner violence by husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics
and women’s empowerment indicators.............................................................. 471
Table 17.13 Violence by any husband/intimate partner in the last 12 months ...................... 472
Table 17.14 Injuries to women due to intimate partner violence ........................................... 473
Table 17.15 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by women’s
background characteristics ................................................................................. 474
Table 17.16 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by
husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment
indicators............................................................................................................ 476
Table 17.17 Forms of emotional violence in the household .................................................. 477
Table 17.18 Help seeking to stop violence ............................................................................ 478
Table 17.19 Sources for help to stop the violence ................................................................. 479

Figure 17.1 Women’s experience of violence by marital status............................................ 450

Figure 17.2 Experience of physical violence during pregnancy by number of living
children .............................................................................................................. 451
Figure 17.3 Forms of controlling behaviors .......................................................................... 453
Figure 17.4 Forms of intimate partner violence .................................................................... 454
Figure 17.5 Intimate partner violence by province ............................................................... 455
Figure 17.6 Intimate partner violence by husband’s/intimate partner’s alcohol
consumption ....................................................................................................... 455
Figure 17.7 Help seeking by type of violence experienced ................................................... 458

Tables and Figures • xvii

 18 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES .................................................................................................. 481
Table 18.1 Deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents or crashes ................................ 487
Table 18.2 Types of road traffic accidents or crashes .......................................................... 488
Table 18.3 Injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes ................................................. 489
Table 18.4 Continuing health problems due to road traffic accidents or crashes................. 490
Table 18.5 Deaths and injuries from incidents other than road traffic accidents ................. 491
Table 18.6 Mechanism of death or injury other than road traffic accidents ........................ 492
Table 18.7 Types of incidents other than road traffic accidents .......................................... 493
Table 18.8 Types of non-road traffic injuries ...................................................................... 494
Table 18.9 Continuing health problems due to incidents other than road traffic
accidents............................................................................................................. 495

Figure 18.1 Types of road traffic accidents or crashes .......................................................... 483

Figure 18.2 Mechanism of death or injury other than road traffic accidents by
residence ............................................................................................................ 484
Figure 18.3 Types of incidents other than road traffic accidents .......................................... 485

19 MENTAL HEALTH ................................................................................................................... 497

Table 19.1 Symptoms of anxiety ......................................................................................... 505
Table 19.2.1 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Women ......................................................... 506
Table 19.2.2 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Men .............................................................. 507
Table 19.3 Symptoms of depression .................................................................................... 508
Table 19.4.1 Severity of symptoms of depression: Women ................................................... 509
Table 19.4.2 Severity of symptoms of depression: Men ......................................................... 510
Table 19.5 Symptoms of anxiety and depression among women and men ......................... 511
Table 19.6.1 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Women .............................. 512
Table 19.6.2 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Men ................................... 513
Table 19.7.1 Care seeking and providers: Women ................................................................. 514
Table 19.7.2 Care seeking and providers: Men....................................................................... 515
Table 19.8 Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety and/or depression unadjusted and
adjusted for treatment ........................................................................................ 516

Figure 19.1 Severity of anxiety (GAD-7) ............................................................................. 499

Figure 19.2 Symptoms of anxiety by education .................................................................... 500
Figure 19.3 Severity of depression (PHQ-9) ......................................................................... 501
Figure 19.4 Symptoms of anxiety and depression according to cutoffs used in Nepal ......... 502

Appendix A SAMPLE DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 523

Table A.1 Distribution of households by province and type of residence .......................... 524
Table A.2 Distribution of sub-wards by province and type of residence ............................ 524
Table A.3 Sample allocation of clusters and households by province and type of
residence ............................................................................................................ 525
Table A.4 Sample allocation of expected number of interviews by province and type
of residence ........................................................................................................ 525
Table A.5 Sample implementation: Women ....................................................................... 526
Table A.6 Sample implementation: Men ............................................................................ 527

Appendix B ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS ................................................................... 531

Table B.1 List of selected variables for sampling errors, Nepal DHS 2022 ....................... 533
Table B.2 Sampling errors: Total sample, Nepal DHS 2022 .............................................. 535
Table B.3 Sampling errors: Urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............................................ 537
Table B.4 Sampling errors: Rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............................................. 539
Table B.5 Sampling errors: Mountain sample, Nepal DHS 2022....................................... 541

xviii • Tables and Figures

 Table B.6 Sampling errors: Hill sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................................................ 543
Table B.7 Sampling errors: Terai sample, Nepal DHS 2022 .............................................. 545
Table B.8 Sampling errors: Koshi Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............................. 547
Table B.9 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ........................ 549
Table B.10 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ......................... 551
Table B.11 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ......................... 553
Table B.12 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ......................... 555
Table B.13 Sampling errors: Karnali Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ........................... 557
Table B.14 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022 .............. 559
Table B.15 Sampling errors: Koshi Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................... 561
Table B.16 Sampling errors: Koshi Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ..................... 563
Table B.17 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 .............. 565
Table B.18 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................ 567
Table B.19 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............... 569
Table B.20 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................. 571
Table B.21 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............... 573
Table B.22 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................. 575
Table B.23 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ............... 577
Table B.24 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................. 579
Table B.25 Sampling errors: Karnali Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ................. 581
Table B.26 Sampling errors: Karnali Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022................... 583
Table B.27 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province urban sample, Nepal DHS
2022 ................................................................................................................... 585
Table B.28 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022 ...... 587

Appendix C DATA QUALITY TABLES ......................................................................................... 589

Table C.1 Household age distribution ................................................................................ 589
Table C.2.1 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed women ......................................... 590
Table C.2.2 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed men .............................................. 590
Table C.3 Age displacement at age 14/15 .......................................................................... 591
Table C.4 Age displacement at age 49/50 .......................................................................... 591
Table C.5 Pregnancy outcomes by years preceding the survey .......................................... 592
Table C.6 Completeness of reporting ................................................................................. 593
Table C.7 Standardization exercise results from anthropometry training .......................... 594
Table C.8 Height and weight data completeness and quality for children ......................... 595
Table C.9 Height measurements from random subsample of measured children............... 597
Table C.10 Interference in height and weight measurements of children ............................ 598
Table C.11 Interference in height and weight measurements of women and men ............... 599
Table C.12 Heaping in anthropometric measurements for children (digit preference) ........ 600
Table C.13 Food insecurity data completeness, infit and outfit model statistics, and
Rasch reliability ................................................................................................. 600
Table C.14 Observation of handwashing facility ................................................................. 601
Table C.15 School attendance by single year of age ............................................................ 602
Table C.16 Vaccination cards photographed ........................................................................ 603

Tables and Figures • xix

MESSAGE

T
he Constitution of Nepal has established basic health care as a fundamental right of the country’s
citizens. As the country has moved to a federal governance system, it is the responsibility of the
state to ensure access to quality health services for all citizens based on the contextual norms of the
federal system. The National Health Policy 2019 aims to develop and expand a health system for all
citizens in the federal structure based on social justice and good governance and ensure access to and
utilization of quality health services. The Government of Nepal is committed to promoting health and well-
being for the people of Nepal. The 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) is a vital tool to
monitor the effectiveness of health interventions, measure population health outcomes, and determine
disparities according to geography, provinces, and different population groups.

I am pleased that several outstanding achievements have been made in the health sector in the past few
decades. Nepal has made substantial progress in improving the health of mothers and children, although
work remains in some areas. I am hopeful that this 2022 NDHS report will be helpful for the Ministry of
Health and Population (MoHP) and other stakeholders, and I urge all of my officials at the MoHP to use
the information from the report in policy formulation and revisions and program implementation to fulfill
the objectives of the National Health Policy.

I appreciate the leadership of the Health Secretary, Additional Secretaries, Director Generals, Division
Chiefs, and Directors and the contributions of all of the officials of the MoHP to finalizing this report. My
special appreciation goes to the members of the Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division team for their
leadership role in the NDHS implementation. I am thankful to the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) for its financial and technical assistance in the implementation of the report.
Finally, I congratulate all who were involved in the preparation of the report.

Mr. Mohan Bahadur Basnet

Minister,
Ministry of Health and Population

Message • xxi
PREFACE

T he 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) is the sixth survey of its kind
implemented in the country as part of the worldwide Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)
Program. It was implemented by New ERA under the aegis of the Ministry of Health and
Population (MoHP) of the Government of Nepal with the objective of providing reliable, accurate, and up-
to-date data for the country. The survey received funding from the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID). We hope that the information in this report will assist policymakers and program
managers in policy formulation and monitoring and designing programs and strategies for improving
health services in Nepal. The 2022 NDHS is a key data source for the Nepal Health Sector Strategy
(NHSS) 2016–2022 and the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators. This report presents the
findings of the survey. We are glad that despite the challenges of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-
19), we were able to successfully complete the survey, although data collection was delayed by a year.

The 2022 NDHS is a national sample survey that provides up-to-date information on fertility levels,
marriage, fertility preferences, awareness and use of family planning methods, breastfeeding practices,
nutrition, maternal and child health, childhood mortality, awareness and behavior regarding HIV/AIDS and
other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), women’s empowerment and domestic violence, fistula, mental
health, accidents and injuries, disability, food insecurity, and other health-related issues such as smoking,
knowledge of tuberculosis, and prevalence of hypertension. The survey interviewed women and men age
15–49 residing in randomly selected households across the country. In addition to national estimates, the
report provides estimates of key indicators for both urban and rural areas of the seven provinces in Nepal.

The successful completion of the 2022 NDHS was made possible through contributions from a number of
organizations and professionals. We would like to acknowledge the financial assistance and support
provided by USAID in Nepal. The technical advice provided by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC)
and Technical Working Group (TWG) during different survey phases was crucial for the success of the
survey. Furthermore, the support and collaboration rendered by the national, provincial, and local
administrations; nongovernmental and international development partners; and other stakeholders are
greatly acknowledged. We would like to thank ICF for technical backstopping throughout the survey.

The MoHP appreciates the effort of Dr. Krishna Prasad Paudel and the team of the Policy, Planning and
Monitoring Division for their leadership during the survey design and implementation. We are grateful to
the 2022 NDHS core team at New ERA for managing technical, administrative, and logistical aspects of
the survey implementation despite the challenges faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We are also
grateful to the trainers for their support in training and in monitoring of fieldwork, the field staff for data
collection, the data processing team, and, in particular, the survey respondents. Despite the delay in
preparation of the survey by almost a year, we were able to implement a high-quality survey and now have
data to monitor programs and track progress. Finally, we urge all stakeholders to play active roles in
optimizing use of the survey data for planning and program management.

Preface • xxiii
FOREWORD

W e are extremely delighted with the successful completion of the 2022 Nepal Demographic and
Health Survey (NDHS) as it provides up-to-date, detailed information regarding fertility levels,
marriage, fertility preferences, awareness and use of family planning methods, breastfeeding
practices, nutrition, maternal and child health, childhood mortality, awareness and behavior regarding
HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), women’s empowerment and domestic
violence, fistula, mental health, accidents and injuries, disability, food insecurity, and other health-related
issues such as smoking, knowledge of tuberculosis, and prevalence of hypertension. With the availability
of new information, we will be able to update existing policies, strategies, and plans to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals. This report will be crucial for setting the baseline of the new health sector
strategy that the Ministry of Health and Population and health sector partners have jointly developed.

We highly appreciate and commend the hard work and persistent efforts of all institutions and individuals
involved in the survey. We would like to especially thank the Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division for
taking the lead in the survey and providing technical support and guidance through the NDHS Technical
Advisory Committee and NDHS Technical Working Group.

The survey is the result of our continuous collaboration with the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID). We would like to thank USAID’s global Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)
Program, managed by ICF, for its technical assistance. We extend our deep gratitude to New ERA, the
national survey organization, for its determined and sincere effort and extremely dedicated hard work in
successfully conducting such a large-scale, complex survey.

Finally, we would like to express our sincere thanks to all who directly or indirectly supported the survey
and helped to bring the report to its successful completion. We anticipate that the information generated
from the survey will help in the development of better policies for improving maternal, child health, and
family planning services in Nepal.

Foreword • xxv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T
he 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) is the result of an intense effort put forth
by different individuals and organizations. The survey was conducted under the aegis of the
Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) of the Government of Nepal. The United States Agency
for International Development (USAID) provided financial support through its mission in Nepal, while
technical assistance was provided through USAID’s global Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)
Program. The DHS Program is managed by ICF and its local partner New ERA, a national-level research
firm with wide experience in conducting such surveys in the past.

We express our deep sense of appreciation to the technical experts in the various fields of population and
health for their valuable input during the various phases of the survey, including the development of final
questionnaires, training of field staff, review of draft tables, and report writing. The input provided by the
members of the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) and Technical Working Group (TWG) is highly
appreciated. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to Mr. Keshab Raj Pandit and Mr. Shambhu
Jnawali, former Section Chief of Monitoring and Evaluation, for their guidance and support during the
initial phase of the survey. We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to Ms. Dev Kumari
Guragain and Dr. Roshan Pokhrel, Health Secretaries at MoHP, and Dr. Sangita Kausal Mishra, Additional
Health Secretary at MoHP, for their direction and guidance in completing the survey. Special thanks go to
Dr. Guna Nidhi Sharma, Senior Health Administrator, and Mr. Ravi Kant Mishra, Senior Public Health
Officer from Monitoring and Evaluation, for their continued efforts in successfully implementing the
survey. Similarly, we thank Mr. Manoj Tamrakar, Ms. Chitra Khanal, and Mr. Tulsi Ram Thapa for their
support during different phases of the survey.

We would like to extend our appreciation to the USAID mission in Nepal for funding the survey. We
would particularly like to thank Ms. Patricia Mengech, USAID Nepal Health Office Director; Dr.
Kimberly Waller, Health Office Deputy Director; and Ms. Sabita Tuladhar, Health Office Strategic
Information and Research Adviser, for their continuous support in improving the quality of the survey.

The technical support provided by ICF is highly appreciated and acknowledged. Our special thanks go to
Ms. Anjushree Pradhan, Senior Survey Coordinator of The DHS Program, for her technical support
throughout the survey. We would also like to thank Mr. Rajendra Lal Dangol, Data Processing Specialist;
Dr. Sarang Pedgaonkar, Biomarker Specialist; and other ICF staff for their valuable technical assistance
and contribution. Similarly, special thanks go to the core staff and other staff members of New ERA for
their valuable contributions to the high-quality field implementation of the survey despite the challenges
faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic: Ms. Nira Joshi, Team Leader; Mr. Yogendra Prasai, Senior
Technical Advisor; Ms. Sajani Manandhar and Ms. Jyoti Manandhar, Senior Research Officers; Mr.
Ramesh Dangi and Mr. Sachin Shrestha, Assistant Research Officers; Ms. Sarita Baidya, Senior Data
Processing Officer; Mr. Sanish Shrestha, Mr. Gehendra Man Pradhan, and Mr. Sajid Shrestha, IT/data
processing supervisors; Mr. Sanu Raja Shakya, word processing staff member; quality control team
members; and other field staff. We would also like to thank all of the contributors to the report.

The survey was made possible through the cooperation we received from local-level agencies, including
the Provincial, District, and Municipal Offices. The female community health volunteers require special
mention here; their support has been highly appreciated. Finally, we extend our deepest gratitude to all of
the respondents for their time and patience during the interviews.

Acknowledgements • xxvii
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH
SURVEY TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Secretary, Ministry of Health and Population Coordinator

Additional Health Secretaries, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Chief, Department of Population, Tribhuvan University Member
Director General, Department of Health Services Member
Director General, Central Statistics Department Member
Joint Secretary, National Planning Commission Member
Chief, Health Coordination Division, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Chief, Quality Assurance and Regulation Division, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Chief, Population Management Division, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Chief, Administration Division, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Director, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services Member
Director, Management Division, Department of Health Services Member
Director, Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, Department of Health Services Member
Director, Nursing and Social Security Division, Department of Health Services Member
Director, Curative Service Division, Department of Health Services Member
Director, National Tuberculosis Control Centre Member
Director, National Health Training Centre Member
Director, National Health Education Information and Communication Center Member
Director, National Public Health Laboratory Member
Director, National Center for AIDS and STI Control Member
Member Secretary, Nepal Health Research Council Representative Member
Chief, External Development Partners Member
Chief, Policy Planning and Monitoring Division, Ministry of Health and Population Member Secretary

Technical Committee • xxix

 2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH
SURVEY TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP

Chief, Policy Planning and Monitoring Division, Ministry of Health and Population Coordinator
Chief, Population Management Section, PMD, Ministry of Health and Population Member
Chief, Curative Service, Education and Research Section, PPMD, MoHP Member
Chief, Development Support and Coordination Section, Health Coordination Division, Member
MoHP
Senior Health Administrator, Policy and Planning Section, PPMD, MoHP Member
Senior/Medicine Administrator, Quality Assurance and Regulation Division, MoHP Member
Chief, Provincial and Local Health Coordination Section, Health Coordination Division Member
Chief, Monitoring Evaluation Surveillance and Research Section, NTC Member
Chief, Integrated Health Information Management Section, MD, DoHS Member
Chief, Child Health and Immunization Service Section, Family Health Division, DoHS Member
Chief, Maternal and Newborn Health Section or Family Planning and Reproductive Member
Health Section, MoHP
Statistical Officer, Monitoring and Evaluation Section, PPMD, MoHP Member
Demographer, Population Management Section, PMD, MoHP Member
Senior Public Health Officer, Monitoring and Evaluation Section, PPMD, MoHP Member
Statistical Officer, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services Member
Statistical Officer, Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, MoHP Member
Nursing Officer, Monitoring and Evaluation Section, PPMD, MoHP Member
Representative United States Agency for International Development Member
Representative Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office Member
Representative United Nations Population Fund Member
Representative World Health Organization Member
Representative Nepal Health Sector Strategy Plan Member
Representative Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) Member
Representative ICF Member
Chief, Monitoring and Evaluation Section, Policy Planning and Monitoring Division, Member Secretary
MoHP

xxx • Technical Committee

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT

Mr. Ravi Kanta Mishra, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Dr. Guna Nidhi Sharma, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Ms. Kabita Aryal, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services, MoHP
Dr. Prakash Joshi, Kanti Children Hospital
Mr. Tulsi Ram Thapa, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Ms. Chitra Khanal, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Mr. Sagar Dahal, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services, MoHP
Mr. Lila Bikram Thapa, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services, MoHP
Mr. Bhim Prasad Sapkota, Coordination Division, MoHP
Mr. Upendra Dhungana, Management Division, Department of Health Services, MoHP
Ms. Roshani Devi Karki, Population Management Division, MoHP
Dr. Samir Kumar Adhikari, Health Emergency Operation Center, MoHP
Dr. Basudev Karki, Mental Hospital
Mr. Kedar Raj Parajuli, National Center for AIDS and STD Control, MoHP
Mr. Manoj Tamrakar, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Ms. Sapana Koirala, Adolescent Reproductive Health/Care Nepal
Mr. Ashish Lamichane, United Nations Population Fund
Ms. Lhamo Yanchen Sherpa, United Nations Population Fund
Ms. Sushma Rajbanshi, FHI 360
Mr. Netra Bhatta, United States Agency for International Development
Ms. Shakun Sharma, Strengthening Systems for Better Health
Ms. Indrakala Tamang, United Nations Children’s Fund
Mr. Siddhi Shrestha, United Nations Children’s Fund
Mr. Ramesh Adhikari, Helen Keller International
Mr. Subir Kole, Helen Keller International
Mr. Rajesh Khanal, EpiC/FHI 360
Mr. Anup KC, Handicap International
Ms. Milima Singh Dangol, Nepal Health Sector Strategy Plan
Dr. Kamal Gautam, Executive Director, Transcultural Psychosocial Organization
Mr. Gajendra Rai, United States Agency for International Development
Ms. Nira Joshi, New ERA
Mr. Yogendra Prasai, New ERA
Ms. Sajani Manandhar, New ERA
Mr. Kiran Acharya, New ERA
Mr. Raj Kumar Sangraula, New ERA

Contributors to the Report • xxxi

 REVIEWERS
Ms. Dev Kumari Guragain, Secretary, Ministry of Health and Population
Dr. Roshan Pokhrel, Secretary, Ministry of Health and Population
Dr. Sangita Kaushal Mishra, Additional Secretary, Ministry of Health and Population
Dr. Krishna Prasad Paudel, Division Chief, Policy, Planning and Monitoring Division, MoHP
Dr. Kedar Marahatta, World Health Organization
Mr. Sharad Sharma, National Tuberculosis Control Center, MoHP
Mr. Debendra Adhikari, United States Agency for International Development
Ms. Sabita Tuladhar, United States Agency for International Development
Mr. Paban Ghimire, World Health Organization
Ms. Nistha Shrestha, Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, MoHP
Ms. Nisha Joshi, Family Welfare Division, Department of Health Services, MoHP

xxxii • Contributors to the Report

READING AND UNDERSTANDING TABLES FROM THE
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
(NDHS)

T
he 2022 Nepal DHS final report is based on
approximately 200 tables of data. For quick
reference, they are located at the end of each
chapter and can be accessed through links in the
pertinent text (electronic version). Additionally, this
report features about 90 figures that clearly
highlight trends, subnational patterns, and
background characteristics. The text has been
simplified to highlight key points in bullets and to
clearly identify indicator definitions in boxes.

While the text and figures featured in each chapter

highlight some of the most important findings from
the tables, not every finding can be discussed or
displayed graphically. For this reason, NDHS data
users should be comfortable reading and
interpreting tables.

The following pages provide an introduction to the

organization of NDHS tables, the presentation of
background characteristics, and a brief summary of
sampling and understanding denominators. In
addition, this section provides some exercises for
users as they practice their new skills in interpreting
NDHS tables.

Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS • xxxiii

 Example 1: Exposure to mass media: Women
A Question Asked of All Survey Respondents

Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women 1

Percentage of women age 15–49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Accesses
3 Reads a
newspaper at
Watches
television at
Accesses all none of the
Listens to the three media at three media at 2
Background least once a least once a radio at least least once a least once a Number of
characteristic week week once a week week week women
Age
15–19 6.5 35.9 23.5 1.2 47.9 2,643
20–24 8.8 34.4 25.2 2.1 47.5 2,637
25–29 9.5 35.5 22.3 2.2 49.4 2,435
30–34 7.7 37.9 21.0 1.8 48.4 2,144
35–39 6.3 37.9 22.3 1.8 47.6 2,025
40–44 4.8 34.5 21.9 2.0 53.0 1,629
45–49 4.4 36.1 23.8 1.6 50.2 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 12.9 41.5 32.9 3.8 37.2 4,152
Dalit 3.1 29.3 19.7 0.6 57.1 2,240
Janajati 6.6 35.6 23.6 1.4 48.1 5,428
Madhesi 3.6 38.6 12.2 1.0 55.4 2,333
Muslim 2.0 18.1 4.0 0.0 78.1 676
Other * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 9.1 39.8 21.5 2.3 46.3 10,178
Rural 3.0 27.8 26.1 0.8 54.4 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.3 22.2 36.8 0.3 49.1 791
Hill 10.8 34.9 26.8 2.4 45.3 5,872
Terai 5.2 38.1 18.8 1.6 51.4 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 4.7 41.0 27.0 1.8 43.2 2,493
Urban 5.8 45.7 26.1 2.3 40.4 1,640
Rural 2.6 32.0 28.9 0.7 48.5 853
Madhesh Province 2.7 33.3 10.4 0.8 61.3 3,010
Urban 2.8 33.2 10.4 0.8 61.7 2,226
Rural 2.4 33.8 10.4 0.7 60.4 783
Bagmati Province 14.9 41.2 20.6 3.0 42.8 3,062
Urban 17.8 44.0 18.0 3.6 41.3 2,464
Rural 2.7 29.9 31.3 0.7 48.6 599
Gandaki Province 11.2 41.2 21.5 1.9 44.1 1,401
Urban 13.3 46.1 22.3 2.4 38.3 992
Rural 6.2 29.1 19.5 0.5 58.1 409
Lumbini Province 6.0 36.3 26.9 2.3 48.4 2,691
Urban 8.1 40.3 26.9 3.0 44.1 1,553
Rural 3.2 30.7 26.9 1.3 54.4 1,138
Karnali Province 5.4 18.1 37.5 1.2 51.9 909
Urban 7.1 24.0 39.0 1.4 45.6 507
Rural 3.2 10.7 35.6 0.9 59.7 402
Sudurpashchim Province 3.5 26.5 32.9 0.8 49.3 1,279
Urban 4.7 34.1 31.1 1.2 45.8 796
Rural 1.5 13.9 35.8 0.2 55.2 484
Education
No education 0.3 22.0 15.5 0.0 66.9 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 3.2 35.2 23.0 1.0 50.5 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.4 32.3 20.1 0.7 54.7 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 4.1 38.1 25.9 1.3 46.2 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 11.7 43.9 27.5 2.8 38.2 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.0 43.6 28.8 2.4 39.2 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 16.6 44.3 25.8 3.3 36.9 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above)
Wealth quintile
34.1 52.6 25.0 9.1
5 27.6 656

Lowest 1.9 11.1 31.8 0.5 61.7 2,628

Second 2.7 28.5 23.4 1.0 56.9 2,857
Middle 4.1 37.4 22.8 1.1 49.2 3,028
Fourth 7.0 43.0 19.7 1.3 44.9 3,197
Highest 18.8 55.2 18.5 4.9 34.5 3,135
Total 4 7.2 36.0 22.9 1.8 48.9 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

xxxiv • Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS

Step 1: Read the title and subtitle, highlighted in orange in the table above. They tell you the topic and the
specific population group being described. In this case, the table is about women age 15–49 and their
exposure to different types of media. All eligible female respondents age 15–49 were asked these
questions.

Step 2: Scan the column headings—highlighted in green in Example 1. They describe how the information
is categorized. In this table, the first three columns of data show different types of media that women
access at least once a week. The fourth column shows women who access all three types of media, while
the fifth column shows women who do not access any of the three types of media on a weekly basis. The
last column lists the number of women age 15–49 interviewed in the survey.

Step 3: Scan the row headings—the first vertical column highlighted in blue in Example 1. These show the
different ways the data are divided into categories based on population characteristics. In this case, the
table presents women’s exposure to media by age, ethnic group, urban-rural residence, ecological zone,
province, level of education, and wealth quintile. Most of the tables in the NDHS report will be divided
into these same categories.

Step 4: Look at the row at the bottom of the table highlighted in pink. These percentages represent the
totals of all women age 15–49 and their weekly access to different types of media. In this case, 7.2% of
women age 15–49 read a newspaper at least once a week, 36.0% watch television at least weekly, and
22.9% listen to the radio on a weekly basis.*

Step 5: Draw two imaginary lines, as shown on the table, to find out what percentage of women with more
than a secondary education (13 and above) access all three media at least once a week. This shows that
9.1% of women age 15–49 with more than a secondary education access all three media at least once a
week.

By looking at patterns by background characteristics, we can see how exposure to mass media varies
across Nepal. Mass media are often used to communicate health messages. Knowing how mass media
exposure varies among different groups can help program planners and policymakers determine how to
most effectively reach their target populations.

*For the purpose of this document data are presented exactly as they appear in the table, including decimal
places. However, the text in the remainder of this report rounds data to the nearest whole percentage point.

Practice: Use the table in Example 1 to answer the following questions:

a) What percentage of women in Nepal do not access any of the three media at least once a week?
b) Which age group has the highest percentage of women who watch television at least once a week?
c) Compare women in urban areas and women in rural areas—which group has a higher percentage of women who
read a newspaper at least once a week?
d) What are the lowest and highest percentages (range) of women who access all three media at least once a week
by province?
e) Is there a clear relationship between women’s exposure to newspapers on a weekly basis and educational level?
f) Is there a clear relationship between women’s exposure to television on a weekly basis and wealth quintile?

Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS • xxxv

 xxxvi • Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS
Answers:
a) 48.9% of women age 15–49 in Nepal do not access any of three media at least once a week.
b) The percentage of women who watch television on a weekly basis is highest among those age 30–34 and 35–39 (37.9% each).
c) Women in urban areas: 9.1% of urban women read a newspaper at least once a week, as compared with 3.0% of rural women.
d) The percentage of women who access all three media on a weekly basis ranges from 0.8% each in Madhesh Province and
Sudurpashchim Province to 3.0% in Bagmati Province.
e) Yes. Women’s exposure to newspapers on a weekly basis increases as their level of education increases; 0.3% of women with no
education read a newspaper at least once a week, compared with 34.1% of women with more than a secondary education (13 and
above).
f) Yes. Women’s exposure to television on a weekly basis increases with increasing household wealth, from 11.1% among those in
the lowest wealth quintile to 55.2% among those in the highest wealth quintile.
Example 2: Children with diarrhea and care seeking for diarrhea
A Question Asked of a Subgroup of Survey Respondents

Table 10.11 Children with diarrhea and care seeking for diarrhea
1
Percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and among
children with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among children under
2 age 5 with diarrhea:
Percentage
for whom
advice or Number of
Background Percentage Number of treatment children with
characteristic with diarrhea children was sought1 diarrhea
Age in months
<6 12.7 533 55.1 68
6–11 17.5 434 53.2 76
12–23 13.2 959 55.9 126
24–35 9.7 1,066 63.5 103
36–47 6.7 1,048 60.7 71

a b
48–59 8.1 1,000 52.7 81
Sex
Male 10.6 2,639 58.3 281
Female 10.1 2,401 55.6 243

Residence
Urban 11.1 3,276 56.5 364
Rural 9.1 1,764 58.3 161
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.9 317 (50.8) 22
Hill 9.5 1,744 53.2 166
Terai 11.3 2,979 59.4 336
Province
Koshi Province 11.0 859 48.7 95
Urban 12.9 553 (52.0) 71
Rural 7.7 306 (38.7) 23
Madhesh Province 10.0 1,352 56.8 135
Urban 9.8 1,013 59.3 99
Rural 10.7 338 (49.9) 36
Bagmati Province 13.0 814 58.8 106
Urban 14.8 596 (60.0) 88
Rural 8.1 218 (52.8) 18
Gandaki Province 7.8 331 (48.7) 26
Urban 7.2 216 * 15
Rural 8.8 116 * 10
Lumbini Province 9.8 862 65.0 84
Urban 10.0 452 (52.2) 45
Rural 9.6 410 (79.7) 39
Karnali Province 10.4 371 56.4 38
Urban 12.1 178 (54.3) 22
Rural 8.8 193 (59.2) 17
Sudurpashchim Province 8.8 451 62.6 40
Urban 8.5 267 (67.2) 23
Rural 9.1 184 (56.3) 17
Mother’s education
No education 11.2 1,103 59.8 124
Basic education (1–8) 10.8 1,767 55.0 191
Lower basic education (1–5) 11.1 898 54.0 100
Upper basic education (6–8) 10.5 869 56.0 91
Secondary (9–12)
Lower secondary (9–10)
9.9
10.3
1,955
1,217
54.7
53.3
4 194
125
Higher secondary (11–12) 9.3 738 57.1 68
More than secondary (13 and above) 7.4 215 * 16
Total
3 10.4 5,040 57.1 524
Note: Advice or treatment for children with diarrhea may have been sought from more than one source.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is
based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS • xxxvii

 Step 1: Read the title and subtitle. In this case, the table is about two separate groups of children: all
children under age 5 (a) and children under age 5 who had diarrhea (b).

Step 2: Identify the two panels. First, identify the columns that refer to all children under age 5 (a), and
then isolate the columns that refer only to children under age 5 with diarrhea (b).

Step 3: Look at the first panel. What percentage of children under age 5 had diarrhea in the 2 weeks
preceding the survey? It is 10.4%. Now look at the second panel. How many children under age 5 had
diarrhea? It’s 524, or 10.4% of the 5,040 children under age 5 (with rounding). The second panel is a
subset of the first panel.

Step 4: Only 10.4% of children under age 5 had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey. Once these
children are further divided into the background characteristic categories, there may be too few cases for
the percentages to be reliable.

▪ What percentage of children with diarrhea in rural Bagmati Province had advice or treatment sought?
52.8%. This percentage is in parentheses because there are between 25 and 49 children (unweighted)
in rural Bagmati Province who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey. Readers should use this
number with caution—it may not be reliable. (For more information on weighted and unweighted
numbers, see Example 3.)

▪ What percentage of children whose mothers have more than a secondary education (13 and above) had
advice or treatment sought? There is no number in this cell—only an asterisk. This is because fewer
than 25 unweighted children with diarrhea whose mothers have more than a secondary education had
advice or treatment sought. Results for this group are not reported. The subgroup is too small, and
therefore the data are not reliable.

Note: When parentheses or asterisks are used in a table, the explanation will be noted under the table. If
there are no parentheses or asterisks in a table, you can proceed with confidence that enough cases were
included in all categories that the data are reliable.

xxxviii • Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS

 Example 3: Understanding Sampling Weights in NDHS Tables

A sample is a group of people who have been selected for a survey. In the NDHS, the sample is designed
to represent the national population age 15–49. In addition to national data, most countries want to collect
and report data on smaller geographical or Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents
administrative areas. However, doing so requires Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by selected background
a large enough sample size in each area. For the characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
2022 NDHS, the survey sample is representative Women
at the national and provincial levels and for Background Weighted Weighted Unweighted

urban and rural areas nationally and at the

characteristic
Province
3percent
2 number
1number

provincial level. Koshi Province 16.8 2,493 2,209

Urban 11.0 1,640 1,135
Rural 5.7 853 1,074
To generate statistics that are representative of Madhesh Province 20.3 3,010 2,499
Urban 15.0 2,226 1,422
the country as a whole and the seven provinces, Rural 5.3 783 1,077
the number of women surveyed in each province Bagmati Province 20.6 3,062 2,106
Urban 16.6 2,464 1,274
should contribute to the size of the total Rural 4.0 599 832
Gandaki Province 9.4 1,401 1,682
(national) sample in proportion to size of the Urban 6.7 992 897
province. However, if some provinces have Rural 2.8 409 785
Lumbini Province 18.1 2,691 2,266
small populations, then a sample allocated in Urban 10.5 1,553 1,214
Rural 7.7 1,138 1,052
proportion to each province’s population may Karnali Province 6.1 909 1,978
not include sufficient women from each province Urban 3.4 507 968
Rural 2.7 402 1,010
for analysis. To solve this problem, provinces Sudurpashchim Province 8.6 1,279 2,105
Urban 5.4 796 1,109
with small populations are oversampled. For Rural 3.3 484 996
example, let’s say that you have enough money Total 100.0 14,845 14,845
to interview 14,845 women and want to produce
results that are representative of Nepal as a whole and its provinces (as in Table 3.1). However, the total
population of Nepal is not evenly distributed among the provinces: some provinces, such as Bagmati
Province, are heavily populated while others, such as Sudurpashchim Province, are not. Thus,
Sudurpashchim Province must be oversampled.

A sampling statistician determines how many women should be interviewed in each province in order to
get reliable statistics. The blue column (1) in the table above shows the actual number of women
interviewed in each province. Within the provinces, the number of women interviewed ranges from 1,682
in Gandaki Province to 2,499 in Madhesh Province. This number of interviews is sufficient to get reliable
results in each province.

With this distribution of interviews, some provinces are overrepresented and some provinces are
underrepresented. For example, the population in Bagmati Province is 20.6% of the population in Nepal,
while the population of Sudurpashchim Province contributes only 8.6% of the country’s population. But as
the blue column shows, the number of women interviewed in Bagmati Province accounts for only 14.2%
of the total sample of women interviewed (2,106/14,845) and the number of women interviewed in
Sudurpashchim Province accounts for the same percentage (14.2%, or 2,105/14,845). This unweighted
distribution of women does not accurately represent the population.

In order to get statistics that are representative of Nepal, the distribution of the women in the sample needs
to be weighted (or mathematically adjusted) such that it resembles the true distribution in the country.
Women from a small province, like Sudurpashchim Province, should contribute only a small amount to the
national total. Women from a large province, like Bagmati Province, should contribute much more.
Therefore, DHS statisticians mathematically calculate a “weight” that is used to adjust the number of
women from each province so that each province’s contribution to the total is proportional to the actual
population of the province. The numbers in the purple column (2) represent the “weighted” values. The
weighted values can be smaller or larger than the unweighted values at the provincial level. The total

Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS • xxxix

 national sample size of 14,845 women has not changed after weighting, but the distribution of the women
in the provinces has been changed to represent their contribution to the total population size.

How do statisticians weight each category? They take into account the probability that a woman was
selected in the sample. If you were to compare the green column (3) to the actual population distribution
of Nepal, you would see that women in each province are contributing to the total sample with the same
weight that they contribute to the population of the country. The weighted number of women in the survey
now accurately represents the proportion of women who live in Bagmati Province and the proportion of
women who live in Sudurpashchim Province.

With sampling and weighting, it is possible to interview enough women to provide reliable statistics at
national and provincial levels. In general, only the weighted numbers are shown in each of the NDHS
tables, so don’t be surprised if these numbers seem low: they may actually represent a larger number of
women interviewed.

xl • Reading and Understanding Tables from the 2022 NDHS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

ANC antenatal care
ARI acute respiratory infection
ART antiretroviral therapy
ARVs antiretroviral medicines
ASFR age-specific fertility rate
BCG bacillus Calmette-Guérin
CAPI computer-assisted personal interviewing
CB-IMNCI Community Based-Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness
CBR crude birth rate
COVID coronavirus disease
CSPro Census and Survey Processing System
DBP diastolic blood pressure
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
DMPA-SC subcutaneous depot medroxyprogesterone acetate
DPT diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus
EA enumeration area
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FCHV female community health volunteer
FIES Food Insecurity Experience Scale
fIPV fractional inactive polio vaccine
g/dl grams per deciliter
GAD-7 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
GAR gross attendance ratio
GFR general fertility rate
GPI gender parity index
GPS Global Positioning System
HepB hepatitis B
Hib Haemophilus influenzae type B
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IFSS Internet File Streaming System
ITN insecticide-treated net
IUCD intrauterine contraceptive device
JE Japanese encephalitis
JMP Joint Monitoring Programme
LAM lactational amenorrhea method
LLIN long-lasting insecticidal net
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
MoHP Ministry of Health and Population
MR measles-rubella
MSAP Multi-sectoral Action Plan
MTCT mother-to-child transmission

Acronyms and Abbreviations • xli

 NAR net attendance ratio
NCD noncommunicable disease
NDHS Nepal Demographic and Health Survey
NFHS Nepal Family Health Survey
NGO nongovernmental organization
NHRC Nepal Health Research Council
NN neonatal mortality
NPHC Nepal Population and Housing Census
NSO National Statistical Office
OPV oral polio vaccine
ORS oral rehydration salts
ORT oral rehydration therapy
PCV pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
PEP postexposure prophylaxis
PHQ Patient Health Questionnaire
PNN postneonatal mortality
PrEP preexposure prophylaxis
PSU primary sampling unit
RT-PCR reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction
RV rotavirus vaccine
SBP systolic blood pressure
SD standard deviation
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SDM standard days method
STI sexually transmitted infection
TAR Total induced abortion rate
TFR total fertility rate
TPO Transcultural Psychosocial Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VIA visual inspection with acetic acid
VIP ventilated improved pit
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WG Washington Group
WG-SS Washington Group Short Set
WHO World Health Organization

xlii • Acronyms and Abbreviations

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL INDICATORS

Sustainable Development Goal Indicators, Nepal DHS 2022

Residence
Indicator Urban Rural Total DHS table number
1. No poverty
1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services
a) Access to basic drinking water services 98.3 95.9 97.5 16.2
b) Access to basic sanitation services 72.6 72.6 72.6 16.7
c) Access to basic hygiene services 77.3 62.8 72.4 16.11
d) Access to electricity1 95.1 83.8 91.3 2.3
e) Access to clean fuels and technologies2 52.3 19.0 41.2 2.4
2. Zero hunger
2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the 10.6 16.2 12.5 2.16
Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
Sex
Male Female Total
2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting among children under 5 years of age 24.7 25.0 24.8 11.1
2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition among children under 5 years of age 10.1 7.8 9.0 na
a) Prevalence of wasting among children under 5 years of age 8.5 6.9 7.7 11.1
b) Prevalence of overweight among children under 5 years of age 1.6 0.9 1.3 11.1
2.2.3 Prevalence of anemia in women age 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status
a) Prevalence of anemia in non-pregnant women age 15 to 49 years na 34.0 na 11.24
b) Prevalence of anemia in pregnant women age 15 to 49 years na 32.7 na 11.24
3. Good health and well-being
3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel na na 80.1 9.13
3.2.1 Under-five mortality rate3 35 30 33 8.2
3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate3 24 17 21 8.2
3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries4 11 3 14 18.1
3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15–49 years) who have their need na 55.1 na 7.14.2
for family planning satisfied with modern methods
3.7.2 Adolescent birth rates per 1,000 women
a) Girls aged 10–14 years5 na 0.0 na 5.1
b) Women aged 15–19 years6 na 71.0 na 5.1
3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years 49.6 7.4 28.5a 3.13
and older7
3.b.1 Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their national
program
a) Coverage of DPT containing vaccine (3rd dose)8 90.0 88.2 89.1 10.4
c) Coverage of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (last dose in schedule)9 81.9 79.0 80.5 10.4
4. Quality education
4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary 81.8 81.2 81.5 2.13
entry age)
5. Gender equality
5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to na 17.2 na 17.13
physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in
the previous 12 months10,11
a) Physical violence na 11.6 na 17.13
b) Sexual violence na 4.3 na 17.13
c) Psychological violence na 10.4 na 17.13
5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence na 0.1 na 17.6
by persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months12
5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age
15 and before age 18
a) before age 15 na 5.8 na 4.4
b) before age 18 na 34.9 na 4.4
5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions na 62.6 na 15.12
regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care13
5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone14 91.6 79.6 85.6a 15.6.1 and 15.6.2
Residence
Urban Rural Total
6. Clean water and sanitation
6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
a) Proportion with basic drinking water services 98.3 95.9 97.5 16.2
b) Proportion with water available when needed 87.7 87.4 87.6 16.4
6.2.1 Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) hand-
washing facility with soap and water
a) Proportion using basic sanitation service 72.6 72.6 72.6 16.7
b) Proportion in which excreta are safely disposed of in situ or treated off site 84.7 79.6 83.0 16.9
c) Proportion using a hand-washing facility with soap and water 77.3 62.8 72.4 16.11
d) Proportion using open defecation 6.2 8.8 7.1 16.6

Continued…

Sustainable Development Goal Indicators • xliii

 Sustainable Development Goal Indicators, Nepal DHS 2022—Continued
Residence
Urban Rural Total
7. Affordable clean energy
7.1.1 Proportion of population with access to electricity1 95.1 83.8 91.3 2.3
7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology2 52.3 19.0 41.2 2.4
Sex
Male Female Total
8. Decent work and economic growth
8.10.2 Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial 53.1 49.1 51.1a 15.6.1 and 15.6.2
institution or with a mobile-money-service provider14
16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
16.2.3 Proportion of young women aged 18–29 years who experienced sexual violence by na 4.0 na 17.7
age 1815
16.9.1 Proportion of children under 5 years of age whose births have been registered with 74.4 71.8 73.2 2.10
a civil authority
17. Partnerships for the goals
17.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet16 75.8 64.6 70.2a 3.5.1 and 3.5.2

na = not applicable
1
Persons living in households that report the primary source of lighting is electricity.
2
Persons living in households that report no cooking, no space heating, or no lighting are not excluded from the numerator.
3
Expressed in terms of deaths per 1,000 live births for the 5-year period preceding the survey
4
Calculated per 100,000 population
5
Equivalent to the age-specific fertility rate for girls age 10–14 for the 3-year period preceding the survey, expressed in terms of births per 1,000 girls age 10–14
6
Equivalent to the age-specific fertility rate for women age 15–19 for the 3-year period preceding the survey, expressed in terms of births per 1,000 women age
15–19
7
Data are not age-standardized and are available for women and men age 15–49 only.
8
The percentage of children age 12–23 months who received three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib
9
The percentage of children age 12–23 months who received three doses of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
10
Data are available for women age 15–49 who have ever been in union only.
11
In the DHS, psychological violence is termed emotional violence.
12
Data are available for women age 15–49 only.
13
Data are available for currently married women only.
14
Data are available for women and men age 15–49 only.
15
Data are available for women only.
16
Data are available for women and men age 15–49 who have used the Internet in the last 12 months.
a
The total is calculated as the simple arithmetic mean of the percentages in the columns for males and females.

xliv • Sustainable Development Goal Indicators

INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY 1
T
he 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) was implemented by New ERA under the
aegis of the Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP). Data collection took place from January 5
to June 22, 2022. ICF provided technical assistance through The DHS Program, which is funded by
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and offers financial support and
technical assistance for population and health surveys in countries worldwide. Suaahara II, USAID’s
integrated nutrition program,1 supported the ethical review process of the survey in Nepal.

1.1 SURVEY OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of the 2022 NDHS is to provide up-to-date estimates of basic demographic and
health indicators. Specifically, the 2022 NDHS collected information on fertility, marriage, family
planning, breastfeeding practices, nutrition, food insecurity, maternal and child health, childhood mortality,
awareness and behavior regarding HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), women’s
empowerment, domestic violence, fistula, mental health, accident and injury, disability, and other health-
related issues such as smoking, knowledge of tuberculosis, and prevalence of hypertension.

The information collected through the 2022 NDHS is intended to assist policymakers and program
managers in evaluating and designing programs and strategies for improving the health of Nepal’s
population. The survey also provides indicators relevant to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for
Nepal.

1.2 SAMPLE DESIGN

The sampling frame used for the 2022 NDHS is an updated version of the frame from the 2011 Nepal
Population and Housing Census (NPHC) provided by the National Statistical Office. The 2022 NDHS
considered wards from the 2011 census as sub-wards, the smallest administrative unit for the survey. The
census frame includes a complete list of Nepal’s 36,020 sub-wards. Each sub-ward has a residence type
(urban or rural), and the measure of size is the number of households.

In September 2015, Nepal’s Constituent Assembly declared changes in the administrative units and
reclassified urban and rural areas in the country. Nepal is divided into seven provinces: Koshi Province,
Madhesh Province, Bagmati Province, Gandaki Province, Lumbini Province, Karnali Province, and
Sudurpashchim Province. Provinces are divided into districts, districts into municipalities, and
municipalities into wards. Nepal has 77 districts comprising a total of 753 (local-level) municipalities. Of
the municipalities, 293 are urban and 460 are rural.

Originally, the 2011 NPHC included 58 urban municipalities. This number increased to 217 as of 2015. On
March 10, 2017, structural changes were made in the classification system for urban (Nagarpalika) and
rural (Gaonpalika) locations. Nepal currently has 293 Nagarpalika, with 65% of the population living in
these urban areas. The 2022 NDHS used this updated urban-rural classification system. The survey sample
is a stratified sample selected in two stages. Stratification was achieved by dividing each of the seven
provinces into urban and rural areas that together formed the sampling stratum for that province. A total of
14 sampling strata were created in this way. Implicit stratification with proportional allocation was
achieved at each of the lower administrative levels by sorting the sampling frame within each sampling
stratum before sample selection, according to administrative units at the different levels, and by using a
1
The Suaahara II project, a 5-year (2016–21) integrated program in Nepal funded by USAID, aims to improve the
health and nutritional status of women and children who fall within the 1,000-day period, from conception until a
child reaches age 24 months.

Introduction and Survey Methodology • 1

 probability-proportional-to-size selection at the first stage of sampling. In the first stage of sampling, 476
primary sampling units (PSUs) were selected with probability proportional to PSU size and with
independent selection in each sampling stratum within the sample allocation. Among the 476 PSUs, 248
were from urban areas and 228 from rural areas. A household listing operation was carried out in all of the
selected PSUs before the main survey. The resulting list of households served as the sampling frame for
the selection of sample households in the second stage. Thirty households were selected from each cluster,
for a total sample size of 14,280 households. Of these households, 7,440 were in urban areas and 6,840
were in rural areas. Some of the selected sub-wards were found to be overly large during the household
listing operation. Selected sub-wards with an estimated number of households greater than 300 were
segmented. Only one segment was selected for the survey with probability proportional to segment size.
Global Positioning System (GPS) data were collected at the household level during the household listing
and the individual interviews.

Figure 1.1 2022 Nepal DHS sample design

HOUSEHOLDS
14,280 476 CLUSTERS
Characteristics of household members
Birth registration
Housing characteristics
Household possessions
Accidents and Injuries
Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)

HOUSEHOLDS SELECTED HOUSEHOLDS NOT SELECTED

FOR MAN'S SURVEY FOR MAN'S SURVEY
7,140 7,140

Disability

HOUSEHOLDS NOT SELECTED FOR

ALL WOMEN (15–49) ALL MEN (15–49) ALL WOMEN (15–49) MAN'S SURVEY
7,140
Background characteristics Background characteristics Background characteristics BIOMARKERS
Reproduction (and child mortality) Reproduction Reproduction (and child mortality) Height/weight (children <5)
Family planning Family planning Family planning Height/weight (all women 15-49)
Pregnancy and postnatal care Marriage and sexual activity Pregnancy and postnatal care Anemia test (children 6-59 months)
Child immunization Fertility preferences Child immunization Anemia test (women 15-49)
Child health and nutrition Employment and gender roles Child health and nutrition
Marriage and sexual activity HIV and AIDS Marriage and sexual activity
Fertility preferences Other health issues Fertility preferences 1/4 of TOTAL HOUSEHOLDS
3,570
Husband's background and woman's work Mental health Husband's background and woman's work
HIV and AIDS HIV and AIDS BIOMARKERS
Other health issues Other health issues Height/weight (women 50+)
Mental health Fistula Height/weight (all men 15+)
Fistula Blood pressure (women 15+)
Domestic violence Blood pressure (all men 15+)

The survey interviewers were instructed to interview only the preselected households. To prevent bias, no
replacements and no changes to the preselected households were allowed in the implementation stage.
Because of the nonproportional sample allocation, the sample is not self-weighting at the national level.
Weighting factors have been calculated, added to the data file, and applied, so the sample results are
representative at the national level as well as at the provincial level.

All women age 15–49 who were permanent residents of the selected households or were visitors who
stayed in the households the night before the survey were eligible to be interviewed. In half of the
households (every second household) selected, all men age 15–49 who were residents of the selected
households or visitors who stayed in the household the night before the survey were eligible to be
interviewed. The survey collected biomarker information from a subsample of the households.

1.3 QUESTIONNAIRES
Four questionnaires were used in the 2022 NDHS: the Household Questionnaire, the Woman’s
Questionnaire, the Man’s Questionnaire, and the Biomarker Questionnaire. The questionnaires, based on

2 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

The DHS Program’s model questionnaires, were adapted to reflect the population and health issues
relevant to Nepal. In addition, a self-administered Fieldworker Questionnaire collected information about
the survey’s fieldworkers.

Input was solicited from various stakeholders representing government ministries and agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and international donors. After all questionnaires were finalized in
English, they were translated into Nepali, Maithili, and Bhojpuri. The Household, Woman’s, and Man’s
Questionnaires were programmed into tablet computers to facilitate computer-assisted personal
interviewing (CAPI) for data collection purposes, with the capability to choose any of the three languages
for each questionnaire. The Biomarker Questionnaire was completed on paper during data collection and
then entered in the CAPI system.

The Household Questionnaire was used to list all members of the households and visitors to selected
households. Basic demographic information was collected on the characteristics of each person listed,
including age, sex, marital status, education, and relationship to the head of the household. For children
under age 18, the parents’ survival status was determined. The data on age and sex of household members
obtained in the Household Questionnaire were used to identify women and men who were eligible for the
individual interviews. The Household Questionnaire also collected information on characteristics of the
household dwelling unit, such as source of water, type of toilet facilities, materials used for the floor of the
dwelling unit, and ownership of various durable goods. Additional modules on disability, accident and
injury, and food insecurity were included in the questionnaire.

The Woman’s Questionnaire was used to collect information from all women age 15–49. These women
were asked questions on the following topics:

▪ Background characteristics (including age, education, and media exposure)

▪ Pregnancy history and child mortality
▪ Knowledge, use, and source of family planning methods
▪ Fertility preferences (including desire for more children and ideal number of children)
▪ Antenatal, delivery, and postnatal care
▪ Vaccinations and childhood illnesses
▪ Breastfeeding and infant feeding practices
▪ Women’s work and husbands’ background characteristics
▪ Knowledge, awareness, and behavior regarding HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
▪ Fistula
▪ Mental health
▪ Domestic violence
▪ Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to other health issues (for example, cervical and breast
cancer, smoking, tuberculosis, and COVID-19)

The Man’s Questionnaire was administered to all men age 15–49 in the subsample of households selected
for the men’s survey. The Man’s Questionnaire collected much of the same information as the Woman’s
Questionnaire but was shorter because it did not contain a detailed reproductive history or questions on
maternal and child health.

The Biomarker Questionnaire recorded anthropometric measurements, anemia testing, and blood pressure
measurements. These questionnaires were administered only in the subsample that was not selected for the
men’s survey. All children age 0–59 months and all women age 15–49 in these households were eligible
for height and weight measurements. Similarly, children age 6–59 months and women age 15–49 were
eligible for anemia testing. Blood pressure was measured for all women and men age 15 and older in the
subsample of households selected for biomarkers.

The purpose of the Fieldworker Questionnaire was to collect basic background information on the people
collecting data in the field, including quality controllers, field supervisors, interviewers, and biomarker

Introduction and Survey Methodology • 3

 specialists. The self-administered questionnaire served as a tool in conducting analyses of data quality.
Each interviewer completed the questionnaire after the final selection of interviewers and before the
fieldworkers entered the field. No personal identifiers were attached to the 2022 NDHS fieldworker data
file.

The enumerators used tablet computers for data collection. The tablet computers were equipped with
Bluetooth® technology to enable remote electronic transfer of files, such as assignments from the team
supervisor to the interviewers, individual questionnaires to survey team members, and completed
questionnaires from interviewers to team supervisors. The CAPI data collection system used in the 2022
NDHS was developed by The DHS Program with the mobile version of the Census and Survey Processing
System (CSPro). The CSPro software was developed jointly by the U.S. Census Bureau, Serpro S.A., and
The DHS Program.

The survey protocol was reviewed by the Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC) and the ICF
Institutional Review Board. The 2022 NDHS required written consent from the household head to carry
out the interviews and to test for anemia. Similarly, written consent/assent was required from individuals
for anemia testing and from parents/guardians for children age 6–59 months.

1.4 ANTHROPOMETRY, ANEMIA TESTING, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

The 2022 NDHS biomarkers included anthropometric measurements, anemia testing, and measurement of
blood pressure. Biomarker data were collected in half of the households that were not selected for the
survey of men. Height and weight measurements were carried out for eligible women age 15–49 and
children age 0–59 months in these households. Similarly, anemia testing was carried out for eligible
women age 15–49 and children age 6–59 months. Blood pressure measurements were collected for adults
age 15 and above in half of the households selected for biomarkers along with height and weight
measurements.

Anthropometry. Weight measurements were taken using SECA scales with a digital display (model
number SECA874U); the scales were designed and supplied by the United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF). Height and length were measured with a measuring board (ShorrBoard®). Children younger
than age 24 months were measured lying down (recumbent length), while older children and adults were
measured standing (height).

To assess the precision of measurements, about 10% of children were randomly selected to be measured a
second time. The DHS Program defines a difference of less than 1 centimeter between the two height
measurements as an acceptable level of precision. Children with a z score of less than –3 or more than +3
for height-for-age, weight-for-height, or weight-for-age were flagged and measured a second time. The
remeasurement of flagged cases was performed to ensure accurate reporting of height and weight
measurements.

Children with a z score of less than –3 for weight-for-height were considered severely wasted (acute
undernutrition) and were eligible for referral. The team supervisor or the biomarker specialist provided a
referral form to the parent/responsible adult of the child identified with acute undernutrition. The referral
form included the child’s name and height (in centimeters), weight (in kilograms), and weight-for-height (z
score) result. Parents/responsible adults were informed about the effects of acute undernutrition and
instructed to take the child to a local health facility to ensure that she or he received proper assessment and
treatment. Also, they were instructed to take the referral form with them during such visits to the health
facility.

Anemia. Blood specimens for anemia testing were collected from women age 15–49 who consented to be
tested. Blood specimens were also collected from children age 6–59 months whose parents or guardians
had given consent for the testing. Blood samples were drawn from a drop of blood taken from a finger
prick (or a heel prick in the case of children age 6–11 months) and collected in a microcuvette.

4 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

Hemoglobin analysis was carried out on-site using a battery-operated portable HemoCue® 201+ device.
Results were provided verbally and in writing. Parents or guardians of children with a hemoglobin level
below 7 g/dl were provided with a referral form and instructed to take the child to a health facility for
follow-up care. Women were also referred for follow-up care if their hemoglobin levels were below 7 g/dl.

Blood pressure. Blood pressure measurements were taken from consenting women and men age 15 and
above in the subsample of households selected for biomarkers. Blood pressure was measured using a
Multi-User Upper Arm Blood Pressure Monitor with an automatic upper-arm inflation pressure release.
Each team was equipped with three monitors having different cuff sizes: (1) UA-767F/FAC with medium
cuff, (2) UA-767PVS with small cuff, and (3) UA-789AC with extra-large cuff. An additional cuff of each
size was provided. Three blood pressure measurements were taken at intervals of 5 minutes or more. The
average of the second and third measurements was used to classify hypertension results according to
internationally recommended categories (World Health Organization [WHO] 1999). Although electronic
devices used in the survey do not contain mercury, blood pressure values were expressed in millimeters of
mercury (mmHg). The results of the blood pressure measurements, as well as information about the
symptoms of high blood pressure and ways it can be prevented, were immediately provided to the
respondent via the Blood Pressure Reporting Form. Respondents found to have high blood pressure,
defined as systolic pressure greater than 140 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure greater than 90 mmHg, were
provided a referral form to take to a local health facility.

1.5 TRAINING OF TRAINERS AND PRETEST

The orientation session for master trainers from the New ERA core team was held on September 19, 2021,
followed by residential pretest training that took place from September 20 to October 4. The residential
training adhered to the COVID-19 risk mitigation plan developed for the survey, which followed national
guidelines. A total of 25 participants took part in the training (six core team members, four data processing
team members, three biomarker specialists, nine female interviewers, and three male interviewers). The
interviewers were recruited based on their experience working on household surveys, including the
previous NDHS, and their proficiency in the three local languages: Nepali, Maithili, and Bhojpuri.
Training was facilitated by ICF staff members who focused on the technical components of the survey,
biomarkers, and the CAPI system.

The training focused on key components of the survey including the following:

▪ Probing for age

▪ Interview techniques and procedures for completing the NDHS questionnaires
▪ Pregnancy history, family planning, and contraceptive calendar
▪ Completing the vaccination section
▪ Standardization procedures for anthropometry
▪ Blood pressure measurement and anemia testing

The training adopted an integrated approach whereby discussions on technical content and provision of
instructions on navigating the CAPI system took place concurrently. This approach was facilitated by a
mock interview that took the trainees step by step through the questionnaires during the different sessions.
The participants also worked in groups using various training techniques, for example interactive question-
and-answer sessions, case studies, group work, and role play. Emphasis was placed on hands-on training
and in-class exercises and becoming familiar with survey principles.

Representatives from MoHP and USAID Nepal visited the training. Technical support for Mental Health
Module training was provided by technical experts from the Transcultural Psychosocial Organization
Nepal (TPO Nepal). The anthropometry standardization exercise was conducted and completed
successfully by all biomarker specialists.

Introduction and Survey Methodology • 5

 Fieldwork for the pretest was carried out from October 6 to October 10, 2021, in three locations in which
the three languages of Nepal (Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Nepali) are spoken. Three teams were deployed, one
for each language. The locations were Sarlahi district for Maithili, Bara district for Bhojpuri, and
Makwanpur district for Nepali. Each team carried out the fieldwork in an urban and a rural location,
completing six clusters in total. Following the fieldwork, a debriefing session was held with the pretest
field staff on October 11. Modifications were made to the questionnaires based on lessons drawn from the
exercise.

1.6 TRAINING OF FIELD STAFF

The main training for the 2022 NDHS was held at a residential facility in Kathmandu from November 28
to December 23, 2021, followed by 4 days of field practice and a review session held on December 29.
After an intense recruitment process that included a written test, a computer test, and a personal interview,
the shortlisted candidates took RT-PCR (reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction) tests for
COVID-19. Those with negative RT-PCR results test were invited to join the training in the residential
facility. Almost all of the selected participants were fully vaccinated against COVID-19; a few received
their second dose during the training. The training followed strict guidelines for COVID-19 risk mitigation
that included:

▪ Daily symptom checks using a Google form developed and coordinated by New ERA
▪ Daily temperature checks at the venue
▪ Changing masks upon arrival at the venue and wearing a mask throughout the sessions
▪ Regular use of hand sanitizer
▪ Special seating arrangements
▪ Maintaining physical distance

Three training halls were used, two for training interviewers and one for training biomarker specialists.
Participants for the main training included 123 trainees (61 women and 62 men). Among the participants,
19 were assigned as male supervisors, 19 as male interviewers, and 57 as female interviewers; 20 men
were assigned as biomarker specialists. In addition, four male and four female quality control team
members participated during the main training. Most supervisors and interviewers had previous experience
in conducting household surveys, including previous rounds of the NDHS. The biomarker specialists had
previous experience in collecting biomarker data.

The main training was facilitated by the New ERA research team with technical backstopping from ICF
staff. The training adopted the integrated training approach as was done during the pretest training. All of
the participants (including biomarker specialists) took part in the first 2 weeks of training, which focused
on the technical content of the questionnaires and used the CAPI system as the data collection tool. The
CAPI components were embedded throughout the sessions, and the different options in the interviewer’s
menu and toolbars were introduced as necessary to enable efficiency while navigating the CAPI system.
The training included role play, demonstrations, discussions, mock interviews, videos, practical exercises,
and quizzes. Resource persons from the MoHP were invited to provide technical background on key topics
such as family planning and reproductive health, maternal and newborn health, child health and
immunization, and nutrition. In addition, a resource person from TPO Nepal was invited to support and
facilitate training on mental health as it related to the Mental Health Module.

The biomarker training took place from December 12 to December 23, 2021. The training involved a
variety of different learning tools such as formal lectures on technical aspects of biomarker collection,
target population and eligibility videos to demonstrate the process of anthropometry and blood collection,
hands-on demonstrations, group reading sessions, and in-house practice sessions.

Biomarker specialists were trained to measure the height and weight of children and adults using standard
anthropometric procedures. The training for child height measurement included standardization exercises
and re-standardization exercises for biomarker specialists who did not pass the standardization exercises

6 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

(Appendix Table C.7 provides the standardization results). This training involved three visits to a day-care
center that New ERA had organized. The biomarker training included measurement of hemoglobin levels
in women age 15–49 and children age 6–59 months through collection of capillary blood. Blood pressure
measurements were taken for adults age 15 and above.

Separate sessions were held for the supervisors and the quality control teams on December 17 and
December 23, 2021, to provide training on fieldwork management and data quality monitoring. These
sessions included discussions on roles and responsibilities, preparation and mobilization for fieldwork,
managing assignments for biomarker specialists and facilitating remeasurements, completing biomarker
checklists, conducting re-interviews via the CAPI system, and monitoring the progress and workload of
team members.

On completion of the training, field practice was carried out in Chandranigahapur, in the terai ecological
zone about 100 miles from Kathmandu, where all three languages could be practiced. The teams departed
on December 24, 2021, and the field practice was carried out from December 25 to December 28. Nineteen
teams consisting of a supervisor, one male interviewer, three female interviewers, and one biomarker
specialist carried out the field practice. A review session was held on December 29 to discuss the
experience and feedback from the field practice. Overall, it was a fruitful exercise whereby the teams could
experience real field conditions and be prepared before being mobilized for the actual data collection.

1.7 FIELDWORK
Data collection for the 2022 NDHS was carried out by 19 teams. Each team consisted of a supervisor, one
male interviewer, three female interviewers, and one biomarker specialist. The teams were first deployed
in locations away from Kathmandu because at that time the capital city was a COVID-19 hotspot. The
fieldwork began on January 5, 2022, in two central locations—Itahari and Chitwan—under close
supervision. On completion of the fieldwork in these first locations, a review session was held on January
9, and the teams departed to their respective assigned clusters on January 10 to continue with data
collection for the survey. Caution was taken while mobilizing the teams throughout the data collection
period to mitigate the risk of COVID-19. Except for a few mild cases, there were no major impacts of
COVID-19 during data collection. The fieldwork was slightly disrupted when local elections took place.
The field teams had to go home to cast their votes, and the local people were engaged in election activities.
Data collection activities were completed on June 22, 2022.

Fieldwork monitoring was an integral part of the 2022 NDHS, and several rounds of monitoring were
carried out by the New ERA core team and quality control teams. ICF provided technical assistance during
the data collection period through weekly virtual meetings. The technical teams from the MoHP, NHRC,
and USAID Nepal made several field visits to ensure that data collection was carried out according to the
protocol. Regular feedback was provided to the teams by the New ERA core team.

1.8 DATA PROCESSING

Data capture for the 2022 NDHS was carried out with Microsoft Surface Go 2 tablets running Windows
10.1. Software was prepared for the survey using CSPro. The processing of the 2022 NDHS data began
shortly after the fieldwork started. When data collection was completed in each cluster, the electronic data
files were transferred via the Internet File Streaming System (IFSS) to the New ERA central office in
Kathmandu. The data files were registered and checked for inconsistencies, incompleteness, and outliers.
Errors and inconsistencies were immediately communicated to the field teams for review so that problems
would be mitigated going forward. Secondary editing, carried out in the central office at New ERA,
involved resolving inconsistencies and coding the open-ended questions. The New ERA senior data
processor coordinated the exercise at the central office. The NDHS core team members assisted with the
secondary editing. The paper Biomarker Questionnaires were compared with the electronic data file to
check for any inconsistencies in data entry. The pictures of vaccination cards that were captured during

Introduction and Survey Methodology • 7

 data collection were verified with the data entered. Data processing and editing were carried out using the
CSPro software package. The concurrent data collection and processing offered a distinct advantage
because it maximized the likelihood of the data being error-free and accurate. Timely generation of field
check tables allowed for effective monitoring. The secondary editing of the data was completed by July
2022, and the final cleaning of the data set was completed by the end of August.

Throughout this report, numbers in the tables reflect weighted numbers. Percentages based on 25 to 49
unweighted cases are shown in parentheses, and percentages based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases are
suppressed and replaced with an asterisk. This is to caution readers when interpreting data that a
percentage based on fewer than 50 cases might not be statistically reliable.

1.9 RESPONSE RATES

Table 1.1 shows the results of the household and individual interviews and response rates according to
residence for the 2022 NDHS. A total of 14,243 households were selected for the sample, of which 13,833
were found to be occupied. Of the occupied households, 13,786 were successfully interviewed, yielding a
response rate of more than 99%. In the interviewed households, 15,238 women age 15–49 were identified
as eligible for individual interviews. Interviews were completed with 14,845 women, yielding a response
rate of 97%. In the subsample of households selected for the men’s survey, 5,185 men age 15–49 were
identified as eligible for individual interviews and 4,913 were successfully interviewed, yielding a
response rate of 95%.

Table 1.1 Results of the household and individual interviews

Number of households, number of interviews, and response rates, according to residence
(unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Result Urban Rural Total
Household interviews
Households selected 7,447 6,796 14,243
Households occupied 7,226 6,607 13,833
Households interviewed 7,195 6,591 13,786
Household response rate1 99.6 99.8 99.7
Interviews with women age 15–49
Number of eligible women 8,260 6,978 15,238
Number of eligible women interviewed 8,019 6,826 14,845
Eligible women response rate2 97.1 97.8 97.4
Household interviews in subsample
Households selected 3,721 3,399 7,120
Households occupied 3,602 3,296 6,898
Households interviewed 3,590 3,286 6,876
Household response rate in subsample1 99.7 99.7 99.7
Interviews with men age 15–49
Number of eligible men 2,901 2,284 5,185
Number of eligible men interviewed 2,717 2,196 4,913
Eligible men response rate2 93.7 96.1 94.8

1
Households interviewed/households occupied
2
Respondents interviewed/eligible respondents

8 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND
HOUSEHOLD POPULATION 2
Key Findings
▪ Clean fuels and technologies: 41% of the de jure
population relies primarily on clean fuels and
technologies for cooking, space heating, and lighting.
▪ Birth registration: 73% of children under age 5 have
their births registered with the civil authorities, and 72%
have a birth certificate.
▪ Education: The percentage of residents age 6 and older
with no education has declined over time, from 67% in
1996 to 35% in 2022 among females and from 36% in
1996 to 16% in 2022 among males.
▪ Food insecurity: 13% of the population experienced
moderate or severe food insecurity in the 12 months
preceding the survey. Food insecurity was highest in
Karnali Province, with 36% of the rural population in this
province facing moderate or severe food insecurity.

I
nformation on the socioeconomic characteristics of the household population in the 2022 NDHS
provides a context for interpreting demographic and health indicators and furnishes an approximate
indication of the representativeness of the survey. The information also sheds light on the living
conditions of the population.

This chapter presents information on housing characteristics and household possessions, use of clean fuels
and technologies (related to cooking, heating, and lighting), household wealth, household population and
composition, children’s living arrangements and orphanhood, birth registration, educational attainment,
school attendance, possession of mosquito nets, and food insecurity.

2.1 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

The vast majority (96%) of households (98% in urban areas and 94% in rural areas) have access to
electricity. Nearly half (46%) of household flooring materials are constructed from earth/sand (27%) or
dung (19%), with the percentage being nearly twice as high in rural (67%) areas as in urban (36%) areas.
Urban households more often have cement flooring (44%). More than one quarter (27%) of all households
have only one room for sleeping. Twenty-three percent of households are exposed to tobacco smoke daily
(27% in rural areas and 21% in urban areas) (Table 2.1).

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 9

 2.1.1 Use of Clean Fuels and Technologies

Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies

The percentage of the population using clean fuels and technologies for
cooking, heating, and lighting, where each component is defined as follows:
Clean cooking fuels and technologies
Includes stoves/cookers using electricity, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG)/natural gas/biogas, and solar
Clean heating fuels and technologies
Includes central heating, electricity, LPG/natural gas/biogas, and solar air
heaters
Clean lighting fuels and technologies
Includes electricity, solar lanterns, and battery-powered or rechargeable
flashlights/torches/lanterns
Sample: Households and de jure population

2.1.2 Cooking

For more than two-thirds (68%) of households, cooking takes place inside the home. Of these households,
22% do not have a separate room or kitchen for cooking. Forty-five percent of households use clean fuels
and technologies. Of these, 43% households use liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or a natural gas stove.
Overall, 41% of the de jure population lives in households that use clean fuels and technologies for
cooking, with the percentage much higher in urban areas (53%) than in rural areas (19%). Fifty-eight
percent of the de jure population lives in households that use solid fuels for cooking (81% in rural areas
and 47% in urban areas). Wood is the most common solid fuel (49% of households); and is used most
frequently in rural areas (72%) than urban areas (37%) (Table 2.2). The Government of Nepal aims to
reduce the proportion of households using solid fuels as a primary source of energy for cooking to 30% by
2030 (National Planning Commission 2020a).

2.1.3 Heating and Lighting

The use of heating in households in Nepal is not common; 91% of the de jure population lives in
households where no heating technology is used. Only 6% of the population uses clean fuels and
technologies for heating. In contrast, almost all residents (99%) use clean fuels and technologies for
lighting, with 91% using electricity and 7% using solar lanterns (Table 2.3).

2.1.4 Primary Reliance on Clean Fuels Figure 2.1 Primary reliance on clean
and Technologies fuels and technologies by residence
Percentage of de jure population relying
Overall, 41% of the de jure population relies
on clean fuels and technologies
primarily on clean fuels and technologies for
cooking, space heating, and lighting (Table 2.4). Total Urban Rural
Forty-two percent of residents rely on clean fuels 99 99 99
84
and technologies for cooking and 99% for lighting. 74
53 52
42 41
Patterns by background characteristics 26
19 19
▪ Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies
for cooking, space heating, and lighting is more Cooking Space Lighting Cooking,
common in urban areas (52%) than in rural areas heating space
heating,
(19%) (Figure 2.1). and lighting

10 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

▪ Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, space heating, and lighting is about three
times higher in the hill and terai zones (43% each) than in the mountain zone (14%).

▪ Only 18% of the de jure population in Karnali Province relies on clean fuels and technologies for
cooking, space heating, and lighting, as compared with 70% in Bagmati Province.

2.2 HOUSEHOLD WEALTH

2.2.1 Household Durable Goods

The survey also collected information on household effects, means of transportation, and ownership of
agricultural land and farm animals (Table 2.5). Radios, televisions, and mobile phones are the most
common information and communication devices in Nepal. Almost all (96%) households have mobile
phones. Nearly half (49%) of all households have a television (55% in urban and 35% in rural areas). One
in five (20%) households own a radio, and there is no urban-rural difference in possession of a radio.

A bicycle or rickshaw is the most commonly owned means of transportation (37% of households).
Twenty-eight percent of households own a motorcycle or scooter and 5% own a car, truck, or tractor.

Nearly two-thirds (65%) of households own agricultural land (79% in rural areas and 59% in urban areas).
Ownership of farm animals is more common in rural (85%) than urban (57%) households (Table 2.5).

2.2.2 Wealth Index

Wealth index
Households are given scores based on the number and kinds of consumer
goods they own, ranging from a television to a bicycle or car, and housing
characteristics such as source of drinking water, toilet facilities, and flooring
materials. These scores are derived using principal component analysis.
National wealth quintiles are compiled by assigning the household score to
each usual (de jure) household member, ranking each person in the
household population by her or his score, and then dividing the distribution into
five equal categories, each comprising 20% of the population.
Sample: Households

Table 2.6 presents data on wealth quintiles and the Gini coefficient according to residence, ecological
zone, and province. The Gini coefficient, a statistical measure of economic inequality in a given
population, measures the extent to which the distribution of income among individuals or households
deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. The value of the coefficient ranges between 0 (a perfectly
equal distribution of income) and 1 (a totally unequal distribution). Nepal’s Gini coefficient of 0.24
indicates a fairly uneven distribution of wealth in the population.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 11

 Patterns by background characteristics Figure 2.2 Household wealth
by residence
▪ Only 4% of the population in rural areas falls in
Percent distribution of de jure population
the highest wealth quintile, as compared with by wealth quintiles
28% of the urban population. More than half
4
(51%) of the urban population is concentrated in 15
28
the two highest wealth quintiles, while more
23 Wealthiest
than half (59%) of the rural population falls in
23 Fourth
the lowest two wealth quintiles (Figure 2.2).
23 Middle
▪ More than half (58%) of the population in the 19 Second
mountain zone falls in the lowest wealth Poorest
18
quintile, compared with 8% of the population in 35
the terai zone. 12
Urban Rural
▪ Almost two-thirds (66%) of the population in
Karnali Province is concentrated in the lowest wealth quintile, whereas only 10% of the population in
Madhesh Province falls in this category.

2.3 HOUSEHOLD POPULATION AND COMPOSITION

Household
A person or group of related or unrelated persons who live together in the
same dwelling unit(s), who acknowledge one adult male or female as the head
of the household, who share the same housekeeping arrangements, and who
are considered a single unit.

De facto population
All persons who stayed in the selected households the night before the
interview (whether usual residents or visitors).

De jure population
All persons who are usual residents of the selected households, whether or
not they stayed in the household the night before the interview.
How data are calculated
All tables are based on the de facto population unless otherwise specified.

12 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

The de facto survey population Figure 2.3 Population pyramid
(those who stayed overnight in the Percent distribution of the household population
surveyed households) is 54,384; Age
54% of these individuals are female 80+
and 46% are male, yielding a sex 75–79
70–74
ratio (number of males per 100 65–69
females) of 86. Nearly one-third 60–64
(30%) of the population is under 55–59
age 15, and 8% is age 65 or above. 50–54 Male Female
45–49
Children under age 5 and 40–44
adolescents age 10–19 account for 35–39
10% and 20% of the population, 30–34
25–29
respectively (Table 2.7 and Figure 20–24
2.3). 15–19
10–14
Trends: The proportion of the 5–9
population under age 15 has <5
declined over time, from 37% in 10 66 22 2 6 10
2011 to 34% in 2016 and 30% in
2022. The proportion of children under age 5 shows a declining trend from 11% in 2011 and 2016 to 10%
in 2022.

The proportion of female-headed households has risen over the past two decades, from 16% in 2001 to
33% in 2022 (Table 2.8). This seems to be the result of migration (see Chapter 3). The average household
size is 3.9 persons, which is slightly less than in 2016 (4.2 persons).

Ten percent of households have foster and/or orphan children, with no differences between urban and rural
areas (Table 2.8).

2.4 CHILDREN’S LIVING ARRANGEMENTS AND PARENTAL SURVIVAL

Orphan
A child with one or both parents who are dead.
Sample: Children under age 18

Fifty-seven percent of de jure children under age 18 live with both of their parents; 7% are not living with
their biological parents. Four percent of children under age 18 are orphans, with one or both parents dead
(Table 2.9).

Trends: The proportion of children with one or both parents dead has declined slightly since 2006, from
5% to 4%.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Orphanhood is highest among children age 15–17 (8%) and lowest among those under age 2 (less than
1%).

▪ Orphanhood is slightly higher in rural areas (4%) than urban areas (3%) and is highest in households
in the lowest wealth quintile (6%).

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 13

 2.5 BIRTH REGISTRATION

Registered birth
Child has a birth certificate or child does not have a birth certificate but the
birth is registered with the civil authorities.
Sample: De jure children under age 5

Nepal has a legal and administrative structure stipulating official registration of births according to
standard procedures. The newly enacted National ID and Civil Registration Act, 2019 (2076) and
Regulation, 2020 (2077) provides much-needed procedural guidelines in terms of registration of births
(Ministry of Home Affairs 2021). Formally registering births is not universal even though the registration
system was implemented more than 40 years ago. Table 2.10 presents data on de jure children under age 5
whose births are registered with the civil authorities by their background characteristics.

Among de jure children under age 5, 73% have their Figure 2.4 Trends in birth registration
births registered with the civil authorities and 72% Percentage of de jure children under age
have a birth certificate. 5 whose births are registered with the civil
authorities
Trends: Birth registration has increased
substantially over time, from 35% in 2006 and 42% 73
in 2011 to 56% in 2016 and 73% in 2022 (Figure 56
2.4). 42
35
Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Children in the mountain zone (83%) more often

have their births registered with the civil 2006 2011 2016 2022
authorities than those in the hill (75%) and terai NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
(71%) zones.

▪ Birth registration is least common among Figure 2.5 Birth registration by province
children in Koshi Province (66%) and most Percentage of de jure children under
common among children in Karnali Province age 5 whose births are registered with
(89%) (Figure 2.5). the civil authorities
Karnali Province 89
Sudurpashchim Province 82
Lumbini Province 77
Bagmati Province 71
Madhesh Province 71
Gandaki Province 69
Koshi Province 66

14 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

2.6 EDUCATION
2.6.1 Educational Attainment

Median educational attainment

Half of the population has completed less than the median number of years of
schooling, and half of the population has completed more than the median
number of years of schooling.
Sample: De facto household population age 6 and older

Table 2.11.1 and Table 2.11.2 present data on the educational attainment of the female population and
male population age 6 and older, respectively. More than one-third (35%) of females and 16% of males
have no education. Only 6% of females and 8% of males have completed lower basic education, 5% of
females and 7% of males have completed upper basic education, 8% of females and 9% of males have
completed secondary education, and 3% of females and 5% of males have completed more than secondary
education.1 Median years of schooling among females and males are 3.2 and 5.2 years, respectively.

Trends: The percentage of residents age 6 and older with no education has declined over time, from 67%
in 1996 to 49% in 2006 and 35% in 2022 among females, and from 36% in 1996 to 23% in 2006 and 16%
in 2022 among males. The median number of years of schooling among females increased from 1.0 in
2011 to 3.2 in 2022. During the same period, the median among males increased from 3.9 years to 5.2
years.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Females age 6 and older in urban areas are twice as likely as females in rural areas to have completed
secondary or higher education (13% versus 6%). Similarly, 17% of males in urban areas have
completed secondary or higher education, as compared with only 8% of males in rural areas (Table
2.11.1 and Table 2.11.2).

▪ Females (40%) and males (20%) in rural areas are more likely to have no education than those in
urban areas (32% of females and 14% of males).

▪ Nearly half (47%) of females and one-fourth (24%) of males in Madhesh Province do not have any
formal education.

▪ Only 3% of females and 4% of males from the lowest wealth quintile have completed secondary or
higher education, compared with 29% of females and 35% of males from the highest wealth quintile.

1
The education system in Nepal has been amended based on the Education Act Eight Amendment Bill 2016 (Ministry
of Education, Science and Technology 2021). The 2022 NDHS refers to this amendment, which differs from the
previous NDHS surveys.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 15

 2.6.2 Primary and Secondary School Attendance

Net attendance ratio (NAR)

Percentage of the school-age population that attends lower basic school,
upper basic school, or secondary school.
Sample: Children age 5–9 for lower basic school NAR, children age 10–12 for
upper basic school NAR, and children age 13–16 for secondary school NAR

Gross attendance ratio (GAR)

The total number of children attending lower basic school divided by the
official lower basic school-age population, the total number of children
attending upper basic school divided by the official upper basic school-age
population, and the total number of children attending secondary school
divided by the official secondary school-age population.
Sample: Children age 5–9 for lower basic school GAR, children age 10–12 for
upper basic school GAR, and children age 13–16 for secondary school GAR

Table 2.12 shows that the net attendance ratio (NAR) for lower basic school (grades 1–5) children (age 5–
9) is 76%. The NAR is much lower among upper basic school (grades 6–8) children (age 10–12), at 48%,
and secondary school (grades 9–12) children (age 13–16), at 51%. The NAR is higher among girls than
boys at all levels.

Data on the gross attendance ratio (GAR) are also presented in Table 2.12. A lower basic school GAR of
more than 100% means that a substantial number of students at the lower basic level are not of the official
lower basic school age. In Nepal, the lower basic school GAR is 111%, the upper basic school GAR is
91%, and the secondary school GAR is 83%.

Gender parity index (GPI)

The ratio of female to male students attending lower basic school, the ratio of
female to male students attending upper basic school, and the ratio of female
to male students attending secondary school. The index reflects the
magnitude of the gender gap.
Sample: Lower basic school students, upper basic school students, and
secondary school students

A gender parity index (GPI) of 1 indicates parity or equality between school participation ratios. A GPI
lower than 1 indicates a gender disparity in favor of males, with a higher proportion of males than females
attending that level of schooling. A GPI higher than 1 indicates a gender disparity in favor of females.

The GPI for NAR is 1.05 at the lower basic school level and 1.16 at the upper basic school level, indicating
that more girls are attending school than boys; however, the GPI for NAR falls again to 1.05 at the
secondary school level, indicating that some girls tend to drop out at the secondary school level (Table
2.12). Overall, the gender disparity in school attendance favors females in Nepal.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The secondary school NAR is higher in urban areas (55% among females and 51% among males) than
in rural areas (46% each among females and males).

▪ The NAR is lowest in Madhesh Province across all levels of schooling: 63% in lower basic school,
30% in upper basic school, and 33% in secondary school. Moreover, this is the only province where
the secondary school GPI for NAR favors males, at 0.75, indicating that some females drop out of
secondary school.

16 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

▪ The secondary school NAR is highest among Figure 2.6 Secondary school attendance
children from households in the highest wealth by household wealth
quintile (72% among females and 68% among Net attendance ratio for secondary school
males) (Figure 2.6). among children age 13–16
Girls Boys

72 68
63
50 52
48 44
41 41 39

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Poorest Wealthiest
2.6.3 Participation Rate in Organized Learning among Children Age 4

Participation rate in organized learning: adjusted net attendance ratio

(NAR)
Percentage of children 1 year younger than the official lower basic school entry
age (at the beginning of the school year) who are attending an early childhood
education program or lower basic school. The ratio is term adjusted since it
includes children in lower basic school.
Sample: Children age 4 at the beginning of the school year

Table 2.13 presents data on participation in organized learning. Overall, more than half (52%) of children
1 year younger than the official lower basic school entry age at the beginning of the school year have
attended an early childhood education program, and 20% have attended lower basic school. However, 28%
have attended neither an early childhood education program nor lower basic school. Overall, the adjusted
NAR for organized learning among children age 4 at the beginning of the school year is 82%.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Early childhood education attendance is more common in urban areas (56%) than in rural areas (46%),
while lower basic school attendance is more common in rural areas (25% versus 17%).

▪ Children from households in the highest wealth quintile more often have access to an early childhood
education program than those from households in the lowest wealth quintile (72% versus 29%).

▪ The adjusted NAR is lowest in the terai zone (74%) and Madhesh Province (59%) and highest in the
hill zone (95%) and Bagmati Province (97%).

2.7 POSSESSION OF MOSQUITO NETS

An important strategy in controlling malaria and other vector-borne diseases is prevention through indoor
residual spraying and use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs). The 2022 NDHS results show that nearly three
quarters (74%) of households in Nepal possess any type of mosquito net, while 12% have an ITN (Table
2.14). On average, households possess at least two nets of any type, but possession of ITNs is negligible.
In 45% of households with at least one ITN, a household member slept under the net the night preceding
the survey.

In Nepal, insecticide-treated nets are distributed in mass campaigns and through regular distribution to
people living in areas with active transmission, malaria risk groups, army and police personnel, and
pregnant women at their first antenatal care (ANC) visits (Ministry of Health and Population 2022a).

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 17

 Table 2.15 shows that government health facilities (44%) are the main source of insecticide-treated nets
for households possessing at least one ITN, followed by mass distribution campaigns (39%).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ More than three quarters (77%) of households in urban areas possess any type of mosquito net, and
14% possess an ITN. These percentages are higher than in rural areas, where 70% of households
possess any type of net and 10% possess an ITN.

▪ Access to and use of mosquito nets are most common in the terai zone, which has warmer weather and
is prone to vector-borne diseases. Ninety-five percent of households in that zone possess any type of
net, while 19% have an ITN. In 52% of households in the terai zone with at least one ITN, a household
member slept under the net the night before the survey.

2.8 FOOD INSECURITY

Food insecurity refers to a lack of regular access to enough safe and nutritious foods for normal growth
and development and an active and healthy life (FAO 2014). Information on households’ ability to access
food is important in assessing the context for and impact of nutrition interventions that aim to improve the
dietary intake of vulnerable populations. Food insecurity is measured using the Food Insecurity Experience
Scale (FIES) developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2014).

The FIES measures food insecurity along a continuous scale of severity. In the 2022 NDHS, households
were asked eight questions about constraints on their ability to access adequate food during the preceding
12 months, and their responses were used to calculate the prevalence and severity of food insecurity
experienced by the household population.

Food insecurity levels

Moderate food insecurity
Having to reduce the quality and/or quantity of food and having uncertainty
about the ability to obtain food due to lack of money or other resources during
the last 12 months.
Severe food insecurity
Running out of food and, at the most extreme, going a day (or days) without
eating during the last 12 months.
Sample: De jure population

Moderate food insecurity can increase the risk of malnutrition, such as stunting in children, micronutrient
deficiencies, or obesity in adults. Severe food insecurity results in extreme hunger.

Levels of Food Insecurity

The 2022 NDHS shows that 13% of the de jure population experienced moderate or severe food insecurity
in the 12 months preceding the survey, while 1% experienced severe food insecurity (Table 2.16).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Rural residents more often experience moderate or severe food insecurity than urban residents (16%
versus 11%).

▪ The population experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity is highest in Karnali Province (32%)
and lowest in Gandaki Province (8%). Five percent of the population in Karnali Province faced severe
food insecurity in the 12 months preceding the survey.

18 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

▪ Moderate or severe food insecurity (27%) and severe food insecurity (4%) are highest among the
population in the lowest wealth quintile, and both moderate and severe food insecurity decrease with
increasing wealth (Table 2.16).

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on household population and housing characteristics, see the following tables:

▪ Table 2.1 Household characteristics

▪ Table 2.2 Household characteristics: Cooking
▪ Table 2.3 Household characteristics: Heating and lighting
▪ Table 2.4 Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies
▪ Table 2.5 Household possessions
▪ Table 2.6 Wealth quintiles
▪ Table 2.7 Household population by age, sex, and residence
▪ Table 2.8 Household composition
▪ Table 2.9 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood
▪ Table 2.10 Birth registration of children under age 5
▪ Table 2.11.1 Educational attainment of the female household population
▪ Table 2.11.2 Educational attainment of the male household population
▪ Table 2.12 School attendance ratios
▪ Table 2.13 Participation rate in organized learning
▪ Table 2.14 Household possession of mosquito nets
▪ Table 2.15 Source of insecticide-treated mosquito nets
▪ Table 2.16 Food insecurity

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 19

 Table 2.1 Household characteristics
Percent distribution of households and de jure population by housing characteristics and percent distribution by
frequency of smoking in the home, according to residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Households Population
Characteristic Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Electricity
Yes 97.7 93.7 96.4 97.8 94.0 96.5
No 2.3 6.3 3.6 2.2 6.0 3.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Flooring material
Earth, sand 21.0 39.2 27.0 21.8 38.9 27.5
Dung 14.5 28.0 19.0 16.0 29.0 20.3
Wood/planks 0.3 1.3 0.6 0.2 1.0 0.5
Parquet or polished wood 1.0 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.6
Vinyl or asphalt strips 4.4 0.9 3.3 3.9 0.8 2.8
Ceramic tiles 2.0 0.1 1.4 1.9 0.1 1.3
Cement 44.3 28.9 39.2 44.7 28.9 39.4
Carpet 12.3 1.2 8.7 10.6 1.0 7.4
Other 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Rooms used for sleeping
One 27.1 26.7 27.0 19.6 20.7 19.9
Two 37.0 40.3 38.1 35.9 38.7 36.9
Three or more 35.8 33.0 34.9 44.5 40.6 43.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Frequency of smoking in
the home
Daily 20.6 26.9 22.7 22.2 28.5 24.3
Weekly 4.3 5.7 4.8 4.3 6.0 4.9
Monthly 1.9 3.0 2.3 1.8 2.9 2.2
Less than once a month 4.3 5.8 4.8 4.2 5.7 4.7
Never 68.8 58.5 65.4 67.4 57.0 63.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/
population 9,244 4,542 13,786 36,218 18,102 54,320

20 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.2 Household characteristics: Cooking
Percent distribution of households and de jure population by place for cooking, cooking technology, and cooking fuel,
according to residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Households Population
Characteristic Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Place for cooking
In the house 71.4 61.7 68.2 68.4 59.3 65.3
Separate room/kitchen 50.2 39.0 46.5 50.1 37.9 46.1
No separate room/kitchen 21.2 22.7 21.7 18.2 21.4 19.3
In a separate building 19.0 26.6 21.5 21.3 28.0 23.5
Outdoors 9.2 11.5 9.9 10.1 12.6 10.9
Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
No food cooked in household 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Main cooking technology
Clean fuels and technologies 56.7 21.2 45.0 52.5 19.3 41.4
Electric stove 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4
Solar cooker 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
LPG/natural gas stove 54.7 19.6 43.1 50.5 17.4 39.5
Piped natural gas stove 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
Biogas stove 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.3
Other fuels and technologies 42.8 78.6 54.6 47.3 80.7 58.4
Manufactured solid fuel stove 1.7 3.6 2.3 1.6 3.3 2.2
With a chimney 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.3
Without a chimney 1.5 2.9 1.9 1.4 2.7 1.8
Traditional solid fuel stove 31.4 47.7 36.8 35.9 51.0 41.0
With a chimney 0.5 1.6 0.9 0.5 1.5 0.8
Without a chimney 30.9 46.1 35.9 35.4 49.6 40.1
Three-stone stove/open fire 7.4 17.3 10.7 7.4 16.7 10.5
Smokeless/improved stove 2.2 10.1 4.8 2.4 9.7 4.8
Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
No food cooked in household 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Cooking fuel
Clean fuels and technologies1 56.7 21.2 45.0 52.5 19.3 41.4
Solid fuels for cooking 42.8 78.6 54.6 47.2 80.7 58.4
Coal/lignite 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
Charcoal 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Wood 37.4 72.2 48.9 40.5 73.2 51.4
Straw/shrubs/grass 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.3 2.5 2.4
Agricultural crop 0.9 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.9
Animal dung/waste 2.5 3.7 2.9 3.1 4.3 3.5
Processed biomass (pellets) or
woodchips 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Sawdust 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
Other fuels 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Gasoline/diesel 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Kerosene 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
No food cooked in household 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/population 9,244 4,542 13,786 36,218 18,102 54,320

LPG = Liquefied petroleum gas

1
Includes stoves/cookers using electricity, LPG/natural gas/biogas, and solar

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 21

 Table 2.3 Household characteristics: Heating and lighting
Percent distribution of households and de jure population by heating technology, heating fuel, and main lighting fuel or
technology, according to residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Households Population
Characteristic Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Heating technology
Central heating 1.4 0.4 1.0 1.3 0.3 1.0
Manufactured space heater 7.4 0.8 5.2 7.5 0.8 5.2
With a chimney 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.2
Without a chimney 7.0 0.8 5.0 7.1 0.8 5.0
Traditional space heater 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
With a chimney 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Without a chimney 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Manufactured cookstove 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3
With a chimney 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1
Without a chimney 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
Traditional cookstove 0.9 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.4 1.1
With a chimney 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
Without a chimney 0.8 1.3 0.9 0.8 1.4 1.0
Three-stone stove/open fire 0.5 1.3 0.8 0.6 1.2 0.8
Other 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1
No heating in household 89.3 95.4 91.3 89.1 95.7 91.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Heating fuel
Clean fuels and technologies1 9.0 1.2 6.5 9.1 1.1 6.4
Central heating 1.4 0.4 1.0 1.3 0.3 1.0
Electricity 7.4 0.8 5.2 7.5 0.7 5.3
Solar air heater 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
LPG/cooking gas 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
Kerosene 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Coal/lignite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Charcoal 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Wood 1.5 2.8 1.9 1.5 2.7 1.9
Straw/shrubs/grass 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1
Agricultural crop 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
Animal dung/waste 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
No heating in household 89.3 95.4 91.3 89.1 95.7 91.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Main lighting fuel or technology
Clean fuels and technologies 99.2 98.5 98.9 99.2 98.5 99.0
Electricity 95.1 84.1 91.5 95.1 83.8 91.3
Solar lantern 3.4 12.0 6.2 3.5 12.7 6.6
Rechargeable flashlight/
torch/lantern 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.5
Battery-powered flashlight/
torch/lantern 0.3 1.5 0.7 0.3 1.2 0.6
Gasoline lamp 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
Kerosene lamp 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5
Wood 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1
Straw/shrubs/grass 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1
Agricultural crop 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Oil lamp 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
Candle 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
No lighting in household 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/population 9,244 4,542 13,786 36,218 18,102 54,320

LPG = Liquefied petroleum gas

1
Includes central heating, electricity, LPG/natural gas/biogas, and solar air heater

22 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.4 Primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies
Percentage of de jure population relying on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, percentage relying on solid fuels for cooking, percentage relying on clean fuels
and technologies for space heating, percentage relying on clean fuels and technologies for lighting, and percentage relying on clean fuels and technologies for cooking,
space heating, and lighting, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Primary
Primary reliance on
Primary Number of reliance on Number of Primary clean fuels
reliance on persons in clean fuels persons in reliance on Number of and
clean fuels Primary households and households clean fuels persons in technologies
and reliance on that reported technologies that reported and households for cooking,
Background technologies solid fuels for cooking in the for space use of space technologies that reported space heating, Number of
characteristic for cooking1 cooking2 house heating3 heating for lighting4 use of lighting and lighting5 persons
Residence
Urban 52.6 47.3 36,129 83.5 3,933 99.3 36,179 52.3 36,218
Rural 19.3 80.7 18,093 26.2 783 98.7 18,076 19.0 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 14.3 85.6 3,192 19.6 302 97.9 3,192 13.8 3,193
Hill 43.3 56.7 21,406 79.7 2,602 99.6 21,415 43.1 21,443
Terai 43.1 56.8 29,625 74.8 1,812 98.8 29,649 42.7 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 33.3 66.7 9,399 40.5 620 98.8 9,396 32.9 9,406
Urban 41.9 58.1 6,075 49.1 441 98.8 6,080 41.4 6,081
Rural 17.6 82.4 3,323 19.4 179 98.7 3,316 17.5 3,325
Madhesh Province 30.9 69.0 11,480 73.7 591 98.1 11,499 30.5 11,511
Urban 33.5 66.3 8,515 77.6 500 98.2 8,533 33.2 8,542
Rural 23.2 76.6 2,965 52.0 91 97.8 2,966 23.0 2,968
Bagmati Province 70.0 30.0 11,088 90.2 2,127 99.7 11,124 69.7 11,131
Urban 84.5 15.5 8,576 95.6 1,966 100.0 8,610 84.2 8,617
Rural 20.3 79.7 2,512 23.3 161 98.7 2,514 20.0 2,514
Gandaki Province 50.7 49.2 4,863 81.8 285 99.8 4,864 50.5 4,865
Urban 64.0 36.0 3,270 94.7 234 99.9 3,272 63.7 3,272
Rural 23.5 76.5 1,593 22.7 51 99.8 1,592 23.4 1,593
Lumbini Province 40.9 59.1 9,453 76.2 624 99.6 9,440 40.5 9,462
Urban 55.1 44.9 5,147 89.3 469 99.7 5,143 54.8 5,156
Rural 23.8 76.2 4,306 36.5 154 99.5 4,297 23.4 4,306
Karnali Province 18.0 81.9 3,334 54.3 129 97.7 3,322 17.8 3,334
Urban 31.7 68.2 1,754 61.4 102 99.2 1,747 31.4 1,755
Rural 2.8 97.0 1,579 27.8 27 96.0 1,575 2.8 1,579
Sudurpashchim
Province 24.6 75.4 4,608 30.7 340 99.7 4,611 24.1 4,611
Urban 31.4 68.6 2,792 42.8 221 99.9 2,794 30.9 2,794
Rural 14.1 85.9 1,816 8.2 119 99.3 1,816 13.6 1,817
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.9 99.1 10,853 0.7 584 96.0 10,810 1.0 10,866
Second 6.6 93.2 10,841 2.3 295 99.6 10,854 6.5 10,862
Middle 30.4 69.6 10,840 17.6 276 99.9 10,860 29.6 10,861
Fourth 72.3 27.7 10,834 59.1 279 100.0 10,865 71.8 10,865
Highest 97.2 2.8 10,855 99.4 3,282 99.9 10,866 97.0 10,866
Total 41.5 58.5 54,223 73.9 4,716 99.1 54,255 41.2 54,320

LPG = Liquefied petroleum gas

1
Includes stoves/cookers using electricity, LPG/natural gas/biogas, and solar
2
Includes coal/lignite, charcoal, wood, straw/shrubs/grass, agricultural crops, animal dung/waste, processed biomass (pellets) or woodchips, and sawdust
3
Includes central heating, electricity, LPG/natural gas/biogas, and solar air heater
4
Includes electricity, solar lantern, rechargeable flashlight/torch/lantern, and battery-powered flashlight/torch/lantern
5
To calculate SDG indicator 7.1.2, persons living in households that reported no cooking, no space heating, or no lighting were not excluded from the numerator.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 23

 Table 2.5 Household possessions
Percentage of households possessing various household effects, means of
transportation, agricultural land, and livestock/farm animals, by residence,
Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Possession Urban Rural Total
Household effects
Radio 19.2 20.9 19.8
Television 55.4 35.1 48.7
Mobile phone 96.7 93.9 95.8
Computer 18.1 4.4 13.6
Non-mobile telephone 5.4 0.5 3.8
Refrigerator 34.5 10.7 26.6
Table 71.4 50.9 64.7
Chair 71.6 53.1 65.5
Bed 97.1 93.1 95.8
Sofa 22.3 6.4 17.1
Cupboard 61.6 39.8 54.4
Clock 36.4 21.3 31.4
Fan 69.6 40.9 60.2
Inverter 7.7 2.4 6.0
Dhiki/janto 24.9 40.3 30.0
Means of transportation
Bicycle/rickshaw 40.0 30.5 36.9
Animal-drawn cart 1.6 3.4 2.2
Motorcycle/scooter 33.0 17.6 27.9
Car/truck/tractor 5.9 3.2 5.0
Three-wheel tempo/e-rickshaw 1.9 0.7 1.5
Ownership of agricultural land 58.6 78.9 65.3
Ownership of farm animals1 57.1 85.3 66.4
Number of households 9,244 4,542 13,786

1
Cows, bulls, buffalo, horses, donkeys, mules, goats, sheep, pigs, yaks,
ducks, chickens, or other poultry

24 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.6 Wealth quintiles
Percent distribution of the de jure population by wealth quintiles, and the Gini coefficient, according to residence and region, Nepal
DHS 2022
Wealth quintile Number of Gini
Residence/region Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest Total persons coefficient
Residence
Urban 12.4 18.3 18.5 22.7 28.2 100.0 36,218 0.23
Rural 35.3 23.3 23.1 14.7 3.7 100.0 18,102 0.20
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.9 22.7 9.1 4.8 5.5 100.0 3,193 0.33
Hill 31.5 17.4 12.0 13.7 25.4 100.0 21,443 0.29
Terai 7.6 21.6 26.9 26.2 17.7 100.0 29,683 0.20
Province
Koshi Province 22.6 23.7 19.6 21.4 12.7 100.0 9,406 0.23
Urban 16.0 24.0 18.9 23.9 17.2 100.0 6,081 0.23
Rural 34.6 23.2 20.9 16.9 4.5 100.0 3,325 0.20
Madhesh Province 9.6 28.2 29.0 21.7 11.6 100.0 11,511 0.23
Urban 11.7 28.1 25.1 21.3 13.8 100.0 8,542 0.22
Rural 3.6 28.2 40.0 22.9 5.4 100.0 2,968 0.20
Bagmati Province 11.6 11.8 13.6 19.6 43.4 100.0 11,131 0.22
Urban 3.4 6.2 11.5 23.3 55.6 100.0 8,617 0.17
Rural 39.8 30.7 20.7 7.0 1.8 100.0 2,514 0.28
Gandaki Province 16.6 16.4 19.6 23.3 24.2 100.0 4,865 0.23
Urban 6.3 11.7 19.5 27.7 34.8 100.0 3,272 0.18
Rural 37.6 26.0 19.7 14.2 2.4 100.0 1,593 0.25
Lumbini Province 15.5 20.4 23.7 22.2 18.2 100.0 9,462 0.22
Urban 9.2 17.3 20.3 24.5 28.7 100.0 5,156 0.21
Rural 23.1 24.1 27.7 19.5 5.6 100.0 4,306 0.18
Karnali Province 65.9 13.3 7.2 8.2 5.5 100.0 3,334 0.37
Urban 46.5 16.4 11.8 15.1 10.3 100.0 1,755 0.38
Rural 87.3 9.8 2.1 0.5 0.2 100.0 1,579 0.23
Sudurpashchim
Province 40.6 19.8 16.1 14.4 9.2 100.0 4,611 0.31
Urban 25.5 24.5 18.1 17.9 14.0 100.0 2,794 0.24
Rural 63.7 12.6 13.0 8.9 1.8 100.0 1,817 0.36
Total 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 100.0 54,320 0.24

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 25

 Table 2.7 Household population by age, sex, and residence
Percent distribution of the de facto household population by various age groups, and percentage of the de facto household population age 10–19, according
to sex and residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Urban Rural Total
Age Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
<5 10.6 8.3 9.4 11.8 9.1 10.3 11.0 8.6 9.7
5–9 10.9 8.6 9.6 12.0 9.4 10.6 11.3 8.8 10.0
10–14 10.8 9.3 10.0 12.1 10.7 11.4 11.2 9.8 10.4
15–19 9.6 9.4 9.5 8.7 9.2 9.0 9.3 9.4 9.3
20–24 8.2 9.8 9.1 6.2 8.8 7.6 7.6 9.5 8.6
25–29 7.1 9.0 8.1 6.0 7.9 7.0 6.8 8.6 7.7
30–34 6.3 8.1 7.2 4.9 6.4 5.7 5.8 7.5 6.7
35–39 6.0 7.5 6.8 5.4 7.0 6.3 5.8 7.3 6.6
40–44 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.5
45–49 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.6
50–54 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.4
55–59 4.3 4.2 4.2 4.7 4.3 4.5 4.4 4.2 4.3
60–64 3.5 3.2 3.3 4.2 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.3 3.5
65–69 2.9 2.5 2.7 3.2 2.9 3.1 3.0 2.7 2.8
70–74 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.3 2.3
75–79 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.3
80+ 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Dependency age groups
0–14 32.3 26.2 29.0 35.9 29.2 32.3 33.5 27.2 30.1
15–64 60.4 66.9 63.9 55.0 62.6 59.2 58.6 65.5 62.3
65+ 7.3 6.9 7.1 9.1 8.2 8.6 7.9 7.3 7.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Child and adult populations
0–17 38.0 31.4 34.5 41.5 34.9 37.9 39.1 32.6 35.6
18+ 62.0 68.6 65.5 58.5 65.1 62.1 60.9 67.4 64.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Adolescents 10–19 20.3 18.7 19.5 20.9 20.0 20.4 20.5 19.1 19.8
Number of persons 16,884 19,464 36,349 8,220 9,816 18,036 25,104 29,281 54,384

26 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.8 Household composition
Percent distribution of households by sex of head of household and by household size,
mean size of households, and percentage of households with orphans and children under
age 18 not living with a biological parent, according to residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Characteristic Urban Rural Total
Household headship
Male 66.9 68.3 67.3
Female 33.1 31.7 32.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of usual members
1 6.6 6.8 6.7
2 17.4 17.7 17.5
3 21.5 20.3 21.1
4 22.6 20.5 21.9
5 15.0 15.6 15.2
6 8.4 9.0 8.6
7 3.5 5.4 4.1
8 2.1 2.1 2.1
9+ 2.8 2.6 2.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Mean size of households 3.9 4.0 3.9
Percentage of households with children
under age 18 who are orphans or not
living with a biological parent
Double orphans 0.2 0.3 0.2
Single orphans1 2.8 3.8 3.1
Children not living with a biological parent2 7.7 7.6 7.7
Orphans and/or children not living with a
biological parent 9.5 10.1 9.7
Number of households 9,244 4,542 13,786

Note: Table is based on de jure household members, i.e., usual residents.

1
Includes children with one dead parent and an unknown survival status of the other
parent
2
Children not living with a biological parent are those under age 18 living in households
with neither their mother nor their father present.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 27

 Table 2.9 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood
Percent distribution of de jure children under age 18 by living arrangements and survival status of parents, percentage of children not living with a biological parent,
and percentage of children with one or both parents dead, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percent-
Living with Living with father
age not Percent-
mother but not but not with
Missing living age with
with father mother Not living with either parent
informa- with a one or
Living Only Only tion on bio- both Number
Background with both Father Father Mother Mother Both mother father Both father/ logical parents of
1
characteristic parents alive dead alive dead alive alive alive dead mother Total parent dead children
Age
0–4 59.9 37.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 100.0 1.7 0.9 5,121
<2 61.8 36.9 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 100.0 0.6 0.5 1,897
2–4 58.7 37.8 0.5 0.3 0.3 2.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 100.0 2.3 1.1 3,223
5–9 55.9 34.6 1.4 1.2 0.5 5.7 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.3 100.0 6.2 2.4 5,388
10–14 56.4 29.4 2.6 1.9 0.9 7.3 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 100.0 8.6 4.9 5,682
15–17 56.2 21.3 3.9 2.0 1.5 12.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.4 100.0 14.7 8.1 2,957
Sex
Male 57.7 31.8 1.9 1.4 0.7 5.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 100.0 6.2 3.5 9,706
Female 56.6 31.6 1.8 1.1 0.7 6.7 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 100.0 7.8 3.7 9,442
Residence
Urban 57.7 31.1 1.8 1.2 0.6 6.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 100.0 7.4 3.3 12,358
Rural 56.1 33.0 2.1 1.3 0.8 5.1 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.3 100.0 6.4 4.2 6,789
Ecological zone
Mountain 60.4 25.9 2.9 2.2 1.1 6.6 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 100.0 7.4 4.8 1,241
Hill 56.7 30.0 2.1 1.4 0.7 7.5 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 100.0 8.9 4.2 7,003
Terai 57.1 33.5 1.6 1.1 0.7 4.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 100.0 5.7 3.1 10,904
Province
Koshi Province 60.2 26.8 2.0 2.1 0.9 6.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 100.0 7.8 4.2 3,186
Urban 60.9 25.8 1.8 2.2 0.9 6.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 100.0 8.2 4.1 2,065
Rural 58.8 28.6 2.3 2.1 0.7 5.6 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.5 100.0 7.0 4.4 1,121
Madhesh Province 55.8 37.3 1.5 0.4 0.7 3.6 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 100.0 4.0 2.6 4,707
Urban 54.5 38.3 1.7 0.3 0.7 4.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 100.0 4.3 2.7 3,499
Rural 59.6 34.4 1.0 0.6 0.7 2.6 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.5 100.0 3.2 2.3 1,208
Bagmati Province 66.7 20.3 1.8 1.5 0.7 7.3 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3 100.0 8.8 4.0 3,161
Urban 70.6 17.4 1.6 1.4 0.4 7.2 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.1 100.0 8.5 3.3 2,305
Rural 56.1 28.2 2.3 1.7 1.4 7.8 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.7 100.0 9.6 5.8 856
Gandaki Province 52.0 36.1 2.0 2.4 0.6 6.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 100.0 6.7 3.2 1,445
Urban 50.9 36.0 1.7 2.9 0.8 6.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 100.0 7.6 3.2 952
Rural 54.3 36.3 2.5 1.5 0.4 4.5 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.1 100.0 5.1 3.4 493
Lumbini Province 54.1 35.7 1.5 1.1 0.8 5.3 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 100.0 6.5 3.6 3,361
Urban 54.7 34.6 1.4 1.0 0.8 6.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 100.0 7.2 3.2 1,738
Rural 53.4 36.8 1.6 1.2 0.9 4.3 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 100.0 5.8 4.0 1,623
Karnali Province 56.6 30.1 2.6 1.5 0.2 7.9 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 100.0 8.9 3.8 1,462
Urban 53.5 31.1 2.6 1.4 0.0 9.8 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.2 100.0 11.2 4.0 732
Rural 59.7 29.1 2.5 1.5 0.4 5.9 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 6.7 3.7 731
Sudurpashchim
Province 48.8 36.5 2.9 0.9 0.7 8.8 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.1 100.0 10.0 4.8 1,826
Urban 48.2 37.1 2.4 1.0 0.4 10.1 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.1 100.0 10.8 3.6 1,068
Rural 49.8 35.7 3.6 0.9 1.2 7.1 0.3 1.1 0.4 0.1 100.0 8.8 6.5 757
Wealth quintile
Lowest 54.8 32.2 3.1 1.1 1.2 6.0 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 100.0 7.4 5.7 4,549
Second 55.2 33.4 2.0 1.3 1.0 5.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 100.0 6.7 4.1 4,124
Middle 54.7 35.9 1.9 1.1 0.3 5.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 100.0 5.9 3.0 3,969
Fourth 56.8 32.4 1.1 1.4 0.4 6.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 100.0 7.6 2.3 3,616
Highest 67.4 22.2 0.8 1.5 0.3 6.7 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.1 100.0 7.7 2.1 2,890
Total <15 57.3 33.7 1.5 1.1 0.6 4.9 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 100.0 5.6 2.8 16,191
Total <18 57.1 31.7 1.9 1.3 0.7 6.0 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 100.0 7.0 3.6 19,148

Note: Table is based on de jure household members, i.e., usual residents.

1
Includes children with father dead, mother dead, both dead, and one parent dead but missing information on survival status of the other parent

28 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.10 Birth registration of children under age 5
Percentage of de jure children under age 5 whose births are registered with the civil authorities,
by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of children whose Total percentage
births are registered and who: of children
Background Had a birth Did not have a whose births are Number of
characteristic certificate birth certificate registered children
Age
<1 48.8 1.7 50.6 934
1–4 77.2 1.0 78.2 4,187
Sex
Male 73.2 1.2 74.4 2,693
Female 70.7 1.1 71.8 2,427
Residence
Urban 71.9 1.1 73.0 3,286
Rural 72.2 1.3 73.5 1,835
Ecological zone
Mountain 81.1 2.0 83.1 342
Hill 74.0 1.2 75.2 1,743
Terai 69.8 1.1 70.9 3,036
Province
Koshi Province 64.3 1.3 65.6 857
Urban 65.7 1.2 66.9 542
Rural 61.8 1.5 63.4 315
Madhesh Province 70.2 0.6 70.9 1,388
Urban 69.1 0.6 69.7 1,034
Rural 73.7 0.7 74.4 354
Bagmati Province 68.8 1.9 70.7 825
Urban 70.9 2.2 73.1 596
Rural 63.3 1.2 64.5 230
Gandaki Province 67.1 1.6 68.7 324
Urban 66.2 1.9 68.2 207
Rural 68.6 1.2 69.7 117
Lumbini Province 75.7 1.4 77.1 880
Urban 79.5 1.1 80.6 452
Rural 71.8 1.7 73.5 428
Karnali Province 87.9 0.7 88.7 387
Urban 84.5 0.2 84.7 186
Rural 91.1 1.2 92.3 201
Sudurpashchim
Province 80.6 0.9 81.5 460
Urban 80.4 0.6 81.0 269
Rural 80.9 1.3 82.2 191
Wealth quintile
Lowest 70.7 1.1 71.8 1,219
Second 72.8 1.3 74.1 1,060
Middle 72.2 2.0 74.2 1,089
Fourth 72.0 0.8 72.8 968
Highest 73.0 0.4 73.4 785
Total 72.0 1.2 73.2 5,121

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 29

Table 2.11.1 Educational attainment of the female household population
Percent distribution of the de facto female household population age 6 and over by highest level of schooling attended or completed and median years completed, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Highest level of schooling
Some Completed Some Completed Median
Background No lower lower upper upper Some Completed More than years
characteristic education1 basic2 basic3 basic basic4 secondary secondary5 secondary Don’t know Total Number completed
Age
6–9 7.3 92.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,077 0.7
10–14 2.9 38.4 17.5 28.7 8.9 3.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,864 4.5
15–19 4.9 5.5 4.2 11.5 12.9 49.1 11.2 0.6 0.1 100.0 2,738 8.6
20–24 9.0 7.2 4.2 10.0 7.1 29.1 29.1 4.2 0.0 100.0 2,769 9.2
25–29 14.0 10.8 5.1 10.5 6.7 28.6 15.6 8.5 0.1 100.0 2,519 8.2
30–34 24.3 13.2 6.6 8.1 6.6 20.3 12.3 8.6 0.1 100.0 2,197 6.5
35–39 39.0 15.4 6.7 7.7 4.9 15.2 6.2 4.9 0.0 100.0 2,142 3.2
40–44 52.6 13.0 5.8 6.1 3.7 12.5 3.6 2.4 0.4 100.0 1,642 0.0
45–49 61.0 9.7 5.2 5.4 2.8 10.7 3.1 1.7 0.2 100.0 1,377 0.0
50–54 72.9 9.5 2.7 2.2 2.0 7.3 2.1 1.2 0.1 100.0 1,587 0.0
55–59 83.0 6.7 2.1 2.0 0.6 3.6 0.9 1.2 0.0 100.0 1,232 0.0
60–64 86.2 4.9 2.5 0.4 0.2 2.6 0.8 2.1 0.3 100.0 971 0.0
65+ 94.2 2.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.0 100.0 2,145 0.0
Residence
Urban 31.9 18.0 5.4 8.3 5.2 17.9 9.4 3.9 0.1 100.0 17,493 4.0
Rural 39.9 20.4 5.8 9.4 5.2 13.4 4.9 1.0 0.1 100.0 8,767 1.7
Ecological zone
Mountain 40.4 20.9 5.5 8.4 5.2 13.2 5.5 0.9 0.0 100.0 1,468 1.4
Hill 30.5 17.0 5.4 9.1 5.4 17.9 10.2 4.4 0.1 100.0 10,542 4.5
Terai 37.0 20.0 5.5 8.3 5.1 15.6 6.4 2.0 0.1 100.0 14,250 2.4
Province
Koshi Province 31.3 19.4 5.5 9.0 5.5 22.1 5.7 1.4 0.1 100.0 4,479 3.9
Urban 29.1 19.6 5.9 8.2 5.1 23.9 6.4 1.7 0.0 100.0 2,891 4.2
Rural 35.2 19.1 5.0 10.4 6.2 18.8 4.4 0.7 0.1 100.0 1,588 3.1
Madhesh Province 46.8 21.3 5.2 6.9 4.2 10.6 3.6 1.2 0.1 100.0 5,452 0.2
Urban 47.1 20.6 5.1 7.1 4.2 10.8 3.7 1.3 0.1 100.0 4,047 0.2
Rural 46.1 23.4 5.3 6.3 4.5 9.9 3.4 0.9 0.1 100.0 1,405 0.2
Bagmati Province 27.7 15.3 5.0 8.0 4.9 18.9 12.7 7.3 0.1 100.0 5,252 5.6
Urban 22.9 14.1 4.6 7.7 5.1 21.3 15.2 9.1 0.1 100.0 4,039 7.1
Rural 43.6 19.3 6.6 9.3 4.5 10.8 4.3 1.5 0.1 100.0 1,213 0.9
Gandaki Province 29.6 17.2 5.9 10.4 5.4 17.6 11.1 2.8 0.0 100.0 2,531 4.5
Urban 25.9 16.8 5.6 10.2 5.4 19.5 13.1 3.5 0.0 100.0 1,716 5.5
Rural 37.4 18.0 6.6 10.8 5.4 13.5 7.0 1.2 0.1 100.0 815 2.9
Lumbini Province 32.9 19.6 6.6 9.6 5.7 15.0 7.8 2.5 0.1 100.0 4,713 3.5
Urban 28.2 18.8 6.4 9.3 6.2 16.9 10.2 3.8 0.2 100.0 2,570 4.4
Rural 38.6 20.5 6.9 10.0 5.1 12.8 4.9 1.1 0.0 100.0 2,143 2.2
Karnali Province 33.6 20.5 5.0 9.6 6.5 15.1 8.4 1.3 0.0 100.0 1,576 3.1
Urban 30.1 19.8 5.5 9.6 6.9 16.2 9.9 1.9 0.0 100.0 853 4.0
Rural 37.8 21.3 4.4 9.7 5.9 13.7 6.7 0.5 0.0 100.0 723 2.0
Sudurpashchim
Province 37.3 18.7 4.7 9.0 5.6 15.6 7.2 1.8 0.1 100.0 2,257 2.5
Urban 35.2 17.7 4.9 8.4 5.7 16.9 8.6 2.4 0.1 100.0 1,375 3.3
Rural 40.4 20.2 4.4 9.9 5.4 13.5 5.0 0.9 0.2 100.0 882 1.5
Wealth quintile
Lowest 44.3 22.3 6.0 9.2 4.7 10.4 2.8 0.2 0.1 100.0 5,240 0.7
Second 43.0 21.2 5.2 9.0 5.1 12.5 3.4 0.6 0.0 100.0 5,283 0.9
Middle 38.0 20.2 5.6 8.8 5.4 15.6 5.6 0.9 0.0 100.0 5,254 2.2
Fourth 29.0 18.0 5.6 9.3 5.9 20.9 9.1 2.1 0.1 100.0 5,227 4.5
Highest 18.6 12.3 5.1 7.1 5.1 22.4 18.5 10.8 0.2 100.0 5,257 8.3
Total 34.6 18.8 5.5 8.7 5.2 16.4 7.9 2.9 0.1 100.0 26,260 3.2

1
Includes those who have never attended school and those in informal preschool
2
Includes those who have attended 0–4 grades and those in school-based pre-primary class
3
Completed grade 5 at the lower basic level
4
Completed grade 8 at the upper basic level
5
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

30 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.11.2 Educational attainment of the male household population
Percent distribution of the de facto male household population age 6 and over by highest level of schooling attended or completed and median years completed, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Highest level of schooling
Some Completed Some Completed Median
Background No lower lower upper upper Some Completed More than years
characteristic education1 basic2 basic3 basic basic4 secondary secondary5 secondary Don’t know Total Number completed
Age
6–9 8.4 91.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 2,274 0.6
10–14 1.8 45.9 16.9 26.6 6.8 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,818 4.1
15–19 2.0 4.1 3.8 15.6 14.8 50.1 9.2 0.3 0.0 100.0 2,333 8.5
20–24 3.0 5.7 5.5 9.9 8.4 29.4 31.8 6.1 0.2 100.0 1,901 9.7
25–29 4.4 7.7 6.6 11.2 8.5 30.8 16.7 13.8 0.4 100.0 1,696 9.0
30–34 6.1 11.5 11.3 9.6 7.1 25.3 15.0 13.4 0.6 100.0 1,465 8.5
35–39 12.0 15.1 7.9 12.7 9.0 24.2 8.1 10.7 0.4 100.0 1,449 7.2
40–44 15.8 17.6 8.3 9.9 8.1 23.5 9.1 7.3 0.4 100.0 1,370 6.7
45–49 20.0 19.3 8.4 7.5 6.5 24.4 7.5 6.0 0.3 100.0 1,137 5.7
50–54 25.9 20.8 7.0 7.9 5.3 18.9 7.9 5.9 0.4 100.0 1,327 4.4
55–59 34.3 22.6 6.7 6.1 5.5 15.5 4.0 5.3 0.2 100.0 1,114 2.7
60–64 42.8 21.8 9.0 4.3 3.8 11.5 3.7 3.0 0.0 100.0 930 1.4
65+ 57.7 16.8 5.5 2.6 2.7 8.2 1.8 3.7 1.0 100.0 1,984 0.0
Residence
Urban 13.5 24.4 7.1 10.0 6.6 21.4 10.1 6.5 0.3 100.0 14,736 6.1
Rural 19.9 28.6 8.3 11.7 7.1 16.6 5.3 2.2 0.2 100.0 7,062 4.2
Ecological zone
Mountain 17.0 30.7 8.9 12.2 7.4 13.3 7.5 2.7 0.4 100.0 1,233 4.2
Hill 12.4 24.2 7.9 10.0 7.1 20.6 10.1 7.5 0.2 100.0 8,696 6.2
Terai 17.8 26.4 7.1 10.8 6.5 19.9 7.6 3.6 0.3 100.0 11,868 4.8
Province
Koshi Province 14.4 24.8 8.3 11.5 7.7 23.6 6.9 2.4 0.3 100.0 3,849 5.5
Urban 13.1 25.0 7.8 10.8 7.2 25.3 7.8 2.8 0.3 100.0 2,519 5.9
Rural 17.0 24.5 9.4 13.0 8.7 20.2 5.2 1.8 0.3 100.0 1,330 4.9
Madhesh Province 23.6 28.0 6.1 9.0 6.4 17.4 5.9 3.5 0.2 100.0 4,469 3.7
Urban 23.8 27.9 5.7 8.8 6.5 17.3 6.0 3.7 0.1 100.0 3,306 3.7
Rural 23.0 28.2 7.3 9.3 6.0 17.5 5.5 2.8 0.4 100.0 1,163 3.8
Bagmati Province 11.3 21.3 7.1 9.0 5.7 21.0 12.6 11.4 0.6 100.0 4,812 7.2
Urban 7.9 18.8 6.8 8.3 5.8 23.1 14.9 13.7 0.7 100.0 3,805 8.3
Rural 24.1 30.8 8.3 11.8 5.2 13.1 4.0 2.5 0.3 100.0 1,007 3.2
Gandaki Province 12.4 25.7 7.4 10.4 7.3 22.9 9.9 3.8 0.2 100.0 1,934 6.0
Urban 9.2 23.9 7.5 10.4 7.0 25.2 12.1 4.5 0.2 100.0 1,300 6.8
Rural 19.0 29.2 7.4 10.5 7.8 18.2 5.5 2.2 0.1 100.0 634 4.2
Lumbini Province 15.0 26.9 8.5 12.1 7.6 18.3 8.0 3.5 0.1 100.0 3,732 5.0
Urban 11.1 25.3 8.5 11.9 7.7 20.5 10.1 4.7 0.2 100.0 2,050 6.0
Rural 19.7 28.8 8.4 12.5 7.6 15.7 5.4 2.0 0.1 100.0 1,682 4.2
Karnali Province 14.2 31.4 8.3 10.7 7.5 15.5 8.2 4.1 0.1 100.0 1,263 4.5
Urban 11.2 30.4 7.2 10.4 7.3 17.5 10.2 5.8 0.0 100.0 676 5.3
Rural 17.6 32.6 9.5 10.9 7.9 13.2 5.9 2.1 0.2 100.0 587 4.0
Sudurpashchim
Province 15.3 27.8 7.8 13.5 6.0 17.7 8.2 3.6 0.1 100.0 1,738 4.9
Urban 13.9 26.6 8.1 13.7 5.6 18.2 9.4 4.3 0.1 100.0 1,079 5.2
Rural 17.6 29.8 7.4 13.1 6.6 16.8 6.2 2.5 0.1 100.0 659 4.4
Wealth quintile
Lowest 24.4 34.4 9.3 10.7 5.8 11.3 3.2 0.7 0.2 100.0 4,025 2.8
Second 22.5 29.5 8.7 11.7 6.9 15.5 3.8 1.3 0.1 100.0 4,254 3.7
Middle 17.1 28.3 7.4 12.9 7.3 19.3 5.4 1.9 0.3 100.0 4,313 4.6
Fourth 10.3 22.9 7.8 11.3 8.1 24.1 11.1 4.0 0.4 100.0 4,562 6.6
Highest 5.5 15.3 4.8 6.4 5.8 27.4 18.0 16.5 0.4 100.0 4,644 9.3
Total 15.6 25.7 7.5 10.6 6.8 19.8 8.6 5.1 0.3 100.0 21,797 5.2

Note: Total includes 2 male household members whose age is not known.
1
Includes those who have never attended school and those in informal preschool
2
Includes those who have attended 0–4 grades and those in school-based pre-primary class
3
Completed grade 5 at the lower basic level
4
Completed grade 8 at the upper basic level
5
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 31

 Table 2.12 School attendance ratios
Net attendance ratios (NAR) and gross attendance ratios (GAR) for the de facto household population by sex and level of schooling, and
the gender parity index (GPI), by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Net attendance ratio1 Gross attendance ratio2
Background Gender Gender
characteristic Male Female Total parity index3 Male Female Total parity index3
LOWER BASIC SCHOOL (GRADES 1–5)
Residence
Urban 73.6 77.5 75.4 1.05 106.9 109.5 108.1 1.02
Rural 77.1 79.5 78.3 1.03 116.0 115.5 115.7 1.00
Ecological zone
Mountain 84.2 83.4 83.8 0.99 120.2 120.8 120.5 1.01
Hill 83.6 87.1 85.3 1.04 114.4 116.0 115.1 1.01
Terai 68.0 72.0 69.9 1.06 105.9 107.9 106.9 1.02
Province
Koshi Province 76.6 78.6 77.6 1.03 107.1 108.0 107.6 1.01
Urban 75.6 78.5 77.0 1.04 102.7 106.4 104.5 1.04
Rural 78.9 78.7 78.8 1.00 117.6 110.9 113.9 0.94
Madhesh Province 60.8 65.5 63.0 1.08 106.9 109.2 108.0 1.02
Urban 59.9 64.9 62.3 1.08 107.4 109.8 108.5 1.02
Rural 63.3 66.9 65.1 1.06 105.5 107.6 106.5 1.02
Bagmati Province 83.2 84.9 84.0 1.02 112.0 106.2 109.3 0.95
Urban 82.2 85.4 83.6 1.04 104.8 104.6 104.7 1.00
Rural 86.2 83.7 84.9 0.97 132.9 109.7 121.3 0.83
Gandaki Province 82.1 79.8 81.0 0.97 105.2 103.7 104.5 0.99
Urban 84.1 78.0 81.1 0.93 110.2 98.0 104.2 0.89
Rural 78.8 83.6 80.8 1.06 96.7 116.4 105.0 1.20
Lumbini Province 76.0 80.9 78.4 1.06 110.3 112.2 111.2 1.02
Urban 77.4 81.0 79.1 1.05 107.9 110.5 109.1 1.02
Rural 74.4 80.8 77.6 1.09 113.2 113.9 113.6 1.01
Karnali Province 83.0 91.4 86.7 1.10 121.8 135.2 127.8 1.11
Urban 79.8 91.1 84.9 1.14 123.0 129.5 126.0 1.05
Rural 86.3 91.7 88.6 1.06 120.6 141.2 129.6 1.17
Sudurpashchim Province 78.3 84.2 81.1 1.07 113.0 123.3 118.0 1.09
Urban 75.4 86.1 80.3 1.14 102.0 122.3 111.2 1.20
Rural 83.1 81.7 82.4 0.98 131.3 124.6 127.8 0.95
Wealth quintile
Lowest 79.5 81.7 80.5 1.03 118.6 124.7 121.5 1.05
Second 71.4 77.8 74.6 1.09 109.8 115.0 112.4 1.05
Middle 70.0 77.1 73.4 1.10 107.6 109.6 108.6 1.02
Fourth 73.2 71.6 72.5 0.98 103.7 103.6 103.6 1.00
Highest 80.6 83.0 81.7 1.03 108.0 97.6 103.2 0.90
Total 74.8 78.2 76.4 1.05 110.0 111.7 110.8 1.02
UPPER BASIC SCHOOL (GRADES 6–8)
Residence
Urban 43.6 52.4 48.0 1.20 87.7 90.5 89.1 1.03
Rural 45.6 49.8 47.7 1.09 89.3 99.9 94.6 1.12
Ecological zone
Mountain 49.5 50.0 49.7 1.01 92.1 106.1 98.4 1.15
Hill 54.0 64.0 59.0 1.19 96.7 106.8 101.7 1.10
Terai 37.2 43.1 40.1 1.16 82.1 83.9 83.0 1.02
Province
Koshi Province 48.4 58.5 53.4 1.21 103.3 102.9 103.1 1.00
Urban 44.6 60.4 52.5 1.35 102.3 103.9 103.1 1.02
Rural 54.6 55.3 54.9 1.01 104.9 101.1 103.1 0.96
Madhesh Province 25.6 33.8 29.7 1.32 60.6 74.0 67.2 1.22
Urban 24.8 33.9 29.3 1.37 60.0 75.1 67.5 1.25
Rural 28.0 33.6 30.7 1.20 62.3 70.8 66.4 1.14
Bagmati Province 55.5 68.5 61.8 1.24 89.0 104.8 96.6 1.18
Urban 59.4 69.4 64.2 1.17 90.0 98.2 93.9 1.09
Rural 46.4 66.6 56.3 1.43 86.6 119.3 102.7 1.38
Gandaki Province 53.2 64.0 58.8 1.20 109.5 107.9 108.7 0.98
Urban 50.5 67.0 58.8 1.33 110.7 105.2 108.0 0.95
Rural 58.9 58.9 58.9 1.00 107.1 112.2 110.0 1.05
Lumbini Province 45.3 49.0 47.2 1.08 95.6 92.9 94.2 0.97
Urban 46.4 49.4 47.9 1.06 93.6 83.2 88.4 0.89
Rural 44.2 48.6 46.5 1.10 97.7 102.0 100.0 1.04
Karnali Province 50.7 49.1 49.9 0.97 85.1 94.8 89.5 1.11
Urban 46.2 55.6 50.6 1.20 83.2 88.9 85.9 1.07
Rural 55.2 42.2 49.3 0.76 87.0 101.0 93.3 1.16
Sudurpashchim Province 52.8 53.8 53.3 1.02 107.3 102.9 105.2 0.96
Urban 60.0 57.1 58.6 0.95 123.5 102.9 113.4 0.83
Rural 43.7 49.2 46.3 1.13 86.9 102.9 94.4 1.18
Continued...

32 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.12—Continued
Net attendance ratio1 Gross attendance ratio2
Background Gender Gender
characteristic Male Female Total parity index3 Male Female Total parity index3
Wealth quintile
Lowest 42.4 47.9 45.2 1.13 81.7 95.8 88.9 1.17
Second 46.2 49.1 47.7 1.06 94.9 88.8 91.8 0.94
Middle 39.7 46.9 43.1 1.18 82.6 98.2 90.0 1.19
Fourth 44.7 49.3 47.0 1.10 91.5 83.3 87.4 0.91
Highest 51.7 73.1 61.7 1.41 94.5 108.2 100.9 1.14
Total 44.4 51.5 47.9 1.16 88.3 94.0 91.1 1.06
SECONDARY SCHOOL (GRADES 9–12)
Residence
Urban 50.9 55.3 53.2 1.09 90.4 87.2 88.7 0.97
Rural 46.1 45.6 45.8 0.99 73.5 70.6 71.9 0.96
Ecological zone
Mountain 46.6 53.0 50.2 1.14 80.0 76.6 78.1 0.96
Hill 56.8 62.7 60.0 1.10 100.0 98.3 99.1 0.98
Terai 44.5 44.4 44.4 1.00 74.8 70.4 72.5 0.94
Province
Koshi Province 49.9 59.4 54.6 1.19 80.6 89.9 85.2 1.12
Urban 52.4 63.0 57.6 1.20 86.9 95.1 90.9 1.09
Rural 45.6 53.4 49.4 1.17 69.8 80.9 75.2 1.16
Madhesh Province 38.4 28.7 33.0 0.75 67.0 50.5 57.8 0.75
Urban 37.7 29.0 32.8 0.77 67.1 50.6 57.9 0.76
Rural 40.6 27.7 33.3 0.68 66.9 49.9 57.3 0.75
Bagmati Province 61.5 70.6 66.6 1.15 121.5 107.0 113.4 0.88
Urban 64.8 76.8 71.4 1.18 137.4 119.8 127.7 0.87
Rural 51.5 54.8 53.4 1.06 73.8 74.3 74.1 1.01
Gandaki Province 55.2 61.1 58.3 1.11 92.5 96.4 94.5 1.04
Urban 56.2 63.7 60.0 1.13 93.5 100.0 96.8 1.07
Rural 52.7 55.9 54.5 1.06 89.8 89.3 89.5 0.99
Lumbini Province 47.6 47.7 47.6 1.00 83.6 79.9 81.6 0.96
Urban 53.4 57.8 55.6 1.08 91.2 94.9 93.1 1.04
Rural 41.5 37.4 39.3 0.90 75.6 64.6 69.8 0.86
Karnali Province 52.7 56.5 54.9 1.07 80.4 79.1 79.7 0.98
Urban 55.0 61.2 58.2 1.11 83.6 89.0 86.4 1.06
Rural 49.8 52.2 51.2 1.05 76.1 69.8 72.3 0.92
Sudurpashchim Province 47.6 57.9 52.9 1.22 69.7 87.9 79.1 1.26
Urban 45.0 60.8 52.9 1.35 68.6 91.4 80.0 1.33
Rural 51.9 53.7 52.9 1.03 71.4 83.0 77.7 1.16
Wealth quintile
Lowest 41.1 41.1 41.1 1.00 65.3 60.7 62.7 0.93
Second 38.9 47.5 43.5 1.22 62.4 70.3 66.6 1.13
Middle 50.2 44.0 46.9 0.88 84.1 70.5 76.8 0.84
Fourth 52.3 62.6 57.7 1.20 94.4 102.2 98.5 1.08
Highest 68.0 72.3 70.1 1.06 126.3 118.8 122.6 0.94
Total 49.3 51.8 50.6 1.05 84.6 81.3 82.8 0.96

1
The NAR for lower basic school is the percentage of the lower basic school-age (5–9 years) population that is attending lower basic
school. The NAR for upper basic school is the percentage of the upper basic school-age (10–12 years) population that is attending upper
basic school. The NAR for secondary school is the percentage of the secondary school-age (13–16 years) population that is attending
secondary school. By definition, the NAR cannot exceed 100.0.
2
The GAR for lower basic school is the total number of lower basic school students, expressed as a percentage of the official lower basic
school-age population. The GAR for upper basic school is the total number of upper basic school students, expressed as a percentage of
the official upper basic school-age population. The GAR for secondary school is the total number of secondary school students, expressed
as a percentage of the official secondary school-age population. If there are significant numbers of overage and underage students at a
given level of schooling, the GAR can exceed 100.0.
3
The gender parity index for lower basic school is the ratio of the lower basic school NAR (GAR) for females to the NAR (GAR) for males.
The gender parity index for upper basic school is the ratio of the upper basic school NAR (GAR) for females to the NAR (GAR) for males.
The gender parity index for secondary school is the ratio of the secondary school NAR (GAR) for females to the NAR (GAR) for males.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 33

 Table 2.13 Participation rate in organized learning
Percent distribution of children 1 year younger than the official lower basic school entry age at the beginning of the school year by attendance at an early
childhood education program or lower basic school, and the adjusted net attendance ratio (NAR), according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Percent distribution of children attending
Neither an early
childhood Number of children
education program age 4 at the
Background An early childhood or lower basic beginning of the
characteristic education program Lower basic school school Total Adjusted NAR1 school year
Sex
Male 54.2 18.0 27.8 100.0 81.8 551
Female 50.3 21.9 27.8 100.0 81.2 479
Residence
Urban 55.7 17.1 27.2 100.0 81.2 665
Rural 46.3 24.9 28.8 100.0 82.1 365
Ecological zone
Mountain 21.3 25.6 53.1 100.0 87.8 74
Hill 52.2 31.1 16.7 100.0 94.7 337
Terai 56.2 13.0 30.7 100.0 73.6 618
Province
Koshi Province 54.8 28.2 17.0 100.0 86.4 183
Urban 53.3 29.9 16.9 100.0 84.3 114
Rural 57.3 25.5 17.2 100.0 89.9 68
Madhesh Province 41.4 14.0 44.6 100.0 58.9 278
Urban 40.2 13.3 46.5 100.0 57.3 201
Rural 44.7 15.8 39.6 100.0 62.9 77
Bagmati Province 55.6 22.4 22.0 100.0 96.8 153
Urban 60.0 17.2 22.8 100.0 98.2 116
Rural (41.6) (38.8) (19.6) 100.0 (92.3) 37
Gandaki Province 66.3 11.7 22.1 100.0 90.7 59
Urban (81.4) (2.6) (16.0) 100.0 (94.5) 36
Rural (43.2) (25.4) (31.4) 100.0 (85.1) 24
Lumbini Province 61.4 13.1 25.5 100.0 84.5 190
Urban 69.9 9.6 20.5 100.0 89.3 107
Rural 50.4 17.6 31.9 100.0 78.3 82
Karnali Province 43.8 29.4 26.7 100.0 92.4 74
Urban 57.3 26.4 16.3 100.0 93.8 37
Rural 29.9 32.5 37.6 100.0 90.9 36
Sudurpashchim Province 54.8 28.3 16.9 100.0 94.2 93
Urban 63.8 22.5 13.8 100.0 94.2 53
Rural 43.1 35.8 21.1 100.0 94.3 41
Wealth quintile
Lowest 29.0 37.5 33.5 100.0 78.9 254
Second 49.2 26.2 24.7 100.0 81.1 246
Middle 60.2 14.2 25.5 100.0 80.7 203
Fourth 65.5 5.6 28.9 100.0 80.7 186
Highest 71.9 3.6 24.4 100.0 89.6 140
Total 52.4 19.8 27.8 100.0 81.5 1,030

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
The adjusted net attendance ratio (NAR) to organized learning is the percentage of children 1 year younger than the official lower basic school entry
age (at the beginning of the school year) who are attending early childhood education or lower basic school.

34 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.14 Household possession of mosquito nets
Percentage of households with at least one mosquito net (treated or untreated) and insecticide-treated net (ITN), average number of nets and ITNs per
household, and percentage of households with at least one ITN in which any household member slept under the net last night, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of
households with
at least one
Percentage of households with at Average number of nets per
insecticide-
least one mosquito net household
treated mosquito Number of
net (ITN) in households with
which any at least one
Insecticide- Insecticide- member slept insecticide-
Background Any mosquito treated mosquito Any mosquito treated mosquito Number of under the net treated mosquito
characteristic net net (ITN)1 net net (ITN)1 households last night 2
net (ITN)1
Residence
Urban 76.7 13.5 2.0 0.3 9,244 40.2 1,244
Rural 69.7 9.8 1.7 0.2 4,542 58.7 446
Ecological zone
Mountain 34.8 3.0 0.8 0.1 843 (5.2) 25
Hill 56.0 5.6 1.3 0.1 6,017 22.0 337
Terai 95.2 19.2 2.5 0.4 6,926 51.7 1,328
Province
Koshi Province 78.9 6.5 2.2 0.1 2,441 42.5 159
Urban 85.3 8.2 2.4 0.1 1,589 45.4 131
Rural 67.1 3.4 1.8 0.1 853 (29.1) 29
Madhesh Province 96.8 6.4 2.3 0.1 2,462 74.1 157
Urban 97.2 6.1 2.4 0.1 1,796 69.2 109
Rural 95.8 7.3 2.2 0.1 666 (85.2) 48
Bagmati Province 54.4 7.6 1.3 0.2 3,177 25.1 242
Urban 53.8 8.9 1.3 0.2 2,454 24.3 217
Rural 56.5 3.4 1.4 0.1 723 * 24
Gandaki Province 67.9 3.5 1.7 0.1 1,453 38.4 51
Urban 69.0 3.4 1.7 0.1 982 (36.0) 33
Rural 65.6 3.8 1.7 0.1 471 * 18
Lumbini Province 88.2 22.0 2.3 0.4 2,332 64.0 513
Urban 90.8 23.8 2.5 0.5 1,281 59.8 304
Rural 85.0 19.8 2.2 0.4 1,051 70.1 208
Karnali Province 53.6 16.5 1.2 0.4 819 10.0 135
Urban 65.7 22.1 1.5 0.5 463 7.9 103
Rural 38.0 9.2 0.8 0.2 355 (16.7) 33
Sudurpashchim Province 66.7 39.2 1.7 0.9 1,102 35.9 432
Urban 77.7 50.9 2.0 1.2 680 31.7 346
Rural 49.0 20.4 1.3 0.5 422 52.5 86
Wealth quintile
Lowest 48.1 6.5 0.9 0.1 2,868 39.9 187
Second 83.1 12.0 1.9 0.2 2,685 47.7 322
Middle 90.0 14.3 2.3 0.3 2,647 51.5 378
Fourth 81.5 14.2 2.2 0.3 2,843 45.7 403
Highest 70.9 14.6 2.1 0.3 2,743 38.7 399
Total 74.4 12.3 1.9 0.3 13,786 45.1 1,690

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. This was previously known as a long-lasting insecticidal
net (LLIN).
2
De facto household members

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 35

Table 2.15 Source of insecticide-treated mosquito nets
Percentage of households with insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) by source of net and background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
households
with
insecticide-
Mass treated
Background distribution Government Private health mosquito nets
characteristic campaign health facility facility Pharmacy Shop/market School Other Don’t know (ITNs)1
Residence
Urban 37.4 45.9 0.7 1.7 10.0 3.9 1.4 1.6 1,244
Rural 41.5 40.3 0.5 0.5 15.1 1.0 2.1 2.5 446
Ecological zone
Mountain (53.7) (18.6) (3.9) (0.0) (18.8) (0.0) (1.9) (4.6) 25
Hill 36.0 36.0 0.8 2.9 17.8 2.1 3.0 4.0 337
Terai 38.8 47.1 0.5 1.0 9.5 3.5 1.2 1.2 1,328
Province
Koshi Province 23.2 49.6 0.8 5.3 13.4 1.3 2.2 7.4 159
Urban 22.4 52.0 0.9 6.4 13.2 1.2 1.9 4.7 131
Rural (26.6) (38.6) (0.0) (0.0) (14.3) (2.1) (3.7) (19.6) 29
Madhesh Province 33.3 40.5 0.0 4.0 18.0 0.6 1.8 4.5 157
Urban 36.0 41.6 0.0 4.5 15.2 0.0 1.3 4.5 109
Rural 27.4 38.0 0.0 2.7 24.3 1.9 2.8 4.4 48
Bagmati Province 35.3 49.2 0.0 2.1 7.5 4.3 1.9 1.4 242
Urban 34.8 50.6 0.0 1.9 7.0 4.8 1.8 0.9 217
Rural (39.4) (37.1) (0.0) (3.1) (11.6) (0.0) (2.9) (5.8) 24
Gandaki Province 27.2 12.8 4.3 1.5 48.7 1.1 8.9 0.0 51
Urban (33.1) (7.9) (5.0) (2.3) (46.6) (0.0) (9.6) (0.0) 33
Rural (16.2) (21.8) (3.0) (0.0) (52.5) (3.0) (7.5) (0.0) 18
Lumbini Province 50.2 37.5 0.4 0.0 11.8 0.9 1.4 0.4 513
Urban 47.1 40.8 0.5 0.0 11.6 1.1 1.2 0.4 304
Rural 54.8 32.7 0.4 0.0 12.1 0.7 1.6 0.5 208
Karnali Province 43.8 37.9 1.4 0.3 13.8 2.3 1.0 3.3 135
Urban 43.7 36.0 1.6 0.3 13.1 2.7 0.9 4.3 103
Rural 44.2 43.8 0.9 0.0 15.9 1.2 1.2 0.0 33
Sudurpashchim Province 33.6 55.3 0.7 0.6 4.5 7.2 0.6 0.5 432
Urban 35.2 53.2 0.8 0.8 3.1 8.8 0.5 0.4 346
Rural 27.0 63.7 0.6 0.0 10.3 0.7 1.2 1.2 86
Wealth quintile
Lowest 43.4 43.1 0.6 0.8 8.2 2.5 1.1 1.4 187
Second 43.8 40.9 1.5 0.2 8.5 4.8 1.0 2.6 322
Middle 43.4 44.0 0.6 0.7 8.2 2.8 0.8 1.9 378
Fourth 30.5 47.1 0.1 2.2 15.1 2.7 3.4 1.9 403
Highest 35.4 45.6 0.6 2.3 14.2 2.8 1.1 1.2 399
Total 38.5 44.4 0.6 1.4 11.3 3.1 1.6 1.8 1,690

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
An insecticide-treated net (ITN) is a factory-treated net that does not require any further treatment. This was previously known as a long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN).

36 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.16 Food insecurity
Percentage of de jure population with moderate or severe food insecurity, and
percentage with severe food insecurity, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Percentage with
moderate or Percentage with
Background severe food severe food Number of
1,2
characteristic insecurity insecurity1,2 persons
Residence
Urban 10.6 1.0 36,090
Rural 16.2 1.9 18,054
Ecological zone
Mountain 21.3 3.2 3,181
Hill 11.9 1.3 21,377
Terai 12.0 1.1 29,586
Province
Koshi Province 13.1 1.6 9,351
Urban 11.9 1.5 6,041
Rural 15.4 1.9 3,310
Madhesh Province 14.3 1.1 11,480
Urban 13.2 0.9 8,515
Rural 17.4 1.9 2,966
Bagmati Province 9.0 0.9 11,076
Urban 6.1 0.5 8,574
Rural 19.0 2.2 2,503
Gandaki Province 7.9 0.8 4,860
Urban 7.7 1.1 3,272
Rural 8.3 0.3 1,588
Lumbini Province 9.7 0.8 9,451
Urban 8.4 0.6 5,153
Rural 11.3 1.0 4,298
Karnali Province 31.5 5.1 3,331
Urban 27.8 4.5 1,755
Rural 35.7 5.8 1,576
Sudurpashchim Province 11.8 1.3 4,595
Urban 10.9 1.0 2,781
Rural 13.2 1.6 1,814
Wealth quintile
Lowest 27.2 3.6 10,839
Second 16.3 1.5 10,836
Middle 10.3 0.9 10,839
Fourth 6.7 0.5 10,829
Highest 1.8 0.1 10,802
Total 12.5 1.3 54,144
1
Food insecurity measures are based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale
(FIES) developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations.
2
Household members with any FIES items for which the respondent to the
questionnaire refuses to answer or does not know the answer are dropped.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 37

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 3
Key Findings
▪ Age: More than half of the women and men interviewed
are below age 30.
▪ Marital status: 75% of women and 63% of men are
currently married, while 22% of women and 36% of men
have never been married.
▪ Education: 26% of women and 8% of men have no
education. Overall, 26% of women and 11% of men are
illiterate.
▪ Mass media exposure and internet use: Television is
the most accessed form of media among both women
and men (36% and 38%, respectively). Seventy-six
percent of men and 65% of women used the internet in
the last 12 months.
▪ Employment and occupation: More men are currently
employed than women (77% and 60%, respectively). The
proportions of men and women engaged in agriculture
are 27% and 67%, respectively.
▪ Health insurance: Only 12% of women and 13% of men
have health insurance.
▪ Spousal separation: 34% of currently married women
and 8% of currently married men report that their spouse
lives away from home.

T
his chapter presents information on the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the
survey respondents such as age, education, literacy, marital status, employment, occupation,
wealth, health insurance coverage, residence at birth, current place of residence, and recent
migration. The chapter also presents information on respondents’ use of alcohol and tobacco as well as
their knowledge regarding tuberculosis and COVID-19. Together, this information is useful for
understanding the factors that affect use of reproductive health services, contraceptive use, and other health
behaviors.

3.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEY RESPONDENTS

The 2022 NDHS interviewed 14,845 women and 4,913 men age 15–49. More than half of the women and
men (52% each) are below age 30. Ten percent of women and 5% of men report that their health status is
bad or very bad. The majority of respondents are Hindu (83% of women and 82% of men). Overall, 37%
of women and 38% of men are Janajati, 28% of women and 25% of men are Brahmin/Chhetri, 16% of
women and 19% of men are Madhesi, and 15% of women and 13% of men are Dalit (Table 3.1).

Three-fourths of women (75%) and about two-thirds of men (63%) are currently married, while 22% of
women and 36% of men have never been married. Sixty-nine percent of women and 71% of men live in
urban areas. More than half of women and men (55% each) live in the terai zone, while 40% live in the hill
zone and 5% live in the mountain zone (Table 3.1).

Characteristics of Respondents • 39
 3.2 EDUCATION AND LITERACY

Literacy
Respondents who had attended higher than secondary school were assumed
to be literate. All other respondents were considered literate if they could read
aloud all or part of a sentence shown to them.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Thirty-nine percent of women and Figure 3.1 Education of survey respondents

46% of men have at least some Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by
secondary education, while 4% of highest level of schooling attended or completed
women and 8% of men have more
4 8 More than secondary
than a secondary education. 13
Twenty-six percent of women and 15 Completed secondary
8% of men have no education 26 Some secondary
(Figure 3.1 and Tables 3.2.1 and 31
Completed upper basic
3.2.2). Overall, 26% of women and 6
9 Some upper basic
11% of men are illiterate (Tables 5
9
3.3.1 and 3.3.2). 10 12 Completed lower basic
7
Some lower basic
Trends: The median number of 26 11
years of schooling among 8 No education
respondents age 15–49 has Women Men
increased since 2011, from 3.5 to
7.0 years among women and from 7.4 to 8.3 years among men.

Patterns by background characteristics Figure 3.2 Secondary education by

household wealth
▪ The proportion of women and men age 15–49
Percentage of women and men age
with a secondary education or higher is highest 15–49 with secondary education complete
among those in the highest wealth quintile (43% or higher
and 50%, respectively) and lowest among those Women Men
in the lowest quintile (6% and 10%,
respectively) (Figure 3.2 and Tables 3.2.1 and
3.2.2). 50
43
▪ The proportion of women who are literate is 23
18
highest among those age 15–19 (89%) and 6 10 7 10 11 12
lowest among those age 45–49 (48%) (Table
3.3.1). Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
Poorest Wealthiest
▪ Muslim women (60%) are most likely to have
no education, followed by Dalit women (36%) and Madhesi women (34%) (Table 3.2.1).

40 • Characteristics of Respondents
▪ Forty-six percent of women from Madhesh Figure 3.3 Secondary education
Province, 31% from Sudurpashchim Province, by province
and 28% from Karnali Province have no Percentage of women and men age
education (Table 3.2.1). Only 8% of women and 15–49 with secondary education complete
14% of men in Madhesh Province have a or higher
secondary education or higher, as compared 33 Men
Bagmati Province 30
with 30% of women and 33% of men in Women
Bagmati Province (Figure 3.3). Gandaki Province 23
25

Lumbini Province 21
17

Karnali Province 25
16
Sudurpashchim 24
Province 15

Koshi Province 18
12

Madhesh Province 14
8

3.3 MASS MEDIA EXPOSURE AND INTERNET USAGE

Exposure to mass media

Respondents were asked how often they read a newspaper, listened to the
radio, or watched television. Those who responded at least once a week are
considered regularly exposed to that form of media.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Use of the Internet

Respondents were asked if they have ever used the internet from any device,
if they used the internet in the last 12 months, and, if so, how often they used it
during the last month.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Television is the most commonly accessed form of Figure 3.4 Exposure to mass media
media among both women and men (36% and 38%, Percentage of women and men age
respectively). Men are more likely than women to 15–49 who are exposed to media on
access the other two forms of media: 14% of men a weekly basis
and 7% of women read a newspaper at least once a Women Men
week, while 30% of men and 23% of women listen
to the radio at least once a week (Figure 3.4 and
Tables 3.4.1 and 3.4.2). A comparatively higher 49
36 38 41
proportion of men than women used the internet in 30
23
the last 12 months (76% versus 65%). Among 14
7 2 4
internet users, 64% of women and 70% of men use
the internet almost every day (Tables 3.5.1 and Reads Watches Listens to All three None of
3.5.2). news- television radio media these
paper media
Among both women and men, Bhanchin aama radio
karyakram is reported as the most frequently heard program (15% and 14%, respectively) (Tables 3.6.1
and 3.6.2).

Trends: Exposure to mass media (radio, newspaper, and television) among women and men has decreased
over time. Only 30% of women and 17% of men were not exposed to the three mass media in 2006, as

Characteristics of Respondents • 41
 compared with 49% and 41%, respectively, in 2022. In contrast, use of the internet in the past 12 months
has vastly increased, from 23% to 65% among women and from 47% to 76% among men.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Higher proportions of Muslim women and men (78% and 67%, respectively) did not access any of the
three media (newspaper, television, or radio) than women and men in the other ethnic groups (Tables
3.4.1 and 3.4.2).

▪ Women and men from Madhesh Province are least exposed to media (61% and 51%, respectively)
(Tables 3.4.1 and 3.4.2).

▪ Internet use in the last 12 months increases with Figure 3.5 Internet usage by wealth
increasing in levels of education, from 34% Percentage of women and men age
among women and 30% among men with no 15–49 who used the Internet in the last
education to 98% among both women and men 12 months
with more than a secondary education. Women Men
87 92 96
▪ The proportion of women and men who used the 74 79
internet in the last 12 months are highest among 62 63
49 49
those in the highest wealth quintile (92% and
35
96%, respectively) and lowest among those in
the lowest wealth quintile (35% and 49%,
respectively) (Figure 3.5 and Tables 3.5.1 and
3.5.2). Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
Poorest Wealthiest
3.4 EMPLOYMENT

Currently employed
Respondents who were employed in the 7 days before the survey.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

More men than women are currently employed (77% versus 60%). However, 13% of women and 9% of
men who were employed at some point in the 12 months preceding the survey are not currently employed.
Overall, 28% of women and 14% of men were not employed in the 12 months preceding the survey
(Tables 3.7.1 and 3.7.2).

Trends: The proportion of currently employed women decreased from 83% in 2001 to 57% in 2016 before
increasing slightly to 60% in 2022. Among men, the proportion decreased from 97% in 2001 to 77% in
2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Only 38% of men and 33% of women age 15–19 are currently employed, as compared with 71% of
men and 49% of women age 20–24. This trend generally increases with age (Tables 3.7.1 and 3.7.2).

42 • Characteristics of Respondents
▪ Women and men in rural areas (68% and 82%, Figure 3.6 Employment status
respectively) are more likely to be currently by residence
employed than those in urban areas (56% and Percentage of women and men age
75%, respectively) (Figure 3.6 and Tables 3.7.1 15–49 who are currently employed
and 3.7.2). Women Men

▪ Current employment is highest among Janajati 82

77 75
women (67%) and lowest among Muslim 68
60 56
women (39%). Among men, however, current
employment status does not vary substantially
between different ethnic groups.

Total Urban Rural

3.5 OCCUPATION

Occupation
Categorized as professional/technical/managerial, clerical, sales and services,
skilled manual, unskilled manual, agriculture, and other.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49 who were currently employed or had
worked in the 12 months before the survey

A higher proportion of women are engaged in Figure 3.7 Occupation

agriculture than men (67% versus 27%). Only 8% of Percentage of women and men age
women and 12% of men are engaged in 15–49 employed in the 12 months before
professional/technical/managerial jobs, and 11% of the survey by occupation
women and 17% of men work in sales and services 11 Women
Sales and services Men
(Figure 3.7 and Tables 3.8.1 and 3.8.2). 17

Around half of the women (49%) who were Unskilled manual

6
employed in the 12 months preceding the survey 20
were paid in cash only or cash and in-kind, while
5
45% were not paid for their work. Women working Skilled manual
23
in the agricultural sector are more often not paid for
Professional/
their work (64%) than those working in the 8
technical/
nonagricultural sector (8%) (Table 3.9). managerial 12

Trends: In the past two decades, involvement in 67

Agriculture
27
agricultural work has decreased among both women
(from 91% in 2001 to 67% in 2022) and men (from 2
Clerical
62% to 27%). In contrast, involvement in 2
professional/technical/managerial work has
increased from 2% to 8% among women and from 6% to 12% among men.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ A higher proportion of women and men living in rural areas are involved in agriculture (82% and 40%,
respectively) than those living in urban areas (58% and 21%, respectively) (Tables 3.8.1 and 3.8.2).

▪ The proportions of women and men involved in professional/technical/managerial work are highest
among those in the Brahmin/Chhetri ethnic group (13% and 20%, respectively) and lowest among
those in the Dalit group (2% and 4%, respectively) (Tables 3.8.1 and 3.8.2).

Characteristics of Respondents • 43
 ▪ Women and men from the lowest wealth quintile are most likely to engage in agricultural work (88%
and 50%, respectively) and those from the highest quintile are least likely to do so (21% and 10%,
respectively) (Tables 3.8.1 and 3.8.2).

3.6 HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE

The Government of Nepal introduced a health insurance program in 2016 with the aim of reducing out-of-
pocket expenditures for health services. The program seeks to prevent people from falling into poverty due
to health care costs (i.e., catastrophic expenditures resulting from accidents or disease) by combining
prepayments and risk pooling with mutual support. The program was piloted in Kailali district in April
2016 and now has been extended to all 77 districts and 746 local bodies (Ministry of Health and Population
2022a).

The 2022 NDHS results showed that most women (88%) and men (87%) do not have health insurance. Of
the 12% of women and 13% of men with coverage, a majority are insured through a government health
insurance program (11% of women and 10% of men) (Tables 3.10.1 and 3.10.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Health insurance coverage among women and men is highest in Koshi Province (22% and 23%,
respectively) and lowest in Madhesh Province (3% and 4%, respectively) (Tables 3.10.1 and 3.10.2).

▪ Women and men with more than a secondary education (33% and 37% respectively) and those in the
highest wealth quintile (24% and 25%, respectively) are more likely to have health insurance than
those with no education (5% and 3%, respectively) and those in the lowest wealth quintile (4% and
6%, respectively) (Tables 3.10.1 and 3.10.2).

3.7 TOBACCO USE

More men than women use tobacco. Twenty-eight percent of men smoke tobacco, as compared with 5% of
women. Among both women and men who smoke tobacco, cigarettes are most common (4% and 27%,
respectively) (Tables 3.11.1 and 3.11.2). Seventeen percent of men smoke on a daily basis, while 11%
smoke occasionally (Table 3.11.2). Among men who smoke cigarettes, a majority (54%) smoke less than
five cigarettes per day on average (Table 3.12). More men use smokeless tobacco than women (35%
versus 3%). Overall, half of men (50%) and only 7% of women in Nepal use any type of tobacco (Table
3.13).

Trends: There has been a decline since 2001 in the proportion of women who smoke any type of tobacco,
from 25% to 5%. Similarly, the proportion of women who smoke cigarettes declined from 23% in 2001 to
4% in 2022. Among men, the proportion who smoke any type of tobacco dropped from 45% in 2001 to
28% in 2022.

44 • Characteristics of Respondents
Patterns by background characteristics Figure 3.8 Any tobacco use
by education
▪ The proportion of women who smoke any type
Percentage of women and men age
of tobacco increases with age, from 1% among 15–49 who are currently using any
those age 15–19 to 13% among those age 45–49 type of tobacco
(Table 3.11.1). Women Men
73
▪ Women and men with more than a secondary 63
education (3% and 25%, respectively) are less
38
likely than those with no education (16% and 25
16
73%, respectively) to use any type of tobacco 7 2 3
(Figure 3.8 and Table 3.14).
No Basic Secondary More than
▪ The proportion of women and men using any education education (9–12) secondary
(1–8) (13 and
type of tobacco is higher among those in the above)
lowest wealth quintile (15% and 53%,
respectively) than among those in the highest wealth quintile (3% and 38%, respectively) (Table
3.14).

3.8 ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

Men are more likely than women to consume alcohol. Forty-two percent of men consumed alcohol in the
past month, as compared with 11% of women. Among those who consumed alcohol in the past month,
20% of men and 13% of women consumed alcohol every day or almost every day. Eleven percent of
women and 21% of men consumed three or more drinks on days when alcohol was consumed (Table
3.15.1, Table 3.15.2, Table 3.16.1, and Table 3.16.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Among women who consumed alcohol in the past month, those in the mountain zone were more likely
to drink alcohol every day or almost every day (26%) than those in the hill (17%) and terai (7%) zones
(Table 3.15.1).

▪ Among those who consumed alcohol in the past month, women and men with no education (25% and
32%, respectively) and those in the lowest wealth quintile (28% and 30%, respectively) were more
likely than others to consume alcohol every day or almost every day (Tables 3.15.1 and 3.15.2).

▪ Among those who consumed alcohol every day or almost every day in the past month, a majority of
women had one drink (51%) and a majority of men had two drinks (37%) on days when alcohol was
consumed (Tables 3.16.1 and 3.16.2).

3.9 PLACE OF BIRTH AND RECENT MIGRATION

Recent migration
Percentage of respondents who were born outside of their current place of
residence and moved to their current place of residence in the 5 years
preceding the survey.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49 who were born outside their current
place of residence

Women in Nepal tend to move from their place of birth more often than men, primarily as a result of
marriage. For instance, 58% of women were born in Nepal but outside their current place of residence, as
compared with only 24% of men. In contrast, 74% of men were born in their current place of residence,
compared with only 36% of women (Tables 3.17.1 and 3.17.2).

Characteristics of Respondents • 45
 Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Approximately two-thirds of women age 25 and above were born in Nepal but outside their current
place of residence. It is likely that these women moved to their current location as a result of marriage.
Only 29% of women age 15–19 were born in Nepal but outside their current place of residence, and
66% of those who moved to their current location did so within the last 5 years (Tables 3.17.1 and
3.17.2).

▪ Women who migrated from outside Nepal are most likely to live in Madhesh Province (12%) and least
likely to live in Karnali Province (1%).

▪ More men in urban areas (30%) than rural areas (9%) migrated from within Nepal to their current
place of residence. The corresponding percentages among women are 62% and 49%.

▪ The proportion of women and men who migrated from within Nepal to their current place of residence
is highest in Bagmati Province (64% and 41%, respectively).

▪ The proportion of men who migrated from within Nepal to their current place of residence increases
consistently with increasing in wealth, from 7% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 41%
among those in the highest wealth quintile.

3.9.1 Type of Migration

Rural to urban migration is the most observed migration pattern, with 47% of women and 50% of men
migrating from rural to urban areas (Table 3.18).

3.9.2 Reason for Migration

Women most commonly migrate because of marriage (66%) and family-related reasons (22%), while men
most often migrate as a result of family-related reasons (38%) and employment (35%). Men are more
likely than women to migrate because of education/training (22% versus 6%) (Tables 3.19.1 and 3.19.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women and men who migrate because of education or training is highest among
those age 15–19 (24% and 46%, respectively) (Tables 3.19.1 and 3.19.2).

▪ An important reason for migration to urban areas is education/training. For instance, 15% of women
migrated from urban to urban areas and 16% migrated from rural to urban areas for education/training.
The corresponding percentages among men are 30% and 40%.

▪ Among men, migration because of education or training increases from 2% among those in the lowest
wealth quintile to 29% among those in the highest wealth quintile. This pattern is also observed among
women (1% among those in the lowest wealth quintile and 12% among those in the highest quintile).

▪ The proportion of women who migrate for family-related reasons increases from 14% among those in
the lowest wealth quintile to 34% among those in the highest wealth quintile. Among men, however,
the proportion decreases from 63% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 34% among those in
the highest quintile.

3.10 SPOUSAL SEPARATION

Among currently married respondents age 15–49, slightly more than one-third (34%) of women and 8% of
men reported that their spouse lives away from home (Table 3.20). Migration has been common in Nepal,
and this reflects the situation in the country.

46 • Characteristics of Respondents
Trends: The proportion of women reporting that their spouse lives away from home has remained
relatively constant over the past decade (32% in 2011 and 34% in both 2016 and 2022).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Spousal separation is most common among women and men age 20–24 (43% and 11%, respectively)
(Table 3.20).

▪ Spousal separation is highest among women in Madhesh Province (41%) and men in Bagmati
Province (13%).

▪ Spousal separation is more prevalent among men with more than a secondary education (15%) than
among those with no education or a basic education (7% each).

▪ Spousal separation is highest among women in the lowest wealth quintile (39%) and lowest among
men in the lowest quintile (3%) (Table 3.20).

3.11 KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES REGARDING TUBERCULOSIS

Ninety-five percent of women and 97% of men age 15–49 have heard of tuberculosis (TB). Among those
who report having heard of TB, 19% of women and 24% of men know that chest pain is a common
symptom, and 50% of women and 57% of men know that TB is spread through coughing and sneezing.
Ninety-two percent of women and 90% of men reported that they would not want to keep it a secret if a
family member is diagnosed with TB (Tables 3.21.1 and 3.21.2).

Eighty-seven percent of women and 89% of men who have heard of tuberculosis know that TB can be
cured, and among these respondents 36% of women and 38% of men know that TB treatment takes 6
months. However, 7% of women and 11% of men think that TB treatment takes less than 6 months.
Among those who have heard about TB, 1% of women and 2% of men have ever been told by a health care
provider that they have or had TB. Among those ever diagnosed with TB, 95% of women and 96% of men
sought treatment (Tables 3.22.1 and 3.22.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women and men with more than a secondary education are most likely to know that coughing or
coughing for more than 2 weeks (83% and 82%, respectively), chest pain (33% and 34%,
respectively), and blood in sputum (63% and 73%, respectively) are common symptoms of TB
(Tables 3.21.1 and 3.21.2).

▪ Muslim women are least likely to know that coughing or coughing for more than 2 weeks (48%), chest
pain (12%), and blood in sputum (36%) are common TB symptoms and that TB is spread through
coughing and sneezing (42%) (Table 3.21.1).

▪ Knowledge that TB can be cured is lowest among Muslim women (74%) and highest among
Brahmin/Chhetri women (92%). The pattern is similar among men (78% and 95%, respectively)
(Tables 3.22.1 and 3.22.2).

▪ Among women and men who have been told by a health care provider that they have or had TB and
who sought treatment, a majority sought treatment from the public sector (69% and 73%,
respectively). Thirty-two percent of women and 21% of men sought treatment from the private sector
(Table 3.23).

Characteristics of Respondents • 47
 3.12 KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES REGARDING COVID-19
Knowledge of COVID-19 is universal in Nepal. Among respondents who have heard of COVID-19, 93%
of women and 95% of men know that fever is a common symptom, while only 28% of women and 31% of
men know that shortness of breath and breathing difficulties are common symptoms. Almost all women
and men know that COVID-19 can be prevented (98% and 99%, respectively), and 92% of women and
95% of men reported taking measures to reduce the risk of being infected with COVID-19 (Tables 3.24.1
and 3.24.2).

Family/friends/neighbors/relatives are the primary source of knowledge on COVID-19 among both women
and men (87% and 80%, respectively). Another prominent source is media and social media (73% among
women and 87% among men). Among the various media sources, television is most common among
women (38%) and social media is most common among men (56%) (Table 3.25).

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on the characteristics of survey respondents, see the following tables:

▪ Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents

▪ Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women
▪ Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men
▪ Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women
▪ Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men
▪ Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women
▪ Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men
▪ Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women
▪ Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men
▪ Table 3.6.1 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Women
▪ Table 3.6.2 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Men
▪ Table 3.7.1 Employment status: Women
▪ Table 3.7.2 Employment status: Men
▪ Table 3.8.1 Occupation: Women
▪ Table 3.8.2 Occupation: Men
▪ Table 3.9 Type of employment: Women
▪ Table 3.10.1 Health insurance coverage: Women
▪ Table 3.10.2 Health insurance coverage: Men
▪ Table 3.11.1 Tobacco smoking: Women
▪ Table 3.11.2 Tobacco smoking: Men
▪ Table 3.12 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men
▪ Table 3.13 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use
▪ Table 3.14 Any tobacco use by background characteristics
▪ Table 3.15.1 Alcohol consumption: Women
▪ Table 3.15.2 Alcohol consumption: Men
▪ Table 3.16.1 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Women
▪ Table 3.16.2 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Men
▪ Table 3.17.1 Place of birth and recent migration: Women
▪ Table 3.17.2 Place of birth and recent migration: Men
▪ Table 3.18 Type of migration
▪ Table 3.19.1 Reason for migration: Women
▪ Table 3.19.2 Reason for migration: Men
▪ Table 3.20 Spousal separation
▪ Table 3.21.1 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Women
▪ Table 3.21.2 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Men

48 • Characteristics of Respondents
▪ Table 3.22.1 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Women
▪ Table 3.22.2 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Men
▪ Table 3.23 Source of treatment for TB
▪ Table 3.24.1 Knowledge about COVID-19: Women
▪ Table 3.24.2 Knowledge about COVID-19: Men
▪ Table 3.25 Source of knowledge on COVID-19

Characteristics of Respondents • 49
 Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents
Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by selected background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Background Weighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Weighted Unweighted
characteristic percent number number percent number number
Age
15–19 17.8 2,643 2,777 20.0 985 1,011
20–24 17.8 2,637 2,623 17.5 857 818
25–29 16.4 2,435 2,361 14.6 716 709
30–34 14.4 2,144 2,065 12.5 616 610
35–39 13.6 2,025 2,002 13.0 639 631
40–44 11.0 1,629 1,650 12.3 604 616
45–49 9.0 1,332 1,367 10.1 496 518
Self-reported health status
Very good 5.6 826 672 8.6 423 347
Good 28.1 4,168 3,902 38.9 1,913 1,891
Moderate 56.7 8,423 8,683 47.8 2,348 2,417
Bad 9.0 1,335 1,490 4.4 216 243
Very bad 0.6 93 98 0.3 13 15
Religion
Hindu 83.4 12,374 12,618 81.9 4,025 4,097
Buddhist 6.5 970 848 7.9 389 349
Muslim 4.6 682 523 4.7 231 179
Kirat 2.5 365 371 2.8 139 150
Christian 3.0 445 477 2.5 123 134
Other 0.1 8 8 0.1 6 4
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 28.0 4,152 4,843 25.1 1,232 1,438
Dalit 15.1 2,240 2,488 13.4 658 721
Janajati 36.6 5,428 5,091 38.0 1,869 1,805
Madhesi 15.7 2,333 1,892 18.7 917 767
Muslim 4.6 676 518 4.6 228 177
Other 0.1 15 13 0.2 8 5
Marital status
Never married 21.6 3,203 3,123 36.0 1,768 1,679
Married/living together 75.3 11,180 11,258 63.1 3,101 3,187
Divorced/separated 1.1 170 155 0.6 31 33
Widowed 2.0 292 309 0.3 12 14
Residence
Urban 68.6 10,178 8,019 70.5 3,462 2,717
Rural 31.4 4,667 6,826 29.5 1,451 2,196
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.3 791 1,262 5.2 255 407
Hill 39.6 5,872 6,606 40.2 1,973 2,150
Terai 55.1 8,182 6,977 54.6 2,685 2,356
Province
Koshi Province 16.8 2,493 2,209 18.0 882 795
Urban 11.0 1,640 1,135 12.3 604 431
Rural 5.7 853 1,074 5.7 278 364
Madhesh Province 20.3 3,010 2,499 20.3 997 882
Urban 15.0 2,226 1,422 14.7 722 487
Rural 5.3 783 1,077 5.6 275 395
Bagmati Province 20.6 3,062 2,106 24.7 1,214 831
Urban 16.6 2,464 1,274 20.7 1,016 535
Rural 4.0 599 832 4.0 198 296
Gandaki Province 9.4 1,401 1,682 7.9 387 505
Urban 6.7 992 897 5.4 264 246
Rural 2.8 409 785 2.5 123 259
Lumbini Province 18.1 2,691 2,266 16.5 812 718
Urban 10.5 1,553 1,214 9.5 468 386
Rural 7.7 1,138 1,052 7.0 344 332
Karnali Province 6.1 909 1,978 5.4 266 604
Urban 3.4 507 968 3.1 154 306
Rural 2.7 402 1,010 2.3 113 298
Sudurpashchim Province 8.6 1,279 2,105 7.2 355 578
Urban 5.4 796 1,109 4.7 233 326
Rural 3.3 484 996 2.5 122 252
Education
No education 25.6 3,796 4,005 8.0 393 394
Basic education (1–8) 31.0 4,595 4,751 38.6 1,898 1,977
Lower basic education (1–5) 15.6 2,314 2,329 18.1 891 924
Upper basic education (6–8) 15.4 2,281 2,422 20.5 1,007 1,053
Secondary (9–12) 39.1 5,798 5,603 45.7 2,244 2,233
Lower secondary (9–10) 22.0 3,270 3,209 26.1 1,284 1,321
Higher secondary (11–12) 17.0 2,529 2,394 19.5 959 912
More than secondary (13 and
above) 4.4 656 486 7.7 377 309

Continued...

50 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.1—Continued
Women Men
Background Weighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted Weighted Unweighted
characteristic percent number number percent number number
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.7 2,628 3,997 15.3 751 1,170
Second 19.2 2,857 3,029 19.0 933 997
Middle 20.4 3,028 2,965 19.5 957 965
Fourth 21.5 3,197 2,733 23.1 1,135 978
Highest 21.1 3,135 2,121 23.1 1,137 803
Total 100.0 14,845 14,845 100.0 4,913 4,913

Note: Education categories refer to the highest level of education attended, whether or not that level was completed.
Education classification is based on the Education Act Eight Amendment Bill 2016.

Characteristics of Respondents • 51
 Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed, and median years completed, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Highest level of schooling
Some Completed Some Completed Median
Background No lower lower upper upper Some Completed More than years Number of
characteristic education1 basic2 basic3 basic basic4 secondary secondary5 secondary Total completed women
Age
15–24 6.9 6.8 4.3 11.0 9.6 38.7 20.6 2.1 100.0 8.7 5,280
15–19 5.3 6.0 4.5 11.9 12.7 48.5 11.0 0.1 100.0 8.5 2,643
20–24 8.4 7.5 4.2 10.2 6.5 28.9 30.3 4.0 100.0 9.1 2,637
25–29 14.7 11.0 5.1 10.1 5.6 30.3 15.1 8.1 100.0 8.2 2,435
30–34 25.5 12.7 6.8 8.8 5.6 20.7 11.4 8.4 100.0 6.3 2,144
35–39 40.3 14.8 6.6 8.2 4.4 14.1 6.3 5.3 100.0 3.1 2,025
40–44 54.2 12.0 5.3 5.7 2.7 13.4 3.9 2.8 100.0 0.0 1,629
45–49 62.3 10.1 4.9 5.2 2.9 10.7 2.5 1.4 100.0 0.0 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 14.6 5.6 4.5 7.1 5.9 32.1 21.1 8.9 100.0 9.0 4,152
Dalit 36.4 16.1 6.4 11.2 6.4 17.0 6.3 0.3 100.0 3.6 2,240
Janajati 21.6 10.6 5.1 10.0 6.7 30.0 12.2 3.7 100.0 7.4 5,428
Madhesi 34.2 11.4 5.4 9.2 6.9 20.7 9.4 2.9 100.0 4.8 2,333
Muslim 60.2 13.8 6.5 5.6 3.5 6.3 3.6 0.5 100.0 0.0 676
Other * * * * * * * * 100.0 * 15
Residence
Urban 22.9 9.6 5.1 8.5 6.1 27.1 15.0 5.7 100.0 7.6 10,178
Rural 31.4 11.8 5.8 10.2 6.9 23.8 8.6 1.6 100.0 5.3 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 33.9 12.2 3.8 8.5 7.1 23.3 9.6 1.5 100.0 5.0 791
Hill 18.3 9.5 5.0 9.0 6.0 28.8 16.3 7.0 100.0 8.2 5,872
Terai 30.0 10.7 5.6 9.1 6.5 24.4 10.9 2.8 100.0 6.1 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 18.4 10.8 5.3 9.8 7.5 36.2 10.0 2.0 100.0 7.8 2,493
Urban 16.4 11.1 5.4 9.1 6.9 37.4 11.5 2.3 100.0 8.1 1,640
Rural 22.3 10.2 5.1 11.4 8.7 33.7 7.2 1.4 100.0 7.1 853
Madhesh Province 45.9 11.7 4.7 7.3 5.5 16.6 6.5 1.9 100.0 1.5 3,010
Urban 46.4 10.7 4.7 7.1 5.7 16.6 6.8 2.0 100.0 1.4 2,226
Rural 44.3 14.5 4.9 8.1 4.8 16.5 5.6 1.4 100.0 1.7 783
Bagmati Province 16.9 9.4 4.8 7.1 4.5 27.9 18.0 11.5 100.0 8.8 3,062
Urban 13.4 8.3 4.4 6.5 3.9 29.6 20.2 13.7 100.0 9.3 2,464
Rural 31.3 13.9 6.6 9.5 6.8 20.5 8.8 2.6 100.0 4.7 599
Gandaki Province 13.3 9.9 5.9 11.6 5.9 28.8 20.3 4.2 100.0 8.3 1,401
Urban 10.3 8.8 4.7 12.0 5.8 30.3 23.2 5.0 100.0 8.7 992
Rural 20.5 12.7 9.0 10.9 6.2 25.1 13.4 2.2 100.0 6.5 409
Lumbini Province 22.3 11.4 7.1 10.6 7.4 24.5 13.2 3.4 100.0 6.8 2,691
Urban 17.0 10.6 7.4 9.9 8.0 26.0 16.4 4.6 100.0 7.6 1,553
Rural 29.5 12.5 6.7 11.7 6.6 22.5 8.8 1.7 100.0 5.3 1,138
Karnali Province 28.2 8.4 4.2 10.5 8.0 24.8 14.1 1.8 100.0 6.8 909
Urban 22.6 8.8 4.3 11.5 8.2 25.8 16.3 2.6 100.0 7.4 507
Rural 35.1 7.9 4.1 9.2 7.8 23.6 11.5 0.8 100.0 5.9 402
Sudurpashchim Province 31.1 7.6 4.0 9.1 7.3 25.9 12.7 2.4 100.0 6.7 1,279
Urban 27.5 6.9 4.0 9.1 7.3 26.9 15.2 3.1 100.0 7.3 796
Rural 36.9 8.8 3.9 9.1 7.2 24.1 8.7 1.2 100.0 5.1 484
Wealth quintile
Lowest 38.3 13.8 6.1 9.9 7.0 19.4 5.2 0.4 100.0 3.6 2,628
Second 36.5 12.9 5.5 10.0 6.8 21.2 6.2 0.9 100.0 4.1 2,857
Middle 30.6 11.2 5.9 9.3 6.8 25.4 9.5 1.3 100.0 5.6 3,028
Fourth 18.4 9.3 5.8 10.2 6.9 31.6 14.8 3.0 100.0 7.9 3,197
Highest 7.3 5.0 3.4 6.2 4.3 31.2 27.2 15.5 100.0 9.9 3,135
Total 25.6 10.3 5.3 9.1 6.3 26.1 13.0 4.4 100.0 7.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes those who have never attended school and those in informal preschool
2
Includes those who have attended 0–4 grades and those in school-based pre-primary class
3
Completed grade 5 at the lower basic level
4
Completed grade 8 at the upper basic level
5
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

52 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed, and median years completed, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Highest level of schooling
Some Completed Some Completed Median
Background No lower lower upper upper Some Completed More than years Number of
characteristic education1 basic2 basic3 basic basic4 secondary secondary5 secondary Total completed men
Age
15–24 2.6 5.3 3.9 12.4 11.5 40.8 21.0 2.4 100.0 9.0 1,842
15–19 2.3 4.3 3.3 15.0 14.8 51.4 8.9 0.0 100.0 8.5 985
20–24 2.9 6.4 4.7 9.5 7.8 28.7 34.9 5.2 100.0 9.8 857
25–29 5.5 8.6 7.5 11.4 6.9 28.5 17.8 13.7 100.0 9.1 716
30–34 8.1 9.5 11.1 11.0 8.0 25.8 10.9 15.7 100.0 8.3 616
35–39 12.3 14.6 10.9 12.4 8.0 24.0 8.1 9.8 100.0 7.0 639
40–44 15.4 19.4 8.2 12.5 7.1 22.8 8.2 6.6 100.0 6.4 604
45–49 17.1 21.3 9.0 7.4 6.8 23.6 7.6 7.2 100.0 5.7 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.7 7.2 3.9 6.4 7.7 34.0 23.4 15.9 100.0 9.7 1,232
Dalit 15.7 20.0 8.9 17.0 8.1 22.1 7.1 1.2 100.0 5.8 658
Janajati 5.4 10.1 9.5 13.4 9.8 32.5 13.1 6.2 100.0 8.2 1,869
Madhesi 11.8 10.5 5.8 10.8 10.2 33.7 12.0 5.2 100.0 8.1 917
Muslim 26.2 12.0 9.7 12.5 6.1 18.4 11.0 4.0 100.0 5.4 228
Other * * * * * * * * 100.0 * 8
Residence
Urban 7.3 10.0 6.5 10.9 8.4 31.0 16.5 9.5 100.0 8.7 3,462
Rural 9.6 13.0 9.2 13.2 10.2 30.9 10.4 3.4 100.0 7.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.3 13.3 10.4 13.3 11.1 24.7 12.5 8.3 100.0 7.6 255
Hill 2.9 10.2 7.5 8.4 8.7 33.2 18.0 11.1 100.0 9.1 1,973
Terai 11.9 11.1 6.8 13.7 8.9 30.0 12.5 5.1 100.0 7.7 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 6.5 9.6 9.6 11.5 10.1 34.9 13.1 4.7 100.0 8.2 882
Urban 7.2 9.8 8.8 11.5 9.7 33.4 13.8 5.8 100.0 8.3 604
Rural 5.1 9.1 11.5 11.7 10.8 38.1 11.5 2.2 100.0 8.1 278
Madhesh Province 19.1 10.5 6.2 13.0 9.0 28.8 9.8 3.7 100.0 7.1 997
Urban 20.1 9.9 5.2 13.2 7.9 29.2 10.3 4.2 100.0 7.2 722
Rural 16.7 11.9 8.8 12.3 11.8 27.9 8.6 2.1 100.0 7.0 275
Bagmati Province 3.1 11.1 7.7 8.8 7.7 28.6 18.0 15.0 100.0 9.2 1,214
Urban 1.9 9.6 6.8 8.3 7.5 29.3 19.8 16.8 100.0 9.5 1,016
Rural 9.2 19.1 12.1 11.6 8.9 25.0 8.7 5.4 100.0 6.7 198
Gandaki Province 2.9 9.9 5.5 10.3 9.6 38.7 18.4 4.7 100.0 8.8 387
Urban 1.5 7.6 5.8 10.1 8.9 39.7 20.9 5.5 100.0 9.1 264
Rural 6.0 14.6 5.0 10.7 11.1 36.5 12.9 3.0 100.0 8.2 123
Lumbini Province 6.9 12.8 7.4 14.7 8.7 29.0 13.9 6.7 100.0 7.9 812
Urban 4.4 12.9 6.4 11.9 9.0 29.3 16.8 9.4 100.0 8.7 468
Rural 10.3 12.7 8.8 18.6 8.2 28.5 9.9 3.0 100.0 7.0 344
Karnali Province 5.1 11.8 5.9 10.3 9.7 32.6 15.9 8.7 100.0 8.5 266
Urban 3.2 11.2 4.7 9.7 7.5 34.1 18.4 11.3 100.0 8.9 154
Rural 7.8 12.5 7.5 11.1 12.8 30.5 12.6 5.2 100.0 7.9 113
Sudurpashchim Province 7.5 10.1 6.0 12.5 9.2 30.8 17.7 6.2 100.0 8.4 355
Urban 7.2 7.9 5.1 13.3 8.7 29.8 21.1 6.9 100.0 8.8 233
Rural 8.2 14.2 7.7 11.1 10.0 32.8 11.1 4.9 100.0 7.9 122
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.1 18.5 11.5 11.1 10.2 24.8 7.8 1.9 100.0 6.2 751
Second 16.7 14.9 9.7 14.8 8.6 25.7 7.6 2.0 100.0 6.3 933
Middle 8.3 14.5 7.5 16.5 9.9 31.7 9.1 2.5 100.0 7.3 957
Fourth 3.5 7.5 6.6 13.1 10.4 35.8 17.8 5.3 100.0 8.8 1,135
Highest 1.1 2.7 3.0 3.6 6.0 34.0 26.6 22.9 100.0 10.9 1,137
Total 8.0 10.9 7.3 11.6 8.9 31.0 14.7 7.7 100.0 8.3 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes those who have never attended school and those in informal preschool
2
Includes those who have attended 0–4 grades and those in school-based pre-primary class
3
Completed grade 5 at the lower basic level
4
Completed grade 8 at the upper basic level
5
Completed grade 12 at the secondary level

Characteristics of Respondents • 53
 Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by level of schooling attended and level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
No schooling, lower basic, upper basic, or secondary school
Higher than Can read a Can read No card with Blind/
Background secondary whole part of a Cannot read required visually Percentage Number of
characteristic schooling sentence sentence at all language impaired Total literate1 women
Age
15–24 2.1 77.7 7.8 12.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 87.5 5,280
15–19 0.1 81.6 7.7 10.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 89.4 2,643
20–24 4.0 73.8 7.8 14.2 0.2 0.0 100.0 85.6 2,637
25–29 8.1 64.6 7.9 19.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 80.7 2,435
30–34 8.4 57.4 9.0 25.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 74.8 2,144
35–39 5.3 48.9 10.3 35.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 64.5 2,025
40–44 2.8 40.5 12.3 44.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 55.5 1,629
45–49 1.4 36.7 10.3 51.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 48.3 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 8.9 72.7 6.0 12.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 87.7 4,152
Dalit 0.3 47.8 10.8 41.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 58.9 2,240
Janajati 3.7 69.6 8.9 17.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 82.3 5,428
Madhesi 2.9 42.9 12.5 41.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 58.3 2,333
Muslim 0.5 24.6 10.9 63.1 0.9 0.0 100.0 36.0 676
Other * * * * * * 100.0 * 15
Residence
Urban 5.7 62.7 8.5 23.0 0.1 0.0 100.0 76.9 10,178
Rural 1.6 57.0 10.2 31.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 68.8 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.5 61.1 8.4 28.9 0.0 0.1 100.0 71.0 791
Hill 7.0 69.2 8.0 15.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 84.3 5,872
Terai 2.8 54.9 9.9 32.3 0.1 0.0 100.0 67.6 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 2.0 68.9 10.4 18.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 81.3 2,493
Urban 2.3 69.9 10.8 16.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 83.1 1,640
Rural 1.4 66.9 9.7 22.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 77.9 853
Madhesh Province 1.9 33.8 10.9 53.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 46.5 3,010
Urban 2.0 33.9 10.3 53.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 46.3 2,226
Rural 1.4 33.2 12.5 52.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 47.1 783
Bagmati Province 11.5 67.9 7.4 13.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 86.8 3,062
Urban 13.7 70.1 6.5 9.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 90.2 2,464
Rural 2.6 59.0 11.1 27.1 0.0 0.1 100.0 72.8 599
Gandaki Province 4.2 76.0 7.9 12.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 88.0 1,401
Urban 5.0 79.5 6.3 9.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 90.8 992
Rural 2.2 67.3 11.6 18.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 81.1 409
Lumbini Province 3.4 68.0 7.4 21.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 78.8 2,691
Urban 4.6 73.1 6.5 15.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 84.1 1,553
Rural 1.7 61.2 8.6 28.5 0.1 0.0 100.0 71.4 1,138
Karnali Province 1.8 60.5 10.8 26.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 73.2 909
Urban 2.6 63.6 12.2 21.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 78.5 507
Rural 0.8 56.7 9.1 33.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 66.6 402
Sudurpashchim Province 2.4 61.5 9.6 26.3 0.1 0.1 100.0 73.6 1,279
Urban 3.1 64.1 9.5 23.2 0.1 0.0 100.0 76.7 796
Rural 1.2 57.3 9.9 31.3 0.0 0.2 100.0 68.4 484
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.4 50.0 9.9 39.6 0.0 0.1 100.0 60.3 2,628
Second 0.9 50.7 11.3 37.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 62.8 2,857
Middle 1.3 57.3 10.9 30.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 69.4 3,028
Fourth 3.0 69.4 9.3 18.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 81.7 3,197
Highest 15.5 74.3 4.3 5.9 0.1 0.0 100.0 94.1 3,135
Total 4.4 60.9 9.0 25.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 74.4 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Refers to women who attended schooling higher than the secondary level and women with less schooling who can read a whole sentence or part of a
sentence

54 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by level of schooling attended and level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
No schooling, lower basic, upper basic, or
secondary school
Higher than Can read a Can read No card with
Background secondary whole part of a Cannot read required Percentage Number of
characteristic schooling sentence sentence at all language Total literate1 men
Age
15–24 2.4 84.1 7.0 6.5 0.0 100.0 93.5 1,842
15–19 0.0 87.0 6.7 6.2 0.0 100.0 93.8 985
20–24 5.2 80.8 7.3 6.7 0.0 100.0 93.3 857
25–29 13.7 67.6 10.2 8.5 0.0 100.0 91.5 716
30–34 15.7 63.5 10.5 9.8 0.6 100.0 89.7 616
35–39 9.8 64.2 12.9 13.1 0.0 100.0 86.9 639
40–44 6.6 66.4 10.1 16.9 0.0 100.0 83.1 604
45–49 7.2 61.4 12.7 18.7 0.0 100.0 81.3 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 15.9 76.3 4.9 2.8 0.0 100.0 97.2 1,232
Dalit 1.2 61.9 17.3 19.6 0.0 100.0 80.4 658
Janajati 6.2 78.9 8.5 6.4 0.0 100.0 93.6 1,869
Madhesi 5.2 65.7 11.9 16.8 0.4 100.0 82.8 917
Muslim 4.0 48.1 12.6 35.3 0.0 100.0 64.7 228
Other * * * * * 100.0 * 8
Residence
Urban 9.5 71.5 9.6 9.3 0.1 100.0 90.6 3,462
Rural 3.4 73.5 9.7 13.5 0.0 100.0 86.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 8.3 71.8 11.0 8.9 0.0 100.0 91.1 255
Hill 11.1 77.9 7.4 3.6 0.0 100.0 96.4 1,973
Terai 5.1 67.8 11.1 15.8 0.1 100.0 84.0 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 4.7 75.7 9.6 10.0 0.0 100.0 90.0 882
Urban 5.8 74.1 9.8 10.2 0.0 100.0 89.8 604
Rural 2.2 79.1 9.1 9.5 0.0 100.0 90.5 278
Madhesh Province 3.7 59.3 12.8 24.2 0.0 100.0 75.8 997
Urban 4.2 58.3 13.1 24.3 0.0 100.0 75.7 722
Rural 2.1 61.8 12.1 24.0 0.0 100.0 76.0 275
Bagmati Province 15.0 71.1 9.4 4.3 0.3 100.0 95.4 1,214
Urban 16.8 70.7 9.2 3.0 0.4 100.0 96.7 1,016
Rural 5.4 73.2 10.2 11.1 0.0 100.0 88.9 198
Gandaki Province 4.7 83.4 8.5 3.4 0.0 100.0 96.6 387
Urban 5.5 86.4 6.6 1.5 0.0 100.0 98.5 264
Rural 3.0 77.0 12.5 7.5 0.0 100.0 92.5 123
Lumbini Province 6.7 76.6 7.3 9.5 0.0 100.0 90.5 812
Urban 9.4 77.4 7.0 6.2 0.0 100.0 93.8 468
Rural 3.0 75.4 7.7 13.9 0.0 100.0 86.1 344
Karnali Province 8.7 76.9 7.6 6.8 0.0 100.0 93.2 266
Urban 11.3 78.0 7.3 3.4 0.0 100.0 96.6 154
Rural 5.2 75.3 8.1 11.4 0.0 100.0 88.6 113
Sudurpashchim Province 6.2 76.0 9.7 8.1 0.0 100.0 91.9 355
Urban 6.9 76.0 10.0 7.1 0.0 100.0 92.9 233
Rural 4.9 76.2 9.0 9.8 0.0 100.0 90.2 122
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.9 66.9 15.0 16.2 0.0 100.0 83.8 751
Second 2.0 64.4 12.9 20.7 0.0 100.0 79.3 933
Middle 2.5 73.1 12.7 11.7 0.0 100.0 88.3 957
Fourth 5.3 80.4 8.0 6.1 0.3 100.0 93.6 1,135
Highest 22.9 72.6 2.4 2.1 0.0 100.0 97.9 1,137
Total 7.7 72.1 9.6 10.6 0.1 100.0 89.4 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Refers to men who attended schooling higher than the secondary level and men with less schooling who can read a whole sentence or
part of a sentence

Characteristics of Respondents • 55
 Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Accesses
Reads a Watches Accesses all none of the
newspaper at television at Listens to the three media at three media at
Background least once a least once a radio at least least once a least once a Number of
characteristic week week once a week week week women
Age
15–19 6.5 35.9 23.5 1.2 47.9 2,643
20–24 8.8 34.4 25.2 2.1 47.5 2,637
25–29 9.5 35.5 22.3 2.2 49.4 2,435
30–34 7.7 37.9 21.0 1.8 48.4 2,144
35–39 6.3 37.9 22.3 1.8 47.6 2,025
40–44 4.8 34.5 21.9 2.0 53.0 1,629
45–49 4.4 36.1 23.8 1.6 50.2 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 12.9 41.5 32.9 3.8 37.2 4,152
Dalit 3.1 29.3 19.7 0.6 57.1 2,240
Janajati 6.6 35.6 23.6 1.4 48.1 5,428
Madhesi 3.6 38.6 12.2 1.0 55.4 2,333
Muslim 2.0 18.1 4.0 0.0 78.1 676
Other * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 9.1 39.8 21.5 2.3 46.3 10,178
Rural 3.0 27.8 26.1 0.8 54.4 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.3 22.2 36.8 0.3 49.1 791
Hill 10.8 34.9 26.8 2.4 45.3 5,872
Terai 5.2 38.1 18.8 1.6 51.4 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 4.7 41.0 27.0 1.8 43.2 2,493
Urban 5.8 45.7 26.1 2.3 40.4 1,640
Rural 2.6 32.0 28.9 0.7 48.5 853
Madhesh Province 2.7 33.3 10.4 0.8 61.3 3,010
Urban 2.8 33.2 10.4 0.8 61.7 2,226
Rural 2.4 33.8 10.4 0.7 60.4 783
Bagmati Province 14.9 41.2 20.6 3.0 42.8 3,062
Urban 17.8 44.0 18.0 3.6 41.3 2,464
Rural 2.7 29.9 31.3 0.7 48.6 599
Gandaki Province 11.2 41.2 21.5 1.9 44.1 1,401
Urban 13.3 46.1 22.3 2.4 38.3 992
Rural 6.2 29.1 19.5 0.5 58.1 409
Lumbini Province 6.0 36.3 26.9 2.3 48.4 2,691
Urban 8.1 40.3 26.9 3.0 44.1 1,553
Rural 3.2 30.7 26.9 1.3 54.4 1,138
Karnali Province 5.4 18.1 37.5 1.2 51.9 909
Urban 7.1 24.0 39.0 1.4 45.6 507
Rural 3.2 10.7 35.6 0.9 59.7 402
Sudurpashchim Province 3.5 26.5 32.9 0.8 49.3 1,279
Urban 4.7 34.1 31.1 1.2 45.8 796
Rural 1.5 13.9 35.8 0.2 55.2 484
Education
No education 0.3 22.0 15.5 0.0 66.9 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 3.2 35.2 23.0 1.0 50.5 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.4 32.3 20.1 0.7 54.7 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 4.1 38.1 25.9 1.3 46.2 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 11.7 43.9 27.5 2.8 38.2 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.0 43.6 28.8 2.4 39.2 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 16.6 44.3 25.8 3.3 36.9 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 34.1 52.6 25.0 9.1 27.6 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.9 11.1 31.8 0.5 61.7 2,628
Second 2.7 28.5 23.4 1.0 56.9 2,857
Middle 4.1 37.4 22.8 1.1 49.2 3,028
Fourth 7.0 43.0 19.7 1.3 44.9 3,197
Highest 18.8 55.2 18.5 4.9 34.5 3,135
Total 7.2 36.0 22.9 1.8 48.9 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

56 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Accesses
Reads a Watches Accesses all none of the
newspaper at television at Listens to the three media at three media at
Background least once a least once a radio at least least once a least once a Number of
characteristic week week once a week week week men
Age
15–19 7.5 34.8 21.5 1.2 48.4 985
20–24 14.2 33.3 24.4 2.6 46.2 857
25–29 16.3 37.1 30.2 3.4 41.2 716
30–34 20.3 37.2 30.3 4.9 40.8 616
35–39 19.0 45.1 35.6 6.3 33.3 639
40–44 11.4 43.6 35.1 4.7 37.0 604
45–49 15.7 43.0 41.3 3.3 31.4 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 24.2 48.7 42.4 7.1 23.9 1,232
Dalit 7.0 28.6 30.6 1.9 50.2 658
Janajati 13.6 37.9 28.3 2.4 40.8 1,869
Madhesi 9.2 36.5 20.5 3.0 51.4 917
Muslim 7.7 21.6 11.7 0.8 66.8 228
Other * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 17.0 41.5 27.1 4.1 40.0 3,462
Rural 8.1 31.0 36.6 2.2 43.2 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.2 34.2 52.5 0.9 27.4 255
Hill 15.6 40.0 32.4 3.5 36.5 1,973
Terai 14.1 37.7 25.9 3.8 45.5 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 12.6 44.4 30.7 3.9 38.5 882
Urban 14.0 50.8 30.3 4.4 35.3 604
Rural 9.7 30.4 31.8 2.7 45.4 278
Madhesh Province 8.0 35.0 22.2 2.3 50.7 997
Urban 8.2 35.9 21.4 2.9 50.9 722
Rural 7.5 32.7 24.4 0.7 50.1 275
Bagmati Province 18.5 40.0 22.5 3.3 41.5 1,214
Urban 20.7 40.7 20.2 3.7 41.8 1,016
Rural 7.2 36.4 34.2 1.5 40.0 198
Gandaki Province 17.0 49.6 29.6 5.0 34.0 387
Urban 20.5 53.5 28.2 6.3 32.2 264
Rural 9.5 41.2 32.7 2.1 37.9 123
Lumbini Province 14.5 34.8 30.9 3.7 45.6 812
Urban 20.4 37.5 29.3 4.2 40.4 468
Rural 6.5 31.0 33.2 2.9 52.7 344
Karnali Province 15.4 23.7 60.2 3.1 23.9 266
Urban 22.7 30.5 55.2 4.6 22.7 154
Rural 5.3 14.3 67.2 1.1 25.5 113
Sudurpashchim Province 18.3 35.1 49.6 5.4 27.4 355
Urban 21.2 40.7 41.8 5.9 29.7 233
Rural 12.6 24.3 64.5 4.5 23.0 122
Education
No education 0.0 17.7 18.4 0.0 68.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 5.0 31.8 29.8 1.1 47.5 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.0 29.6 31.0 0.8 48.7 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 5.9 33.8 28.8 1.3 46.4 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 19.1 44.5 31.0 4.6 34.4 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 15.3 43.9 32.2 3.7 35.8 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 24.1 45.3 29.5 5.9 32.4 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 48.2 57.1 35.4 13.1 18.8 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.2 14.1 47.5 0.8 46.4 751
Second 6.2 32.0 32.1 2.1 47.8 933
Middle 8.5 37.7 30.3 2.1 43.5 957
Fourth 16.9 42.6 24.8 4.0 40.6 1,135
Highest 31.4 56.2 21.2 7.3 29.9 1,137
Total 14.4 38.4 29.9 3.5 40.9 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 57
 Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever used the internet and percentage who have used the internet in the last 12 months, and among women who
have used the internet in the last 12 months, percent distribution by frequency of internet use in the last month, according to background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022

Used the Among respondents who have used the internet in the last 12 months,
internet in percentage who, in the last month, used the internet:
Background Ever used the last 12 Number of Almost At least Less than Number of
characteristic the internet months women every day once a week once a week Not at all Total women
Age
15–19 75.4 73.9 2,643 56.6 27.8 10.5 5.0 100.0 1,953
20–24 81.2 79.2 2,637 64.2 23.8 8.3 3.7 100.0 2,089
25–29 76.3 73.6 2,435 66.4 21.0 8.4 4.1 100.0 1,793
30–34 68.9 67.1 2,144 67.6 19.5 7.6 5.3 100.0 1,438
35–39 55.5 54.1 2,025 68.2 19.6 8.5 3.6 100.0 1,097
40–44 46.1 44.8 1,629 63.1 21.3 9.9 5.6 100.0 729
45–49 38.1 36.9 1,332 69.0 18.6 9.6 2.9 100.0 492
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 70.7 69.4 4,152 71.4 19.5 6.5 2.5 100.0 2,882
Dalit 56.9 55.1 2,240 54.8 27.1 10.9 7.2 100.0 1,233
Janajati 68.3 66.3 5,428 64.5 22.1 9.7 3.8 100.0 3,598
Madhesi 63.2 61.2 2,333 55.5 26.7 10.6 7.2 100.0 1,429
Muslim 66.0 64.6 676 68.6 20.2 7.0 4.2 100.0 437
Other * * 15 * * * * 100.0 13
Residence
Urban 72.3 70.6 10,178 69.8 19.6 6.8 3.8 100.0 7,190
Rural 53.5 51.4 4,667 47.6 31.3 15.1 6.0 100.0 2,401
Ecological zone
Mountain 40.7 38.8 791 35.9 37.9 18.5 7.7 100.0 307
Hill 68.1 66.5 5,872 71.0 19.6 6.7 2.7 100.0 3,904
Terai 67.6 65.8 8,182 60.9 23.8 9.9 5.4 100.0 5,380
Province
Koshi Province 61.5 58.7 2,493 56.4 27.7 11.4 4.5 100.0 1,464
Urban 64.9 62.2 1,640 58.2 25.9 11.6 4.2 100.0 1,020
Rural 55.0 52.0 853 52.2 31.8 10.8 5.2 100.0 444
Madhesh Province 64.3 61.9 3,010 56.5 27.2 9.3 7.0 100.0 1,863
Urban 65.8 63.5 2,226 58.4 26.7 7.9 6.9 100.0 1,413
Rural 60.2 57.4 783 50.3 28.6 13.6 7.5 100.0 450
Bagmati Province 76.7 75.8 3,062 81.6 13.0 3.6 1.8 100.0 2,323
Urban 84.0 83.3 2,464 86.6 10.0 2.2 1.2 100.0 2,051
Rural 46.6 45.3 599 43.7 35.7 14.2 6.3 100.0 271
Gandaki Province 81.7 80.4 1,401 77.5 15.8 4.2 2.5 100.0 1,127
Urban 86.4 85.4 992 81.6 13.1 3.4 1.9 100.0 847
Rural 70.3 68.3 409 65.1 23.8 6.9 4.1 100.0 279
Lumbini Province 68.5 67.2 2,691 62.1 23.2 9.8 5.0 100.0 1,807
Urban 75.8 74.3 1,553 70.2 18.3 6.6 4.8 100.0 1,153
Rural 58.6 57.5 1,138 47.8 31.7 15.3 5.2 100.0 654
Karnali Province 44.4 42.2 909 41.5 32.8 18.6 7.1 100.0 384
Urban 51.7 49.8 507 51.4 28.1 15.4 5.1 100.0 253
Rural 35.2 32.7 402 22.5 41.8 24.8 10.9 100.0 131
Sudurpashchim Province 50.3 48.7 1,279 36.9 36.0 21.6 5.5 100.0 623
Urban 58.1 56.8 796 41.6 37.3 15.9 5.2 100.0 452
Rural 37.4 35.4 484 24.6 32.6 36.6 6.2 100.0 171
Education
No education 35.0 33.5 3,796 50.2 26.2 15.3 8.3 100.0 1,270
Basic education (1–8) 61.7 59.5 4,595 56.0 26.3 11.6 6.1 100.0 2,733
Lower basic education (1–5) 54.3 52.1 2,314 54.5 26.1 12.5 6.9 100.0 1,206
Upper basic education (6–8) 69.1 66.9 2,281 57.2 26.5 10.8 5.5 100.0 1,527
Secondary (9–12) 87.0 85.3 5,798 68.6 21.7 6.8 2.9 100.0 4,948
Lower secondary (9–10) 82.0 79.7 3,270 61.7 25.4 8.9 3.9 100.0 2,607
Higher secondary (11–12) 93.5 92.6 2,529 76.3 17.5 4.5 1.7 100.0 2,341
More than secondary (13 and
above) 97.9 97.6 656 92.9 6.0 0.6 0.5 100.0 640
Wealth quintile
Lowest 37.0 34.5 2,628 27.3 41.7 20.5 10.6 100.0 906
Second 52.3 49.0 2,857 42.5 34.7 15.9 6.9 100.0 1,401
Middle 64.4 62.6 3,028 53.4 28.5 12.4 5.7 100.0 1,896
Fourth 79.8 78.8 3,197 70.1 20.1 6.5 3.3 100.0 2,518
Highest 92.0 91.5 3,135 88.5 8.7 1.6 1.2 100.0 2,869
Total 66.4 64.6 14,845 64.2 22.5 8.9 4.4 100.0 9,591

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

58 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have ever used the internet and percentage who have used the internet in the last 12 months, and among men who have
used the internet in the last 12 months, percent distribution by frequency of internet use in the last month, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022

Used the Among respondents who have used the internet in the last 12 months,
internet in percentage who, in the last month, used the internet:
Background Ever used the last 12 Number of Almost At least Less than Number of
characteristic the internet months men every day once a week once a week Not at all Total men
Age
15–19 89.5 89.2 985 67.4 26.5 3.6 2.5 100.0 878
20–24 93.5 92.2 857 75.1 17.6 4.5 2.9 100.0 790
25–29 88.7 86.4 716 67.4 22.6 4.4 5.6 100.0 619
30–34 80.4 78.0 616 72.6 19.1 4.9 3.4 100.0 480
35–39 69.9 66.1 639 67.9 24.5 4.6 3.0 100.0 422
40–44 55.3 52.2 604 69.2 20.2 7.1 3.4 100.0 315
45–49 47.1 43.9 496 71.0 15.9 8.6 4.5 100.0 218
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 83.4 81.9 1,232 75.3 18.1 3.9 2.7 100.0 1,009
Dalit 68.9 65.9 658 58.1 27.8 8.2 5.8 100.0 434
Janajati 78.1 75.8 1,869 67.2 24.2 5.3 3.3 100.0 1,417
Madhesi 76.5 74.1 917 74.1 18.5 4.0 3.4 100.0 679
Muslim 79.7 78.7 228 77.8 18.0 0.5 3.6 100.0 180
Other * * 8 * * * * 100.0 4
Residence
Urban 81.6 79.7 3,462 75.0 18.5 3.5 2.9 100.0 2,759
Rural 69.2 66.4 1,451 56.2 30.4 8.4 5.0 100.0 963
Ecological zone
Mountain 63.4 61.3 255 44.1 32.4 11.9 11.6 100.0 156
Hill 80.7 78.8 1,973 72.9 20.5 4.6 1.9 100.0 1,555
Terai 77.3 74.9 2,685 70.0 21.6 4.4 4.0 100.0 2,011
Province
Koshi Province 73.4 71.2 882 58.8 28.0 8.4 4.9 100.0 628
Urban 74.3 72.5 604 61.5 26.5 6.1 5.9 100.0 438
Rural 71.6 68.4 278 52.5 31.3 13.7 2.6 100.0 190
Madhesh Province 74.2 72.1 997 70.4 20.3 4.9 4.4 100.0 719
Urban 75.7 74.3 722 72.4 19.5 4.0 4.1 100.0 537
Rural 70.2 66.4 275 64.7 22.7 7.3 5.2 100.0 182
Bagmati Province 87.0 84.7 1,214 80.3 15.8 1.9 2.0 100.0 1,028
Urban 90.5 88.7 1,016 84.7 13.3 1.0 1.0 100.0 901
Rural 68.6 64.5 198 49.9 32.8 7.8 9.5 100.0 128
Gandaki Province 84.6 82.1 387 79.6 17.1 2.3 1.0 100.0 318
Urban 88.5 85.9 264 85.3 12.3 1.1 1.2 100.0 227
Rural 76.3 73.9 123 65.2 28.9 5.3 0.6 100.0 91
Lumbini Province 76.5 74.6 812 73.2 18.7 4.8 3.4 100.0 606
Urban 81.4 79.3 468 77.8 14.3 5.1 2.8 100.0 371
Rural 69.8 68.2 344 66.0 25.6 4.2 4.2 100.0 234
Karnali Province 67.6 65.5 266 53.0 29.9 10.4 6.8 100.0 174
Urban 74.6 72.3 154 62.9 24.9 6.7 5.5 100.0 111
Rural 57.9 56.4 113 35.6 38.5 16.8 9.1 100.0 63
Sudurpashchim Province 72.6 70.2 355 48.3 40.8 7.0 3.8 100.0 249
Urban 76.9 74.8 233 55.4 35.5 6.5 2.5 100.0 175
Rural 64.3 61.4 122 31.8 53.1 8.2 6.8 100.0 75
Education
No education 33.8 30.0 393 48.5 32.9 6.5 12.1 100.0 118
Basic education (1–8) 66.2 62.7 1,898 54.7 30.4 7.7 7.2 100.0 1,190
Lower basic education (1–5) 50.7 46.1 891 50.3 27.7 11.0 10.9 100.0 411
Upper basic education (6–8) 79.9 77.3 1,007 56.9 31.9 6.0 5.2 100.0 779
Secondary (9–12) 92.2 91.1 2,244 76.1 18.9 3.8 1.3 100.0 2,045
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.1 87.6 1,284 69.3 23.9 5.1 1.8 100.0 1,125
Higher secondary (11–12) 96.4 95.9 959 84.4 12.7 2.2 0.7 100.0 920
More than secondary (13 and
above) 98.1 98.1 377 94.1 5.0 0.3 0.6 100.0 370
Wealth quintile
Lowest 51.8 49.3 751 30.6 42.9 16.0 10.6 100.0 370
Second 66.0 61.6 933 50.2 34.8 8.5 6.5 100.0 574
Middle 76.3 73.7 957 61.1 30.0 4.6 4.3 100.0 705
Fourth 88.3 86.9 1,135 77.4 17.7 3.1 1.8 100.0 986
Highest 96.1 95.6 1,137 93.4 5.5 0.7 0.3 100.0 1,086
Total 77.9 75.8 4,913 70.1 21.6 4.8 3.5 100.0 3,723

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 59
 Table 3.6.1 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have heard or seen specific health programs on the radio or television, according to background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022
Jeevan
rakshya
Jana Jana Swasthya Eak dui tin Hello radio
swasthya Jeevan swasthya gatibidhi sunau eekai Bhanchin bhanchin karyakram
Background bahas TV chakra TV radio radio chin radio aama radio aama radio (COVID-19 Number of
characteristic karyakram serial karyakram karyakram karyakram karyakram karyakram response) women
Age
15–19 1.4 1.6 5.7 4.7 4.7 14.5 8.4 7.9 2,643
20–24 2.0 2.1 7.1 6.0 4.5 17.4 11.2 8.2 2,637
25–29 2.4 2.6 7.1 6.0 4.0 15.0 9.5 7.6 2,435
30–34 3.9 3.2 8.7 7.1 4.7 13.3 8.4 7.8 2,144
35–39 4.1 5.1 8.4 7.0 5.2 13.6 8.9 8.3 2,025
40–44 3.8 4.2 7.8 6.6 5.6 14.1 8.9 8.4 1,629
45–49 4.3 4.1 8.2 6.7 4.4 12.9 8.5 9.3 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.1 5.7 12.7 11.2 7.1 23.7 15.8 12.6 4,152
Dalit 1.5 2.0 5.3 4.1 4.7 12.9 8.3 7.1 2,240
Janajati 2.9 2.8 7.2 5.6 4.5 15.7 9.1 7.4 5,428
Madhesi 1.4 0.7 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.3 4.7 2,333
Muslim 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.3 1.0 676
Other * * * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 3.3 3.5 7.3 6.0 4.3 12.4 7.9 7.6 10,178
Rural 2.0 2.1 7.7 6.6 5.6 19.3 12.0 9.2 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 3.3 3.8 14.5 13.8 9.4 37.8 28.0 20.5 791
Hill 3.5 4.0 8.8 7.2 6.0 20.9 12.9 8.0 5,872
Terai 2.5 2.3 5.8 4.8 3.2 7.9 4.7 7.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 3.1 3.4 6.7 5.3 4.9 12.8 8.0 6.2 2,493
Urban 3.2 3.8 6.7 5.4 3.8 10.3 6.2 5.9 1,640
Rural 2.8 2.7 6.7 5.2 7.1 17.5 11.4 6.8 853
Madhesh Province 0.8 0.8 1.9 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.5 4.3 3,010
Urban 0.9 1.0 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.6 4.2 2,226
Rural 0.6 0.3 1.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.3 4.7 783
Bagmati Province 5.7 5.9 8.9 7.2 6.1 14.3 9.0 8.5 3,062
Urban 6.2 6.3 8.2 6.3 5.4 10.9 7.2 7.1 2,464
Rural 3.7 4.4 11.7 11.1 8.8 28.3 16.3 14.5 599
Gandaki Province 2.7 3.9 6.8 5.6 3.0 12.3 7.2 4.7 1,401
Urban 3.2 4.0 7.2 5.6 3.0 11.3 6.8 5.0 992
Rural 1.7 3.5 5.8 5.6 3.1 14.7 8.3 3.9 409
Lumbini Province 2.1 2.4 7.6 6.8 4.4 19.5 12.2 7.6 2,691
Urban 2.3 2.6 8.1 7.4 4.6 19.2 12.5 8.9 1,553
Rural 1.8 2.2 6.8 5.9 4.0 19.8 11.8 5.9 1,138
Karnali Province 1.9 1.5 13.0 10.7 8.7 29.1 18.2 16.1 909
Urban 2.1 2.0 14.0 10.5 8.2 30.6 19.6 16.8 507
Rural 1.5 0.8 11.6 11.0 9.4 27.3 16.5 15.2 402
Sudurpashchim Province 3.7 2.4 15.1 12.8 8.3 31.3 19.6 19.2 1,279
Urban 4.8 3.3 15.2 13.3 8.1 28.4 16.6 17.8 796
Rural 2.0 1.0 14.9 12.0 8.6 36.1 24.5 21.4 484
Education
No education 1.3 1.6 4.1 3.4 3.3 8.9 6.0 6.3 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 2.0 2.5 6.5 5.0 4.7 14.4 8.7 7.6 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.6 1.9 6.1 4.6 4.7 13.1 8.0 7.0 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.5 3.1 6.8 5.4 4.7 15.7 9.4 8.2 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 4.0 4.0 10.0 8.6 5.7 18.5 11.7 9.7 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.1 3.4 9.6 8.2 6.2 18.4 11.2 8.9 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 3.9 4.6 10.5 9.0 5.2 18.7 12.3 10.7 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 9.0 7.5 11.2 9.8 2.7 13.9 9.3 8.8 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.8 0.8 8.9 6.9 6.4 25.5 17.1 10.3 2,628
Second 1.9 2.0 6.9 6.0 5.1 17.9 10.2 8.2 2,857
Middle 2.3 2.6 6.4 5.5 4.7 12.4 7.2 7.9 3,028
Fourth 3.6 3.5 7.4 6.3 3.9 10.6 7.1 7.8 3,197
Highest 5.6 6.0 7.8 6.4 3.6 8.6 5.8 6.7 3,135
Total 2.9 3.1 7.4 6.2 4.7 14.6 9.2 8.1 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

60 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.6.2 Exposure to specific health programs on radio and television: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have heard or seen specific health programs on the radio or television, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Jeevan
rakshya
Jana Jana Swasthya Eak dui tin Hello radio
swasthya Jeevan swasthya gatibidhi sunau eekai Bhanchin bhanchin karyakram
Background bahas TV chakra TV radio radio chin radio aama radio aama radio (COVID-19 Number of
characteristic karyakram serial karyakram karyakram karyakram karyakram karyakram response) men
Age
15–19 2.3 3.8 5.2 5.9 3.0 12.1 5.5 9.5 985
20–24 2.6 2.0 7.0 5.9 3.5 14.1 8.2 8.1 857
25–29 3.5 3.0 10.1 7.4 3.3 14.3 6.7 7.6 716
30–34 5.1 7.3 13.2 9.9 4.8 12.9 6.6 9.7 616
35–39 5.9 5.5 13.2 11.4 5.7 16.1 8.8 10.5 639
40–44 4.7 5.6 15.0 10.4 6.8 14.3 9.4 11.4 604
45–49 8.1 8.0 17.1 14.1 7.4 17.3 9.5 10.2 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 8.6 9.4 17.9 15.7 7.3 25.0 13.1 15.0 1,232
Dalit 1.7 2.4 8.0 5.9 2.9 11.7 5.9 5.9 658
Janajati 3.3 4.4 9.8 7.6 5.2 15.8 8.3 8.0 1,869
Madhesi 2.9 1.2 5.8 4.5 1.9 1.5 2.0 8.2 917
Muslim 1.3 1.8 6.2 6.0 1.4 1.5 0.0 7.0 228
Other * * * * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 4.6 4.8 9.8 8.3 4.2 11.5 6.0 8.6 3,462
Rural 3.3 4.4 12.6 9.8 5.6 20.7 11.5 11.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.4 6.4 13.1 11.0 5.4 32.3 16.3 17.8 255
Hill 5.8 6.5 13.4 11.2 6.1 21.7 11.7 8.9 1,973
Terai 3.3 3.2 8.4 6.7 3.4 6.9 3.8 9.1 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 4.5 6.5 11.8 10.0 5.3 14.9 8.8 8.0 882
Urban 5.4 7.1 11.0 9.7 4.7 11.1 7.2 6.6 604
Rural 2.8 5.0 13.4 10.6 6.7 23.2 12.3 11.0 278
Madhesh Province 1.7 1.5 5.5 4.1 2.0 0.9 0.7 8.3 997
Urban 1.5 1.0 5.1 4.0 1.9 0.9 0.4 8.7 722
Rural 2.2 2.8 6.5 4.1 2.0 0.9 1.5 7.4 275
Bagmati Province 3.6 4.5 7.8 5.6 3.5 11.1 5.5 5.3 1,214
Urban 3.9 4.3 6.9 5.6 3.0 9.1 4.5 4.4 1,016
Rural 2.3 5.4 12.6 5.9 5.6 21.0 10.6 10.2 198
Gandaki Province 9.4 13.5 10.0 9.3 5.1 13.9 7.0 7.8 387
Urban 11.6 14.0 10.1 10.0 5.9 11.4 6.5 7.8 264
Rural 4.7 12.2 9.8 7.8 3.3 19.2 8.0 8.0 123
Lumbini Province 4.7 3.1 13.3 10.9 5.0 22.1 12.1 11.0 812
Urban 5.0 3.3 14.2 11.3 4.3 19.8 9.3 12.8 468
Rural 4.3 2.9 12.0 10.4 6.0 25.2 15.8 8.5 344
Karnali Province 5.6 7.3 28.0 26.5 12.2 35.1 20.7 24.7 266
Urban 6.9 10.7 29.3 28.6 13.5 36.0 21.6 24.1 154
Rural 3.9 2.7 26.1 23.7 10.6 33.9 19.3 25.6 113
Sudurpashchim Province 4.8 1.8 14.0 10.5 7.2 27.0 11.9 17.0 355
Urban 5.1 1.2 12.4 8.4 7.0 22.5 9.0 14.1 233
Rural 4.2 3.1 17.1 14.5 7.4 35.6 17.5 22.5 122
Education
No education 1.0 1.2 4.7 2.5 2.7 4.0 3.0 3.8 393
Basic education (1–8) 2.4 3.0 9.5 6.7 4.7 13.3 7.2 8.2 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.3 2.6 9.7 5.5 4.6 13.3 7.8 7.1 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.5 3.4 9.3 7.8 4.9 13.4 6.6 9.2 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 5.4 6.1 11.8 10.3 4.6 16.5 8.8 10.7 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.9 6.5 12.1 11.3 4.4 16.4 8.5 11.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 6.1 5.5 11.4 9.0 4.8 16.6 9.3 10.2 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 10.0 8.4 16.1 16.0 6.2 15.5 7.3 14.3 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.7 1.7 13.8 11.2 6.7 30.3 15.3 12.0 751
Second 3.1 4.3 11.9 8.9 5.1 18.2 11.4 11.0 933
Middle 3.2 4.7 11.5 8.7 4.8 12.2 5.7 9.1 957
Fourth 3.7 4.7 8.6 7.2 3.1 8.9 4.6 7.4 1,135
Highest 8.3 6.9 9.0 8.5 4.2 7.2 4.0 8.7 1,137
Total 4.2 4.7 10.7 8.7 4.6 14.2 7.6 9.4 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 61
 Table 3.7.1 Employment status: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by employment status, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Employed in the 12 months Not employed in
preceding the survey the 12 months
Background Currently Not currently preceding the Number of
characteristic employed1 employed survey Total women
Age
15–19 33.3 15.4 51.4 100.0 2,643
20–24 49.3 14.7 36.0 100.0 2,637
25–29 59.9 13.5 26.6 100.0 2,435
30–34 69.7 11.0 19.3 100.0 2,144
35–39 73.5 10.9 15.6 100.0 2,025
40–44 76.2 9.0 14.8 100.0 1,629
45–49 73.3 9.9 16.7 100.0 1,332
Marital status
Never married 42.0 13.8 44.2 100.0 3,203
Married or living together 63.9 12.2 23.9 100.0 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 76.4 11.9 11.6 100.0 462
Number of living children
0 44.3 14.3 41.5 100.0 4,288
1–2 62.8 11.6 25.5 100.0 6,708
3–4 70.1 12.0 17.8 100.0 3,279
5+ 74.8 12.8 12.4 100.0 570
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 60.9 11.7 27.4 100.0 4,152
Dalit 55.3 17.4 27.2 100.0 2,240
Janajati 67.1 12.0 20.9 100.0 5,428
Madhesi 49.9 10.5 39.6 100.0 2,333
Muslim 38.8 12.6 48.6 100.0 676
Other * * * 100.0 15
Residence
Urban 55.5 12.3 32.2 100.0 10,178
Rural 68.4 13.0 18.6 100.0 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 78.3 8.9 12.7 100.0 791
Hill 64.6 11.1 24.3 100.0 5,872
Terai 54.1 13.9 32.0 100.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 61.4 15.6 23.0 100.0 2,493
Urban 57.5 15.8 26.7 100.0 1,640
Rural 68.9 15.3 15.9 100.0 853
Madhesh Province 48.9 12.6 38.5 100.0 3,010
Urban 46.7 12.3 41.0 100.0 2,226
Rural 55.1 13.3 31.5 100.0 783
Bagmati Province 62.8 7.8 29.4 100.0 3,062
Urban 59.0 8.2 32.8 100.0 2,464
Rural 78.5 6.2 15.3 100.0 599
Gandaki Province 65.7 8.6 25.7 100.0 1,401
Urban 59.9 9.4 30.7 100.0 992
Rural 80.0 6.5 13.5 100.0 409
Lumbini Province 59.7 14.5 25.8 100.0 2,691
Urban 55.9 12.9 31.2 100.0 1,553
Rural 64.9 16.7 18.4 100.0 1,138
Karnali Province 69.5 11.9 18.6 100.0 909
Urban 62.3 13.8 23.9 100.0 507
Rural 78.6 9.4 12.0 100.0 402
Sudurpashchim Province 59.0 18.5 22.6 100.0 1,279
Urban 54.4 19.6 26.0 100.0 796
Rural 66.5 16.6 16.9 100.0 484
Education
No education 69.7 12.2 18.1 100.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 60.8 14.3 24.9 100.0 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 65.0 14.0 21.0 100.0 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 56.6 14.6 28.8 100.0 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 51.2 11.9 36.9 100.0 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 51.8 11.8 36.4 100.0 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 50.3 12.1 37.6 100.0 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 65.9 7.2 26.9 100.0 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 69.0 15.8 15.1 100.0 2,628
Second 63.4 15.3 21.2 100.0 2,857
Middle 62.1 13.2 24.7 100.0 3,028
Fourth 54.9 12.0 33.2 100.0 3,197
Highest 50.3 7.2 42.6 100.0 3,135
Total 59.5 12.5 27.9 100.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
“Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the last 7 days. Includes persons who did not work in the last 7 days
but who are regularly employed and were absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other such reason.

62 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.7.2 Employment status: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by employment status, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Employed in the 12 months Not employed in
preceding the survey the 12 months
Background Currently Not currently preceding the Number of
characteristic employed1 employed survey Total men
Age
15–19 38.3 15.0 46.7 100.0 985
20–24 71.0 13.2 15.8 100.0 857
25–29 87.4 9.2 3.4 100.0 716
30–34 90.9 6.7 2.5 100.0 616
35–39 93.6 5.1 1.3 100.0 639
40–44 93.7 4.0 2.3 100.0 604
45–49 92.5 4.5 3.0 100.0 496
Marital status
Never married 52.2 13.9 33.9 100.0 1,768
Married or living together 91.4 6.4 2.3 100.0 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed (86.3) (9.7) (4.0) 100.0 44
Number of living children
0 57.8 13.6 28.5 100.0 2,150
1–2 91.8 5.7 2.5 100.0 1,746
3–4 93.2 5.1 1.7 100.0 864
5+ 92.5 7.3 0.2 100.0 153
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 75.7 8.5 15.7 100.0 1,232
Dalit 78.6 10.0 11.5 100.0 658
Janajati 79.2 9.2 11.6 100.0 1,869
Madhesi 75.9 9.2 14.9 100.0 917
Muslim 70.3 8.7 21.0 100.0 228
Other * * * 100.0 8
Residence
Urban 75.4 9.3 15.3 100.0 3,462
Rural 81.6 8.7 9.7 100.0 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 78.7 14.0 7.3 100.0 255
Hill 75.8 8.5 15.7 100.0 1,973
Terai 78.2 9.1 12.8 100.0 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 86.3 7.3 6.4 100.0 882
Urban 85.3 7.6 7.1 100.0 604
Rural 88.4 6.8 4.8 100.0 278
Madhesh Province 76.2 9.3 14.5 100.0 997
Urban 75.3 9.1 15.7 100.0 722
Rural 78.8 9.8 11.4 100.0 275
Bagmati Province 71.8 11.0 17.2 100.0 1,214
Urban 71.3 10.7 18.1 100.0 1,016
Rural 74.6 12.6 12.8 100.0 198
Gandaki Province 76.7 5.2 18.1 100.0 387
Urban 74.5 5.4 20.1 100.0 264
Rural 81.3 4.8 13.9 100.0 123
Lumbini Province 80.2 6.6 13.1 100.0 812
Urban 76.1 7.4 16.5 100.0 468
Rural 85.9 5.6 8.5 100.0 344
Karnali Province 73.9 11.4 14.7 100.0 266
Urban 73.2 10.3 16.5 100.0 154
Rural 74.9 12.8 12.2 100.0 113
Sudurpashchim Province 72.0 14.9 13.1 100.0 355
Urban 69.2 15.7 15.1 100.0 233
Rural 77.3 13.4 9.3 100.0 122
Education
No education 93.3 4.6 2.1 100.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 82.8 8.9 8.3 100.0 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 89.7 8.5 1.9 100.0 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 76.7 9.4 13.9 100.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 67.9 10.9 21.2 100.0 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 68.9 11.9 19.3 100.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 66.6 9.6 23.8 100.0 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 87.9 3.9 8.2 100.0 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 80.8 10.8 8.4 100.0 751
Second 81.1 9.8 9.0 100.0 933
Middle 79.9 7.9 12.1 100.0 957
Fourth 75.6 10.4 14.0 100.0 1,135
Highest 71.0 7.2 21.9 100.0 1,137
Total 77.2 9.1 13.7 100.0 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than
25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
“Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the last 7 days. Includes persons who did not work in the last 7 days
but who are regularly employed and were absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other such reason.

Characteristics of Respondents • 63
Table 3.8.1 Occupation: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Professional/
Background technical/ Sales and Skilled Unskilled Number of
characteristic managerial Clerical services manual manual Agriculture Other Total women
Age
15–19 2.6 1.5 7.5 4.9 6.3 77.1 0.1 100.0 1,285
20–24 11.1 4.6 11.5 6.9 5.1 60.8 0.0 100.0 1,688
25–29 10.6 2.9 11.7 7.0 6.8 61.0 0.1 100.0 1,788
30–34 9.7 1.9 13.5 6.7 6.3 61.9 0.0 100.0 1,730
35–39 8.4 1.5 12.6 4.0 7.3 65.9 0.2 100.0 1,710
40–44 6.0 1.1 12.0 3.6 6.1 71.1 0.2 100.0 1,387
45–49 4.7 1.3 9.6 2.9 5.3 75.7 0.5 100.0 1,109
Marital status
Never married 12.7 5.5 13.2 6.6 6.2 55.8 0.1 100.0 1,787
Married or living together 7.1 1.5 10.9 5.0 5.6 69.6 0.2 100.0 8,502
Divorced/separated/widowed 5.9 2.9 14.4 5.9 18.4 52.5 0.0 100.0 408
Number of living children
0 12.9 4.5 13.2 7.4 5.8 55.9 0.2 100.0 2,510
1–2 9.2 2.0 13.2 5.6 6.8 63.2 0.1 100.0 4,995
3–4 2.7 0.9 8.0 3.6 5.9 78.7 0.2 100.0 2,694
5+ 0.5 0.1 3.4 1.0 4.6 90.4 0.0 100.0 499
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 13.4 3.0 13.4 2.3 4.4 63.3 0.2 100.0 3,013
Dalit 2.2 1.1 7.1 6.0 11.2 72.2 0.2 100.0 1,630
Janajati 7.5 2.7 12.6 6.6 7.4 63.1 0.1 100.0 4,294
Madhesi 6.0 0.8 9.9 6.2 1.7 75.3 0.1 100.0 1,408
Muslim 3.0 0.0 5.6 9.3 2.7 79.3 0.0 100.0 348
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 5
Residence
Urban 10.0 3.1 14.7 6.5 7.2 58.3 0.2 100.0 6,900
Rural 4.5 0.7 5.5 3.2 4.4 81.8 0.0 100.0 3,798
Ecological zone
Mountain 3.3 1.5 5.5 2.7 4.5 82.4 0.1 100.0 691
Hill 11.0 3.1 13.0 5.6 6.6 60.5 0.1 100.0 4,446
Terai 6.2 1.6 10.9 5.4 6.1 69.6 0.2 100.0 5,561
Province
Koshi Province 6.3 1.8 8.9 3.4 5.0 74.4 0.1 100.0 1,920
Urban 7.3 2.6 11.4 3.7 6.5 68.5 0.1 100.0 1,202
Rural 4.7 0.5 4.9 3.1 2.4 84.4 0.0 100.0 718
Madhesh Province 4.7 1.2 6.5 6.2 2.7 78.7 0.0 100.0 1,850
Urban 5.1 1.5 6.8 7.1 2.0 77.5 0.0 100.0 1,313
Rural 3.7 0.5 5.9 3.8 4.4 81.6 0.1 100.0 536
Bagmati Province 15.9 5.1 18.1 9.5 8.2 42.9 0.3 100.0 2,162
Urban 19.1 6.4 22.4 10.9 9.7 31.2 0.4 100.0 1,655
Rural 5.4 1.1 4.2 5.0 3.2 81.2 0.0 100.0 507
Gandaki Province 9.9 2.9 16.7 5.2 5.7 59.1 0.5 100.0 1,041
Urban 11.0 4.0 21.1 6.8 7.6 48.7 0.8 100.0 687
Rural 7.8 0.8 8.0 1.9 2.1 79.4 0.0 100.0 354
Lumbini Province 5.4 1.0 11.3 4.1 6.4 71.8 0.0 100.0 1,996
Urban 6.9 1.3 15.9 4.4 7.8 63.6 0.0 100.0 1,068
Rural 3.6 0.7 6.1 3.8 4.8 81.1 0.0 100.0 928
Karnali Province 5.2 1.2 10.0 1.5 7.9 74.2 0.0 100.0 740
Urban 6.7 2.1 14.6 2.3 8.7 65.6 0.0 100.0 386
Rural 3.6 0.3 5.0 0.6 6.9 83.7 0.0 100.0 354
Sudurpashchim Province 5.8 0.9 6.5 3.9 9.8 73.0 0.1 100.0 991
Urban 7.3 1.1 8.0 4.8 11.0 67.9 0.1 100.0 589
Rural 3.8 0.6 4.3 2.6 8.2 80.5 0.0 100.0 402
Education
No education 0.9 0.4 5.9 3.3 7.3 82.1 0.0 100.0 3,110
Basic education (1–8) 1.8 0.9 9.8 6.2 8.1 73.0 0.3 100.0 3,452
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.2 0.7 8.5 5.8 9.1 74.4 0.5 100.0 1,827
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.5 1.1 11.3 6.7 6.9 71.5 0.1 100.0 1,624
Secondary (9–12) 12.9 4.1 16.7 6.5 4.3 55.3 0.1 100.0 3,657
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.6 2.4 14.2 7.0 5.1 66.7 0.1 100.0 2,080
Higher secondary (11–12) 24.0 6.4 20.1 5.9 3.3 40.3 0.0 100.0 1,577
More than secondary (13 and
above) 61.1 9.1 18.7 3.2 0.5 7.4 0.0 100.0 479
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.7 0.5 2.1 2.1 5.6 88.1 0.0 100.0 2,230
Second 2.5 0.8 4.3 3.0 5.3 84.1 0.0 100.0 2,251
Middle 4.0 1.1 7.3 5.5 6.7 75.3 0.1 100.0 2,279
Fourth 8.5 3.3 17.0 8.2 7.9 54.9 0.2 100.0 2,137
Highest 27.2 6.2 30.5 8.7 5.5 21.3 0.4 100.0 1,801
Total 8.0 2.2 11.4 5.3 6.2 66.7 0.1 100.0 10,698

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

64 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.8.2 Occupation: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Professional/
Background technical/ Sales and Skilled Unskilled Number of
characteristic managerial Clerical services manual manual Agriculture Other Total men
Age
15–19 3.5 0.5 7.6 16.6 27.8 43.6 0.4 100.0 525
20–24 9.7 2.3 16.8 28.1 23.2 19.9 0.0 100.0 722
25–29 15.4 1.8 16.9 27.2 19.9 18.6 0.3 100.0 692
30–34 15.9 1.9 21.5 22.1 16.5 22.1 0.0 100.0 601
35–39 12.6 0.6 20.8 24.0 16.9 25.1 0.0 100.0 630
40–44 11.2 0.9 18.5 18.2 20.0 31.2 0.0 100.0 590
45–49 13.4 2.1 12.0 18.8 16.2 37.2 0.3 100.0 481
Marital status
Never married 11.4 1.6 15.0 20.7 21.7 29.4 0.3 100.0 1,169
Married or living together 12.1 1.4 17.4 23.2 19.3 26.5 0.1 100.0 3,031
Divorced/separated/widowed (2.7) (0.8) (3.3) (34.2) (36.6) (22.4) (0.0) 100.0 42
Number of living children
0 11.9 1.8 16.4 21.1 21.3 27.3 0.2 100.0 1,536
1–2 14.3 1.5 19.2 25.6 16.4 22.8 0.1 100.0 1,703
3–4 8.4 0.8 12.9 20.1 24.3 33.4 0.1 100.0 850
5+ 2.0 0.8 10.0 18.8 26.7 41.8 0.0 100.0 153
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 20.0 2.7 22.2 13.5 9.4 32.0 0.1 100.0 1,038
Dalit 4.0 0.4 9.6 32.6 37.0 16.4 0.1 100.0 582
Janajati 10.4 1.1 15.1 26.2 17.1 30.0 0.2 100.0 1,653
Madhesi 9.8 1.6 18.1 18.5 26.6 25.3 0.1 100.0 781
Muslim 11.3 0.7 13.6 28.9 27.3 18.3 0.0 100.0 180
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 6
Residence
Urban 13.6 1.7 19.4 24.4 19.4 21.4 0.1 100.0 2,931
Rural 7.7 1.0 10.4 18.7 21.6 40.3 0.2 100.0 1,310
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.7 0.6 8.9 20.7 16.8 45.3 0.0 100.0 236
Hill 14.1 1.1 19.2 22.4 11.9 31.3 0.1 100.0 1,663
Terai 10.6 1.8 15.5 23.0 26.3 22.6 0.2 100.0 2,342
Province
Koshi Province 9.3 2.9 8.4 22.8 14.0 42.5 0.1 100.0 826
Urban 10.9 3.9 9.3 23.9 15.9 36.1 0.0 100.0 562
Rural 5.8 0.8 6.4 20.4 10.0 56.1 0.5 100.0 264
Madhesh Province 9.3 1.0 14.2 20.2 32.6 22.5 0.3 100.0 853
Urban 9.9 1.1 15.8 19.1 32.2 21.7 0.2 100.0 609
Rural 7.8 0.7 10.4 22.8 33.4 24.5 0.4 100.0 244
Bagmati Province 16.2 0.9 22.5 31.6 10.2 18.5 0.1 100.0 1,005
Urban 18.0 0.7 25.1 32.4 10.2 13.7 0.0 100.0 832
Rural 7.8 1.7 10.4 27.6 10.4 41.6 0.6 100.0 173
Gandaki Province 11.2 1.8 23.1 21.3 15.6 27.1 0.0 100.0 317
Urban 14.3 2.4 28.8 25.5 13.3 15.8 0.0 100.0 211
Rural 5.0 0.7 11.7 12.8 20.2 49.6 0.0 100.0 106
Lumbini Province 12.7 1.4 20.1 17.4 24.8 23.4 0.2 100.0 705
Urban 14.0 1.6 26.4 17.6 25.4 14.6 0.4 100.0 391
Rural 11.0 1.0 12.4 17.2 24.1 34.3 0.0 100.0 314
Karnali Province 12.5 1.8 10.8 16.5 17.4 41.0 0.0 100.0 227
Urban 17.7 1.7 13.7 19.9 15.7 31.3 0.0 100.0 128
Rural 5.8 1.9 7.0 12.0 19.8 53.6 0.0 100.0 99
Sudurpashchim Province 9.3 0.5 15.6 17.5 30.0 27.0 0.0 100.0 309
Urban 10.5 0.4 15.4 23.2 26.2 24.3 0.0 100.0 198
Rural 7.3 0.8 16.0 7.3 37.0 31.7 0.0 100.0 110
Education
No education 0.5 1.1 6.6 21.6 42.7 27.6 0.0 100.0 385
Basic education (1–8) 2.7 0.7 10.8 28.6 26.5 30.5 0.3 100.0 1,741
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.8 0.4 9.8 29.1 29.1 29.5 0.2 100.0 875
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.6 1.0 11.7 28.2 23.8 31.5 0.3 100.0 867
Secondary (9–12) 13.6 2.1 22.8 20.3 12.5 28.5 0.1 100.0 1,768
Lower secondary (9–10) 7.9 1.6 20.9 22.7 15.0 31.7 0.1 100.0 1,037
Higher secondary (11–12) 21.7 2.9 25.5 16.8 9.0 24.1 0.0 100.0 731
More than secondary (13 and
above) 60.7 2.6 25.5 5.6 1.6 4.0 0.0 100.0 346
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.4 0.8 4.3 15.8 24.7 49.9 0.1 100.0 688
Second 4.9 0.9 6.3 22.3 30.7 34.9 0.1 100.0 848
Middle 6.0 1.2 11.7 26.9 24.2 29.8 0.2 100.0 841
Fourth 11.1 1.9 22.5 28.9 16.9 18.5 0.1 100.0 976
Highest 30.4 2.4 34.2 17.3 6.0 9.6 0.2 100.0 888
Total 11.8 1.5 16.6 22.6 20.1 27.2 0.1 100.0 4,241

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 65
 Table 3.9 Type of employment: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey
by type of earnings, type of employer, and continuity of employment, according to type of
employment (agricultural or nonagricultural), Nepal DHS 2022
Employment Agricultural Nonagricultural
characteristic work work Total
Type of earnings
Cash only 17.8 88.8 41.5
Cash and in-kind 9.3 2.6 7.1
In-kind only 9.1 0.4 6.2
Not paid 63.8 8.2 45.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Type of employer
Employed by family member 83.6 17.1 61.4
Employed by non-family member 11.9 56.5 26.7
Self-employed 4.6 26.4 11.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Continuity of employment
All year 49.4 76.6 58.5
Seasonal 42.6 9.1 31.4
Occasional 8.1 14.3 10.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women employed
during the last 12 months 7,131 3,567 10,698

66 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.10.1 Health insurance coverage: Women

Percentage of women age 15–49 with specific types of health insurance coverage, and percentage with any health insurance, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Health Privately
Government insurance purchased
Background health through Social commercial Any health Number of
characteristic insurance employer security insurance Other None insurance women
Age
15–19 8.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 91.3 8.7 2,643
20–24 9.5 0.3 0.1 0.8 0.0 89.2 10.8 2,637
25–29 11.9 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.0 87.2 12.8 2,435
30–34 11.9 0.8 0.0 1.2 0.1 86.5 13.5 2,144
35–39 11.1 0.6 0.1 0.9 0.0 87.4 12.6 2,025
40–44 12.5 0.1 0.1 1.3 0.1 86.0 14.0 1,629
45–49 12.6 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 86.8 13.2 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 18.1 0.6 0.1 1.5 0.0 79.8 20.2 4,152
Dalit 7.6 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.0 91.9 8.1 2,240
Janajati 9.8 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.0 89.0 11.0 5,428
Madhesi 5.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 94.3 5.7 2,333
Muslim 2.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 97.2 2.8 676
Other * * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 12.2 0.4 0.1 1.0 0.0 86.4 13.6 10,178
Rural 7.8 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 91.7 8.3 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 9.9 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 89.4 10.6 791
Hill 11.7 0.6 0.0 1.2 0.0 86.7 13.3 5,872
Terai 10.2 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.0 88.9 11.1 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 20.4 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.0 78.4 21.6 2,493
Urban 23.2 0.1 0.5 1.0 0.1 75.3 24.7 1,640
Rural 15.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 84.4 15.6 853
Madhesh Province 2.7 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 97.0 3.0 3,010
Urban 3.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 96.5 3.5 2,226
Rural 1.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 98.5 1.5 783
Bagmati Province 11.5 0.9 0.0 1.8 0.0 86.0 14.0 3,062
Urban 12.9 1.2 0.0 2.1 0.0 84.1 15.9 2,464
Rural 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 93.9 6.1 599
Gandaki Province 16.6 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.0 82.8 17.2 1,401
Urban 17.2 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 82.0 18.0 992
Rural 15.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 84.5 15.5 409
Lumbini Province 9.4 0.4 0.0 1.1 0.1 89.1 10.9 2,691
Urban 11.1 0.6 0.0 1.5 0.1 86.8 13.2 1,553
Rural 7.0 0.3 0.0 0.7 0.0 92.2 7.8 1,138
Karnali Province 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 89.4 10.6 909
Urban 12.7 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 87.2 12.8 507
Rural 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 92.2 7.8 402
Sudurpashchim Province 6.6 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 93.0 7.0 1,279
Urban 7.9 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 91.7 8.3 796
Rural 4.6 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 95.0 5.0 484
Education
No education 4.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 95.2 4.8 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 7.5 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 92.1 7.9 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 92.9 7.1 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.2 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.0 91.2 8.8 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 16.0 0.4 0.1 1.2 0.0 82.5 17.5 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 13.9 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.0 84.7 15.3 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 18.7 0.4 0.0 1.4 0.0 79.5 20.5 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 25.1 3.9 0.0 4.5 0.2 67.5 32.5 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 95.6 4.4 2,628
Second 7.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 92.3 7.7 2,857
Middle 8.0 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.0 91.3 8.7 3,028
Fourth 13.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.0 86.2 13.8 3,197
Highest 20.0 1.2 0.1 2.6 0.0 76.5 23.5 3,135
Total 10.8 0.3 0.1 0.8 0.0 88.0 12.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 67
 Table 3.10.2 Health insurance coverage: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 with specific types of health insurance coverage, and percentage with any health insurance, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Health Privately
Government insurance purchased
Background health through Social commercial Any health Number of
characteristic insurance employer security insurance Other None insurance men
Age
15–19 6.6 0.5 0.0 1.0 0.0 92.0 8.0 985
20–24 11.1 1.2 0.2 1.4 0.0 86.3 13.7 857
25–29 8.8 3.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 87.6 12.4 716
30–34 9.9 2.5 0.0 1.8 0.3 85.7 14.3 616
35–39 14.2 2.8 0.0 2.5 0.4 81.2 18.8 639
40–44 11.0 1.3 0.0 1.5 0.0 86.2 13.8 604
45–49 12.3 2.5 0.0 1.4 0.0 84.8 15.2 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 17.2 4.0 0.0 2.0 0.2 77.5 22.5 1,232
Dalit 10.0 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.0 89.4 10.6 658
Janajati 8.9 1.7 0.0 1.6 0.0 88.1 11.9 1,869
Madhesi 4.9 0.4 0.2 1.5 0.0 93.1 6.9 917
Muslim 5.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 94.3 5.7 228
Other * * * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 11.0 2.2 0.1 1.8 0.1 85.3 14.7 3,462
Rural 8.4 0.9 0.0 0.7 0.0 90.2 9.8 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.7 1.7 0.0 2.4 0.0 85.6 14.4 255
Hill 10.3 2.7 0.0 1.4 0.2 85.7 14.3 1,973
Terai 10.2 1.2 0.1 1.4 0.0 87.6 12.4 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 21.8 0.9 0.0 0.7 0.0 77.0 23.0 882
Urban 24.5 1.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 74.1 25.9 604
Rural 16.1 0.7 0.0 0.4 0.0 83.2 16.8 278
Madhesh Province 3.1 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.0 95.7 4.3 997
Urban 3.2 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.0 95.6 4.4 722
Rural 2.9 0.3 0.0 0.8 0.0 96.0 4.0 275
Bagmati Province 8.4 3.7 0.2 2.6 0.4 85.6 14.4 1,214
Urban 8.3 4.0 0.2 3.0 0.4 84.8 15.2 1,016
Rural 8.7 1.8 0.0 0.3 0.0 89.7 10.3 198
Gandaki Province 11.7 1.3 0.0 2.2 0.0 85.2 14.8 387
Urban 12.2 0.9 0.0 3.0 0.0 84.4 15.6 264
Rural 10.6 2.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 87.0 13.0 123
Lumbini Province 9.0 1.4 0.0 1.8 0.0 88.0 12.0 812
Urban 10.4 1.9 0.0 1.9 0.0 86.1 13.9 468
Rural 7.1 0.8 0.0 1.7 0.0 90.7 9.3 344
Karnali Province 12.3 3.7 0.0 0.1 0.0 84.6 15.4 266
Urban 13.9 5.8 0.0 0.3 0.0 81.0 19.0 154
Rural 10.1 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 89.6 10.4 113
Sudurpashchim Province 7.3 1.3 0.0 1.5 0.0 90.0 10.0 355
Urban 9.8 1.6 0.0 2.1 0.0 86.6 13.4 233
Rural 2.6 0.8 0.0 0.4 0.0 96.6 3.4 122
Education
No education 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 97.5 2.5 393
Basic education (1–8) 6.4 0.9 0.0 0.8 0.0 92.0 8.0 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.3 0.9 0.0 0.7 0.0 94.1 5.9 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.3 0.8 0.0 0.8 0.0 90.2 9.8 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 13.0 1.2 0.1 1.7 0.0 84.4 15.6 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 10.9 0.7 0.0 1.2 0.0 87.4 12.6 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 15.8 1.9 0.2 2.4 0.0 80.3 19.7 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 20.9 12.6 0.0 4.8 1.2 63.0 37.0 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 5.1 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.0 94.4 5.6 751
Second 8.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 91.5 8.5 933
Middle 8.2 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.0 90.7 9.3 957
Fourth 10.8 2.1 0.0 1.4 0.0 85.9 14.1 1,135
Highest 16.5 4.8 0.2 4.2 0.4 75.3 24.7 1,137
Total 10.2 1.8 0.0 1.5 0.1 86.7 13.3 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

68 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.11.1 Tobacco smoking: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who smoke various tobacco products, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who smoke:1
Background Other type of Any type of Number of
characteristic Cigarettes2 tobacco3 tobacco women
Age
15–19 0.7 0.3 1.0 2,643
20–24 1.7 1.2 2.8 2,637
25–29 2.3 0.8 3.0 2,435
30–34 2.4 0.7 2.9 2,144
35–39 6.1 1.7 7.1 2,025
40–44 7.7 3.3 9.6 1,629
45–49 11.0 3.2 13.4 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 3.4 1.7 4.6 4,152
Dalit 5.1 1.7 6.3 2,240
Janajati 5.3 1.8 6.5 5,428
Madhesi 0.8 0.0 0.9 2,333
Muslim 0.8 0.2 1.1 676
Other * * * 15
Residence
Urban 3.2 1.1 4.1 10,178
Rural 5.2 2.1 6.4 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.2 6.2 11.3 791
Hill 5.1 1.8 6.5 5,872
Terai 2.5 0.6 3.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 3.3 1.7 4.5 2,493
Urban 3.2 1.9 4.6 1,640
Rural 3.4 1.5 4.4 853
Madhesh Province 1.1 0.1 1.2 3,010
Urban 0.8 0.0 0.8 2,226
Rural 2.0 0.5 2.5 783
Bagmati Province 5.9 1.5 7.0 3,062
Urban 4.7 1.3 5.9 2,464
Rural 10.8 2.7 11.3 599
Gandaki Province 3.3 1.0 4.1 1,401
Urban 2.7 1.0 3.5 992
Rural 4.7 1.0 5.6 409
Lumbini Province 3.3 0.8 3.8 2,691
Urban 2.6 0.7 3.2 1,553
Rural 4.1 0.8 4.5 1,138
Karnali Province 8.3 2.8 9.8 909
Urban 6.6 1.3 7.3 507
Rural 10.4 4.7 13.0 402
Sudurpashchim Province 4.7 4.2 8.0 1,279
Urban 4.6 2.9 6.8 796
Rural 4.8 6.4 9.9 484
Education
No education 9.0 3.4 11.2 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 3.0 0.7 3.4 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.4 1.3 5.1 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.6 0.1 1.7 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 1.3 0.7 2.0 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.4 0.5 1.9 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.2 1.0 2.2 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.2 1.0 2.2 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.8 4.0 10.2 2,628
Second 3.6 0.9 4.3 2,857
Middle 3.5 0.8 4.1 3,028
Fourth 3.0 0.8 3.7 3,197
Highest 1.8 0.9 2.6 3,135
Total 3.8 1.4 4.8 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Includes daily and occasional (less than daily) use
2
Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes
3
Includes pipes/sulpha/chilum, cigars/bidi, and water pipes

Characteristics of Respondents • 69
 Table 3.11.2 Tobacco smoking: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who smoke various tobacco products, and percent distribution of men by smoking frequency, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who smoke:1 Smoking frequency
Background Other type Any type of Daily Occasional Non- Number of
characteristic Cigarettes2 of tobacco3 tobacco smoker smoker4 smoker Total men
Age
15–19 14.9 5.9 16.2 8.5 8.0 83.4 100.0 985
20–24 31.3 12.1 32.7 17.4 15.6 67.0 100.0 857
25–29 32.2 6.4 33.0 21.7 11.8 66.5 100.0 716
30–34 32.4 5.1 32.5 21.6 11.6 66.8 100.0 616
35–39 27.1 3.3 27.2 16.9 10.7 72.4 100.0 639
40–44 29.0 3.5 29.0 19.1 10.3 70.6 100.0 604
45–49 25.6 2.0 25.8 18.1 8.0 73.9 100.0 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 23.2 6.1 24.4 13.3 11.5 75.2 100.0 1,232
Dalit 32.9 5.1 33.3 22.2 11.8 66.0 100.0 658
Janajati 31.9 8.3 32.5 21.6 11.2 67.1 100.0 1,869
Madhesi 18.5 2.4 18.8 9.4 9.7 80.9 100.0 917
Muslim 22.8 2.0 23.5 15.2 9.1 75.7 100.0 228
Other * * * * * * 100.0 8
Residence
Urban 26.9 6.1 27.5 17.5 10.6 72.0 100.0 3,462
Rural 26.9 5.4 27.6 15.9 12.0 72.1 100.0 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 30.5 6.8 31.5 21.4 10.1 68.5 100.0 255
Hill 26.2 6.5 27.0 17.6 9.8 72.7 100.0 1,973
Terai 27.0 5.4 27.6 16.1 12.0 71.9 100.0 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 31.3 8.2 31.9 18.8 14.2 67.0 100.0 882
Urban 31.8 9.1 32.4 19.8 14.1 66.1 100.0 604
Rural 30.2 6.2 30.9 16.7 14.5 68.8 100.0 278
Madhesh Province 20.0 1.7 20.3 10.4 10.3 79.3 100.0 997
Urban 18.0 2.0 18.4 10.1 8.8 81.2 100.0 722
Rural 25.2 0.8 25.2 11.3 14.3 74.4 100.0 275
Bagmati Province 29.8 8.3 31.1 21.4 10.1 68.5 100.0 1,214
Urban 30.6 7.8 31.6 22.3 9.8 67.9 100.0 1,016
Rural 25.6 10.7 28.4 16.9 11.5 71.6 100.0 198
Gandaki Province 25.8 7.3 26.4 18.6 7.8 73.6 100.0 387
Urban 25.9 7.2 26.3 18.6 7.7 73.7 100.0 264
Rural 25.7 7.6 26.7 18.6 8.1 73.3 100.0 123
Lumbini Province 27.3 5.2 27.7 16.8 11.2 72.0 100.0 812
Urban 29.0 6.5 29.5 17.5 12.3 70.2 100.0 468
Rural 25.0 3.5 25.2 15.8 9.7 74.5 100.0 344
Karnali Province 22.7 7.5 23.8 13.7 10.1 76.2 100.0 266
Urban 19.8 4.6 20.5 11.9 8.6 79.5 100.0 154
Rural 26.6 11.5 28.3 16.1 12.1 71.7 100.0 113
Sudurpashchim Province 28.6 2.8 28.6 17.2 11.4 71.4 100.0 355
Urban 26.9 2.6 26.9 15.8 11.0 73.1 100.0 233
Rural 31.9 3.0 31.9 19.7 12.1 68.1 100.0 122
Education
No education 30.3 3.3 30.9 22.9 8.4 68.7 100.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 35.1 6.9 35.3 23.4 12.2 64.4 100.0 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 39.1 7.2 39.3 26.7 13.0 60.4 100.0 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 31.6 6.6 31.7 20.5 11.5 68.0 100.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 21.3 6.1 22.5 11.8 11.1 77.1 100.0 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 22.1 5.8 23.0 12.3 11.0 76.7 100.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 20.4 6.5 21.8 11.2 11.3 77.6 100.0 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 14.8 2.9 15.1 9.2 6.8 84.0 100.0 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 29.1 6.3 29.8 19.7 10.1 70.2 100.0 751
Second 29.7 6.3 30.4 17.3 13.2 69.5 100.0 933
Middle 26.8 5.0 27.2 17.1 10.7 72.2 100.0 957
Fourth 26.6 5.8 27.1 17.4 10.6 72.1 100.0 1,135
Highest 23.4 6.3 24.4 14.5 10.3 75.2 100.0 1,137
Total 26.9 5.9 27.5 17.0 11.0 72.0 100.0 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes daily and occasional (less than daily) use
2
Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes
3
Includes pipes full of tobacco/sulpha/chilum, cigars/bidi, and water pipes
4
Occasional refers to less often than daily use.

70 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.12 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men
Among men age 15–49 who smoke cigarettes daily, percent distribution by average number of cigarettes smoked per day, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
men who
smoke
Background Average number of cigarettes smoked per day1 cigarettes
characteristic <5 5–9 10–14 15–24 ≥25 Total daily1
Age
15–19 65.4 20.5 6.4 7.7 0.0 100.0 84
20–24 58.4 24.5 5.7 8.9 2.5 100.0 147
25–29 60.3 23.7 9.4 5.7 0.9 100.0 149
30–34 47.4 29.7 10.5 9.2 3.2 100.0 128
35–39 49.3 19.9 17.2 11.8 1.9 100.0 105
40–44 47.1 24.8 16.9 8.1 3.0 100.0 108
45–49 48.6 30.1 10.7 7.0 3.6 100.0 88
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 49.6 21.8 14.6 12.0 1.9 100.0 157
Dalit 51.9 26.4 9.8 9.0 3.0 100.0 140
Janajati 53.1 27.3 11.0 6.0 2.6 100.0 397
Madhesi 72.9 15.7 6.0 5.4 0.0 100.0 82
Muslim * * * * * 100.0 32
Other * * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 54.9 23.7 10.8 8.6 2.0 100.0 584
Rural 51.6 27.9 10.5 7.4 2.6 100.0 224
Ecological zone
Mountain 47.7 35.8 10.2 4.7 1.6 100.0 51
Hill 43.0 27.1 15.4 11.7 2.7 100.0 342
Terai 63.8 21.6 6.9 5.9 1.7 100.0 416
Province
Koshi Province 52.5 22.8 14.6 7.6 2.5 100.0 159
Urban 51.3 22.8 15.0 8.0 2.9 100.0 112
Rural 55.5 22.6 13.6 6.8 1.5 100.0 46
Madhesh Province 86.1 8.5 1.4 3.3 0.7 100.0 97
Urban (84.9) (10.6) (2.1) (2.5) (0.0) 100.0 67
Rural (88.7) (4.1) (0.0) (5.1) (2.1) 100.0 30
Bagmati Province 43.6 28.3 14.4 12.0 1.8 100.0 256
Urban 45.3 25.8 14.2 12.7 2.0 100.0 223
Rural 32.0 44.9 15.9 7.2 0.0 100.0 34
Gandaki Province 43.6 36.3 10.7 6.3 3.0 100.0 69
Urban (46.9) (33.4) (9.0) (6.2) (4.5) 100.0 47
Rural (36.6) (42.6) (14.2) (6.6) (0.0) 100.0 22
Lumbini Province 59.5 24.1 5.8 7.2 3.3 100.0 133
Urban 65.4 22.7 4.2 6.2 1.5 100.0 81
Rural 50.3 26.3 8.3 8.9 6.2 100.0 52
Karnali Province 45.5 31.9 12.2 9.4 1.0 100.0 34
Urban (49.4) (34.5) (11.8) (4.3) (0.0) 100.0 18
Rural (41.2) (29.0) (12.6) (15.1) (2.1) 100.0 16
Sudurpashchim Province 55.0 26.3 10.1 6.3 2.3 100.0 60
Urban 59.2 21.7 9.9 7.7 1.5 100.0 37
Rural (48.4) (33.4) (10.4) (4.2) (3.5) 100.0 24
Education
No education 51.8 24.1 14.5 6.8 2.8 100.0 84
Basic education (1–8) 50.4 25.2 11.4 10.7 2.3 100.0 433
Lower basic education (1–5) 48.3 22.8 12.5 14.0 2.3 100.0 229
Upper basic education (6–8) 52.8 28.0 10.1 6.9 2.2 100.0 203
Secondary (9–12) 59.1 24.8 8.5 5.5 2.0 100.0 259
Lower secondary (9–10) 53.1 31.1 7.7 5.5 2.6 100.0 153
Higher secondary (11–12) 67.8 15.9 9.6 5.6 1.1 100.0 107
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * * 100.0 33
Wealth quintile
Lowest 46.6 25.5 15.9 8.6 3.4 100.0 143
Second 54.3 26.2 8.0 10.1 1.5 100.0 155
Middle 53.7 28.0 9.6 7.0 1.7 100.0 160
Fourth 56.2 22.9 10.9 6.0 4.0 100.0 188
Highest 58.1 22.0 9.7 10.2 0.0 100.0 163
Total 54.0 24.8 10.7 8.3 2.1 100.0 809

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes

Characteristics of Respondents • 71
 Table 3.13 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who currently use
smokeless tobacco, according to type of tobacco product, and
percentage who use any type of tobacco, Nepal DHS 2022
Tobacco product Women Men
Snuff by mouth 2.1 25.4
Snuff by nose 0.0 0.3
Chewing tobacco 0.8 20.5
Betel quid with tobacco 0.1 6.0
Other type of smokeless tobacco 0.0 0.0
Any type of smokeless tobacco1 3.0 34.7
Any type of tobacco2 7.4 49.6
Number 14,845 4,913

Note: Table includes women and men who use smokeless

tobacco daily or occasionally (less than daily).
1
Includes snuff by mouth, snuff by nose, chewing tobacco
(guthka/khaini) and betel quid with tobacco
2
Includes all types of smokeless tobacco shown in this table
plus cigarettes, pipes, cigars/bidi, and water pipes

72 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.14 Any tobacco use by background characteristics
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who are currently using any type of tobacco, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Percentage Percentage
Background using any type of Number of using any type of Number of
characteristic tobacco women tobacco men
Age
15–19 1.9 2,643 21.9 985
20–24 3.6 2,637 45.9 857
25–29 4.9 2,435 53.5 716
30–34 5.8 2,144 55.0 616
35–39 10.8 2,025 63.5 639
40–44 14.1 1,629 65.1 604
45–49 19.9 1,332 61.8 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 6.0 4,152 42.5 1,232
Dalit 11.4 2,240 61.0 658
Janajati 9.5 5,428 50.3 1,869
Madhesi 2.2 2,333 47.4 917
Muslim 4.0 676 58.8 228
Other * 15 * 8
Residence
Urban 6.4 10,178 48.4 3,462
Rural 9.5 4,667 52.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 13.4 791 45.8 255
Hill 9.2 5,872 45.0 1,973
Terai 5.5 8,182 53.3 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 10.4 2,493 54.2 882
Urban 10.6 1,640 54.9 604
Rural 10.0 853 52.7 278
Madhesh Province 2.0 3,010 51.5 997
Urban 1.5 2,226 49.7 722
Rural 3.3 783 56.5 275
Bagmati Province 8.4 3,062 45.5 1,214
Urban 7.3 2,464 44.9 1,016
Rural 12.6 599 48.6 198
Gandaki Province 7.8 1,401 44.8 387
Urban 6.9 992 42.9 264
Rural 10.0 409 48.8 123
Lumbini Province 7.7 2,691 54.1 812
Urban 6.3 1,553 53.6 468
Rural 9.7 1,138 54.8 344
Karnali Province 10.7 909 43.8 266
Urban 8.2 507 41.1 154
Rural 13.8 402 47.7 113
Sudurpashchim Province 8.8 1,279 45.7 355
Urban 7.6 796 43.2 233
Rural 10.9 484 50.7 122
Education
No education 16.2 3,796 72.9 393
Basic education (1–8) 7.1 4,595 63.3 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 10.3 2,314 72.4 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 4.0 2,281 55.3 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 2.4 5,798 37.9 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.5 3,270 42.4 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.3 2,529 32.0 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 2.5 656 25.4 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.1 2,628 52.7 751
Second 7.6 2,857 58.7 933
Middle 6.5 3,028 53.8 957
Fourth 5.7 3,197 48.4 1,135
Highest 3.4 3,135 37.7 1,137
Total 7.4 14,845 49.6 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 73
 Table 3.15.1 Alcohol consumption: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, and among women who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent
distribution by frequency of drinking (number of days alcohol was consumed), according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent
Number of
distribution by frequency of drinking
women who
Consumed Every consumed any
Background any alcohol in Number of day/almost alcohol in the
characteristic the past month women 1–5 days 6–10 days 11–24 days every day1 Total past month
Age
15–19 4.7 2,643 91.1 6.1 1.1 1.8 100.0 124
20–24 7.6 2,637 87.5 4.2 4.6 3.7 100.0 200
25–29 11.1 2,435 81.9 7.4 3.7 7.0 100.0 270
30–34 10.9 2,144 73.8 8.0 5.0 13.2 100.0 234
35–39 14.6 2,025 62.7 12.3 12.1 12.9 100.0 297
40–44 16.2 1,629 61.6 7.0 9.0 22.4 100.0 265
45–49 17.2 1,332 55.8 8.4 9.7 26.1 100.0 228
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 3.6 4,152 79.7 8.6 5.6 6.1 100.0 150
Dalit 6.9 2,240 70.2 9.3 9.0 11.6 100.0 155
Janajati 23.7 5,428 70.3 7.9 7.1 14.7 100.0 1,287
Madhesi 1.1 2,333 * * * * 100.0 26
Muslim 0.1 676 * * * * 100.0 1
Other * 15 * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 10.4 10,178 79.2 6.3 4.3 10.1 100.0 1,056
Rural 12.1 4,667 57.3 11.1 12.1 19.5 100.0 563
Ecological zone
Mountain 16.2 791 45.4 16.6 11.6 26.4 100.0 128
Hill 14.2 5,872 66.9 7.5 8.8 16.8 100.0 832
Terai 8.0 8,182 82.6 6.9 4.0 6.6 100.0 659
Province
Koshi Province 15.3 2,493 55.7 10.8 12.0 21.5 100.0 382
Urban 12.5 1,640 63.2 9.3 6.9 20.7 100.0 205
Rural 20.7 853 47.0 12.6 18.0 22.5 100.0 177
Madhesh Province 1.1 3,010 (81.6) (6.9) (0.0) (11.5) 100.0 33
Urban 0.9 2,226 * * * * 100.0 19
Rural 1.7 783 * * * * 100.0 13
Bagmati Province 18.4 3,062 73.7 6.8 6.8 12.7 100.0 563
Urban 17.4 2,464 81.9 5.1 4.2 8.8 100.0 429
Rural 22.4 599 47.4 12.2 15.2 25.1 100.0 134
Gandaki Province 13.5 1,401 77.5 5.6 6.0 10.9 100.0 189
Urban 11.8 992 86.2 4.6 3.2 6.0 100.0 117
Rural 17.5 409 63.3 7.4 10.4 18.9 100.0 71
Lumbini Province 11.1 2,691 76.2 9.4 4.7 9.8 100.0 299
Urban 11.6 1,553 83.3 7.7 3.8 5.2 100.0 180
Rural 10.4 1,138 65.4 11.9 5.9 16.8 100.0 119
Karnali Province 3.4 909 67.0 7.8 4.4 20.8 100.0 31
Urban 3.5 507 (66.8) (3.2) (5.4) (24.7) 100.0 18
Rural 3.3 402 (67.3) (14.0) (3.2) (15.5) 100.0 13
Sudurpashchim Province 9.6 1,279 89.8 5.1 2.6 2.6 100.0 123
Urban 10.9 796 89.3 5.3 2.4 3.1 100.0 87
Rural 7.4 484 91.1 4.6 3.0 1.3 100.0 36
Education
No education 14.3 3,796 53.0 11.5 10.5 25.0 100.0 544
Basic education (1–8) 12.1 4,595 71.2 8.6 8.0 12.2 100.0 558
Lower basic education (1–5) 13.8 2,314 67.7 9.6 9.3 13.3 100.0 319
Upper basic education (6–8) 10.5 2,281 75.9 7.2 6.2 10.7 100.0 239
Secondary (9–12) 7.9 5,798 91.4 3.7 2.3 2.5 100.0 460
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.2 3,270 88.3 5.2 3.5 3.0 100.0 270
Higher secondary (11–12) 7.5 2,529 95.8 1.6 0.7 1.9 100.0 191
More than secondary (13 and
above) 8.7 656 (93.3) (3.5) (1.9) (1.3) 100.0 57
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.4 2,628 45.5 11.8 14.8 27.9 100.0 377
Second 10.7 2,857 62.9 10.8 8.5 17.8 100.0 306
Middle 10.3 3,028 77.5 7.1 4.2 11.2 100.0 312
Fourth 9.4 3,197 86.7 5.8 2.8 4.7 100.0 299
Highest 10.3 3,135 90.6 3.8 3.2 2.4 100.0 324
Total 10.9 14,845 71.6 8.0 7.0 13.4 100.0 1,619

Note: One drink of alcohol corresponds to one can or bottle of beer, one glass of wine, one shot of spirits, or one cup of jaand or chhyang. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
The respondent reported that she drank alcohol every day, almost every day, or 25 or more days in the last month.

74 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.15.2 Alcohol consumption: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, and among men who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent
distribution by frequency of drinking (number of days alcohol was consumed), according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among men who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent Number of
distribution by frequency of drinking men who
Consumed Every consumed any
Background any alcohol in Number of day/almost alcohol in the
characteristic the past month men 1–5 days 6–10 days 11–24 days every day1 Total past month
Age
15–19 19.1 985 82.0 9.1 3.7 5.1 100.0 188
20–24 39.5 857 67.5 13.4 7.2 11.8 100.0 339
25–29 50.6 716 60.4 13.5 8.7 17.4 100.0 363
30–34 54.6 616 55.0 14.1 14.2 16.7 100.0 336
35–39 52.6 639 47.7 14.0 14.6 23.7 100.0 336
40–44 47.6 604 40.7 12.7 15.7 31.0 100.0 287
45–49 46.0 496 40.1 18.8 11.0 30.1 100.0 228
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 30.2 1,232 67.3 13.1 11.5 8.0 100.0 372
Dalit 50.3 658 52.1 13.1 7.0 27.8 100.0 331
Janajati 55.4 1,869 45.8 16.4 14.0 23.9 100.0 1,035
Madhesi 34.5 917 75.5 7.4 5.8 11.3 100.0 316
Muslim 8.4 228 * * * * 100.0 19
Other * 8 * * * * 100.0 3
Residence
Urban 41.3 3,462 59.0 13.4 10.2 17.4 100.0 1,430
Rural 44.6 1,451 48.2 14.5 13.1 24.3 100.0 647
Ecological zone
Mountain 51.3 255 41.1 27.4 9.0 22.6 100.0 131
Hill 42.9 1,973 50.2 14.5 14.7 20.6 100.0 848
Terai 40.9 2,685 61.6 11.5 8.6 18.4 100.0 1,098
Province
Koshi Province 43.5 882 51.8 17.3 8.4 22.5 100.0 384
Urban 42.7 604 54.7 15.3 7.5 22.4 100.0 258
Rural 45.5 278 45.9 21.4 10.1 22.5 100.0 126
Madhesh Province 35.6 997 75.4 8.3 5.6 10.7 100.0 355
Urban 34.7 722 75.7 7.9 7.0 9.5 100.0 251
Rural 38.0 275 74.7 9.5 2.2 13.6 100.0 104
Bagmati Province 45.7 1,214 53.7 14.4 11.6 20.3 100.0 554
Urban 44.0 1,016 58.6 14.6 10.4 16.4 100.0 447
Rural 54.4 198 33.4 13.7 16.4 36.5 100.0 108
Gandaki Province 47.4 387 37.7 17.9 20.0 24.4 100.0 183
Urban 46.3 264 38.9 18.6 20.3 22.2 100.0 122
Rural 49.7 123 35.3 16.4 19.5 28.8 100.0 61
Lumbini Province 45.6 812 48.4 13.0 13.9 24.7 100.0 370
Urban 45.4 468 53.3 14.5 11.0 21.1 100.0 212
Rural 45.9 344 41.7 11.0 17.8 29.5 100.0 158
Karnali Province 34.1 266 58.9 14.9 9.7 16.5 100.0 91
Urban 34.9 154 60.3 12.4 8.5 18.7 100.0 54
Rural 33.1 113 56.7 18.6 11.4 13.3 100.0 37
Sudurpashchim Province 39.1 355 64.2 10.4 12.2 13.2 100.0 139
Urban 37.2 233 66.5 8.2 10.8 14.5 100.0 87
Rural 42.9 122 60.2 14.1 14.7 11.0 100.0 52
Education
No education 47.8 393 45.8 9.6 12.7 31.8 100.0 188
Basic education (1–8) 49.8 1,898 43.4 16.4 11.7 28.5 100.0 946
Lower basic education (1–5) 57.3 891 40.7 17.5 11.6 30.2 100.0 511
Upper basic education (6–8) 43.2 1,007 46.6 15.1 11.8 26.5 100.0 435
Secondary (9–12) 35.7 2,244 67.4 12.0 11.5 9.0 100.0 800
Lower secondary (9–10) 38.0 1,284 63.1 13.7 12.5 10.6 100.0 488
Higher secondary (11–12) 32.6 959 74.2 9.4 9.9 6.5 100.0 313
More than secondary (13 and
above) 37.9 377 83.1 11.1 2.7 3.1 100.0 143
Wealth quintile
Lowest 49.1 751 37.3 18.3 14.3 30.1 100.0 369
Second 46.7 933 51.9 11.9 7.8 28.4 100.0 435
Middle 39.4 957 56.1 13.8 10.8 19.3 100.0 377
Fourth 39.5 1,135 60.2 12.8 11.5 15.5 100.0 449
Highest 39.3 1,137 69.5 12.6 11.5 6.4 100.0 447
Total 42.3 4,913 55.6 13.7 11.1 19.6 100.0 2,077

Note: One drink of alcohol corresponds to one can or bottle of beer, one glass of wine, one shot of spirits, or one cup of jaand or chhyang. An asterisk indicates that
a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
The respondent reported that he drank alcohol every day, almost every day, or 25 or more days in the last month.

Characteristics of Respondents • 75
 Table 3.16.1 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Women
Among women age 15–49 who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent distribution of usual number of drinks consumed on days when
alcohol was consumed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women who
consumed any
Background Percent distribution of usual number of drinks consumed on days when alcohol was consumed alcohol in the
characteristic 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more Total past month
Age
15–19 78.5 13.7 3.8 1.6 1.5 1.0 100.0 124
20–24 79.7 14.0 4.4 0.4 0.9 0.6 100.0 200
25–29 80.8 10.3 5.0 1.1 0.0 2.8 100.0 270
30–34 69.3 18.0 4.6 2.6 1.5 3.9 100.0 234
35–39 73.3 17.0 3.6 1.6 1.0 3.5 100.0 297
40–44 72.2 12.7 6.6 2.0 2.2 4.2 100.0 265
45–49 64.7 20.9 7.3 1.9 1.5 3.7 100.0 228
Frequency of drinking in past
month
1–5 days 78.4 13.9 3.6 1.5 1.3 1.3 100.0 1,159
6–10 days 74.5 12.6 4.1 1.5 0.0 7.4 100.0 129
11–24 days 69.1 21.5 2.2 3.0 1.0 3.3 100.0 114
Every day/almost every day1 51.2 20.9 14.9 1.6 1.7 9.7 100.0 217
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 76.8 16.3 3.9 1.5 0.7 0.7 100.0 150
Dalit 68.2 17.4 1.9 3.9 0.8 7.8 100.0 155
Janajati 73.9 14.8 5.7 1.4 1.3 2.8 100.0 1,287
Madhesi * * * * * * 100.0 26
Muslim * * * * * * 100.0 1
Other * * * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 74.7 16.0 4.5 1.8 1.0 1.9 100.0 1,056
Rural 72.1 13.8 6.3 1.2 1.6 5.1 100.0 563
Ecological zone
Mountain 78.1 14.7 4.2 2.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 128
Hill 69.6 16.7 7.2 1.6 1.4 3.4 100.0 832
Terai 78.2 13.5 2.5 1.5 1.3 2.9 100.0 659
Province
Koshi Province 73.9 16.1 5.1 1.6 1.7 1.7 100.0 382
Urban 70.4 18.3 5.7 2.0 1.2 2.5 100.0 205
Rural 77.9 13.5 4.4 1.2 2.2 0.7 100.0 177
Madhesh Province (69.9) (15.9) (5.8) (1.8) (1.8) (4.7) 100.0 33
Urban * * * * * * 100.0 19
Rural * * * * * * 100.0 13
Bagmati Province 71.6 16.6 6.7 2.0 1.5 1.7 100.0 563
Urban 72.9 16.8 5.5 2.2 1.7 0.8 100.0 429
Rural 67.4 15.9 10.3 1.0 0.9 4.6 100.0 134
Gandaki Province 76.7 17.0 2.4 1.5 0.3 2.1 100.0 189
Urban 78.1 17.4 0.6 2.4 0.0 1.5 100.0 117
Rural 74.3 16.5 5.3 0.0 0.7 3.2 100.0 71
Lumbini Province 71.5 12.2 4.8 1.2 1.3 8.9 100.0 299
Urban 79.9 11.1 3.3 0.8 0.7 4.3 100.0 180
Rural 58.9 13.7 7.1 2.0 2.2 16.1 100.0 119
Karnali Province 78.2 17.3 3.1 1.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 31
Urban (74.5) (25.5) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 18
Rural (83.2) (6.3) (7.4) (3.1) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 13
Sudurpashchim Province 84.6 10.6 3.0 1.2 0.0 0.6 100.0 123
Urban 80.6 13.3 3.6 1.7 0.0 0.8 100.0 87
Rural 94.3 4.1 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 36
Education
No education 66.7 16.8 8.1 1.8 1.4 5.2 100.0 544
Basic education (1–8) 75.0 14.7 3.8 1.9 1.9 2.8 100.0 558
Lower basic education (1–5) 71.4 15.2 4.2 2.3 3.2 3.6 100.0 319
Upper basic education (6–8) 79.9 14.0 3.2 1.2 0.0 1.7 100.0 239
Secondary (9–12) 81.2 13.4 3.1 1.1 0.1 1.2 100.0 460
Lower secondary (9–10) 81.4 13.5 2.8 0.6 0.0 1.6 100.0 270
Higher secondary (11–12) 80.8 13.2 3.5 1.6 0.3 0.5 100.0 191
More than secondary (13 and
above) (69.7) (21.2) (5.1) (2.0) (1.9) (0.0) 100.0 57
Wealth quintile
Lowest 67.3 15.5 9.1 1.3 2.0 4.9 100.0 377
Second 75.3 15.3 4.5 0.5 0.7 3.6 100.0 306
Middle 79.0 13.2 3.7 2.2 0.2 1.7 100.0 312
Fourth 74.9 14.0 4.6 2.4 1.6 2.4 100.0 299
Highest 73.9 18.0 2.7 1.8 1.5 2.1 100.0 324
Total 73.8 15.3 5.1 1.6 1.2 3.0 100.0 1,619

Note: One drink of alcohol corresponds to one can or bottle of beer, one glass of wine, one shot of spirits, or one cup of jaand or chhyang. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
The respondent reported that she drank alcohol every day, almost every day, or 25 or more days in the last month.

76 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.16.2 Usual number of alcoholic drinks consumed: Men
Among men age 15–49 who have consumed any alcohol in the past month, percent distribution of usual number of drinks consumed on days when
alcohol was consumed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of men
who consumed
Background Percent distribution of usual number of drinks consumed on days when alcohol was consumed any alcohol in
characteristic 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more Total the past month
Age
15–19 55.0 25.0 6.1 9.1 2.9 2.0 100.0 188
20–24 42.4 39.4 9.2 4.6 3.0 1.4 100.0 339
25–29 37.1 39.7 12.4 7.0 1.4 2.3 100.0 363
30–34 37.8 40.6 12.5 5.8 1.6 1.7 100.0 336
35–39 38.4 37.6 15.4 5.4 0.6 2.6 100.0 336
40–44 40.5 36.3 10.9 7.7 1.6 2.9 100.0 287
45–49 46.5 38.0 9.6 4.2 1.3 0.4 100.0 228
Frequency of drinking in past
month
1–5 days 49.0 35.8 7.5 4.5 1.9 1.4 100.0 1,155
6–10 days 30.6 44.0 14.5 8.8 0.7 1.4 100.0 285
11–24 days 29.8 38.0 20.3 5.8 3.7 2.4 100.0 230
Every day/almost every day1 34.2 37.4 14.7 9.1 0.9 3.7 100.0 406
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 37.6 35.6 16.1 6.8 1.5 2.4 100.0 372
Dalit 42.3 36.0 12.0 7.5 1.2 1.0 100.0 331
Janajati 41.0 38.9 11.4 5.3 2.0 1.4 100.0 1,035
Madhesi 45.2 36.3 5.4 6.9 1.7 4.5 100.0 316
Muslim * * * * * * 100.0 19
Other * * * * * * 100.0 3
Residence
Urban 40.2 38.0 11.7 6.5 1.4 2.1 100.0 1,430
Rural 44.2 36.3 10.3 5.3 2.3 1.6 100.0 647
Ecological zone
Mountain 32.3 33.5 19.0 12.5 2.4 0.3 100.0 131
Hill 39.0 40.5 12.3 4.5 1.7 2.0 100.0 848
Terai 44.4 35.6 9.5 6.7 1.7 2.1 100.0 1,098
Province
Koshi Province 49.3 34.4 7.6 5.5 0.2 3.0 100.0 384
Urban 48.6 33.2 7.6 6.7 0.0 3.9 100.0 258
Rural 50.8 36.8 7.6 3.2 0.5 1.1 100.0 126
Madhesh Province 45.6 34.7 6.7 7.5 2.5 3.0 100.0 355
Urban 48.1 32.4 7.5 8.8 1.2 2.0 100.0 251
Rural 39.6 40.1 4.9 4.3 5.7 5.4 100.0 104
Bagmati Province 36.1 38.2 14.8 6.6 2.2 2.0 100.0 554
Urban 35.0 39.3 14.7 6.6 2.1 2.4 100.0 447
Rural 40.8 33.8 15.3 6.7 2.8 0.6 100.0 108
Gandaki Province 30.3 50.1 12.6 3.8 1.9 1.3 100.0 183
Urban 27.2 51.6 13.7 4.5 2.0 0.9 100.0 122
Rural 36.3 47.1 10.5 2.3 1.7 2.1 100.0 61
Lumbini Province 48.1 35.4 9.0 5.3 1.4 0.8 100.0 370
Urban 43.2 38.0 10.6 5.5 1.8 1.0 100.0 212
Rural 54.7 31.8 6.7 5.1 1.0 0.7 100.0 158
Karnali Province 24.1 39.4 22.5 9.8 2.4 1.8 100.0 91
Urban 22.8 42.2 22.3 7.2 2.4 3.0 100.0 54
Rural 25.9 35.5 22.7 13.5 2.5 0.0 100.0 37
Sudurpashchim Province 38.3 37.9 16.1 5.4 2.0 0.3 100.0 139
Urban 40.6 40.4 14.1 4.1 0.8 0.0 100.0 87
Rural 34.4 33.7 19.5 7.6 4.0 0.8 100.0 52
Education
No education 39.4 41.0 7.7 6.8 2.6 2.5 100.0 188
Basic education (1–8) 37.8 36.8 13.8 7.7 1.5 2.3 100.0 946
Lower basic education (1–5) 35.9 37.7 15.5 7.2 1.1 2.6 100.0 511
Upper basic education (6–8) 40.2 35.9 11.8 8.4 2.0 1.9 100.0 435
Secondary (9–12) 46.6 36.9 9.0 4.2 2.0 1.3 100.0 800
Lower secondary (9–10) 45.9 36.5 10.7 3.7 1.6 1.5 100.0 488
Higher secondary (11–12) 47.9 37.5 6.2 4.9 2.5 1.0 100.0 313
More than secondary (13 and
above) 38.5 40.4 12.3 5.5 0.5 2.8 100.0 143
Wealth quintile
Lowest 36.3 35.0 16.7 8.6 1.4 1.9 100.0 369
Second 42.5 38.9 8.4 5.8 2.1 2.4 100.0 435
Middle 46.3 34.1 9.0 7.6 2.1 1.0 100.0 377
Fourth 40.9 41.3 11.0 4.0 0.8 2.0 100.0 449
Highest 41.0 37.3 11.9 5.4 2.1 2.3 100.0 447
Total 41.4 37.5 11.3 6.1 1.7 2.0 100.0 2,077

Note: One drink of alcohol corresponds to one can or bottle of beer, one glass of wine, one shot of spirits, or one cup of jaand or chhyang. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
The respondent reported that he drank alcohol every day, almost every day, or 25 or more days in the last month.

Characteristics of Respondents • 77
 Table 3.17.1 Place of birth and recent migration: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 who have always lived in their current place of residence, who were born in Nepal but outside of their current place
of residence, and who were born in another country, and among women who were born outside of their current place of residence, percentage who moved to
their current place of residence in the last 5 years, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women who were born
outside of their current place of
Percent distribution by residence at birth residence
Percentage who
Born in Nepal moved to current
Born in current but outside of place of
Background place of current place of Born outside of Number of residence in the Number of
characteristic residence residence Nepal Total women last 5 years women
Age
15–19 67.3 28.7 4.0 100.0 2,516 66.2 823
20–24 37.3 57.8 4.9 100.0 2,431 53.0 1,525
25–29 28.3 65.0 6.7 100.0 2,330 26.1 1,671
30–34 26.7 67.2 6.2 100.0 2,085 15.9 1,529
35–39 25.3 66.9 7.8 100.0 1,987 9.1 1,484
40–44 24.5 66.4 9.1 100.0 1,618 4.7 1,222
45–49 27.2 65.0 7.8 100.0 1,326 5.9 966
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 35.3 62.1 2.6 100.0 4,030 24.6 2,608
Dalit 31.0 60.8 8.2 100.0 2,127 23.8 1,468
Janajati 41.2 56.0 2.8 100.0 5,267 29.0 3,096
Madhesi 27.6 56.1 16.3 100.0 2,219 19.1 1,608
Muslim 32.5 49.5 18.1 100.0 636 19.2 429
Other * * * 100.0 15 * 10
Residence
Urban 31.6 62.3 6.1 100.0 9,801 26.7 6,701
Rural 44.0 49.1 6.9 100.0 4,493 19.6 2,518
Ecological zone
Mountain 50.4 47.1 2.5 100.0 773 25.8 384
Hill 39.4 57.5 3.1 100.0 5,670 27.2 3,434
Terai 31.2 59.7 9.1 100.0 7,851 23.1 5,401
Province
Koshi Province 35.9 59.5 4.7 100.0 2,399 26.9 1,539
Urban 32.3 63.6 4.1 100.0 1,592 28.7 1,077
Rural 42.8 51.4 5.8 100.0 807 22.7 462
Madhesh Province 27.1 61.0 11.9 100.0 2,833 18.8 2,064
Urban 26.6 62.1 11.2 100.0 2,085 19.7 1,530
Rural 28.5 57.8 13.6 100.0 748 16.1 535
Bagmati Province 32.9 63.6 3.4 100.0 2,983 29.5 2,000
Urban 29.6 66.6 3.8 100.0 2,408 30.4 1,696
Rural 47.1 51.0 1.8 100.0 575 24.3 304
Gandaki Province 38.6 56.2 5.2 100.0 1,348 26.7 828
Urban 30.4 63.1 6.5 100.0 949 28.9 661
Rural 58.1 39.8 2.1 100.0 399 18.1 167
Lumbini Province 33.2 57.6 9.2 100.0 2,592 23.0 1,733
Urban 30.2 62.4 7.4 100.0 1,497 26.1 1,045
Rural 37.2 51.0 11.7 100.0 1,095 18.3 687
Karnali Province 53.7 44.9 1.4 100.0 883 27.5 409
Urban 47.3 51.4 1.3 100.0 492 31.0 259
Rural 61.7 36.8 1.5 100.0 391 21.5 150
Sudurpashchim Province 48.6 48.5 3.0 100.0 1,256 24.1 646
Urban 44.4 52.1 3.6 100.0 778 26.7 433
Rural 55.4 42.7 2.0 100.0 478 19.0 213
Wealth quintile
Lowest 50.4 45.8 3.8 100.0 2,534 22.5 1,257
Second 40.7 52.6 6.7 100.0 2,741 20.0 1,625
Middle 34.8 57.5 7.8 100.0 2,907 23.0 1,896
Fourth 26.4 66.6 7.0 100.0 3,071 29.5 2,259
Highest 28.3 65.5 6.2 100.0 3,042 26.2 2,181
Total 35.5 58.1 6.4 100.0 14,294 24.7 9,219

Note: Respondents who are visitors in the household are excluded from this table. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.

78 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.17.2 Place of birth and recent migration: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 who have always lived in their current place of residence, who were born in Nepal but outside of their current place of
residence, and who were born in another country, and among men who were born outside of their current place of residence, percentage who moved to their
current place of residence in the last 5 years, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among men who were born outside
Percent distribution by residence at birth of their current place of residence
Percentage who
Born in Nepal moved to current
Born in current but outside of place of
Background place of current place of Born outside of Number of residence in the Number of
characteristic residence residence Nepal Total men last 5 years men
Age
15–19 77.1 21.4 1.5 100.0 968 53.5 222
20–24 71.7 26.1 2.2 100.0 832 58.6 236
25–29 74.3 23.6 2.0 100.0 697 40.0 179
30–34 72.0 25.6 2.4 100.0 598 32.7 167
35–39 73.5 22.0 4.5 100.0 629 22.2 167
40–44 73.4 23.8 2.9 100.0 598 12.4 159
45–49 72.2 26.6 1.2 100.0 493 10.9 137
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 63.7 35.2 1.1 100.0 1,198 30.7 434
Dalit 76.3 20.2 3.5 100.0 646 33.9 153
Janajati 75.8 22.8 1.3 100.0 1,833 33.6 443
Madhesi 80.3 16.2 3.5 100.0 905 48.5 178
Muslim 76.7 15.8 7.5 100.0 223 (57.3) 52
Other * * * 100.0 8 * 6
Residence
Urban 67.1 30.1 2.8 100.0 3,399 36.7 1,119
Rural 89.5 9.1 1.3 100.0 1,414 30.1 148
Ecological zone
Mountain 87.3 11.8 1.0 100.0 248 (19.1) 32
Hill 67.7 30.1 2.2 100.0 1,923 42.7 621
Terai 76.8 20.6 2.6 100.0 2,642 30.0 614
Province
Koshi Province 77.6 20.6 1.8 100.0 860 29.7 193
Urban 73.6 24.2 2.2 100.0 591 28.6 156
Rural 86.3 12.6 1.1 100.0 269 34.6 37
Madhesh Province 87.6 10.3 2.1 100.0 986 37.1 122
Urban 85.2 12.8 2.1 100.0 717 38.5 106
Rural 94.1 3.7 2.3 100.0 269 * 16
Bagmati Province 55.6 41.1 3.3 100.0 1,190 44.5 528
Urban 49.6 46.5 3.9 100.0 998 45.0 503
Rural 86.7 13.3 0.0 100.0 192 (34.4) 26
Gandaki Province 71.5 25.9 2.6 100.0 379 33.7 108
Urban 63.0 33.8 3.2 100.0 259 34.0 96
Rural 89.7 9.1 1.1 100.0 120 (31.5) 12
Lumbini Province 75.4 21.9 2.6 100.0 792 21.8 194
Urban 66.9 30.1 3.0 100.0 459 21.9 152
Rural 87.3 10.7 2.1 100.0 333 (21.7) 42
Karnali Province 80.4 18.4 1.2 100.0 261 43.9 51
Urban 71.7 26.7 1.6 100.0 150 42.9 43
Rural 92.4 7.0 0.6 100.0 111 * 8
Sudurpashchim Province 79.8 19.0 1.2 100.0 345 22.7 70
Urban 71.9 26.7 1.4 100.0 225 22.8 63
Rural 94.5 4.7 0.8 100.0 120 * 7
Wealth quintile
Lowest 92.2 6.8 1.0 100.0 735 21.3 57
Second 90.4 8.3 1.3 100.0 914 28.4 88
Middle 78.0 19.2 2.8 100.0 937 45.8 206
Fourth 61.3 35.0 3.7 100.0 1,110 41.9 429
Highest 56.5 41.1 2.3 100.0 1,117 29.5 486
Total 73.7 24.0 2.4 100.0 4,813 35.9 1,267

Note: Respondents who are visitors in the household are excluded from this table. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 79
 Table 3.18 Type of migration
Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 who moved to their current place of
residence in the last 5 years by type of migration, according to age, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of migration
Urban to Urban to Rural to Rural to
Age urban rural urban rural Total Number
WOMEN 15–49
15–19 22.7 5.1 53.6 18.5 100.0 544
20–24 25.1 6.0 47.3 21.7 100.0 808
25–29 43.3 5.9 39.5 11.3 100.0 436
30–34 40.7 3.6 46.9 8.8 100.0 243
35–39 45.9 6.9 38.3 8.9 100.0 135
40–44 (29.0) (13.3) (50.3) (7.4) 100.0 57
45–49 (46.4) (1.8) (47.0) (4.8) 100.0 57
Total 31.5 5.6 46.8 16.0 100.0 2,281
MEN 15–49
15–19 24.3 3.5 68.1 4.1 100.0 119
20–24 50.9 2.8 44.6 1.7 100.0 138
25–29 44.7 4.7 47.3 3.3 100.0 72
30–34 (43.7) (7.9) (39.5) (8.9) 100.0 55
35–39 (44.7) (15.7) (32.1) (7.5) 100.0 37
40–44 * * * * 100.0 20
45–49 * * * * 100.0 15
Total 40.3 5.7 49.9 4.1 100.0 455
TOTAL (WOMEN AND MEN 15–49)
15–19 23.0 4.8 56.2 15.9 100.0 663
20–24 28.8 5.5 46.9 18.7 100.0 946
25–29 43.5 5.8 40.6 10.2 100.0 507
30–34 41.3 4.4 45.6 8.8 100.0 298
35–39 45.6 8.8 37.0 8.6 100.0 172
40–44 29.5 13.7 49.7 7.1 100.0 77
45–49 44.8 3.7 47.7 3.8 100.0 72
Total 33.0 5.7 47.3 14.0 100.0 2,736

Note: Type of migration is based on categorizing the previous place of residence and the
current place of residence as urban or rural. The previous place of residence is the place the
person moved from just before moving to the current place of residence. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

80 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.19.1 Reason for migration: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 who moved to their current place of residence by reason for migration, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Family
reunification/
Background Education/ Marriage other family- Forced Natural Number of
characteristic Employment training formation related reason displacement disaster Other Total women
Age
15–19 1.9 24.2 41.7 32.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 803
20–24 3.7 10.2 68.2 17.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,517
25–29 7.2 3.3 71.3 17.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 100.0 1,668
30–34 4.9 4.4 67.8 21.4 0.1 0.6 0.8 100.0 1,525
35–39 3.7 2.9 67.7 24.0 0.6 0.4 0.6 100.0 1,484
40–44 4.3 2.2 69.5 23.2 0.0 0.5 0.3 100.0 1,218
45–49 4.8 2.5 62.8 28.6 0.3 0.5 0.4 100.0 964
Timing of move to current
place of residence
0–4 years 7.6 12.2 51.2 28.0 0.4 0.1 0.5 100.0 2,281
5–9 years 5.6 7.8 59.0 26.0 0.0 0.9 0.6 100.0 2,024
10 years or more 2.7 2.6 75.7 18.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 100.0 4,874
Type of migration1
Urban to urban 11.2 14.5 37.1 36.0 0.4 0.0 0.8 100.0 719
Urban to rural 4.4 1.2 53.9 39.5 0.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 129
Rural to urban 7.4 15.7 50.0 26.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,068
Rural to rural 2.5 1.5 81.3 13.7 0.1 0.4 0.4 100.0 365
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.3 9.8 53.9 30.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 100.0 2,593
Dalit 2.8 2.3 71.9 21.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 100.0 1,461
Janajati 6.9 7.3 59.0 25.5 0.3 0.5 0.6 100.0 3,088
Madhesi 1.8 2.6 86.5 8.6 0.2 0.1 0.2 100.0 1,603
Muslim 0.1 2.1 90.4 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 425
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 9
Residence
Urban 6.0 8.2 58.2 26.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 100.0 6,671
Rural 1.0 0.5 86.3 11.8 0.1 0.2 0.2 100.0 2,508
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.0 0.9 80.7 16.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 100.0 382
Hill 7.8 10.0 54.5 26.8 0.1 0.5 0.3 100.0 3,416
Terai 2.8 4.1 72.1 20.0 0.3 0.3 0.5 100.0 5,381
Province
Koshi Province 2.2 3.6 68.3 24.8 0.2 0.0 0.8 100.0 1,534
Urban 2.6 4.9 62.3 28.8 0.2 0.0 1.2 100.0 1,076
Rural 1.4 0.7 82.4 15.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 100.0 458
Madhesh Province 1.0 1.5 89.8 7.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 100.0 2,060
Urban 1.3 2.0 88.5 7.7 0.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 1,527
Rural 0.1 0.0 93.6 6.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 100.0 533
Bagmati Province 11.5 13.1 42.4 31.0 0.4 0.9 0.7 100.0 1,990
Urban 13.2 15.2 35.8 33.6 0.5 0.9 0.8 100.0 1,687
Rural 2.1 1.3 79.0 16.4 0.0 0.7 0.4 100.0 303
Gandaki Province 6.1 9.9 52.3 30.9 0.0 0.4 0.4 100.0 818
Urban 7.3 12.0 44.5 35.2 0.0 0.4 0.5 100.0 651
Rural 1.2 1.8 82.6 13.9 0.0 0.6 0.0 100.0 167
Lumbini Province 3.4 4.7 66.5 24.9 0.1 0.1 0.3 100.0 1,729
Urban 5.1 7.7 53.4 33.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 100.0 1,044
Rural 0.9 0.2 86.3 12.3 0.0 0.2 0.2 100.0 686
Karnali Province 4.1 6.7 68.5 20.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 100.0 407
Urban 5.6 10.1 58.1 25.7 0.4 0.0 0.2 100.0 258
Rural 1.7 0.9 86.7 10.2 0.2 0.0 0.3 100.0 149
Sudurpashchim Province 1.8 4.1 70.7 22.3 0.4 0.6 0.1 100.0 641
Urban 2.6 5.9 61.4 28.4 0.7 0.8 0.1 100.0 428
Rural 0.0 0.4 89.4 10.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 213
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.2 0.8 84.9 13.8 0.1 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,251
Second 1.0 1.0 85.4 12.0 0.2 0.3 0.2 100.0 1,620
Middle 2.0 2.0 76.0 19.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 100.0 1,884
Fourth 7.3 10.3 54.9 26.2 0.2 0.8 0.5 100.0 2,252
Highest 9.3 12.3 43.2 34.0 0.3 0.1 0.7 100.0 2,173
Total 4.6 6.1 65.9 22.4 0.2 0.3 0.4 100.0 9,179

Note: Respondents who are visitors in the household are excluded from this table. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Restricted to respondents who migrated within the last 5 years

Characteristics of Respondents • 81
Table 3.19.2 Reason for migration: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 who moved to their current place of residence by reason for migration, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Family
reunification/
Background Education/ Marriage other family- Forced Natural Number of
characteristic Employment training formation related reason displacement disaster Other Total men
Age
15–19 10.2 46.0 0.0 42.4 0.4 0.0 1.0 100.0 217
20–24 26.3 41.8 0.5 27.5 0.4 0.9 2.6 100.0 234
25–29 36.6 15.7 2.2 40.7 2.4 2.4 0.0 100.0 178
30–34 49.1 12.8 0.2 32.2 1.1 3.6 1.1 100.0 167
35–39 55.0 6.2 0.9 35.0 1.6 0.1 1.2 100.0 165
40–44 43.4 6.5 0.6 40.2 1.8 3.9 3.6 100.0 157
45–49 36.2 4.8 2.5 50.6 0.6 3.5 1.9 100.0 137
Timing of move to current
place of residence
0–4 years 42.0 33.1 0.8 22.1 0.0 1.0 1.0 100.0 455
5–9 years 38.2 19.8 1.5 33.4 0.4 4.2 2.6 100.0 237
10 years or more 28.0 13.6 0.8 52.1 2.4 1.5 1.7 100.0 563
Type of migration1
Urban to urban 43.8 30.0 0.0 23.7 0.0 1.6 0.9 100.0 184
Urban to rural (44.1) (1.9) (0.0) (42.2) (0.0) (0.0) (11.9) 100.0 26
Rural to urban 41.5 39.7 1.2 16.9 0.0 0.7 0.0 100.0 227
Rural to rural * * * * * * * 100.0 18
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 28.5 23.6 0.2 42.8 1.4 2.3 1.3 100.0 434
Dalit 36.0 12.7 0.9 46.3 0.6 2.4 1.1 100.0 150
Janajati 36.7 16.5 2.1 39.7 1.3 1.7 2.0 100.0 442
Madhesi 45.4 31.0 0.0 19.9 0.0 1.0 2.6 100.0 171
Muslim (36.1) (45.7) (0.0) (14.8) (3.3) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 52
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 6
Residence
Urban 36.4 23.7 0.8 35.0 1.0 1.8 1.3 100.0 1,113
Rural 24.1 7.2 1.7 58.6 1.8 2.4 4.3 100.0 142
Ecological zone
Mountain (20.1) (37.1) (0.0) (42.8) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 30
Hill 40.8 29.9 0.7 25.4 0.5 2.1 0.6 100.0 619
Terai 29.9 12.8 1.1 50.0 1.8 1.7 2.8 100.0 606
Province
Koshi Province 18.6 7.0 2.7 59.7 0.4 3.2 8.4 100.0 192
Urban 20.7 7.0 2.7 58.1 0.0 3.3 8.2 100.0 155
Rural 9.5 7.1 2.4 66.3 2.3 2.8 9.5 100.0 37
Madhesh Province 36.0 29.2 1.8 26.9 1.5 4.6 0.0 100.0 117
Urban 37.2 33.2 1.5 21.7 1.7 4.7 0.0 100.0 103
Rural * * * * * * * 100.0 14
Bagmati Province 44.2 30.6 0.3 22.5 0.4 2.0 0.1 100.0 528
Urban 44.4 31.4 0.3 21.6 0.4 1.8 0.0 100.0 503
Rural (39.8) (13.7) (0.0) (38.6) (0.0) (5.4) (2.5) 100.0 26
Gandaki Province 44.7 16.4 0.0 37.7 0.4 0.0 0.9 100.0 108
Urban 48.0 16.9 0.0 34.1 0.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 96
Rural (18.9) (12.5) (0.0) (65.1) (3.5) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 12
Lumbini Province 24.7 13.1 0.0 57.6 3.6 0.4 0.6 100.0 190
Urban 23.4 15.2 0.0 57.2 3.7 0.5 0.0 100.0 151
Rural (30.1) (5.1) (0.0) (58.8) (3.3) (0.0) (2.7) 100.0 39
Karnali Province 42.4 23.7 1.4 28.7 1.9 0.0 1.9 100.0 50
Urban 46.6 28.3 0.9 22.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 42
Rural * * * * * * * 100.0 8
Sudurpashchim Province 16.6 14.6 2.2 62.9 2.1 0.6 0.9 100.0 69
Urban 16.7 15.2 1.5 63.2 2.3 0.0 1.0 100.0 63
Rural * * * * * * * 100.0 6
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.8 2.0 11.1 63.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 100.0 55
Second 22.1 7.4 0.0 61.3 2.7 2.1 4.5 100.0 86
Middle 43.3 6.2 0.7 44.9 2.1 1.2 1.6 100.0 202
Fourth 38.8 26.4 0.6 30.5 0.9 2.0 0.7 100.0 427
Highest 32.7 29.1 0.2 33.9 0.8 2.2 1.2 100.0 486
Total 35.0 21.8 0.9 37.7 1.1 1.8 1.6 100.0 1,255

Note: Respondents who are visitors in the household are excluded from this table. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Restricted to respondents who migrated within the last 5 years

82 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.20 Spousal separation
Percentage of currently married women and men age 15–49 whose spouse lives away from home, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Background Husband is Number of Wife is Number of
characteristic away women away men
Age
15–19 38.2 563 2.0 46
20–24 42.7 1,783 11.4 301
25–29 38.9 2,198 8.7 514
30–34 38.4 2,027 8.4 561
35–39 31.9 1,906 7.1 609
40–44 24.3 1,515 7.5 586
45–49 17.6 1,188 5.8 485
Number of living children
0 31.4 1,055 16.0 371
1–2 36.1 6,449 7.8 1,727
3–4 31.7 3,133 4.6 854
5+ 25.4 543 5.6 150
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 33.3 3,031 9.0 771
Dalit 40.1 1,734 7.7 437
Janajati 30.9 4,042 5.8 1,191
Madhesi 32.3 1,835 10.1 561
Muslim 46.1 528 10.4 136
Other * 11 * 5
Residence
Urban 32.9 7,553 8.7 2,119
Rural 36.1 3,627 6.0 982
Ecological zone
Mountain 29.1 629 7.4 186
Hill 33.8 4,275 9.9 1,194
Terai 34.5 6,276 6.5 1,722
Province
Koshi Province 28.0 1,887 6.1 558
Urban 26.8 1,242 6.7 390
Rural 30.4 645 4.6 168
Madhesh Province 40.5 2,419 6.3 631
Urban 41.9 1,789 7.0 453
Rural 36.4 630 4.6 178
Bagmati Province 23.1 2,156 12.8 686
Urban 20.6 1,700 13.7 543
Rural 32.2 456 9.5 143
Gandaki Province 39.9 1,046 9.8 263
Urban 40.6 729 10.1 182
Rural 38.2 317 9.3 81
Lumbini Province 36.6 2,020 6.3 551
Urban 33.6 1,119 6.3 310
Rural 40.3 900 6.2 241
Karnali Province 38.1 691 7.1 185
Urban 40.6 381 8.4 103
Rural 35.1 310 5.6 82
Sudurpashchim Province 38.4 960 3.2 226
Urban 37.8 591 3.9 138
Rural 39.3 369 2.2 88
Education
No education 32.5 3,475 6.7 353
Basic education (1–8) 35.8 3,701 6.6 1,368
Lower basic education (1–5) 33.6 2,004 6.4 738
Upper basic education (6–8) 38.4 1,696 6.8 630
Secondary (9–12) 34.1 3,536 8.2 1,133
Lower secondary (9–10) 32.6 2,208 7.3 733
Higher secondary (11–12) 36.7 1,328 10.0 400
More than secondary (13 and
above) 27.6 468 14.5 247
Wealth quintile
Lowest 38.5 2,031 3.0 525
Second 35.8 2,217 7.6 608
Middle 37.0 2,323 9.0 631
Fourth 34.6 2,381 9.8 682
Highest 24.0 2,228 8.8 655
Total 33.9 11,180 7.8 3,101

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 83
 Table 3.21.1 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have heard of tuberculosis (TB), and among women who have heard of TB, percentage who know about common symptoms
of TB, percentage who know that TB is spread through the air by coughing or sneezing, and percentage who would not keep it a secret if a family member is diagnosed
with TB, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among all respondents: Among respondents who have heard of TB:
Percentage Percentage
who report who report that
coughing/ Percentage Percentage they would not
coughing for Percentage who report who report that want to keep it
more than 2 who report blood in TB is spread a secret if a
Percentage weeks as chest pain as sputum as through family member
Background who have common common common coughing and is diagnosed Number of
characteristic heard of TB Number symptom symptom symptom sneezing with TB women
Age
15–19 94.3 2,643 47.6 15.5 35.7 39.4 86.5 2,492
20–24 96.5 2,637 56.9 19.2 40.9 46.0 89.7 2,545
25–29 95.7 2,435 65.0 18.1 48.2 52.2 92.1 2,330
30–34 95.8 2,144 66.4 19.6 49.4 54.5 93.4 2,054
35–39 93.9 2,025 65.7 21.3 53.6 56.2 93.6 1,902
40–44 93.6 1,629 65.7 19.7 53.4 58.3 94.3 1,525
45–49 93.5 1,332 63.6 19.8 49.8 53.2 94.4 1,246
Marital status
Never married 95.9 3,203 56.3 18.9 40.8 45.0 88.3 3,073
Married or living together 94.7 11,180 62.1 18.9 47.6 52.2 92.4 10,588
Divorced/separated/widowed 93.5 462 56.6 16.5 52.9 46.6 92.6 432
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 95.7 4,152 66.4 23.9 51.9 55.4 92.6 3,975
Dalit 93.4 2,240 55.7 17.0 48.7 47.2 88.7 2,092
Janajati 95.1 5,428 59.0 16.9 44.1 46.8 93.3 5,165
Madhesi 95.3 2,333 62.7 17.9 41.9 55.5 89.4 2,223
Muslim 92.2 676 48.0 11.9 35.8 42.1 85.8 623
Other * 15 * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 95.9 10,178 62.5 19.9 46.8 51.6 91.7 9,756
Rural 92.9 4,667 56.8 16.5 45.0 47.8 91.0 4,337
Ecological zone
Mountain 93.7 791 50.7 24.7 43.2 40.7 91.9 742
Hill 95.2 5,872 60.1 20.8 49.1 49.0 92.3 5,592
Terai 94.8 8,182 62.1 16.8 44.5 52.4 90.9 7,759
Province
Koshi Province 96.0 2,493 59.8 17.6 39.7 44.0 92.7 2,393
Urban 95.7 1,640 62.0 17.2 41.4 46.2 92.9 1,570
Rural 96.4 853 55.6 18.3 36.4 39.8 92.4 823
Madhesh Province 94.9 3,010 57.6 15.0 40.2 51.4 90.3 2,856
Urban 94.8 2,226 57.1 15.2 39.7 49.4 89.3 2,110
Rural 95.3 783 59.1 14.4 41.7 57.2 93.3 746
Bagmati Province 96.3 3,062 63.3 25.2 50.3 50.1 92.8 2,950
Urban 97.9 2,464 67.0 27.2 51.7 53.6 93.1 2,412
Rural 89.9 599 46.9 16.2 44.3 34.2 91.4 538
Gandaki Province 97.7 1,401 62.0 19.6 52.2 50.3 92.0 1,369
Urban 98.5 992 64.3 21.3 54.1 51.6 91.6 978
Rural 95.7 409 56.3 15.3 47.3 47.0 93.2 391
Lumbini Province 94.5 2,691 62.2 15.1 46.6 51.0 90.3 2,544
Urban 95.6 1,553 63.2 16.4 44.7 51.9 91.7 1,485
Rural 93.1 1,138 60.8 13.3 49.1 49.7 88.3 1,059
Karnali Province 90.4 909 48.2 15.2 53.2 48.7 86.2 822
Urban 92.5 507 50.9 15.3 56.0 52.2 88.0 469
Rural 87.7 402 44.5 15.2 49.4 43.9 83.8 353
Sudurpashchim Province 90.6 1,279 67.6 24.5 51.9 62.6 94.0 1,159
Urban 91.9 796 67.5 23.1 51.8 62.3 93.5 732
Rural 88.3 484 67.8 27.1 52.1 63.1 94.8 427
Education
No education 89.2 3,796 51.7 15.7 43.1 44.1 90.4 3,385
Basic education (1–8) 94.1 4,595 57.0 17.4 43.2 47.1 90.6 4,324
Lower basic education (1–5) 92.7 2,314 56.2 17.7 43.8 47.4 90.9 2,144
Upper basic education (6–8) 95.6 2,281 57.7 17.0 42.7 46.8 90.4 2,180
Secondary (9–12) 98.8 5,798 66.3 20.2 48.5 54.3 92.6 5,728
Lower secondary (9–10) 98.4 3,270 63.1 18.2 45.0 51.5 92.3 3,217
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.3 2,529 70.5 22.7 53.0 57.9 93.0 2,511
More than secondary (13 and
above) 100.0 656 82.9 32.7 62.6 71.5 93.1 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 88.8 2,628 47.8 16.4 41.1 41.3 88.4 2,334
Second 93.8 2,857 53.7 14.9 43.7 44.3 91.5 2,679
Middle 95.1 3,028 57.5 15.2 44.0 48.0 90.6 2,879
Fourth 97.0 3,197 64.7 20.1 47.0 53.6 93.1 3,101
Highest 98.9 3,135 75.5 26.1 53.7 61.7 93.0 3,100
Total 94.9 14,845 60.7 18.8 46.3 50.4 91.5 14,093

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

84 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.21.2 Knowledge concerning tuberculosis: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have heard of tuberculosis (TB), and among men who have heard of TB, percentage who know about common symptoms of TB,
percentage who know that TB is spread through the air by coughing or sneezing, and percentage who would not keep it a secret if a family member is diagnosed
with TB, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among all respondents: Among respondents who have heard of TB:
Percentage Percentage
who report who report that
coughing/ Percentage Percentage they would not
coughing for Percentage who report who report that want to keep it
more than 2 who report blood in TB is spread a secret if a
Percentage weeks as chest pain as sputum as through family member
Background who have common common common coughing and is diagnosed Number of
characteristic heard of TB Number symptom symptom symptom sneezing with TB men
Age
15–19 94.5 985 45.8 19.5 34.6 41.8 84.4 930
20–24 97.2 857 58.5 24.2 48.5 49.6 87.6 833
25–29 97.4 716 63.4 24.0 53.7 60.5 91.1 698
30–34 97.9 616 68.1 25.7 55.8 59.0 91.0 603
35–39 97.5 639 70.0 27.8 58.0 68.1 93.3 623
40–44 96.7 604 69.0 22.0 59.6 66.7 92.0 584
45–49 96.2 496 71.6 27.2 62.8 68.9 95.1 477
Marital status
Never married 95.9 1,768 54.0 23.1 42.2 48.9 86.1 1,696
Married or living together 97.1 3,101 66.7 24.4 56.9 62.1 92.3 3,012
Divorced/separated/widowed (92.8) 44 (54.1) (20.8) (46.3) (57.2) (78.7) 41
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 97.2 1,232 70.2 28.3 60.1 66.6 90.0 1,197
Dalit 96.1 658 54.3 21.0 46.0 51.4 88.1 632
Janajati 96.6 1,869 60.4 20.1 48.8 53.6 89.0 1,805
Madhesi 96.5 917 61.8 27.9 51.1 57.2 92.3 885
Muslim 96.9 228 56.0 23.0 46.3 55.6 93.4 221
Other * 8 * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 97.2 3,462 64.4 25.1 52.1 58.5 90.4 3,366
Rural 95.3 1,451 56.4 21.2 50.2 54.6 89.0 1,383
Ecological zone
Mountain 87.5 255 54.6 19.8 50.6 50.4 86.0 223
Hill 97.3 1,973 63.0 27.1 55.8 60.7 91.7 1,921
Terai 97.0 2,685 62.0 22.0 48.5 55.5 89.0 2,605
Province
Koshi Province 93.7 882 66.8 17.1 43.8 57.0 93.5 826
Urban 95.0 604 69.4 15.7 42.9 59.2 93.0 574
Rural 90.9 278 60.7 20.4 45.9 52.0 94.6 252
Madhesh Province 97.0 997 56.3 23.2 46.6 54.2 91.8 967
Urban 96.9 722 58.7 25.3 48.6 55.7 91.9 700
Rural 97.1 275 49.9 17.7 41.6 50.1 91.4 267
Bagmati Province 98.1 1,214 63.1 29.1 53.0 54.1 90.4 1,191
Urban 99.0 1,016 64.0 30.2 54.1 55.2 90.5 1,006
Rural 93.5 198 58.1 23.6 47.1 48.0 90.2 185
Gandaki Province 97.6 387 67.4 31.0 63.2 69.6 93.7 378
Urban 97.6 264 70.3 33.2 62.9 72.7 95.4 258
Rural 97.7 123 61.2 26.2 63.9 63.0 89.9 120
Lumbini Province 97.9 812 61.9 19.7 55.1 56.9 85.2 795
Urban 97.2 468 67.5 19.4 55.7 58.0 84.6 455
Rural 98.9 344 54.4 20.2 54.2 55.3 86.0 340
Karnali Province 97.5 266 55.8 24.6 59.4 66.0 84.3 259
Urban 99.1 154 60.0 28.1 61.9 70.5 89.2 152
Rural 95.2 113 49.9 19.7 55.9 59.6 77.3 107
Sudurpashchim Province 93.5 355 63.0 25.8 51.9 59.7 85.9 332
Urban 94.6 233 61.4 25.5 50.9 56.7 85.1 221
Rural 91.5 122 66.2 26.5 53.8 65.7 87.4 111
Education
No education 92.3 393 50.6 17.5 42.8 50.0 87.3 363
Basic education (1–8) 94.6 1,898 53.9 20.9 45.7 49.2 88.3 1,795
Lower basic education (1–5) 92.7 891 51.5 22.8 45.6 48.9 88.7 826
Upper basic education (6–8) 96.2 1,007 55.9 19.2 45.8 49.5 87.9 969
Secondary (9–12) 98.6 2,244 67.2 25.8 54.0 61.4 91.1 2,213
Lower secondary (9–10) 97.8 1,284 64.5 24.2 52.0 58.9 91.6 1,256
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.7 959 70.7 27.9 56.7 64.8 90.6 957
More than secondary (13 and
above) 100.0 377 82.0 33.8 73.0 79.2 93.7 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 91.4 751 53.2 22.0 48.9 52.1 87.9 687
Second 96.1 933 55.6 19.1 46.8 50.5 86.4 897
Middle 96.1 957 58.7 22.2 45.5 54.1 90.6 920
Fourth 98.0 1,135 64.2 23.7 52.8 59.6 91.9 1,113
Highest 99.7 1,137 73.2 30.7 60.5 66.4 91.6 1,133
Total 96.7 4,913 62.1 23.9 51.5 57.4 90.0 4,749

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 85
Table 3.22.1 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Women

Among women age 15–49 who have heard of tuberculosis (TB), percentage who know that tuberculosis can be cured; among those who know that TB can be cured,
percentage who know the duration of treatment; among those who have heard of TB, percentage who were ever told by a health care provider that they have TB; and among
those who were diagnosed with TB, percentage who sought treatment for TB, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women who
Among women who Among women who know TB can be cured, percentage who Among women who were ever diagnosed
have heard of TB: believe that the duration of treatment is: have heard of TB: with TB:
Percentage
who were
ever told
by a health
care
Percentage provider Percentage
who know that they who sought
Background TB can be Number of Less than 7 months Number of have/had Number of treatment Number of
characteristic cured women 6 months 6 months or more Don’t know women TB women for TB women
Age
15–19 78.5 2,492 7.8 20.3 10.7 61.2 1,957 0.4 2,492 * 9
20–24 83.3 2,545 8.4 25.1 9.9 56.6 2,119 1.0 2,545 * 26
25–29 88.0 2,330 6.6 37.4 9.8 46.2 2,051 1.3 2,330 (86.3) 30
30–34 90.0 2,054 4.5 42.6 10.6 42.4 1,849 1.2 2,054 * 24
35–39 90.8 1,902 5.8 45.7 12.8 35.7 1,726 1.6 1,902 (100.0) 29
40–44 91.2 1,525 5.2 41.9 17.1 35.8 1,390 3.3 1,525 (97.2) 50
45–49 91.3 1,246 6.7 42.5 18.2 32.6 1,137 2.4 1,246 (100.0) 29
Marital status
Never married 83.3 3,073 8.4 26.9 10.2 54.6 2,559 0.8 3,073 * 26
Married or living together 87.6 10,588 6.0 37.4 12.7 43.8 9,279 1.5 10,588 94.9 163
Divorced/separated/widowed 90.7 432 5.7 46.0 10.3 37.9 392 2.1 432 * 9
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 92.1 3,975 7.2 46.6 13.6 32.6 3,659 1.1 3,975 (92.0) 45
Dalit 83.9 2,092 7.2 38.2 12.4 42.2 1,756 1.7 2,092 (89.3) 35
Janajati 89.0 5,165 6.8 34.2 11.2 47.8 4,594 1.9 5,165 100.0 97
Madhesi 78.6 2,223 4.1 18.0 12.2 65.7 1,748 0.7 2,223 * 15
Muslim 73.6 623 5.1 15.4 8.3 71.2 459 1.0 623 * 6
Other * 15 * * * * 15 * 15 * 0
Residence
Urban 88.1 9,756 6.6 37.3 11.4 44.7 8,591 1.5 9,756 96.0 149
Rural 83.9 4,337 6.2 31.3 13.9 48.6 3,639 1.1 4,337 92.5 49
Ecological zone
Mountain 84.8 742 9.3 36.3 15.3 39.1 629 0.7 742 * 5
Hill 90.1 5,592 6.7 41.8 13.7 37.7 5,037 1.5 5,592 97.3 86
Terai 84.6 7,759 6.1 30.5 10.6 52.8 6,564 1.4 7,759 93.2 106
Province
Koshi Province 87.7 2,393 7.9 32.3 11.0 48.8 2,098 0.9 2,393 * 22
Urban 89.2 1,570 7.2 35.5 10.1 47.1 1,401 0.9 1,570 * 15
Rural 84.7 823 9.2 25.9 12.8 52.2 696 0.9 823 * 7
Madhesh Province 75.9 2,856 3.5 18.0 11.6 67.0 2,167 1.1 2,856 (96.0) 33
Urban 76.0 2,110 3.4 17.5 10.8 68.3 1,603 1.1 2,110 * 23
Rural 75.6 746 3.7 19.5 13.6 63.3 564 1.3 746 * 10
Bagmati Province 91.5 2,950 8.6 45.2 12.7 33.5 2,700 2.0 2,950 (100.0) 58
Urban 92.7 2,412 8.8 46.9 12.4 31.9 2,236 2.1 2,412 (100.0) 50
Rural 86.2 538 7.5 37.0 14.3 41.1 464 1.5 538 * 8
Gandaki Province 91.0 1,369 5.2 40.4 12.3 42.0 1,246 1.2 1,369 * 16
Urban 91.8 978 5.0 40.8 12.5 41.7 897 1.2 978 * 12
Rural 89.0 391 5.8 39.4 11.8 43.0 348 1.2 391 * 5
Lumbini Province 88.7 2,544 4.7 37.9 12.1 45.2 2,256 1.7 2,544 (97.1) 44
Urban 91.2 1,485 5.4 40.5 10.5 43.6 1,354 2.2 1,485 (96.2) 33
Rural 85.2 1,059 3.8 34.0 14.5 47.7 902 1.0 1,059 * 11
Karnali Province 88.3 822 9.6 39.1 9.5 41.8 726 1.3 822 * 11
Urban 91.4 469 8.8 42.8 7.3 41.1 429 1.2 469 * 6
Rural 84.3 353 10.8 33.7 12.7 42.8 297 1.5 353 * 5
Sudurpashchim Province 89.6 1,159 7.8 39.4 15.6 37.1 1,038 1.2 1,159 * 14
Urban 91.7 732 9.3 41.3 14.5 34.8 671 1.5 732 * 11
Rural 85.9 427 5.1 35.9 17.7 41.4 367 0.7 427 * 3
Education
No education 81.4 3,385 5.9 28.3 14.6 51.2 2,757 2.3 3,385 96.8 77
Basic education (1–8) 84.9 4,324 5.8 34.8 12.2 47.2 3,671 1.0 4,324 (95.5) 44
Lower basic education (1–5) 84.6 2,144 6.2 35.2 13.4 45.2 1,813 1.4 2,144 (93.3) 29
Upper basic education (6–8) 85.3 2,180 5.4 34.5 10.9 49.1 1,858 0.7 2,180 * 15
Secondary (9–12) 90.1 5,728 7.2 37.6 10.9 44.3 5,163 1.0 5,728 91.2 59
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.6 3,217 6.3 35.2 11.0 47.6 2,882 1.1 3,217 (94.0) 36
Higher secondary (11–12) 90.9 2,511 8.3 40.8 10.8 40.1 2,281 0.9 2,511 * 23
More than secondary (13 and
above) 97.4 656 8.0 52.7 10.8 28.6 639 2.6 656 * 17
Wealth quintile
Lowest 82.3 2,334 7.7 29.7 14.3 48.4 1,920 1.4 2,334 (97.4) 32
Second 82.9 2,679 5.9 31.1 11.8 51.2 2,222 1.2 2,679 (97.9) 31
Middle 84.6 2,879 5.1 31.0 13.3 50.6 2,435 1.3 2,879 (94.0) 36
Fourth 89.1 3,101 6.2 35.7 10.7 47.4 2,764 1.5 3,101 (91.4) 48
Highest 93.2 3,100 7.7 46.3 11.3 34.7 2,889 1.6 3,100 (96.3) 51
Total 86.8 14,093 6.5 35.5 12.1 45.9 12,230 1.4 14,093 95.1 198

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

86 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.22.2 Diagnosis of and treatment for tuberculosis: Men
Among men age 15–49 who have heard of tuberculosis (TB), percentage who know that tuberculosis can be cured; among those who know that TB can be cured, percentage
who know the duration of treatment; among those who have heard of TB, percentage who were ever told by a health care provider that they have TB; and among those who
were diagnosed with TB, percentage who sought treatment for TB, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among men who were
Among men who have Among men who know TB can be cured, percentage who Among men who have ever diagnosed with
heard of TB: believe that the duration of treatment is: heard of TB: TB:
Percentage
who were
ever told
by a health
care
Percentage provider Percentage
who know that they who sought
Background TB can be Number of Less than 7 months Number of have/had Number of treatment Number of
characteristic cured men 6 months 6 months or more Don’t know men TB men for TB men
Age
15–19 78.8 930 13.9 22.4 18.9 44.7 733 0.7 930 * 7
20–24 83.9 833 16.5 31.8 14.7 37.1 699 1.3 833 * 11
25–29 90.7 698 9.2 38.6 16.7 35.6 633 1.0 698 * 7
30–34 93.2 603 9.4 43.7 17.5 29.5 562 1.7 603 * 11
35–39 92.4 623 9.2 45.2 18.2 27.4 575 1.9 623 * 12
40–44 95.3 584 9.7 47.0 18.8 24.5 557 2.2 584 * 13
45–49 96.1 477 8.2 48.7 20.6 22.5 459 4.4 477 * 21
Marital status
Never married 83.5 1,696 14.2 28.7 17.1 40.0 1,416 1.0 1,696 * 16
Married or living together 91.8 3,012 9.6 43.2 18.2 29.0 2,765 2.1 3,012 97.0 62
Divorced/separated/widowed (90.3) 41 (20.1) (51.9) (13.6) (14.4) 37 (3.9) 41 * 2
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 94.7 1,197 9.5 48.9 16.2 25.5 1,134 1.8 1,197 * 21
Dalit 85.1 632 12.6 33.5 19.2 34.7 538 2.3 632 * 15
Janajati 90.9 1,805 10.0 38.7 14.9 36.3 1,640 1.8 1,805 (96.4) 32
Madhesi 82.3 885 14.6 28.4 23.8 33.3 728 1.2 885 * 10
Muslim 78.0 221 14.4 25.0 25.5 35.1 173 1.0 221 * 2
Other * 8 * * * * 5 * 8 * 0
Residence
Urban 89.0 3,366 11.5 38.8 16.6 33.1 2,997 1.7 3,366 (96.0) 57
Rural 88.3 1,383 10.4 37.6 20.5 31.4 1,221 1.7 1,383 (95.8) 23
Ecological zone
Mountain 89.3 223 8.3 41.2 14.5 36.0 199 2.1 223 * 5
Hill 93.7 1,921 10.1 42.9 15.9 31.1 1,800 1.5 1,921 (94.7) 29
Terai 85.2 2,605 12.3 34.5 19.6 33.6 2,219 1.8 2,605 (96.3) 47
Province
Koshi Province 87.8 826 11.3 37.8 9.0 41.9 725 1.6 826 * 13
Urban 89.1 574 11.3 37.9 8.7 42.1 511 1.7 574 * 10
Rural 84.8 252 11.3 37.6 9.6 41.4 214 1.3 252 * 3
Madhesh Province 78.6 967 15.4 25.4 27.3 31.9 760 1.2 967 * 12
Urban 77.6 700 16.6 26.2 26.0 31.2 544 1.2 700 * 8
Rural 81.1 267 12.3 23.4 30.5 33.8 217 1.5 267 * 4
Bagmati Province 90.2 1,191 6.5 39.6 15.2 38.8 1,074 1.9 1,191 * 23
Urban 90.1 1,006 6.7 40.4 14.8 38.1 906 1.9 1,006 * 19
Rural 90.8 185 5.2 35.0 17.5 42.4 168 2.2 185 * 4
Gandaki Province 97.2 378 18.0 48.9 17.2 15.9 367 1.7 378 * 6
Urban 98.5 258 19.0 47.8 16.8 16.5 254 1.6 258 * 4
Rural 94.4 120 15.8 51.5 18.2 14.6 113 2.0 120 * 2
Lumbini Province 93.4 795 9.6 37.5 19.6 33.3 742 2.3 795 * 18
Urban 95.3 455 9.9 36.5 19.4 34.2 434 2.3 455 * 11
Rural 90.9 340 9.2 39.0 19.8 32.0 309 2.2 340 * 7
Karnali Province 94.0 259 20.0 53.1 16.7 10.2 244 1.3 259 * 3
Urban 96.1 152 22.2 58.7 11.4 7.7 146 1.4 152 * 2
Rural 91.1 107 16.7 44.7 24.6 14.0 98 1.2 107 * 1
Sudurpashchim Province 91.6 332 6.0 46.4 20.8 26.8 304 1.2 332 * 4
Urban 91.4 221 6.9 46.4 17.2 29.5 202 1.6 221 * 3
Rural 92.0 111 4.4 46.3 28.1 21.3 102 0.5 111 * 1
Education
No education 76.2 363 12.5 22.7 25.7 39.1 277 0.7 363 * 3
Basic education (1–8) 87.3 1,795 11.7 33.9 19.6 34.8 1,568 2.5 1,795 (95.4) 44
Lower basic education (1–5) 88.2 826 12.2 34.1 19.6 34.1 729 2.9 826 * 24
Upper basic education (6–8) 86.6 969 11.2 33.8 19.6 35.4 839 2.1 969 * 20
Secondary (9–12) 90.5 2,213 11.4 41.3 16.0 31.3 2,004 1.2 2,213 (96.9) 27
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.1 1,256 12.2 40.4 16.6 30.8 1,119 1.6 1,256 * 20
Higher secondary (11–12) 92.4 957 10.5 42.4 15.4 31.8 884 0.7 957 * 7
More than secondary (13 and
above) 97.9 377 7.1 53.9 13.2 25.8 369 1.8 377 * 7
Wealth quintile
Lowest 88.9 687 12.1 37.2 19.9 30.8 611 1.5 687 * 10
Second 86.0 897 13.1 31.9 18.9 36.1 771 1.0 897 * 9
Middle 86.2 920 15.4 34.6 18.3 31.7 793 2.5 920 (90.8) 23
Fourth 88.4 1,113 8.3 41.3 17.9 32.6 983 2.5 1,113 * 28
Highest 93.6 1,133 8.9 44.1 15.2 31.7 1,060 0.9 1,133 * 10
Total 88.8 4,749 11.2 38.4 17.8 32.6 4,218 1.7 4,749 95.9 80

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Characteristics of Respondents • 87
 Table 3.23 Source of treatment for TB
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have ever been
diagnosed with tuberculosis by source of treatment for TB, Nepal DHS
2022
Source of treatment Women Men
Public sector 68.7 72.9
Government hospital 52.2 64.5
Primary health care/primary
hospital 1.4 0.5
Health post 22.4 20.8
Other public sector 1.2 0.0
Private medical sector 32.0 20.6
Private hospital 26.5 17.3
Private clinic 6.0 3.3
Pharmacy 0.2 0.0
Other private medical sector 0.8 0.0
Private medical sector (NGO) 1.1 0.0
Marie Stopes 0.8 0.0
Other NGO medical sector 0.3 0.0
Other private sector 6.1 3.9
Don’t know 0.0 2.4
Number 198 80

88 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.24.1 Knowledge about COVID-19: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have heard of COVID-19, and among women who have heard of COVID-19, percentage who report the three most common
symptoms of COVID-19, percentage who know that COVID-19 can be prevented, and percentage who are taking measures to reduce the risk of being infected
with COVID-19, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among all respondents: Among respondents who have heard of COVID-19:
Percentage
who report Percentage
shortness of who are taking
Percentage Percentage breath and measures to
Percentage who report who report breathing Percentage reduce the risk
who have fever as cough as difficulties as who know that of being
Background heard of common common common COVID-19 can infected with Number of
characteristic COVID-19 Number symptom symptom symptoms be prevented COVID-191 women
Age
15–19 99.9 2,643 94.2 79.1 28.6 98.3 91.6 2,640
20–24 99.9 2,637 94.4 79.8 25.9 98.7 91.4 2,636
25–29 99.9 2,435 93.8 78.6 30.2 98.7 91.9 2,434
30–34 100.0 2,144 94.0 76.5 30.7 98.9 93.3 2,143
35–39 99.9 2,025 91.6 75.2 29.4 97.8 92.8 2,024
40–44 99.8 1,629 91.6 73.8 24.8 98.1 91.3 1,626
45–49 99.6 1,332 90.2 76.2 27.2 98.1 91.0 1,326
Marital status
Never married 99.9 3,203 94.7 78.2 31.6 98.8 94.6 3,200
Married or living together 99.9 11,180 92.8 77.4 27.5 98.3 91.2 11,166
Divorced/separated/widowed 100.0 462 90.3 71.4 24.5 98.1 91.6 462
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 99.8 4,152 94.6 74.2 37.1 98.8 93.9 4,145
Dalit 99.9 2,240 90.5 77.0 25.9 97.9 89.5 2,238
Janajati 99.9 5,428 93.7 75.5 28.3 98.0 92.1 5,423
Madhesi 100.0 2,333 92.6 85.4 18.4 99.2 92.6 2,332
Muslim 99.7 676 90.0 85.4 15.7 98.9 84.0 674
Other * 15 * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 99.9 10,178 93.8 77.6 29.6 99.0 92.9 10,169
Rural 99.8 4,667 91.7 77.0 25.2 97.3 89.8 4,659
Ecological zone
Mountain 99.8 791 90.7 72.4 31.0 97.2 89.0 790
Hill 99.9 5,872 94.2 73.6 34.9 98.0 90.9 5,866
Terai 99.9 8,182 92.6 80.6 23.2 98.9 93.0 8,172
Province
Koshi Province 100.0 2,493 93.8 77.6 28.3 99.2 94.9 2,493
Urban 100.0 1,640 93.9 77.4 28.4 99.4 96.0 1,640
Rural 100.0 853 93.6 78.1 28.0 99.0 92.8 853
Madhesh Province 99.9 3,010 91.8 85.4 15.4 99.2 89.8 3,007
Urban 100.0 2,226 91.8 85.0 16.2 99.2 88.9 2,226
Rural 99.7 783 92.0 86.3 13.3 99.3 92.5 781
Bagmati Province 99.9 3,062 95.3 72.0 35.6 98.3 91.2 3,058
Urban 99.9 2,464 95.7 72.4 37.0 99.0 93.4 2,462
Rural 99.7 599 93.4 70.3 29.9 95.7 81.8 597
Gandaki Province 99.9 1,401 94.9 74.9 37.8 98.8 91.8 1,400
Urban 100.0 992 95.3 76.4 38.6 99.5 93.2 992
Rural 99.7 409 94.0 71.2 35.8 96.9 88.4 407
Lumbini Province 99.8 2,691 91.6 75.8 25.8 98.1 92.8 2,686
Urban 99.7 1,553 92.4 74.8 28.8 98.3 94.0 1,549
Rural 99.9 1,138 90.5 77.3 21.7 97.9 91.2 1,137
Karnali Province 99.8 909 87.9 72.9 31.7 96.3 89.4 908
Urban 99.9 507 91.0 75.5 34.4 98.2 93.4 507
Rural 99.7 402 84.0 69.5 28.3 93.8 84.3 401
Sudurpashchim Province 99.8 1,279 94.7 80.2 33.1 97.1 93.0 1,277
Urban 99.7 796 95.6 81.1 34.3 98.3 93.7 793
Rural 99.9 484 93.3 78.7 31.1 95.0 91.9 483
Education
No education 99.7 3,796 87.9 73.8 18.1 96.8 86.5 3,786
Basic education (1–8) 99.9 4,595 93.1 77.9 26.6 98.2 90.4 4,593
Lower basic education (1–5) 99.9 2,314 91.8 76.6 24.8 97.8 88.5 2,312
Upper basic education (6–8) 99.9 2,281 94.5 79.1 28.4 98.6 92.4 2,280
Secondary (9–12) 99.9 5,798 96.0 79.2 34.3 99.5 95.9 5,794
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.9 3,270 96.0 79.2 33.1 99.4 94.9 3,265
Higher secondary (11–12) 100.0 2,529 96.0 79.1 35.8 99.6 97.1 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 100.0 656 97.8 78.9 45.2 100.0 98.8 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 99.8 2,628 89.9 73.4 25.2 95.4 85.4 2,623
Second 99.8 2,857 91.0 75.6 24.1 98.3 90.7 2,852
Middle 99.9 3,028 93.1 80.0 24.3 98.9 92.0 3,025
Fourth 100.0 3,197 94.8 78.8 28.7 99.3 94.3 3,195
Highest 99.9 3,135 96.2 78.5 37.9 99.8 96.1 3,133
Total 99.9 14,845 93.1 77.4 28.3 98.4 91.9 14,828

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Measures taken to reduce the risk of being infected with COVID-19 include wearing a mask, washing hands properly, using sanitizer, maintaining distance,
avoiding touching eyes/nose/mouth, practicing respiratory hygiene, getting vaccinated, and focusing on cleanliness.

Characteristics of Respondents • 89
 Table 3.24.2 Knowledge about COVID-19: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have heard of COVID-19, and among men who have heard of COVID-19, percentage who report the three most common
symptoms of COVID-19, percentage who know that COVID-19 can be prevented, and percentage who are taking measures to reduce the risk of being infected
with COVID-19, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among all respondents: Among respondents who have heard of COVID-19:
Percentage
who report Percentage
shortness of who are taking
Percentage Percentage breath and measures to
Percentage who report who report breathing Percentage reduce the risk
who have fever as cough as difficulties as who know that of being
Background heard of common common common COVID-19 can infected with Number of
characteristic COVID-19 Number symptom symptom symptoms be prevented COVID-191 men
Age
15–19 99.8 985 95.1 79.2 31.7 98.4 93.8 983
20–24 100.0 857 95.9 80.6 31.4 99.5 97.1 857
25–29 99.6 716 95.8 79.7 28.0 99.1 96.0 713
30–34 99.8 616 96.9 79.8 31.7 99.7 96.3 615
35–39 99.7 639 96.1 78.9 28.9 98.8 96.0 637
40–44 99.6 604 94.1 75.5 30.3 98.5 92.4 602
45–49 99.6 496 93.8 73.6 31.8 98.0 93.4 494
Marital status
Never married 99.8 1,768 95.7 79.2 33.2 99.1 95.4 1,765
Married or living together 99.7 3,101 95.4 78.3 29.1 98.8 95.0 3,092
Divorced/separated/widowed (100.0) 44 (90.5) (69.1) (29.3) (97.7) (91.5) 44
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 99.9 1,232 96.6 77.3 37.7 99.6 97.9 1,230
Dalit 100.0 658 93.1 75.5 26.4 98.8 92.7 658
Janajati 99.8 1,869 95.0 75.3 29.6 99.1 95.1 1,866
Madhesi 99.3 917 96.2 86.2 26.7 97.5 93.1 911
Muslim 99.6 228 95.9 89.9 26.7 98.5 95.2 228
Other * 8 * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 99.8 3,462 96.1 79.4 32.2 99.0 95.4 3,454
Rural 99.7 1,451 94.0 76.5 26.8 98.6 94.3 1,447
Ecological zone
Mountain 100.0 255 94.6 79.5 28.4 99.2 98.2 255
Hill 99.9 1,973 96.5 74.6 37.0 99.4 97.1 1,972
Terai 99.6 2,685 94.7 81.3 26.1 98.5 93.4 2,674
Province
Koshi Province 99.7 882 93.3 73.7 25.9 98.0 94.8 879
Urban 99.7 604 93.6 73.6 26.2 98.5 94.9 603
Rural 99.7 278 92.8 73.9 25.1 96.8 94.6 277
Madhesh Province 99.4 997 96.2 87.9 20.7 97.4 90.6 991
Urban 99.4 722 96.8 88.0 20.4 97.9 91.0 718
Rural 99.5 275 94.9 87.6 21.5 96.3 89.5 273
Bagmati Province 100.0 1,214 97.7 80.3 32.9 99.6 98.2 1,214
Urban 100.0 1,016 97.9 79.5 35.1 99.5 98.1 1,016
Rural 100.0 198 96.6 84.2 21.4 100.0 98.7 198
Gandaki Province 99.6 387 97.1 72.8 41.1 99.8 94.7 385
Urban 100.0 264 98.3 76.0 41.8 99.7 95.6 264
Rural 98.7 123 94.4 65.8 39.6 100.0 92.7 121
Lumbini Province 99.9 812 93.8 76.4 32.0 99.6 94.6 811
Urban 99.7 468 94.3 79.1 37.0 99.3 95.5 467
Rural 100.0 344 93.2 72.9 25.1 100.0 93.3 344
Karnali Province 100.0 266 94.2 70.4 38.8 99.9 99.0 266
Urban 100.0 154 95.0 71.7 44.5 100.0 99.2 154
Rural 100.0 113 93.2 68.7 31.1 99.7 98.8 113
Sudurpashchim Province 99.8 355 93.6 75.6 41.3 99.9 96.7 354
Urban 100.0 233 93.9 76.8 42.5 100.0 96.6 233
Rural 99.6 122 93.0 73.3 39.0 99.6 96.8 121
Education
No education 99.8 393 90.0 76.8 11.5 95.8 86.8 393
Basic education (1–8) 99.7 1,898 94.5 77.2 24.4 98.7 93.4 1,893
Lower basic education (1–5) 99.7 891 93.9 73.7 21.5 98.5 92.6 888
Upper basic education (6–8) 99.7 1,007 95.1 80.2 26.9 99.0 94.0 1,004
Secondary (9–12) 99.8 2,244 96.5 79.3 36.7 99.4 97.3 2,240
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.7 1,284 96.2 77.8 33.8 98.9 96.8 1,281
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.9 959 97.0 81.3 40.5 100.0 97.9 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 99.6 377 99.3 82.9 45.5 100.0 99.4 376
Wealth quintile
Lowest 99.7 751 93.0 70.4 28.6 98.6 92.8 749
Second 100.0 933 94.1 77.9 23.3 98.3 92.0 933
Middle 99.5 957 95.5 80.8 25.6 98.3 94.9 952
Fourth 99.7 1,135 95.7 78.5 31.7 99.4 96.6 1,132
Highest 99.9 1,137 97.9 82.6 40.9 99.6 97.8 1,135
Total 99.8 4,913 95.4 78.5 30.6 98.9 95.1 4,901

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Measures taken to reduce the risk of being infected with COVID-19 include wearing a mask, washing hands properly, using sanitizer, maintaining distance,
avoiding touching eyes/nose/mouth, practicing respiratory hygiene, getting vaccinated, and focusing on cleanliness.

90 • Characteristics of Respondents
Table 3.25 Source of knowledge on COVID-19
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 by source of knowledge on
COVID-19, Nepal DHS 2022
Source of knowledge Women Men
Health facilities or health workers 27.2 16.9
Health facility 20.8 9.0
Female community health volunteers 4.0 2.2
Health mother’s group 0.6 0.3
Community health workers 3.4 5.3
Urban health center 1.8 3.0
Media and social media 72.9 87.1
Radio programs 23.8 29.6
Television 37.8 46.6
Social media 33.0 55.5
SMS/text message 1.2 0.9
Phone counseling 4.9 2.6
Mobile ring tone 31.0 33.4
Other source 87.6 80.5
Family/friends/neighbors/relatives 86.7 79.8
Other 3.6 3.4
Don’t know 0.0 0.1
Number 14,845 4,913

Characteristics of Respondents • 91
MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY 4
Key Findings

▪ Marriage registration: 81% of women age 15–49 have

their marriage registered with the civil authorities.
Marriage registration is lower among women age 15–19
(8%) than among women in other age groups.
▪ Polygyny: The percentage of married women age 15–49
with one or more co-wives decreased from 4% in 2016 to
2% in 2022.
▪ Age at first marriage: In Nepal, women marry earlier
than men. The median age at first marriage is 18.3 years
among women and 22.3 years among men age 25–49.
▪ Sexual initiation: The median age at first sexual
intercourse among men age 25–49 (20.7 years) is 1.6
years earlier than the median age at first marriage (22.3
years), while the median ages at first marriage and first
sexual intercourse are the same among women age 25–
49 (18.3 years).
▪ Recent sexual activity: 31% of never-married men have
had sexual intercourse in their lifetime, and 5% had
sexual intercourse within the past 4 weeks.

M
arriage and sexual activity help determine the extent to which women are exposed to the risk of
pregnancy. Thus, they are important determinants of fertility levels. The timing and
circumstances of marriage and sexual activity, however, also have profound consequences for
women’s and men’s lives.

4.1 MARITAL STATUS

Currently in union
Women and men who report being married or living together with a partner as
though married at the time of the survey. In this report, the terms currently in
union and currently married are used interchangeably except where noted.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 93

 In Nepal, 75% of women Figure 4.1 Marital status
and 63% of men age 15–49 Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49
are currently married or in
union. Twenty-two percent Women Men
of women and 36% of men
have never been married Married
Married
or living Divorced/
(Table 4.1 and Figure or living
together separated
together Divorced/
4.1). One in five women 75%
63% 1%
separated
(21%) age 15–19 are 1%
Widowed
currently married or in Never
Widowed
Never
<1%
married married
union, as compared with 22% 2% 36%
only 5% of men in the
same age group. By age
20–24, more than two-
thirds of women (68%) are married or living together with a partner, compared with about one-third (35%)
of men.

Trends: The proportion of women age 15–19 who are currently married has declined over time, from 43%
in 1996 to 27% in 2016 and 21% in 2022, indicating a trend towards decreasing female adolescent
marriage. The proportion of women age 20–24 who are currently married has also declined, from 84% in
1996 to 75% in 2016 and 68% in 2022.

4.2 MARRIAGE REGISTRATION

Registered marriage
A woman whose marriage is registered with the civil authorities regardless of
whether or not she has a marriage certificate.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49 (does not include women who
are living together with a man as if married but who do not report themselves
to be married)

In Nepal, a couple should have their marriage registered by filing an application with the civil authorities
specified by the Government of Nepal based on the National Civil Act, 2017 (Ministry of Law, Justice and
Parliamentary Affairs 2017). According to the Marriage Registration Act 2028, any marriage or marital
relation concluded pursuant to the custom, tradition, usage, or practice under any religion, ethnicity, or
dynasty should be registered under the act if such marriage does not contradict the provisions of the act
(Nepal Law Commission 1971).

Eighty-one percent of women age 15–49 have registered their marriage with the civil authorities, and 80%
have a marriage certificate (Table 4.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Marriage registration rises dramatically from 8% among women age 15–19 to 64% among women age
20–24 and 91% among those age 30–34 (Table 4.2).

▪ The proportion of women who have registered their marriage is highest in Bagmati Province (85%)
and lowest in Karnali Province (71%).

▪ Marriage registration increases with increasing wealth, from 70% among women in the lowest wealth
quintile to 90% among those in the highest quintile.

94 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

4.3 POLYGYNY

Polygyny
Women who report that their husband or partner has other wives are
considered to be in a polygynous marriage.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49

Two percent of currently married women age 15–49 reported that they have co-wives, while 1% of men
reported having more than one wife (Table 4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2).

Trends: The percentage of currently married women age 15–49 with one or more co-wives decreased
from 6% in 1996 to 4% in 2016 and 2% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women reporting that they have one or more co-wives is highest among those age
40–44 (4%) and lowest among those age 15–19 (less than 1%). Similarly, men age 40–44 are most
likely to have two or more wives (3%) (Table 4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2).

▪ The percentage of women with one or more co-wives is highest among those in the Brahmin/Chhetri
ethnic group (3%) and lowest among those in the Madhesi group (1%) (Table 4.3.1).

▪ The percentage of women with one or more co-wives is highest in Sudurpashchim Province (5%) and
lowest in Madhesh Province (1%).

▪ Women with no education are more likely to have co-wives (3%) than women who have more than a
secondary education (1%). Men with no education or a basic education are more likely to have two or
more wives (1% and 2%, respectively) than men with more than a secondary education (0%) (Table
4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2).

4.4 AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE

Median age at first marriage

Age by which half of respondents have been married.
Sample: Women age 20–49 and 25–49 and men age 25–49

In Nepal, women marry earlier than men. The median age at first marriage is 18.3 years among women age
25–49 and 22.3 years among men age 25–49. Twelve percent of women age 25–49 were first married by
age 15, as compared with 1% of men. Forty-seven percent of women age 25–49 were first married by age
18, while the corresponding figure among men is only 14%. Nine in 10 women age 25–49 (90%) were first
married by age 25, compared with only about 7 in 10 men (68%) (Table 4.4).

Trends: The median age at first marriage has increased over time, from 16.2 years in 1996 to 17.9 years in
2016 and 18.3 years in 2022 among women and from 20.1 years in 2001 to 21.7 years in 2016 and 22.3
years in 2022 among men age 25–49.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The median age at first marriage among women age 25–49 is lowest in the Muslim ethnic group (16.5
years) and highest in the Janajati group (19.2 years) (Table 4.5).

▪ Women age 25–49 in Madhesh Province marry at an earlier age (16.6 years) than those in other
provinces, with Bagmati having the highest median age at marriage (19.9 years). Among men, the

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 95

 median age at marriage is lowest among those in Karnali Province (20.3 years) and highest among
those in Bagmati Province (23.8 years) (Table 4.5).

▪ The median age at first marriage among women and men age 25–49 increases with increasing
education. Women with a secondary education marry 3.6 years later than women with no education
(20.5 years versus 16.9 years). Similarly, men with a secondary education marry 4.0 years later than
those with no education (23.8 years versus 19.8 years).

4.5 AGE AT FIRST SEXUAL INTERCOURSE

Median age at first sexual intercourse

Age by which half of respondents have had sexual intercourse.
Sample: Women age 20–49 and 25–49 and men age 25–49

The median age at first sexual intercourse among women age 25–49 is 18.3 years, while the median age
among men is 20.7 years. On average, women have their first sexual intercourse 2.4 years earlier than men,
primarily because women marry earlier than men (Table 4.6).

Nine percent of women age 25–49 had their first sexual intercourse by age 15, as compared with 2% of
men. The percentage among of women who had first sexual intercourse by age 18 increases to 47%, while
the corresponding figure among men is only 21%. Ninety-one percent of women and 78% of men had their
first sexual intercourse by age 25.

Sixty-one percent of men and 54% of women age 15–24 reported that they never had sexual intercourse.
This is another indication that sexual intercourse begins at an earlier age among women than among men
(Table 4.6).

Among men, the median age at first sexual Figure 4.2 Median age at first sex and
intercourse (20.7 years) is 1.6 years earlier than the first marriage
median age at first marriage (22.3 years), while the Median age in years
median ages at first sexual intercourse and first
Women age 25–49 Men age 25–49
marriage are the same (18.3 years) among women
age 25–49. This shows that men are more likely than 22.3
women to have sexual intercourse before marriage, 20.7
18.3 18.3
while women in general have sexual intercourse with
their first marriage (Figure 4.2).

Median age at first Median age at first

sex marriage

96 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Trends: The percentage of women age 25–49 who Figure 4.3 Trends in early sexual
had their first sexual intercourse by age 18 decreased intercourse
from 65% in 1996 to 51% in 2016 and 47% in 2022. Percentage who had first sexual
The percentage among men also decreased, from intercourse by age 18
33% in 2001 to 21% in 2022 (Figure 4.3).

Patterns by background characteristics 65 Women age 25–49

63 62
54 51
▪ The median age at first sexual intercourse 47
among women age 25–49 is lowest in Madhesh
Province (16.6 years) and highest in Bagmati Men age 25–49
33 31
Province (19.7 years). Among men, the median 25 24 21
age at first sexual intercourse is lowest in
Karnali Province (19.4 years) and highest in 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
Koshi Province (22.2 years) (Table 4.7). NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

▪ Among both women and men, the median age at Figure 4.4 Women’s and men’s median
first sexual intercourse is earlier among those age at first intercourse by education
with no education. Among women age 25–49, Median age in years
the median age at first sexual intercourse ranges
Women age 25–49 Men age 25–49
from 16.9 years among those with no education
24.5
to 24.5 years among those with more than a 20.5 21.7
19.5 19.7
secondary education. The median age among 16.9 17.6
men ranges from 19.5 years among those with
no education to 21.7 years among those with a
secondary education (Figure 4.4). a
No education Basic Secondary More than
4.6 RECENT SEXUAL ACTIVITY education (9–12) secondary
(1–8) (13 and
Forty-eight percent of women and 54% of men age above)
15–49 had sexual intercourse in the 4 weeks Note: a = Omitted because less than 50% of the respondents had
intercourse for the first time before reaching the beginning of the
preceding the survey. Twenty-one percent of women age group.
and 25% of men had never had sexual intercourse
(Table 4.8.1 and Table 4.8.2).

Trends: The proportion of women age 15–49 who reported having sexual intercourse within the past
4 weeks has not changed since the last survey. The proportion of men who reported having sexual
intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey decreased from 61% in 2016 to 54% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Six percent of men age 15–19 were sexually active in the past 4 weeks, as compared with 13% of
women in the same age group (Table 4.8.1 and Table 4.8.2).

▪ Among men who have never been married, 31% have had sexual intercourse in their lifetime and 5%
had sexual intercourse within the past 4 weeks (Table 4.8.2). Only 3% of women who have never
been married have had sexual intercourse (Table 4.8.1).

▪ Thirty-seven percent of currently married women did not have sexual intercourse in the 4 weeks
preceding the survey (Table 4.8.1).

▪ Women who have been married for 1–4 years (58%) and those who have been married for 5–9 years
(59%) were less sexually active in the 4 weeks before the survey than those who have been married for
less than 1 year (68%) or more than 10 years (65% or more) (Table 4.8.1).

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 97

 ▪ The proportion of women who have never had sexual intercourse increases from 3% among those with
no education to 37% among those with a secondary education before falling to 25% among those with
more than a secondary education. Similarly, the proportion of men who have never had intercourse
increases from 6% among those with no education to 34% among those with a secondary education
and then declines to 18% among those with more than a secondary education.

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on marriage and sexual activity, see the following tables:

▪ Table 4.1 Current marital status

▪ Table 4.2 Marriage registration
▪ Table 4.3.1 Number of women’s co-wives
▪ Table 4.3.2 Number of men’s wives
▪ Table 4.4 Age at first marriage
▪ Table 4.5 Median age at first marriage by background characteristics
▪ Table 4.6 Age at first sexual intercourse
▪ Table 4.7 Median age at first sexual intercourse according to background characteristics
▪ Table 4.8.1 Recent sexual activity: Women
▪ Table 4.8.2 Recent sexual activity: Men

98 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.1 Current marital status
Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by current marital status, by age, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
Marital status of
Married or respondents
Never living currently in Number of
Age married together Divorced Separated Widowed Total union respondents
WOMEN
15–19 78.4 21.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 100.0 21.3 2,643
20–24 31.3 67.6 0.1 0.6 0.4 100.0 67.6 2,637
25–29 8.1 90.3 0.4 0.7 0.5 100.0 90.3 2,435
30–34 2.4 94.5 0.3 1.3 1.4 100.0 94.5 2,144
35–39 1.3 94.1 0.3 1.0 3.2 100.0 94.1 2,025
40–44 0.8 93.0 0.4 0.6 5.2 100.0 93.0 1,629
45–49 1.4 89.2 0.3 2.3 6.8 100.0 89.2 1,332
Total 21.6 75.3 0.2 0.9 2.0 100.0 75.3 14,845
MEN
15–19 95.3 4.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 4.6 985
20–24 64.7 35.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 35.1 857
25–29 27.5 71.7 0.1 0.7 0.0 100.0 71.7 716
30–34 8.4 91.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 100.0 91.1 616
35–39 2.5 95.4 0.7 1.1 0.3 100.0 95.4 639
40–44 1.0 97.0 0.5 0.6 1.0 100.0 97.0 604
45–49 0.9 97.8 0.2 0.4 0.7 100.0 97.8 496
Total 36.0 63.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 100.0 63.1 4,913

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 99

 Table 4.2 Marriage registration
Percentage of currently women age 15–49 whose current marriage is registered
with the civil authorities, and percentage whose current marriage is registered with
the civil authorities and who have a marriage certificate, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
whose current
marriage is
Percentage registered with
whose current the civil
marriage is authorities and Number of
registered with who have a currently
Background the civil marriage married
1
characteristic authorities certificate women2
Age
15–19 8.2 6.5 559
20–24 63.7 62.2 1,776
25–29 83.4 82.3 2,189
30–34 91.4 90.1 2,027
35–39 91.7 90.2 1,903
40–44 91.6 88.8 1,512
45–49 89.2 87.2 1,188
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 83.5 82.3 3,022
Dalit 73.6 71.5 1,729
Janajati 83.5 82.2 4,033
Madhesi 80.8 79.0 1,834
Muslim 75.1 70.0 527
Other * * 11
Residence
Urban 82.2 80.8 7,534
Rural 78.8 76.8 3,621
Ecological zone
Mountain 75.7 74.8 628
Hill 81.1 79.7 4,263
Terai 81.7 79.8 6,264
Province
Koshi Province 82.7 80.3 1,883
Urban 83.0 81.5 1,239
Rural 82.0 78.0 644
Madhesh Province 77.5 75.2 2,419
Urban 76.8 74.5 1,789
Rural 79.4 77.0 630
Bagmati Province 84.8 83.1 2,148
Urban 86.3 84.7 1,694
Rural 79.5 77.4 455
Gandaki Province 84.0 83.3 1,046
Urban 84.5 83.9 729
Rural 82.8 82.0 317
Lumbini Province 84.2 83.3 2,015
Urban 86.1 85.6 1,116
Rural 81.9 80.4 899
Karnali Province 70.8 69.8 687
Urban 73.8 73.2 378
Rural 67.0 65.6 309
Sudurpashchim Province 76.5 75.4 956
Urban 80.3 79.2 590
Rural 70.3 69.3 366
Education
No education 82.9 80.3 3,473
Basic education (1–8) 78.7 77.0 3,694
Lower basic education (1–5) 80.5 78.9 2,001
Upper basic education (6–8) 76.6 74.9 1,693
Secondary (9–12) 80.7 79.9 3,519
Lower secondary (9–10) 80.4 79.7 2,196
Higher secondary (11–12) 81.2 80.2 1,324
More than secondary (13 and
above) 90.1 90.1 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 69.7 68.1 2,027
Second 78.9 76.9 2,213
Middle 82.9 80.3 2,320
Fourth 82.7 81.7 2,375
Highest 90.2 89.2 2,219
Total 81.1 79.5 11,155

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
Includes currently married women with a marriage certificate for their current
marriage
2
Excludes women who are living with a man as if married but who did not report
themselves as currently married

100 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.3.1 Number of women’s co-wives
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by number of co-wives, and percentage of currently married women with one or
more co-wives, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
Number of co-wives with one or
Background Don’t more co- Number of
characteristic 0 1 2+ know Total wives1 women
Age
15–19 97.3 0.4 0.0 2.3 100.0 0.4 563
20–24 98.0 1.1 0.0 0.9 100.0 1.1 1,783
25–29 97.8 1.5 0.0 0.7 100.0 1.6 2,198
30–34 96.8 2.2 0.2 0.8 100.0 2.4 2,027
35–39 96.6 2.7 0.3 0.5 100.0 2.9 1,906
40–44 95.1 3.9 0.1 0.9 100.0 4.0 1,515
45–49 96.2 2.7 0.4 0.8 100.0 3.1 1,188
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 96.5 2.8 0.2 0.5 100.0 3.0 3,031
Dalit 96.5 1.7 0.3 1.5 100.0 2.0 1,734
Janajati 97.1 2.4 0.1 0.4 100.0 2.5 4,042
Madhesi 97.4 1.2 0.0 1.5 100.0 1.2 1,835
Muslim 96.6 1.8 0.0 1.6 100.0 1.8 528
Other * * * * 100.0 * 11
Residence
Urban 97.0 2.0 0.1 0.9 100.0 2.2 7,553
Rural 96.6 2.5 0.1 0.7 100.0 2.7 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 96.2 3.3 0.1 0.4 100.0 3.4 629
Hill 96.9 2.6 0.3 0.3 100.0 2.9 4,275
Terai 96.9 1.8 0.1 1.2 100.0 1.8 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 96.8 2.1 0.2 0.9 100.0 2.3 1,887
Urban 96.0 2.5 0.3 1.2 100.0 2.8 1,242
Rural 98.3 1.3 0.0 0.4 100.0 1.3 645
Madhesh Province 97.0 1.2 0.0 1.8 100.0 1.2 2,419
Urban 97.5 0.8 0.0 1.7 100.0 0.8 1,789
Rural 95.7 2.1 0.0 2.2 100.0 2.1 630
Bagmati Province 97.0 2.5 0.1 0.4 100.0 2.6 2,156
Urban 97.2 2.3 0.1 0.4 100.0 2.4 1,700
Rural 96.6 3.0 0.1 0.3 100.0 3.1 456
Gandaki Province 96.9 2.3 0.4 0.4 100.0 2.7 1,046
Urban 96.5 2.7 0.4 0.4 100.0 3.1 729
Rural 98.0 1.3 0.3 0.4 100.0 1.6 317
Lumbini Province 97.1 2.2 0.1 0.6 100.0 2.3 2,020
Urban 97.8 1.6 0.0 0.6 100.0 1.6 1,119
Rural 96.3 3.0 0.1 0.6 100.0 3.1 900
Karnali Province 97.7 2.0 0.1 0.2 100.0 2.1 691
Urban 97.1 2.6 0.1 0.1 100.0 2.8 381
Rural 98.5 1.3 0.0 0.2 100.0 1.3 310
Sudurpashchim Province 94.9 4.2 0.3 0.5 100.0 4.5 960
Urban 95.8 3.3 0.2 0.7 100.0 3.5 591
Rural 93.6 5.6 0.6 0.2 100.0 6.2 369
Education
No education 95.5 3.2 0.2 1.1 100.0 3.4 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 96.8 2.1 0.2 0.9 100.0 2.3 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 95.9 2.7 0.2 1.2 100.0 2.9 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 97.8 1.4 0.1 0.7 100.0 1.5 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 98.1 1.4 0.0 0.4 100.0 1.4 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 98.0 1.4 0.0 0.6 100.0 1.5 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 98.4 1.4 0.0 0.2 100.0 1.4 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 98.2 1.0 0.0 0.8 100.0 1.0 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 96.5 2.7 0.2 0.6 100.0 3.0 2,031
Second 96.5 2.2 0.2 1.2 100.0 2.3 2,217
Middle 97.0 2.0 0.1 0.8 100.0 2.2 2,323
Fourth 96.5 2.3 0.1 1.0 100.0 2.5 2,381
Highest 97.8 1.7 0.0 0.5 100.0 1.7 2,228
Total 96.9 2.2 0.1 0.8 100.0 2.3 11,180

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Excludes women who responded “don’t know” when asked if their husband has other wives

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 101

 Table 4.3.2 Number of men’s wives
Percent distribution of currently married men age 15–49 by number of wives,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Background Number of wives Number

characteristic 1 2+ Total of men
Age
15–19 100.0 0.0 100.0 46
20–24 100.0 0.0 100.0 301
25–29 98.8 1.2 100.0 514
30–34 99.5 0.5 100.0 561
35–39 99.0 1.0 100.0 609
40–44 97.2 2.8 100.0 586
45–49 98.5 1.5 100.0 485
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 99.1 0.9 100.0 771
Dalit 98.1 1.9 100.0 437
Janajati 98.4 1.6 100.0 1,191
Madhesi 99.2 0.8 100.0 561
Muslim 100.0 0.0 100.0 136
Other * * 100.0 5
Residence
Urban 99.0 1.0 100.0 2,119
Rural 98.1 1.9 100.0 982
Ecological zone
Mountain 97.3 2.7 100.0 186
Hill 98.8 1.2 100.0 1,194
Terai 98.9 1.1 100.0 1,722
Province
Koshi Province 96.9 3.1 100.0 558
Urban 97.5 2.5 100.0 390
Rural 95.4 4.6 100.0 168
Madhesh Province 99.8 0.2 100.0 631
Urban 100.0 0.0 100.0 453
Rural 99.3 0.7 100.0 178
Bagmati Province 98.8 1.2 100.0 686
Urban 99.0 1.0 100.0 543
Rural 97.8 2.2 100.0 143
Gandaki Province 99.1 0.9 100.0 263
Urban 99.4 0.6 100.0 182
Rural 98.4 1.6 100.0 81
Lumbini Province 99.0 1.0 100.0 551
Urban 99.2 0.8 100.0 310
Rural 98.8 1.2 100.0 241
Karnali Province 99.5 0.5 100.0 185
Urban 100.0 0.0 100.0 103
Rural 98.9 1.1 100.0 82
Sudurpashchim Province 98.6 1.4 100.0 226
Urban 98.7 1.3 100.0 138
Rural 98.5 1.5 100.0 88
Education
No education 98.7 1.3 100.0 353
Basic education (1–8) 98.1 1.9 100.0 1,368
Lower basic education (1–5) 98.0 2.0 100.0 738
Upper basic education (6–8) 98.3 1.7 100.0 630
Secondary (9–12) 99.3 0.7 100.0 1,133
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.2 0.8 100.0 733
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.3 0.7 100.0 400
More than secondary (13 and
above) 100.0 0.0 100.0 247
Wealth quintile
Lowest 98.4 1.6 100.0 525
Second 98.4 1.6 100.0 608
Middle 98.9 1.1 100.0 631
Fourth 98.5 1.5 100.0 682
Highest 99.6 0.4 100.0 655
Total 98.7 1.3 100.0 3,101

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted

cases and has been suppressed.

102 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.4 Age at first marriage
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who were first married by specific exact ages and median age at first marriage, by
current age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage Median age
Percentage first married by exact age: never Number of at first
Current age 15 18 20 22 25 married respondents marriage
WOMEN

15–19 2.8 na na na na 78.4 2,643 a

20–24 5.8 34.9 53.9 na na 31.3 2,637 19.6
25–29 7.6 39.0 60.9 74.7 86.9 8.1 2,435 18.9
30–34 10.3 45.2 63.2 77.2 89.5 2.4 2,144 18.5
35–39 13.4 50.1 69.7 81.1 89.8 1.3 2,025 18.0
40–44 16.0 55.1 74.1 85.6 92.7 0.8 1,629 17.6
45–49 12.8 48.1 69.5 83.3 93.3 1.4 1,332 18.2
20–49 10.3 44.2 64.0 na na 9.3 12,202 18.5
25–49 11.6 46.7 66.7 79.7 89.9 3.2 9,565 18.3
MEN
15–19 0.1 na na na na 95.3 985 a
20–24 0.1 7.0 18.8 na na 64.7 857 a
25–29 0.6 9.8 22.8 38.6 61.1 27.5 716 23.5
30–34 0.8 9.1 22.2 35.6 60.6 8.4 616 23.6
35–39 0.9 17.2 35.4 51.6 68.9 2.5 639 21.8
40–44 2.3 19.1 36.8 58.8 73.2 1.0 604 21.2
45–49 2.2 14.0 37.3 56.5 76.7 0.9 496 21.3
20–49 1.0 12.2 27.9 na na 21.1 3,928 a
25–49 1.3 13.7 30.4 47.6 67.5 8.9 3,071 22.3

Note: The age at first marriage is defined as the age at which the respondent began living with her/his first spouse/partner.
na = Not applicable due to censoring
a = Omitted because less than 50% of the women or men began living with their spouse or partner for the first time before reaching
the beginning of the age group

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 103

 Table 4.5 Median age at first marriage by background
characteristics

Median age at first marriage among women age 20–49 and age 25–
49, and median age at first marriage among men age 25–49, by
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Background Women age Men age

characteristic 20–49 25–49 25–49
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 19.4 19.1 23.4
Dalit 17.2 17.0 20.1
Janajati 19.5 19.2 22.9
Madhesi 17.2 16.9 21.8
Muslim 16.8 16.5 20.4
Other * * *
Residence
Urban 18.8 18.5 22.9
Rural 18.1 17.9 21.3
Ecological zone
Mountain 18.4 18.4 22.0
Hill 19.3 19.0 23.2
Terai 18.1 17.8 21.7
Province
Koshi Province 19.6 19.5 23.7
Urban 19.8 19.7 23.7
Rural 19.2 19.1 23.8
Madhesh Province 16.8 16.6 20.9
Urban 16.8 16.6 20.9
Rural 16.8 16.6 21.0
Bagmati Province a 19.9 23.8
Urban a 20.2 24.4
Rural 18.7 18.6 21.5
Gandaki Province 19.1 18.8 23.5
Urban 19.4 19.0 23.7
Rural 18.5 18.3 22.6
Lumbini Province 18.6 18.2 21.0
Urban 18.8 18.4 21.7
Rural 18.2 17.9 20.4
Karnali Province 17.8 17.5 20.3
Urban 17.9 17.6 20.6
Rural 17.6 17.5 20.1
Sudurpashchim Province 18.3 18.0 21.2
Urban 18.5 18.1 21.7
Rural 17.9 17.7 20.3
Education
No education 16.9 16.9 19.8
Basic education (1–8) 17.5 17.6 20.9
Lower basic education (1–5) 17.4 17.5 20.7
Upper basic education (6–8) 17.7 17.8 21.1
Secondary (9–12) a 20.5 23.8
Lower secondary (9–10) 19.8 20.0 23.3
Higher secondary (11–12) a 21.5 24.8
More than secondary (13 and
above) a a a
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.8 17.8 20.6
Second 17.8 17.7 20.8
Middle 18.0 17.8 21.4
Fourth 18.7 18.2 23.0
Highest a 20.3 a
Total 18.5 18.3 22.3

Note: The age at first marriage is defined as the age at which the
respondent began living with her/his first spouse/partner. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
a = Omitted because less than 50% of the respondents began living
with their spouse or partner for the first time before reaching the
beginning of the age group

104 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.6 Age at first sexual intercourse
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who had first sexual intercourse by specific exact ages, percentage who never had
sexual intercourse, and median age at first sexual intercourse, by current age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
who never Median age
Percentage who had first sexual intercourse by exact age: had Number of at first
Current age 15 18 20 22 25 intercourse respondents intercourse
WOMEN

15–19 2.4 na na na na 77.9 2,643 a

20–24 4.8 33.9 54.5 na na 30.0 2,637 19.5
25–29 6.5 38.9 61.5 75.4 87.9 7.3 2,435 18.9
30–34 8.2 44.1 63.6 77.9 89.6 2.2 2,144 18.6
35–39 10.8 51.1 70.0 81.9 90.9 1.3 2,025 17.9
40–44 12.9 55.0 74.3 86.2 93.5 0.8 1,629 17.6
45–49 10.2 48.5 70.7 84.0 93.6 1.2 1,332 18.1
20–49 8.4 43.9 64.5 na na 8.8 12,202 18.5
25–49 9.4 46.7 67.2 80.4 90.7 2.9 9,565 18.3
15–24 3.6 na na na na 54.0 5,280 a
MEN
15–19 2.1 na na na na 81.2 985 a
20–24 1.9 17.2 41.6 na na 37.4 857 a
25–29 1.9 21.2 44.3 62.4 80.5 10.0 716 20.5
30–34 2.2 16.3 35.7 54.9 72.6 4.0 616 21.3
35–39 2.1 22.6 43.3 60.8 77.0 1.0 639 20.7
40–44 1.9 22.9 44.2 66.2 79.7 0.5 604 20.4
45–49 1.7 19.4 43.8 63.4 79.9 0.7 496 20.6
20–49 1.9 19.8 42.1 na na 10.9 3,928 a
25–49 2.0 20.5 42.3 61.5 77.9 3.6 3,071 20.7
15–24 2.0 na na na na 60.8 1,842 a

na = Not applicable due to censoring

a = Omitted because less than 50% of the respondents had sexual intercourse for the first time before reaching the beginning of the
age group

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 105

 Table 4.7 Median age at first sexual intercourse by background
characteristics

Median age at first sexual intercourse among women age 20–49 and age
25–49, and median age at first sexual intercourse among men age 25–49,
by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Background Women age Men age

characteristic 20–49 25–49 25–49
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 19.3 19.1 21.9
Dalit 17.3 17.1 19.3
Janajati 19.4 19.2 20.5
Madhesi 17.2 17.0 20.7
Muslim 16.9 16.5 20.1
Other * * *
Residence
Urban 18.8 18.5 20.9
Rural 18.1 17.9 20.1
Ecological zone
Mountain 18.4 18.4 20.4
Hill 19.2 19.0 20.9
Terai 18.1 17.8 20.6
Province
Koshi Province 19.5 19.5 22.2
Urban 19.8 19.7 22.3
Rural 19.1 19.1 22.0
Madhesh Province 16.8 16.6 20.5
Urban 16.8 16.6 20.5
Rural 16.8 16.7 20.4
Bagmati Province a 19.7 21.0
Urban a 20.1 21.2
Rural 18.6 18.5 20.3
Gandaki Province 19.0 18.7 20.7
Urban 19.2 18.9 20.9
Rural 18.6 18.4 20.4
Lumbini Province 18.5 18.2 20.0
Urban 18.9 18.5 20.6
Rural 18.1 17.9 19.2
Karnali Province 17.9 17.6 19.4
Urban 18.0 17.6 19.5
Rural 17.7 17.6 19.2
Sudurpashchim Province 18.3 18.0 19.9
Urban 18.6 18.1 20.3
Rural 18.0 17.7 18.8
Education
No education 16.9 16.9 19.5
Basic education (1–8) 17.5 17.6 19.7
Lower basic education (1–5) 17.4 17.5 19.7
Upper basic education (6–8) 17.7 17.7 19.8
Secondary (9–12) a 20.5 21.7
Lower secondary (9–10) 19.8 20.0 21.4
Higher secondary (11–12) a 21.4 22.1
More than secondary (13 and
above) a 24.5 a
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.8 17.8 20.0
Second 17.8 17.7 19.9
Middle 18.0 17.8 20.0
Fourth 18.6 18.2 21.1
Highest a 20.1 22.5
Total 18.5 18.3 20.7

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
a = Omitted because less than 50% of the respondents had intercourse for
the first time before reaching the beginning of the age group

106 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.8.1 Recent sexual activity: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by timing of last sexual intercourse, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Timing of last sexual intercourse Never had
Background Within the last Within One or more sexual Number of
characteristic 4 weeks 1 year1 years Missing intercourse Total women
Age
15–19 13.0 7.7 1.4 0.0 77.9 100.0 2,643
20–24 38.5 22.6 8.7 0.1 30.0 100.0 2,637
25–29 55.7 22.7 14.2 0.2 7.3 100.0 2,435
30–34 60.2 21.0 16.3 0.4 2.2 100.0 2,144
35–39 63.2 19.3 15.5 0.7 1.3 100.0 2,025
40–44 64.4 17.6 16.6 0.7 0.8 100.0 1,629
45–49 59.7 21.1 17.0 0.9 1.2 100.0 1,332
Marital status
Never married 0.4 1.0 1.1 0.0 97.4 100.0 3,203
Married or living together 63.5 24.2 11.8 0.4 0.1 100.0 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 2.1 6.1 90.7 0.6 0.5 100.0 462
Duration of current union2
<1 year 67.9 30.3 0.3 0.3 1.1 100.0 420
1–4 years 58.4 32.4 8.9 0.3 0.1 100.0 1,798
5–9 years 59.4 25.8 14.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 2,196
10–14 years 64.8 21.5 13.6 0.2 0.0 100.0 1,906
15–19 years 66.0 20.7 12.4 0.9 0.0 100.0 1,636
20–24 years 67.9 19.1 12.3 0.7 0.0 100.0 1,539
25+ years 65.6 22.8 11.1 0.5 0.0 100.0 1,686
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 45.8 19.2 11.4 0.4 23.2 100.0 4,152
Dalit 44.6 22.4 14.3 0.1 18.5 100.0 2,240
Janajati 49.1 17.3 11.6 0.5 21.4 100.0 5,428
Madhesi 53.3 16.4 11.0 0.3 19.0 100.0 2,333
Muslim 45.1 20.7 13.2 0.3 20.7 100.0 676
Other * * * * * 100.0 15
Residence
Urban 47.5 18.2 11.9 0.4 22.0 100.0 10,178
Rural 49.1 19.5 12.0 0.3 19.1 100.0 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 53.4 19.7 8.2 1.2 17.4 100.0 791
Hill 46.0 18.6 12.0 0.4 22.9 100.0 5,872
Terai 48.9 18.5 12.3 0.3 20.1 100.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 48.0 16.6 13.9 0.8 20.6 100.0 2,493
Urban 48.7 16.8 13.2 0.8 20.5 100.0 1,640
Rural 46.6 16.3 15.2 1.0 20.9 100.0 853
Madhesh Province 49.5 19.4 13.6 0.0 17.5 100.0 3,010
Urban 48.7 19.4 14.3 0.0 17.6 100.0 2,226
Rural 51.7 19.6 11.7 0.1 17.0 100.0 783
Bagmati Province 50.3 15.1 8.4 0.8 25.3 100.0 3,062
Urban 49.6 14.6 8.2 1.0 26.7 100.0 2,464
Rural 53.0 17.4 9.3 0.4 19.9 100.0 599
Gandaki Province 43.4 20.0 15.7 0.1 20.9 100.0 1,401
Urban 42.0 20.4 15.8 0.0 21.8 100.0 992
Rural 46.8 19.0 15.5 0.2 18.5 100.0 409
Lumbini Province 49.1 18.2 11.9 0.2 20.7 100.0 2,691
Urban 47.2 17.8 12.4 0.0 22.6 100.0 1,553
Rural 51.7 18.7 11.2 0.4 18.1 100.0 1,138
Karnali Province 46.1 22.8 10.5 0.0 20.5 100.0 909
Urban 45.9 22.8 10.3 0.1 21.0 100.0 507
Rural 46.5 22.9 10.7 0.0 19.9 100.0 402
Sudurpashchim Province 43.2 25.2 9.7 0.1 21.8 100.0 1,279
Urban 43.5 24.4 9.3 0.1 22.7 100.0 796
Rural 42.7 26.6 10.4 0.0 20.3 100.0 484
Education
No education 58.1 21.8 16.8 0.7 2.7 100.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 50.4 19.9 13.2 0.2 16.2 100.0 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 55.8 20.1 14.4 0.2 9.6 100.0 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 45.0 19.7 12.1 0.2 23.0 100.0 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 39.1 15.8 8.3 0.3 36.5 100.0 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 42.8 16.8 9.8 0.5 30.1 100.0 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 34.3 14.3 6.5 0.0 44.8 100.0 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 51.7 16.6 7.0 0.2 24.5 100.0 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 44.6 23.1 13.3 0.3 18.7 100.0 2,628
Second 48.0 19.4 13.1 0.4 19.1 100.0 2,857
Middle 47.7 19.1 13.4 0.6 19.3 100.0 3,028
Fourth 49.3 17.1 11.6 0.1 22.0 100.0 3,197
Highest 50.0 15.2 8.7 0.4 25.8 100.0 3,135
Total 48.0 18.6 11.9 0.4 21.1 100.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Excludes women who had sexual intercourse within the last 4 weeks
2
Excludes women who are not currently married

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 107

 Table 4.8.2 Recent sexual activity: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by timing of last sexual intercourse, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Timing of last sexual intercourse Never had
Background Within the last Within One or more sexual Number
characteristic 4 weeks 1 year1 years intercourse Total of men
Age
15–19 6.1 8.2 4.5 81.2 100.0 985
20–24 31.2 22.4 9.0 37.4 100.0 857
25–29 62.7 19.5 7.8 10.0 100.0 716
30–34 78.4 13.3 4.3 4.0 100.0 616
35–39 82.5 13.2 3.3 1.0 100.0 639
40–44 80.4 14.7 4.4 0.5 100.0 604
45–49 77.5 16.7 5.1 0.7 100.0 496
Marital status
Never married 5.2 15.1 10.2 69.5 100.0 1,768
Married or living together 82.6 15.3 2.0 0.0 100.0 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed (6.1) (17.6) (74.2) (2.2) 100.0 44
Duration of current union2
<1 year 81.1 18.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 146
1–4 years 75.5 22.6 1.9 0.0 100.0 508
5–9 years 82.6 16.0 1.4 0.0 100.0 569
10–14 years 84.7 13.5 1.8 0.0 100.0 525
15–19 years 89.9 9.1 1.1 0.0 100.0 493
20–24 years 84.9 12.6 2.5 0.0 100.0 490
25+ years 77.4 17.5 5.1 0.0 100.0 371
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 53.2 16.2 6.0 24.6 100.0 1,232
Dalit 56.2 14.8 6.8 22.2 100.0 658
Janajati 55.2 16.3 6.4 22.1 100.0 1,869
Madhesi 51.6 13.0 3.2 32.2 100.0 917
Muslim 52.8 13.3 3.6 30.2 100.0 228
Other * * * * 100.0 8
Residence
Urban 51.9 15.8 5.9 26.4 100.0 3,462
Rural 59.3 13.9 5.1 21.7 100.0 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 63.4 17.0 2.9 16.6 100.0 255
Hill 51.6 16.8 6.0 25.5 100.0 1,973
Terai 55.0 14.0 5.6 25.5 100.0 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 46.7 19.0 8.6 25.7 100.0 882
Urban 46.9 19.7 8.3 25.1 100.0 604
Rural 46.3 17.5 9.2 27.0 100.0 278
Madhesh Province 56.1 10.5 3.5 29.9 100.0 997
Urban 55.0 11.3 3.4 30.3 100.0 722
Rural 58.9 8.6 3.7 28.8 100.0 275
Bagmati Province 48.2 18.0 6.0 27.8 100.0 1,214
Urban 45.8 18.6 5.9 29.6 100.0 1,016
Rural 60.3 15.1 6.2 18.4 100.0 198
Gandaki Province 59.8 17.1 4.9 18.2 100.0 387
Urban 58.7 18.8 4.1 18.4 100.0 264
Rural 62.1 13.5 6.6 17.9 100.0 123
Lumbini Province 60.5 14.6 4.7 20.1 100.0 812
Urban 58.1 13.6 6.2 22.1 100.0 468
Rural 63.7 16.1 2.7 17.5 100.0 344
Karnali Province 64.7 11.4 6.9 16.9 100.0 266
Urban 62.8 11.5 8.0 17.6 100.0 154
Rural 67.4 11.2 5.5 16.0 100.0 113
Sudurpashchim Province 57.8 12.4 4.9 24.9 100.0 355
Urban 53.9 11.9 6.6 27.5 100.0 233
Rural 65.3 13.2 1.5 20.0 100.0 122
Education
No education 75.5 13.7 4.9 5.9 100.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 60.2 14.0 6.3 19.4 100.0 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 67.0 16.8 7.7 8.5 100.0 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 54.3 11.6 5.2 29.0 100.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 43.9 16.7 5.1 34.4 100.0 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 47.9 15.3 4.6 32.2 100.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 38.4 18.6 5.8 37.2 100.0 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 61.2 14.9 5.9 18.0 100.0 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 60.5 13.9 4.5 21.1 100.0 751
Second 53.9 16.1 7.4 22.6 100.0 933
Middle 55.8 14.2 5.8 24.3 100.0 957
Fourth 52.4 15.1 5.9 26.7 100.0 1,135
Highest 50.2 16.7 4.5 28.6 100.0 1,137
Total 54.1 15.3 5.6 25.0 100.0 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Excludes men who had sexual intercourse within the last 4 weeks
2
Excludes men who are not currently married

108 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

FERTILITY 5
Key Findings

▪ Total fertility rate: The total fertility rate for the 3 years
preceding the survey is 2.1 births per woman, a decline
from 2.3 in 2016.
▪ Birth intervals: The median interval between births is
40.7 months, with 20% of births occurring less than 24
months after the preceding birth.
▪ Postpartum amenorrhea: The median duration of
postpartum amenorrhea is 6.3 months, the median
duration of abstinence from sexual intercourse is 3.5
months, and the median duration of insusceptibility to
pregnancy is 7.5 months.
▪ Age at first birth: The median age at first birth among
women age 25–49 is 20.6 years.
▪ Teenage pregnancy: Among women age 15–19, 14%
have ever been pregnant, 10% have had a live birth, and
2% have had a pregnancy loss.
▪ Miscarriages and induced abortions: Among women
age 15–49, 9% have had a miscarriage and 10% have
had an induced abortion.

T
he number of children that a woman bears depends on many factors, including the age she begins
childbearing, how long she waits between births, and her fecundity. Postponing first births and
extending the interval between births have played a role in reducing fertility levels in many
countries. These factors also have positive health consequences. In contrast, short birth intervals—of less
than 24 months—can lead to harmful outcomes for both newborns and their mothers, such as preterm birth,
low birth weight, and death. Childbearing at a very young age is associated with an increased risk of
complications during pregnancy and childbirth and higher rates of neonatal mortality.

This chapter describes the current level of fertility in Nepal and some of its proximate determinants. It
presents information on the total fertility rate, birth intervals, insusceptibility to pregnancy (because of
postpartum amenorrhea, postpartum abstinence, or menopause), age at first birth, teenage pregnancy, and
induced abortion rates.

5.1 CURRENT FERTILITY

Total fertility rate

The average number of children a woman would have by the end of her
childbearing years if she bore children at the current age-specific fertility rates.
Age-specific fertility rates are calculated for the 3 years before the survey,
based on detailed pregnancy histories provided by women.
Sample: Women age 15–49

The total fertility rate (TFR) in Nepal is 2.1 children per woman (Table 5.1). Thus, Nepal has met its
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target of reducing the fertility rate to 2.1 (National Planning

Fertility • 109
 Commission 2020a). The TFR of 2.1 children per woman is considered an average estimate of
replacement-level fertility (Searchinger et al. 2013; United Nations 2000). The replacement fertility level
refers to the level of fertility at which a population replaces itself from one generation to the next, exactly,
without migration. The fertility rate is higher among women in rural areas than among those in urban areas
(2.4 versus 2.0). The age-specific fertility rate peaks
Figure 5.1 Trends in fertility
among women age 20–24 (160 births per 1,000
by residence
women) and then drops in older age groups, with
women age 40 or above having the lowest fertility TFR for the 3 years before each survey

rate.
4.8
4.4
Trends: The TFR has declined markedly in Nepal 4.6
Rural
over time. Between 1996 and 2022, the TFR 4.1 3.3
2.8 2.9
decreased by 2.5 children (4.6 versus 2.1). The Total 2.4
2.9 3.1 2.3
greatest drop was seen from 2001 to 2006 (4.1 2.6
Urban 2.1
versus 3.1 children) (Figure 5.1). 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.0
1.6
Table 5.3.1 presents trends in age-specific fertility
rates for 5-year periods preceding the survey. 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
Results from the 2022 NDHS and the previous NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
NDHS surveys show that for the 3-year periods
preceding the survey the fertility rate peaks at age
20–24 and declines steadily thereafter (Figure 5.2 Figure 5.2 Trends in age-specific fertility
and Table 5.3.2). Births per 1,000 women
300
Patterns by background characteristics
250
1996 NFHS
▪ The TFR is highest among the Muslim ethnic 200 2001 NDHS
2006 NDHS
group (3.3 children per women), followed by the 2011 NDHS
150
Madhesi and Dalit groups (2.4 children per 2016 NDHS
2022 NDHS
woman each). Fertility is lowest among the 100
Janajati group (1.8 children per woman) (Table
50
5.2).
0
▪ The TFR is lower in the hill zone (1.8 children 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49
per woman) than in the terai (2.2 children per Age group
woman) and mountain (2.7 children per woman) zones (Table 5.2).

▪ The TFR ranges from 1.4 children per woman in Figure 5.3 Fertility by province
Gandaki Province to 2.7 in Madhesh Province, a
Total fertility rate for the 3 years before
difference of 1.3 children per woman (Figure
the survey
5.3).
Madhesh Province 2.7
▪ The TFR declines with increasing education. On Karnali Province 2.6
average, women with no education have twice as
many children as women with more than a Sudurpashchim Province 2.3
secondary education (3.3 versus 1.6 children). Koshi Province 2.2

Lumbini Province 1.9

Bagmati Province 1.6

Gandaki Province 1.4

110 • Fertility
▪ The TFR also decreases with increasing Figure 5.4 Fertility by household wealth
household wealth. Women in the lowest wealth TFR for the 3 years before the survey
quintile, on average, have 2.8 children, while
women in the highest wealth quintile have 1.6 2.8
children (Figure 5.4). 2.4
2.1
5.2 CHILDREN EVER BORN AND LIVING 1.7 1.6

Data on the number of children born and those who

are still alive were gathered from women age 15–49.
On average, by the end of their reproductive years
women age 45–49 have given birth to 3.4 children,
of whom 3.1 survived to the time of the survey Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
(Table 5.4). Similarly, 3.2 of the 3.5 children on Poorest Wealthiest
average born to married women in this age group were still alive.

5.3 BIRTH INTERVALS

Median birth interval

Number of months since the preceding birth by which half of children are born.
Sample: Non-first births in the 5 years before the survey

Optimal spacing of successive births has a positive impact on the health of the mother and child. Short
birth intervals (less than 24 months) can lead to health complications for both the mother and her child
(Marston 2006; Rutstein 2005). Longer birth intervals (more than 59 months) have also been associated
with an increased risk of complications such as
preeclampsia, labor dystocia, hemorrhage, and Figure 5.5 Birth intervals
obstructed labor (Bauserman et al. 2020; Conde- Percent distribution of non-first births
Agudelo et al. 2007; Fotso et al. 2013; Rutstein by number of months since the
preceding birth
2005). The median birth interval in Nepal is 40.7
7–17
months (Table 5.5). One in five women (20%) give 7%
60+
birth less than 24 months after the preceding birth, 28%
13% between 18 and 23 months, and 7% between 7
and 17 months (Figure 5.5). Twenty-eight percent of 48–59 18–23
women give birth more than 59 months after the 13% 13%
preceding birth. 24–35
36–47
16% 23%
Trends: The median birth interval has increased
steadily since 2001, from 31.8 months to 40.7
months. Since 2011, the percentage of children born
within 24 months of the preceding birth has hovered between 20% and 21%. However, the proportion of
children born more than 59 months after the preceding birth has risen over time, from 8% in 1996 to 28%
in 2022. Sharp increases were observed between 2006 and 2011 (12% to 19%) and between 2016 and 2022
(20% to 28%).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The median birth interval is 18 months shorter if the child from the preceding birth has died (23.9
months) than if the child is living (41.9 months) (Table 5.5).

▪ The median birth interval is higher in the hill zone (48.9 months) than in the mountain (40.0 months)
and terai (37.2 months) zones.

Fertility • 111
 ▪ The median birth interval ranges from 31.3 months in Madhesh Province to 54.8 months in Gandaki
Province and 54.9 months in Bagmati Province.

▪ The median birth interval increases from 36.1 months among mothers with no education to 44.5
months among those with a secondary education and then rises sharply to 62.9 months among those
with more than a secondary education (Table 5.5).

▪ Similarly, the median birth interval rises from 34.2 months among mothers in the lowest wealth
quintile to 44.4 months among those in the fourth quintile and then increases sharply to 59.6 months
among those in the highest quintile.

5.4 INSUSCEPTIBILITY TO PREGNANCY

Postpartum amenorrhea
The period of time after the end of a pregnancy and before the resumption of
menstruation.
Postpartum abstinence
The period of time after the end of a pregnancy and before the resumption of
sexual intercourse.
Postpartum insusceptibility
The period of time during which a woman is considered not at risk of
pregnancy because she is postpartum amenorrheic and/or abstaining from
sexual intercourse postpartum.

Median duration of postpartum amenorrhea

Number of months after the end of a pregnancy by which time half of women
have begun menstruating.
Sample: Women who had a live birth or stillbirth in the 3 years before the
survey

Median duration of postpartum insusceptibility

Number of months after the end of a pregnancy by which time half of women
are no longer protected against pregnancy by either postpartum amenorrhea
or abstinence from sexual intercourse.
Sample: Women who had a live birth or stillbirth in the 3 years before the
survey

Postpartum amenorrhea refers to the interval between childbirth and the return of menstruation. The length
and intensity of breastfeeding influence the duration of amenorrhea, which offers protection from
conception. Postpartum abstinence refers to the period between childbirth and the time when a woman
resumes sexual activity. Almost all women are insusceptible to pregnancy during the first 2 months after a
birth. Continued postpartum amenorrhea and abstinence may protect women from pregnancy for longer
periods.

Among live births or stillbirths in the 3 years preceding the survey, the median duration of postpartum
amenorrhea is 6.3 months and the median duration of abstinence from sexual intercourse is 3.5 months
(Table 5.6). Women are insusceptible to pregnancy (still amenorrheic or still abstaining) for a median of
7.5 months.

Trends: The median duration of postpartum amenorrhea fell from 11.1 months in 2001 to 6.0 months in
2016 before increasing slightly to 6.3 months in 2022, while the median duration of postpartum
insusceptibility declined from 11.4 to 7.5 months. The median duration of abstinence increased from 2.2
months in 2001 to 3.5 months in 2022.

112 • Fertility
Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women from the Madhesi ethnic group remain amenorrheic for 2.4 months longer than women from
the Dalit group (7.6 months versus 5.2 months) (Table 5.7).

▪ The duration of postpartum amenorrhea ranges from 5.5 months in Lumbini Province to 8.0 months in
Karnali Province, a difference of 2.5 months.

5.5 AGE OF FIRST MENSTRUATION

In Nepal, the mean age at the onset of menstruation among women age 15–49 is 13.6 years (Table 5.8).
Most women had their first menstruation at age 13 (26%); 25% had their first menstruation at age 14 and
24% at age 15 or above. The mean age at menarche increases gradually with age, from 13.2 years in the
15–19 age group to 14.1 years in the 45–49 age group.

5.6 ARRIVAL OF MENOPAUSE

Menopause
Women are considered to have reached menopause if they are neither
pregnant nor postpartum amenorrheic and have not had a menstrual period in
the 6 months before the survey, if they report being menopausal or having had
a hysterectomy, or if they have never menstruated.
Sample: Women age 30–49

Fourteen percent of women age 30–49 are menopausal. The proportion increases with age, from 5%
among women age 30–34 to 42% among women age 48–49 (Table 5.9).

5.7 AGE AT FIRST BIRTH

Median age at first birth

Age by which half of women have had their first child.
Sample: Women age 20–49 and 25–49

The median age at first birth among women age 25–49 in Nepal is 20.6 years (Table 5.10). More than one
in three women (36%) age 20–24 have had a live birth by age 20. Fifteen percent of women in the same
age group have had a live birth by age 18 and 1% by age 15.

Trends: The median age at first birth among women age 25–49 has increased by almost 1 year since 1996,
from 19.8 years to 20.6 years. The proportion of women age 20–24 who have given birth by age 20 has
declined since 1996, with a sharp dip between 2006 and 2011 (from 49% to 39%) and to 36% in 2022.
There has been a similar gradual decline in the proportion of women giving birth by age 18 (from 26% in
1996 to 20% in 2022).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ On average, women age 25–49 from the Muslim ethnic group have their first live birth 2.2 years
before women from the Brahmin/Chhetri group (19.2 years versus 21.4 years) (Table 5.11).

Fertility • 113
 ▪ The median age at first birth among women age Figure 5.6 Median age at first birth
25–49 ranges from 19.3 years in Madhesh by education
Province to 21.9 years in Bagmati Province. Median age at first birth among women
age 25–49
▪ Women age 25–49 with no education give birth
22.6
3.1 years earlier than women with a secondary 19.5 19.8
education (19.5 years versus 22.6 years) (Figure
5.6).
a
▪ On average, women age 25–49 in the highest
wealth quintile delay their first birth by 2 years No education Basic Secondary More than
education (9–12) secondary
or more when compared with women in the
(1–8) (13 and
other wealth quintiles (Table 5.11). above)
a = Omitted because less than 50% of the women had a birth
5.8 TEENAGE PREGNANCY before reaching the beginning of the age group.

Teenage pregnancy
Percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever been pregnant.
Sample: Women age 15–19

In Nepal, 14% of women age 15–19 have ever been pregnant, 10% have had a live birth, and 2% have had
a pregnancy loss (Table 5.12). Two percent each of women and men age 15–19 had sexual intercourse
before age 15. Three percent of women age 15–19 were married by age 15, and 1% had been pregnant by
that age (Table 5.13).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever been pregnant increases with age, from 1%
among those age 15 to 32% among those age 19 (Table 5.12).

▪ Teenage pregnancy is highest in the Muslim (22%) and Dalit (21%) ethnic groups and lowest in the
Brahmin/Chhetri group (8%) (Table 5.12).

▪ Teenage pregnancy ranges from 8% in Bagmati Figure 5.7 Teenage pregnancy by

Province to 21% in Karnali Province. household wealth
Percentage of women age 15–19 who
▪ The percentage of women age 15–19 who have have ever been pregnant
ever been pregnant decreases with increasing
education, from 33% among those with no
education to 8% among those with a secondary
education.
17 19
▪ Young women in the second wealth quintile 14 12
(19%) are more likely to have begun
childbearing than those in the highest wealth 4
quintile (4%) (Figure 5.7).
Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
Poorest Wealthiest

114 • Fertility
5.9 PREGNANCY OUTCOMES AND INDUCED ABORTION RATES

Pregnancy outcomes
Live birth: a child who was born alive, even if for a very short time
Stillbirth: a child who was born dead (no signs of life) following a
pregnancy that lasted 7 months (28 weeks) or longer
Miscarriage: a pregnancy that ended involuntarily before completing
7 months (28 weeks)
Induced abortion: a pregnancy that was voluntarily ended
Sample: Pregnancies among women age 15–49 ending in the 3 years
preceding the survey

Four out of five pregnancies (80%) in the 3 years Figure 5.8 Pregnancy outcomes
preceding the survey ended in a live birth, 9% Percent distribution of pregnancies ending
resulted in a miscarriage, 10% led to an induced in the 3 years before the survey
abortion, and 1% ended in a stillbirth (Figure 5.8 Stillbirth
and Table 5.14). The total abortion rate in Nepal is 1%
0.3 abortions per woman (Table 5.15). The age- Miscarriage
9%
specific abortion rate is highest among women age
25–29 (15 abortions per 1,000 women), followed by
women age 20–24 (12 abortions per 1,000 women) Induced
Live birth abortion
and women age 30–34 (11 abortions per 1,000 80% 10%
women).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Miscarriages are highest among women age 35–

44 (17%), followed by women less than age 20 (12%). Induced abortions are highest among women
age 35–44 (30%) and women age 25–34 (12%) (Table 5.14).

▪ By pregnancy order, miscarriage increases from 9% each for the first and second pregnancies to 13%
for the fourth pregnancy. Induced abortions increase with increasing pregnancy order, from 2% for the
first pregnancy to 29% for the fifth pregnancy or higher (Table 5.14).

▪ Induced abortions are lowest in the Muslim (3%) and Madhesi (4%) ethnic groups and highest in the
Brahmin/Chhetri group (13%).

▪ Miscarriages range from 8% in Koshi Province to 15% in Gandaki Province, while induced abortions
range from 4% in Madhesh Province to 17% in Gandaki Province.

▪ Miscarriages increase with increasing wealth, from 8% in the lowest wealth quintile to 13% in the
highest quintile.

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on fertility levels and some of the determinants of fertility, see the following tables:

▪ Table 5.1 Current fertility

▪ Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics
▪ Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates
▪ Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates
▪ Table 5.4 Children ever born and living
▪ Table 5.5 Birth intervals

Fertility • 115
 ▪ Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhea, abstinence, and insusceptibility
▪ Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum
insusceptibility
▪ Table 5.8 Age at first menstruation
▪ Table 5.9 Menopause
▪ Table 5.10 Age at first birth
▪ Table 5.11 Median age at first birth
▪ Table 5.12 Teenage pregnancy
▪ Table 5.13 Sexual and reproductive health behaviors before age 15
▪ Table 5.14 Pregnancy outcome by background characteristics
▪ Table 5.15 Induced abortion rates

116 • Fertility
Table 5.1 Current fertility
Age-specific and total fertility rates, the general fertility
rate, and the crude birth rate for the 3 years preceding
the survey, by residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Age group Urban Rural Total
10–14 [0] [0] [0]
15–19 64 86 71
20–24 149 184 160
25–29 104 124 110
30–34 55 60 57
35–39 16 20 17
40–44 4 6 5
45–49 [1] [0] [1]
TFR (15–
49) 2.0 2.4 2.1
GFR 73 88 78
CBR 19.3 21.4 20.0

Note: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women.

Estimates in brackets are truncated. Rates are for the
period 1–36 months preceding the interview. Rates for
the 10–14 age group are based on retrospective data
from women age 15–17.
TFR: Total fertility rate, expressed per woman
GFR: General fertility rate, expressed per 1,000
women age 15–44
CBR: Crude birth rate, expressed per 1,000 population

Fertility • 117
 Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics
Total fertility rate for the 3 years preceding the survey, percentage of women age
15–49 currently pregnant, and mean number of children ever born to women age
40–49, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of Mean number
women age of children
15–49 ever born to
Background Total fertility currently women age
characteristic rate pregnant 40–49
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 2.0 3.3 3.0
Dalit 2.4 5.0 3.9
Janajati 1.8 2.7 2.9
Madhesi 2.4 6.1 3.8
Muslim 3.3 7.5 4.8
Residence
Urban 2.0 3.9 3.1
Rural 2.4 4.0 3.6
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.7 4.2 3.9
Hill 1.8 3.0 3.1
Terai 2.2 4.6 3.3
Province
Koshi Province 2.2 3.0 2.9
Urban 2.2 2.8 2.8
Rural 2.3 3.5 3.3
Madhesh Province 2.7 6.7 4.0
Urban 2.6 7.0 4.1
Rural 2.7 5.6 3.6
Bagmati Province 1.6 2.5 2.7
Urban 1.5 2.5 2.5
Rural 2.4 2.7 3.5
Gandaki Province 1.4 3.1 2.9
Urban 1.2 3.2 2.7
Rural 1.8 2.8 3.2
Lumbini Province 1.9 3.5 3.2
Urban 1.8 3.3 2.9
Rural 2.2 3.8 3.5
Karnali Province 2.6 5.1 4.3
Urban 2.1 5.1 3.9
Rural 3.2 5.2 4.9
Sudurpashchim Province 2.3 3.8 3.7
Urban 2.2 3.4 3.5
Rural 2.3 4.5 4.1
Education
No education 3.3 2.8 3.8
Basic education (1–8) 2.3 4.8 2.9
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.5 4.8 3.0
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.2 4.8 2.7
Secondary (9–12) 1.8 4.1 2.1
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.0 4.0 2.1
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.7 4.2 2.0
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.6 3.4 (1.8)
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.8 4.5 4.3
Second 2.4 4.1 3.5
Middle 2.1 4.4 3.4
Fourth 1.7 4.4 3.0
Highest 1.6 2.5 2.3
Total 2.1 4.0 3.3

Note: Total fertility rates are for the period 1–36 months prior to the interview.
Total includes other ethnic groups not shown separately due to few cases.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

118 • Fertility
 Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates
Age-specific fertility rates for 5-year periods preceding the
survey, by age group, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of years preceding survey
Age group 0–4 5–9 10–14 15–19
10–14 [1] [2] [2] [2]
15–19 76 92 94 121
20–24 162 175 196 221
25–29 115 124 144 171
30–34 54 61 86 [103]
35–39 19 25 [40]
40–44 6 [7]
45–49 [1]

Note: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women.

Estimates in brackets are truncated. Rates exclude the month
of the interview. For the 0–4 year period, rates for the 10–14
age group are based on retrospective data from women age
15–19.

Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates

Age-specific and total fertility rates (TFR) for the 3-year period preceding several surveys, by mother’s age at the time
of the birth, Nepal DHS 2022

Mother’s age 1996 NFHS 2001 NDHS 2006 NDHS 2011 NDHS 2016 NDHS 2022 NDHS
at birth (1993–1995) (1998–2000) (2003–2005) (2008–2010) (2013–2015) (2019–2021)
15–19 127 110 98 81 88 71
20–24 266 248 234 187 172 160
25–29 229 205 144 126 124 110
30–34 160 136 84 71 59 57
35–39 94 81 48 36 18 17
40–44 37 34 16 14 6 5
45–49 [15] [7] [2] [5] [2] [1]
TFR (15–49) 4.6 4.1 3.1 2.6 2.3 2.1

Note: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women. Rates for the 45–49 age group may be slightly biased due to
truncation and are therefore displayed in brackets.

Table 5.4 Children ever born and living

Percent distribution of all women and currently married women age 15–49 by number of children ever born, mean number of children ever born,
and mean number of living children, according to age group, Nepal DHS 2022
Mean
number
of Mean
Number children number
Number of children ever born of ever of living
Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ Total women born children
ALL WOMEN
15–19 90.4 8.3 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,643 0.11 0.11
20–24 44.9 33.8 16.6 3.9 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,637 0.82 0.78
25–29 15.9 29.9 35.3 13.8 4.1 0.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,435 1.63 1.57
30–34 6.3 19.7 39.5 20.3 10.2 2.9 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,144 2.22 2.12
35–39 4.3 11.0 35.1 25.8 15.1 5.2 2.4 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 2,025 2.68 2.52
40–44 2.3 6.5 30.0 27.8 16.3 9.6 4.7 1.8 0.7 0.2 0.2 100.0 1,629 3.13 2.88
45–49 2.5 5.5 24.4 24.8 20.7 11.0 6.6 1.9 1.5 0.7 0.6 100.0 1,332 3.43 3.12
Total 28.6 17.9 24.9 14.7 8.0 3.3 1.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 100.0 14,845 1.77 1.66
CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN
15–19 55.1 38.8 5.5 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 563 0.52 0.50
20–24 19.9 49.0 24.3 5.8 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,783 1.19 1.14
25–29 8.3 32.1 38.7 15.2 4.6 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,198 1.79 1.72
30–34 3.9 19.7 41.0 20.6 10.6 3.0 1.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,027 2.29 2.18
35–39 3.0 10.9 35.6 26.3 15.4 5.3 2.5 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 1,906 2.72 2.56
40–44 1.4 6.0 29.9 28.6 16.4 9.7 5.0 1.9 0.7 0.2 0.2 100.0 1,515 3.18 2.93
45–49 1.3 5.3 24.8 24.9 21.0 11.2 6.8 2.0 1.4 0.7 0.7 100.0 1,188 3.49 3.19
Total 9.1 22.9 31.9 18.7 10.1 4.1 2.1 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 100.0 11,180 2.25 2.11

Fertility • 119
 Table 5.5 Birth intervals
Percent distribution of non-first births in the 5 years preceding the survey by number of months since preceding birth, and median number of months since
preceding birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Median
number of
months
Number of since
Background Months since preceding birth non-first preceding
characteristic 7–17 18–23 24–35 36–47 48–59 60+ Total births birth
Mother’s age
15–19 (24.8) (42.9) (27.1) (5.2) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 36 (23.1)
20–29 8.9 15.8 28.8 17.4 12.4 16.7 100.0 1,848 34.8
30–39 3.8 7.7 14.7 12.7 15.0 46.1 100.0 1,079 56.9
40–49 0.0 1.2 8.3 12.9 9.7 67.8 100.0 93 *
Sex of preceding birth
Male 6.8 12.2 22.7 14.9 13.0 30.3 100.0 1,425 42.1
Female 7.2 13.3 23.5 16.0 13.1 26.8 100.0 1,631 39.7
Survival of preceding birth
Living 5.5 12.5 23.3 15.6 13.5 29.4 100.0 2,888 41.9
Dead 32.9 17.6 20.5 12.7 5.5 10.7 100.0 167 23.9
Birth order
2–3 7.0 12.4 22.3 15.0 13.4 29.8 100.0 2,480 41.7
4–6 7.5 14.3 27.2 17.7 11.2 22.1 100.0 542 36.4
7+ (6.4) (18.1) (20.1) (12.6) (15.5) (27.2) 100.0 34 (42.9)
Residence
Urban 6.6 12.1 21.5 15.5 13.5 30.8 100.0 1,941 42.7
Rural 7.8 14.1 26.0 15.4 12.3 24.3 100.0 1,115 37.5
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.9 11.7 27.2 13.9 15.7 25.7 100.0 214 40.0
Hill 5.6 8.5 19.0 15.2 15.6 36.1 100.0 974 48.9
Terai 7.9 15.2 24.9 15.8 11.5 24.7 100.0 1,867 37.2
Province
Koshi Province 8.5 8.7 16.4 15.3 13.1 37.9 100.0 492 48.8
Urban 7.9 7.4 14.5 14.5 13.5 42.2 100.0 317 52.2
Rural 9.6 11.0 19.9 16.8 12.5 30.2 100.0 176 42.4
Madhesh Province 9.0 19.9 31.8 15.2 10.1 14.0 100.0 956 31.3
Urban 8.4 19.6 31.2 15.9 9.7 15.3 100.0 711 32.7
Rural 10.6 20.7 33.5 13.3 11.4 10.4 100.0 245 29.1
Bagmati Province 4.8 5.9 13.9 14.9 17.3 43.2 100.0 437 54.9
Urban 4.4 3.2 8.8 16.0 17.8 49.8 100.0 306 59.9
Rural 5.5 12.3 25.6 12.2 16.2 28.1 100.0 132 42.0
Gandaki Province 2.0 7.4 16.1 12.9 18.0 43.5 100.0 173 54.8
Urban 1.2 5.1 15.0 10.3 22.8 45.6 100.0 104 57.2
Rural 3.1 10.9 17.8 17.0 10.8 40.4 100.0 69 48.5
Lumbini Province 6.7 12.9 18.6 16.1 12.1 33.6 100.0 494 44.3
Urban 5.4 12.3 15.4 16.8 13.9 36.1 100.0 253 48.0
Rural 8.1 13.4 22.0 15.4 10.1 30.9 100.0 241 41.8
Karnali Province 4.6 11.0 29.1 17.1 15.6 22.5 100.0 237 39.8
Urban 4.6 10.1 27.3 15.1 14.4 28.6 100.0 105 41.3
Rural 4.7 11.7 30.5 18.7 16.6 17.8 100.0 132 38.8
Sudurpashchim Province 7.1 11.5 27.7 16.7 13.1 24.0 100.0 267 38.5
Urban 7.1 10.0 27.5 16.6 15.3 23.4 100.0 146 39.1
Rural 7.1 13.2 27.9 16.8 10.3 24.7 100.0 121 36.9
Mother’s education
No education 8.2 14.8 26.9 15.2 11.3 23.7 100.0 949 36.1
Basic education (1–8) 8.4 13.9 21.0 15.2 13.6 27.9 100.0 1,146 40.1
Lower basic education (1–5) 10.3 13.1 22.6 15.3 12.5 26.2 100.0 659 38.8
Upper basic education (6–8) 5.9 14.9 18.9 15.0 15.1 30.2 100.0 487 43.8
Secondary (9–12) 4.6 10.3 23.0 17.0 13.4 31.7 100.0 870 44.5
Lower secondary (9–10) 5.3 10.5 22.5 18.3 12.9 30.5 100.0 574 43.4
Higher secondary (11–12) 3.2 9.8 24.2 14.6 14.3 33.9 100.0 295 46.2
More than secondary (13 and
above) 0.8 3.0 12.6 8.3 22.8 52.5 100.0 90 62.9
Wealth quintile
Lowest 9.4 15.3 28.6 15.9 10.9 20.0 100.0 824 34.2
Second 8.2 14.0 25.3 15.2 12.0 25.3 100.0 672 37.7
Middle 7.8 12.7 22.7 14.7 13.9 28.2 100.0 628 40.9
Fourth 4.1 13.1 19.5 17.4 15.6 30.3 100.0 543 44.4
Highest 3.1 5.2 13.8 13.7 14.8 49.4 100.0 388 59.6
Total 7.0 12.8 23.2 15.5 13.1 28.4 100.0 3,055 40.7

Note: First-order births are excluded. The interval for multiple births is the number of months since the preceding pregnancy that ended in a live birth. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

120 • Fertility
Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhea, abstinence, and insusceptibility
Percentage of live births and stillbirths in the 3 years preceding the survey for which mothers are
postpartum amenorrheic, abstaining, and insusceptible, by number of months since birth, and median
and mean durations, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of births for which the mother is: Number
Months since birth Amenorrheic Abstaining Insusceptible1 of births2
<2 91.1 91.4 97.1 169
2–3 76.0 53.0 85.3 166
4–5 59.5 28.2 68.4 210
6–7 45.5 18.0 52.7 160
8–9 25.5 20.4 36.4 165
10–11 16.9 12.5 26.5 122
12–13 9.2 8.8 17.8 162
14–15 7.2 11.3 17.3 193
16–17 7.8 7.8 14.8 166
18–19 2.0 5.8 7.7 168
20–21 2.4 10.5 12.2 150
22–23 4.3 6.6 10.4 153
24–25 4.8 8.9 12.6 145
26–27 1.4 5.1 6.5 201
28–29 1.2 8.2 9.4 205
30–31 2.0 7.8 9.0 192
32–33 2.7 4.9 7.4 190
34–35 0.0 4.1 4.1 170
Total 20.0 17.4 27.5 3,086
Median 6.3 3.5 7.5 na
Mean 8.2 7.3 10.9 na

Note: Estimates are based on status at the time of the survey.

na = Not applicable
1
Includes live births and stillbirths for which mothers are either still amenorrheic or still abstaining (or
both) following birth
2
Includes live births and stillbirths

Fertility • 121
 Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum insusceptibility
Median number of months of postpartum amenorrhea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum insusceptibility
following live births and stillbirths in the 3 years preceding the survey, by background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022
Background Postpartum Postpartum Postpartum
characteristic amenorrhea abstinence insusceptibility1
Mother’s age
15–29 6.4 3.4 7.6
30–49 6.0 3.8 7.2
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 6.5 4.3 7.6
Dalit 5.2 3.8 7.4
Janajati 6.5 3.5 7.5
Madhesi 7.6 * 8.1
Muslim (3.4) (3.1) (4.7)
Other * * *
Residence
Urban 6.5 3.4 7.5
Rural 5.8 3.7 7.7
Ecological zone
Mountain (7.0) * (8.1)
Hill 6.3 3.7 7.5
Terai 6.3 3.4 7.4
Province
Koshi Province 5.7 4.0 6.2
Madhesh Province 6.4 (2.5) 7.7
Bagmati Province 6.8 3.8 8.3
Gandaki Province (5.6) (4.5) (6.0)
Lumbini Province 5.5 * 6.9
Karnali Province 8.0 3.5 8.9
Sudurpashchim Province 7.8 4.9 9.9
Mother’s education
No education 6.2 * 7.9
Basic education (1–8) 6.0 2.9 7.5
Lower basic education (1–5) 6.0 (3.0) 8.0
Upper basic education (6–8) 6.0 (2.8) 6.9
Secondary (9–12) 6.7 4.2 7.6
Lower secondary (9–10) 6.7 4.0 7.5
Higher secondary (11–12) 6.8 4.4 7.7
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * *
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.1 3.5 8.0
Second 6.4 (2.9) 8.1
Middle 6.4 3.3 7.2
Fourth 5.6 3.7 7.1
Highest 7.3 4.0 7.8
Total 6.3 3.5 7.5

Note: Medians are based on status at the time of the survey (current status). Figures in parentheses are based
on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
Includes births for which mothers are either still amenorrheic or still abstaining (or both) following birth

122 • Fertility
Table 5.8 Age at first menstruation
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by age at menarche and mean age at menarche, by current age, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
who have Mean
Age at menarche never Number of age at
Current age ≤10 11 12 13 14 15+ Don’t know menstruated Total women menarche
15–19 1.1 5.0 22.0 29.7 24.5 15.2 1.6 0.8 100.0 2,643 13.2
20–24 0.7 3.6 18.8 27.0 24.4 22.0 3.5 0.0 100.0 2,637 13.5
25–29 1.2 3.2 16.6 26.6 25.3 22.8 4.1 0.2 100.0 2,435 13.6
30–34 0.9 3.0 16.2 28.4 25.3 23.2 3.0 0.0 100.0 2,144 13.6
35–39 0.6 2.5 15.6 24.3 26.5 26.2 4.3 0.1 100.0 2,025 13.8
40–44 0.3 1.4 14.8 22.7 25.3 31.6 3.9 0.0 100.0 1,629 14.0
45–49 0.4 2.3 11.0 21.1 24.0 36.8 4.4 0.0 100.0 1,332 14.1
Total 0.8 3.2 17.1 26.2 25.0 24.0 3.4 0.2 100.0 14,845 13.6

Table 5.9 Menopause

Percentage of women age 30–49 who are
menopausal, by age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage Number of
Age menopausal1 women
30–34 5.4 2,144
35–39 7.9 2,025
40–41 13.5 693
42–43 16.6 638
44–45 21.1 612
46–47 34.3 488
48–49 42.3 529
Total 14.0 7,130

1
Percentage of women (1) who are not
pregnant, (2) who have had a birth in the past
5 years and are not postpartum amenorrheic,
and (3) for whom one of the following
additional conditions applies: (a) their last
menstrual period occurred 6 or more months
preceding the survey, (b) they declared that
they are in menopause or have had a
hysterectomy, or (c) they have never
menstruated

Table 5.10 Age at first birth

Percentage of women age 15–49 who had a live birth by exact ages, percentage who have never had a live birth, and median age at first
live birth, by current age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
who have Median age
Percentage who had a live birth by exact age never had a Number of at first live
Current age 15 18 20 22 25 live birth women birth
15–19 0.4 na na na na 90.4 2,643 a
20–24 1.0 15.1 35.7 na na 44.9 2,637 a
25–29 1.3 17.3 39.1 58.8 76.5 15.9 2,435 21.0
30–34 1.3 19.8 41.0 62.1 78.2 6.3 2,144 20.8
35–39 1.9 23.6 47.2 65.8 81.3 4.3 2,025 20.3
40–44 2.1 24.3 48.7 70.4 86.6 2.3 1,629 20.1
45–49 0.9 15.6 40.9 61.4 84.2 2.5 1,332 20.8
20–49 1.4 19.1 41.5 na na 15.3 12,202 20.8
25–49 1.5 20.1 43.1 63.3 80.7 7.1 9,565 20.6

na = Not applicable due to censoring

a = Omitted because less than 50% of women had a birth before reaching the beginning of the age group

Fertility • 123
 Table 5.11 Median age at first birth
Median age at first live birth among women age 20–49 and age
25–49, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women age
Background
characteristic 20–49 25–49
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 21.6 21.4
Dalit 19.5 19.5
Janajati 21.6 21.2
Madhesi 19.7 19.5
Muslim 19.4 19.2
Other * *
Residence
Urban 21.1 20.8
Rural 20.3 20.2
Ecological zone
Mountain 20.4 20.5
Hill 21.5 21.1
Terai 20.5 20.3
Province
Koshi Province 21.7 21.6
Urban 21.9 21.8
Rural 21.3 21.3
Madhesh Province 19.4 19.3
Urban 19.3 19.3
Rural 19.4 19.3
Bagmati Province 22.5 21.9
Urban 23.2 22.4
Rural 20.4 20.4
Gandaki Province 21.5 20.9
Urban 21.9 21.2
Rural 20.7 20.5
Lumbini Province 20.8 20.5
Urban 21.2 20.8
Rural 20.4 20.1
Karnali Province 19.8 19.7
Urban 19.9 19.6
Rural 19.8 19.8
Sudurpashchim Province 20.5 20.3
Urban 20.7 20.4
Rural 20.3 20.1
Education
No education 19.4 19.5
Basic education (1–8) 19.7 19.8
Lower basic education (1–5) 19.7 19.8
Upper basic education (6–8) 19.6 19.8
Secondary (9–12) 23.3 22.6
Lower secondary (9–10) 21.9 22.1
Higher secondary (11–12) a 23.6
More than secondary (13 and
above) a a
Wealth quintile
Lowest 20.0 20.1
Second 20.2 20.2
Middle 20.3 20.1
Fourth 20.9 20.5
Highest 23.3 22.5
Total 20.8 20.6

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than

25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
a = Omitted because less than 50% of women had a birth before
reaching the beginning of the age group

124 • Fertility
Table 5.12 Teenage pregnancy
Percentage of women age 15–19 who have ever had a live birth, percentage who have ever had a
pregnancy loss, percentage who are currently pregnant, and percentage who have ever been pregnant,
by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of women age 15–19 who:
Have ever
Have ever had a Have ever
Background had a live pregnancy Are currently been Number of
characteristic birth loss1 pregnant pregnant women
Age
15 0.4 0.5 0.4 1.1 510
16 2.2 0.5 2.2 4.6 539
17 7.1 1.1 3.3 10.5 493
18 14.0 2.0 5.9 20.1 622
19 24.8 5.6 9.3 31.7 479
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.7 1.1 2.0 7.8 724
Dalit 15.5 3.8 5.3 20.7 471
Janajati 9.2 1.6 4.1 12.9 839
Madhesi 8.4 1.3 6.1 13.5 434
Muslim 15.5 3.1 6.5 22.2 171
Other * * * * 3
Residence
Urban 8.6 1.8 4.5 12.9 1,758
Rural 11.6 2.1 3.7 14.9 885
Ecological zone
Mountain 13.6 2.8 2.4 15.8 148
Hill 9.3 2.0 3.4 12.5 1,011
Terai 9.4 1.7 5.0 14.1 1,483
Province
Koshi Province 10.9 1.2 2.4 12.8 409
Urban 8.7 1.2 2.1 9.9 244
Rural 14.2 1.2 2.9 17.1 164
Madhesh Province 12.4 2.6 8.0 19.8 619
Urban 11.8 1.9 7.9 19.3 450
Rural 13.9 4.5 8.3 21.0 168
Bagmati Province 4.8 0.8 3.2 7.8 489
Urban 3.4 0.5 3.6 6.9 377
Rural 9.4 1.7 1.9 10.6 112
Gandaki Province 11.5 2.3 2.5 12.9 238
Urban 10.6 2.6 3.1 12.6 177
Rural 13.9 1.6 1.0 13.9 61
Lumbini Province 6.3 1.8 3.1 9.8 434
Urban 6.6 1.9 3.5 10.5 249
Rural 5.7 1.6 2.6 8.9 185
Karnali Province 16.6 3.2 4.6 20.5 203
Urban 15.8 4.4 4.9 20.6 111
Rural 17.5 1.7 4.3 20.4 92
Sudurpashchim Province 8.8 2.1 3.1 12.5 250
Urban 8.0 2.6 3.6 12.2 149
Rural 10.1 1.4 2.3 12.9 101
Education
No education 27.5 2.2 9.4 32.7 140
Basic education (1–8) 14.1 3.3 6.2 19.8 927
Lower basic education (1–5) 20.1 6.7 8.2 28.8 278
Upper basic education (6–8) 11.5 1.8 5.3 16.0 650
Secondary (9–12) 5.4 1.0 2.6 8.2 1,572
Lower secondary (9–10) 6.3 1.0 3.1 9.6 956
Higher secondary (11–12) 4.0 1.1 1.9 6.2 616
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * 4
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.8 2.7 3.1 17.4 535
Second 13.3 2.4 4.9 18.5 568
Middle 10.5 1.8 5.2 13.9 533
Fourth 6.1 1.8 5.6 12.1 571
Highest 2.1 0.5 1.7 4.0 436
Total 9.6 1.9 4.2 13.6 2,643

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Stillbirth, miscarriage, or abortion

Fertility • 125
 Table 5.13 Sexual and reproductive health behaviors before age 15
Among women and men age 15–19, percentage who had sexual intercourse, were married,
and had a live birth/fathered a child before age 15, by sex and percentage of women who
were pregnant before age 15, Nepal DHS 2022
Had a live
Had sexual birth/fathered
intercourse Married before a child before Pregnant
Sex before age 15 age 15 age 15 before age 15 Number
Women 2.4 2.8 0.4 1.3 2,643
Men 2.1 0.1 0.0 na 985

na = Not applicable

126 • Fertility
Table 5.14 Pregnancy outcome by background characteristics
Percent distribution of pregnancies ending in the 3 years preceding the survey by type of outcome, by background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Pregnancy outcome
Background Induced Number of
characteristic Live birth Stillbirth1 Miscarriage2 abortion Total pregnancies
Age at pregnancy outcome
<20 84.1 0.9 11.8 3.1 100.0 697
20–24 84.9 1.1 7.3 6.6 100.0 1,434
25–34 78.0 0.6 9.1 12.3 100.0 1,464
35–44 52.0 1.1 16.9 29.9 100.0 234
45–49 * * * * 100.0 4
Pregnancy order
First 88.4 1.3 8.6 1.7 100.0 1,274
Second 82.7 1.0 8.6 7.8 100.0 1,175
Third 76.2 0.3 9.5 14.0 100.0 676
Fourth 69.3 0.4 12.7 17.6 100.0 396
Fifth or higher 59.0 0.6 11.5 28.9 100.0 312
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 76.6 0.6 9.7 13.2 100.0 993
Dalit 78.6 1.1 10.3 10.1 100.0 710
Janajati 79.0 0.9 9.2 10.9 100.0 1,186
Madhesi 85.6 1.4 8.9 4.2 100.0 705
Muslim 88.7 0.0 8.5 2.7 100.0 237
Other * * * * 100.0 2
Residence
Urban 79.1 0.6 9.9 10.4 100.0 2,524
Rural 82.0 1.5 8.5 8.0 100.0 1,309
Ecological zone
Mountain 79.3 1.2 6.3 13.2 100.0 250
Hill 76.9 0.8 10.0 12.3 100.0 1,338
Terai 82.1 0.9 9.4 7.6 100.0 2,245
Province
Koshi Province 83.8 0.5 8.3 7.4 100.0 644
Urban 82.9 0.4 7.8 8.8 100.0 420
Rural 85.5 0.8 9.1 4.6 100.0 224
Madhesh Province 86.0 1.1 8.6 4.3 100.0 965
Urban 86.9 0.5 8.6 4.0 100.0 713
Rural 83.3 2.6 8.7 5.4 100.0 251
Bagmati Province 78.1 0.5 9.8 11.6 100.0 612
Urban 75.3 0.3 10.6 13.8 100.0 464
Rural 86.8 1.3 7.3 4.6 100.0 147
Gandaki Province 67.4 1.2 14.5 16.9 100.0 273
Urban 65.4 1.0 17.7 15.9 100.0 185
Rural 71.8 1.7 7.7 18.9 100.0 88
Lumbini Province 78.6 1.6 9.2 10.6 100.0 667
Urban 75.4 1.4 9.8 13.4 100.0 363
Rural 82.4 1.9 8.5 7.2 100.0 304
Karnali Province 73.9 0.5 9.7 15.8 100.0 314
Urban 70.0 0.2 11.7 18.1 100.0 156
Rural 77.7 0.9 7.8 13.7 100.0 158
Sudurpashchim Province 79.2 0.3 9.1 11.4 100.0 358
Urban 78.9 0.3 8.8 12.0 100.0 222
Rural 79.7 0.3 9.6 10.4 100.0 136
Education
No education 84.5 0.9 7.3 7.3 100.0 751
Basic education (1–8) 78.8 0.6 10.6 10.0 100.0 1,341
Lower basic education (1–5) 76.4 0.6 12.8 10.2 100.0 691
Upper basic education (6–8) 81.3 0.6 8.3 9.7 100.0 651
Secondary (9–12) 79.4 1.1 9.0 10.5 100.0 1,548
Lower secondary (9–10) 81.1 1.0 7.7 10.1 100.0 912
Higher secondary (11–12) 77.0 1.2 10.7 11.0 100.0 636
More than secondary (13 and
above) 77.9 0.7 12.9 8.5 100.0 193
Wealth quintile
Lowest 82.5 1.1 7.5 8.9 100.0 869
Second 86.0 1.1 8.0 4.9 100.0 769
Middle 79.0 0.6 8.6 11.8 100.0 795
Fourth 77.3 0.9 10.7 11.1 100.0 771
Highest 74.6 0.6 13.2 11.6 100.0 629
Total 80.1 0.9 9.4 9.6 100.0 3,833

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Stillbirths are fetal deaths in pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks. When pregnancy duration is reported in months, stillbirths
are fetal deaths in pregnancies lasting 7 or more months.
2
Miscarriages are fetal deaths in pregnancies lasting less than 28 weeks. When pregnancy duration is reported in months,
miscarriages are fetal deaths in pregnancies lasting less than 7 months.

Fertility • 127
 Table 5.15 Induced abortion rates
Age-specific and total induced abortion rates, and
general abortion rates, for the 3 years preceding the
survey, by residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Age group Urban Rural Total
10–14 [0] [0] [0]
15–19 3 2 3
20–24 13 10 12
25–29 16 13 15
30–34 10 14 11
35–39 9 10 9
40–44 5 2 4
45–49 [0] [1] [0]
TAR (15–49) 0.3 0.3 0.3
GAR 10 9 9

Note: Age-specific induced abortion rates are per 1,000

women. Estimates in brackets are truncated. Rates are
for the period 1–36 months preceding the interview.
Rates for the 10–14 age group are based on
retrospective data from women age 15–17.
TAR: Total induced abortion rate, expressed per woman
GAR: General induced abortion rate, expressed per
1,000 women age 15–44

128 • Fertility
FERTILITY PREFERENCES 6
Key Findings
▪ Desire for another child: In general, 10% of married
women age 15–49 want to have another child soon, 13%
want to wait at least 2 years, and 70% want no more
children or are sterilized.
▪ Ideal family size: The mean ideal number of children is
2.0 among women and 2.2 among men. In general, ideal
family size increases with increasing numbers of living
children among both women and men.
▪ Fertility planning status: Among all pregnancy
outcomes, 73% of pregnancies in the 3 years preceding
the survey were wanted at the time of conception, 16%
were mistimed, and 11% were unwanted. Sixty-two
percent of pregnancies that ended in abortions were
unwanted.
▪ Wanted fertility rates: The total fertility rate in Nepal is
2.1 children per woman, while the total wanted fertility
rate is 1.7 children per woman. On average, women have
0.4 more children than they desire.

I
nformation on fertility preferences can help family planning program planners assess the desire for
children, the extent of mistimed and unwanted pregnancies, and the demand for contraception to space
or limit births. This information suggests the direction that fertility patterns could take in the future.

This chapter presents information on whether and when married women and men want more children, their
ideal number of children, whether the last birth was wanted, and the theoretical fertility rate if all unwanted
births were prevented.

6.1 DESIRE FOR ANOTHER CHILD

Desire for another child

Women and men were asked whether they wanted more children and, if so,
how long they would prefer to wait before the birth of the next child. Women
and men who are sterilized are assumed not to want any more children.
Sample: Currently married women and men age 15–49

Ten percent of currently married women age 15–49 want to have another child soon (within 2 years), while
13% want to wait for 2 or more years. Seventy percent of women want no more children or are sterilized.
Among men age 15–49, 12% want to have another child soon and 16% want to wait for 2 or more years.
Sixty-seven percent of men want no more children or are sterilized (Table 6.1).

Table 6.2.1 and Table 6.2.2 shows that 87% of women and 86% of men with two children want no more
children or are sterilized.

Fertility Preferences • 129

 Trends: The proportion of currently married women Figure 6.1 Trends in desire to limit
with two children who want no more children childbearing by number of living children
increased from 59% in 1996 to 88% in 2011 and Percentage of currently married women
2016, and decreased slightly to 87% in 2022 (Figure age 15–49 who want no more children
6.1). 91 93 96 93 91
87
Patterns by background characteristics 91 93 88 92 91
87 83 88 87
76 72
▪ The desire to limit childbearing rises with
59 4 children
increasing number of living children, from 3% 3 children
among married women with no living children 2 children
to 92% among those with six or more children
(Figure 6.2).
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
▪ Women and men from the Brahmin/Chhetri NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
ethnic group have a greater desire to limit
childbearing (74% and 70%, respectively) than Figure 6.2 Desire to limit childbearing by
those in the Muslim group (54% and 59%, number of living children
respectively) (Table 6.2.1 and Table 6.2.2).
Percentage of currently married women
age 15–49 who want no more children
▪ Women in Sudurpashchim Province and
Gandaki Province (74% each) more often want 87 91 91 87 92
to limit childbearing than women in Madhesh
Province (65%). More men in Gandaki Province
(70%) than Lumbini Province (64%) want to
limit childbearing. 35

▪ The desire to limit childbearing declines with

increasing education among both women and 3
men. Eighty-two percent of women and 77% of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
men with no education want no more children, Number of living children
as compared with 55% of women and 56% of
men with more than a secondary education (Table 6.2.1 and Table 6.2.2).

6.2 IDEAL FAMILY SIZE

Ideal family size

Respondents with no children were asked “If you could choose exactly the
number of children to have in your whole life, how many would that be?”
Respondents who had children were asked “If you could go back to the time
when you did not have any children and could choose exactly the number of
children to have in your whole life, how many would that be?”
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

130 • Fertility Preferences

The mean ideal number of children is 2.0 among Figure 6.3 Ideal family size
women overall and 2.1 among currently married Mean ideal number of children among
women, while the ideal number is 2.2 among all men women and men age 15–49
and 2.3 among currently married men (Table 6.3 Women Men
and Figure 6.3).
2.2 2.3
The mean ideal family size for women and men with 2.0 2.1
no children is 1.8 and 2.0, respectively. In general,
ideal family size increases with increasing numbers
of living children among both women and men
(Figure 6.4). For example, women who have one
child consider 1.8 children to be ideal, whereas
women who have six or more children consider 2.9
children ideal. Men’s ideal family size is slightly All Currently married
larger than women’s (Table 6.3).
Figure 6.4 Ideal family size by number of
Trends: The mean ideal number of children for all living children
women age 15–49 decreased from 2.9 in 1996 to 2.0
Mean ideal number of children
in 2022.
Women Men
Patterns by background characteristics 3.4

2.7 2.82.9 2.9

▪ Young women age 15–19 consider 1.8 as their 2.42.5 2.5
mean ideal number of children. The mean ideal 2.0 2.0 2.02.1
1.8 1.8
number of children is highest among women age
45–49 (2.4) (Table 6.4).

▪ The mean ideal number of children is 1.9 among

Janajati women, as compared with 2.7 among
0 1 2 3 4 5 6+
Muslim women (Table 6.4).
Number of living children

▪ The mean ideal number of children is highest in Madhesh Province (2.4 children) and lowest in
Bagmati Province (1.8 children).

▪ The mean ideal number of children among women with no education is 2.4, compared with 1.8 among
women with at least a secondary education (Table 6.4).

▪ The mean ideal family size among women decreases with increasing wealth, from 2.2 among those in
the lowest wealth quintile to 1.9 among those in the highest wealth quintile.

6.3 FERTILITY PLANNING STATUS

Planning status of births/pregnancies

Women reported whether their births/pregnancies were wanted at the time
(planned birth), at a later time (mistimed birth), or not at all (unwanted birth).
Sample: Current pregnancies and live births in the 3 years before the survey
among women age 15–49 and all pregnancy outcomes in the 3 years before
the survey among women age 15–49

Fertility Preferences • 131

 Among all pregnancy outcomes, women reported Figure 6.5 Fertility planning status
that 73% of pregnancies in the 3 years before the
Percent distribution of pregnancy
survey were wanted at the time of conception, 16% outcomes among women age 15–49 in
were mistimed, and 11% were unwanted (Table 6.5 the 3 years before the survey by planning
and Figure 6.5). Sixty-two percent of pregnancies status of pregnancy
that ended in an abortion in the 3 years preceding the Unwanted
11%
survey were unwanted, 25% were mistimed, and
13% were wanted (Table 6.5).

Trends: The percentage of wanted births or current Wanted then

pregnancies increased from 62% in 1996 to 79% in Mistimed 73%
2022, while mistimed births decreased from 19% to 16%
15% and unwanted births declined from 18% to 6%
(Figure 6.6).

Patterns by background characteristics

Figure 6.6 Trends in fertility
▪ The proportion of unwanted births and current planning status
pregnancies increases with birth order, from less
Percent distribution of live births and
than 1% among first births to 26% among
current pregnancies to women age 15–49
fourth- and higher-order births. in the three years before the survey by
planning status of pregnancy
▪ The percentage of unwanted births and 8 6 Unwanted
18 16 13
pregnancies increases with age, from 1% among 22 13 15
14 Mistimed
women less than age 20 at the time of birth to 19 17
16
23% among those age 35–39 (Table 6.5). Wanted
then

73 79 79
62 62 67

1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022

6.4 WANTED FERTILITY RATES NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

Unwanted birth
Any birth in excess of the number of children a woman reported as
her ideal number.
Wanted birth
Any birth less than or equal to the number of children a woman
reported as her ideal number.
Wanted fertility rate
The average number of children a woman would have by the end of
her childbearing years if she bore children at the current age-
specific fertility rates, excluding unwanted births.
Sample: Women age 15–49

There is a difference between wanted fertility rates and total fertility rates among women age 15–49. The
wanted fertility rate indicates what fertility would be if women had only the children they desired. The
total wanted fertility rate and the actual total fertility rate in Nepal are 1.7 and 2.1, respectively. This
means that women in Nepal want an average of 0.4 children less than the current total fertility rate (Table
6.6).

132 • Fertility Preferences

Trends: The difference between the wanted and the Figure 6.7 Trends in wanted and
actual total fertility rate declined steadily between actual fertility
1996 and 2022, from 1.7 children to 0.4 children Wanted and actual number of children
(Figure 6.7). per woman

Patterns by background characteristics 4.6

4.1
▪ The difference between the wanted and the 1.7
1.6 3.1
actual total fertility rate is largest among Muslim 2.6
1.1 2.3 2.1 TFR
women (0.9 children), followed by Dalit women 0.8 0.6 0.4 Difference
(0.7 children) and Madhesi women (0.5 2.9
children) (Table 6.6). 2.5 Total
2.0 1.8 1.7 1.7 wanted
fertility
▪ The difference between wanted and actual
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
fertility is largest in Karnali Province (0.8 NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
children) and smallest in Gandaki Province (0.2
children).

▪ The gap between wanted and actual fertility is 0.7 children among women with no education, as
compared with only 0.1 children among women with more than a secondary education. This indicates
that more educated women tend to have only the actual number of children they want (Table 6.6).

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on fertility preferences, see the following tables:

▪ Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children

▪ Table 6.2.1 Desire to limit childbearing: Women
▪ Table 6.2.2 Desire to limit childbearing: Men
▪ Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children
▪ Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children
▪ Table 6.5 Fertility planning status
▪ Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates

Fertility Preferences • 133

 Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children
Percent distribution of currently married women and currently married men age 15–49 by desire for children, by number
of living children, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of living children
Desire for children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total
WOMEN1
Have another soon2 59.3 15.1 4.1 1.8 1.0 1.4 0.2 9.9
Have another later3 30.2 37.2 4.6 1.7 0.7 0.1 0.0 13.2
Have another, undecided when 2.3 1.9 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.8
Undecided 1.4 9.1 2.3 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.0 3.5
Want no more 1.8 33.2 69.7 59.0 59.3 59.7 69.5 52.5
Sterilized4 1.2 1.8 17.5 31.7 31.8 27.7 22.3 17.0
Declared infecund 3.9 1.6 1.5 4.1 5.8 10.6 8.0 3.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 818 2,714 3,905 2,140 1,046 353 205 11,180
MEN5
2
Have another soon 61.6 17.3 3.3 3.2 1.1 2.0 4.5 11.7
Have another later3 30.1 45.6 6.3 1.6 1.0 0.8 0.0 15.8
Have another, undecided when 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.3
Undecided 1.3 7.2 4.0 1.5 1.0 1.7 0.0 3.6
Want no more 4.9 26.0 76.3 70.5 69.8 73.4 82.9 56.4
Sterilized4 0.4 1.6 9.3 20.3 24.0 20.1 10.5 10.5
Declared infecund 1.8 1.1 0.6 2.1 1.5 2.0 2.1 1.3
Missing 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.8 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 293 706 1,078 595 272 109 49 3,101

1
The number of living children includes a woman’s current pregnancy.
2
Wants next birth within 2 years
3
Wants to delay next birth for 2 or more years
4
Includes both female and male sterilization
5
The number of living children includes one additional child if the respondent’s wife is pregnant (or if any wife is pregnant
for men with more than one current wife).

134 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.2.1 Desire to limit childbearing: Women
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 who want no more children, by number of living children and by
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Background Number of living children1

characteristic 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 3.1 37.7 91.2 95.7 93.7 94.3 95.0 73.6
Dalit 1.3 27.1 79.9 88.1 92.6 90.9 98.1 68.8
Janajati 4.1 41.5 92.9 94.7 92.0 90.1 (98.6) 69.3
Madhesi 2.0 13.1 77.8 87.4 93.1 81.3 (78.9) 68.1
Muslim (0.0) 9.8 46.3 74.2 74.7 (73.4) (87.4) 54.4
Other * * * * * * * *
Residence
Urban 2.7 36.2 87.4 90.3 89.4 84.7 88.7 68.3
Rural 3.6 32.1 86.5 91.6 93.8 90.8 95.8 71.9
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.3 31.0 86.7 91.4 92.9 96.5 (95.6) 74.0
Hill 1.9 40.6 92.5 95.8 94.2 89.9 97.6 72.2
Terai 3.3 30.8 83.2 88.2 89.4 84.6 87.2 67.2
Province
Koshi Province 2.9 28.9 87.2 90.4 88.1 (86.8) * 66.0
Madhesh Province 0.0 14.0 70.8 84.2 88.7 80.3 82.9 64.7
Bagmati Province 3.4 45.5 94.0 94.0 96.3 (89.5) (100.0) 71.4
Gandaki Province 8.9 42.7 94.0 97.3 97.2 * * 73.7
Lumbini Province 3.2 37.6 90.1 94.7 90.6 (91.5) (100.0) 70.8
Karnali Province 0.9 29.0 86.8 94.1 93.6 91.3 94.8 73.0
Sudurpashchim Province 1.6 41.3 86.6 93.9 94.1 95.7 (93.1) 74.2
Education
No education 6.2 44.4 81.9 89.8 89.7 86.0 91.7 82.2
Basic education (1–8) 3.5 33.6 87.4 91.9 93.9 94.0 (92.3) 71.4
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.5 35.9 88.0 93.1 93.9 93.1 * 76.5
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.9 31.8 86.8 89.5 93.8 * * 65.3
Secondary (9–12) 2.1 34.0 89.4 91.2 95.7 * * 56.9
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.0 34.2 88.3 90.0 (95.4) * * 59.6
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.2 33.6 91.7 94.5 * * * 52.4
More than secondary (13 and above) 2.2 36.8 95.6 * * * * 55.3
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.5 32.6 85.2 89.8 93.5 92.0 95.3 72.8
Second 1.6 30.7 83.5 91.4 90.2 81.1 (88.1) 70.3
Middle 3.3 30.6 84.6 90.0 91.2 86.4 (92.4) 69.0
Fourth 3.7 36.6 85.8 90.4 90.5 (88.5) * 66.9
Highest 3.1 41.1 94.6 92.9 87.5 * * 69.0
Total 2.9 35.0 87.2 90.8 91.2 87.4 91.8 69.5

Note: Women who have been sterilized or whose husband has been sterilized are considered to want no more children.
Disaggregation by residence is not presented for provinces due to few cases. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
The number of living children includes a woman’s current pregnancy.

Fertility Preferences • 135

 Table 6.2.2 Desire to limit childbearing: Men
Percentage of currently married men age 15–49 who want no more children, by number of living children and by
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Background Number of living children1

characteristic 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 2.6 26.0 91.7 93.5 95.6 (100.0) * 70.1
Dalit (11.8) 16.3 77.8 91.6 93.5 (98.7) * 66.1
Janajati 6.3 35.0 88.8 92.8 99.1 (95.1) * 66.0
Madhesi (1.2) 19.8 73.1 85.6 93.8 * * 67.2
Muslim * * * * * * * 58.7
Other * * * * * * * *
Residence
Urban 5.9 28.8 86.4 90.9 91.6 94.9 (89.6) 65.8
Rural 3.4 24.7 83.9 90.5 96.9 91.6 (100.0) 69.3
Ecological zone
Mountain * 16.1 87.4 91.5 (94.6) (100.0) * 72.4
Hill 6.2 33.6 89.9 94.1 96.0 98.9 (95.3) 67.9
Terai 4.0 23.4 82.5 88.9 92.6 88.6 * 65.7
Province
Koshi Province 4.4 26.6 87.5 95.7 (91.7) * * 67.6
Madhesh Province (2.6) 11.9 77.3 88.8 96.6 (88.8) * 68.1
Bagmati Province (1.6) 37.5 87.6 91.2 (88.1) * * 66.2
Gandaki Province (16.3) 34.8 91.2 97.4 * * * 69.5
Lumbini Province (7.7) 23.5 86.3 84.2 (88.8) * * 64.0
Karnali Province (3.5) 15.6 79.4 95.2 99.0 (96.2) * 69.0
Sudurpashchim Province (7.1) 29.2 86.3 91.7 (95.4) * * 67.0
Education
No education * (19.3) 78.1 87.5 95.4 (95.1) * 77.4
Basic education (1–8) 3.1 26.1 85.9 89.2 92.8 95.2 (94.4) 71.5
Lower basic education (1–5) (2.7) 27.8 85.5 85.2 90.3 (93.0) (92.5) 73.7
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.4 24.6 86.2 95.6 96.4 * * 68.8
Secondary (9–12) 6.7 29.6 84.8 94.7 94.1 * * 60.7
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.0 32.6 83.7 95.5 (97.3) * * 64.1
Higher secondary (11–12) 5.1 25.2 86.9 (92.4) (87.9) * * 54.4
More than secondary (13 and above) (2.5) 27.4 96.3 * * * * 55.7
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.0 19.9 82.6 88.6 91.5 100.0 (97.0) 70.6
Second (11.5) 26.9 87.4 90.4 93.0 (92.1) * 71.2
Middle 6.8 25.7 81.6 89.2 98.6 * * 66.7
Fourth 3.2 29.0 82.3 92.1 (97.5) * * 64.4
Highest 4.5 31.1 92.6 95.4 * * * 62.9
Total 5.2 27.6 85.6 90.8 93.8 93.5 93.4 66.9

Note: Men who have been sterilized or who state in response to the question about desire for children that their wife has
been sterilized are considered to want no more children. Disaggregation by residence is not presented for provinces due
to few cases. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based
on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
The number of living children includes one additional child if the respondent’s wife is pregnant (or if any wife is pregnant
for men with more than one current wife).

136 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children
Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by ideal number of children, and mean ideal number of children
for all respondents and for currently married respondents, by number of living children, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of living children1
Ideal number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total
WOMEN
0 4.1 1.2 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.3 1.7
1 19.7 24.7 8.7 4.2 1.8 0.5 0.0 13.3
2 69.7 68.4 77.5 57.1 57.2 40.5 34.2 67.5
3 5.2 4.9 10.5 33.1 28.4 40.2 39.8 13.9
4 0.5 0.4 1.3 3.9 10.1 15.3 22.5 2.6
5 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.9 2.5 1.4 0.4
6+ 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.9 0.2
Non-numeric responses 0.7 0.1 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.9 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 4,052 2,834 4,044 2,238 1,093 373 211 14,845
Mean ideal number of children
for women 15–49:2
All 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.0
Number 4,023 2,831 4,017 2,228 1,092 371 209 14,770
Currently married 1.9 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.1
Number of currently married
women 817 2,712 3,879 2,130 1,045 351 204 11,138
MEN3
0 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4
1 10.8 14.6 6.0 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 8.2
2 74.6 75.7 79.0 53.4 54.2 40.5 34.4 70.8
3 11.3 7.6 11.5 35.8 25.6 34.2 31.0 15.3
4 1.7 1.8 2.3 8.4 17.8 20.0 21.3 4.2
5 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.1 3.9 7.9 0.6
6+ 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.7 1.4 5.4 0.2
Non-numeric responses 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number 2,072 717 1,086 604 273 113 49 4,913
Mean ideal number of children
for men 15–49:2
All 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.4 2.2
Number 2,064 717 1,083 604 273 113 49 4,903
Currently married 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.4 2.3
Number of currently married
men 293 706 1,076 595 272 109 49 3,099

1
The number of living children includes the current pregnancy for women.
2
Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses.
3
The number of living children includes one additional child if the respondent’s wife is pregnant (or if any wife is
pregnant for men with more than one current wife).

Fertility Preferences • 137

 Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children
Mean ideal number of children for all women age 15–49,
by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Background Number of
characteristic Mean women1
Age
15–19 1.8 2,624
20–24 1.9 2,628
25–29 2.0 2,429
30–34 2.1 2,139
35–39 2.2 2,008
40–44 2.3 1,614
45–49 2.4 1,328
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 2.0 4,139
Dalit 2.2 2,233
Janajati 1.9 5,394
Madhesi 2.2 2,331
Muslim 2.7 658
Other * 15
Residence
Urban 2.0 10,112
Rural 2.1 4,658
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.1 787
Hill 1.9 5,847
Terai 2.1 8,136
Province
Koshi Province 2.0 2,485
Urban 2.0 1,635
Rural 2.1 851
Madhesh Province 2.4 2,989
Urban 2.4 2,206
Rural 2.3 783
Bagmati Province 1.8 3,031
Urban 1.8 2,433
Rural 2.0 598
Gandaki Province 1.9 1,396
Urban 1.8 988
Rural 2.0 408
Lumbini Province 2.0 2,688
Urban 2.0 1,551
Rural 2.1 1,136
Karnali Province 2.1 907
Urban 2.1 507
Rural 2.2 400
Sudurpashchim Province 2.0 1,273
Urban 1.9 791
Rural 2.0 482
Education
No education 2.4 3,774
Basic education (1–8) 2.0 4,576
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.1 2,308
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.9 2,269
Secondary (9–12) 1.8 5,769
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.9 3,248
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.8 2,520
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.8 652
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.2 2,623
Second 2.1 2,852
Middle 2.1 3,017
Fourth 2.0 3,171
Highest 1.9 3,108
Total 2.0 14,770

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer

than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Women who gave a numeric response

138 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.5 Fertility planning status
Percent distribution of live births and current pregnancies among women age 15–49 in the 3 years
preceding the survey by planning status of the pregnancy, according to birth order and mother’s age
at birth, and percent distribution of all pregnancy outcomes among women age 15–49 in the 3 years
preceding the survey by planning status of the pregnancy, by type of pregnancy outcome, Nepal
DHS 2022
Planning status of pregnancy outcome Number of
Wanted Wanted Wanted no pregnancy
Characteristic then later more Total outcomes1
LIVE BIRTHS AND CURRENT PREGNANCIES
Birth order
1 84.3 15.4 0.3 100.0 1,509
2 80.3 17.5 2.1 100.0 1,253
3 72.1 12.4 15.5 100.0 520
4+ 64.5 9.1 26.4 100.0 376
Mother’s age at birth2
<20 74.8 24.6 0.6 100.0 683
20–24 79.4 17.4 3.2 100.0 1,464
25–29 83.4 10.0 6.5 100.0 941
30–34 78.9 6.7 14.4 100.0 427
35–39 72.0 5.0 23.0 100.0 113
40–44 (62.6) (0.0) (37.4) 100.0 27
45–49 * * * 100.0 4
Total 79.2 15.1 5.8 100.0 3,658
ALL PREGNANCY OUTCOMES
Pregnancy outcome type
Current pregnancies 77.5 16.4 6.2 100.0 587
Live births 79.5 14.8 5.7 100.0 3,071
Stillbirths (82.4) (12.1) (5.5) 100.0 34
Miscarriages 68.7 15.3 16.0 100.0 361
Abortions 13.4 25.2 61.5 100.0 368
Total 72.9 15.9 11.2 100.0 4,420

Note: A pregnancy outcome refers to a miscarriage, abortion, live birth, or stillbirth. Some
pregnancies produce multiple outcomes, for example in the case of twins. In this table, each
pregnancy outcome is counted individually. Therefore, a pregnancy is counted more than once if it
produces multiple births (live births or stillbirths). Current pregnancies, miscarriages, and abortions
are always counted as one pregnancy outcome. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49
unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
For pregnancies that resulted in multiple outcomes (for example, twins), each outcome is counted
individually.
2
For current pregnancies, the maternal age at birth is estimated as the mother’s expected age at
the time of the birth.

Fertility Preferences • 139

 Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates
Total wanted fertility rates and total fertility rates for the 3 years
preceding the survey, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Total
Background wanted Total fertility
characteristic fertility rate rate
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.6 2.0
Dalit 1.7 2.4
Janajati 1.5 1.8
Madhesi 1.9 2.4
Muslim 2.4 3.3
Residence
Urban 1.6 2.0
Rural 1.8 2.4
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.0 2.7
Hill 1.4 1.8
Terai 1.8 2.2
Province
Koshi Province 1.7 2.2
Urban 1.7 2.2
Rural 1.8 2.3
Madhesh Province 2.1 2.7
Urban 2.1 2.6
Rural 2.0 2.7
Bagmati Province 1.3 1.6
Urban 1.2 1.5
Rural 1.8 2.4
Gandaki Province 1.2 1.4
Urban 1.1 1.2
Rural 1.4 1.8
Lumbini Province 1.5 1.9
Urban 1.4 1.8
Rural 1.7 2.2
Karnali Province 1.8 2.6
Urban 1.5 2.1
Rural 2.2 3.2
Sudurpashchim Province 1.8 2.3
Urban 1.8 2.2
Rural 1.8 2.3
Education
No education 2.6 3.3
Basic education (1–8) 1.8 2.3
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.9 2.5
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.8 2.2
Secondary (9–12) 1.5 1.8
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.7 2.0
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.5 1.7
More than secondary (13 and above) 1.5 1.6
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.9 2.8
Second 1.9 2.4
Middle 1.6 2.1
Fourth 1.5 1.7
Highest 1.4 1.6
Total 1.7 2.1

Note: Rates are calculated based on births to women age 15–49 in

the period 1–36 months preceding the survey. The total fertility rates
are the same as those presented in Table 5.2.

140 • Fertility Preferences

FAMILY PLANNING 7
Key Findings
▪ Contraceptive prevalence rate: Overall, 57% of
currently married women age 15–49 use any method of
family planning, with 43% using a modern method and
15% using a traditional method.
▪ Family planning use among adolescents: 14% of
currently married women age 15–19 use a modern
method of family planning.
▪ Unmet need for family planning: 21% of currently
married women age 15–49 have an unmet need for
family planning. Unmet need is highest among young
women age 15–19 (31%).
▪ Demand for family planning: 55% of the total demand
for family planning is satisfied by modern methods.
▪ Contraceptive discontinuation: In the 5 years
preceding the survey, the 12-month contraceptive
discontinuation rate was 49%. The rate was highest for
pills (67%), followed by male condoms (60%) and
injectables (59%). The main reasons for discontinuing
methods were infrequent sex or the husband being away
(44%), desire to become pregnant (15%), and side
effects or health concerns (14%).

C
ouples can use contraceptive methods to limit or space the number of children they have. This
chapter presents information on the use and sources of contraceptive methods, informed choice of
methods, and rates of and reasons for discontinuing contraceptive methods. It also examines the
demand for family planning and how much contact nonusers have with family planning providers.

The Government of Nepal is committed to promoting a family planning program that aims to ensure
equitable and rights-based access to voluntary and quality family planning services. The government has
been striving to strengthen policies and strategies related to family planning services. The Public Health
Act 2018 includes family planning in the basic health service package. Furthermore, the Safe Motherhood
and Reproductive Health Act 2018, Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Regulation 2020, 15th
National Plan (2018/19–2022/23), and Safe Motherhood Roadmap (2020–2030) emphasize the availability
and accessibility of rights-based family planning services (Ministry of Health and Population 2022a).

7.1 CONTRACEPTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND USE

Knowledge of contraceptive methods among women and men age 15–49 is nearly universal in Nepal.
Women and men are most likely to have knowledge of female sterilization (97% and 92%, respectively),
male sterilization (87% each), injectables (97% and 89%, respectively), and male condoms (97% and 99%,
respectively). Eighty-one percent of women and 60% of men know about intrauterine contraceptive
devices (IUCDs). Women’s and men’s knowledge is relatively low with respect to the standard days
method (SDM) (8% and 7%, respectively), the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM) (23% and 8%,
respectively), and emergency contraception (47% and 57%, respectively). On average, currently married
women and men age 15–49 have heard of more methods of family planning than women and men who
have never been married (Table 7.1).

Family Planning • 141

 Contraceptive prevalence
Percentage of women who use any contraceptive method (includes methods
used by the husband/partner such as condoms, male sterilization, and
withdrawal methods).
Sample: All women age 15–49 and currently married women age 15–49

Modern methods
Include male and female sterilization, intrauterine contraceptive devices
(IUCDs), injectables, implants, contraceptive pills, male condoms, emergency
contraception, the standard days method, and the lactational amenorrhea
method.

The contraceptive prevalence rate among currently Figure 7.1 Contraceptive use
married women age 15–49 is 57%, with 43% using Percentage of currently married women
modern methods and 15% using traditional methods. age 15–49 currently using a
Among currently married women, female contraceptive method
sterilization (13%) is the most commonly used Any method 57
modern contraceptive method, followed by Any modern method 43
injectables (9%), implants (6%), the pill (5%), male Female sterilization 13
condoms (5%), male sterilization (4%), and IUCDs Injectables 9
(1%) (Table 7.2 and Figure 7.1). Implants 6
Male condom 5
Only 1% of currently married women use Pill 5
subcutaneous depot medroxyprogesterone acetate Male sterilization 4
(DMPA-SC), although it was piloted in 2019 and is IUCD 1
now scaling up in Nepal (data not shown). Traditional method 15

Trends: Use of any family planning method among Figure 7.2 Trends in contraceptive use
currently married women rose from 29% in 1996 to Percentage of currently married women
57% in 2022. Use of modern methods of currently using a contraceptive method
contraception increased from 26% in 1996 to 44% in
2006 before declining slightly to 43% from 2011
through 2022. Use of traditional methods has
increased over time, from 3% in 1996 to 10% in
Any modern method
2016 and 15% in 2022 (Table 7.3.1 and Figure 7.2).
44 43 43 43
Patterns by background characteristics 35
Any traditional method 15
26 7 10
3 4 4
▪ The proportion of currently married women
using modern methods generally increases with 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
age, while there is no consistent pattern by age NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
among those using traditional methods. Women
age 35–44 account for the highest proportion of modern method users (56%), while those age 30–34
account for the highest proportion of traditional method users (16%) (Table 7.2).

142 • Family Planning

▪ Use of modern contraceptives is higher among Figure 7.3 Use of contraceptive methods
currently married women in rural areas (47%) by residence
than among those in urban areas (41%). In Percentage of currently married women
contrast, women in urban areas are more likely age 15–49 using a contraceptive method
to use traditional contraceptive methods (16%
Modern methods Traditional methods
versus 11%) (Table 7.3.2 and Figure 7.3).

▪ Use of contraceptive methods is lowest among

currently married Muslim women (33%) and
highest among Janajati women (61%). 43 47
41

▪ The proportion of women using modern

15 16
contraception is highest in Sudurpashchim 11
Province (47%) and lowest in Gandaki Province
(35%) (Table 7.3.2 and Figure 7.4). Total Urban Rural

▪ Women with at least a secondary education Figure 7.4 Modern contraceptive use
(33%) are less likely to use modern by province
contraception than women with no education
Percentage of currently married women
(54%) (Table 7.3.2). age 15–49 using a modern contraceptive
method
▪ Use of traditional methods of contraception is Sudurpashchim
highest in the highest wealth quintile (23%) and 47
Province
lowest in the second and lowest quintiles (10% Karnali Province 46
each) (Table 7.3.2).
Bagmati Province 45
Timing of Sterilization
Koshi Province 44
The median age at sterilization is 26.9 years. In
Lumbini Province 43
Nepal, 31% of women are sterilized before age 25,
while 40% are sterilized between age 25 and age 29 Madhesh Province 41
(Table 7.4). The median age at sterilization has
remained more or less constant since 2006, when it Gandaki Province 35
was 27.1 years.

7.1.1 Use of Emergency Contraception

Use of emergency contraceptive pills is not common in Nepal, with only 1% of women age 15–49 using
this method in the last 12 months. The results indicate that use of emergency contraception is slightly
higher among urban women (1%) and those with more than a secondary education (3%) (Table 7.5).
However, it is interesting to note that use of emergency contraception is observed across all of the
provinces, including both urban and rural areas. According to the 2021 Nepal Health Facility Survey, 31%
of federal and provincial hospitals, 33% of local-level hospitals, 68% of private hospitals, 14% of primary
health care centers, and 8% of basic health care centers offered (prescribed or provided, counseled on, or
referred elsewhere for) emergency contraceptive pills (Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and
ICF 2022).

7.1.2 Knowledge of the Fertile Period

Twenty-eight percent of women correctly reported that the fertile period during the ovulatory cycle is
halfway between two menstrual periods (Table 7.6 and Table 7.7). Women using the rhythm method are
more likely to have correct knowledge of the fertile period (37%) than women overall (Table 7.6).
Younger women are less aware about the fertile period (19%) than other women; women age 30–34 are
most aware (34%) (Table 7.7).

Family Planning • 143

 7.2 SOURCE OF MODERN CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

Source of modern contraceptives

The place where the modern contraceptive method currently being used was
obtained the last time it was acquired.
Sample: Women age 15–49 currently using a modern contraceptive method

In Nepal, the public sector is the most common Figure 7.5 Source of modern
source of modern contraceptive methods (69%), contraceptive methods
followed by the private medical sector (23%), Percent distribution of current users of
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (5%), and modern methods age 15–49 by most
other sources (3%) (Figure 7.5). The sources most recent source of method
often reported are public sector health posts (27%),
government hospitals (25%), private pharmacies
(11%), and public mobile clinics (10%). Private
medical
The public sector is the predominant source for sector Non-
23% government
female sterilization (78%), male sterilization (83%), Public sector
IUCDs (68%), injectables (69%), and implants sector (NGO)
69% 5%
(89%). The private sector, primarily pharmacies and
private clinics, is the main source for 68% of male
condom users and almost half of pill users (49%) Other source
(Table 7.8). 3%

Use of Social Marketing Brand Pills and Condoms

Although pills and condoms are not commonly used methods of contraception, substantial numbers of
respondents who do use these methods reported using socially marketed brands. Seventy-five percent of
pill users use Nilocon White or Sunaulo Gulaph, while 69% of condom users use Dhaal, Panther, or D’zire
(Table 7.9).

7.3 INFORMED CHOICE

Informed choice
Informed choice indicates that women were informed about their method’s
side effects, about what to do if they experienced side effects, and about other
methods they could use.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who are currently using selected modern
contraceptive methods and who started the last episode of use within the
5 years before the survey

Informed choice is a necessary component of family planning programs. Family planning providers are
expected to inform all potential users of the possible side effects of the methods and what they should do if
they encounter any of these side effects. This information both assists the user in coping with side effects
and decreases unnecessary discontinuation of temporary methods.

Forty-two percent of currently married women who started using a modern method of contraception in the
past 5 years received all three types of information about their method (Table 7.10). IUCD users (64%) are
most likely to be provided with all three types of information, followed by implant users (62%), users of
injectables (37%), pill users (31%), and those who use female sterilization (26%).

Women who obtained their methods from the NGO sector were more often provided with all three types of
information (56%) than those who obtained their methods from the public sector (46%) or the private

144 • Family Planning

medical sector (28%) (Table 7.10). Only one in five women who obtained their methods from pharmacies,
which are an important source of pills and condoms, received all three types of information.

7.4 DISCONTINUATION OF CONTRACEPTIVES

Contraceptive discontinuation rate

Percentage of contraceptive use episodes discontinued within 12 months.
Sample: Episodes of contraceptive use in the 5 years before the survey
experienced by women who are currently age 15–49 (one woman may
contribute more than one episode)

Among episodes of contraceptive use experienced Figure 7.6 Contraceptive

by women age 15–49 within the 5 years preceding discontinuation rates
the survey, about half (49%) were discontinued Percentage of contraceptive episodes
within 12 months (Table 7.11). The discontinuation discontinued within 12 months
rate was highest for pills (67%), followed by male
condoms (60%), injectables (59%), withdrawal
67
(48%), and implants (10%) (Figure 7.6). 59 60
48 49
The main reasons for discontinuing methods were
infrequent sex or the husband being away (44%),
desire to become pregnant (15%), and side effects or
health concerns (14%) (Table 7.12). Side effects and 10
health concerns were most often reported as the
reason for discontinuation of IUCDs (54%) and Pill Inject- Implants Male With- Any
implants (38%), while the main reason cited for all ables condom drawal methods
other contraceptive methods was infrequent sex or
the husband being away (Table 7.12).

7.5 DEMAND FOR FAMILY PLANNING

Unmet need for family planning

Proportion of women who:
(1) are not pregnant and not postpartum amenorrheic and are considered
fecund and want to postpone their next birth for 2 or more years or stop
childbearing altogether but are not using a contraceptive method, or
(2) have a mistimed or unwanted current pregnancy, or
(3) are postpartum amenorrheic and their most recent birth in the last 2 years
was mistimed or unwanted.
Met need for family planning
Current contraceptive use (any method).
Sample: All women age 15–49 and currently married women age 15–49

Family Planning • 145

 Demand for Unmet need for family planning
family planning: + met need (current contraceptive use [any method])

Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any method)

demand Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)
satisfied:

Proportion of Current contraceptive use (any modern method)

demand Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)
satisfied by
modern methods:

Table 7.13.1 presents data on unmet need, met need, and total demand for family planning among
currently married women. These indicators help evaluate the extent to which family planning programs in
Nepal are meeting the demand for services. The Government of Nepal’s SDG 3.7.1 target is for 74% of all
women age 15–49 to have a met need for family planning with modern methods by 2022 and 80% by 2030
(National Planning Commission 2020a).

Twenty-one percent of currently married women age Figure 7.7 Demand for family planning
15–49 in Nepal have an unmet need for family
Percent distribution of currently married
planning (13% for limiting and 7% for spacing). women age 15–49 by need for
Fifty-seven percent of married women have a met family planning
need for family planning; that is, they are currently
No need for
using contraception (Figure 7.7). Thus, the total
family
demand for family planning among married women planning
is 78%, indicating that if all married women who 22%
said they want to space or limit their children were Met need for
to use family planning methods, the contraceptive limiting Unmet need
48% for spacing
prevalence rate would increase from 57% to 78%. 7%
The total demand for family planning that is satisfied
is 73%; 55% of the total demand is satisfied by Met need
Unmet need
modern methods (Table 7.13.1). for spacing
for limiting
9%
13%
Sixteen percent of all women have an unmet need
for family planning, 10% for limiting and 6% for spacing
(Table 7.13.2).

Trends: Among currently married Figure 7.8 Trends in demand for family planning
women age 15–49, total demand for Percentage of currently married women age 15–49
family planning increased from 100
61% in 1996 to 77% in 2011 but 90 Total
77 78
has changed only minimally over 80 76 demand
73
70 61 67
the past decade. Unmet need for Met need,
family planning decreased from 60 modern
32% to 25% between 1996 and 50 methods
40 Met need,
2006, increased to 28% in 2011,
30 traditional
and then declined once again to 20 methods
21% in 2022 (Figure 7.8). 10 Unmet need
0
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

146 • Family Planning

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Unmet need is highest among currently married Figure 7.9 Unmet need by province
women age 15–19 (31%) and decreases with Percentage of currently married women
age; 10% of women age 45–49 have an unmet age 15–49 with unmet need for
need for family planning (Table 7.13.1). family planning

Gandaki Province 28
▪ Unmet need for family planning is higher among
Dalit (26%) and Muslim (25%) women than Karnali Province 23
among women in other ethnic groups (Table
Lumbini Province 23
7.13.1).
Sudurpashchim
22
▪ Unmet need ranges from 16% in Bagmati Province
Province to 28% in Gandaki Province (Figure Madhesh Province 21
7.9).
Koshi Province 18
▪ Unmet need is higher among women with a Bagmati Province 16
basic education and a secondary education (24%
and 23%, respectively) than among women with no education or a higher education (16% each)
(Table 7.13.1).

7.6 Decision Making about Family Planning and Opinion about Using Family
Planning

The 2022 NDHS collected information from currently married women regarding decision making about
family planning. Seventy-seven percent of currently married women reported that they made the decision
to use family planning methods jointly with their husband/partner, while 14% said that they made their
own decision and 9% reported that their husband/partner mainly made the decision (Table 7.14). Among
women who reported making joint decisions, more than half (58%) said that their opinion and the opinion
of their husband or partner were equally important.

Overall, 91% of women participate (either alone or jointly) in decision making about family planning
(Table 7.15). Muslim women are less likely to participate in decision making (77%) than women in other
ethnic groups (89%–93%).

7.7 Pressure to Become Pregnant and Future Use of Contraception

Overall, 9% of currently married women age 15–49 reported that they had ever been pressured to become
pregnant by their husband or partner or any other family member. Women with more than five children
were more likely to report being pressured (23%) than women with three or four children (13%) and
women with no children (11%). Muslim (17%), Madhesi (15%), and Dalit women (13%) reported more
pressure to become pregnant than Janajati and Brahmin/Chhetri women (6% each) (Table 7.16).

Sixty-nine percent of currently married women age 15–49 who are not currently using a contraceptive
method intend to use contraception in the future (Table 7.17), while 28% do not intend to use
contraception in the future and 3% are unsure. Intention to use contraception in the future is lowest among
women with four or more children (48%) and highest among those with one child (77%).

7.8 Exposure to Family Planning Messages

Table 7.18.1 presents information on women’s exposure to family planning messages via various media in
the 12 months before the survey. Outdoor signs and billboards are the most common source of family
planning messages (45%), followed by posters, leaflets, and brochures (30%); radio (26%); and social
media (25%). Nineteen percent of women saw a family planning message on television, 14% at a
community event or meeting, 9% on a mobile phone, and 7% in a newspaper or magazine. However, 34%

Family Planning • 147

 of women reported that they had no exposure to family planning messages through any of the above eight
sources.

Among men, the most common sources of family planning messages are outdoor signs and billboards
(59%); social media (42%); posters, leaflets, and brochures (41%); and radio (37%) (Table 7.18.2).
Twenty-eight percent of men saw a family planning message on television, 18% in a newspaper or
magazine, 12% at a community meeting or event, and 10% on a mobile phone. Twenty-one percent of men
reported no exposure to family planning messages through any of the eight sources.

7.9 CONTACT OF NONUSERS WITH FAMILY PLANNING PROVIDERS

Contact of nonusers with family planning providers

Respondent discussed family planning in the 12 months before the survey with
a fieldworker (female community health volunteer) or during a visit to a health
facility.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who are not currently using any contraceptive
methods

Women age 15–49 who were not using contraception were asked if they had discussed family planning
with a fieldworker or female community health volunteer (FCHV) in the 12 months before the survey.
Table 7.19 shows that only 9% of women not using contraception were visited by a fieldworker who
discussed family planning; 7% of women visited a health facility and discussed family planning, while
60% visited a health facility but did not discuss family planning. Overall, 87% of women said that they had
not discussed family planning either with a fieldworker or at a health facility in the 12 months before the
survey.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women who did not discuss family planning either with a fieldworker or at a health
facility is highest among those age 15–19 (95%) (Table 7.19).

▪ Women in the highest wealth quintile are more likely than those in the lowest wealth quintile not to
have discussed family planning with a fieldworker or at a health facility (93% versus 81%).

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on family planning, see the following tables:

▪ Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods

▪ Table 7.2 Current use of contraception according to age
▪ Table 7.3.1 Trends in current use of contraception
▪ Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics
▪ Table 7.4 Timing of sterilization
▪ Table 7.5 Use of emergency contraception
▪ Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period
▪ Table 7.7 Knowledge of fertile period by age
▪ Table 7.8 Source of modern contraceptive methods
▪ Table 7.9 Use of social marketing brand pills and condoms
▪ Table 7.10 Informed choice
▪ Table 7.11 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates
▪ Table 7.12 Reasons for discontinuation
▪ Table 7.13.1 Need and demand for family planning among currently married women
▪ Table 7.13.2 Need and demand for family planning among all women
▪ Table 7.14 Decision making about family planning

148 • Family Planning

▪ Table 7.15 Decision making about family planning by background characteristics
▪ Table 7.16 Pressure to become pregnant
▪ Table 7.17 Future use of contraception
▪ Table 7.18.1 Exposure to family planning messages: Women
▪ Table 7.18.2 Exposure to family planning messages: Men
▪ Table 7.19 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers

Family Planning • 149

 Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods
Percentage of all respondents, currently married respondents, and never-married respondents age 15–49 who have
heard of any contraceptive method, by specific method, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Currently Never-
married married Currently Never-
Method All women women women All men married men married men
Any method 99.8 100.0 99.4 99.8 100.0 99.6
Any modern method 99.8 99.9 99.4 99.8 100.0 99.6
Female sterilization 96.5 97.9 91.5 92.0 96.2 84.6
Male sterilization 87.4 90.9 74.8 86.7 92.2 77.0
IUCD 80.5 85.4 62.6 59.5 66.6 46.9
Injectables 97.4 99.0 91.5 89.1 95.3 78.1
Implants 92.8 96.3 80.2 71.6 82.8 52.4
Pill 92.9 95.9 82.0 82.1 86.4 74.6
Male condom 97.1 98.2 93.6 99.2 99.3 98.9
Emergency contraception 47.3 47.0 48.7 56.5 56.9 56.3
Standard days method (SDM) 8.2 8.5 6.9 6.9 8.2 4.7
Lactational amenorrhea method
(LAM) 23.0 24.4 18.4 7.9 8.9 6.2
Other modern method 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
Any traditional method 80.2 87.7 53.7 85.7 91.4 75.7
Rhythm 56.9 62.8 37.0 58.9 69.5 40.5
Withdrawal 73.2 81.6 44.5 83.1 88.9 72.9
Other traditional method 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Mean number of methods known
by respondents 15–49 8.5 8.9 7.3 7.9 8.5 6.9
Number of respondents 14,845 11,180 3,203 4,913 3,101 1,768

Table 7.2 Current use of contraception according to age

Percent distribution of all women and currently married women age 15–49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to age, Nepal DHS 2022
Modern method Any Traditional method
Any Female Male tradi- Not Number
Any modern sterili- sterili- Inject- Im- Male tional With- current- of
Age method method zation zation IUCD ables plants Pill condom Other1 method Rhythm drawal ly using Total women
ALL WOMEN
15–19 6.3 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.3 0.4 1.1 0.0 3.0 0.5 2.5 93.7 100.0 2,643
20–24 26.4 17.1 1.1 0.1 0.4 6.1 3.2 2.9 3.2 0.1 9.3 1.3 8.1 73.6 100.0 2,637
25–29 47.3 33.9 5.8 0.3 1.4 10.7 6.1 4.3 5.1 0.1 13.4 1.5 11.9 52.7 100.0 2,435
30–34 58.2 43.3 10.9 2.4 1.7 11.3 6.6 5.3 4.9 0.1 14.9 2.0 13.0 41.8 100.0 2,144
35–39 66.4 53.0 21.0 4.3 1.5 8.9 7.8 4.9 4.5 0.0 13.4 1.5 11.8 33.6 100.0 2,025
40–44 67.6 53.6 25.3 7.4 1.5 7.1 5.5 4.3 2.5 0.0 14.0 2.3 11.7 32.4 100.0 1,629
45–49 59.2 47.0 23.6 10.0 0.7 3.6 3.7 2.2 3.2 0.0 12.2 2.0 10.3 40.8 100.0 1,332
Total 43.7 32.7 10.5 2.7 1.0 7.0 4.6 3.4 3.5 0.1 11.0 1.5 9.5 56.3 100.0 14,845
CURRENTLY MARRIED WOMEN
15–19 28.2 14.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 6.6 1.4 1.6 4.4 0.0 14.0 2.1 11.9 71.8 100.0 563
20–24 38.6 24.9 1.7 0.2 0.5 9.0 4.8 4.2 4.4 0.2 13.7 1.9 11.8 61.4 100.0 1,783
25–29 52.1 37.4 6.4 0.3 1.6 11.8 6.8 4.8 5.6 0.1 14.7 1.7 13.1 47.9 100.0 2,198
30–34 61.1 45.3 11.4 2.5 1.8 11.9 6.9 5.6 5.2 0.1 15.8 2.1 13.7 38.9 100.0 2,027
35–39 69.8 55.6 21.9 4.6 1.5 9.5 8.3 5.2 4.6 0.0 14.3 1.6 12.6 30.2 100.0 1,906
40–44 71.1 56.1 25.8 7.8 1.6 7.6 5.9 4.7 2.7 0.0 15.0 2.4 12.6 28.9 100.0 1,515
45–49 63.8 50.0 24.3 10.9 0.8 3.9 4.1 2.5 3.6 0.0 13.7 2.2 11.5 36.2 100.0 1,188
Total 57.2 42.7 13.4 3.6 1.3 9.3 6.1 4.5 4.5 0.1 14.6 1.9 12.6 42.8 100.0 11,180

Note: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation. Other traditional methods are not shown separately due
to only 2 cases.
1
Other modern methods include lactational amenorrhea method (LAM) and emergency contraception.

150 • Family Planning

Table 7.3.1 Trends in current use of contraception
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to several
surveys
Method 1996 NFHS 2001 NDHS 2006 NDHS 2011 NDHS 2016 NDHS 2022 NDHS
Any method 28.5 39.3 48.0 49.7 52.6 57.2
Any modern method 26.0 35.4 44.2 43.2 42.8 42.7
Female sterilization 12.1 15.0 18.0 15.2 14.7 13.4
Male sterilization 5.4 6.3 6.3 7.8 5.5 3.6
IUCD 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.3 1.4 1.3
Injectables 4.5 8.4 10.1 9.2 8.9 9.3
Implants 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 3.3 6.1
Pill 1.4 1.6 3.5 4.1 4.6 4.5
Male condom 1.9 2.9 4.8 4.3 4.2 4.5
Other modern method 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
Any traditional method 2.5 3.9 3.7 6.5 9.8 14.6
Rhythm 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.9
Withdrawal 1.4 2.6 2.6 5.4 8.7 12.6
Other 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0
Not currently using 71.5 60.7 52.0 50.3 47.4 42.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 7,982 8,342 8,257 9,608 9,875 11,180

Family Planning • 151

Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Traditional
Modern method Any method
Any Female Male Male tradi- Not Num-
Any modern sterili- sterili- Inject- Im- con- tional With- current- ber of
Background characteristic method method zation zation IUCD ables plants Pill dom Other1 method Rhythm drawal ly using Total women
Number of living children
0 20.9 8.3 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.6 0.1 0.7 6.0 0.1 12.6 0.9 11.7 79.1 100.0 1,055
1–2 57.3 40.1 8.6 2.8 1.3 10.4 6.0 5.5 5.5 0.1 17.1 1.7 15.4 42.7 100.0 6,449
3–4 68.3 57.2 26.4 5.9 1.5 9.7 7.5 3.9 2.3 0.1 11.1 2.8 8.3 31.7 100.0 3,133
5+ 63.3 55.1 21.4 5.1 1.7 11.6 10.2 3.1 2.0 0.0 8.2 1.9 6.3 36.7 100.0 543
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 60.0 39.6 6.7 7.4 1.8 8.6 5.1 4.0 5.9 0.1 20.4 1.0 19.4 40.0 100.0 3,031
Dalit 52.6 44.0 16.5 3.6 0.9 10.8 6.9 3.2 2.2 0.1 8.6 1.5 6.9 47.4 100.0 1,734
Janajati 61.3 45.4 10.2 2.6 1.3 11.7 8.4 5.9 5.5 0.1 15.8 1.5 14.3 38.7 100.0 4,042
Madhesi 55.1 44.6 30.2 0.3 0.9 4.7 3.0 3.2 2.3 0.1 10.5 4.7 5.8 44.9 100.0 1,835
Muslim 33.2 27.6 8.3 0.5 1.3 6.6 2.2 4.8 3.5 0.3 5.6 2.1 3.5 66.8 100.0 528
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 100.0 11
Residence
Urban 56.9 40.7 13.7 3.4 1.4 8.0 4.6 4.4 5.1 0.1 16.2 1.9 14.3 43.1 100.0 7,553
Rural 58.0 46.8 12.8 3.8 1.1 12.1 9.1 4.7 3.2 0.1 11.2 2.1 9.1 42.0 100.0 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 62.7 50.1 3.2 11.0 1.6 17.8 10.1 2.8 3.4 0.2 12.6 0.6 12.1 37.3 100.0 629
Hill 59.1 41.1 4.7 5.5 1.6 11.1 8.4 4.7 5.1 0.0 18.0 1.4 16.6 40.9 100.0 4,275
Terai 55.4 43.0 20.4 1.5 1.0 7.2 4.1 4.5 4.2 0.1 12.4 2.5 9.9 44.6 100.0 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 61.5 43.5 12.0 1.3 1.3 12.1 7.7 5.6 3.6 0.0 18.0 2.7 15.3 38.5 100.0 1,887
Urban 62.3 42.9 12.8 1.5 1.2 10.6 7.1 5.5 4.2 0.0 19.4 2.7 16.7 37.7 100.0 1,242
Rural 60.1 44.9 10.5 0.9 1.4 14.8 9.0 5.7 2.4 0.1 15.2 2.8 12.4 39.9 100.0 645
Madhesh Province 49.0 40.5 28.3 0.5 0.7 4.8 1.8 2.6 1.7 0.1 8.5 4.3 4.1 51.0 100.0 2,419
Urban 46.5 38.1 27.5 0.6 0.9 3.7 1.5 1.8 2.0 0.1 8.4 4.2 4.2 53.5 100.0 1,789
Rural 56.0 47.4 30.5 0.2 0.1 8.0 2.7 4.8 0.9 0.1 8.6 4.6 4.0 44.0 100.0 630
Bagmati Province 66.2 44.6 5.7 6.4 1.4 12.3 7.1 5.0 6.7 0.0 21.5 1.4 20.1 33.8 100.0 2,156
Urban 65.9 42.3 6.3 5.9 1.4 10.5 4.5 5.7 7.9 0.0 23.6 1.4 22.2 34.1 100.0 1,700
Rural 67.1 53.5 3.3 8.4 1.5 19.3 16.8 2.3 2.0 0.0 13.6 1.4 12.2 32.9 100.0 456
Gandaki Province 51.5 35.1 5.4 6.3 1.4 6.2 6.1 5.0 4.7 0.0 16.4 0.5 15.9 48.5 100.0 1,046
Urban 49.9 32.7 6.2 5.2 1.2 4.8 5.5 4.2 5.5 0.0 17.2 0.6 16.6 50.1 100.0 729
Rural 55.3 40.8 3.4 8.9 1.6 9.6 7.5 6.8 2.9 0.0 14.6 0.3 14.2 44.7 100.0 317
Lumbini Province 56.5 43.0 12.8 1.6 1.9 8.2 7.1 5.5 5.8 0.1 13.6 1.1 12.4 43.5 100.0 2,020
Urban 57.4 40.5 11.4 1.4 2.3 7.6 5.1 5.9 6.7 0.0 16.9 0.3 16.4 42.6 100.0 1,119
Rural 55.5 46.1 14.6 1.8 1.3 9.0 9.6 4.9 4.8 0.2 9.4 2.1 7.3 44.5 100.0 900
Karnali Province 55.3 45.9 3.5 10.1 1.3 15.4 8.2 4.1 3.3 0.1 9.3 0.2 9.1 44.7 100.0 691
Urban 56.2 45.0 4.0 11.8 1.3 12.1 7.7 4.8 3.2 0.1 11.1 0.1 11.0 43.8 100.0 381
Rural 54.1 47.1 2.9 8.1 1.3 19.3 8.8 3.3 3.4 0.0 7.0 0.3 6.8 45.9 100.0 310
Sudurpashchim Province 58.6 47.0 13.1 5.6 1.0 9.7 7.4 3.6 6.0 0.4 11.6 0.3 11.4 41.4 100.0 960
Urban 59.0 46.5 15.2 5.3 1.5 9.9 5.0 3.2 6.0 0.3 12.5 0.4 12.1 41.0 100.0 591
Rural 58.0 47.8 9.9 6.2 0.4 9.5 11.3 4.4 5.9 0.4 10.2 0.0 10.2 42.0 100.0 369
Education
No education 62.2 54.3 26.3 5.2 1.3 9.5 6.9 3.5 1.6 0.0 7.9 1.8 6.1 37.8 100.0 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 55.1 42.4 10.8 4.0 1.0 11.3 7.0 4.9 3.3 0.1 12.8 2.1 10.6 44.9 100.0 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 56.7 45.7 12.7 5.3 0.8 10.6 7.8 5.1 3.2 0.1 11.0 1.9 9.1 43.3 100.0 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 53.3 38.4 8.6 2.4 1.1 12.2 6.0 4.8 3.4 0.0 14.9 2.3 12.5 46.7 100.0 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 53.5 32.9 4.4 1.7 1.7 8.0 4.7 5.4 7.0 0.1 20.6 2.0 18.7 46.5 100.0 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 55.0 34.4 4.4 2.0 1.6 9.3 5.4 5.7 6.0 0.1 20.5 2.5 18.1 45.0 100.0 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 51.2 30.4 4.5 1.2 1.8 5.7 3.5 4.8 8.7 0.1 20.8 1.1 19.7 48.8 100.0 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 64.8 32.7 6.4 2.1 0.7 2.5 2.8 1.5 16.2 0.4 32.1 1.8 30.3 35.2 100.0 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 54.3 44.7 6.7 5.0 1.3 14.0 11.2 3.9 2.5 0.1 9.6 1.4 8.2 45.7 100.0 2,031
Second 56.4 46.9 19.1 3.0 1.0 10.0 7.4 4.1 2.4 0.0 9.5 1.6 7.9 43.6 100.0 2,217
Middle 56.2 44.4 17.5 3.1 1.3 10.1 5.3 3.9 3.1 0.0 11.8 2.1 9.7 43.8 100.0 2,323
Fourth 56.6 38.7 13.2 2.7 1.1 7.4 4.0 5.9 4.3 0.1 17.9 2.6 15.3 43.4 100.0 2,381
Highest 62.5 39.0 10.0 4.2 1.7 5.6 3.1 4.4 10.0 0.1 23.4 2.0 21.4 37.5 100.0 2,228
Total 57.2 42.7 13.4 3.6 1.3 9.3 6.1 4.5 4.5 0.1 14.6 1.9 12.6 42.8 100.0 11,180

Note: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation. Other traditional methods are not shown separately due to only 2 cases. An
asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Other modern methods include lactational amenorrhea method (LAM) and emergency contraception.

152 • Family Planning

Table 7.4 Timing of sterilization
Percent distribution of sterilized women age 15–49 by age at the time of sterilization and median age at sterilization,
according to the number of years since the operation, Nepal DHS 2022
Age at time of sterilization Number of Median
Years since operation <25 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 Total women age1
<2 19.9 32.0 29.9 14.4 2.7 1.1 100.0 118 29.5
2–3 25.4 30.5 23.5 17.4 3.2 0.0 100.0 130 28.9
4–5 29.7 26.6 29.9 13.4 0.3 0.0 100.0 148 28.5
6–7 22.7 38.0 22.2 14.0 3.1 0.0 100.0 151 28.0
8–9 18.1 39.1 31.5 11.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 133 28.4
10+ 36.4 45.0 15.6 2.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 880 a
Total 30.7 39.9 20.7 7.8 0.8 0.1 100.0 1,559 26.9

1
Median age at sterilization is calculated only for women sterilized before age 40 to avoid problems of censoring.
a = not calculated due to censoring

Family Planning • 153

 Table 7.5 Use of emergency contraception
Percentage of women age 15–49 who used emergency contraception in
the last 12 months, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
Background used emergency Number of
characteristic contraception women
Age
15–19 0.3 2,643
20–24 1.6 2,637
25–29 1.7 2,435
30–34 1.7 2,144
35–39 0.9 2,025
40–44 0.4 1,629
45–49 0.1 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.3 4,152
Dalit 0.7 2,240
Janajati 1.3 5,428
Madhesi 0.4 2,333
Muslim 1.2 676
Other * 15
Residence
Urban 1.3 10,178
Rural 0.5 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.4 791
Hill 1.2 5,872
Terai 1.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 0.7 2,493
Urban 0.9 1,640
Rural 0.3 853
Madhesh Province 0.6 3,010
Urban 0.7 2,226
Rural 0.2 783
Bagmati Province 1.6 3,062
Urban 1.8 2,464
Rural 0.6 599
Gandaki Province 1.6 1,401
Urban 1.7 992
Rural 1.2 409
Lumbini Province 1.0 2,691
Urban 1.2 1,553
Rural 0.6 1,138
Karnali Province 0.7 909
Urban 0.9 507
Rural 0.5 402
Sudurpashchim Province 1.3 1,279
Urban 1.8 796
Rural 0.4 484
Education
No education 0.3 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 0.9 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 0.8 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.1 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 1.4 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.2 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.5 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.2 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.3 2,628
Second 0.5 2,857
Middle 0.8 3,028
Fourth 1.6 3,197
Highest 1.8 3,135
Total 1.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

154 • Family Planning

Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period
Percent distribution of rhythm users and all women age 15–49 by knowledge of the
fertile period during the ovulatory cycle, Nepal DHS 2022
Users of rhythm
Perceived fertile period method All women
Just before her menstrual period begins 0.8 1.5
During her menstrual period 0.5 1.9
Right after her menstrual period has ended 59.0 37.2
Halfway between two menstrual periods 37.3 28.4
Other 0.0 0.0
No specific time 0.6 8.4
Don’t know 1.9 22.6
Total 100.0 100.0
Number of women 218 14,845

Table 7.7 Knowledge of fertile period by age

Percentage of women age 15–49 with correct

knowledge of the fertile period during the ovulatory
cycle, according to age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage with
correct knowledge
of the fertile Number
Age period of women
15–19 19.1 2,643
20–24 28.2 2,637
25–29 32.9 2,435
30–34 33.9 2,144
35–39 30.0 2,025
40–44 28.6 1,629
45–49 27.8 1,332
Total 28.4 14,845

Note: Correct knowledge of the fertile period is

defined as “halfway between two menstrual periods.”

Family Planning • 155

 Table 7.8 Source of modern contraceptive methods
Percent distribution of users of modern contraceptive methods age 15–49 by most recent source of method, according to method, Nepal DHS
2022
Female Male Male
Source sterilization sterilization IUCD Injectables Implants Pill condom Total
Public sector 78.1 83.1 67.5 69.2 89.1 49.7 25.3 69.2
Government hospital 50.1 54.0 38.4 3.4 17.7 1.7 2.7 25.4
Primary health care center 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.1 1.0 0.3 2.0
Health post 0.0 0.0 25.6 51.8 65.0 34.7 17.7 26.5
Basic health care center 0.0 0.0 0.9 4.1 2.8 1.0 0.5 1.5
Urban health center 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.9 0.2 0.4 0.6
Family planning clinic 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
Mobile clinic 25.1 26.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.2
Community health unit 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.2 3.0 0.5 1.0
FCHV 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.1 8.0 3.2 1.3
Other 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.5
Private medical sector 10.6 6.2 18.2 28.7 2.0 49.2 67.8 23.3
Private hospital 10.1 5.9 7.4 2.5 1.2 0.8 0.5 4.8
Private clinic 0.4 0.3 9.7 15.1 0.6 16.3 16.6 7.2
Pharmacy 0.0 0.0 0.8 11.0 0.2 32.2 50.4 11.2
Sangini outlet 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1
Other private sector 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Nongovernment (NGO) 7.3 5.6 12.4 1.0 8.6 0.7 0.6 4.7
Family Planning
Association of Nepal 1.1 0.5 3.7 0.4 2.0 0.3 0.5 0.9
Marie Stopes 6.1 5.1 8.7 0.5 6.2 0.0 0.0 3.6
Other NGO medical sector 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2
Other source 4.0 2.6 1.9 1.1 0.3 0.4 6.3 2.6
Shop 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 0.4
Friends/relatives 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.1 0.2
Other 4.0 2.6 1.4 1.1 0.3 0.0 1.6 2.0
Don’t know 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 1,559 404 144 1,042 680 504 519 4,857

Note: Total includes other modern methods but excludes lactational amenorrhea method (LAM).
NGO = Nongovernmental organization

156 • Family Planning

Table 7.9 Use of social marketing brand pills and condoms
Percentage of pill and condom users age 15–49 using a specific social marketing brand, by background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Pill users Condom users1
Percentage Percentage
using Nilocon using Dhaal,
Background White or Number of Panther, or Number of
characteristic Sunaulo Gulaph women D’zire women
Age
15–19 * 10 (72.2) 23
20–24 83.6 75 66.4 71
25–29 79.7 105 61.5 98
30–34 75.0 114 61.1 88
35–39 76.7 98 81.4 77
40–44 65.6 70 (79.7) 32
45–49 (51.5) 29 * 35
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 82.5 123 69.7 146
Dalit 81.0 55 (62.5) 32
Janajati 72.0 237 67.2 195
Madhesi (58.7) 58 (71.4) 33
Muslim * 25 * 17
Other * 3 * 2
Residence
Urban 78.3 332 68.2 320
Rural 69.0 170 69.3 105
Ecological zone
Mountain (83.8) 18 * 19
Hill 75.1 203 69.8 176
Terai 74.6 282 66.4 230
Province
Koshi Province 76.8 106 (66.6) 59
Urban 78.4 69 (61.6) 44
Rural (73.8) 37 * 14
Madhesh Province 73.0 61 (77.0) 36
Urban * 32 * 30
Rural (69.7) 29 * 6
Bagmati Province 77.4 107 78.5 108
Urban 78.9 97 79.8 102
Rural * 11 * 6
Gandaki Province 76.3 53 (78.0) 37
Urban (81.4) 31 (76.0) 30
Rural (69.1) 22 * 7
Lumbini Province 72.2 112 66.6 110
Urban 74.5 66 61.4 68
Rural (68.7) 46 (74.9) 42
Karnali Province 73.5 29 (62.6) 21
Urban (82.1) 18 * 10
Rural (58.3) 10 (70.7) 11
Sudurpashchim Province 76.5 34 45.0 55
Urban (83.9) 19 (44.7) 35
Rural (67.2) 15 (45.5) 20
Education
No education 66.9 120 (63.0) 45
Basic education (1–8) 80.8 185 64.0 108
Lower basic education (1–5) 76.1 104 (66.7) 57
Upper basic education (6–8) 86.8 81 61.0 51
Secondary (9–12) 75.4 190 70.3 212
Lower secondary (9–10) 79.5 126 66.9 113
Higher secondary (11–12) 67.3 64 74.2 98
More than secondary (13 and
above) * 7 (74.4) 60
Wealth quintile
Lowest 67.4 78 62.1 45
Second 77.7 93 54.6 47
Middle 81.5 93 65.6 66
Fourth 76.3 139 63.7 93
Highest 71.4 99 77.5 174
Total 75.2 502 68.5 425

Note: Table excludes pill and condom users who do not know the brand name. Condom use is based on
women’s reports. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that
a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Among condom users not also using the pill

Family Planning • 157

 Table 7.10 Informed choice
Among current users of selected modern methods age 15–49 who started the last episode of use within the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage
who were informed about possible side effects or problems of that method, percentage who were informed about what to do if they experienced side
effects, percentage who were informed about other methods they could use, percentage who received all three types of information, and percentage
who were informed that they could switch to another method if they wanted to or needed to, by method and initial source, Nepal DHS 2022
Women who started last episode of modern contraceptive method within 5 years preceding the survey
Percentage who Percentage who
received all three were informed
Percentage who Percentage who types of that they could
were informed were informed Percentage who information switch to another
about side effects about what to do if were informed of (method method if they
or problems of they experienced other methods information wanted to or Number of
Method/source method used side effects that could be used index)1 needed to women
Method
Female sterilization 39.9 39.7 38.8 26.1 na 333
IUCD 77.0 79.3 81.5 63.6 78.1 94
Injectables 56.9 46.0 54.2 37.4 59.3 808
Implants 78.6 76.7 72.5 62.4 74.8 555
Pill 44.1 38.6 49.6 30.9 51.7 390
Initial source of method2
Public sector 62.3 57.2 60.2 45.6 58.1 1,577
Government hospital 58.1 52.8 54.5 40.9 42.3 317
Primary health care center 65.7 58.8 58.5 40.9 53.8 49
Health post 67.1 61.2 64.2 49.5 67.2 985
Basic health care center 48.7 51.9 59.9 41.6 69.7 57
Urban health center * * * * * 21
Mobile clinic 38.9 45.1 36.4 30.7 0.0 74
Community health unit (55.0) (45.2) (50.2) (34.0) (58.9) 27
FCHV (43.1) (35.3) (58.3) (30.5) (53.1) 33
Other * * * * * 15
Private medical sector 43.9 36.3 43.5 28.3 39.2 483
Private hospital 42.9 41.3 51.3 33.4 19.5 94
Private clinic 53.3 41.0 47.5 33.2 50.2 187
Pharmacy 35.1 28.8 35.5 20.7 38.5 200
Other private sector * * * * * 2
Nongovernment (NGO) 71.6 66.6 72.3 55.9 62.2 102
Family Planning Association
of Nepal (74.1) (70.0) (72.3) (66.3) (60.6) 27
Marie Stopes 72.3 66.5 72.7 53.6 62.7 69
Other NGO medical sector * * * * * 5
Other source * * * * * 2
Total 58.4 53.0 56.9 42.0 53.7 2,180

Note: Table includes users of only the methods listed individually. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates
that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
Na = Not applicable
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
The method information index is the percentage of women who were informed about (1) side effects or problems of the method used, (2) what to do
if they experienced side effects, and (3) other methods that could be used.
2
Source at start of current episode of use. Total includes sources with too few users to show separately.

158 • Family Planning

Table 7.11 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates
Among episodes of contraceptive use experienced within the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage of episodes discontinued within 12 months, by method and
reason for discontinuation, Nepal DHS 2022
Other Changes Other side Wanted Other Husband/
Desire to fertility- in effects/ more method- partner Switched Number of
Method become related menstrual health effective related disap- Other Any to another episodes
Method failure pregnant reasons1 bleeding concerns method reasons2 proved reasons3 reason4 method5 of use6
Female sterilization 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 365
Injectables 0.7 3.9 28.3 8.6 12.2 3.2 0.7 0.4 0.7 58.6 11.9 2,242
Implants 0.0 0.2 1.6 2.4 5.7 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 10.3 3.7 778
Pill 3.2 4.1 42.0 2.0 10.5 2.6 1.7 0.3 0.9 67.2 8.9 1,380
Male condom 2.3 10.5 34.8 0.0 0.5 6.0 3.3 2.0 0.2 59.6 8.2 1,001
Rhythm (2.4) (6.6) (10.4) (0.0) (0.0) (4.1) (0.0) (1.0) (0.0) (24.6) (3.6) 231
Withdrawal 5.2 7.3 30.2 0.0 0.1 4.7 0.2 0.2 0.3 48.2 4.7 2,189
Other7 (3.1) (1.4) (11.0) (1.4) (9.2) (6.4) (1.2) (0.3) (0.0) (34.1) (11.4) 240
All methods 2.5 5.0 27.2 2.9 5.9 3.5 0.9 0.5 0.4 48.7 7.6 8,425

Note: Figures are based on life table calculations using information on episodes of use that occurred 3–62 months preceding the survey. Figures in parentheses
are based on 125–249 women exposed to method use.
1
Includes infrequent sex/husband away, difficult to get pregnant/menopausal, and marital dissolution/separation
2
Includes lack of access/too far, costs too much, and inconvenient to use
3
Includes up to God/fatalistic and other reasons
4
Reasons for discontinuation are mutually exclusive and add to the total given in this column.
5
A woman is considered to have switched to another method if she used a different method in the month following discontinuation or if she gave “wanted a more
effective method” as the reason for discontinuation and started another method within 2 months of discontinuation.
6
All episodes of use that occurred within the 5 years preceding the survey are included. Episodes of use include both episodes that were discontinued during the
period of observation and episodes that were not discontinued during the period of observation.
7
Includes lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), male sterilization, IUCD, emergency contraception, standard days method (SDM), and other methods

Table 7.12 Reasons for discontinuation

Percent distribution of discontinuations of contraceptive methods in the 5 years preceding the survey by main reason stated for discontinuation, by method, Nepal
DHS 2022
Reason IUCD Injectables Implants Pill Male condom Rhythm Withdrawal Other1 All methods
Became pregnant while
using 0.0 1.3 0.1 5.3 5.0 10.9 13.3 (11.5) 5.8
Wanted to become pregnant 14.1 11.0 12.5 9.0 24.5 32.3 20.6 (6.7) 15.4
Husband/partner
disapproved 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.3 3.5 3.0 0.5 (0.0) 0.9
Wanted a more effective
method 6.9 8.8 4.0 6.0 10.1 15.8 11.1 (25.5) 9.0
Changes in menstrual
bleeding 4.7 13.6 18.6 3.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 (3.2) 6.1
Other side effects/health
concerns 53.8 21.5 38.0 18.3 1.6 0.0 0.5 (4.1) 13.7
Lack of access/too far 0.0 1.4 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.0 0.0 (1.4) 0.8
Cost too much 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.0
Inconvenient to use 2.2 0.5 3.4 1.6 4.6 1.7 0.2 (1.8) 1.4
Up to God/fatalistic 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 (0.0) 0.1
Difficult to get pregnant/
menopausal 0.0 1.7 2.0 0.5 1.1 0.6 1.5 (0.0) 1.3
Infrequent sex/husband
away 13.5 37.7 15.0 52.3 46.6 34.4 50.6 (43.2) 43.5
Marital dissolution/
separation 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.5 (2.6) 0.3
Other 4.9 2.0 4.2 2.1 0.6 1.3 0.4 (0.0) 1.6
Don’t know 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 (0.0) 0.0
Missing 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.3 (0.0) 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of discontinuations 97 1,971 344 1,244 813 112 1,615 47 6,258

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
Includes emergency contraception, standard days method (SDM),and other methods.

Family Planning • 159

 Table 7.13.1 Need and demand for family planning among currently married women
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 with unmet need for family planning, percentage with met need for family planning, total demand for family
planning, percentage of the demand for family planning that is satisfied, and percentage of the demand for family planning that is satisfied by modern methods, by
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percent-
age of
demand
Unmet need for family Met need for family planning Total demand for family
Percent- satisfied
planning (currently using) planning1
age of by
Background For For For For For For Number demand modern
characteristic spacing limiting Total spacing limiting Total spacing limiting Total of women satisfied2 methods3
Age
15–19 28.4 2.6 30.9 22.3 5.9 28.2 50.7 8.4 59.1 563 47.7 24.0
20–24 20.7 8.4 29.1 22.5 16.1 38.6 43.2 24.5 67.8 1,783 57.0 36.8
25–29 8.6 14.9 23.5 15.4 36.7 52.1 24.0 51.6 75.7 2,198 68.9 49.4
30–34 4.5 17.5 22.0 6.7 54.5 61.1 11.2 72.0 83.2 2,027 73.5 54.5
35–39 0.7 16.5 17.2 2.3 67.5 69.8 3.0 84.1 87.1 1,906 80.2 63.8
40–44 0.2 14.2 14.4 0.5 70.6 71.1 0.6 84.9 85.5 1,515 83.2 65.6
45–49 0.0 10.2 10.2 0.0 63.8 63.8 0.0 74.0 74.0 1,188 86.1 67.6
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 6.2 14.6 20.7 9.7 50.2 60.0 15.9 64.8 80.7 3,031 74.3 49.0
Dalit 11.0 14.5 25.5 7.6 45.0 52.6 18.6 59.5 78.1 1,734 67.3 56.4
Janajati 6.5 13.2 19.7 12.1 49.2 61.3 18.6 62.4 81.0 4,042 75.6 56.1
Madhesi 6.7 10.9 17.6 5.9 49.3 55.1 12.5 60.2 72.7 1,835 75.8 61.4
Muslim 11.0 13.7 24.7 5.6 27.6 33.2 16.7 41.3 58.0 528 57.3 47.6
Other * * * * * * * * * 11 * *
Residence
Urban 7.5 13.2 20.7 9.9 46.9 56.9 17.4 60.1 77.5 7,553 73.4 52.4
Rural 7.2 13.9 21.1 8.3 49.7 58.0 15.5 63.6 79.1 3,627 73.3 59.2
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.9 11.2 19.1 9.2 53.5 62.7 17.2 64.7 81.8 629 76.7 61.2
Hill 6.6 16.1 22.7 10.7 48.4 59.1 17.3 64.5 81.8 4,275 72.2 50.3
Terai 7.8 11.8 19.7 8.5 46.9 55.4 16.4 58.7 75.1 6,276 73.8 57.2
Province
Koshi Province 7.9 9.6 17.6 12.3 49.2 61.5 20.2 58.9 79.1 1,887 77.8 55.1
Urban 7.8 9.1 16.9 12.3 50.0 62.3 20.0 59.1 79.2 1,242 78.7 54.2
Rural 8.2 10.7 18.9 12.5 47.6 60.1 20.7 58.4 79.0 645 76.1 56.8
Madhesh Province 9.9 11.2 21.1 4.4 44.6 49.0 14.3 55.8 70.1 2,419 69.9 57.8
Urban 10.7 11.5 22.2 4.2 42.3 46.5 14.9 53.8 68.7 1,789 67.7 55.4
Rural 7.6 10.4 17.9 5.0 51.0 56.0 12.6 61.3 73.9 630 75.7 64.1
Bagmati Province 4.3 11.7 16.0 13.9 52.3 66.2 18.1 64.0 82.2 2,156 80.5 54.3
Urban 3.6 12.4 16.0 15.1 50.8 65.9 18.7 63.2 81.9 1,700 80.4 51.6
Rural 6.5 9.3 15.9 9.2 57.9 67.1 15.8 67.2 83.0 456 80.9 64.5
Gandaki Province 7.4 20.6 28.1 7.1 44.4 51.5 14.5 65.1 79.6 1,046 64.7 44.2
Urban 7.6 20.6 28.2 7.4 42.4 49.9 15.0 63.1 78.1 729 63.9 41.9
Rural 7.2 20.6 27.7 6.3 49.0 55.3 13.5 69.6 83.1 317 66.6 49.1
Lumbini Province 6.8 16.5 23.3 10.0 46.6 56.5 16.8 63.1 79.9 2,020 70.8 53.8
Urban 7.3 15.7 23.0 12.0 45.3 57.4 19.3 61.0 80.3 1,119 71.4 50.4
Rural 6.2 17.5 23.8 7.4 48.2 55.5 13.6 65.7 79.3 900 70.0 58.2
Karnali Province 8.5 14.9 23.4 7.9 47.4 55.3 16.4 62.3 78.6 691 70.3 58.4
Urban 8.1 13.9 22.1 8.0 48.2 56.2 16.1 62.1 78.2 381 71.8 57.5
Rural 8.9 16.1 25.0 7.8 46.4 54.1 16.6 62.5 79.1 310 68.4 59.5
Sudurpashchim Province 7.2 14.9 22.1 8.8 49.8 58.6 16.0 64.7 80.7 960 72.6 58.2
Urban 7.9 14.7 22.6 8.2 50.8 59.0 16.0 65.5 81.6 591 72.3 57.0
Rural 6.1 15.2 21.3 9.9 48.1 58.0 16.0 63.2 79.2 369 73.2 60.3
Education
No education 3.2 13.2 16.4 1.8 60.4 62.2 5.0 73.6 78.6 3,475 79.2 69.0
Basic education (1–8) 8.1 15.6 23.7 7.4 47.7 55.1 15.5 63.4 78.8 3,701 69.9 53.7
Lower basic education (1–5) 6.7 16.1 22.8 4.7 52.0 56.7 11.4 68.1 79.5 2,004 71.3 57.5
Upper basic education (6–8) 9.8 15.0 24.8 10.5 42.7 53.3 20.3 57.7 78.0 1,696 68.3 49.2
Secondary (9–12) 11.0 11.7 22.7 17.0 36.6 53.5 28.0 48.3 76.3 3,536 70.2 43.1
Lower secondary (9–10) 10.3 12.2 22.5 16.2 38.8 55.0 26.5 51.0 77.4 2,208 71.0 44.4
Higher secondary (11–12) 12.2 10.9 23.2 18.3 32.9 51.2 30.5 43.8 74.4 1,328 68.9 40.9
More than secondary (13 and
above) 5.3 10.8 16.1 24.9 39.9 64.8 30.1 50.7 80.8 468 80.1 40.4
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.7 16.1 24.7 7.4 46.9 54.3 16.0 63.0 79.0 2,031 68.7 56.5
Second 8.6 12.7 21.4 7.0 49.4 56.4 15.6 62.1 77.7 2,217 72.5 60.3
Middle 7.3 13.2 20.4 8.9 47.3 56.2 16.2 60.4 76.6 2,323 73.3 58.0
Fourth 7.7 13.3 20.9 10.5 46.1 56.6 18.2 59.4 77.6 2,381 73.0 49.9
Highest 4.7 12.2 16.9 13.0 49.4 62.5 17.8 61.6 79.4 2,228 78.7 49.2
Total 7.4 13.4 20.8 9.4 47.8 57.2 16.8 61.2 78.0 11,180 73.3 54.7

Note: Numbers in this table correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need.
2
Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand.
3
Modern methods include female sterilization, male sterilization, IUCD, injectables, implants, pill, male condom, emergency contraception, standard days method
(SDM), lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), and other modern methods.

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Table 7.13.2 Need and demand for family planning among all women
Percentage of all women age 15–49 with unmet need for family planning, percentage with met need for family planning, total demand for family planning, percentage
of the demand for family planning that is satisfied, and percentage of the demand for family planning that is satisfied by modern methods, by background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Percent-
age of
Unmet need for family Met need for family planning Total demand for family demand
planning (currently using) planning1 Percent- satisfied
age of by
Background For For For For For For Number demand modern
characteristic spacing limiting Total spacing limiting Total spacing limiting Total of women satisfied methods3
2

Age
15–19 6.1 0.5 6.6 5.0 1.3 6.3 11.1 1.8 12.9 2,643 48.6 25.3
20–24 14.2 5.7 19.9 15.6 10.9 26.4 29.7 16.6 46.3 2,637 57.1 36.9
25–29 7.8 13.5 21.2 14.0 33.2 47.3 21.8 46.7 68.5 2,435 69.0 49.4
30–34 4.3 16.6 20.9 6.4 51.9 58.2 10.6 68.5 79.1 2,144 73.6 54.7
35–39 0.6 15.6 16.2 2.2 64.2 66.4 2.8 79.8 82.6 2,025 80.4 64.1
40–44 0.2 13.2 13.4 0.4 67.1 67.6 0.6 80.4 81.0 1,629 83.5 66.2
45–49 0.0 9.1 9.1 0.0 59.2 59.2 0.0 68.4 68.4 1,332 86.6 68.7
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 4.5 10.6 15.2 7.1 37.2 44.4 11.7 47.9 59.5 4,152 74.5 49.5
Dalit 8.5 11.2 19.8 6.0 35.6 41.6 14.5 46.9 61.4 2,240 67.8 57.0
Janajati 4.9 9.8 14.8 9.3 37.0 46.3 14.2 46.9 61.1 5,428 75.8 56.5
Madhesi 5.2 8.6 13.9 4.6 39.3 43.9 9.8 47.9 57.8 2,333 76.0 61.7
Muslim 8.6 10.7 19.3 4.4 21.6 26.0 13.0 32.3 45.3 676 57.3 47.6
Other * * * * * * * * * 15 * *
Residence
Urban 5.6 9.8 15.4 7.5 35.4 43.0 13.1 45.2 58.4 10,178 73.6 52.9
Rural 5.6 10.8 16.4 6.5 38.9 45.5 12.1 49.8 61.9 4,667 73.5 59.5
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.3 8.9 15.2 7.3 42.7 50.1 13.6 51.6 65.2 791 76.7 61.3
Hill 4.8 11.7 16.6 7.9 35.7 43.6 12.7 47.4 60.1 5,872 72.4 50.7
Terai 6.1 9.1 15.1 6.7 36.6 43.3 12.8 45.6 58.4 8,182 74.1 57.7
Province
Koshi Province 6.0 7.3 13.3 9.4 37.8 47.2 15.4 45.1 60.5 2,493 78.0 55.3
Urban 6.0 6.9 12.8 9.4 38.5 47.9 15.3 45.4 60.8 1,640 78.9 54.5
Rural 6.2 8.1 14.3 9.4 36.3 45.7 15.6 44.4 60.0 853 76.2 57.0
Madhesh Province 8.0 9.1 17.1 3.6 36.3 39.9 11.6 45.4 57.0 3,010 70.0 58.1
Urban 8.7 9.3 18.0 3.4 34.5 37.9 12.0 43.8 55.9 2,226 67.8 55.7
Rural 6.1 8.3 14.4 4.1 41.5 45.6 10.2 49.8 60.0 783 76.0 64.5
Bagmati Province 3.0 8.3 11.3 9.9 37.2 47.1 12.9 45.5 58.4 3,062 80.7 54.8
Urban 2.5 8.5 11.1 10.6 35.6 46.2 13.1 44.1 57.2 2,464 80.7 52.2
Rural 5.1 7.1 12.2 7.0 44.1 51.1 12.1 51.2 63.3 599 80.7 64.4
Gandaki Province 5.6 15.4 21.0 5.4 33.5 39.0 11.1 48.9 60.0 1,401 64.9 44.3
Urban 5.7 15.2 20.8 5.6 31.6 37.2 11.3 46.8 58.1 992 64.1 42.1
Rural 5.6 16.0 21.5 4.9 38.2 43.1 10.5 54.2 64.6 409 66.7 49.2
Lumbini Province 5.2 12.4 17.6 7.6 35.7 43.3 12.8 48.1 60.9 2,691 71.2 54.4
Urban 5.3 11.3 16.6 8.7 33.6 42.4 14.1 44.9 59.0 1,553 71.8 51.2
Rural 4.9 13.9 18.8 6.1 38.5 44.6 11.1 52.4 63.4 1,138 70.4 58.6
Karnali Province 6.4 11.3 17.8 6.0 36.5 42.6 12.5 47.9 60.4 909 70.6 58.8
Urban 6.1 10.5 16.6 6.1 36.9 43.0 12.2 47.4 59.6 507 72.2 58.0
Rural 6.8 12.4 19.3 6.0 36.1 42.0 12.8 48.5 61.3 402 68.6 59.7
Sudurpashchim Province 5.4 11.2 16.6 7.0 38.0 45.0 12.4 49.2 61.6 1,279 73.1 58.9
Urban 5.9 10.9 16.8 6.6 38.6 45.2 12.5 49.5 62.0 796 72.9 58.0
Rural 4.7 11.6 16.2 7.7 37.0 44.7 12.3 48.5 60.9 484 73.4 60.5
Education
No education 2.9 12.1 15.0 1.6 56.7 58.3 4.5 68.8 73.4 3,796 79.5 69.6
Basic education (1–8) 6.5 12.6 19.1 6.0 38.9 44.9 12.5 51.5 64.0 4,595 70.2 54.1
Lower basic education (1–5) 5.8 14.0 19.7 4.2 45.7 49.8 9.9 59.6 69.6 2,314 71.6 57.9
Upper basic education (6–8) 7.3 11.2 18.4 7.9 32.0 39.9 15.1 43.2 58.3 2,281 68.4 49.5
Secondary (9–12) 6.8 7.1 14.0 10.6 22.3 32.9 17.4 29.5 46.9 5,798 70.2 43.2
Lower secondary (9–10) 7.0 8.2 15.2 11.1 26.2 37.4 18.1 34.5 52.6 3,270 71.0 44.5
Higher secondary (11–12) 6.6 5.7 12.3 9.9 17.3 27.2 16.5 23.1 39.5 2,529 68.8 41.2
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.8 7.7 11.5 18.2 28.5 46.6 21.9 36.2 58.1 656 80.3 40.8
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.7 12.5 19.2 5.7 36.9 42.6 12.5 49.3 61.8 2,628 68.9 56.8
Second 6.7 9.9 16.6 5.5 38.9 44.4 12.2 48.8 61.0 2,857 72.8 60.7
Middle 5.6 10.1 15.7 7.0 37.2 44.2 12.6 47.3 59.9 3,028 73.8 58.6
Fourth 5.8 9.9 15.6 8.0 34.8 42.8 13.8 44.7 58.5 3,197 73.3 50.3
Highest 3.4 8.6 12.0 9.4 35.2 44.6 12.8 43.8 56.6 3,135 78.7 49.3
Total 5.6 10.1 15.7 7.2 36.5 43.7 12.8 46.7 59.5 14,845 73.6 55.1

Note: Numbers in this table correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need.
2
Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand.
3
Modern methods include female sterilization, male sterilization, IUCD, injectables, implants, pill, male condom, female condom, emergency contraception, standard
days method (SDM), lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), and other modern methods.

Family Planning • 161

 Table 7.14 Decision making about family planning
Percent distribution of currently married women by person who
usually makes the decision to use or not use family planning, Nepal
DHS 2022
Decision maker Percentage
Mainly wife 13.9
Wife and husband/partner jointly 76.8
Wife’s opinion more important 13.3
Wife’s and husband’s/partner’s opinion
equally important 57.9
Wife’s opinion less important than
husband’s/partner’s 5.6
Mainly husband 8.5
Someone else/other 0.8
Total 100.0
Number of currently married women 11,180

162 • Family Planning

Table 7.15 Decision making about family planning by background characteristics
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 by person who usually makes the decision to use or not use family planning and percentage who
participate in the decision to use or not use family planning, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
participate in
Wife and decision making
Background Mainly husband/partner Mainly husband/ Someone else/ about family Number of
characteristic wife jointly partner other Total planning women
Age
15–19 6.9 77.7 12.5 2.9 100.0 84.6 563
20–24 9.5 80.4 9.0 1.0 100.0 90.0 1,783
25–29 12.2 80.1 7.0 0.7 100.0 92.3 2,198
30–34 14.7 76.4 8.6 0.2 100.0 91.2 2,027
35–39 15.1 76.5 7.8 0.6 100.0 91.6 1,906
40–44 19.1 72.4 7.9 0.7 100.0 91.4 1,515
45–49 17.3 71.2 10.5 1.1 100.0 88.4 1,188
Family planning use
Currently using 14.8 77.0 7.9 0.3 100.0 91.8 6,398
Not currently using 12.8 76.4 9.3 1.4 100.0 89.2 4,781
Number of living children
0 6.1 82.9 8.8 2.2 100.0 89.0 1,055
1–2 13.2 78.4 7.9 0.5 100.0 91.6 6,449
3–4 17.2 73.1 8.9 0.8 100.0 90.3 3,133
5+ 19.1 66.7 12.4 1.8 100.0 85.8 543
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 13.5 78.4 7.9 0.2 100.0 91.8 3,031
Dalit 17.6 72.3 9.0 1.1 100.0 89.9 1,734
Janajati 14.1 78.7 6.8 0.5 100.0 92.7 4,042
Madhesi 12.7 76.3 9.4 1.5 100.0 89.0 1,835
Muslim 8.0 68.9 20.5 2.5 100.0 77.0 528
Other * * * * 100.0 * 11
Residence
Urban 13.8 77.1 8.4 0.8 100.0 90.8 7,553
Rural 14.3 76.1 8.8 0.8 100.0 90.4 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 11.7 79.6 8.5 0.1 100.0 91.3 629
Hill 15.7 76.3 7.9 0.1 100.0 92.0 4,275
Terai 13.0 76.8 8.9 1.3 100.0 89.8 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 14.3 78.6 6.4 0.7 100.0 92.9 1,887
Urban 14.3 79.8 5.5 0.4 100.0 94.0 1,242
Rural 14.3 76.4 8.2 1.2 100.0 90.7 645
Madhesh Province 11.8 74.2 12.1 1.8 100.0 86.1 2,419
Urban 12.0 73.9 12.3 1.7 100.0 86.0 1,789
Rural 11.3 75.0 11.6 2.1 100.0 86.3 630
Bagmati Province 16.0 75.3 8.2 0.5 100.0 91.3 2,156
Urban 15.1 76.4 8.1 0.5 100.0 91.4 1,700
Rural 19.6 71.2 8.8 0.5 100.0 90.7 456
Gandaki Province 13.4 80.7 5.4 0.5 100.0 94.1 1,046
Urban 13.0 81.3 5.1 0.7 100.0 94.2 729
Rural 14.4 79.4 6.2 0.0 100.0 93.8 317
Lumbini Province 14.5 77.3 7.8 0.4 100.0 91.8 2,020
Urban 14.0 78.0 7.9 0.1 100.0 92.0 1,119
Rural 15.1 76.4 7.8 0.7 100.0 91.5 900
Karnali Province 15.8 74.3 9.7 0.1 100.0 90.1 691
Urban 17.4 72.6 9.7 0.2 100.0 90.0 381
Rural 13.9 76.4 9.7 0.0 100.0 90.3 310
Sudurpashchim Province 11.9 79.2 8.0 0.9 100.0 91.1 960
Urban 12.7 78.6 7.5 1.3 100.0 91.3 591
Rural 10.7 80.1 9.0 0.2 100.0 90.8 369
Education
No education 17.0 70.6 11.2 1.2 100.0 87.6 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 14.6 76.1 8.4 1.0 100.0 90.6 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 16.0 72.9 9.9 1.2 100.0 88.8 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 12.9 79.8 6.6 0.6 100.0 92.7 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 11.1 82.5 6.0 0.4 100.0 93.6 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 11.5 81.2 6.8 0.5 100.0 92.7 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 10.3 84.8 4.7 0.2 100.0 95.2 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 7.5 84.7 7.9 0.0 100.0 92.1 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 16.7 73.5 9.1 0.7 100.0 90.2 2,031
Second 16.3 73.1 9.8 0.8 100.0 89.4 2,217
Middle 12.6 77.8 8.5 1.0 100.0 90.4 2,323
Fourth 13.1 78.0 7.9 1.0 100.0 91.0 2,381
Highest 11.4 81.0 7.2 0.4 100.0 92.4 2,228
Total 13.9 76.8 8.5 0.8 100.0 90.7 11,180

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Family Planning • 163

 Table 7.16 Pressure to become pregnant
Percentage of currently married women who were ever pressured by their
husband/partner or any other family member to become pregnant when they did not
want to, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of
women pressured to
become pregnant by
their husband/partner
Background or other family Number of
characteristic member women
Age
15–19 9.2 563
20–24 8.1 1,783
25–29 7.9 2,198
30–34 8.8 2,027
35–39 9.5 1,906
40–44 10.7 1,515
45–49 10.3 1,188
Number of living children
0 10.8 1,055
1–2 5.8 6,449
3–4 12.7 3,133
5+ 22.9 543
Family planning use
Currently using 8.8 6,398
Not currently using 9.4 4,781
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.9 3,031
Dalit 13.2 1,734
Janajati 5.9 4,042
Madhesi 15.1 1,835
Muslim 16.6 528
Other * 11
Residence
Urban 9.1 7,553
Rural 8.9 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.2 629
Hill 7.1 4,275
Terai 10.6 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 7.3 1,887
Urban 7.0 1,242
Rural 7.9 645
Madhesh Province 16.3 2,419
Urban 15.8 1,789
Rural 17.9 630
Bagmati Province 6.4 2,156
Urban 6.6 1,700
Rural 5.6 456
Gandaki Province 6.7 1,046
Urban 7.2 729
Rural 5.4 317
Lumbini Province 7.7 2,020
Urban 7.3 1,119
Rural 8.1 900
Karnali Province 8.0 691
Urban 9.8 381
Rural 5.8 310
Sudurpashchim Province 6.5 960
Urban 6.4 591
Rural 6.6 369
Education
No education 12.6 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 9.6 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 11.5 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 7.3 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 5.1 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 5.3 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 4.8 1,328
More than secondary (13 and above) 8.3 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 9.6 2,031
Second 11.3 2,217
Middle 10.4 2,323
Fourth 7.6 2,381
Highest 6.6 2,228
Total 9.1 11,180

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.

164 • Family Planning

Table 7.17 Future use of contraception
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 who are not using a contraceptive method
by intention to use in the future, according to number of living children, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of living children1
Intention to use in the future 0 1 2 3 4+ Total
Intends to use 64.4 77.1 73.6 60.4 48.1 68.6
Unsure 6.6 2.7 2.2 1.5 1.3 2.7
Does not intend to use 27.5 19.6 22.7 37.2 50.0 27.7
Missing 1.4 0.6 1.5 0.9 0.6 1.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 597 1,474 1,452 703 555 4,781

1
Includes current pregnancy

Family Planning • 165

 Table 7.18.1 Exposure to family planning messages: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who heard or saw specific family planning messages in the last 12 months, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
News- Poster/ Outdoor Community None of
Background paper/ Mobile Social leaflet/ sign or meeting or these eight Number of
characteristic Radio Television magazine phone media1 brochure billboard event sources women
Age
15–19 19.6 12.3 6.5 8.1 26.3 24.5 36.2 10.7 41.1 2,643
20–24 26.4 17.2 8.1 12.2 35.3 32.6 47.8 13.2 30.1 2,637
25–29 27.2 20.0 8.3 11.5 33.1 35.9 50.2 15.1 27.6 2,435
30–34 28.6 24.5 8.6 9.5 27.2 33.9 51.1 14.1 28.0 2,144
35–39 28.4 22.2 8.1 6.6 20.2 32.3 46.9 16.0 33.6 2,025
40–44 27.0 19.9 5.8 4.1 13.2 25.5 40.6 13.5 38.7 1,629
45–49 25.9 19.1 3.6 2.8 9.8 21.3 36.6 12.6 43.0 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 37.1 26.7 13.7 12.1 35.9 39.9 53.6 17.7 21.4 4,152
Dalit 22.6 13.7 3.8 7.3 17.2 24.4 40.7 13.9 40.4 2,240
Janajati 28.3 18.1 5.9 8.3 27.3 31.9 46.4 13.5 29.8 5,428
Madhesi 10.5 15.8 4.2 5.4 14.9 17.5 33.2 8.4 51.7 2,333
Muslim 2.8 6.9 1.0 1.2 8.0 17.3 28.8 5.7 61.0 676
Other * * * * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 24.6 21.5 8.6 9.7 29.1 32.2 46.7 12.0 32.5 10,178
Rural 28.9 13.4 4.5 5.9 17.3 25.4 40.3 17.1 37.1 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 43.0 15.1 4.7 7.8 15.8 29.1 46.0 19.4 26.3 791
Hill 31.4 21.7 9.1 9.4 31.7 34.1 47.6 16.1 26.7 5,872
Terai 20.4 17.4 6.2 7.8 21.8 27.2 42.5 11.2 39.8 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 28.1 20.0 6.4 6.2 22.8 25.1 45.2 12.4 34.1 2,493
Urban 27.8 22.2 7.2 7.0 24.5 25.1 44.5 11.5 34.4 1,640
Rural 28.8 15.7 4.8 4.8 19.6 25.2 46.5 14.2 33.6 853
Madhesh Province 8.9 12.3 3.0 4.1 11.0 13.6 32.0 6.5 57.7 3,010
Urban 8.4 12.2 3.1 4.4 11.6 14.0 31.6 6.0 58.3 2,226
Rural 10.1 12.4 2.8 3.2 9.5 12.3 33.1 8.0 56.2 783
Bagmati Province 25.0 27.0 12.1 12.3 40.6 37.5 47.6 10.7 24.6 3,062
Urban 23.0 29.7 14.1 13.7 45.4 41.2 50.7 9.9 21.5 2,464
Rural 33.2 16.2 4.1 6.1 20.9 21.9 34.7 14.1 37.4 599
Gandaki Province 31.3 27.4 9.3 11.7 38.0 35.4 51.0 14.5 25.3 1,401
Urban 32.2 29.8 10.7 13.3 41.5 36.1 51.4 13.7 22.5 992
Rural 29.0 21.7 6.0 7.9 29.6 33.7 50.0 16.4 31.9 409
Lumbini Province 28.9 17.3 6.8 8.7 25.9 40.3 49.9 17.7 27.0 2,691
Urban 29.3 20.6 8.2 10.3 30.6 47.6 57.8 15.0 21.7 1,553
Rural 28.4 12.8 5.1 6.5 19.4 30.3 39.1 21.5 34.1 1,138
Karnali Province 37.0 11.2 6.1 6.6 16.4 30.4 44.5 19.8 33.0 909
Urban 37.9 14.8 7.7 8.6 21.6 34.0 50.6 19.9 29.7 507
Rural 36.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 9.9 25.9 36.8 19.5 37.2 402
Sudurpashchim Province 43.9 13.4 7.0 11.4 19.4 33.0 49.1 25.1 24.7 1,279
Urban 40.7 16.6 8.5 12.3 23.7 33.6 51.1 23.1 25.5 796
Rural 49.2 8.1 4.6 10.0 12.4 31.9 45.8 28.5 23.4 484
Education
No education 17.7 9.0 0.4 1.3 3.3 15.3 28.4 10.1 54.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 24.9 16.2 3.2 5.0 16.2 25.6 41.7 13.9 36.5 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 24.7 16.2 1.9 3.8 11.4 23.1 39.6 13.4 38.3 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 25.1 16.2 4.6 6.2 21.0 28.2 43.8 14.4 34.6 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 31.8 25.0 11.7 14.4 42.7 39.8 54.9 15.8 21.3 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 31.8 23.2 9.1 11.9 34.0 35.4 51.3 15.8 24.5 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 31.9 27.2 15.1 17.6 54.0 45.6 59.5 15.8 17.2 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 28.5 43.3 35.5 21.6 65.2 59.8 70.1 12.2 11.1 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 32.9 5.5 2.9 3.8 9.6 21.0 35.5 16.6 40.6 2,628
Second 26.5 12.9 3.6 4.8 13.0 21.7 38.3 14.3 41.8 2,857
Middle 23.4 16.5 4.4 7.3 19.3 24.4 40.0 13.6 39.9 3,028
Fourth 25.5 23.2 7.2 9.5 31.2 34.0 49.3 13.0 29.6 3,197
Highest 22.3 33.9 17.0 15.8 50.0 46.6 57.9 10.9 19.8 3,135
Total 25.9 19.0 7.3 8.5 25.4 30.1 44.7 13.6 33.9 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Social media includes platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

166 • Family Planning

Table 7.18.2 Exposure to family planning messages: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who heard or saw specific family planning messages in the last 12 months, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
News- Poster/ Outdoor Community None of
Background paper/ Mobile Social leaflet/ sign or meeting or these eight Number of
characteristic Radio Television magazine phone media1 brochure billboard event sources men
Age
15–19 21.5 19.3 9.2 7.9 44.9 33.9 52.4 6.3 25.6 985
20–24 32.7 26.1 16.0 12.0 55.0 38.9 54.9 8.9 21.7 857
25–29 40.9 27.7 20.1 12.2 52.1 43.3 62.6 10.3 17.3 716
30–34 42.6 33.1 25.3 13.5 48.3 45.7 64.0 14.7 17.2 616
35–39 46.0 34.6 25.1 8.1 37.0 45.8 63.1 16.7 19.4 639
40–44 41.3 31.7 16.0 7.6 24.0 44.3 61.0 16.1 22.3 604
45–49 46.3 31.3 16.5 6.9 19.3 38.9 59.4 14.5 21.7 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 52.0 40.8 28.9 13.5 53.6 53.2 69.8 14.3 10.7 1,232
Dalit 29.7 18.6 8.5 5.4 28.3 30.7 51.1 6.9 31.4 658
Janajati 40.1 28.2 16.9 8.6 45.2 43.3 62.9 11.9 16.2 1,869
Madhesi 21.5 21.9 11.7 10.8 30.9 31.0 45.7 12.2 32.8 917
Muslim 15.2 13.0 13.7 9.1 37.4 26.0 42.5 9.1 39.0 228
Other * * * * * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 36.0 30.5 19.5 9.4 44.8 41.6 59.3 10.5 20.6 3,462
Rural 39.6 22.7 13.3 11.0 35.2 39.4 57.9 14.9 22.1 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.0 26.1 13.7 7.7 35.8 33.1 56.1 18.8 16.0 255
Hill 43.7 35.7 20.6 10.1 51.2 49.0 67.8 11.3 13.3 1,973
Terai 30.2 22.8 15.9 9.8 35.7 35.8 52.7 11.5 27.2 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 43.0 29.8 20.9 8.7 38.3 47.3 63.0 11.3 18.6 882
Urban 44.4 32.2 22.9 7.3 35.8 49.3 64.1 11.9 19.1 604
Rural 40.1 24.5 16.5 11.5 43.7 42.7 60.4 10.0 17.3 278
Madhesh Province 18.5 16.9 9.9 9.2 22.9 27.1 42.2 12.5 41.6 997
Urban 18.8 17.3 9.7 9.9 23.9 25.6 40.6 11.7 42.2 722
Rural 17.6 15.6 10.5 7.3 20.3 30.8 46.6 14.6 40.2 275
Bagmati Province 32.4 32.8 22.0 8.0 54.4 42.7 59.2 8.5 17.6 1,214
Urban 31.7 34.8 24.3 8.1 59.0 42.7 60.4 7.6 16.4 1,016
Rural 35.9 22.0 10.3 7.4 31.3 42.3 53.3 13.3 23.7 198
Gandaki Province 41.5 47.7 18.2 13.0 56.5 57.9 77.1 12.4 8.0 387
Urban 41.9 52.7 21.1 14.5 61.4 60.0 79.0 12.9 6.3 264
Rural 40.6 36.9 12.1 9.6 45.9 53.2 73.0 11.4 11.8 123
Lumbini Province 42.8 27.3 16.4 11.7 43.7 38.3 59.9 14.3 15.9 812
Urban 41.8 29.0 17.7 8.3 47.2 38.9 59.7 10.2 14.4 468
Rural 44.2 24.9 14.5 16.4 39.0 37.5 60.1 20.0 18.1 344
Karnali Province 63.4 25.8 19.6 14.0 37.5 51.2 65.2 13.6 12.1 266
Urban 61.4 31.9 25.0 15.4 43.7 60.5 73.9 13.0 7.2 154
Rural 66.1 17.6 12.3 12.2 29.0 38.6 53.3 14.3 18.8 113
Sudurpashchim Province 52.3 22.5 17.5 10.0 45.1 38.4 67.8 14.3 14.2 355
Urban 50.7 24.2 18.5 10.6 47.6 38.5 67.8 12.0 14.3 233
Rural 55.2 19.3 15.7 8.9 40.1 38.1 67.8 18.6 13.9 122
Education
No education 21.4 8.7 0.3 2.3 6.2 13.3 31.4 6.1 53.7 393
Basic education (1–8) 34.5 19.8 9.1 5.8 26.3 30.8 50.6 9.6 25.9 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 35.7 19.1 5.9 4.5 19.0 26.1 46.8 9.6 27.0 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 33.5 20.4 12.0 6.9 32.7 35.1 53.9 9.7 25.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 39.3 34.4 23.2 13.0 56.7 50.3 68.0 13.3 13.3 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 38.4 30.0 19.8 11.4 49.6 48.3 64.9 13.3 15.2 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 40.5 40.3 27.8 15.2 66.2 53.0 72.1 13.3 10.8 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 52.6 53.4 45.8 19.4 70.4 65.0 75.9 19.6 8.6 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 49.8 12.5 8.2 6.8 25.4 30.1 52.2 12.2 24.0 751
Second 38.3 22.6 9.3 7.0 26.5 32.0 52.8 11.8 28.6 933
Middle 33.5 23.0 13.4 9.3 36.8 36.2 52.9 12.5 26.0 957
Fourth 32.1 29.2 19.5 12.2 47.5 45.8 62.2 11.3 18.9 1,135
Highest 35.5 46.4 32.5 12.2 64.4 54.6 70.2 11.4 10.9 1,137
Total 37.0 28.2 17.7 9.8 41.9 40.9 58.9 11.8 21.1 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Social media includes platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

Family Planning • 167

 Table 7.19 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers
Among women age 15–49 who are not using contraception, percentage who during the last 12 months were visited
by a fieldworker who discussed family planning, percentage who visited a health facility and discussed family planning,
percentage who visited a health facility but did not discuss family planning, and percentage who did not discuss family
planning either with a fieldworker or at a health facility, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of
women who did
Percentage of not discuss
women who Percentage of women who family planning
were visited by visited a health facility in the last either with a
a fieldworker 12 months and who: fieldworker or
Background who discussed Discussed Did not discuss at a health Number of
characteristic family planning family planning family planning facility women
Age
15–19 3.8 2.1 51.0 95.2 2,477
20–24 8.9 7.7 65.7 87.6 1,940
25–29 14.7 12.2 67.1 78.9 1,284
30–34 14.9 12.4 66.2 78.1 896
35–39 11.6 6.4 64.7 86.0 680
40–44 9.1 8.7 53.0 86.0 528
45–49 8.6 3.3 58.4 90.2 543
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 10.6 7.3 62.8 86.1 2,310
Dalit 10.4 9.1 60.5 84.9 1,308
Janajati 8.3 5.9 59.5 88.7 2,914
Madhesi 8.7 6.8 57.6 88.2 1,309
Muslim 5.3 4.8 59.1 91.2 501
Other * * * * 9
Residence
Urban 7.6 6.1 61.5 88.9 5,805
Rural 12.7 8.6 57.5 84.0 2,545
Ecological zone
Mountain 14.0 11.5 53.3 80.5 395
Hill 10.1 7.7 58.4 86.1 3,315
Terai 8.1 5.9 62.2 89.0 4,641
Province
Koshi Province 5.9 5.4 61.1 90.6 1,317
Urban 5.6 5.2 62.0 90.6 854
Rural 6.6 5.8 59.6 90.5 463
Madhesh Province 7.5 6.5 58.2 89.2 1,808
Urban 6.8 6.7 58.9 89.2 1,382
Rural 9.6 5.7 55.9 89.1 426
Bagmati Province 5.5 4.3 59.4 91.4 1,619
Urban 5.5 4.1 61.4 91.6 1,326
Rural 5.6 5.4 50.4 90.5 293
Gandaki Province 9.1 7.4 62.8 86.8 855
Urban 7.9 7.4 62.9 87.4 623
Rural 12.1 7.3 62.5 85.4 233
Lumbini Province 11.9 6.7 64.8 85.3 1,525
Urban 8.2 5.0 67.6 89.6 895
Rural 17.2 9.2 60.7 79.3 630
Karnali Province 14.4 11.2 53.7 81.6 522
Urban 13.5 12.2 53.1 82.0 289
Rural 15.4 10.0 54.4 81.1 233
Sudurpashchim Province 18.1 13.0 57.7 77.5 704
Urban 15.0 8.7 59.5 81.9 436
Rural 23.2 19.9 54.9 70.2 268
Education
No education 10.7 8.0 55.7 85.3 1,581
Basic education (1–8) 10.5 7.8 59.9 85.6 2,531
Lower basic education (1–5) 11.6 8.8 63.0 83.9 1,160
Upper basic education (6–8) 9.7 7.0 57.4 87.1 1,371
Secondary (9–12) 7.8 5.8 61.9 89.4 3,889
Lower secondary (9–10) 9.2 6.6 61.1 88.1 2,048
Higher secondary (11–12) 6.3 5.0 62.8 90.8 1,841
More than secondary (13 and
above) 7.1 7.0 64.6 88.8 350
Wealth quintile
Lowest 15.0 10.4 54.1 80.9 1,509
Second 9.3 7.4 57.6 87.1 1,587
Middle 10.2 7.0 61.3 86.1 1,689
Fourth 8.0 5.7 64.1 89.0 1,827
Highest 4.1 4.5 62.9 93.0 1,737
Total 9.2 6.9 60.2 87.4 8,350

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

168 • Family Planning

INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY 8
Key Findings
▪ Current levels: The neonatal mortality rate, infant
mortality rate, and under-5 mortality rate are 21, 28, and
33 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively. This implies
that nearly two-thirds of all under-5 deaths occur in the
first month of life.
▪ Trends: Neonatal mortality fell from 50 to 21 deaths per
1,000 live births between 1996 and 2016 but has since
remained unchanged. Infant mortality declined from 78 to
28 deaths per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality fell
from 118 to 33 deaths per 1,000 live births between 1996
and 2022.
▪ Birth intervals: During the 10 years preceding the
survey, neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality rates were
highest for children born within 2 years of a previous
birth. In most mortality categories, rates decrease with
increasing birth intervals.
▪ Education: Childhood mortality and perinatal mortality
generally decrease with increasing mother’s education.
▪ Perinatal mortality: The perinatal mortality rate is 27
deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’
duration. Stillbirths account for more than one-third of
perinatal mortality.

I
nformation on infant and child mortality is relevant to a demographic assessment of a country’s
population and is an important indicator of the country’s socioeconomic development and people’s
quality of life. It can also help identify children who may be at higher risk of death and lead to
strategies to reduce this risk, such as promoting birth spacing.

This chapter presents information on levels, trends, and differentials in perinatal, neonatal, infant, and
under-5 mortality rates. It also examines biodemographic factors and fertility behaviors that increase
mortality risks for infants and children. The information was collected as part of a retrospective pregnancy
history in which female respondents listed all of the children to whom they have given birth, along with
each child’s date of birth, survivorship status, and current age or age at death.

The quality of mortality estimates calculated from pregnancy histories depends on the mother’s ability to
recall all of the children she has given birth to, as well as their birth dates and ages at death. Potential data
quality problems include:

▪ The selective omission from pregnancy histories of those births that did not survive, which can result
in underestimation of childhood mortality.

▪ The displacement of birth dates, which could distort mortality trends. This can occur if an interviewer
knowingly records a birth as occurring in a different year than the one in which it occurred. This could
happen if an interviewer is trying to cut down on his or her overall workload, because live births
occurring during the 3 years before the interview are the subject of a lengthy set of additional
questions.

Infant and Child Mortality • 169

 ▪ The quality of reporting of age at death. Misreporting the child’s age at death may distort the age
pattern of mortality, especially if the net effect of the age misreporting is to transfer deaths from one
age bracket to another.

▪ Any method of measuring childhood mortality that relies on mothers’ reports (for example, birth
histories) assumes that female adult mortality is not high or, if it is high, that there is little or no
correlation between the mortality risks of mothers and those of their children.

Selected indicators of the quality of the mortality data on which the estimates of mortality in this chapter
are based are presented in Appendix C, Tables C.5 and C.6.

Table C.6 shows that the percentage of women who were not able to report their year of birth during the
time of the survey is high (21%). This should be considered when interpreting mortality indicators in terms
of mothers’ background characteristics.

8.1 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY

Neonatal mortality: The probability of dying within the first month of life.
Postneonatal mortality: The probability of dying between the first month of
life and the first birthday (computed as the difference between infant and
neonatal mortality).
Infant mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the first birthday.
Child mortality: The probability of dying between the first and the fifth
birthday.
Under-5 mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the fifth
birthday.

During the 5 years immediately preceding the survey, the neonatal mortality rate was 21 deaths per 1,000
live births, the infant mortality rate was 28 deaths per 1,000 live births, and the under-5 mortality rate was
33 deaths per 1,000 live births (Table 8.1).

Trends: All indicators related to childhood mortality Figure 8.1 Trends in early childhood
have declined over time. Between 1996 and 2022, mortality rates
under-5, infant, and neonatal mortality declined by Deaths per 1,000 live births in the 5-year
72%, 64%, and 58%, respectively. Although trends period before the survey
are declining, neonatal mortality as a percentage of
under-5 mortality has increased sharply. The share of
118
neonatal deaths increased from 64% of infant deaths
in 1996 to 75% in 2022. Despite improvements in
Infant 91
other childhood mortality indicators from previous mortality
Under-5
mortality
surveys, the neonatal mortality rate has remained
78 61
unchanged since 2016 (Figure 8.1). As the pace of 54
64
decline in neonatal mortality has slowed, decreases in 39
50 48 46 33
child and postneonatal mortality contribute more to
Neonatal 39 33 33 32 28
the overall decline in under-5 mortality rates. mortality 21 21

1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022

NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

170 • Infant and Child Mortality

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Male children are more likely to die within the first month of life than female children. Mortality rates
are 24 deaths per 1,000 live births among male neonates and 17 deaths per 1,000 live births among
female neonates. Previous surveys showed that girls were more likely to die than boys as they grew
older. However, during the last 5 years, mortality among boys exceeds that among girls (35 versus 30
deaths per 1,000 live births) (Table 8.2).

▪ Childhood mortality rates are generally higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Neonatal, infant, and
under-5 mortality rates are 25, 34, and 38 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively, in rural areas, as
compared with 19, 25, and 30 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively, in urban areas (Table 8.2).

Table 8.3 presents data on the relationship between background characteristics and child mortality for the
10-year period preceding the survey. A 10-year period was used to increase the reliability of the estimates
calculated.

Patterns by additional background characteristics

▪ During the 10-year period preceding the survey, Figure 8.2 Childhood mortality by
neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality rates were previous birth interval
highest (30, 43, and 50 deaths per 1,000 live Deaths per 1,000 live births for the
births, respectively) among children born to 10-year period before the survey
mothers less than age 20 (Table 8.3). Previous birth interval:
<2 years 2 years 3 years 4+ years
▪ Neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality rates are
highest (42, 61, and 72 deaths per 1,000 live 72
61
births, respectively) among children born within
2 years of the last birth (Figure 8.2). 42
35 33
29 25
18 16 17 20
▪ Overall, childhood mortality is highest in 12
Sudurpashchim Province (neonatal, infant, and
under-5 mortality rates of 27, 40, and 49 deaths Neonatal Infant mortality Under-5 mortality
per 1,000 live births, respectively) and lowest in mortality
Gandaki Province (neonatal, infant, and under-5
mortality rates of 8, 19, and 23 deaths per 1,000 Figure 8.3 Under-5 mortality by province
live births, respectively) (Table 8.3 and Figure
Deaths per 1,000 live births for the
8.3). 10-year period before the survey
Sudurpashchim
49
Province
Karnali Province 46

Madhesh Province 43

Lumbini Province 41

Koshi Province 34

Bagmati Province 24

Gandaki Province 23

Infant and Child Mortality • 171

 ▪ Neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality rates Figure 8.4 Under-5 mortality by
generally decrease with increasing household household wealth
wealth. Under-5 mortality rates are 53 deaths per Deaths per 1,000 live births for the
1,000 live births among children born to women 10-year period before the survey
in the lowest wealth quintile and 16 deaths per
53
1,000 live births among those born to women in 50
the highest wealth quintile (Figure 8.4).
Similarly, neonatal mortality and infant mortality
30 28
rates are two and three times higher,
respectively, among children born to women in 16
the lowest wealth quintile than among those born
to women in the highest quintile (Table 8.3).

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Poorest Wealthiest
8.2 PERINATAL MORTALITY

Perinatal mortality rate

Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths (pregnancy losses occurring after 28
weeks of gestation) and early neonatal deaths (deaths of live births within the
first 7 days of life). The perinatal mortality rate is calculated as the number of
perinatal deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’ duration.
Sample: Number of pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’ duration among
women age 15–49 in the 5 years before the survey

Perinatal mortality rate encompasses both stillbirths and early neonatal deaths. During the 5 years
preceding the survey, the stillbirth rate was 10 per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or more weeks and the early
neonatal death rate was 17 per 1,000 live births. The perinatal mortality rate was 27 deaths per 1,000
pregnancies of 28 or more weeks (Table 8.4).

In 2014 the Every Newborn Action Plan, a global multipartner movement to end preventable maternal and
newborn deaths and stillbirths, set a target for national stillbirth rates of 12 or fewer stillbirths per 1,000
pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks in all countries by 2030 (WHO and UNICEF 2014). Nepal
developed its Every Newborn Action Plan in 2016, and the plan aspires towards ending preventable deaths
of newborns and stillbirths by 2035. The action plan has set a target to reduce the stillbirth rate to less than
13 per 1,000 pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks (Ministry of Health 2016).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The perinatal mortality rate is highest for mothers less than age 20 (31 per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or
more weeks) and twice as high for women who become pregnant less than 15 months after a previous
pregnancy (36 per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or more weeks) as for women who become pregnant 39
months or more after a previous pregnancy (18 per 1,000 pregnancies). Perinatal mortality is lowest
for women who become pregnant between 27 and 38 months after a previous pregnancy (14 per 1,000
pregnancies) (Table 8.4).

▪ The perinatal mortality rate is higher in rural areas (37 per 1,000 pregnancies) than in urban areas (21
per 1,000 pregnancies). Stillbirths are a contributor to the high perinatal mortality in rural areas. The
stillbirth rate is almost three times higher in rural areas (17 per 1,000 pregnancies) than urban areas (6
per 1,000 pregnancies) (Table 8.4).

▪ The perinatal mortality rate is almost twice as high in the mountain zone (38 per 1,000 pregnancies) as
in the hill zone (21 per 1,000 pregnancies).

172 • Infant and Child Mortality

▪ In the terai zone, early neonatal deaths (19 per 1,000 live births) contribute to almost two-thirds of
perinatal mortality (29 per 1,000 pregnancies).

▪ Perinatal mortality ranges from 13 per 1,000 Figure 8.5 Perinatal mortality by
pregnancies in Gandaki Province to 35 per 1,000 mother’s education
pregnancies in Madhesh Province. Deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 28 or
more weeks’ duration in the 5-year period
▪ Perinatal mortality declines sharply with before the survey
increasing mother’s education, from 40 per 1,000
pregnancies for mothers with no education to 6
per 1,000 pregnancies for those with more than a
40
secondary education (Figure 8.5).
28
20
8.3 HIGH-RISK FERTILITY BEHAVIOR 6

The survival of infants and children depends in part No education Basic Secondary More than
education (9–12) secondary
on the demographic and biological characteristics of (1–8) (13 and
their mothers. Typically, the probability of dying in above)
infancy is much greater among children born to
mothers who are too young (under age 18) or too old (over age 34), children born after a short birth
interval (less than 24 months after the preceding birth), and children born to mothers of high parity (more
than three children). Table 8.5 shows the percent distribution of children born in the 5 years preceding the
survey by category of elevated risk of mortality (along with risk ratios) and the percent distribution of
currently married women by their category of risk if they were to conceive a child at the time of the
survey.

Thirty-seven percent of births in the 5 years preceding the survey are not in any high-risk category. Thirty-
five percent fall under the unavoidable risk category (first-order births to women between age 18 and age
34) and 29% are in an avoidable high-risk category, with 24% in a single high-risk category and 5% in
multiple high-risk categories.

The risk ratio denotes the relationship between risk factors and mortality. The risk of dying for a child who
falls into any of the avoidable high-risk categories is 2.46 times that for a child not in any high-risk
category. In the case of single high-risk categories, the risk of dying is highest among children born to
women less than age 18 (3.02), followed by children with a birth interval of less than 24 months (2.45).
The risk of dying for children in the multiple high-risk category (4.38) is double the risk for children in the
single high-risk category (2.07). Children who fall in the multiple high-risk category comprising a birth
interval of less than 24 months and a birth order above three have a 5.28 times higher risk of dying than
those not in any high-risk category.

Fifty-one percent of currently married women in Nepal would have belonged to an avoidable high-risk
category if they had conceived at the time of the survey; 30% would have belonged to a single high-risk
category, and 21% would have belonged to a multiple high-risk category.

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on infant and child mortality, see the following tables:

▪ Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates

▪ Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background characteristics
▪ Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according to additional characteristics
▪ Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality
▪ Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behavior

Infant and Child Mortality • 173

 Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates
Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for 5-year periods preceding
the survey, Nepal DHS 2022
Post-
Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5
Years preceding mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality
the survey (NN) (PNN)1 (1q0) (4q1) (5q0)
0–4 21 8 28 5 33
5–9 24 11 35 7 42
10–14 36 13 48 10 58

1
Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates

Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background

characteristics
Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for the 5-year period
preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Post-
Neonatal neonatal Infant Child Under-5
Background mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality
characteristic (NN) (PNN)1 (1q0) (4q1) (5q0)
Child’s sex
Male 24 6 30 6 35
Female 17 9 27 4 30
Residence
Urban 19 7 25 5 30
Rural 25 9 34 4 38
Total 21 8 28 5 33

1
Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates

174 • Infant and Child Mortality

Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according to additional characteristics
Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for the 10-year period preceding the survey,
according to additional characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Neonatal Postneonatal Infant Under-5
mortality mortality mortality Child mortality
Characteristic (NN) (PNN)1 (1q0) mortality (4q1) (5q0)
Mother’s age at birth
<20 30 12 43 7 50
20–29 20 8 28 5 33
30–39 22 11 33 8 41
40–49 * * * * *
Birth order
1 25 8 34 5 39
2–3 17 8 26 6 31
4–6 31 17 47 7 54
7+ * * * * *
Previous birth interval2
<2 years 42 19 61 12 72
2 years 18 11 29 6 35
3 years 16 9 25 8 33
4+ years 12 5 17 3 20
Ecological zone
Mountain 32 14 47 9 55
Hill 19 8 27 4 31
Terai 23 9 33 7 39
Province
Koshi Province 20 8 28 6 34
Urban 14 7 22 7 29
Rural 30 11 40 3 43
Madhesh Province 27 11 38 5 43
Urban 22 11 33 6 38
Rural 41 12 53 3 57
Bagmati Province 18 3 21 3 24
Urban 17 0 17 2 19
Rural 21 12 33 6 40
Gandaki Province 8 10 19 5 23
Urban (2) (3) (5) (2) (7)
Rural 20 24 44 8 52
Lumbini Province 24 10 34 8 41
Urban 26 9 35 5 40
Rural 21 12 33 10 43
Karnali Province 26 11 36 10 46
Urban 20 4 25 8 32
Rural 31 16 47 12 59
Sudurpashchim Province 27 13 40 9 49
Urban 20 7 27 9 36
Rural 37 21 59 8 67
Mother’s education
No education 26 15 41 10 50
Basic education (1–8) 28 9 36 4 41
Lower basic education (1–5) 34 10 44 6 49
Upper basic education (6–8) 20 8 28 2 30
Secondary (9–12) 15 5 21 4 24
Lower secondary (9–10) 18 7 25 4 29
Higher secondary (11–12) 11 2 13 3 16
More than secondary (13 and
above) (7) (1) (8) * *
Wealth quintile
Lowest 26 19 45 9 53
Second 31 11 41 10 50
Middle 21 6 26 3 30
Fourth 17 6 23 5 28
Highest 13 2 15 1 16

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 250–499 unweighted person-years of exposure to the risk of death. An
asterisk indicates that a rate is based on fewer than 250 person-years of exposure to the risk of death and has been
suppressed.
1
Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates
2
Excludes first-order births

Infant and Child Mortality • 175

 Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality
Number of stillbirths, number of early neonatal deaths, stillbirth rate, early neonatal death rate, perinatal mortality rate, and the ratio of stillbirths to early neonatal
deaths for the 5-year period preceding the survey, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
pregnancies of Ratio of
Background Number of Number of early Stillbirth Early neonatal Perinatal 28+ weeks’ stillbirths to early
characteristic stillbirths1 neonatal deaths2 rate3 death rate4 mortality rate5 duration6
neonatal deaths
Mother’s age at birth
<20 12 21 11 20 31 1,044 0.6
20–29 36 56 10 16 27 3,421 0.6
30–39 7 10 9 13 22 737 0.7
40–49 0 0 (0) (0) (0) 45 0.0
Previous pregnancy interval in
months7
First pregnancy 24 41 12 21 33 1,939 0.6
<15 8 25 9 27 36 923 0.3
15–26 7 10 9 12 21 797 0.7
27–38 3 3 7 7 14 470 1.0
39+ 12 8 11 8 18 1,119 1.4
Residence
Urban 22 51 6 15 21 3,389 0.4
Rural 32 36 17 20 37 1,858 0.9
Ecological zone
Mountain 6 7 17 21 38 334 0.8
Hill 18 20 10 11 21 1,798 0.9
Terai 30 60 10 19 29 3,114 0.5
Province
Koshi Province 4 21 5 24 29 898 0.2
Urban 2 13 3 22 25 577 0.1
Rural 3 8 8 26 34 321 0.3
Madhesh Province 15 35 10 25 35 1,420 0.4
Urban 6 24 6 23 29 1,056 0.2
Rural 9 11 24 31 54 364 0.8
Bagmati Province 5 9 6 11 17 830 0.5
Urban 1 7 2 11 13 604 0.2
Rural 4 2 17 11 28 226 1.5
Gandaki Province 5 0 13 0 13 338 0.0
Urban 3 0 12 0 12 219 0.0
Rural 2 0 16 0 16 119 0.0
Lumbini Province 19 10 21 11 32 905 1.8
Urban 9 4 18 9 27 475 2.2
Rural 10 6 23 15 38 430 1.6
Karnali Province 4 5 12 13 24 385 0.9
Urban 1 1 5 7 12 183 0.6
Rural 4 4 18 18 35 202 1.0
Sudurpashchim Province 2 6 5 13 18 470 0.4
Urban 1 2 2 6 8 274 0.4
Rural 2 4 8 23 30 196 0.4
Mother’s education
No education 15 31 13 27 40 1,167 0.5
Basic education (1–8) 16 36 9 20 28 1,846 0.4
Lower basic education (1–5) 10 27 10 29 39 954 0.4
Upper basic education (6–8) 6 9 7 10 17 892 0.7
Secondary (9–12) 22 19 11 10 20 2,017 1.2
Lower secondary (9–10) 12 12 10 10 20 1,258 1.0
Higher secondary (11–12) 10 7 13 9 22 759 1.4
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1 0 6 0 6 216 0.0
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17 22 13 17 30 1,283 0.8
Second 15 28 14 26 40 1,096 0.5
Middle 6 23 5 22 27 1,085 0.2
Fourth 12 11 12 12 24 1,000 1.1
Highest 4 2 5 2 7 784 2.1
Total 54 87 10 17 27 5,247 0.6

Note: Respondents may choose to report the duration of their pregnancy in either weeks or months. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted
cases.
1
Stillbirths are fetal deaths in pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks. When pregnancy duration is reported in months, stillbirths are fetal deaths in pregnancies
lasting 7 or more months.
2
Early neonatal deaths are deaths at age 0–6 days among live-born children.
3
Stillbirth rate: the number of stillbirths divided by the number of pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks, expressed per 1,000.
4
Early neonatal rate: the number of early neonatal deaths divided by the number of live births, expressed per 1,000.
5
Perinatal mortality rate: the sum of the number of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths divided by the number of pregnancies lasting 28 or more weeks, expressed
per 1,000
6
Includes pregnancies lasting 7 or more months when duration of pregnancy is reported in months
7
Pregnancy interval categories correspond to birth interval categories of <24 months, 24–35 months, 36–47 months, and 48+ months assuming a pregnancy
duration of 9 months.

176 • Infant and Child Mortality

Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behavior
Percent distribution of children born in the 5 years preceding the survey by category of
elevated risk of mortality and the risk ratio, and percent distribution of currently married
women by category of risk if they were to conceive a child at the time of the survey, Nepal
DHS 2022
Births in the 5 years Percentage of
preceding the survey currently
Percentage Risk married
Risk category of births ratio women1
Not in any high-risk category 36.5 1.00 41.7a
Unavoidable risk category
First-order births between age 18 and
age 34 34.9 1.84 7.6
In any avoidable high-risk category 28.7 2.46 50.7
Single high-risk category
Mother’s age <18 only 6.2 3.02 0.6
Mother’s age >34 only 2.1 0.00 14.7
Birth interval <24 months only 8.7 2.45 8.0
Birth order >3 only 6.8 1.33 6.9
Subtotal 23.8 2.07 30.2
Multiple high-risk category
Age <18 and birth interval <24 months2 0.4 * 0.1
Age >34 and birth interval <24 months 0.1 * 0.2
Age >34 and birth order >3 1.9 2.10 17.9
Age >34 and birth interval <24 months
and birth order >3 0.1 * 0.3
Birth interval <24 months and birth
order >3 2.3 5.28 1.9
Subtotal 4.8 4.38 20.5
Total 100.0 na 100.0
Subtotals by individual avoidable
high-risk category
Mother’s age <18 6.6 3.43 0.8
Mother’s age >34 4.2 1.18 33.2
Birth interval <24 months 11.7 3.31 10.6
Birth order >3 11.1 2.37 27.0
Number of births/women 5,193 na 11,180

Note: Risk ratio is the ratio of the proportion dead among births in a specific high-risk
category to the proportion dead among births not in any high-risk category. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
na = Not applicable
1
Women are assigned to risk categories according to the status they would have at the birth
of a child if they were to conceive at the time of the survey: current age less than 17 years
and 3 months or older than 34 years and 2 months, latest birth less than 15 months ago, or
latest birth being of order 3 or higher.
2
Includes the category age <18 and birth order >3
a
Includes sterilized women

Infant and Child Mortality • 177

MATERNAL AND NEWBORN HEALTH CARE 9
Key Findings
▪ Antenatal care: 94% of women received antenatal care
(ANC) from a skilled provider for their most recent live
birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey.
Eighty percent of women had at least four antenatal care
visits. The median gestational age at the first ANC visit
was 3.5 months.
▪ Components of antenatal care: 96% of women took
iron tablets or syrup and 76% took deworming medication
during the pregnancy for their most recent live birth
and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey.
Among women who received ANC for their most recent
live birth and/or stillbirth, 95% each had their blood
pressure measured, an abdominal examination done,
and their weight measured; 91% each had their baby’s
heartbeat checked and were counseled about their diet
and eating healthy food.
▪ Protection against neonatal tetanus: 93% of the most
recent live births to women in the 2 years preceding the
survey were protected against neonatal tetanus.
▪ Delivery: 79% of deliveries were conducted in a health
facility, and 62% took place in a public sector health
facility. Eighteen percent of deliveries in the 2 years
preceding the survey were delivered via cesarean
section. Overall, 80% of deliveries were conducted by
skilled providers.
▪ Postnatal checks: 70% each of women and newborns
received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after
delivery.
▪ Cancer examinations: 6% of women age 15–49 were
tested for cervical cancer and 4% were examined for
breast cancer.
▪ Distance to the nearest health facility: 77% of women
age 15–49 reported that it takes them less than 30
minutes to travel to the nearest health facility.

H
ealth care services during pregnancy and childbirth and after delivery are important for the
survival and well-being of both the mother and the newborn. Antenatal care (ANC) can reduce
health risks for mothers and newborns through monitoring of pregnancies and screening for
complications. Delivery at a health facility, with a skilled provider and under hygienic conditions, reduces
the risk of complications and infections during labor and delivery. Timely postnatal care offers an
opportunity to treat complications arising from delivery, provide intensive care for the newborn, and teach
the mother how to care for herself and her newborn.

The first part of this chapter presents information on ANC providers, number and timing of ANC visits,
and various components of care. The second section focuses on childbirth and provides information on
place of delivery, assistance during delivery, and cesarean deliveries. The third section focuses on
postnatal care and presents information on postnatal health checks for mothers and newborns and men’s

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 179

 involvement in maternal health care. The final section covers issues that affect women’s health regardless
of their maternal status: whether or not women have been examined for breast or cervical cancer, problems
they experience accessing health care, and the distance from their home to the nearest health facility.

The National Safe Motherhood Program aims to reduce maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and
improve maternal and neonatal health through preventive, curative, and promotive activities and by
addressing avoidable factors that cause death during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period
(Ministry of Health and Population 2022a). The Right to Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Act,
2075 BS (2018) ensures the right to maternal health services and respectful maternity (Nepal Law
Commission 2018). The antenatal to postnatal continuum of care facilitation guide 2079 aims to ensure the
health of the mother and child and reduce maternal and newborn deaths.

9.1 ANTENATAL CARE COVERAGE AND CONTENT

9.1.1 Skilled Providers

Antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider

Pregnancy care received from skilled providers, such as doctors, nurses, and
auxiliary nurse midwives.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who had a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years
before the survey

Ninety-four percent of women received ANC from a skilled provider for the most recent live birth or
stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, while 3% did not receive any ANC services. Doctors were the
primary service providers (55%), followed by nurses/auxiliary nurse midwives (39%) (Table 9.1). Among
women who did not receive any ANC, 71% mentioned that they did not feel the need to go for ANC
services (data not shown separately).

Trends: Figure 9.1 shows trends in Figure 9.1 Trends in antenatal care coverage
ANC service use. The proportion of Percentage of women age 15–49 who had a live birth in
women receiving ANC from a the 2 years before the survey (for the most recent birth)
skilled provider increased from 25% 94 Received any
in 1996 to 86% in 2016 and 94% in 86 ANC from skilled
2022. 81 provider
71 Had 4+ ANC
Patterns by background visits
61 73 Had ANC in first
characteristics 66 trimester
45 53
▪ Women under age 35 (95%) are 50
slightly more likely to receive 31
28
ANC from a skilled provider 25
than those age 35–49 (91%) 15 27
(Table 9.1). 12
14
9
▪ Although there is no difference
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
between the proportion of NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
women in urban and rural areas
who receive antenatal care from a skilled provider, more women in urban than rural areas receive
services from a doctor (60% versus 45%). Nurses/auxiliary nurse midwives are more likely to be the
primary service providers in rural areas than in urban areas (49% versus 34%).

▪ Use of ANC services from skilled providers is highest in Gandaki Province and Lumbini Province
(97% each) and lowest in Koshi Province (90%). Doctors are more often the primary service providers
in Madhesh Province (74%) than in Karnali Province (25%) and Sudurpashchim Province (26%).

180 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

▪ Only 27% of women in the lowest wealth quintile received ANC from doctors, as compared with 89%
of women in the highest quintile.

▪ Four percent each of Dalit and Janajati women did not receive antenatal care from a skilled provider
(Table 9.1).

9.1.2 Timing and Number of Antenatal Care Visits

The 2016 WHO ANC guidelines recommend that pregnant women have eight ANC contacts with the
health system during each pregnancy. The Government of Nepal has adopted the eight ANC contact
protocol, with the first visit occurring up to 12 weeks, the second up to 16 weeks, the third from 20–24
weeks, the fourth within 28 weeks, the fifth in 32 weeks, the sixth in 34 weeks, the seventh in 36 weeks,
and the eighth from 38–40 weeks (Ministry of Health and Population 2019).

Table 9.2 shows that 80% of women had at least four ANC visits for their most recent live birth and/or
stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey. However, only 6% had eight or more visits. Almost three-
fourths of women received ANC during their first trimester of pregnancy (73%). The median gestational
age at the first ANC visit among those who received ANC is 3.5 months.

The 2022 NDHS asked women who did not make at least four antenatal care visits during their last live
birth or stillbirth why they did not make the recommended ANC visits. The major reason cited by women
was not feeling the need (50%), followed by fear of COVID-19 (12%), lack of transportation (8%), and
high cost (7%) (Table 9.3).

Trends: The proportion of women with at least four ANC visits for their most recent live birth increased
from 9% in 1996 to 71% in 2016 and 80% in 2022 (Figure 9.1). Similarly, the percentage of women
receiving ANC during their first trimester increased from 12% in 1996 to 66% in 2016 and 73% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women with at least four ANC visits during their last live birth decreases as birth
order increases; 85% of women with a first-order birth had at least four ANC visits, as compared with
65% of women with fourth- or fifth-order births. A similar pattern is observed with respect to women
making their first ANC visit within the first trimester (78% and 52%, respectively) (Table 9.2).

▪ The proportion of women who had at least four ANC visits during their last live birth varies by ethnic
group, with the highest proportion among Brahmin/Chhetri women (90%) and the lowest among Dalit
women (71%).

▪ There is provincial variation in the percentage of women with at least four ANC visits during their last
pregnancy, with Sudurpashchim Province having the highest percentage (90%) and Madhesh Province
the lowest (68%).

▪ Women with no education (67%) and those in the lowest wealth quintile (75%) are less likely to have
at least four ANC visits than those with more than a secondary education and those in the highest
wealth quintile (93% each) (Table 9.2).

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 181

 9.2 COMPONENTS OF ANTENATAL CARE

Components of antenatal care

Specific antenatal care services performed by a health care provider include
measuring blood pressure, taking a urine sample, taking a blood sample,
listening for the baby’s heartbeat, counseling about the mother’s diet,
counseling about breastfeeding, asking about vaginal bleeding, counseling
about eating healthy food, counseling about eating one extra meal per day,
measuring weight, counseling about weight gain, performing an abdominal
examination, counseling about staying active, and counseling about getting
adequate rest during pregnancy.
Sample – quality of care indicator: Women age 15–49 who had a live birth
or stillbirth in the 2 years before the survey and had at least one ANC visit
Sample – population-based indicator: All women age 15–49 who had a live
birth or stillbirth in the 2 years before the survey

The ability for ANC to act as an effective intervention for identifying issues occurring during pregnancy
that could adversely affect pregnancy outcomes is dictated in large part by the components of ANC
services provided by the health care provider.

As a part of ANC, certain interventions and tests are recommended at each ANC contact. These include the
following:

▪ Measuring blood pressure. Taking a woman’s blood pressure at each antenatal care visit is essential to
monitor for gestational hypertension or preeclampsia.

▪ Conducting urine and blood tests. These tests assess signs of infection or other diseases and conditions
that could negatively affect a woman or her baby during or after pregnancy.

▪ Listening to the baby’s heartbeat. This can confirm that the fetus is alive, as well as reassure the
mother.

▪ Counseling on maternal nutrition, specifically on healthy eating during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
These counseling messages promote healthy weight gain during pregnancy and can help the pregnant
woman breastfeed her newborn early.

▪ Asking about vaginal bleeding. Light bleeding or spotting is common, especially during the first few
months of a pregnancy. Heavy bleeding may be a sign of something more serious; a pregnant woman
experiencing heavy bleeding should visit a health care provider.

▪ Counseling about eating healthy food, specifically during pregnancy and breastfeeding. This promotes
healthy eating for weight gain during pregnancy and can help the pregnant woman breastfeed her
newborn.

▪ Counseling about eating one extra meal per day, specifically during pregnancy and breastfeeding. This
promotes weight gain and can help the pregnant woman breastfeed her newborn.

▪ Measuring weight during pregnancy. These measurements help track the weight of pregnant women
and monitor risk factors for pregnancy-related morbidities such as preeclampsia.

▪ Counseling on weight gain. This helps make women aware of normal weight gain.

▪ Performing an abdominal examination. This can confirm that the fetus is alive, as well as reassure the
mother.

▪ Counseling on staying active. These counseling messages help women stay active during pregnancy.

▪ Counseling on getting adequate rest during pregnancy. This helps ensure that pregnant women get rest.

182 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

In the 2022 NDHS, data collected on components of ANC received were tabulated in two ways. Table
9.4.1 shows the percentage of women with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years before the survey who
received ANC and reported receiving specified ANC services; this tabulation is a measure of the quality of
the ANC services these women received. Table 9.4.2 shows the percentage of all women with a live birth
or stillbirth in the last 2 years who received specified ANC services, regardless of whether they reported an
ANC visit; this tabulation is a measure of coverage of these key ANC interventions among the population
of women in need of them.

Among women who received ANC Figure 9.2 Components of antenatal care by
for their most recent live birth pregnancy outcome
and/or stillbirth, 95% each had their Among women who received ANC for their most recent
blood pressure checked, an live birth or stillbirth, percentage with selected services
abdominal examination done, and
Counseled on getting adequate rest
their weight measured; 91% each during pregnancy 87
had their baby’s heartbeat checked
Counseled on staying active 81
and were counseled about their diet
and eating healthy food. Only 52% Abdominal examination 95
of women received counseling on
Counseled on weight gain 65
breastfeeding and 51% were asked
about vaginal bleeding (Table 9.4.1 Weight taken 95
and Figure 9.2). Counseled about eating one extra
meal per day 79
Among all women who had a live
Counseled about eating healthy food 91
birth and/or stillbirth in 2 years
preceding the survey, 92% had their Asked about vaginal bleeding 51
blood pressure measured, an
Counseled about breastfeeding 52
abdominal examination done, and
their weight measured (Table Counseled about maternal diet 91
9.4.2).
Baby's heartbeat checked 91

Blood pressure measured 95

Urine sample taken 90

Blood sample taken 86

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 183

 Trends: Figure 9.3 shows trends in selected Figure 9.3 Trends in receiving specific
components of ANC among women age 15–49 who components of ANC
received antenatal care for their most recent live Percentage of live births in the 2 years
birth. The proportion of women who had their blood before the survey
pressure checked increased from 61% in 2001 to 92 92
92% in 2016; however, the percentage has since Blood pressure 87
measured 80 87
78
remained the same. Between 2016 and 2022, the
84
proportion of women who had a urine sample taken 61 58
increased from 78% to 87% and the proportion who Urine sample 69
taken Blood sample
had a blood sample taken rose from 69% to 84%. collected
30 31 48
Patterns by background characteristics
29 28
▪ Dalit and Muslim women are generally less
likely to receive the specified ANC services than
women from the other ethnic groups (Table 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
9.4.1).

▪ With the exception of counseling on breastfeeding, the proportion of women who receive the specified
services decreases with increasing birth order (Table 9.4.2).

9.2.1 Deworming and Iron-containing Supplementation during Pregnancy

During pregnancy, women have higher micronutrient needs and are at risk of micronutrient deficiencies,
including iron deficiency, which is a primary cause of anemia. Severe anemia can place the mother and the
baby in danger through an increased risk of blood loss during labor and an increased risk of preterm
delivery, low birth weight, and perinatal mortality (Haider et al. 2013). To help address maternal anemia,
interventions provide iron tablets or syrup to pregnant women (WHO 2016a).

Table 9.5 shows that 76% of women took deworming medication during the pregnancy for their most
recent live birth or stillbirth, while 96% took iron-containing supplements. Overall, 65% of women took
iron-containing supplements for 180 days or more, as recommended.

The main reasons cited by women for not taking iron tablets for at least 180 days were that they did not
like the taste (32%), they forgot to take the tablets (28%), they were not aware of the recommended dose
(11%), the tablets were unavailable (7%), and they did not receive the complete dose (4%) (Table 9.6).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women taking deworming medication during the pregnancy for their most recent
live birth is highest in the mountain zone (89%) and lowest in the terai zone (73%) (Table 9.5).

▪ Only 66% of women in Madhesh Province took deworming medication during the pregnancy for their
most recent live birth, as compared with 91% of women in Sudurpashchim Province.

▪ Women with no education (70%) were more likely to take deworming medication during the
pregnancy for their most recent live birth than women with more than a secondary education (64%).
However, women with more than a secondary education were more likely to report taking iron-
containing supplements for at least 180 days (85% versus 52%).

▪ The proportion of women who took iron-containing supplements for at least 180 days decreases with
increasing birth order, from 69% among those with first-order births to 49% among those with fourth-
or fifth-order births.

184 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

▪ The proportion of women who took iron-containing supplements for at least 180 days is lowest among
those in the Madhesi ethnic group (56%) and highest among those in the Brahmin/Chhetri group
(73%).

▪ Women in the highest wealth quintile were more likely to take iron-containing supplements for at least
180 days (77%) than women in the lowest wealth quintile (58%).

9.2.2 Source of Iron-containing Supplements

Information on sources of iron-containing supplements can increase understanding of the distribution

patterns of supplements.

Among women who were given or bought iron-containing supplements, 83% obtained supplements from
the public sector, 27% from the private medical sector, and 1% from nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) (Table 9.7). Within the public sector, health posts (61%) were the predominant source, followed
by government hospitals (17%).

9.3 PROTECTION AGAINST NEONATAL TETANUS

Protection against neonatal tetanus

The number of tetanus toxoid injections needed to protect a baby from
neonatal tetanus depends on the mother’s vaccinations. A birth is protected
against neonatal tetanus if the mother has received any of the following:
▪ Two tetanus toxoid injections during the pregnancy
▪ Two or more injections, the last one within 3 years of the birth
▪ Three or more injections, the last one within 5 years of the birth
▪ Four or more injections, the last one within 10 years of the birth
▪ Five or more injections at any time prior to the birth
Sample: Women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years before the survey

Among women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, 93% had their most recent
live birth protected against neonatal tetanus (Table 9.8).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Mothers age 35–49 are less likely to have their most recent live birth protected against neonatal tetanus
(82%) than mothers age 20–34 (94%) and those less than age 20 (91%) (Table 9.8).

▪ The percentage of women whose most recent live birth was protected against neonatal tetanus is
lowest among those with fourth- or fifth-order births (87%) and highest among those with second- or
third-order births (95%).

▪ The proportion of women whose most recent live birth was protected against neonatal tetanus ranges
from 89% in Bagmati Province to 96% in Lumbini Province.

9.4 DELIVERY SERVICES

9.4.1 Institutional Deliveries

Institutional deliveries
Deliveries that occur in a health facility.
Sample: All live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years before the survey

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 185

 The Right to Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Act, 2075 BS (2018) guarantees the reproductive
rights of every woman and makes specific provisions for maternity care, maternity leave, newborn care,
birth registration, family planning, abortion and treatment for reproductive morbidities, and care for
survivors of violence, among others.

Seventy-nine percent of live births and stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey were delivered in
health facilities, while 19% were delivered at home (Table 9.9). Sixty-two percent of deliveries took place
in a public sector health facility and 17% in a private medical sector health facility.

The 2022 NDHS asked mothers for reasons why their births or stillbirths were not delivered in a health
facility. Among births or stillbirths that were not delivered in a health facility, the three most common
reasons reported were that there was no perceived need to deliver in a health facility (46%), the child was
born before reaching the facility (28%), and the facility was too far or there was no transportation service
(16%). Four percent of births or stillbirths were not delivered in a health facility due to fear of COVID-19
or lockdowns (Table 9.10).

Fifty-four percent of women with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey received a
cash incentive for transportation after delivering in a health facility (Table 9.11).

Trends: The proportion of institutional deliveries Figure 9.4 Trends in place of birth
has increased over time, from 8% in 1996 and 20% Percentage of live births in the 2 years
in 2006 to 64% in 2016 and 79% in 2022 (Figure before the survey
9.4). The proportion of home deliveries decreased 91 88
from 91% in 1996 to 19% in 2022. 78 79
Delivered at home 64
Patterns by background characteristics 54
44
▪ First-order births are much more likely (90%) to Delivered in health facility
35
be delivered in a health facility than second- or 20 19
third-order births (75%) and fourth- or fifth- 8 10
order births (56%) (Table 9.9).
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
▪ Births to mothers who had at least four ANC NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
visits (84%) are more likely to be delivered in a
health facility than births to mothers who did not have any ANC visits (48%).

▪ Deliveries at a health facility are least common among Muslim women (67%) and most common
among Brahmin/Chhetri women (87%).

186 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

▪ The proportion of health facility deliveries is Figure 9.5 Health facility births
lowest in Madhesh Province (67%), followed by by province
Karnali Province (72%). The proportion is Percentage of live births in the 2 years
highest in Bagmati Province and Gandaki before the survey that were delivered in a
Province (88% each), followed by health facility
Sudurpashchim Province (87%) (Figure 9.5). Bagmati Province 88

▪ Births to mothers with no education (60%) are Gandaki Province 88

less likely to be delivered at health facilities than Sudurpashchim
Province 87
those to mothers with more than a secondary
Lumbini Province 84
education (100%) (Figure 9.6).
Koshi Province 82
▪ The proportion of births that were not delivered
Karnali Province 72
at a health facility because the facility was too
far or there was a lack of transportation is Madhesh Province 67
highest in the mountain zone (32%) and lowest
in the terai zone (7%). In the hill zone, 39% of
Figure 9.6 Health facility births
births were not delivered at a health facility
by education
because the child was born before reaching the
facility and 30% because the facility was too far Percentage of live births in the 2 years
before the survey that were delivered in a
or there was a lack of transportation. health facility
100
▪ The percentage of live births and/or stillbirths 90
whose mothers received cash incentives is 74
60
highest in Sudurpashchim Province (77%) and
lowest in Madhesh Province (36%) (Table 9.11).

▪ Mothers with at least four ANC visits (58%) are

more likely to receive cash incentives than those No education Basic Secondary More than
with no ANC visits (14%). education (9–12) secondary
(1–8) (13 and
above)
▪ Cash incentives for deliveries in public sector
health facilities is higher than among those in private sector health facilities (80% versus 26%).

9.4.2 Delivery by Cesarean Section

Access to cesarean sections (C-sections) can reduce maternal and neonatal mortality and complications of
labor. However, use of C-sections without medical need can place women at risk of short-term and long-
term health problems. WHO advises that C-sections be done when medically necessary but does not
recommend a specific rate for countries to achieve at the population level (WHO 2015a). Based on the UN
process indicators, the recommendation is 5–15% C-sections as a proportion of all births in the population
(Ministry of Health and Population 2019). The percentage of C-section births is sometimes considered to
be a proxy indicator of women’s access to skilled care for complicated deliveries.

Of the total number of live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey, 18% were delivered
via C-section (Table 9.12).

Trends: The proportion of live births delivered via C-section has increased steadily over time, from 1% in
1996 to 10% in 2016 and 18% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Fifteen percent of births in public sector health facilities were delivered via C-section, as compared
with 51% of births in private medical sector health facilities (Table 9.12).

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 187

 ▪ The percentage of births delivered via C-section Figure 9.7 C-sections by
is higher in the Brahmin/Chhetri (22%) and household wealth
Janajati (21%) ethnic groups than in the Dalit Percentage of live births in the 2 years
group (10%). before the survey that were delivered by
C-section
▪ Deliveries via C-section are higher in urban
areas (22%) than in rural areas (12%).

▪ Only 8% of births to mothers with no education

38
were delivered via C-section, compared with 25
48% of births to mothers with more than a 18
6 11
secondary education.
Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
▪ C-section deliveries increase with increasing Poorest Wealthiest
wealth, from 6% in the lowest quintile to 38% in
the highest quintile (Figure 9.7).

9.4.3 Skilled Assistance during Delivery

Skilled assistance during delivery

Births delivered with the assistance of doctors and nurses/auxiliary nurse
midwives.
Sample: All live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years before the survey

Nepal initiated midwifery education in 2016. In the present context, doctors, nurses, and auxiliary nurse
midwives with training as skilled birth attendants are considered skilled providers (Ministry of Health and
Population 2022b).

Table 9.13 shows that 80% of deliveries are Figure 9.8 Assistance during delivery
conducted by a skilled provider, with 41% attended
Percent distribution of live births and
by a nurse or auxiliary nurse midwife and 39% by a stillbirths in the 2 years before the survey
doctor (Figure 9.8).
TBA
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years 6%
preceding the survey, 48% had skin-to-skin contact Nurse/ANM
immediately after birth (Table 9.13). 41% HA/AHW
1%

FCHV
1%

Doctor Relative/other
39% 10%
No one
1%

ANM = Auxiliary nurse midwife; HA = Health assistant;

AHW = Auxialiary health worker; TBA = Traditional birth attendant;
FCHV = Female community health volunteer

188 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Trends: The percentage of deliveries assisted by Figure 9.9 Trends in delivery assistance
skilled providers increased from 10% in 1996 to 65% Percentage of live births in the 2 years
in 2016 and 80% in 2022. There has been a 15- preceding the survey delivered by a skilled
percentage-point increase in deliveries assisted by provider
skilled providers since 2016 (Figure 9.9). 80
65
Patterns by background characteristics
43
▪ Births to mothers with at least four ANC visits
(85%) are more likely to be assisted by a skilled 22
provider than births to mothers with no ANC 10 13
visits (51%).
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
▪ The percentage of deliveries conducted by
NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
skilled providers is lowest in Madhesh Province
(68%) and Karnali Province (72%) and highest in Gandaki Province (89%) (Table 9.13).

▪ The proportion of deliveries conducted by skilled providers increases with increasing mother’s
education, from 61% among mothers with no education to 96% among those with more than a
secondary education.

▪ Assistance from skilled providers during Figure 9.10 Skilled assistance at

delivery also increases with increasing delivery by household wealth
household wealth, from 67% among mothers in Percentage of live births in the 2 years
the lowest wealth quintile to 97% among those before the survey assisted by a
in the highest quintile (Figure 9.10). skilled provider

97
Duration of Stay at Health Facility 88
81
67 73
Forty-seven percent of women with a vaginal
delivery in the 2 years preceding the survey stayed in
the health facility for 1–2 days after their delivery,
while 89% of those with a cesarean section delivery
stayed in the facility for 3 or more days (Table 9.14). Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
Overall, 22% of women with a vaginal delivery
Poorest Wealthiest
stayed less than 6 hours at the health facility.

Treatment with Respect at Health Facility

Women who had an institutional delivery for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years
preceding the survey were asked about their experience in the health facility in relation to the treatment
they received from health providers and the services they were provided. Eighty-five percent of women
reported that they were always treated with respect by health care providers in the health facility.
Similarly, 80% of women reported that they always received the best care, and 63% reported that they
were always given an explanation regarding why examinations and procedures were done (Table 9.15).

Table 9.16 shows that 14% of women age 15–49 who had an institutional delivery for their last live birth
or stillbirth experienced at least one type of verbal abuse by health care providers in the health facility,
while 4% experienced at least one type of physical abuse.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women from the Muslim ethnic group (90%) were more likely to report that they were always treated
with respect by health care providers in the health facility than women from the Dalit and Madhesi
groups (84% each) (Table 9.15).

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 189

 ▪ Seventy-seven percent of women from Bagmati Province reported that they were always treated with
respect by health care providers in the health facility, as compared with 92% of women in Koshi
Province.

▪ Women age 35–49 (8%) were more likely to report that they experienced at least one form of physical
abuse from health care providers in the health facility than women age 20–34 (3%) and women less
than age 20 (4%). Verbal abuse was more common among women less than age 20 (20%) and those
age 35–49 (21%) than among those age 20–34 (12%) (Table 9.16).

▪ Madhesi women were more likely to report experiencing verbal abuse (21%) and physical abuse (6%)
than women in the other ethnic groups.

9.5 POSTNATAL CARE

9.5.1 Postnatal Health Check for Mothers

The postnatal period is important for mothers, as evidence has shown that they are more likely to develop
life-threatening complications such as postpartum hemorrhage during this period. Postnatal visits from
health personnel can help to prevent or treat most of these conditions. In addition, this period is important
for counseling mothers on how to care for themselves and their newborns. It is recommended that women
receive at least four postnatal check-ups, the first within 24 hours of delivery (within 48 hours if the
delivery takes place at home), the second on the third day following the delivery, the third within 7–14
days of delivery, and the fourth in the sixth week after delivery.

Overall, 70% of women received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery, with 54%
receiving a check-up within 4 hours of delivery (Table 9.17). Twenty-eight percent of women did not
receive any postnatal check during the first 2 days after the delivery of their most recent live birth or
stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey.

Trends: The proportion of women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey who
received a postnatal check increased from 22% in 2006 to 57% in 2016 and 70% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women receiving a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery decreases
with increasing birth order, from 78% for first-order births to 52% for fourth- or fifth-order births
(Table 9.17).

▪ The proportion of women who received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery is
higher among those who delivered in a health facility than among those who delivered elsewhere (82%
versus 23%).

▪ Only 58% each of women in Madhesh Province and Karnali Province received a postnatal check-up
during the first 2 days after birth, as compared with more than 70% of women in the other provinces.

▪ Women with more than a secondary education were more likely (92%) to receive a postnatal check
during the first 2 days after birth than those with no education (56%).

Type of Provider

Doctors, nurses, and auxiliary nurse midwives (67%) are the main health care providers for women who
received a postnatal check within 2 days after delivery (Table 9.18). However, only 52% of women in
Madhesh Province and 55% of women in Karnali Province received a postnatal check from a doctor,
nurse, or auxiliary nurse midwife. The proportion of women receiving a postnatal check from a doctor,

190 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

nurse, or auxiliary nurse midwife is higher among those who delivered at a health facility than among
those who delivered elsewhere (81% versus 14%).

Content of Care

Among women who received a postnatal check within 2 days after delivery, only 20% had all three critical
checks performed in the first 2 days after birth. Fifty-six percent of women had their blood pressure
measured, 51% were asked about vaginal bleeding, and 25% were asked about family planning (Table
9.19).

With respect to counseling services during the postnatal check, 60% of women received counseling on
which foods to eat, and 53% were counseled on eating two additional meals. Only 34% of women received
counseling on how to recognize if immediate medical attention is required, while 16% received counseling
on mental health.

9.5.2 Postnatal Health Check for Newborns

Proper care for newborns is essential in reducing neonatal morbidity and mortality. The first 48 hours of
life are critical, as most neonatal deaths occur within that period (WHO 2015b). Postnatal care for
newborns should start as soon as possible after birth. The Government of Nepal recommends at least four
check-ups in the first 6 weeks of the postpartum period to identify, manage, and prevent complications
through an ongoing process with tailored support and services rather than a single encounter (Ministry of
Health and Population 2019).

Seventy percent of newborns received a postnatal check within the first 2 days after birth. One in six
newborns (17%) had a postnatal check within the first hour of life (Table 9.20).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of newborns receiving a postnatal check during the first 2 days after birth decreases
with increasing birth order, from 75% among first births to 67% among second- or third-order births
and 57% among fourth- or fifth-order births (Table 9.20).

▪ Among all rural and urban locations in the provinces, the rural areas of Bagmati Province have the
lowest proportion of births receiving a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery (49%).

▪ Seventy-eight percent of babies born to mothers with more than a secondary education received a
postnatal check within first 2 days after birth, as compared with only 61% of those born to mothers
with no education.

Type of Provider

Doctors, nurses, and auxiliary nurse midwives (65%) are the main health care providers for newborns who
received a postnatal check-up within 2 days after birth (Table 9.21). The proportion of newborns receiving
a postnatal check from a doctor, nurse, or auxiliary nurse midwife is higher among those delivered in
health facilities than among those delivered elsewhere (78% versus 13%). However, 20% of newborns
delivered in health facilities did not receive a postnatal check during the first 2 days after birth.

Only 53% of newborns in Madhesh Province and 57% in Karnali Province received a postnatal check from
a doctor, nurse, or auxiliary nurse midwife, the lowest percentages among the provinces.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 191

 Content of Care

Postnatal breastfeeding counseling supports exclusive breastfeeding. Face-to face-breastfeeding counseling

facilitates observation of positioning and the latch of the infant and allows for tailored breastfeeding
counseling and support (WHO 2018a).

The five recommended signal functions to be performed as part of postnatal care are: (1) examining the
umbilical cord, (2) measuring temperature, (3) observing and/or counseling on breastfeeding, (4) telling
the mother about danger signs and how to recognize if the baby needs immediate attention, and
(5) weighing the newborn. Overall, 28% of newborns had all five signal functions performed during the
first 2 days after birth. Of the selected signal functions performed during the first 2 days after birth,
weighing the newborn was the most common (81%), while informing the mother about danger signs and
how to recognize if the baby needs immediate attention was the least common (38%) (Table 9.22).

9.5.3 Postnatal Health Checks for Mothers and Newborns

Postnatal health checks are equally vital for the Figure 9.11 Postnatal care by place
mother and the newborn. Table 9.23 provides of delivery
information on the status of mothers and newborns Percentage of last live births in the 2 years
receiving a postnatal check during the first 2 days before the survey for which mothers and
after birth. Although an equal proportion of mothers newborns received a postnatal check
during the first 2 days after birth
and newborns received a postnatal check during the
first 2 days after birth (70% each), in only 63% of Total Health facility Elsewhere
cases did both the mother and the newborn receive a
check. Twenty-three each of mothers and newborns 82 80
did not receive any postnatal check in the first 2 days 70 70
after delivery.

The proportions of mothers and newborns receiving a 30

23
postnatal check during the first 2 days after birth are
higher when the birth took place in a health facility
(82% and 80%, respectively) than when the birth
took place elsewhere (23% and 30%, respectively) Mothers Newborns
(Figure 9.11).

9.5.4 Newborn Care Practices

The National Medical Standard for Maternal and Newborn Care Volume III recommends postponing
bathing of newborns for at least 24 hours after birth (Ministry of Health and Population 2022c). Bathing
was delayed 24 hours or more for 85% of most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey in
accordance with government guidelines. Bathing was delayed at least 24 hours for 90% of births that took
place in health facilities, as compared with 66% of those that took place elsewhere (Table 9.24).

Cord Care

Umbilical cord infection is a contributory cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality. Cord infection is of
particular concern for births delivered at home. Table 9.25 shows that 86% of most recent live births
delivered outside a health facility in the 2 years preceding the survey had their cord cut with a clean
instrument. Use of a clean instrument is more common in urban than rural areas (91% versus 79%).

In an effort to reduce neonatal mortality, the Ministry of Health and Population introduced the use of
chlorhexidine in September 2011 as means of preventing umbilical cord infection. After piloting
chlorhexidine in 10 districts, the government has scaled its use up nationally (Ministry of Health and
Population 2022a). Chlorhexidine (known as Navi Malam locally) was applied to the cord of 51% of

192 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

infants born in the 2 years preceding the survey, while 22% had nothing applied (Table 9.26). Overall,
78% of newborns had nothing harmful applied to their umbilical cord.

Forty-three percent of most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey had chlorohexidine
applied within 24 hours after birth. A majority of newborns had chlorohexidine applied for 1 day only
(69%) (Table 9.27).

The practice of applying chlorhexidine is more common in public health facilities than in private health
facilities (61% versus 48%). Sixty-eight percent of newborns in Sudurpashchim Province had
chlorhexidine applied to the umbilical cord, as compared with only 39% of newborns in Madhesh Province
(Table 9.26). Similarly, the percentage of newborns with chlorhexidine applied within 24 hours after birth
is higher in public health facilities (54%) than in private health facilities (35%) (Table 9.27). Overall, 25%
of most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey received vitamin K intramuscular injection
within 28 days of birth (data not shown separately).

9.6 MEN’S INVOLVEMENT IN MATERNAL HEALTH CARE

Ninety-five percent of men age 15–49 with a youngest child age 0–2 reported that the child’s mother had
an antenatal care check-up during the pregnancy. However, only 72% reported that they were present
during an antenatal visit. Eighty percent of men reported that their child was born in a health facility, and
86% of these men went to the health facility with the child’s mother where she gave birth to the child
(Table 9.28).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Men’s participation in maternal health care declines as number of children increases. For instance,
men with one child were more likely to accompany their child’s mother to antenatal care (79%) and
accompany the mother to the health facility (88%) than men with two or three children (69% and 85%,
respectively).

▪ Ninety-one percent of men from the Brahmin/Chhetri and Janajati ethnic groups went to the health
facility when their child was born, as compared with only 78% of men from the Madhesi group (Table
9.28).

▪ Men’s involvement in maternal health care increases with increasing education. For instance, only
45% of men with no education accompanied their child’s mother to an antenatal care visit, compared
with 89% of men with more than a secondary education.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 193

 9.7 BREAST AND CERVICAL CANCER EXAMINATIONS

Breast cancer examination

Women were asked if a doctor or other health care provider examined their
breasts to check for cancer. The examination could include either a clinical
breast exam, in which health care providers use their hands to feel for lumps
or other changes, or use of medical equipment to make an image of the breast
tissue, such as a mammogram.
Cervical cancer examination
To be checked for cervical cancer, a woman is asked to lie on her back with
her legs apart. Then the health care worker uses a brush or swab to collect a
sample from inside her. The sample is sent to a laboratory for testing. This test
is called a Pap smear or human papillomavirus (HPV) test. Another method is
visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA). In this test, the health care worker puts
vinegar on the cervix to see if there is a reaction. Women were asked if a
doctor or other health care provider ever tested them for cervical cancer.
Information on the type of screening test was not collected.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Among women of reproductive age (15–49 years), 4% were examined for breast cancer and 6% were
tested for cervical cancer (Table 9.29). Four percent of women who were examined for breast cancer and
7% of women who were tested for cervical cancer reported receiving a positive result (data not shown).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Seven percent of women age 30–49 were examined for breast cancer and 11% were tested for cervical
cancer, as compared with only 2% each of women age 15–29.

▪ Only 2% each of women from the Muslim ethnic group were examined for breast and cervical cancer,
while 6% of women in the Brahmin/Chhetri group were examined for breast cancer and 10% were
tested for cervical cancer.

▪ The proportions of women receiving breast and cervical cancer examinations were highest among
those in Bagmati Province (7% and 12%, respectively) and Gandaki Province (6% and 10%,
respectively) and lowest among those in Madhesh Province (3% each).

Examinations for breast and cervical cancer increase with increasing education. Only 3% of women
with no education had an examination for breast cancer, compared with 13% of women with more
than a secondary education. The corresponding figures for cervical cancer are 5% and 18%,
respectively.

9.8 UTERINE PROLAPSE AND OBSTETRIC FISTULA

Uterine prolapse is a frequently reported cause of poor health among women of reproductive age. Many
women in Nepal are engaged in extremely hard work (including heavy lifting), with little or no rest during
pregnancy or the postpartum period, contributing to high rates of uterine prolapse. Early marriage, multiple
births, and lack of skilled birth attendants during delivery are some of the other risk factors (Khadgi and
Poudel 2018).

Four percent of women who had ever given birth reported that they had experienced symptoms of uterine
prolapse. Among these women, 9% each had surgery and received a pessary ring, 13% took medicine, 3%
used herbs, and 8% used other remedies. Fifty-eight percent did not seek treatment (data not shown).

Obstetric fistula is a complication arising from obstructed or prolonged labor that creates a hole or opening
between the vagina and rectum or bladder that causes urinary or fecal incontinence. This may also result

194 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

from pelvic surgical error or trauma. Overall, 36% of women age 15-49 have heard of fistula. Less than
1% of women report having experienced obstetric fistula (data not shown).

9.9 PROBLEMS IN ACCESSING HEALTH CARE

Problems in accessing health care

Women were asked whether each of the following factors is a big problem in
seeking medical advice or treatment for themselves when they are sick:
▪ Getting permission to go to the doctor
▪ Getting money for advice or treatment
▪ Distance to a health facility
▪ Not wanting to go alone
Sample: Women age 15–49

Sixty-six percent of women reported that they have at least one problem in accessing health care. Among
the specified problems in accessing health care, 55% of women mentioned not wanting to go alone, 37%
reported distance to a health facility, 35% reported getting money for treatment, and 16% mentioned
getting permission (Table 9.30).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women from rural areas are more likely to report at least one problem in accessing heath care than
women from urban areas (74% versus 63%).

▪ Women from the Dalit and Muslim ethnic groups are more likely to report at least one problem in
accessing health care (75% each) than women from the other groups (Table 9.30).

▪ The percentage of women who report at least one problem in accessing health care is highest in
Karnali Province (83%) and lowest in Bagmati province (57%).

▪ Women with no education are more likely (79%) than women with more than a secondary education
(34%) to report at least one problem in accessing health care.

9.10 DISTANCE AND MEANS OF TRANSPORT TO THE NEAREST HEALTH FACILITY

Distance to the nearest health facility is an important determinant of accessibility to health services for
women and their children. Delays in accessing health care can lead to serious consequences. Seventy-
seven percent of women age 15–49 reported that it takes them less than 30 minutes to travel to the nearest
health facility. However, 9% of women reported that the travel time to the nearest health facility is more
than 1 hour. A large majority of women travel to the nearest health facility by walking (83%). Only 11%
use motorized transport services, while 6% use nonmotorized transportation means (Table 9.31).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Fifteen percent of women in rural areas reported that the travel time to the nearest health facility is an
hour or more, as compared with 6% of women in urban areas. Furthermore, 85% of rural women walk
to the health facility.

▪ Eighty-seven percent of women in the terai zone can reach the nearest health facility within 30
minutes; 14% travel to the nearest health facility using motorized transport, and 11% use
nonmotorized means of transportation. The situation is worse in the hill and mountain zones, where
18% each of women take an hour or more to reach the nearest health facility and 92% and 97%,
respectively, walk to the nearest health facility.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 195

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on maternal and newborn health care, see the following tables:

▪ Table 9.1 Antenatal care

▪ Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit
▪ Table 9.3 Reasons for not making at least four antenatal care visits
▪ Table 9.4.1 Components of antenatal care among women receiving ANC
▪ Table 9.4.2 Components of antenatal care among all women
▪ Table 9.5 Deworming and iron-containing supplementation during pregnancy
▪ Table 9.6 Reasons for not taking iron/folic acid tablets for 180 days
▪ Table 9.7 Source of iron-containing supplements
▪ Table 9.8 Tetanus toxoid injections
▪ Table 9.9 Place of delivery
▪ Table 9.10 Reasons for not delivering in a health facility
▪ Table 9.11 Cash incentive for delivering in health facility
▪ Table 9.12 Cesarean section
▪ Table 9.13 Assistance during delivery
▪ Table 9.14 Duration of stay in health facility after birth
▪ Table 9.15 Respectful care from health care providers
▪ Table 9.16 Respectful treatment at the health facility during maternity care
▪ Table 9.17 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother
▪ Table 9.18 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother
▪ Table 9.19 Content of postnatal care for the mother
▪ Table 9.20 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn
▪ Table 9.21 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn
▪ Table 9.22 Content of postnatal care for newborns
▪ Table 9.23 Postnatal checks on mother and newborn
▪ Table 9.24 Bathing newborns
▪ Table 9.25 Cord cutting
▪ Table 9.26 Cord care
▪ Table 9.27 Use of chlorhexidine
▪ Table 9.28 Men’s involvement in maternal health care
▪ Table 9.29 Examinations for breast and cervical cancer
▪ Table 9.30 Problems in accessing health care
▪ Table 9.31 Distance from health care

196 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.1 Antenatal care
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 who had a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey by antenatal care (ANC) provider during
the pregnancy for the most recent live birth or stillbirth and percentage receiving antenatal care from a skilled provider for the most recent live birth or
stillbirth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Antenatal care provider Percentage
Heath receiving
Nurse/ assistant/ Female antenatal
auxiliary auxiliary community care from
Background nurse health health a skilled Number of
characteristic Doctor midwife worker worker Other No ANC Total provider1 women
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 53.3 41.2 3.2 0.4 0.1 1.9 100.0 94.5 353
20–34 56.0 38.5 2.4 0.4 0.0 2.7 100.0 94.5 1,504
35–49 46.2 44.4 2.6 0.0 0.0 6.8 100.0 90.6 76
Birth order2
1 58.7 36.9 2.5 0.6 0.1 1.2 100.0 95.6 790
2–3 54.9 39.6 2.5 0.2 0.1 2.8 100.0 94.5 965
4–5 42.5 47.0 2.6 0.0 0.0 7.9 100.0 89.5 154
6+ (23.4) (55.0) (5.7) (0.0) (0.0) (16.0) 100.0 (78.4) 24
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 50.1 45.8 1.6 0.4 0.1 2.0 100.0 96.0 499
Dalit 44.6 47.4 3.8 0.3 0.0 3.9 100.0 92.0 359
Janajati 48.6 43.2 4.0 0.6 0.0 3.6 100.0 91.8 588
Madhesi 78.4 19.6 0.4 0.0 0.2 1.3 100.0 98.0 354
Muslim 69.0 27.3 1.9 0.0 0.0 1.8 100.0 96.3 131
Other * * * * * * 100.0 * 2
Residence
Urban 60.3 33.9 2.5 0.3 0.0 2.9 100.0 94.2 1,266
Rural 45.2 49.4 2.6 0.4 0.1 2.3 100.0 94.6 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 30.2 63.3 5.1 0.0 0.3 1.0 100.0 93.5 129
Hill 48.4 45.6 2.8 0.1 0.0 3.1 100.0 94.0 639
Terai 61.5 33.1 2.1 0.5 0.1 2.7 100.0 94.6 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 58.3 32.1 4.8 0.3 0.2 4.3 100.0 90.4 358
Urban 59.2 30.4 5.5 0.5 0.0 4.3 100.0 89.6 232
Rural 56.6 35.2 3.4 0.0 0.6 4.2 100.0 91.8 126
Madhesh Province 73.9 22.1 1.1 0.3 0.0 2.6 100.0 96.0 500
Urban 73.0 22.3 0.9 0.4 0.0 3.3 100.0 95.3 367
Rural 76.3 21.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.6 100.0 97.9 132
Bagmati Province 67.4 26.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 3.8 100.0 93.4 295
Urban 77.1 18.8 2.1 0.0 0.0 2.0 100.0 95.9 216
Rural 40.8 45.8 4.8 0.0 0.0 8.5 100.0 86.6 79
Gandaki Province 52.2 44.6 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.9 100.0 96.7 117
Urban 57.0 43.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 76
Rural 43.0 47.4 7.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 100.0 90.5 40
Lumbini Province 43.2 53.6 1.0 1.1 0.0 1.1 100.0 96.8 329
Urban 48.9 47.1 1.3 0.7 0.0 2.0 100.0 96.0 185
Rural 36.0 61.8 0.7 1.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 97.8 145
Karnali Province 24.9 66.2 5.3 0.2 0.3 3.2 100.0 91.0 149
Urban 31.9 56.1 6.3 0.0 0.6 5.1 100.0 88.0 73
Rural 18.1 75.9 4.3 0.5 0.0 1.3 100.0 94.0 76
Sudurpashchim Province 26.0 69.9 2.3 0.0 0.0 1.8 100.0 95.9 185
Urban 29.7 64.5 3.7 0.0 0.0 2.1 100.0 94.2 117
Rural 19.8 78.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 100.0 98.8 69
Education
No education 50.4 42.4 1.9 0.0 0.0 5.3 100.0 92.8 357
Basic education (1–8) 48.8 44.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 3.3 100.0 92.8 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 50.6 41.5 3.4 0.0 0.0 4.5 100.0 92.1 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 47.0 46.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 100.0 93.5 325
Secondary (9–12) 58.3 37.3 2.0 0.8 0.1 1.4 100.0 95.6 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 52.0 42.6 2.4 1.1 0.2 1.7 100.0 94.6 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 67.9 29.3 1.4 0.4 0.0 1.1 100.0 97.2 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 89.4 10.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 99.7 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 26.7 63.8 3.3 0.3 0.1 5.8 100.0 90.5 431
Second 46.1 46.8 4.3 0.4 0.0 2.5 100.0 92.9 432
Middle 59.5 37.5 0.9 0.6 0.0 1.5 100.0 97.0 381
Fourth 65.9 28.9 2.8 0.0 0.2 2.3 100.0 94.7 386
Highest 89.1 9.0 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.7 100.0 98.1 303
Total 55.1 39.3 2.6 0.3 0.1 2.7 100.0 94.3 1,933

(Continued…)

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 197

 Table 9.1—Continued
Antenatal care provider
Percentage
Heath receiving
Nurse/ assistant/ Female antenatal
auxiliary auxiliary community care from
Background nurse health health a skilled Number of
characteristic Doctor midwife worker worker Other No ANC Total provider1 women
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * 100.0 * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 55.0 39.3 2.5 0.3 0.1 2.8 100.0 94.3 1,949

Note: If more than one source of ANC was mentioned, only the provider with the highest qualifications is considered in this tabulation. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Skilled provider includes doctor, nurse, and auxiliary nurse midwife.
2
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

198 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 who had a live birth and/or a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey by number of antenatal care (ANC) visits during the
pregnancy for the most recent live birth or stillbirth and by the timing of the first visit, and among women with ANC, median months pregnant at first visit, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Median
months
preg-
nant at
Number of months pregnant first
Number of ANC visits at time of first ANC visit visit Num-
No (for ber of
4+ ante- Num- those women
Background Don’t ANC natal Don’t ber of with with
characteristic None 1 2–3 4–7 8+ know Total visits care <4 4–6 7+ know Total women ANC) ANC
LIVE BIRTHS
Age at birth
<20 1.9 2.8 20.3 71.4 3.6 0.0 100.0 75.0 1.9 66.4 30.6 1.2 0.0 100.0 353 3.7 347
20–34 2.7 1.9 13.1 76.0 6.2 0.1 100.0 82.2 2.7 74.7 21.2 1.4 0.1 100.0 1,504 3.5 1,463
35–49 6.8 5.4 16.7 62.6 8.5 0.0 100.0 71.1 6.8 64.9 23.3 2.8 2.3 100.0 76 3.6 71
Birth order1
1 1.2 0.9 12.4 77.6 7.8 0.1 100.0 85.4 1.2 77.6 20.3 0.9 0.1 100.0 790 3.5 781
2–3 2.8 2.6 14.7 74.9 4.9 0.1 100.0 79.8 2.8 73.0 22.7 1.3 0.2 100.0 965 3.5 938
4–5 7.9 5.2 22.3 63.2 1.4 0.0 100.0 64.6 7.9 51.8 35.4 4.7 0.3 100.0 154 3.8 142
6+ (16.0) (11.2) (25.8) (39.6) (7.4) (0.0) 100.0 (47.0) (16.0) (43.4) (40.6) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 24 (4.0) 20
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 2.0 0.5 7.0 83.9 6.6 0.2 100.0 90.4 2.0 79.2 17.8 0.7 0.4 100.0 499 3.4 489
Dalit 3.9 5.2 19.5 67.4 4.0 0.0 100.0 71.4 3.9 70.8 24.1 1.0 0.1 100.0 359 3.6 344
Janajati 3.6 1.8 10.8 77.6 6.3 0.0 100.0 83.9 3.6 77.3 17.9 1.2 0.0 100.0 588 3.4 567
Madhesi 1.3 2.1 23.9 66.6 6.1 0.0 100.0 72.7 1.3 62.2 33.6 2.8 0.0 100.0 354 3.7 349
Muslim 1.8 3.5 21.4 67.4 5.9 0.0 100.0 73.3 1.8 62.2 33.6 2.4 0.0 100.0 131 3.7 129
Other * * * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * 100.0 2 * 2
Residence
Urban 2.9 2.0 15.6 72.9 6.6 0.1 100.0 79.5 2.9 74.7 20.8 1.5 0.2 100.0 1,266 3.5 1,230
Rural 2.3 2.7 12.5 77.9 4.5 0.1 100.0 82.4 2.3 69.2 27.1 1.3 0.1 100.0 666 3.6 651
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.0 0.7 7.8 88.3 2.1 0.0 100.0 90.5 1.0 70.0 28.6 0.0 0.3 100.0 129 3.7 127
Hill 3.1 1.6 8.7 78.4 8.1 0.1 100.0 86.5 3.1 78.6 17.5 0.8 0.1 100.0 639 3.4 619
Terai 2.7 2.7 18.5 71.0 5.0 0.1 100.0 76.0 2.7 69.9 25.4 1.9 0.1 100.0 1,166 3.6 1,134
Province
Koshi Province 4.3 1.4 15.3 72.4 6.3 0.2 100.0 78.8 4.3 73.5 20.7 1.1 0.5 100.0 358 3.4 342
Urban 4.3 1.5 17.0 71.7 5.5 0.0 100.0 77.2 4.3 72.3 21.4 1.2 0.7 100.0 232 3.4 222
Rural 4.2 1.2 12.2 73.9 7.9 0.6 100.0 81.8 4.2 75.8 19.3 0.7 0.0 100.0 126 3.4 120
Madhesh Province 2.6 4.3 24.7 63.6 4.7 0.0 100.0 68.4 2.6 63.5 30.9 2.9 0.0 100.0 500 3.7 486
Urban 3.3 3.0 26.7 62.6 4.4 0.0 100.0 66.9 3.3 64.1 30.2 2.4 0.0 100.0 367 3.7 355
Rural 0.6 7.8 19.3 66.6 5.8 0.0 100.0 72.3 0.6 62.0 33.0 4.3 0.0 100.0 132 3.7 132
Bagmati Province 3.8 1.1 6.3 75.2 13.6 0.0 100.0 88.8 3.8 85.9 9.5 0.8 0.0 100.0 295 3.2 284
Urban 2.0 1.0 4.5 75.8 16.7 0.0 100.0 92.5 2.0 91.2 5.7 1.1 0.0 100.0 216 3.2 212
Rural 8.5 1.6 11.1 73.7 5.2 0.0 100.0 78.8 8.5 71.4 20.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 79 3.5 72
Gandaki Province 0.9 4.4 10.2 74.6 9.9 0.0 100.0 84.6 0.9 78.4 18.7 2.0 0.0 100.0 117 3.4 116
Urban 0.0 4.4 10.9 72.4 12.4 0.0 100.0 84.7 0.0 82.6 14.3 3.1 0.0 100.0 76 3.3 76
Rural 2.5 4.4 8.9 78.9 5.3 0.0 100.0 84.2 2.5 70.4 27.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 40 3.5 39
Lumbini Province 1.1 0.5 11.2 83.7 3.3 0.2 100.0 86.9 1.1 78.4 20.1 0.4 0.0 100.0 329 3.5 326
Urban 2.0 0.8 10.3 83.6 2.9 0.4 100.0 86.5 2.0 80.6 17.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 185 3.5 181
Rural 0.0 0.0 12.5 83.8 3.7 0.0 100.0 87.5 0.0 75.6 23.4 0.9 0.0 100.0 145 3.6 145
Karnali Province 3.2 3.7 14.0 77.4 1.7 0.0 100.0 79.1 3.2 65.6 30.3 0.6 0.3 100.0 149 3.7 144
Urban 5.1 4.2 16.2 72.0 2.4 0.0 100.0 74.5 5.1 67.4 25.7 1.2 0.6 100.0 73 3.6 69
Rural 1.3 3.3 11.9 82.6 1.0 0.0 100.0 83.6 1.3 63.9 34.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 76 3.7 75
Sudurpashchim
Province 1.8 0.6 7.6 89.0 0.9 0.0 100.0 90.0 1.8 67.8 29.2 1.0 0.3 100.0 185 3.7 182
Urban 2.1 0.5 9.6 86.3 1.5 0.0 100.0 87.8 2.1 72.1 24.6 1.3 0.0 100.0 117 3.6 114
Rural 1.2 0.8 4.3 93.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 93.6 1.2 60.5 37.0 0.6 0.7 100.0 69 3.8 68
Education
No education 5.3 6.0 21.6 65.8 1.4 0.0 100.0 67.2 5.3 60.4 31.2 3.0 0.1 100.0 357 3.7 338
Basic education (1–8) 3.3 1.9 19.0 71.9 3.8 0.1 100.0 75.7 3.3 67.7 26.9 1.8 0.3 100.0 656 3.6 635
Lower basic
education (1–5) 4.5 2.8 21.2 68.8 2.4 0.2 100.0 71.2 4.5 63.3 29.6 2.7 0.0 100.0 332 3.7 317
Upper basic
education (6–8) 2.0 1.0 16.8 75.1 5.2 0.0 100.0 80.2 2.0 72.3 24.3 0.9 0.5 100.0 325 3.6 318
Secondary (9–12) 1.4 1.1 8.8 81.4 7.2 0.1 100.0 88.6 1.4 79.8 18.1 0.6 0.1 100.0 828 3.4 816
Lower secondary
(9–10) 1.7 1.5 10.9 79.2 6.5 0.2 100.0 85.7 1.7 78.1 19.4 0.8 0.1 100.0 497 3.5 488
Higher secondary
(11–12) 1.1 0.5 5.6 84.6 8.2 0.0 100.0 92.9 1.1 82.4 16.2 0.3 0.0 100.0 332 3.3 328
More than secondary
(13 and above) 0.0 0.0 6.6 67.4 26.0 0.0 100.0 93.4 0.0 93.9 6.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 91 3.1 91

(Continued…)

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 199

Table 9.2—Continued
Median
months
preg-
nant at
Number of months pregnant first
Number of ANC visits at time of first ANC visit visit Num-
No (for ber of
4+ ante- Num- those women
Background Don’t ANC natal Don’t ber of with with
characteristic None 1 2–3 4–7 8+ know Total visits care <4 4–6 7+ know Total women ANC) ANC
Wealth quintile
Lowest 5.8 3.2 16.5 72.8 1.7 0.0 100.0 74.5 5.8 60.9 32.6 0.6 0.1 100.0 431 3.7 406
Second 2.5 3.2 17.4 72.7 4.0 0.2 100.0 76.7 2.5 70.8 25.2 1.5 0.1 100.0 432 3.6 421
Middle 1.5 2.2 18.5 75.4 2.3 0.2 100.0 77.7 1.5 74.5 20.4 3.1 0.5 100.0 381 3.5 375
Fourth 2.3 1.9 11.3 78.0 6.5 0.0 100.0 84.5 2.3 75.9 20.1 1.7 0.0 100.0 386 3.5 377
Highest 0.7 0.0 6.7 74.6 18.0 0.0 100.0 92.6 0.7 86.4 13.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 303 3.2 301
Total 2.7 2.2 14.5 74.6 5.8 0.1 100.0 80.5 2.7 72.8 23.0 1.4 0.1 100.0 1,933 3.5 1,881
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * 100.0 18 * 16
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 2.8 2.3 14.7 74.4 5.8 0.1 100.0 80.2 2.8 72.6 23.1 1.4 0.1 100.0 1,949 3.5 1,895

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

200 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.3 Reasons for not making at least four antenatal care visits
Percentage of women age 15–49 who did not make at least four antenatal care visits for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years
preceding the survey by reasons for not making the recommended antenatal care visits, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Background Did not feel Facility was No Fear of Cost Number of
characteristic the need not open transportation COVID-19 too much Other women
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 48.3 3.3 10.3 11.2 7.0 21.4 88
20–34 50.8 3.0 7.4 12.0 7.5 17.8 266
35–49 (51.0) (10.1) (8.9) (16.7) (0.0) (12.8) 22
Birth order1
1 40.7 3.1 11.4 15.0 9.4 21.5 115
2–3 54.9 3.4 5.9 10.6 6.0 17.6 194
4–5 51.8 5.6 8.6 13.0 6.7 15.1 55
6+ * * * * * * 13
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 30.0 5.0 4.3 14.0 0.0 31.1 47
Dalit 55.9 2.2 9.7 11.2 5.4 15.8 102
Janajati 33.1 4.2 8.4 12.5 5.3 21.3 95
Madhesi 66.1 3.9 9.5 12.9 14.0 8.2 97
Muslim (63.8) (2.3) (5.1) (8.5) (5.6) (28.6) 35
Residence
Urban 51.9 3.2 6.6 10.3 7.2 19.4 259
Rural 46.5 4.1 11.9 16.1 6.3 16.1 117
Ecological zone
Mountain * * * * * * 12
Hill 37.5 1.9 8.8 7.8 0.6 24.3 85
Terai 54.2 4.0 7.2 13.8 9.2 16.8 278
Province
Koshi Province 43.8 0.0 6.0 11.6 8.1 16.6 75
Madhesh Province 66.3 2.8 7.6 10.9 11.6 12.9 158
Bagmati Province (20.5) (2.1) (15.0) (9.8) (0.0) (18.9) 33
Gandaki Province * * * * * * 18
Lumbini Province (46.6) (10.4) (7.6) (18.3) (2.5) (20.7) 42
Karnali Province 39.2 2.6 12.8 13.9 1.6 22.7 31
Sudurpashchim Province (22.6) (10.2) (0.0) (17.8) (0.0) (39.1) 19
Education
No education 59.8 7.0 8.4 6.0 6.4 14.1 117
Basic education (1–8) 47.4 1.5 8.5 14.2 7.4 20.7 159
Lower basic education
(1–5) 49.2 1.5 11.8 16.0 10.7 13.1 95
Upper basic education
(6–8) 44.8 1.6 3.5 11.7 2.5 31.9 64
Secondary (9–12) 44.8 2.7 8.0 15.3 5.3 19.3 94
Lower secondary (9–10) 48.3 2.4 7.0 14.7 5.6 15.7 70
Higher secondary
(11–12) (34.4) (3.5) (10.9) (17.3) (4.4) (29.8) 24
More than secondary (13
and above) * * * * * * 6
Wealth quintile
Lowest 47.0 3.9 8.6 8.7 2.5 16.4 110
Second 54.0 0.9 11.4 9.7 10.1 16.8 100
Middle 52.4 6.7 10.0 13.9 11.3 13.2 84
Fourth (51.6) (2.2) (2.7) (19.0) (4.4) (19.0) 60
Highest * * * * * * 22
Total 50.2 3.5 8.2 12.1 6.9 18.3 376
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * 9
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 49.8 3.4 8.0 12.0 6.8 18.8 385

Note: Disaggregation by residence for provinces is not presented due to few cases. There are no cases for other ethnic group. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 201

 Table 9.4.1 Components of antenatal care among women receiving ANC

Among women age 15–49 receiving antenatal care (ANC) for their most recent live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage receiving specific antenatal services from a health care
provider, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
Among women who received antenatal care for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the last 2 years, women with
percentage who received specific services during ANC from a health care provider: ANC for
their most
Counseled Counseled Counseled recent live
Counseled Counseled Asked about about Abdominal on getting birth and/or
Blood Urine Blood Baby’s about about about eating eating one Counseled examin- Counseled adequate stillbirth
Background pressure sample sample heartbeat maternal breast- vaginal healthy extra meal Weight on weight ation on staying rest during in the last
characteristic measured taken taken checked diet feeding bleeding food per day measured gain performed active pregnancy 2 years
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 94.8 88.4 83.6 89.6 88.3 46.6 39.2 90.0 80.1 93.6 70.1 92.8 79.7 86.7 347
20–34 94.5 90.2 86.9 91.2 91.7 53.4 53.7 92.2 80.1 95.2 64.4 95.7 81.5 87.5 1,463
35–49 92.6 89.4 81.6 89.5 77.2 39.3 39.6 77.0 62.4 88.4 41.3 90.2 73.5 80.9 71
Birth order1
1 96.8 93.5 91.5 92.8 91.4 50.7 52.9 92.9 81.2 96.6 65.6 96.1 85.8 89.4 781
2–3 93.5 89.2 85.0 91.3 91.3 53.4 50.0 91.4 78.6 93.9 64.4 95.3 78.8 86.7 938
4–5 90.5 76.3 69.5 80.6 83.6 44.2 44.6 83.8 75.2 89.9 61.1 88.4 70.5 78.9 142
6+ (81.9) (79.7) (43.2) (67.5) (75.3) (56.5) (24.5) (71.9) (80.6) (84.2) (62.6) (81.7) (56.7) (80.0) 20
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 96.5 92.9 90.8 93.9 92.4 59.2 60.3 93.6 82.9 98.4 66.7 96.8 88.9 94.0 489
Dalit 88.9 84.1 77.4 88.5 87.9 53.0 46.6 87.9 78.9 93.4 70.5 90.3 74.6 81.8 344
Janajati 96.2 90.6 87.3 89.9 91.2 50.5 53.7 92.0 80.3 95.0 61.8 94.9 82.9 87.1 567
Madhesi 95.4 90.9 88.3 92.8 90.8 47.5 43.0 91.6 77.1 91.5 63.8 97.3 75.7 83.4 349
Muslim 92.0 87.7 80.0 84.5 87.0 34.6 29.3 86.5 69.6 90.1 54.6 94.9 72.4 85.2 129
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 95.2 91.6 88.6 91.6 90.7 50.0 49.9 91.1 77.7 94.7 62.9 95.9 80.8 87.4 1,230
Rural 93.2 86.5 81.4 89.4 90.2 54.7 51.6 91.5 82.7 94.4 67.9 93.2 80.9 86.6 651
Ecological zone
Mountain 96.2 95.4 85.6 92.1 92.7 64.5 69.8 96.1 89.7 96.9 79.9 93.7 88.4 95.2 127
Hill 93.7 88.1 86.7 90.0 91.0 53.6 55.6 92.3 81.3 96.8 61.6 95.1 83.7 88.4 619
Terai 94.8 90.2 85.8 91.2 90.1 49.1 45.6 90.1 77.3 93.2 64.5 95.1 78.4 85.6 1,134
Province
Koshi Province 96.4 95.5 91.7 90.4 90.2 41.4 46.2 90.8 76.7 94.3 55.4 96.1 81.4 89.0 342
Urban 96.3 95.7 91.9 90.2 89.0 42.5 43.4 88.2 75.0 92.5 52.1 95.5 77.5 86.4 222
Rural 96.6 95.3 91.2 90.9 92.4 39.4 51.5 95.6 79.7 97.4 61.3 97.2 88.6 93.8 120
Madhesh Province 91.9 85.5 78.3 87.1 87.5 40.7 33.9 88.0 71.6 89.6 66.7 94.4 72.0 79.9 486
Urban 92.2 86.4 79.2 87.4 88.0 37.6 34.1 88.5 69.5 90.1 65.9 95.3 71.0 80.4 355
Rural 91.2 83.0 75.8 86.1 85.9 49.0 33.5 86.7 77.4 88.2 68.9 91.8 74.7 78.6 132
Bagmati Province 96.2 93.4 90.2 91.5 88.8 42.4 58.4 92.6 75.8 96.9 57.5 96.7 81.0 88.6 284
Urban 98.2 96.5 96.4 94.3 90.4 44.1 60.3 94.4 77.3 98.1 56.5 98.2 84.7 91.8 212
Rural 90.4 84.2 72.1 83.2 84.0 37.6 52.9 87.1 71.2 93.5 60.3 92.2 70.1 79.2 72
Gandaki Province 95.3 89.8 94.3 94.4 92.3 60.1 54.2 90.9 79.8 95.7 63.9 92.7 83.8 86.7 116
Urban 97.2 89.9 100.0 95.6 92.4 58.7 53.8 92.1 76.5 97.6 64.0 94.5 84.8 87.5 76
Rural 91.6 89.6 83.3 91.9 92.1 63.0 55.0 88.6 86.1 92.2 63.6 89.1 81.6 85.0 39
Lumbini Province 96.6 90.5 88.3 95.2 94.2 62.9 61.3 92.7 86.6 97.5 66.0 96.2 84.3 89.0 326
Urban 96.9 93.0 90.8 96.0 95.3 64.5 65.2 92.5 86.0 98.8 66.5 96.7 87.0 92.1 181
Rural 96.1 87.3 85.3 94.2 92.8 61.0 56.3 92.9 87.2 96.0 65.5 95.6 80.9 85.0 145

(Continued…)

202 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.4.1—Continued
Number of
Among women who received antenatal care for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the last 2 years, women with
percentage who received specific services during ANC from a health care provider: ANC for
their most
Counseled Counseled Counseled recent live
Counseled Counseled Asked about about Abdominal on getting birth and/or
Blood Urine Blood Baby’s about about about eating eating one Counseled examin- Counseled adequate stillbirth
Background pressure sample sample heartbeat maternal breast- vaginal healthy extra meal Weight on weight ation on staying rest during in the last
characteristic measured taken taken checked diet feeding bleeding food per day measured gain performed active pregnancy 2 years
Karnali Province 87.4 81.3 73.4 84.8 88.0 62.0 52.8 91.3 84.3 94.3 74.1 89.6 81.4 87.6 144
Urban 87.0 82.8 78.1 86.9 88.9 64.2 51.4 92.3 81.7 93.0 67.7 91.4 81.3 83.5 69
Rural 87.8 80.0 69.0 82.8 87.2 59.9 54.0 90.3 86.8 95.5 80.0 87.9 81.6 91.4 75
Sudurpashchim
Province 96.7 91.1 90.9 95.6 96.6 80.6 67.3 96.1 94.3 99.5 77.8 95.4 94.4 97.3 182
Urban 98.1 95.2 92.2 95.7 95.8 76.9 65.1 95.2 94.5 100.0 76.5 96.6 97.2 97.9 114
Rural 94.3 84.2 88.9 95.3 97.8 86.9 71.1 97.7 94.0 98.6 79.8 93.3 89.9 96.2 68
Education
No education 89.1 81.0 68.7 83.5 84.9 38.7 33.2 84.2 69.5 87.9 65.1 89.4 67.0 77.7 338
Basic education (1–8) 94.3 88.1 84.0 89.7 89.8 52.7 49.6 91.1 80.2 93.4 62.8 94.5 78.8 85.3 635
Lower basic
education (1–5) 92.9 85.3 81.9 88.4 89.2 49.2 45.9 89.8 76.7 92.8 56.4 92.4 75.0 83.3 317
Upper basic
education (6–8) 95.7 90.8 86.1 91.0 90.3 56.2 53.2 92.4 83.7 94.1 69.1 96.6 82.6 87.2 318
Secondary (9–12) 96.6 94.4 93.7 94.3 93.2 55.8 56.7 94.3 83.3 97.7 67.4 97.2 87.0 92.0 816
Lower secondary
(9–10) 95.6 93.6 93.0 92.8 92.8 53.7 53.4 93.2 82.3 97.0 69.0 96.1 84.1 90.4 488
Higher secondary
(11–12) 98.0 95.6 94.9 96.6 93.8 59.0 61.7 95.8 84.8 98.8 65.0 98.8 91.2 94.4 328
More than secondary
(13 and above) 97.8 94.6 96.5 95.2 93.6 54.6 65.8 91.1 76.0 100.0 50.4 99.3 90.8 91.6 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 88.8 80.8 72.9 85.0 88.9 53.2 51.3 90.4 84.0 91.2 66.5 90.1 76.5 85.6 406
Second 93.4 87.9 81.6 86.3 91.3 50.1 45.0 90.2 75.6 95.2 68.6 93.8 77.1 83.5 421
Middle 95.8 90.0 85.6 91.3 89.9 49.0 45.4 92.0 79.6 92.6 68.9 95.6 80.6 85.0 375
Fourth 97.3 94.5 95.7 95.5 89.2 48.8 50.9 89.6 77.9 97.5 62.4 97.9 84.8 89.0 377
Highest 98.7 98.9 98.9 98.9 94.2 58.4 63.1 94.9 80.4 97.3 53.9 98.8 87.4 94.6 301
Total 94.5 89.9 86.1 90.9 90.6 51.6 50.5 91.2 79.4 94.6 64.6 95.0 80.8 87.1 1,881
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 16
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 94.5 89.9 86.1 90.9 90.6 51.7 50.5 91.2 79.4 94.6 64.6 95.0 80.9 87.2 1,895

Note: The denominator for this table includes all women with a birth in the 2 years preceding the survey who received ANC for that birth. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Care • 203

 Table 9.4.2 Components of antenatal care among all women

Among all women age 15–49 with a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage receiving specific antenatal services from a health care provider for their most recent live birth
and/or stillbirth, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Number of
women
Percentage who received specific services during ANC from a health care provider for their most recent live birth or stillbirth: with a live
Counseled Counseled Counseled birth
Counseled Counseled Asked about about Abdominal on getting and/or
Blood Urine Blood Baby’s about about about eating eating one Counseled exami- Counseled adequate stillbirth
Background pressure sample sample heartbeat maternal breast- vaginal healthy extra meal Weight on weight nation on staying rest during in the last
characteristic measured taken taken checked diet feeding bleeding food per day measured gain performed active pregnancy 2 years
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 93.0 86.8 82.0 87.9 86.7 45.7 38.5 88.4 78.6 91.9 68.8 91.1 78.2 85.1 353
20–34 92.0 87.8 84.6 88.8 89.3 52.0 52.3 89.7 77.9 92.6 62.7 93.2 79.3 85.2 1,504
35–49 86.3 83.4 76.0 83.5 72.0 36.6 36.9 71.8 58.2 82.4 38.5 84.1 68.5 75.5 76
Birth order1
1 95.6 92.3 90.4 91.7 90.3 50.1 52.3 91.8 80.2 95.5 64.8 95.0 84.7 88.3 790
2–3 90.9 86.7 82.7 88.8 88.7 51.9 48.6 88.8 76.4 91.3 62.6 92.7 76.6 84.2 965
4–5 83.3 70.3 64.0 74.3 77.0 40.7 41.0 77.2 69.2 82.8 56.2 81.4 64.9 72.7 154
6+ (68.9) (67.0) (36.3) (56.8) (63.3) (47.5) (20.6) (60.4) (67.7) (70.8) (52.6) (68.7) (47.6) (67.3) 24
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 94.7 91.1 89.1 92.0 90.6 58.0 59.1 91.8 81.3 96.5 65.4 94.9 87.2 92.2 499
Dalit 85.4 80.8 74.3 85.0 84.5 50.9 44.8 84.4 75.8 89.7 67.7 86.7 71.6 78.6 359
Janajati 92.7 87.3 84.2 86.7 87.9 48.7 51.8 88.7 77.4 91.6 59.6 91.5 79.9 84.0 588
Madhesi 94.1 89.7 87.1 91.5 89.5 46.8 42.4 90.4 76.1 90.2 63.0 96.0 74.7 82.2 354
Muslim 90.3 86.1 78.5 83.0 85.4 34.0 28.7 84.9 68.4 88.4 53.6 93.2 71.1 83.7 131
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 92.5 89.0 86.0 89.0 88.1 48.6 48.5 88.5 75.5 92.0 61.0 93.1 78.4 84.9 1,266
Rural 91.0 84.5 79.5 87.3 88.1 53.4 50.4 89.3 80.7 92.2 66.3 91.1 79.0 84.6 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 95.2 94.4 84.7 91.2 91.7 63.8 69.1 95.1 88.8 95.9 79.1 92.8 87.4 94.2 129
Hill 90.8 85.4 84.0 87.2 88.2 51.9 53.9 89.4 78.8 93.8 59.7 92.2 81.2 85.6 639
Terai 92.2 87.8 83.6 88.8 87.7 47.8 44.4 87.7 75.2 90.7 62.8 92.5 76.3 83.3 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 92.3 91.4 87.7 86.6 86.3 39.6 44.2 86.9 73.4 90.2 53.0 92.0 77.9 85.2 358
Urban 92.2 91.5 87.9 86.3 85.1 40.7 41.5 84.3 71.8 88.5 49.9 91.4 74.1 82.6 232
Rural 92.5 91.3 87.4 87.1 88.5 37.7 49.3 91.6 76.3 93.3 58.8 93.2 84.9 89.9 126
Madhesh Province 89.5 83.3 76.3 84.8 85.2 39.6 33.0 85.7 69.8 87.2 65.0 91.9 70.2 77.9 500
Urban 89.1 83.6 76.6 84.5 85.1 36.3 33.0 85.6 67.2 87.1 63.7 92.1 68.7 77.8 367
Rural 90.6 82.5 75.3 85.6 85.4 48.7 33.2 86.1 76.9 87.7 68.5 91.2 74.3 78.1 132
Bagmati Province 92.6 89.9 86.8 88.0 85.5 40.9 56.2 89.1 72.9 93.3 55.3 93.0 77.9 85.2 295
Urban 96.2 94.6 94.4 92.4 88.6 43.2 59.0 92.5 75.8 96.1 55.4 96.2 83.0 89.9 216
Rural 82.7 77.0 66.0 76.2 76.9 34.4 48.4 79.7 65.2 85.6 55.2 84.3 64.1 72.5 79
Gandaki Province 94.5 89.0 93.5 93.6 91.5 59.6 53.7 90.1 79.1 94.9 63.3 91.9 83.0 85.9 117
Urban 97.2 89.9 100.0 95.6 92.4 58.7 53.8 92.1 76.5 97.6 64.0 94.5 84.8 87.5 76
Rural 89.3 87.4 81.2 89.6 89.8 61.4 53.6 86.4 83.9 89.8 62.0 86.9 79.6 82.9 40
Lumbini Province 95.5 89.4 87.4 94.1 93.2 62.2 60.6 91.6 85.6 96.5 65.3 95.1 83.4 88.0 329
Urban 95.0 91.1 88.9 94.1 93.4 63.2 63.9 90.6 84.3 96.8 65.2 94.8 85.3 90.3 185
Rural 96.1 87.3 85.3 94.2 92.8 61.0 56.3 92.9 87.2 96.0 65.5 95.6 80.9 85.0 145

(Continued…)

204 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.4.2—Continued
Number of
women
Percentage who received specific services during ANC from a health care provider for their most recent live birth or stillbirth: with a live
Counseled Counseled Counseled birth
Counseled Counseled Asked about about Abdominal on getting and/or
Blood Urine Blood Baby’s about about about eating eating one Counseled exami- Counseled adequate stillbirth
Background pressure sample sample heartbeat maternal breast- vaginal healthy extra meal Weight on weight nation on staying rest during in the last
characteristic measured taken taken checked diet feeding bleeding food per day measured gain performed active pregnancy 2 years
Karnali Province 84.6 78.8 71.1 82.1 85.2 60.0 51.1 88.4 81.7 91.4 71.7 86.8 78.9 84.8 149
Urban 82.5 78.6 74.1 82.4 84.3 60.9 48.7 87.6 77.5 88.3 64.2 86.8 77.2 79.2 73
Rural 86.7 79.0 68.1 81.8 86.1 59.1 53.4 89.1 85.7 94.3 79.0 86.8 80.5 90.2 76
Sudurpashchim
Province 95.0 89.5 89.3 93.9 94.9 79.2 66.1 94.4 92.6 97.7 76.4 93.7 92.8 95.6 185
Urban 96.1 93.3 90.3 93.7 93.8 75.3 63.7 93.2 92.5 97.9 74.9 94.6 95.2 95.9 117
Rural 93.1 83.1 87.7 94.1 96.6 85.8 70.2 96.5 92.8 97.3 78.9 92.1 88.7 95.0 69
Education
No education 84.4 76.7 65.1 79.1 80.4 36.6 31.4 79.7 65.8 83.2 61.6 84.7 63.5 73.6 357
Basic education (1–8) 91.2 85.2 81.3 86.8 86.8 51.0 48.0 88.1 77.6 90.4 60.7 91.4 76.2 82.5 656
Lower basic
education (1–5) 88.7 81.5 78.2 84.4 85.2 47.0 43.8 85.8 73.2 88.6 53.8 88.2 71.6 79.5 332
Upper basic
education (6–8) 93.8 89.1 84.4 89.2 88.5 55.1 52.2 90.6 82.1 92.2 67.8 94.7 81.0 85.5 325
Secondary (9–12) 95.2 93.0 92.4 93.0 91.8 55.0 55.9 92.9 82.1 96.3 66.4 95.8 85.7 90.7 828
Lower secondary
(9–10) 94.0 92.0 91.5 91.2 91.2 52.8 52.5 91.7 80.9 95.4 67.9 94.5 82.7 88.9 497
Higher secondary
(11–12) 96.9 94.6 93.8 95.6 92.7 58.3 61.1 94.8 83.9 97.8 64.3 97.7 90.3 93.3 332
More than secondary
(13 and above) 97.8 94.6 96.5 95.2 93.6 54.6 65.8 91.1 76.0 100.0 50.4 99.3 90.8 91.6 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 83.6 76.1 68.7 80.0 83.8 50.1 48.3 85.1 79.1 85.9 62.6 84.9 72.0 80.7 431
Second 91.0 85.7 79.6 84.1 89.0 48.9 43.9 87.9 73.8 92.8 66.9 91.4 75.2 81.4 432
Middle 94.4 88.7 84.3 89.9 88.6 48.3 44.7 90.6 78.4 91.2 67.9 94.2 79.4 83.8 381
Fourth 95.1 92.3 93.5 93.3 87.2 47.7 49.7 87.6 76.1 95.3 61.0 95.7 82.8 87.0 386
Highest 98.0 98.2 98.3 98.2 93.5 58.0 62.6 94.3 79.9 96.6 53.6 98.1 86.8 94.0 303
Total 92.0 87.4 83.8 88.4 88.1 50.2 49.2 88.8 77.3 92.1 62.9 92.4 78.6 84.8 1,933
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 91.9 87.4 83.7 88.3 88.1 50.3 49.1 88.7 77.2 92.0 62.8 92.4 78.6 84.8 1,949

Note: The denominator for this table includes all women with a birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, whether or not they received ANC for that birth. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted
cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Care • 205

 Table 9.5 Deworming and iron-containing supplementation during pregnancy
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentages who took deworming medication and took any iron-
containing supplements during the pregnancy of the most recent live birth or stillbirth, and percent distribution of the number of days during which women age
15–49 with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey took iron-containing supplements during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth or
stillbirth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women with a
live birth and/or
stillbirth in the last 2
years, percentage who
during the pregnancy Number of days during which women with a live birth and/or
for the most recent live stillbirth in the last 2 years took iron-containing supplements1
Number of
birth or stillbirth: during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth or stillbirth: women
Took any with a live
iron- birth and/or
Took containing stillbirth
Background deworming supple- Don’t in the last
characteristic medication ments1 None <60 60–89 90–179 180+ know Total 2 years
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 66.6 96.9 3.1 9.9 5.1 27.8 54.1 0.0 100.0 353
20–34 77.8 96.1 3.9 4.6 3.4 20.4 67.7 0.0 100.0 1,504
35–49 77.3 91.3 8.7 7.7 5.3 15.6 62.7 0.0 100.0 76
Birth order2
1 73.8 98.5 1.5 5.2 2.4 21.6 69.2 0.1 100.0 790
2–3 77.5 96.0 4.0 5.5 4.5 21.1 64.8 0.0 100.0 965
4–5 76.7 87.0 13.0 7.7 6.8 23.7 48.7 0.0 100.0 154
6+ (63.3) (78.0) (22.0) (13.8) (0.0) (25.8) (38.4) (0.0) 100.0 24
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 81.8 98.6 1.4 4.3 2.0 19.7 72.5 0.1 100.0 499
Dalit 76.7 94.5 5.5 8.8 3.7 24.9 57.1 0.0 100.0 359
Janajati 77.0 96.6 3.4 5.1 3.5 17.6 70.3 0.0 100.0 588
Madhesi 68.5 94.3 5.7 5.5 5.8 27.3 55.8 0.0 100.0 354
Muslim 63.6 93.0 7.0 5.3 6.8 22.6 58.3 0.0 100.0 131
Other * * * * * * * * 100.0 2
Residence
Urban 74.1 96.0 4.0 5.9 4.0 21.6 64.5 0.0 100.0 1,266
Rural 79.0 96.2 3.8 5.2 3.4 21.6 66.0 0.0 100.0 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 89.1 98.6 1.4 4.4 6.4 11.5 76.3 0.0 100.0 129
Hill 77.6 96.1 3.9 5.4 2.5 21.4 66.7 0.1 100.0 639
Terai 73.3 95.8 4.2 6.0 4.2 22.8 62.8 0.0 100.0 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 78.5 96.7 3.3 7.1 3.9 20.1 65.6 0.0 100.0 358
Urban 77.0 95.4 4.6 8.8 3.3 15.6 67.6 0.0 100.0 232
Rural 81.2 99.1 0.9 4.0 5.0 28.2 61.9 0.0 100.0 126
Madhesh Province 65.6 93.5 6.5 5.0 6.0 28.3 54.1 0.0 100.0 500
Urban 64.3 93.6 6.4 4.9 6.7 27.7 54.3 0.0 100.0 367
Rural 69.3 93.3 6.7 5.5 4.2 30.1 53.5 0.0 100.0 132
Bagmati Province 69.8 96.3 3.7 7.0 1.8 16.9 70.6 0.0 100.0 295
Urban 66.7 98.2 1.8 6.1 1.2 18.6 72.4 0.0 100.0 216
Rural 78.2 91.0 9.0 9.6 3.6 12.3 65.5 0.0 100.0 79
Gandaki Province 76.6 97.5 2.5 7.4 5.1 23.8 61.2 0.0 100.0 117
Urban 74.7 98.7 1.3 6.8 5.0 22.5 64.4 0.0 100.0 76
Rural 80.2 95.1 4.9 8.6 5.2 26.3 55.1 0.0 100.0 40
Lumbini Province 79.7 97.2 2.8 5.7 2.6 15.7 73.1 0.0 100.0 329
Urban 83.9 96.8 3.2 6.8 3.5 16.3 70.1 0.0 100.0 185
Rural 74.3 97.6 2.4 4.3 1.5 14.9 77.0 0.0 100.0 145
Karnali Province 86.7 95.4 4.6 6.2 3.2 23.3 62.8 0.0 100.0 149
Urban 84.1 93.3 6.7 6.6 3.3 27.0 56.3 0.0 100.0 73
Rural 89.2 97.4 2.6 5.8 3.0 19.6 69.0 0.0 100.0 76
Sudurpashchim Province 90.9 99.1 0.9 0.8 2.5 21.6 73.9 0.3 100.0 185
Urban 90.2 99.5 0.5 0.5 2.7 24.3 71.4 0.5 100.0 117
Rural 92.0 98.5 1.5 1.3 2.0 17.1 78.1 0.0 100.0 69
Education
No education 70.1 90.7 9.3 8.1 6.0 24.4 52.3 0.0 100.0 357
Basic education (1–8) 75.8 95.0 5.0 7.5 3.8 23.2 60.5 0.1 100.0 656
Lower basic education
(1–5) 71.1 92.9 7.1 10.4 3.2 23.8 55.6 0.0 100.0 332
Upper basic education
(6–8) 80.6 97.2 2.8 4.5 4.4 22.7 65.4 0.2 100.0 325
Secondary (9–12) 79.4 98.9 1.1 3.8 3.3 19.9 71.9 0.0 100.0 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 77.5 98.9 1.1 4.9 4.2 22.7 67.2 0.0 100.0 497
Higher secondary
(11–12) 82.1 98.8 1.2 2.3 1.9 15.7 79.0 0.0 100.0 332
More than secondary (13
and above) 64.3 98.9 1.1 0.0 0.0 14.4 84.5 0.0 100.0 91

(Continued…)

206 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.5—Continued
Among women with a
live birth and/or
stillbirth in the last 2
years, percentage who
during the pregnancy Number of days during which women with a live birth and/or
for the most recent live stillbirth in the last 2 years took iron-containing supplements1 Number of
birth or stillbirth: during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth or stillbirth: women
Took any with a live
iron- birth and/or
Took containing stillbirth
Background deworming supple- Don’t in the last
characteristic medication ments1 None <60 60–89 90–179 180+ know Total 2 years
Wealth quintile
Lowest 80.1 92.6 7.4 8.6 4.8 21.5 57.6 0.0 100.0 431
Second 75.5 96.1 3.9 7.0 3.5 23.5 61.9 0.1 100.0 432
Middle 76.5 96.0 4.0 5.2 4.2 21.9 64.7 0.0 100.0 381
Fourth 75.2 97.5 2.5 4.6 4.9 20.2 67.9 0.0 100.0 386
Highest 69.8 99.2 0.8 1.5 0.7 20.4 76.6 0.0 100.0 303
Total 75.8 96.1 3.9 5.7 3.8 21.6 65.0 0.0 100.0 1,933
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * 100.0 18
3
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS
Total 75.7 96.0 4.0 5.7 3.8 21.7 64.8 0.0 100.0 1,949

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
Iron tablets and syrup
2
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 207

 Table 9.6 Reasons for not taking iron tablets for 180 days
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey who did not take iron tablets for the recommended 180 days, percent
distribution of the main reasons for not taking the recommended dose, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Did not Due to
receive the COVID-19-
Background Did not like complete Not Forgot to related Number of
characteristic the taste dose available Not aware take it lockdown Other Total women
LIVE BIRTHS
Age at birth
<20 30.4 4.4 6.4 14.8 25.8 2.3 15.9 100.0 152
20–34 32.2 4.4 7.8 10.0 29.3 2.3 13.9 100.0 435
35–49 * * * * * * * * 22
Birth order1
1 28.8 3.9 5.0 13.3 33.6 1.5 13.9 100.0 232
2–3 33.9 4.0 8.0 10.7 26.1 3.2 14.1 100.0 306
4–5 31.7 7.7 10.1 9.0 22.0 3.5 15.9 100.0 61
6+ * * * * * * * * 10
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 29.9 2.2 4.7 12.2 36.3 2.2 12.5 100.0 131
Dalit 29.0 5.2 10.0 13.2 24.6 3.2 14.8 100.0 139
Janajati 31.0 2.4 1.8 6.6 36.7 2.2 19.3 100.0 156
Madhesi 34.2 7.9 9.9 14.3 18.2 3.4 12.2 100.0 138
Muslim (41.2) (2.8) (15.5) (10.6) (21.8) (0.0) (8.0) 100.0 46
Residence
Urban 31.3 4.2 7.3 11.3 28.1 3.3 14.5 100.0 406
Rural 32.8 4.5 6.8 11.4 29.5 1.0 14.0 100.0 203
Ecological zone
Mountain (29.2) (0.0) (6.1) (11.8) (31.5) (0.0) (21.4) 100.0 30
Hill 31.6 1.0 4.9 10.0 37.9 2.2 12.4 100.0 189
Terai 32.1 6.2 8.3 12.0 23.8 2.9 14.8 100.0 391
Province
Koshi Province 30.4 1.7 1.8 10.6 30.6 4.7 20.3 100.0 115
Urban (29.5) (1.6) (0.0) (8.7) (28.4) (7.2) (24.6) 100.0 68
Rural 31.6 1.9 4.4 13.2 33.8 1.0 14.1 100.0 47
Madhesh Province 32.3 7.7 13.5 14.3 16.9 1.8 13.3 100.0 198
Urban 29.7 7.8 15.4 16.9 15.6 2.5 11.9 100.0 145
Rural 39.5 7.5 8.3 7.1 20.5 0.0 17.1 100.0 53
Bagmati Province 36.7 3.2 3.3 7.3 35.6 3.2 10.6 100.0 77
Urban (35.2) (4.4) (3.1) (2.6) (40.4) (3.5) (10.8) 100.0 56
Rural (40.9) (0.0) (3.6) (20.0) (22.7) (2.5) (10.2) 100.0 21
Gandaki Province 20.6 0.0 0.0 17.2 45.2 0.0 17.0 100.0 43
Urban * * * * * * * * 26
Rural (26.1) (0.0) (0.0) (15.2) (46.8) (0.0) (11.9) 100.0 17
Lumbini Province 43.3 4.2 7.3 7.5 24.2 2.7 10.9 100.0 81
Urban (47.7) (0.0) (4.6) (9.5) (25.0) (2.2) (11.0) 100.0 51
Rural (35.8) (11.2) (11.9) (4.0) (22.7) (3.5) (10.9) 100.0 30
Karnali Province 29.5 3.7 8.6 7.2 31.9 3.6 15.5 100.0 50
Urban 34.4 3.3 7.5 1.4 32.4 6.5 14.5 100.0 28
Rural 23.3 4.2 10.0 14.5 31.3 0.0 16.7 100.0 22
Sudurpashchim Province 17.7 2.2 4.3 12.9 50.2 0.0 12.8 100.0 46
Urban (18.1) (3.1) (3.6) (12.3) (50.3) (0.0) (12.7) 100.0 32
Rural (16.9) (0.0) (5.8) (14.4) (50.0) (0.0) (13.0) 100.0 14
Education
No education 34.4 5.4 8.7 16.3 17.5 1.9 15.7 100.0 139
Basic education (1–8) 34.9 6.5 7.7 8.5 23.6 2.9 15.8 100.0 233
Lower basic education (1–5) 34.4 6.7 7.7 9.6 25.2 1.6 14.7 100.0 127
Upper basic education (6–8) 35.5 6.3 7.7 7.3 21.7 4.4 17.0 100.0 106
Secondary (9–12) 28.3 1.5 6.0 11.8 37.1 2.7 12.6 100.0 224
Lower secondary (9–10) 27.8 1.8 6.0 14.4 34.3 3.2 12.6 100.0 158
Higher secondary (11–12) 29.4 0.8 6.0 5.8 43.6 1.6 12.8 100.0 67
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * * * * * 13
Wealth quintile
Lowest 34.4 2.0 7.5 10.8 28.3 2.0 15.0 100.0 154
Second 32.4 4.4 7.1 16.8 24.2 1.0 14.0 100.0 150
Middle 32.5 6.3 9.0 9.5 24.0 3.7 14.9 100.0 119
Fourth 28.6 6.6 6.2 9.3 30.1 3.1 16.2 100.0 117
Highest 28.7 1.4 4.7 7.1 44.1 4.2 9.7 100.0 69
Total 31.8 4.3 7.1 11.3 28.5 2.5 14.4 100.0 609
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * 8
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 31.5 4.2 7.1 11.4 28.4 2.5 14.9 100.0 617

Note: There are no cases for other ethnic group. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on
fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

208 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.7 Source of iron-containing supplements
Among women age 15–49 who had a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey
and were given or bought iron-containing supplements during the pregnancy of the most recent
live birth or stillbirth, percentage who obtained supplements, by source, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who obtained iron-containing
supplements1 from each source:
Live births and
Source Live births Stillbirths stillbirths2
Public sector 82.8 * 82.9
Government hospital 16.6 * 16.6
PHC/primary hospital 3.5 * 3.4
Health post 60.8 * 60.8
Basic health care center 2.3 * 2.3
Urban health center 1.1 * 1.2
Community health unit 1.7 * 1.7
FCHV 3.6 * 3.7
Other public sector 0.1 * 0.1
Private medical sector 27.3 * 27.3
Private hospital 9.5 * 9.4
Private clinic 12.9 * 12.8
Pharmacy 6.1 * 6.1
Private medical sector (NGO) 0.7 * 0.7
FPAN 0.4 * 0.4
Other NGO medical sector 0.3 * 0.3
Other 0.8 * 0.8
Number of women 1,866 16 1,881

Note: Supplements may have been obtained from more than one source. An asterisk indicates that
a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
PHC = Primary health care
FCHV = Female community health volunteer
FPAN = Family Planning Association of Nepal
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Iron tablets and syrup
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are
tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 209

 Table 9.8 Tetanus toxoid injections
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage receiving two
or more tetanus toxoid injections during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth and percentage
whose last live birth was protected against neonatal tetanus, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage receiving Percentage whose
two or more injections most recent live birth
Background during the pregnancy was protected against Number of
characteristic for the last live birth neonatal tetanus1 women
Age at birth
<20 79.4 91.3 353
20–34 53.9 93.6 1,504
35–49 45.2 81.6 76
Birth order2
1 90.2 92.1 790
2–3 38.5 94.5 965
4–5 21.6 86.7 154
6+ (33.9) (77.4) 24
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 61.7 93.0 499
Dalit 51.4 93.7 359
Janajati 65.2 88.6 588
Madhesi 50.5 96.6 354
Muslim 52.7 96.2 131
Other * * 2
Residence
Urban 59.9 92.8 1,266
Rural 55.1 92.5 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.3 92.0 129
Hill 63.6 89.7 639
Terai 55.4 94.4 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 65.1 90.4 358
Urban 64.2 89.8 232
Rural 66.8 91.7 126
Madhesh Province 48.9 95.4 500
Urban 50.4 95.2 367
Rural 44.7 96.0 132
Bagmati Province 70.2 88.6 295
Urban 72.2 89.4 216
Rural 64.7 86.2 79
Gandaki Province 58.7 92.5 117
Urban 64.4 94.5 76
Rural 47.8 88.7 40
Lumbini Province 60.0 95.7 329
Urban 63.9 96.4 185
Rural 54.9 94.8 145
Karnali Province 53.1 91.8 149
Urban 54.1 92.1 73
Rural 52.1 91.6 76
Sudurpashchim Province 52.2 91.9 185
Urban 52.8 91.5 117
Rural 51.1 92.7 69
Education
No education 39.4 90.5 357
Basic education (1–8) 54.6 91.6 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 49.0 91.2 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 60.3 92.0 325
Secondary (9–12) 66.6 94.5 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 64.2 93.5 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 70.3 96.0 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 81.8 92.5 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 52.7 89.5 431
Second 53.7 92.2 432
Middle 57.3 91.3 381
Fourth 63.5 96.7 386
Highest 66.9 94.6 303
Total 58.2 92.7 1,933

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure
is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes women with two injections during the pregnancy for the most recent live birth, or two or more
injections (the last within 3 years of the most recent live birth), or three or more injections (the last within
5 years of the most recent live birth), or four or more injections (the last within 10 years of the most recent
live birth), or five or more injections at any time prior to the most recent birth
2
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

210 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.9 Place of delivery
Percent distribution of live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey by place of delivery and percentage delivered in a health facility, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Health facility
Private Percentage
Background Public medical NGO medical delivered in a Number of
characteristic sector sector sector Home Other Total health facility births
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at birth

<20 64.3 14.6 0.6 19.6 0.8 100.0 79.6 365
20–34 60.8 17.8 0.8 18.4 2.2 100.0 79.4 1,534
35–49 66.1 12.1 0.0 20.3 1.5 100.0 78.2 78
Birth order1
1 68.5 21.1 0.6 8.9 0.8 100.0 90.2 821
2–3 58.1 15.7 0.8 22.9 2.6 100.0 74.5 976
4–5 49.7 5.3 0.9 40.4 3.7 100.0 55.9 156
6+ (49.4) (7.4) (1.9) (41.4) (0.0) 100.0 (58.6) 24
Antenatal care visits2
None 43.1 5.1 0.0 49.3 2.5 100.0 48.2 52
1–3 47.5 13.1 1.6 37.2 0.7 100.0 62.2 324
4+ 65.2 18.3 0.6 13.8 2.1 100.0 84.1 1,555
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 70.5 15.2 1.2 11.6 1.5 100.0 86.9 503
Dalit 59.9 9.3 0.9 27.6 2.3 100.0 70.1 373
Janajati 65.0 17.4 0.9 15.2 1.5 100.0 83.3 605
Madhesi 52.8 23.5 0.0 21.3 2.5 100.0 76.2 357
Muslim 42.8 24.5 0.0 29.9 2.9 100.0 67.3 136
Other * * * * * 100.0 * 2
Residence
Urban 61.0 19.3 0.6 17.9 1.2 100.0 80.9 1,295
Rural 62.8 12.8 0.9 20.3 3.2 100.0 76.5 683
Ecological zone
Mountain 70.9 4.3 0.0 23.1 1.7 100.0 75.3 132
Hill 68.6 11.8 1.1 16.2 2.3 100.0 81.6 648
Terai 56.8 21.2 0.6 19.6 1.8 100.0 78.6 1,197
Province
Koshi Province 52.7 27.2 1.6 18.3 0.2 100.0 81.5 368
Urban 55.2 26.6 1.9 16.3 0.0 100.0 83.7 242
Rural 47.9 28.3 1.1 22.0 0.7 100.0 77.3 126
Madhesh Province 45.9 20.9 0.0 31.6 1.6 100.0 66.8 514
Urban 45.7 20.9 0.0 32.4 1.1 100.0 66.6 377
Rural 46.5 20.8 0.0 29.7 3.0 100.0 67.3 137
Bagmati Province 68.0 20.3 0.0 10.8 0.9 100.0 88.3 299
Urban 65.9 26.0 0.0 7.2 0.9 100.0 91.9 219
Rural 73.7 4.9 0.0 20.6 0.8 100.0 78.6 81
Gandaki Province 75.6 10.0 2.1 10.3 2.0 100.0 87.7 117
Urban 80.6 13.2 1.1 3.4 1.7 100.0 94.9 76
Rural 66.2 3.9 3.8 23.3 2.7 100.0 74.0 40
Lumbini Province 70.2 13.8 0.3 12.1 3.5 100.0 84.4 335
Urban 65.9 17.1 0.6 14.4 1.9 100.0 83.7 187
Rural 75.7 9.7 0.0 9.1 5.5 100.0 85.4 148
Karnali Province 71.3 1.1 0.0 24.1 3.5 100.0 72.4 152
Urban 74.4 1.4 0.0 21.2 3.1 100.0 75.8 75
Rural 68.2 0.9 0.0 27.0 3.9 100.0 69.1 78
Sudurpashchim Province 79.8 4.5 2.6 9.7 3.5 100.0 86.8 192
Urban 83.4 5.4 1.2 7.6 2.3 100.0 90.0 120
Rural 73.6 2.9 4.9 13.2 5.4 100.0 81.5 72
Mother’s education
No education 49.8 9.4 0.4 38.9 1.5 100.0 59.6 367
Basic education (1–8) 59.7 13.8 0.5 23.3 2.7 100.0 74.0 677
Lower basic education (1–5) 53.8 13.8 0.8 28.4 3.2 100.0 68.4 340
Upper basic education (6–8) 65.6 13.8 0.3 18.2 2.1 100.0 79.7 337
Secondary (9–12) 68.9 20.1 1.1 8.2 1.7 100.0 90.1 842
Lower secondary (9–10) 68.4 18.5 1.2 10.2 1.8 100.0 88.1 505
Higher secondary (11–12) 69.8 22.3 0.9 5.3 1.6 100.0 93.1 337
More than secondary (13 and
above) 56.4 43.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 91

(Continued…)

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 211

 Table 9.9—Continued
Health facility
Private Percentage
Background Public medical NGO medical delivered in a Number of
characteristic sector sector sector Home Other Total health facility births
Wealth quintile
Lowest 58.9 4.9 2.0 31.1 3.1 100.0 65.8 444
Second 61.0 12.1 0.2 25.4 1.3 100.0 73.2 443
Middle 59.0 19.9 0.8 18.6 1.8 100.0 79.6 388
Fourth 64.4 22.5 0.2 10.7 2.2 100.0 87.1 396
Highest 66.2 31.0 0.4 1.5 0.9 100.0 97.6 306
Total 61.6 17.0 0.7 18.7 1.9 100.0 79.4 1,977
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * 100.0 * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 61.6 17.0 0.7 18.7 2.0 100.0 79.4 1,996

Note: Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of antenatal care visits made. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49
unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

212 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.10 Reasons for not delivering in a health facility
Among live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey that were delivered outside a health facility, percentage whose mothers cite specific reasons for not
delivering in a health facility, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Fear of Child born
Too far/no Husband/ COVID-19 before
Background Cost too Facility not transpor- Don’t trust No female family did Not Not or reaching Number of
characteristic much open tation facility provider not allow necessary customary lockdown facility Other births
LIVE BIRTHS
Mother’s age at birth
<20 3.6 0.6 13.7 2.2 0.4 8.3 48.8 0.7 0.7 23.4 10.4 74
20–34 0.7 1.6 15.4 6.1 0.6 3.0 45.7 2.5 4.8 28.6 8.8 316
35–49 * * * * * * * * * * * 17
Birth order1
1 3.4 0.6 15.3 7.5 0.0 11.4 43.0 0.7 1.1 24.4 12.3 80
2–3 0.2 2.0 15.7 3.9 0.7 2.6 44.2 2.3 5.3 30.3 8.2 249
4–5 2.4 0.0 16.7 9.5 1.0 0.0 52.2 5.5 2.2 23.0 10.5 69
6+ * * * * * * * * * * * 10
Antenatal care visits2
None (1.8) (0.0) (28.5) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (46.2) (17.4) (3.2) (18.4) (5.6) 27
1–3 1.7 1.4 17.5 7.5 0.9 6.7 54.1 6.3 2.3 25.4 3.1 123
4+ 0.9 1.5 13.6 4.5 0.2 2.2 42.7 0.5 5.0 29.3 12.4 248
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 0.7 1.3 28.6 1.1 1.8 0.0 19.5 2.2 0.6 43.5 10.3 66
Dalit 1.9 3.0 13.4 6.6 0.3 6.4 46.7 1.9 3.8 24.0 8.0 112
Janajati 0.4 1.1 23.0 2.2 0.9 4.2 37.6 5.6 6.8 36.3 9.6 101
Madhesi 2.1 0.0 2.4 7.6 0.0 3.3 71.9 4.1 1.8 14.1 8.9 85
Muslim (0.0) (0.0) (11.2) (12.4) (0.0) (3.6) (53.9) (2.2) (6.8) (17.8) (10.2) 45
Residence
Urban 1.3 1.8 12.4 5.7 0.0 4.7 52.6 3.2 4.6 26.5 7.8 247
Rural 1.0 0.5 20.8 5.1 1.5 2.6 36.1 3.6 3.0 29.0 11.3 160
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.0 1.3 32.3 0.0 1.4 0.0 37.6 0.0 2.8 17.9 9.8 33
Hill 1.5 0.4 29.7 2.8 1.6 1.1 25.3 6.2 2.3 38.5 10.5 120
Terai 1.2 1.8 7.0 7.4 0.0 5.7 56.9 2.4 4.9 23.5 8.5 256
Province
Koshi Province 0.0 0.0 20.1 5.0 0.0 1.4 30.9 6.8 9.9 43.7 9.5 68
Madhesh Province 1.7 2.0 6.8 8.0 0.0 7.9 65.0 2.5 1.4 16.6 6.1 171
Bagmati Province (0.0) (0.0) (24.1) (2.0) (4.5) (3.7) (42.9) (1.7) (2.5) (24.7) (0.0) 35
Gandaki Province * * * * * * * * * * * 14
Lumbini Province (0.0) (2.2) (11.1) (6.7) (0.0) (0.0) (36.8) (1.9) (10.0) (37.6) (14.0) 52
Karnali Province 3.3 0.0 40.4 1.0 0.8 0.0 23.1 4.2 1.2 26.3 13.9 42
Sudurpashchim
Province (0.0) (3.4) (17.0) (0.0) (1.8) (0.0) (26.4) (0.0) (1.6) (42.8) (10.3) 25
Mother’s education
No education 1.1 1.1 13.6 7.9 0.5 4.7 57.2 6.0 4.2 20.1 4.3 148
Basic education (1–
8) 1.5 1.6 16.4 5.8 0.7 3.6 43.7 2.4 3.3 27.8 11.7 176
Lower basic
education
(1–5) 0.4 2.6 18.0 6.2 0.8 1.8 46.0 2.3 3.2 23.8 11.2 108
Upper basic
education
(6–8) 3.3 0.0 13.8 5.0 0.5 6.6 40.0 2.6 3.4 34.2 12.6 69
Secondary (9–12) 0.5 1.0 18.1 0.5 0.5 2.9 31.5 0.6 4.8 39.6 12.5 84
Lower secondary
(9–10) 0.7 0.7 16.3 0.7 0.7 0.0 34.9 0.9 6.0 44.9 6.8 60
Higher secondary
(11–12) (0.0) (1.9) (22.6) (0.0) (0.0) (10.2) (22.7) (0.0) (1.8) (26.0) (27.2) 23
More than secondary
(13 and above) * * * * * * * * * * * 0
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.9 1.7 25.4 3.0 1.0 0.8 35.3 4.5 4.3 30.6 9.4 152
Second 2.9 1.4 13.4 7.0 0.7 6.3 49.8 3.6 2.7 26.6 7.0 119
Middle 0.0 0.0 7.6 7.2 0.0 8.9 65.4 3.3 1.9 13.7 7.4 79
Fourth (0.0) (0.0) (7.0) (7.4) (0.0) (0.0) (43.5) (0.0) (9.3) (42.3) (11.5) 51
Highest * * * * * * * * * * * 7

Total 1.2 1.3 15.7 5.5 0.6 3.9 46.1 3.3 3.9 27.4 9.2 408
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * * * * 4
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 1.2 1.3 15.6 5.4 0.6 3.8 46.1 3.3 3.9 28.0 9.1 412

Note: Disaggregation by residence for provinces is not shown due to few cases. Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of antenatal care visits
made. There are no cases for other ethnic group. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 213

 Table 9.11 Cash incentive for delivering in health facility
Among live births or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage whose
mothers received a cash incentive for transportation after delivering in a health facility,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage whose Number of live
mothers received a births and/or
Background cash incentive for stillbirths in the
characteristic transportation last 2 years
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at birth

<20 53.7 365
20–34 54.5 1,534
35–49 50.2 78
Birth order1
1 59.0 821
2–3 52.5 976
4–5 41.3 156
6+ (39.1) 24
Antenatal care visits2
None 14.4 50
1–3 42.7 313
4+ 58.3 1,524
Place of delivery
Health facility 68.2 1,570
Public sector 79.9 1,219
Private medical sector 25.5 336
NGO medical sector * 14
Elsewhere 0.0 408
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 63.0 503
Dalit 49.6 373
Janajati 60.2 605
Madhesi 41.1 357
Muslim 42.3 136
Other * 2
Residence
Urban 53.1 1,295
Rural 56.2 683
Ecological zone
Mountain 65.0 132
Hill 61.7 648
Terai 48.8 1,197
Province
Koshi Province 44.9 368
Urban 42.9 242
Rural 48.8 126
Madhesh Province 35.5 514
Urban 35.1 377
Rural 36.9 137
Bagmati Province 60.2 299
Urban 57.5 219
Rural 67.6 81
Gandaki Province 75.6 117
Urban 82.4 76
Rural 62.7 40
Lumbini Province 63.0 335
Urban 61.9 187
Rural 64.5 148
Karnali Province 62.5 152
Urban 67.5 75
Rural 57.6 78
Sudurpashchim Province 77.0 192
Urban 80.3 120
Rural 71.6 72
Mother’s education
No education 43.5 367
Basic education (1–8) 50.5 677
Lower basic education (1–5) 45.5 340
Upper basic education (6–8) 55.5 337
Secondary (9–12) 62.9 842
Lower secondary (9–10) 63.3 505
Higher secondary (11–12) 62.4 337
More than secondary (13 and above) 42.9 91

(Continued…)

214 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.11—Continued
Percentage whose Number of live
mothers received a births and/or
Background cash incentive for stillbirths in the
characteristic transportation last 2 years
Wealth quintile
Lowest 54.2 444
Second 51.9 443
Middle 56.1 388
Fourth 55.0 396
Highest 53.9 306
Total 54.2 1,977
STILLBIRTHS
Total * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 54.0 1,996

Note: Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of
antenatal care visits made. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted
cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey,
data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 215

 Table 9.12 Cesarean section
Percentage of live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey delivered via
cesarean section (C-section), according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Background Percentage delivered Number
characteristic via C-section of births
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at birth

<20 9.1 365
20–34 20.1 1,534
35–49 22.9 78
Birth order1
1 21.4 821
2–3 18.0 976
4–5 5.4 156
6+ (0.0) 24
Antenatal care visits2
None 7.1 52
1–3 9.3 324
4+ 20.4 1,555
Place of delivery3
Health facility 22.9 1,570
Public sector 15.1 1,219
Private medical sector 51.4 336
NGO medical sector * 14
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 22.3 503
Dalit 9.8 373
Janajati 21.2 605
Madhesi 17.8 357
Muslim 13.6 136
Other * 2
Residence
Urban 21.5 1,295
Rural 12.0 683
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.5 132
Hill 18.3 648
Terai 19.0 1,197
Province
Koshi Province 27.3 368
Urban 29.6 242
Rural 23.0 126
Madhesh Province 13.9 514
Urban 14.2 377
Rural 13.0 137
Bagmati Province 32.8 299
Urban 40.7 219
Rural 11.6 81
Gandaki Province 20.3 117
Urban 23.8 76
Rural 13.6 40
Lumbini Province 13.6 335
Urban 16.5 187
Rural 10.0 148
Karnali Province 4.1 152
Urban 5.8 75
Rural 2.5 78
Sudurpashchim Province 7.3 192
Urban 9.1 120
Rural 4.2 72
Mother’s education
No education 8.4 367
Basic education (1–8) 13.2 677
Lower basic education (1–5) 12.6 340
Upper basic education (6–8) 13.8 337
Secondary (9–12) 23.3 842
Lower secondary (9–10) 20.4 505
Higher secondary (11–12) 27.6 337
More than secondary (13 and above) 47.7 91

(Continued…)

216 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.12—Continued
Background Percentage delivered Number
characteristic via C-section of births
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.0 444
Second 11.3 443
Middle 17.6 388
Fourth 24.5 396
Highest 38.4 306
Total 18.2 1,977
STILLBIRTHS
Total * 18
4
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS
Total 18.3 1,996

Note: The question on C-section was asked only of women who delivered in a health facility.
In this table, it is assumed that women who did not give birth in a health facility did not receive
a C-section. Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of
antenatal care visits made. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
Includes only institutional deliveries
4
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey,
data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 217

Table 9.13 Assistance during delivery
Percent distribution of live births and/or stillbirths in the 2 years preceding the survey by person providing assistance during delivery and percentage assisted by a skilled
provider, and among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage with skin-to-skin contact immediately after birth, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among the most
Person providing assistance during delivery recent live births
Percentage
with skin-
Heath to-skin
Nurse/ assistant/ Female Percentage Number of contact
auxiliary auxiliary Traditional community delivered live births immedi-
Background nurse health birth health Relative/ by a skilled and/or ately after Number
characteristic Doctor midwife worker attendant volunteer other No one Total provider1 stillbirths birth of births
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at
birth
<20 31.9 48.5 1.2 7.3 1.3 9.9 0.0 100.0 80.4 365 50.3 353
20–34 40.9 39.1 1.5 6.3 1.0 9.9 1.2 100.0 80.1 1,534 48.0 1,504
35–49 34.4 45.3 0.0 2.2 4.2 12.7 1.2 100.0 79.7 78 36.0 76
Birth order2
1 46.1 44.0 0.9 3.1 0.4 5.4 0.0 100.0 90.1 821 51.7 790
2–3 37.0 38.7 1.8 7.6 1.3 12.2 1.5 100.0 75.6 976 44.8 965
4–5 17.4 41.3 1.4 15.2 3.9 18.7 2.2 100.0 58.7 156 48.1 154
6+ (18.8) (39.8) (0.0) (7.6) (8.3) (23.4) (2.2) 100.0 (58.6) 24 (46.9) 24
Antenatal care
visits3
None 17.3 33.4 3.3 10.3 0.0 28.3 7.5 100.0 50.7 52 24.1 52
1–3 26.5 35.1 2.8 11.6 2.8 19.4 1.8 100.0 61.7 324 40.9 324
4+ 42.1 42.8 1.1 5.2 0.9 7.3 0.5 100.0 84.9 1,555 50.2 1,555
Place of delivery
Health facility 48.3 50.7 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 99.0 1,570 55.0 1,536
Public sector 41.6 57.2 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 98.8 1,219 59.9 1,191
Private medical
sector 72.9 26.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 100.0 99.4 336 36.9 330
NGO medical
sector * * * * * * * 100.0 * 14 * 14
Elsewhere 3.3 4.2 3.8 30.6 5.8 47.7 4.6 100.0 7.6 408 20.6 397
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 44.0 42.5 0.6 0.5 1.1 10.0 1.4 100.0 86.5 503 50.0 499
Dalit 26.9 44.0 1.8 11.5 1.6 12.7 1.4 100.0 70.9 373 48.1 359
Janajati 42.4 41.4 0.8 1.6 1.5 11.3 0.8 100.0 83.9 605 44.5 588
Madhesi 40.9 36.8 1.8 13.1 0.8 6.1 0.6 100.0 77.7 357 50.8 354
Muslim 33.7 37.2 4.5 17.3 0.0 7.3 0.0 100.0 70.8 136 46.4 131
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * 2 * 2
Residence
Urban 43.5 37.9 1.0 7.3 0.8 8.9 0.6 100.0 81.4 1,295 47.0 1,266
Rural 30.5 47.1 2.2 4.6 2.0 12.1 1.5 100.0 77.6 683 49.6 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 20.3 56.2 0.0 1.4 2.3 17.7 2.1 100.0 76.5 132 43.4 129
Hill 39.8 41.2 1.0 0.5 1.3 14.6 1.6 100.0 81.0 648 45.5 639
Terai 40.7 39.3 1.8 10.1 1.0 6.7 0.5 100.0 80.0 1,197 49.8 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 51.5 30.3 1.3 1.8 1.7 13.5 0.0 100.0 81.8 368 42.2 358
Urban 53.0 31.5 0.0 1.9 0.9 12.7 0.0 100.0 84.5 242 42.6 232
Rural 48.7 28.0 3.7 1.5 3.1 15.1 0.0 100.0 76.6 126 41.5 126
Madhesh Province 35.0 33.0 2.2 19.3 1.0 8.6 0.9 100.0 68.0 514 47.4 500
Urban 34.8 32.8 1.7 20.4 0.4 8.9 1.0 100.0 67.6 377 46.0 367
Rural 35.5 33.6 3.8 16.4 2.6 7.7 0.5 100.0 69.1 137 51.5 132
Bagmati Province 56.2 30.4 0.8 0.0 1.1 10.6 0.8 100.0 86.6 299 37.0 295
Urban 65.6 25.2 0.0 0.0 0.9 8.4 0.0 100.0 90.7 219 35.0 216
Rural 30.9 44.6 3.1 0.0 1.7 16.7 3.1 100.0 75.5 81 42.5 79
Gandaki Province 48.6 40.6 0.0 0.4 0.5 9.5 0.4 100.0 89.2 117 50.9 117
Urban 55.0 41.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 100.0 96.6 76 53.2 76
Rural 36.7 38.6 0.0 1.1 1.5 21.0 1.3 100.0 75.2 40 46.6 40
Lumbini Province 33.6 53.3 1.0 4.0 1.4 5.7 1.0 100.0 86.9 335 54.3 329
Urban 37.9 47.1 1.2 5.1 1.9 6.1 0.6 100.0 85.0 187 55.7 185
Rural 28.1 61.3 0.7 2.6 0.7 5.2 1.6 100.0 89.3 148 52.5 145
Karnali Province 21.7 50.5 2.0 1.7 1.7 18.8 3.6 100.0 72.2 152 54.4 149
Urban 30.2 45.9 1.8 0.0 0.6 17.4 4.1 100.0 76.1 75 52.9 73
Rural 13.4 55.0 2.1 3.3 2.7 20.3 3.2 100.0 68.4 78 55.9 76
Sudurpashchim
Province 16.4 71.4 1.3 1.9 0.6 7.2 1.3 100.0 87.8 192 59.2 185
Urban 21.2 68.4 2.1 3.0 0.0 5.1 0.2 100.0 89.6 120 59.9 117
Rural 8.5 76.4 0.0 0.0 1.5 10.7 2.9 100.0 84.9 72 57.9 69

(Continued…)

218 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.13—Continued
Among the most
Person providing assistance during delivery recent live births
Percentage
with skin-
Heath to-skin
Nurse/ assistant/ Female Percentage Number of contact
auxiliary auxiliary Traditional community delivered live births immedi-
Background nurse health birth health Relative/ by a skilled and/or ately after Number
characteristic Doctor midwife worker attendant volunteer other No one Total provider1 stillbirths birth of births
Mother’s
education
No education 23.9 37.0 2.6 17.7 1.9 15.4 1.5 100.0 60.9 367 42.4 357
Basic education
(1–8) 33.4 41.5 1.8 6.9 1.5 13.7 1.2 100.0 74.9 677 47.0 656
Lower basic
education
(1–5) 29.1 40.3 1.2 9.5 1.6 16.7 1.6 100.0 69.4 340 44.3 332
Upper basic
education
(6–8) 37.7 42.7 2.3 4.4 1.5 10.6 0.8 100.0 80.4 337 49.8 325
Secondary (9–12) 46.7 44.2 0.6 1.6 0.7 5.5 0.6 100.0 90.9 842 51.8 828
Lower
secondary
(9–10) 42.4 46.2 0.8 1.8 1.1 6.8 0.9 100.0 88.6 505 51.7 497
Higher
secondary
(11–12) 53.1 41.2 0.4 1.3 0.2 3.6 0.2 100.0 94.3 337 51.9 332
More than
secondary (13
and above) 70.7 25.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.9 0.0 100.0 96.2 91 40.9 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 16.1 50.9 0.8 6.1 2.3 20.9 2.9 100.0 67.0 444 44.5 431
Second 31.9 41.2 2.4 9.8 1.3 12.4 1.0 100.0 73.1 443 47.9 432
Middle 40.3 40.9 1.9 8.2 1.4 7.3 0.0 100.0 81.2 388 52.8 381
Fourth 47.0 41.2 1.2 5.1 0.4 4.5 0.5 100.0 88.2 396 46.5 386
Highest 70.7 26.7 0.3 1.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 100.0 97.4 306 48.5 303
Total 39.0 41.1 1.4 6.3 1.2 10.0 1.0 100.0 80.1 1,977 47.9 1,933
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * 100.0 * 18 na na
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS4
Total 39.1 41.0 1.4 6.3 1.3 10.0 0.9 100.0 80.1 1,996 na na

Note: If the respondent mentioned more than one person attending during delivery, only the most qualified person is considered in this tabulation. Total includes 2 cases in
which the respondent did not know the number of antenatal care visits made. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = Not applicable
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Skilled provider includes doctor, nurse, and auxiliary nurse midwife.
2
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
3
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
4
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Table 9.14 Duration of stay in health facility after birth

Among women with a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey who delivered their most recent live birth
in a health facility, percent distribution by duration of stay in the health facility following their most recent birth, according to
type of delivery, Nepal DHS 2022
<6 6–11 12–23 1–2 3+ Number
Type of delivery hours hours hours days days Missing Total of women
LIVE BIRTHS

Vaginal birth 21.5 17.8 5.8 46.7 8.0 0.1 100.0 1,184
Cesarean section 0.8 0.2 0.0 9.8 89.2 0.0 100.0 352
STILLBIRTHS
Vaginal birth * * * * * * 100.0 9
Cesarean section * * * * * * 100.0 5
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS1
Vaginal birth 21.5 17.7 5.8 46.9 8.0 0.1 100.0 1,193
Cesarean section
0.8 0.2 0.0 9.6 89.4 0.0 100.0 356
Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most
recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 219

 Table 9.15 Respectful care from health care providers
Among women age 15–49 who had an institutional delivery for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the
2 years preceding the survey, percentage who always received respectful care from health care providers,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Were always
given
explanation Number of
why women with a
examination Always live birth and/or
Background Always treated and procedures received the stillbirth in the
characteristic with respect were done best care last 2 years
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at birth

<20 84.6 60.1 76.2 279
20–34 86.4 64.5 81.5 1,197
35–49 73.8 44.1 71.8 59
Birth order1
1 87.2 64.2 79.5 715
2–3 85.0 62.8 81.2 720
4–5 79.9 53.3 77.2 87
6+ * * * 14
Antenatal care visits2
None * * * 24
1–3 84.9 57.5 78.7 198
4+ 86.0 64.1 80.8 1,284
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 85.6 63.9 82.3 434
Dalit 83.9 63.4 78.2 249
Janajati 86.7 61.9 77.1 492
Madhesi 83.7 58.6 82.9 269
Muslim 90.1 74.5 83.8 90
Other * * * 2
Residence
Urban 85.9 62.3 80.7 1,025
Rural 85.1 64.3 79.1 511
Ecological zone
Mountain 89.6 60.3 77.8 96
Hill 84.3 62.6 78.1 522
Terai 85.9 63.4 81.6 917
Province
Koshi Province 91.8 63.5 87.9 294
Urban 93.1 58.3 87.4 197
Rural 89.2 74.2 88.9 97
Madhesh Province 87.6 65.4 84.0 332
Urban 87.3 62.2 81.8 243
Rural 88.4 73.8 90.1 89
Bagmati Province 77.3 55.9 71.2 261
Urban 76.1 59.7 72.1 199
Rural 80.9 43.6 68.5 62
Gandaki Province 91.3 73.7 84.6 102
Urban 94.1 75.0 89.1 72
Rural 84.6 70.5 73.8 30
Lumbini Province 83.3 61.0 76.4 278
Urban 86.5 64.8 81.7 154
Rural 79.3 56.4 69.9 124
Karnali Province 82.8 61.1 76.6 107
Urban 77.8 56.7 72.2 55
Rural 88.2 65.8 81.4 52
Sudurpashchim Province 86.1 65.8 78.7 161
Urban 85.1 65.0 79.1 105
Rural 87.9 67.5 77.9 56
Mother’s education
No education 84.0 62.6 78.0 213
Basic education (1–8) 83.0 56.2 78.7 487
Lower basic education (1–5) 78.9 50.1 77.8 227
Upper basic education (6–8) 86.6 61.5 79.4 260
Secondary (9–12) 88.1 67.3 82.2 745
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.4 65.8 82.3 436
Higher secondary (11–12) 86.3 69.6 81.9 308
More than secondary (13 and above) 82.6 63.6 77.2 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 86.6 59.8 78.6 284
Second 84.6 60.7 77.4 316
Middle 86.4 61.1 82.1 305
Fourth 85.7 64.7 81.7 335
Highest 84.8 68.2 81.0 296
Total 85.6 62.9 80.2 1,536

(Continued…)

220 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.15—Continued
Were always
given
explanation Number of
why women with a
examination Always live birth and/or
Background Always treated and procedures received the stillbirth in the
characteristic with respect were done best care last 2 years
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * 14
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 85.4 62.9 80.1 1,549

Note: Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of antenatal care visits made.
An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated
for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 221

 Table 9.16 Respectful treatment at the health facility during maternity care
Among women age 15–49 who had an institutional delivery for their most recent live birth or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who
experienced limited facility conditions and privacy and percentage who experienced physical and verbal abuse from health care providers in the health facility,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Limited facility
Number
conditions and
of
privacy Physical abuse Verbal abuse women
Had to with a
rest or Physi- Verbally live birth
Had to sleep on cally At least mis- and/or
share a the floor Physi- mis- one type treated At least stillbirth
bed with without cally treated of Verbally in any one type in the
Background another any Hit or threat- or physical Shouted- Humiliat- threat- other of verbal last 2
characteristic patient mattress Slapped punched ened harmed abuse at ed ened way abuse years
LIVE BIRTHS

Mother’s age at birth

<20 0.9 0.8 3.3 0.9 1.3 0.2 4.3 17.4 7.8 2.2 4.3 20.2 279
20–34 1.6 2.1 1.4 0.7 1.1 1.2 3.4 10.6 3.5 2.2 3.4 12.0 1,197
35–49 2.5 1.8 6.1 2.8 2.2 0.0 8.3 19.8 4.0 0.0 1.6 20.5 59
Birth order1
1 1.1 0.9 1.4 0.5 1.3 0.6 3.3 13.0 4.3 2.1 3.5 14.9 715
2–3 1.9 2.9 2.2 1.0 1.1 1.4 4.1 10.5 3.6 1.8 3.5 11.7 720
4–5 1.6 0.8 4.2 1.9 1.5 0.0 5.6 19.5 8.7 5.0 3.8 21.6 87
6+ * * * * * * * * * * * * 14
Antenatal care visits2
None * * * * * * * * * * * * 24
1–3 1.3 1.4 1.9 0.5 1.6 0.5 4.2 13.3 5.9 2.3 4.0 16.7 198
4+ 1.5 1.6 1.9 0.8 1.1 0.9 3.6 12.0 4.2 2.2 3.3 13.4 1,284
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 2.5 2.2 1.2 0.6 1.3 0.7 1.9 7.1 1.6 2.1 2.8 8.9 434
Dalit 0.7 4.1 3.2 0.9 0.9 1.3 5.3 14.1 7.2 2.4 4.9 16.2 249
Janajati 1.4 1.4 0.7 0.3 1.5 0.7 3.2 10.9 1.0 1.1 2.3 12.1 492
Madhesi 1.2 0.7 4.1 2.1 1.3 1.3 6.4 19.4 10.4 3.8 6.1 21.3 269
Muslim 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 1.3 2.9 17.3 9.1 2.0 1.5 18.2 90
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 0.8 1.7 2.2 1.0 0.8 0.7 3.3 12.5 4.1 1.9 3.0 13.7 1,025
Rural 2.9 2.1 1.5 0.4 2.0 1.4 4.8 11.5 4.8 2.5 4.4 14.0 511
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.2 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.9 5.4 2.0 0.9 2.0 8.9 96
Hill 1.5 1.4 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.4 1.8 7.4 2.4 1.1 1.5 8.6 522
Terai 1.6 2.2 2.8 0.9 1.6 1.2 5.2 15.6 5.6 2.8 4.8 17.3 917
Province
Koshi Province 1.6 0.7 1.8 0.6 2.0 0.8 4.7 11.0 1.5 1.9 1.8 12.0 294
Urban 0.8 0.0 1.7 0.8 2.3 0.0 4.0 11.8 1.2 1.7 1.5 12.7 197
Rural 3.2 2.0 2.2 0.0 1.5 2.4 6.0 9.3 2.2 2.2 2.5 10.6 97
Madhesh Province 0.6 0.0 4.6 1.7 0.9 0.9 6.3 17.8 10.3 3.7 5.9 19.7 332
Urban 0.0 0.0 5.2 1.4 0.0 0.7 5.9 19.4 10.5 2.8 5.7 20.7 243
Rural 2.4 0.0 3.0 2.6 3.4 1.5 7.4 13.5 9.8 5.9 6.4 16.8 89
Bagmati Province 0.5 4.4 0.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 1.4 10.4 2.2 1.8 1.8 11.9 261
Urban 0.0 5.0 1.1 0.8 0.0 0.0 1.8 11.0 2.1 2.4 1.0 11.7 199
Rural 2.2 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.4 2.5 0.0 4.6 12.7 62
Gandaki Province 1.8 3.5 0.7 0.0 0.6 1.6 2.9 6.0 1.3 0.6 0.6 6.5 102
Urban 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 2.3 6.3 1.1 0.0 0.0 6.3 72
Rural 6.3 6.6 2.4 0.0 2.0 0.0 4.4 5.0 1.7 2.0 2.0 6.8 30
Lumbini Province 3.8 2.3 1.2 0.8 2.2 2.4 4.3 15.0 4.5 2.3 6.5 17.0 278
Urban 4.0 2.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.2 2.2 11.8 2.5 2.1 5.4 13.5 154
Rural 3.5 2.4 1.0 0.0 3.3 2.6 6.8 18.9 7.1 2.5 8.0 21.4 124
Karnali Province 1.4 0.2 0.9 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.9 3.1 3.4 0.5 0.8 6.0 107
Urban 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.7 4.3 0.0 1.5 4.9 55
Rural 2.8 0.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 4.6 2.6 1.0 0.0 7.1 52
Sudurpashchim
Province 0.7 2.7 1.2 0.4 1.6 0.5 2.5 10.8 2.7 1.6 2.4 12.3 161
Urban 0.6 2.5 1.4 0.6 1.4 0.8 2.3 11.8 2.8 1.7 2.9 13.0 105
Rural 0.8 3.2 0.8 0.0 2.0 0.0 2.9 8.9 2.3 1.6 1.5 11.2 56
Mother’s education
No education 1.4 3.1 3.5 0.8 1.8 0.0 5.3 17.3 9.7 4.1 5.4 18.9 213
Basic education (1–8) 1.6 2.0 2.8 1.1 1.0 0.8 4.5 14.2 4.2 2.1 3.5 15.9 487
Lower basic
education (1–5) 2.0 3.8 4.5 1.3 1.5 0.0 6.0 14.2 5.8 3.5 4.5 16.4 227
Upper basic
education (6–8) 1.2 0.4 1.3 0.9 0.6 1.4 3.1 14.3 2.7 0.9 2.7 15.4 260
Secondary (9–12) 1.7 1.4 1.2 0.7 1.1 1.3 3.1 10.4 3.2 1.6 3.1 12.1 745
Lower secondary
(9–10) 1.8 1.1 0.9 0.5 1.2 1.1 2.7 12.3 4.0 1.1 4.0 14.2 436
Higher secondary
(11–12) 1.6 1.9 1.6 0.9 1.0 1.7 3.8 7.6 2.0 2.5 1.8 9.2 308
More than secondary
(13 and above) 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.9 0.8 1.9 4.2 1.9 1.5 1.9 4.2 91

(Continued…)

222 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.16—Continued
Limited facility Number
and privacy Physical abuse Verbal abuse of
women
Had to with a
rest or Physi- Verbally live birth
Had to sleep on cally At least mis- and/or
share a the floor Physi- mis- one type treated At least stillbirth
bed with without cally treated of Verbally in any one type in the
Background another any Hit or threat- or physical Shouted Humiliat- threat- other of verbal last 2
characteristic patient mattress Slapped punched ened harmed abuse at ed ened way abuse years
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.7 2.5 1.1 0.2 0.6 1.0 2.7 6.3 2.4 0.0 1.4 7.8 284
Second 1.6 1.3 3.9 2.1 2.4 0.7 7.1 17.1 6.9 4.3 5.3 19.6 316
Middle 2.1 1.9 2.8 0.7 1.1 0.5 3.9 14.2 4.2 2.2 4.0 15.4 305
Fourth 0.2 2.7 0.2 0.0 0.6 1.1 2.0 14.3 4.3 2.0 4.1 15.0 335
Highest 1.2 0.8 1.7 1.0 1.3 1.4 3.2 8.1 3.5 1.9 2.2 10.3 296
Total 1.5 1.8 2.0 0.8 1.2 0.9 3.8 12.2 4.3 2.1 3.5 13.8 1,536
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * * * * * 14
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS3
Total 1.5 1.8 1.9 0.8 1.2 1.0 3.8 12.2 4.3 2.1 3.5 13.8 1,549

Note: Total includes 2 cases in which the respondent did not know the number of antenatal care visits made. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on
fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
Includes only the most recent birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
3
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 223

Table 9.17 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percent distribution of the mother’s first postnatal check for the most recent live
birth or stillbirth by time after delivery, and percentage of women with a live birth or stillbirth during the 2 years preceding the survey who received a postnatal check in the
first 2 days after giving birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
of women
with a
postnatal
check during
Time after delivery of mother’s first postnatal check1 the first 2
Background Less than 4–23 1–2 3–6 7–41 Don’t know/ No postnatal days after Number of
characteristic 4 hours hours days days days missing check2 Total birth1 women
LIVE BIRTHS

Age at birth
<20 51.2 8.2 6.0 0.8 1.2 0.5 32.2 100.0 65.3 353
20–34 54.2 13.6 4.1 1.2 0.4 0.4 26.2 100.0 71.9 1,504
35–49 46.8 10.0 3.8 0.4 1.9 0.0 37.1 100.0 60.7 76
Birth order3
1 59.4 14.1 4.9 1.1 0.7 0.5 19.3 100.0 78.4 790
2–3 50.7 12.1 4.3 1.1 0.7 0.2 30.9 100.0 67.2 965
4–5 42.5 6.3 2.9 0.5 0.0 0.0 47.7 100.0 51.8 154
6+ (30.8) (10.0) (0.0) (1.2) (0.0) (7.4) (50.6) 100.0 (40.8) 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 62.9 14.5 5.0 0.8 0.7 0.4 15.7 100.0 82.4 1,536
Elsewhere 16.5 4.4 2.2 2.1 0.4 0.2 74.1 100.0 23.2 397
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 57.2 14.2 4.0 2.4 0.6 0.1 21.5 100.0 75.4 499
Dalit 50.2 10.2 3.8 1.0 0.3 0.3 34.3 100.0 64.2 359
Janajati 55.7 15.5 2.9 0.9 0.2 0.5 24.4 100.0 74.0 588
Madhesi 48.2 9.1 6.6 0.0 1.5 0.8 33.8 100.0 64.0 354
Muslim 50.0 7.8 8.5 0.0 1.4 0.0 32.2 100.0 66.4 131
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * 2
Residence
Urban 54.4 13.1 4.1 1.0 0.8 0.4 26.2 100.0 71.6 1,266
Rural 51.5 11.2 5.0 1.2 0.3 0.3 30.6 100.0 67.6 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 49.5 11.2 3.1 2.0 0.0 0.0 34.2 100.0 63.8 129
Hill 52.7 14.0 3.4 2.0 0.4 0.2 27.2 100.0 70.1 639
Terai 54.1 11.8 5.1 0.5 0.8 0.5 27.3 100.0 71.0 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 57.1 15.0 5.2 1.4 0.0 0.0 21.2 100.0 77.3 358
Urban 61.6 13.8 3.1 1.5 0.0 0.0 19.9 100.0 78.5 232
Rural 48.8 17.1 9.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 23.6 100.0 75.1 126
Madhesh Province 45.3 7.6 4.9 0.0 1.7 0.5 40.0 100.0 57.8 500
Urban 43.3 7.6 4.1 0.0 2.3 0.5 42.2 100.0 55.1 367
Rural 51.0 7.5 6.9 0.0 0.0 0.7 33.9 100.0 65.4 132
Bagmati Province 50.2 18.3 5.3 0.9 0.0 0.0 25.2 100.0 73.9 295
Urban 56.6 19.6 5.2 0.9 0.0 0.0 17.8 100.0 81.3 216
Rural 32.7 15.0 5.9 1.1 0.0 0.0 45.3 100.0 53.6 79
Gandaki Province 60.2 13.7 2.5 2.5 0.8 0.7 19.6 100.0 76.4 117
Urban 62.5 17.3 1.9 3.1 1.2 1.1 12.9 100.0 81.6 76
Rural 55.8 6.9 3.8 1.2 0.0 0.0 32.3 100.0 66.5 40
Lumbini Province 61.9 11.4 3.9 1.3 0.3 0.7 20.4 100.0 77.2 329
Urban 60.0 11.7 5.7 1.3 0.0 0.7 20.6 100.0 77.5 185
Rural 64.2 11.1 1.6 1.4 0.7 0.7 20.2 100.0 77.0 145
Karnali Province 43.4 11.3 3.2 1.6 0.3 0.5 39.7 100.0 57.9 149
Urban 46.4 14.5 2.5 0.9 0.6 1.0 34.1 100.0 63.3 73
Rural 40.5 8.3 3.9 2.2 0.0 0.0 45.1 100.0 52.7 76
Sudurpashchim Province 61.5 13.2 3.1 1.9 0.5 0.3 19.6 100.0 77.7 185
Urban 61.3 15.9 4.1 1.7 0.0 0.5 16.5 100.0 81.3 117
Rural 61.7 8.6 1.3 2.2 1.4 0.0 24.8 100.0 71.6 69
Education
No education 46.1 6.1 3.8 0.2 0.0 0.3 43.6 100.0 55.9 357
Basic education (1–8) 48.8 11.2 4.4 1.6 0.8 0.6 32.7 100.0 64.4 656
Lower basic education
(1–5) 44.4 10.9 4.4 1.7 1.0 0.5 37.1 100.0 59.7 332
Upper basic education
(6–8) 53.2 11.5 4.5 1.5 0.5 0.7 28.1 100.0 69.2 325
Secondary (9–12) 59.7 14.8 4.2 0.9 0.8 0.2 19.5 100.0 78.6 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 56.0 15.0 3.8 1.3 0.3 0.0 23.7 100.0 74.7 497
Higher secondary
(11–12) 65.2 14.5 4.7 0.3 1.7 0.4 13.2 100.0 84.4 332
More than secondary (13
and above) 57.8 25.2 8.8 2.4 0.0 1.1 4.6 100.0 91.9 91

(Continued…)

224 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.17—Continued
Percentage
of women
with a
postnatal
check during
Time after delivery of mother’s first postnatal check1 the first 2
Background Less than 4–23 1–2 3–6 7–41 Don’t know/ No postnatal days after Number of
characteristic 4 hours hours days days days missing check2 Total birth1 women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 45.2 7.9 2.4 2.1 0.6 0.6 41.2 100.0 55.5 431
Second 49.3 11.5 4.6 1.5 1.0 0.0 32.1 100.0 65.4 432
Middle 55.8 10.4 5.1 0.7 0.5 0.2 27.2 100.0 71.4 381
Fourth 58.2 13.3 6.2 0.4 0.0 0.8 21.1 100.0 77.7 386
Highest 61.7 21.7 3.7 0.5 1.1 0.2 11.2 100.0 87.1 303
Total 53.4 12.5 4.4 1.1 0.6 0.4 27.7 100.0 70.2 1,933
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * 100.0 * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS4
Total 53.5 12.4 4.4 1.1 0.6 0.4 27.6 100.0 70.3 1,949

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes women who received a check from a doctor, nurse/auxiliary nurse midwife, health assistant/auxiliary health worker, female community health volunteer, or traditional
birth attendant
2
Includes women who received a check after 41 days
3
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
4
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 225

 Table 9.18 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percent distribution by type of provider of the
mother’s first postnatal health check during the 2 days after the most recent live birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Type of health provider of mother’s first postnatal check No postnatal
Heath Female check during
Doctor/nurse/ assistant/ community Traditional the first 2
Background auxiliary auxiliary health birth days after Number of
characteristic nurse midwife health worker volunteer attendant birth Total women
LIVE BIRTHS
Age at birth
<20 61.6 2.1 0.3 1.3 34.7 100.0 353
20–34 69.2 2.1 0.2 0.4 28.1 100.0 1,504
35–49 57.6 1.7 1.4 0.0 39.3 100.0 76
Birth order1
1 76.2 1.8 0.1 0.5 21.6 100.0 790
2–3 63.9 2.3 0.3 0.7 32.8 100.0 965
4–5 47.7 3.2 0.9 0.0 48.2 100.0 154
6+ (40.8) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (59.2) 100.0 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 81.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 17.6 100.0 1,536
Elsewhere 13.9 5.8 1.1 2.4 76.8 100.0 397
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 74.5 0.3 0.5 0.1 24.6 100.0 499
Dalit 59.4 3.0 0.6 1.1 35.8 100.0 359
Janajati 72.2 1.7 0.0 0.1 26.0 100.0 588
Madhesi 59.1 3.7 0.0 1.2 36.0 100.0 354
Muslim 61.9 4.0 0.0 0.5 33.6 100.0 131
Other * * * * * 100.0 2
Residence
Urban 69.0 2.1 0.1 0.3 28.4 100.0 1,266
Rural 64.1 2.1 0.4 0.9 32.4 100.0 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 61.7 0.7 1.1 0.3 36.2 100.0 129
Hill 69.0 0.9 0.2 0.0 29.9 100.0 639
Terai 67.1 2.9 0.1 0.8 29.0 100.0 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 75.1 1.7 0.3 0.3 22.7 100.0 358
Urban 77.0 1.1 0.5 0.0 21.5 100.0 232
Rural 71.5 2.8 0.0 0.8 24.9 100.0 126
Madhesh Province 51.6 4.5 0.0 1.6 42.2 100.0 500
Urban 49.2 4.9 0.0 0.9 44.9 100.0 367
Rural 58.3 3.6 0.0 3.5 34.6 100.0 132
Bagmati Province 73.3 0.6 0.0 0.0 26.1 100.0 295
Urban 81.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.7 100.0 216
Rural 51.3 2.2 0.0 0.0 46.4 100.0 79
Gandaki Province 76.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 23.6 100.0 117
Urban 81.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.4 100.0 76
Rural 66.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.5 100.0 40
Lumbini Province 75.6 1.4 0.3 0.0 22.8 100.0 329
Urban 76.1 1.4 0.0 0.0 22.5 100.0 185
Rural 74.9 1.4 0.7 0.0 23.0 100.0 145
Karnali Province 55.1 1.6 1.0 0.3 42.1 100.0 149
Urban 63.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 36.7 100.0 73
Rural 47.2 3.1 1.9 0.5 47.3 100.0 76
Sudurpashchim Province 74.9 1.8 0.5 0.4 22.3 100.0 185
Urban 77.2 2.9 0.5 0.6 18.7 100.0 117
Rural 71.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 28.4 100.0 69
Education
No education 50.5 4.4 0.6 0.4 44.1 100.0 357
Basic education (1–8) 60.4 3.0 0.1 0.9 35.6 100.0 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 55.0 3.1 0.0 1.6 40.3 100.0 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 66.0 2.8 0.2 0.2 30.8 100.0 325
Secondary (9–12) 77.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 21.4 100.0 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 74.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 25.3 100.0 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 82.6 1.1 0.5 0.3 15.6 100.0 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 90.9 1.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 100.0 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 52.5 2.0 0.9 0.1 44.5 100.0 431
Second 60.1 3.8 0.1 1.4 34.6 100.0 432
Middle 67.8 2.8 0.0 0.8 28.6 100.0 381
Fourth 76.5 1.0 0.0 0.2 22.3 100.0 386
Highest 86.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 12.9 100.0 303
Total 67.3 2.1 0.2 0.5 29.8 100.0 1,933

(Continued…)

226 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.18—Continued
Type of health provider of mother’s first postnatal check No postnatal
Heath Female check during
Doctor/nurse/ assistant/ community Traditional the first 2
Background auxiliary auxiliary health birth days after Number of
characteristic nurse midwife health worker volunteer attendant birth Total women
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * 100.0 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 67.4 2.1 0.2 0.5 29.7 100.0 1,949

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 227

Table 9.19 Content of postnatal care for the mother
Among women age 15–49 with a live birth and/or stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage for whom selected checks were performed during the first 2 days
after the most recent birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage for whom during the first
2 days after the most recent birth, Percentage for whom during the first 2 days after
any health care provider: the most recent birth, any health care provider:
Percentage Counseled on
with all three how to
checks recognize if
performed in immediate Counseled on
Measured Discussed Discussed the first 2 medical Counseled on eating two
Background blood vaginal family days after attention is Talked about which foods additional Number of
characteristic pressure bleeding planning birth required mental health to eat meals women
LIVE BIRTHS
Age at birth
<20 44.9 44.9 18.9 12.9 23.6 11.8 56.8 50.8 353
20–34 58.8 52.5 26.8 21.3 36.5 16.7 60.2 53.7 1,504
35–49 52.4 53.1 28.4 20.4 36.5 11.6 55.5 55.7 76
Birth order1
1 61.9 55.8 24.9 19.6 37.3 17.9 65.5 57.4 790
2–3 54.8 49.3 26.4 20.5 32.9 15.3 57.2 52.3 965
4–5 36.5 39.5 21.0 15.0 24.6 7.3 43.6 38.7 154
6+ (37.5) (48.2) (29.0) (22.2) (42.1) (3.6) (49.1) (49.1) 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 66.5 59.8 30.7 24.0 40.4 18.8 68.0 61.7 1,536
Public sector 62.3 58.2 29.5 22.4 39.9 18.3 66.5 60.2 1,191
Private medical sector 81.2 65.9 33.7 28.9 42.3 20.0 73.8 66.9 330
NGO medical sector * * * * * * * * 14
Elsewhere 15.6 17.8 5.0 3.5 9.9 3.5 26.2 20.8 397
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 61.9 57.1 29.9 23.9 40.7 21.2 62.6 58.8 499
Dalit 44.6 44.4 21.4 14.2 27.3 10.1 54.6 49.4 359
Janajati 62.6 55.5 28.8 24.1 38.1 19.6 61.9 56.7 588
Madhesi 49.6 44.6 19.4 14.8 29.4 10.2 56.5 44.4 354
Muslim 51.9 45.3 19.7 12.9 22.9 5.4 57.6 50.0 131
Other * * * * * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 59.0 53.4 25.1 21.0 35.5 15.5 60.3 53.4 1,266
Rural 50.3 46.9 25.9 17.3 31.7 15.8 57.6 52.9 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.3 61.8 32.4 27.5 44.3 19.8 61.5 61.0 129
Hill 58.2 50.1 28.6 23.0 34.7 19.8 55.6 51.7 639
Terai 54.7 50.6 22.9 17.1 32.7 12.9 61.3 53.2 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 68.1 53.5 27.6 21.2 32.2 16.8 61.7 54.0 358
Urban 70.9 54.1 25.8 19.6 33.2 14.2 65.1 56.6 232
Rural 63.0 52.4 30.9 24.2 30.3 21.6 55.4 49.3 126
Madhesh Province 41.5 42.1 15.8 11.4 25.1 6.4 53.3 42.6 500
Urban 40.9 40.3 13.1 10.9 23.2 5.6 52.3 38.9 367
Rural 43.2 47.2 23.2 12.6 30.5 8.7 56.2 52.6 132
Bagmati Province 65.8 54.0 29.8 24.1 34.9 20.6 56.3 51.1 295
Urban 73.8 63.1 33.1 29.4 40.2 24.2 59.3 54.5 216
Rural 43.9 29.0 20.7 9.6 20.1 10.8 48.0 41.9 79
Gandaki Province 67.8 59.5 35.8 31.1 40.7 19.4 62.8 61.5 117
Urban 74.4 62.1 34.4 32.0 44.7 21.0 64.4 64.1 76
Rural 55.3 54.5 38.6 29.4 33.2 16.5 59.7 56.5 40
Lumbini Province 56.1 54.2 27.4 19.9 39.6 17.8 64.2 60.3 329
Urban 58.1 60.3 31.3 25.9 45.0 21.2 65.9 63.6 185
Rural 53.7 46.3 22.4 12.3 32.8 13.3 62.1 56.1 145
Karnali Province 43.1 45.5 24.3 18.0 32.3 16.8 56.0 54.2 149
Urban 50.0 50.4 27.8 21.5 36.4 15.4 55.7 55.3 73
Rural 36.5 40.9 20.8 14.5 28.4 18.2 56.3 53.1 76
Sudurpashchim Province 59.0 60.7 30.8 26.4 48.7 23.1 68.4 65.6 185
Urban 62.0 61.0 29.3 24.6 48.1 20.8 69.4 66.5 117
Rural 53.7 60.2 33.2 29.5 49.8 27.1 66.7 63.9 69
Education
No education 40.5 40.0 18.8 12.4 25.8 6.2 49.5 41.5 357
Basic education (1–8) 49.1 44.9 21.0 16.0 27.7 13.2 52.5 47.4 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 45.3 40.5 22.9 15.5 25.2 11.9 49.0 43.4 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 53.0 49.4 19.1 16.5 30.2 14.5 56.0 51.5 325
Secondary (9–12) 65.2 58.8 31.3 25.5 40.7 20.7 67.6 61.3 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 59.3 54.2 29.2 22.6 37.3 19.1 62.7 57.4 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 74.0 65.5 34.4 29.8 45.9 23.1 75.0 67.1 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 83.8 70.7 28.6 23.7 54.1 23.6 73.8 68.6 91

(Continued…)

228 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.19—Continued
Percentage for whom during the first
2 days after the most recent birth, Percentage for whom during the first 2 days after
any health care provider: the most recent birth, any health care provider:
Percentage Counseled on
with all three how to
checks recognize if
performed in immediate Counseled on
Measured Discussed Discussed the first 2 medical Counseled on eating two
Background blood vaginal family days after attention is Talked about which foods additional Number of
characteristic pressure bleeding planning birth required mental health to eat meals women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 40.9 42.9 22.1 16.7 31.1 15.5 52.3 47.9 431
Second 47.7 41.6 23.2 15.9 28.5 12.3 54.5 48.8 432
Middle 53.7 50.4 24.0 17.0 31.4 13.5 57.8 51.9 381
Fourth 64.2 59.2 26.0 22.8 34.1 14.4 63.8 57.2 386
Highest 81.8 67.2 34.0 29.0 50.0 24.7 73.0 64.0 303
Total 56.0 51.2 25.4 19.7 34.1 15.6 59.4 53.3 1,933
STILLBIRTHS
Total * * * * * * * * 18
LIVE BIRTHS AND STILLBIRTHS2
Total 56.1 51.3 25.3 19.7 34.1 15.8 59.6 53.3 1,949

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.
2
For women who had both a live birth and a stillbirth in the 2 years preceding the survey, data are tabulated for the most recent birth only.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 229

Table 9.20 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn
Percent distribution of the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey by time after birth of first postnatal check, and percentage of births with a postnatal check
during the first 2 days after birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
of births with
a postnatal
Time after delivery of newborn’s first postnatal check1 check during
the first 2
Background Less than 1–3 4–23 1–2 3–6 Don’t No postnatal days after Number of
characteristic 1 hour hours hours days days know check2 Total birth1 births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 16.6 38.1 6.0 6.5 0.3 0.9 31.6 100.0 67.2 353
20–34 16.5 37.5 11.1 5.2 1.1 2.1 26.4 100.0 70.3 1,504
35–49 21.1 33.9 9.2 5.2 0.4 0.5 29.8 100.0 69.3 76
Birth order3
1 16.3 42.4 10.6 6.0 0.7 2.1 21.9 100.0 75.3 790
2–3 16.8 34.5 10.8 5.3 1.2 1.8 29.5 100.0 67.4 965
4–5 17.0 32.3 3.3 4.4 0.5 0.4 42.1 100.0 57.0 154
6+ (25.2) (23.9) (10.0) (1.7) (1.2) (0.0) (37.9) 100.0 (60.9) 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 18.5 44.0 11.5 5.9 0.7 2.1 17.2 100.0 79.9 1,536
Elsewhere 9.6 12.2 4.7 3.7 1.9 0.6 67.2 100.0 30.2 397
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 15.1 38.7 12.7 6.5 2.1 2.2 22.8 100.0 73.0 499
Dalit 15.4 34.6 8.5 3.8 0.7 0.5 36.6 100.0 62.2 359
Janajati 13.3 40.6 13.5 4.5 0.6 1.8 25.8 100.0 71.8 588
Madhesi 26.7 32.8 4.8 4.9 0.5 2.2 28.1 100.0 69.3 354
Muslim 15.4 39.4 4.3 10.4 0.0 3.5 27.0 100.0 69.5 131
Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * 2
Residence
Urban 16.1 37.6 11.1 5.3 0.6 2.1 27.2 100.0 70.0 1,266
Rural 17.9 37.2 8.3 5.8 1.6 1.2 28.0 100.0 69.2 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 8.3 35.0 16.0 4.5 0.6 2.0 33.5 100.0 63.9 129
Hill 12.2 40.5 11.2 4.8 1.8 2.0 27.5 100.0 68.7 639
Terai 20.1 36.0 8.9 5.9 0.5 1.7 26.8 100.0 70.9 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 12.0 38.4 13.9 7.6 1.6 0.4 26.1 100.0 71.9 358
Urban 11.1 39.8 13.6 6.4 1.4 0.7 27.0 100.0 71.0 232
Rural 13.7 36.0 14.3 9.6 2.0 0.0 24.4 100.0 73.5 126
Madhesh Province 20.1 35.1 4.4 4.8 0.0 1.7 34.0 100.0 64.3 500
Urban 19.0 34.1 3.9 4.3 0.0 1.6 37.1 100.0 61.3 367
Rural 23.0 37.8 5.8 6.1 0.0 1.8 25.5 100.0 72.7 132
Bagmati Province 9.9 37.5 14.3 5.0 0.7 3.9 28.7 100.0 66.7 295
Urban 12.9 38.9 17.1 4.4 0.0 5.1 21.7 100.0 73.3 216
Rural 1.9 33.6 6.6 6.5 2.6 0.7 48.1 100.0 48.6 79
Gandaki Province 15.6 44.7 12.8 6.0 0.4 0.6 19.9 100.0 79.1 117
Urban 16.9 46.1 14.4 5.7 0.0 1.0 15.8 100.0 83.2 76
Rural 13.0 42.0 9.7 6.5 1.2 0.0 27.6 100.0 71.2 40
Lumbini Province 24.8 36.1 9.6 4.6 1.2 2.8 20.9 100.0 75.1 329
Urban 20.5 36.1 10.6 5.9 0.6 2.7 23.6 100.0 73.1 185
Rural 30.2 36.0 8.5 2.9 1.9 3.1 17.4 100.0 77.6 145
Karnali Province 12.4 33.1 10.7 4.4 1.6 0.7 37.1 100.0 60.6 149
Urban 12.5 36.6 14.3 5.0 1.0 1.0 29.6 100.0 68.4 73
Rural 12.3 29.7 7.2 3.8 2.2 0.5 44.4 100.0 53.0 76
Sudurpashchim Province 17.2 43.2 10.3 6.2 2.1 1.5 19.5 100.0 76.9 185
Urban 17.0 39.1 14.0 6.9 2.4 1.9 18.6 100.0 77.1 117
Rural 17.5 50.1 4.1 5.0 1.5 0.8 21.0 100.0 76.7 69
Mother’s education
No education 17.9 33.2 5.0 4.5 0.5 1.4 37.4 100.0 60.7 357
Basic education (1–8) 16.4 35.6 8.4 5.2 0.7 1.4 32.3 100.0 65.6 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 16.4 32.4 7.5 5.5 0.9 1.7 35.6 100.0 61.8 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 16.4 38.8 9.3 4.9 0.6 1.0 29.0 100.0 69.4 325
Secondary (9–12) 16.3 40.6 12.9 6.2 1.1 1.9 20.9 100.0 76.0 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 16.3 38.5 12.9 5.7 1.0 1.7 23.9 100.0 73.4 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 16.3 43.6 13.0 7.0 1.3 2.2 16.5 100.0 79.9 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 18.3 38.8 16.7 3.9 2.7 6.0 13.6 100.0 77.7 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 13.7 34.1 6.9 3.5 2.1 0.8 38.9 100.0 58.2 431
Second 17.1 36.7 9.6 4.0 0.4 0.4 31.7 100.0 67.5 432
Middle 17.5 37.6 8.9 7.7 0.3 0.7 27.2 100.0 71.8 381
Fourth 17.5 39.7 11.0 6.9 0.9 3.4 20.6 100.0 75.1 386
Highest 18.3 40.0 15.7 5.6 0.9 4.9 14.5 100.0 79.7 303
Total 16.7 37.4 10.1 5.5 1.0 1.8 27.5 100.0 69.7 1,933

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes newborns who received a check from a doctor, nurse/auxiliary nurse midwife, health assistant/auxiliary health worker, female community health volunteer, or
traditional birth attendant
2
Includes newborns who received a check after the first week of life
3
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

230 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.21 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn
Percent distribution of the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey by type of provider for the newborn’s first postnatal health
check during the 2 days after the most recent live birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of health provider of newborn’s first postnatal check No postnatal
Heath Female check during
Doctor/nurse/ assistant/ community Traditional the first 2
Background auxiliary auxiliary health birth days after Number of
characteristic nurse midwife health worker volunteer attendant birth Total births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 60.8 2.9 0.8 2.7 32.8 100.0 353
20–34 65.8 2.0 0.3 2.2 29.7 100.0 1,504
35–49 67.0 0.0 1.4 1.0 30.7 100.0 76
Birth order1
1 72.0 2.1 0.1 1.0 24.7 100.0 790
2–3 62.0 2.1 0.5 2.8 32.6 100.0 965
4–5 47.7 2.7 1.7 4.9 43.0 100.0 154
6+ (56.5) (0.0) (1.7) (2.8) (39.1) 100.0 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 78.3 1.4 0.1 0.2 20.1 100.0 1,536
Elsewhere 13.3 4.8 2.0 10.2 69.8 100.0 397
Residence
Urban 65.6 1.9 0.2 2.3 30.0 100.0 1,266
Rural 63.5 2.4 1.0 2.2 30.8 100.0 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 59.6 2.4 1.8 0.0 36.1 100.0 129
Hill 66.8 1.2 0.4 0.2 31.3 100.0 639
Terai 64.4 2.6 0.3 3.6 29.1 100.0 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 68.0 2.3 0.3 1.3 28.1 100.0 358
Urban 68.1 1.7 0.5 0.7 29.0 100.0 232
Rural 67.6 3.5 0.0 2.4 26.5 100.0 126
Madhesh Province 53.4 3.5 0.5 7.0 35.7 100.0 500
Urban 51.4 3.4 0.0 6.4 38.7 100.0 367
Rural 58.9 3.5 1.8 8.6 27.3 100.0 132
Bagmati Province 65.4 1.0 0.2 0.0 33.3 100.0 295
Urban 72.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 26.7 100.0 216
Rural 45.5 2.2 0.9 0.0 51.4 100.0 79
Gandaki Province 79.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.9 100.0 117
Urban 83.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.8 100.0 76
Rural 71.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 28.8 100.0 40
Lumbini Province 72.3 1.7 0.3 0.7 24.9 100.0 329
Urban 70.5 1.4 0.0 1.3 26.9 100.0 185
Rural 74.8 2.1 0.7 0.0 22.4 100.0 145
Karnali Province 56.6 2.1 1.8 0.0 39.4 100.0 149
Urban 66.8 1.1 0.5 0.0 31.6 100.0 73
Rural 46.9 3.1 3.1 0.0 47.0 100.0 76
Sudurpashchim Province 73.7 1.8 0.5 0.8 23.1 100.0 185
Urban 72.4 2.9 0.5 1.3 22.9 100.0 117
Rural 76.1 0.0 0.6 0.0 23.3 100.0 69
Mother’s education
No education 50.9 2.5 1.4 5.8 39.3 100.0 357
Basic education (1–8) 60.0 3.1 0.2 2.2 34.4 100.0 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 55.0 3.1 0.0 3.7 38.2 100.0 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 65.1 3.2 0.4 0.7 30.6 100.0 325
Secondary (9–12) 73.5 1.2 0.3 0.9 24.0 100.0 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 70.8 1.3 0.3 1.1 26.6 100.0 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 77.6 1.2 0.5 0.7 20.1 100.0 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 76.8 1.0 0.0 0.0 22.3 100.0 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 53.4 1.6 1.4 1.8 41.8 100.0 431
Second 59.2 4.6 0.7 3.1 32.5 100.0 432
Middle 65.6 2.0 0.0 4.2 28.2 100.0 381
Fourth 72.2 1.4 0.0 1.6 24.9 100.0 386
Highest 79.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 20.3 100.0 303
Total 64.9 2.1 0.5 2.2 30.3 100.0 1,933

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 231

Table 9.22 Content of postnatal care for newborns
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage for whom selected functions were performed during the first 2 days after the birth and
percentage with five signal functions performed during the first 2 days after birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of most recent live births for whom a health care provider
performed the selected functions during the first 2 days after the birth:
Mother
Mother informed
Mother told both where to Percent-
how to counseled Mother seek age with
recognize on breast- informed treatment if five2 signal
if the baby feeding where to the baby functions
needs Mother Mother and get help needs performed
Measured immediate counseled observed observed with immediate during the
Background Examined temper- medical on breast- breast- breast- breast- medical first 2 days Number of
characteristic the cord ature attention feeding feeding feeding feeding attention Weighed1 after birth births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 47.8 43.7 30.5 59.1 54.9 50.4 25.9 36.6 78.4 18.7 353
20–34 55.9 54.6 40.0 64.3 59.9 53.9 33.3 43.8 81.6 29.6 1,504
35–49 60.1 60.5 41.3 64.6 62.3 58.3 30.1 37.2 78.8 35.6 76
Birth order3
1 59.3 57.1 41.5 69.9 66.2 60.4 36.5 47.0 89.8 29.9 790
2–3 51.1 51.0 37.3 60.2 56.0 49.8 30.0 39.8 77.2 27.2 965
4–5 52.5 42.8 28.4 50.2 43.2 40.9 20.0 33.3 59.9 19.7 154
6+ (51.6) (51.3) (39.1) (56.3) (54.6) (54.6) (32.7) (38.9) (72.1) (39.1) 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 62.3 62.3 45.1 72.2 68.2 61.5 37.9 48.8 97.3 34.0 1,536
Elsewhere 24.6 16.3 12.2 29.0 23.9 22.1 8.7 16.9 17.5 4.0 397
Residence
Urban 55.7 55.8 38.8 65.8 61.9 55.9 32.7 42.9 81.8 28.7 1,266
Rural 52.4 47.3 37.5 58.7 53.8 48.7 30.2 40.9 79.2 26.3 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 50.0 50.0 41.1 62.3 58.3 55.7 36.0 50.1 77.4 32.4 129
Hill 48.0 49.4 36.0 58.8 57.0 49.2 34.8 43.1 84.4 26.3 639
Terai 58.6 55.0 39.3 65.9 60.3 55.5 29.8 40.9 79.4 28.2 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 48.3 56.2 36.6 63.4 64.6 56.0 31.7 38.6 84.0 25.1 358
Urban 49.9 58.4 35.0 66.3 66.9 57.0 30.5 37.0 86.6 24.5 232
Rural 45.4 52.1 39.7 57.9 60.3 54.2 33.8 41.5 79.1 26.1 126
Madhesh Province 54.0 49.3 35.3 60.2 50.7 48.0 19.2 33.2 65.5 23.6 500
Urban 52.6 49.5 32.8 58.5 49.0 47.2 16.6 31.6 63.7 22.4 367
Rural 57.7 48.9 42.3 64.9 55.5 50.4 26.3 37.7 70.3 27.1 132
Bagmati Province 48.8 55.6 33.0 62.8 59.6 50.9 38.1 44.7 89.4 25.4 295
Urban 56.1 64.9 38.9 71.1 66.0 57.2 44.5 51.2 92.9 31.1 216
Rural 28.9 30.2 17.0 40.3 42.0 33.8 20.7 27.0 80.0 9.6 79
Gandaki Province 58.0 57.6 48.1 67.4 67.1 58.7 36.5 50.3 88.3 36.9 117
Urban 59.9 60.5 52.8 70.4 69.8 59.5 36.7 53.0 94.4 39.0 76
Rural 54.4 52.2 39.2 61.7 61.9 57.3 36.1 45.2 76.7 32.8 40
Lumbini Province 66.6 56.6 43.7 69.5 63.9 60.7 38.4 49.7 87.8 33.8 329
Urban 67.6 58.7 46.5 72.8 72.9 68.9 46.7 53.6 87.5 36.4 185
Rural 65.4 53.9 40.1 65.2 52.3 50.3 27.7 44.8 88.3 30.4 145
Karnali Province 44.0 42.5 34.6 51.2 53.0 46.3 33.2 40.1 75.6 24.2 149
Urban 46.2 47.4 38.6 54.0 56.7 50.9 33.5 42.7 78.9 26.1 73
Rural 41.9 37.8 30.7 48.4 49.4 41.8 33.0 37.5 72.4 22.3 76
Sudurpashchim Province 62.2 50.1 45.6 68.6 61.9 56.6 40.7 52.8 90.3 35.4 185
Urban 60.5 50.8 43.5 70.8 65.9 59.2 40.8 51.6 93.0 34.9 117
Rural 65.0 49.1 49.1 64.7 55.1 52.2 40.5 54.8 85.7 36.2 69
Mother’s education
No education 51.9 44.7 33.9 56.4 45.9 43.9 19.2 30.0 61.2 23.1 357
Basic education (1–8) 51.8 50.1 34.4 57.4 54.5 48.8 29.5 37.1 75.9 25.8 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 50.2 49.5 32.0 52.8 47.8 42.7 25.6 33.5 68.9 22.8 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 53.5 50.7 36.9 62.1 61.4 55.1 33.4 40.7 83.1 28.8 325
Secondary (9–12) 56.4 56.4 42.1 69.0 66.6 59.8 37.4 50.1 91.8 30.7 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 52.9 50.9 36.1 65.7 62.9 55.8 33.6 44.9 90.1 25.8 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 61.8 64.6 51.1 73.8 72.2 65.8 43.2 57.8 94.3 38.0 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 67.5 73.0 49.7 82.0 75.2 66.2 48.2 55.4 95.2 35.4 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 44.4 39.8 31.6 50.6 46.9 42.8 28.3 34.1 69.0 23.0 431
Second 51.3 48.1 32.5 60.1 55.5 50.2 26.7 38.2 75.4 22.5 432
Middle 54.8 52.5 35.9 64.6 59.4 54.0 28.2 40.6 80.0 24.8 381
Fourth 60.8 58.3 44.0 68.7 65.3 58.2 33.8 46.3 88.4 33.1 386
Highest 65.5 71.9 52.1 77.6 73.5 66.4 46.3 56.3 97.3 39.6 303
Total 54.6 52.9 38.3 63.3 59.1 53.4 31.9 42.2 80.9 27.9 1,933

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
Captures newborns who were weighed “at birth.” May exclude some newborns who were weighed during the 2 days after birth.
2
The functions are (1) examining the umbilical cord, (2) measuring temperature, (3) observing and/or counseling on breastfeeding, (4) telling the mother about danger
signs/how to recognize if the baby needs immediate attention, and (5) weighing. Corresponds to the definition of the five signal functions to assess the content of postnatal
care for newborns described in Moran et al. 2013.
3
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

232 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.23 Postnatal checks on mother and newborn
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage for which mothers age 15–49 received a
postnatal check during the first 2 days after birth, percentage for which newborns received a postnatal check during the first 2
days after birth, percentage for which both mothers and newborns received a postnatal check, and percentage for which neither
mothers nor newborns received a postnatal check, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who received a postnatal check1
during the first 2 days after birth
Neither mother
nor newborn
received
Background Both mother postnatal Number of
characteristic Mother Newborn and newborn check2 births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 65.3 67.2 59.8 27.3 353
20–34 71.9 70.3 63.5 21.4 1,504
35–49 60.7 69.3 56.3 26.3 76
Birth order3
1 78.4 75.3 69.8 16.1 790
2–3 67.2 67.4 59.6 25.0 965
4–5 51.8 57.0 47.8 39.0 154
6+ (40.8) (60.9) (40.8) (39.1) 24
Place of delivery
Health facility 82.4 79.9 73.7 11.4 1,536
Public sector 81.2 78.6 72.4 12.5 1,191
Private medical sector 87.4 85.1 79.3 6.8 330
NGO medical sector * * * * 14
Elsewhere 23.2 30.2 19.5 66.2 397
Residence
Urban 71.6 70.0 62.8 21.2 1,266
Rural 67.6 69.2 62.2 25.4 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 63.8 63.9 57.7 30.1 129
Hill 70.1 68.7 63.3 24.5 639
Terai 71.0 70.9 62.7 20.8 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 77.3 71.9 67.3 18.1 358
Urban 78.5 71.0 67.0 17.5 232
Rural 75.1 73.5 67.9 19.3 126
Madhesh Province 57.8 64.3 52.2 30.1 500
Urban 55.1 61.3 48.6 32.3 367
Rural 65.4 72.7 62.2 24.1 132
Bagmati Province 73.9 66.7 61.4 20.8 295
Urban 81.3 73.3 68.7 14.1 216
Rural 53.6 48.6 41.4 39.2 79
Gandaki Province 76.4 79.1 71.9 16.5 117
Urban 81.6 83.2 74.8 9.9 76
Rural 66.5 71.2 66.5 28.8 40
Lumbini Province 77.2 75.1 70.1 17.8 329
Urban 77.5 73.1 68.6 18.1 185
Rural 77.0 77.6 71.9 17.4 145
Karnali Province 57.9 60.6 54.6 36.1 149
Urban 63.3 68.4 61.5 29.8 73
Rural 52.7 53.0 47.9 42.2 76
Sudurpashchim Province 77.7 76.9 70.3 15.7 185
Urban 81.3 77.1 71.6 13.3 117
Rural 71.6 76.7 68.1 19.9 69
Mother’s education
No education 55.9 60.7 50.2 33.6 357
Basic education (1–8) 64.4 65.6 57.9 27.9 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 59.7 61.8 51.8 30.3 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 69.2 69.4 64.0 25.5 325
Secondary (9–12) 78.6 76.0 70.2 15.6 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 74.7 73.4 66.7 18.5 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 84.4 79.9 75.5 11.1 332
More than secondary (13 and above) 91.9 77.7 75.6 6.1 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 55.5 58.2 50.7 37.0 431
Second 65.4 67.5 59.5 26.6 432
Middle 71.4 71.8 63.0 19.8 381
Fourth 77.7 75.1 67.8 14.9 386
Highest 87.1 79.7 76.7 9.9 303
Total 70.2 69.7 62.6 22.6 1,933

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than
25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Includes checks from a doctor, nurse/auxiliary nurse midwife, community health worker/fieldworker, or traditional birth attendant
2
Includes checks after the first 2 days or by other persons
3
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 233

 Table 9.24 Bathing newborns
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percent distribution by timing of
first bath, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Timing of first bath:
Bathed Bathed Bathed 24
less than 6–23 or more
Background 6 hours hours hours Don’t Number
characteristic after birth after birth after birth know Total of births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 11.4 6.1 81.3 1.3 100.0 353
20–34 8.7 2.7 85.8 2.8 100.0 1,504
35–49 5.6 2.8 88.7 2.8 100.0 76
Place of delivery
Health facility 4.3 3.2 90.0 2.5 100.0 1,536
Public facility 4.2 3.2 90.8 1.9 100.0 1,191
Private facility 5.0 2.4 88.0 4.6 100.0 330
NGO facility * * * * 100.0 14
Elsewhere 27.4 4.0 66.2 2.4 100.0 397
Total 9.0 3.3 85.1 2.5 100.0 1,933

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization

234 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.25 Cord cutting
Among the most recent births in the 2 years preceding the survey that were delivered outside a health facility, percent distribution by instrument used to
cut the umbilical cord, and percentage with the umbilical cord cut with a clean instrument, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
most recent
live births
delivered
outside a
Instrument used to cut the cord: Percentage of facility in the
Used metal Used metal cords cut with 2 years
Background New metal instrument, instrument, not Other a clean preceding the
characteristic instrument1 boiled1 boiled1 instrument Total instrument2 survey
Mother’s age at birth
<20 87.9 0.0 2.7 9.4 100.0 87.9 74
20–34 85.9 0.3 5.5 8.2 100.0 86.3 306
35–49 * * * * 100.0 * 17
Birth order3
1 79.1 0.0 5.4 15.5 100.0 79.1 75
2–3 87.6 0.4 4.4 7.5 100.0 88.0 245
4–5 90.4 0.0 6.8 2.9 100.0 90.4 67
6+ * * * * 100.0 * 10
Residence
Urban 91.4 0.0 2.3 6.3 100.0 91.4 241
Rural 77.8 0.7 10.1 11.4 100.0 78.5 156
Ecological zone
Mountain 75.7 0.0 8.9 15.4 100.0 75.7 32
Hill 75.8 0.0 10.6 13.6 100.0 75.8 116
Terai 92.2 0.4 2.4 4.9 100.0 92.7 249
Province
Koshi Province 86.4 0.0 4.8 8.7 100.0 86.4 64
Madhesh Province 95.6 0.0 0.4 4.1 100.0 95.6 168
Bagmati Province (87.4) (0.0) (8.3) (4.3) 100.0 (87.4) 34
Gandaki Province * * * * 100.0 * 14
Lumbini Province (83.9) (2.1) (10.1) (3.9) 100.0 (86.0) 51
Karnali Province 67.0 0.0 12.7 20.3 100.0 67.0 42
Sudurpashchim Province (71.6) (0.0) (11.6) (16.8) 100.0 (71.6) 24
Mother’s education
No education 90.3 0.0 6.2 3.5 100.0 90.3 144
Basic education (1–8) 83.1 0.6 6.2 10.1 100.0 83.7 170
Lower basic education (1–5) 85.1 1.0 5.8 8.1 100.0 86.1 105
Upper basic education (6–8) 79.8 0.0 6.9 13.4 100.0 79.8 65
Secondary (9–12) 84.9 0.0 2.2 12.9 100.0 84.9 84
Lower secondary (9–10) 90.1 0.0 0.0 9.9 100.0 90.1 60
Higher secondary (11–12) (71.5) (0.0) (8.0) (20.5) 100.0 (71.5) 23
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * 100.0 * 0
Wealth quintile
Lowest 77.7 0.7 9.8 11.8 100.0 78.4 147
Second 92.3 0.0 1.0 6.7 100.0 92.3 116
Middle 91.1 0.0 5.4 3.6 100.0 91.1 76
Fourth (87.8) (0.0) (3.3) (8.9) 100.0 (87.8) 51
Highest * * * * 100.0 * 7
Total 86.1 0.3 5.4 8.3 100.0 86.3 397

Note: Disaggregation by residence for province is not shown due to few cases. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An
asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Razor blade, knife, or scissors
2
Clean instruments are new metal instruments and used metal instruments that were boiled.
3
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 235

 Table 9.26 Cord care
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage with different substances applied to the stump of the umbilical cord,
and percentage with nothing harmful applied to the umbilical cord, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
Substances applied to the cord: with nothing
Background Other Other harmful applied Number of
characteristic Nothing Chlorhexidine antiseptic1 substance2 Don’t know to the cord3 births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 25.8 43.8 8.0 11.5 1.3 76.6 353
20–34 21.3 52.3 6.3 8.3 1.5 78.7 1,504
35–49 12.1 64.8 3.1 11.6 2.3 77.6 76
Place of delivery
Health facility 16.3 58.3 7.2 4.8 1.7 80.7 1,536
Public facility 15.6 61.2 6.7 4.7 1.8 82.4 1,191
Private facility 19.3 48.2 9.1 5.3 1.2 75.4 330
NGO facility * * * * * * 14
Elsewhere 42.8 23.9 3.9 25.4 0.7 69.0 397
Birth order4
1 19.5 51.2 7.2 7.1 1.6 76.6 790
2–3 23.4 51.3 5.9 9.7 1.6 79.4 965
4–5 23.5 50.2 7.2 13.2 0.4 79.9 154
6+ (19.7) (55.3) (2.7) (15.0) (0.0) (77.7) 24
Residence
Urban 21.4 48.8 7.7 9.4 1.6 76.6 1,266
Rural 22.4 55.8 4.3 8.2 1.3 81.5 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 33.1 50.7 0.0 9.9 0.4 83.8 129
Hill 22.9 54.7 0.6 7.4 1.1 77.5 639
Terai 19.9 49.4 10.5 9.8 1.8 78.1 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 23.3 48.6 5.2 6.9 1.4 76.6 358
Urban 20.4 46.2 7.7 7.7 1.8 73.6 232
Rural 28.7 53.1 0.6 5.3 0.8 82.1 126
Madhesh Province 24.4 39.3 19.0 11.5 1.3 81.2 500
Urban 26.9 35.6 19.0 12.4 1.2 80.3 367
Rural 17.8 49.5 18.9 9.1 1.6 83.8 132
Bagmati Province 28.9 45.9 1.8 6.1 1.0 74.6 295
Urban 26.3 45.4 2.5 5.6 0.9 72.1 216
Rural 36.1 47.3 0.0 7.3 1.1 81.4 79
Gandaki Province 17.1 63.0 0.0 5.0 2.6 80.1 117
Urban 15.1 65.3 0.0 3.9 3.2 80.4 76
Rural 20.9 58.7 0.0 7.2 1.4 79.6 40
Lumbini Province 14.7 62.2 1.9 10.0 1.4 78.1 329
Urban 14.8 61.5 2.2 10.8 1.3 77.0 185
Rural 14.6 63.2 1.7 8.9 1.4 79.4 145
Karnali Province 23.6 54.3 0.2 12.7 1.5 76.9 149
Urban 20.0 56.7 0.0 12.5 1.3 75.1 73
Rural 27.0 52.1 0.5 12.9 1.7 78.7 76
Sudurpashchim Province 14.3 67.6 0.0 8.6 2.1 80.1 185
Urban 12.9 66.2 0.0 9.6 2.9 77.1 117
Rural 16.6 69.9 0.0 7.0 0.8 85.2 69
Mother’s education
No education 23.1 43.8 11.2 13.5 1.7 76.8 357
Basic education (1–8) 24.9 50.9 6.7 10.2 0.5 81.0 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 29.0 48.0 7.8 10.1 0.4 82.7 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 20.7 53.9 5.5 10.3 0.7 79.3 325
Secondary (9–12) 18.2 55.4 4.3 6.7 2.0 76.9 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 18.2 54.3 5.2 6.4 2.0 76.8 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 18.3 57.1 2.9 7.1 2.2 76.9 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 26.4 44.2 7.4 3.5 2.4 77.4 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 27.8 49.6 2.2 11.0 1.0 78.7 431
Second 25.4 52.6 6.5 8.2 1.0 83.2 432
Middle 18.1 47.2 11.2 12.1 2.2 75.5 381
Fourth 17.1 53.7 6.9 6.3 2.1 76.6 386
Highest 18.5 53.5 6.2 6.7 1.1 76.2 303
Total 21.8 51.2 6.5 9.0 1.5 78.3 1,933

Note: Mothers can report more than one substance applied to the stump of the umbilical cord. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted
cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Includes alcohol, spirit, or gentian violet
2
Includes mustard oil, ash, animal dung, or other substances
3
Either nothing applied to the cord or nothing other than chlorhexidine or another antiseptic applied
4
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

236 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.27 Use of chlorhexidine
Among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage with chlorhexidine applied to the stump of the umbilical cord, and percentage with
chlorhexidine applied to the stump of the umbilical cord within 24 hours after birth, and among the most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey with chlorhexidine
applied to the stump of the umbilical cord, percent distribution by number of days chlorhexidine was applied, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage Number of
Percentage with chlor- births with
with hexidine chlor-
chlorhexidine applied within Number of days chlorhexidine was applied to the cord: hexidine
Background applied to 24 hours Number of applied to
characteristic the cord after birth births 1 2–6 7+ Don’t know Total the cord
Mother’s age at birth
<20 43.8 35.0 353 64.8 14.4 18.8 2.1 100.0 155
20–34 52.3 44.2 1,504 68.8 14.0 15.7 1.5 100.0 786
35–49 64.8 53.8 76 77.4 12.5 10.1 0.0 100.0 49
Place of delivery
Health facility 58.3 49.7 1,536 71.3 13.3 13.7 1.7 100.0 895
Public facility 61.2 53.9 1,191 75.5 10.8 12.7 0.9 100.0 729
Private facility 48.2 35.3 330 52.7 23.3 18.7 5.2 100.0 159
NGO facility * * 14 * * * * 100.0 7
Elsewhere 23.9 16.6 397 43.7 20.1 36.2 0.0 100.0 95
Birth order1
1 51.2 42.2 790 69.0 13.4 15.4 2.2 100.0 405
2–3 51.3 43.6 965 69.8 14.7 14.3 1.2 100.0 495
4–5 50.2 40.3 154 58.9 10.8 30.4 0.0 100.0 77
6+ (55.3) (53.6) 24 * * * * 100.0 13
Residence
Urban 48.8 40.3 1,266 66.1 15.4 16.7 1.7 100.0 618
Rural 55.8 47.7 666 72.9 11.5 14.4 1.1 100.0 372
Province
Koshi Province 48.6 37.9 358 60.5 22.3 14.6 2.6 100.0 174
Urban 46.2 36.0 232 58.4 25.9 13.4 2.3 100.0 107
Rural 53.1 41.3 126 63.9 16.5 16.4 3.2 100.0 67
Madhesh Province 39.3 29.4 500 34.1 22.7 40.6 2.6 100.0 196
Urban 35.6 27.7 367 37.7 19.5 40.0 2.7 100.0 131
Rural 49.5 34.2 132 26.9 29.0 41.8 2.2 100.0 65
Bagmati Province 45.9 40.1 295 79.7 8.3 12.0 0.0 100.0 136
Urban 45.4 38.5 216 77.4 9.3 13.2 0.0 100.0 98
Rural 47.3 44.7 79 (85.6) (5.6) (8.7) (0.0) 100.0 37
Gandaki Province 63.0 48.9 117 78.0 13.2 5.8 3.0 100.0 73
Urban 65.3 49.6 76 (75.9) (15.9) (4.9) (3.3) 100.0 50
Rural 58.7 47.7 40 (82.4) (7.4) (7.7) (2.5) 100.0 24
Lumbini Province 62.2 58.7 329 83.0 6.7 9.8 0.6 100.0 205
Urban 61.5 57.4 185 77.5 9.0 12.4 1.1 100.0 114
Rural 63.2 60.4 145 89.7 3.8 6.5 0.0 100.0 91
Karnali Province 54.3 45.7 149 85.0 11.9 2.8 0.4 100.0 81
Urban 56.7 44.4 73 81.0 16.4 1.9 0.7 100.0 42
Rural 52.1 47.1 76 89.2 7.1 3.7 0.0 100.0 39
Sudurpashchim Province 67.6 58.9 185 82.5 8.7 7.6 1.3 100.0 125
Urban 66.2 56.6 117 78.9 10.5 8.5 2.1 100.0 77
Rural 69.9 62.6 69 88.2 5.7 6.1 0.0 100.0 48
Mother’s education
No education 43.8 35.2 357 51.7 22.1 26.2 0.0 100.0 157
Basic education (1–8) 50.9 43.6 656 70.6 14.0 13.3 2.2 100.0 334
Lower basic education (1–5) 48.0 40.4 332 69.2 16.6 13.3 0.9 100.0 159
Upper basic education (6–8) 53.9 46.8 325 71.9 11.6 13.2 3.3 100.0 175
Secondary (9–12) 55.4 45.9 828 73.1 11.7 13.6 1.6 100.0 459
Lower secondary (9–10) 54.3 46.1 497 73.1 11.4 14.9 0.7 100.0 270
Higher secondary (11–12) 57.1 45.6 332 73.1 12.2 11.7 3.0 100.0 189
More than secondary (13 and
above) 44.2 40.3 91 (66.8) (8.2) (24.3) (0.7) 100.0 40
Wealth quintile
Lowest 49.6 41.8 431 75.9 14.6 9.5 0.0 100.0 214
Second 52.6 45.6 432 65.4 10.7 21.9 2.0 100.0 227
Middle 47.2 39.7 381 70.5 14.3 14.2 1.0 100.0 180
Fourth 53.7 43.4 386 64.4 15.8 16.1 3.8 100.0 207
Highest 53.5 43.7 303 66.9 15.1 17.4 0.6 100.0 162
Total 51.2 42.9 1,933 68.6 14.0 15.9 1.5 100.0 990

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Birth order refers to the order of the birth among the respondent’s live births.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 237

 Table 9.28 Men’s involvement in maternal health care
Among men age 15–49 with a youngest child age 0–2, percentage who report that the child’s mother had any antenatal check-ups during the pregnancy with
the child; among men for whom the mother of the youngest child age 0–2 had any antenatal check-ups during the pregnancy with the child, percentage who
were present for any antenatal check-up; among men with a child age 0–2, percentage who report that their child was born in a health facility; and among
men whose youngest child age 0–2 was born in a health facility, percentage who went to the health facility with the mother, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among men age 15–49
with a youngest child Among men age 15–49
Among men age 15–49 age 0–2 for whom Among men age 15–49 whose youngest child
with a youngest child the mother had any with a youngest child age 0–2 was born
age 0–2 antenatal check-ups age 0–2 in a health facility
Percentage
who report
that the
child’s mother
had any
antenatal Percentage Percentage Percentage
check-ups ever present who report who went with
during during any that their child the child’s
Background pregnancy Number of antenatal Number of was born in a Number of mother to Number of
characteristic with the child men check-up men health facility men health facility men
Father’s age at interview
<20 * 11 * 11 * 11 * 9
20–34 94.7 587 70.8 556 79.3 587 85.8 466
35–49 96.1 178 76.4 171 81.7 178 87.9 145
Number of children ever
fathered
1 95.7 293 78.7 281 89.2 293 88.3 261
2–3 95.8 391 69.1 374 78.9 391 85.4 308
4–5 91.1 81 65.5 74 55.1 81 (76.5) 45
6+ * 12 * 9 * 12 * 5
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 97.2 190 76.4 184 88.3 190 90.6 168
Dalit 95.6 109 64.0 105 74.6 109 83.4 82
Janajati 94.5 264 71.2 250 82.0 264 90.7 217
Madhesi 93.1 172 73.7 160 74.0 172 77.5 127
Muslim (94.4) 37 (67.3) 35 (60.7) 37 * 22
Other * 4 * 4 * 4 * 4
Residence
Urban 95.4 521 74.6 497 80.4 521 86.9 419
Rural 94.2 256 66.8 241 78.6 256 84.2 201
Ecological zone
Mountain 96.0 55 55.7 53 73.2 55 90.1 40
Hill 94.9 263 75.9 249 82.6 263 88.8 217
Terai 95.0 459 71.8 436 79.0 459 83.9 363
Province
Koshi Province 95.3 138 76.1 131 76.0 138 91.4 105
Urban 95.4 93 71.7 88 76.0 93 (92.4) 70
Rural 95.2 45 85.3 43 76.0 45 (89.5) 34
Madhesh Province 91.3 183 69.1 167 67.7 183 79.5 124
Urban 91.6 131 69.0 120 66.6 131 79.3 87
Rural 90.7 52 69.4 47 70.5 52 80.0 37
Bagmati Province 95.6 156 82.4 149 87.1 156 88.8 136
Urban 96.9 117 86.1 114 92.3 117 88.1 108
Rural 91.8 39 70.5 36 71.3 39 (91.3) 28
Gandaki Province 97.9 47 81.9 46 94.0 47 92.1 44
Urban (97.4) 38 (89.6) 37 (94.8) 38 (94.7) 36
Rural * 10 * 10 * 10 * 9
Lumbini Province 98.7 136 68.2 134 85.7 136 88.7 116
Urban 98.4 78 67.6 77 81.6 78 88.5 64
Rural 99.0 57 69.0 57 91.3 57 89.0 52
Karnali Province 91.2 61 56.0 56 71.2 61 76.8 44
Urban 90.5 29 68.6 26 70.0 29 (78.2) 20
Rural 91.9 33 45.1 30 72.3 33 75.5 24
Sudurpashchim Province 97.5 56 60.4 54 91.8 56 80.1 51
Urban (100.0) 35 (67.7) 35 (94.6) 35 (85.5) 33
Rural (93.2) 21 (47.0) 19 (87.0) 21 (70.1) 18
Father’s education
No education 83.3 65 44.8 55 60.4 65 (72.4) 40
Basic education (1–8) 93.1 313 66.4 292 73.1 313 81.8 229
Lower basic education (1–5) 92.0 151 69.2 139 71.0 151 84.0 107
Upper basic education (6–8) 94.0 162 63.8 153 75.0 162 79.9 122
Secondary (9–12) 98.2 327 78.1 321 87.3 327 89.1 285
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.3 199 76.2 198 84.9 199 84.8 169
Higher secondary (11–12) 96.4 127 81.0 123 91.0 127 95.4 116
More than secondary (13 and
above) 100.0 71 88.7 71 93.3 71 95.4 67

(Continued…)

238 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.28—Continued
Among men age 15–49
with a youngest child Among men age 15–49
Among men age 15–49 age 0–2 for whom Among men age 15–49 whose youngest child
with a youngest child the mother had any with a youngest child age 0–2 was born
age 0–2 antenatal check-ups age 0–2 in a health facility
Percentage
who report
that the
child’s mother
had any
antenatal Percentage Percentage Percentage
check-ups ever present who report who went with
during during any that their child the child’s
Background pregnancy Number of antenatal Number of was born in a Number of mother to Number of
characteristic with the child men check-up men health facility men health facility men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 89.6 152 51.3 136 59.7 152 80.4 91
Second 94.7 138 65.0 131 81.2 138 78.0 112
Middle 93.5 154 65.3 144 72.6 154 78.5 112
Fourth 97.8 172 83.0 168 85.9 172 89.4 148
Highest 98.9 161 90.1 159 98.1 161 97.2 158
Total 95.0 777 72.0 738 79.8 777 86.0 620

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 239

 Table 9.29 Examinations for breast and cervical cancer
Percentage of women age 15–49 ever examined by a doctor or health care worker for breast cancer
and percentage ever tested by a doctor or health care worker for cervical cancer, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage Percentage
Background examined for tested for Number of
characteristic breast cancer cervical cancer women
Age
15–29 2.4 1.8 7,715
30–49 6.5 11.4 7,130
30–34 6.2 7.9 2,144
35–39 5.7 11.8 2,025
40–44 6.5 13.7 1,629
45–49 7.9 13.6 1,332
30–44 6.1 10.9 5,798
40–49 7.1 13.6 2,961
Number of living children
0 1.4 1.2 4,288
1–2 6.6 9.2 6,708
3–4 4.0 7.6 3,279
5+ 1.5 6.5 570
Marital status
Never married 1.1 0.2 3,203
Married or living together 5.2 8.2 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 5.6 5.7 462
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 4.1 5.5 4,147
Employed for cash 6.0 9.2 5,194
Employed not for cash 3.0 4.5 5,504
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.8 10.2 4,152
Dalit 3.6 4.0 2,240
Janajati 4.5 6.4 5,428
Madhesi 3.0 3.6 2,333
Muslim 1.9 1.7 676
Other * * 15
Residence
Urban 5.0 7.7 10,178
Rural 2.9 3.6 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 4.2 5.5 791
Hill 5.7 8.5 5,872
Terai 3.4 5.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 3.7 4.2 2,493
Urban 4.3 4.8 1,640
Rural 2.6 2.9 853
Madhesh Province 2.6 3.4 3,010
Urban 2.6 3.7 2,226
Rural 2.5 2.7 783
Bagmati Province 7.3 12.1 3,062
Urban 8.3 13.8 2,464
Rural 3.0 5.1 599
Gandaki Province 6.4 9.6 1,401
Urban 6.8 10.4 992
Rural 5.4 7.6 409
Lumbini Province 3.8 5.2 2,691
Urban 4.3 7.3 1,553
Rural 3.0 2.3 1,138
Karnali Province 3.0 4.9 909
Urban 3.3 5.8 507
Rural 2.5 3.7 402
Sudurpashchim Province 2.7 4.4 1,279
Urban 3.0 4.8 796
Rural 2.0 3.9 484
Education
No education 2.8 5.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 3.8 5.8 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 3.9 6.5 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.7 5.1 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 4.9 6.5 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.9 6.3 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 4.9 6.8 2,529
More than secondary (13 and above) 12.6 18.0 656

(Continued…)

240 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.29—Continued
Percentage Percentage
Background examined for tested for Number of
characteristic breast cancer cervical cancer women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.9 3.1 2,628
Second 3.1 3.7 2,857
Middle 3.1 4.1 3,028
Fourth 3.9 5.4 3,197
Highest 9.2 14.9 3,135
Total 4.4 6.4 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 241

 Table 9.30 Problems in accessing health care
Percentage of women age 15–49 who reported that they have serious problems in accessing health care for themselves when they are
sick, by type of problem and background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Problems in accessing health care
Getting At least one
permission Getting problem
Background to go for money for Distance to Not wanting accessing Number of
characteristic treatment treatment health facility to go alone health care women
Age
15–19 15.4 29.7 33.6 61.7 69.6 2,643
20–34 15.4 32.8 34.9 51.8 63.1 7,216
35–49 17.6 41.9 42.4 55.7 69.2 4,986
Number of living children
0 12.0 25.8 28.3 54.5 62.2 4,288
1–2 16.1 34.9 35.3 50.9 63.6 6,708
3–4 19.2 44.6 48.4 60.5 74.1 3,279
5+ 29.6 58.4 61.6 71.5 84.4 570
Marital status
Never married 10.8 25.5 28.2 54.6 61.9 3,203
Married or living together 17.7 37.4 39.5 54.9 67.3 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 13.0 51.6 42.3 54.9 73.4 462
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 13.7 29.3 28.5 54.1 63.0 4,147
Employed for cash 14.9 35.3 35.6 50.4 63.1 5,194
Employed not for cash 19.0 39.8 45.3 59.7 71.9 5,504
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 13.9 29.5 32.7 47.4 58.9 4,152
Dalit 21.1 45.2 45.2 60.8 74.6 2,240
Janajati 16.3 35.0 36.2 54.7 66.2 5,428
Madhesi 14.5 36.2 38.6 59.7 69.2 2,333
Muslim 17.2 37.9 41.6 65.3 75.0 676
Other * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 13.6 32.5 31.9 52.2 62.9 10,178
Rural 21.7 41.4 48.7 60.6 73.7 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 18.1 40.2 52.2 63.0 74.9 791
Hill 17.9 33.9 41.6 55.5 67.0 5,872
Terai 14.6 35.8 32.6 53.6 65.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 21.2 43.3 46.4 60.8 74.2 2,493
Urban 19.6 43.5 41.1 57.2 70.7 1,640
Rural 24.3 43.0 56.7 67.6 80.9 853
Madhesh Province 14.3 38.7 44.4 63.3 72.9 3,010
Urban 12.9 38.4 44.3 64.9 74.5 2,226
Rural 18.5 39.5 44.9 58.8 68.3 783
Bagmati Province 12.8 27.6 26.0 45.1 56.8 3,062
Urban 9.2 23.4 18.6 41.2 51.5 2,464
Rural 27.6 44.7 56.2 61.4 78.4 599
Gandaki Province 11.5 23.6 30.8 51.5 61.6 1,401
Urban 9.7 21.6 27.5 51.2 60.2 992
Rural 15.7 28.5 38.8 52.2 65.0 409
Lumbini Province 14.6 32.0 31.0 50.4 60.3 2,691
Urban 11.7 26.6 23.1 45.7 54.3 1,553
Rural 18.5 39.3 41.8 57.0 68.4 1,138
Karnali Province 37.6 55.4 61.4 70.7 82.6 909
Urban 35.5 53.6 53.1 67.5 78.7 507
Rural 40.3 57.8 71.8 74.9 87.5 402
Sudurpashchim Province 11.2 35.7 31.8 48.6 64.5 1,279
Urban 11.0 33.0 28.5 45.3 59.9 796
Rural 11.6 40.1 37.2 54.0 72.1 484
Education
No education 22.3 50.4 52.3 65.4 78.5 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 20.9 41.3 42.7 59.9 73.1 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 21.8 44.4 45.9 61.9 75.0 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 19.9 38.1 39.3 58.0 71.2 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 9.7 23.7 26.0 47.1 56.6 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 12.0 27.7 29.6 51.0 60.8 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 6.6 18.6 21.2 42.1 51.2 2,529
More than secondary (13 and above) 4.0 8.7 10.5 26.8 33.6 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 28.7 52.1 65.6 71.5 84.9 2,628
Second 21.3 45.5 50.9 63.9 77.6 2,857
Middle 15.4 36.9 36.9 57.4 68.9 3,028
Fourth 11.7 29.8 26.0 47.5 59.1 3,197
Highest 6.0 16.1 12.6 37.7 45.3 3,135
Total 16.1 35.3 37.2 54.9 66.3 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

242 • Maternal and Newborn Health Care

Table 9.31 Distance from health care
Percent distributions of women age 15–49 by travel time to nearest health facility and by means of transport to nearest health facility, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Means of transport to
Travel time to nearest health facility nearest health facility
Background <30 30–59 60–119 Not Number of
characteristic minutes minutes minutes ≥2 hours Total Motorized1 motorized2 Walking Other Total women
Age
15–19 76.1 15.1 6.7 2.0 100.0 8.1 8.2 83.7 0.0 100.0 2,643
20–34 78.4 13.0 6.3 2.2 100.0 12.7 6.0 81.4 0.0 100.0 7,216
35–49 75.7 14.6 6.7 2.9 100.0 10.6 5.0 84.3 0.1 100.0 4,986
Accessing health care
Distance to health
facility is a problem 57.2 22.7 14.2 5.8 100.0 9.4 3.9 86.6 0.1 100.0 5,520
Distance to health
facility is not a
problem 88.9 8.8 2.0 0.4 100.0 12.2 7.3 80.5 0.0 100.0 9,325
Means of transport to
nearest health
facility
Motorized1 84.2 13.9 1.5 0.4 100.0 na na na na na 1,658
Not motorized2 88.7 10.2 1.0 0.1 100.0 na na na na na 894
Walking 75.3 14.2 7.6 2.8 100.0 na na na na na 12,289
Other * * * * 100.0 na na na na na 4
Residence
Urban 82.8 11.1 4.2 1.9 100.0 12.0 6.4 81.6 0.0 100.0 10,178
Rural 64.8 20.2 11.5 3.5 100.0 9.3 5.3 85.4 0.0 100.0 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.8 24.4 14.4 3.4 100.0 2.7 0.1 97.2 0.0 100.0 791
Hill 66.3 16.1 12.2 5.4 100.0 8.4 0.2 91.5 0.0 100.0 5,872
Terai 86.8 11.4 1.7 0.1 100.0 14.0 10.8 75.2 0.0 100.0 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 68.8 18.2 7.8 5.1 100.0 20.4 11.2 68.4 0.0 100.0 2,493
Urban 73.7 16.6 5.0 4.8 100.0 22.9 11.7 65.3 0.0 100.0 1,640
Rural 59.5 21.4 13.3 5.7 100.0 15.5 10.3 74.2 0.0 100.0 853
Madhesh Province 87.5 11.1 1.4 0.0 100.0 9.9 3.0 87.1 0.0 100.0 3,010
Urban 88.7 10.3 1.0 0.1 100.0 10.1 2.9 87.0 0.0 100.0 2,226
Rural 84.0 13.4 2.7 0.0 100.0 9.5 3.3 87.2 0.0 100.0 783
Bagmati Province 83.3 9.2 5.0 2.5 100.0 9.1 3.9 86.9 0.1 100.0 3,062
Urban 91.4 4.6 2.3 1.6 100.0 9.9 4.8 85.1 0.1 100.0 2,464
Rural 49.8 28.4 15.8 6.1 100.0 5.7 0.1 94.2 0.0 100.0 599
Gandaki Province 76.9 14.6 7.3 1.3 100.0 10.5 1.8 87.6 0.1 100.0 1,401
Urban 80.9 12.3 6.1 0.7 100.0 13.4 2.2 84.2 0.1 100.0 992
Rural 67.2 20.1 10.2 2.6 100.0 3.5 0.6 95.8 0.0 100.0 409
Lumbini Province 77.8 13.4 7.3 1.5 100.0 11.1 7.5 81.4 0.0 100.0 2,691
Urban 83.6 10.2 4.8 1.4 100.0 9.0 7.1 83.9 0.0 100.0 1,553
Rural 70.0 17.7 10.7 1.6 100.0 14.1 7.9 78.0 0.0 100.0 1,138
Karnali Province 58.5 19.3 15.6 6.6 100.0 3.0 0.3 96.7 0.0 100.0 909
Urban 62.2 17.3 13.6 6.9 100.0 4.9 0.5 94.6 0.0 100.0 507
Rural 53.8 21.8 18.2 6.2 100.0 0.6 0.2 99.2 0.0 100.0 402
Sudurpashchim
Province 66.3 20.3 11.0 2.4 100.0 7.6 13.8 78.6 0.0 100.0 1,279
Urban 72.2 18.5 8.5 0.8 100.0 9.9 17.2 72.8 0.0 100.0 796
Rural 56.5 23.2 15.3 5.0 100.0 3.8 8.1 88.0 0.0 100.0 484
Education
No education 71.1 17.5 8.3 3.2 100.0 8.0 4.2 87.8 0.0 100.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 73.4 15.9 7.6 3.1 100.0 10.9 6.7 82.4 0.1 100.0 4,595
Lower basic
education (1–5) 73.1 15.7 7.3 3.9 100.0 10.2 5.1 84.5 0.1 100.0 2,314
Upper basic
education (6–8) 73.7 16.2 7.8 2.3 100.0 11.5 8.3 80.2 0.0 100.0 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 82.2 11.1 5.1 1.6 100.0 12.7 7.0 80.3 0.0 100.0 5,798
Lower secondary
(9–10) 79.9 12.5 5.9 1.7 100.0 12.9 8.2 79.0 0.0 100.0 3,270
Higher secondary
(11–12) 85.3 9.3 4.1 1.3 100.0 12.5 5.5 81.9 0.1 100.0 2,529
More than secondary
(13 and above) 92.8 4.8 2.0 0.3 100.0 18.0 2.9 79.0 0.0 100.0 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 44.2 26.3 19.7 9.9 100.0 2.9 1.5 95.5 0.0 100.0 2,628
Second 66.0 21.7 9.7 2.6 100.0 7.3 6.8 85.9 0.0 100.0 2,857
Middle 80.6 14.6 4.3 0.5 100.0 13.3 9.7 76.9 0.1 100.0 3,028
Fourth 91.1 7.5 1.3 0.2 100.0 14.3 8.8 76.8 0.0 100.0 3,197
Highest 97.2 2.6 0.2 0.0 100.0 16.3 2.7 81.0 0.0 100.0 3,135
Total 77.1 13.9 6.5 2.4 100.0 11.2 6.0 82.8 0.0 100.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = not applicable
1
Includes car/truck, public bus, motorcycle/scooter, and three-wheeler
2
Includes animal-drawn cart, bicycle/rickshaw, and boat without motor

Maternal and Newborn Health Care • 243

CHILD HEALTH 10
Key Findings
▪ Vaccinations: By the time of the survey, 80% of children
age 12–23 months were fully vaccinated against all basic
antigens and 52% were fully vaccinated according to the
national schedule. Four percent of children did not
receive any vaccines.
▪ Symptoms of acute respiratory infection: 1% of
children under age 5 had symptoms of acute respiratory
infection (ARI) in the 2 weeks before the survey, and
advice or treatment was sought for 75% of these children.
▪ Fever: 23% of children under age 5 had a fever in the 2
weeks before the survey, and 78% of them were taken to
a health facility for advice or treatment.
▪ Diarrhea: 10% of children under age 5 had diarrhea in
the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and 57% of these
children were taken to a health facility or provider for
treatment or advice. Forty-five percent of children with
diarrhea were given oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and
continued feeding. Only 11% of children were given ORS
and zinc, and 28% did not receive any treatment.
▪ Care seeking: Among children under age 5, 60% with
symptoms of ARI, 63% with fever, and 42% with diarrhea
were taken for advice or treatment to a private sector
facility.

I
nformation on child health and survival can help policymakers and program managers assess the
efficacy of current strategies, formulate appropriate interventions to prevent deaths from childhood
illnesses, and improve the health of children in Nepal.

This chapter presents information on birth weight and vaccination status for young children. It also looks at
the prevalence of, and care-seeking behaviors for, three common childhood illnesses: acute respiratory
infection (ARI), fever, and diarrhea.

10.1 CHILD’S SIZE

Information on a baby’s birth weight is important because birth weight is an indirect indicator of maternal
nutrition as well as a predictive indicator of potential neonatal death and of malnutrition if the child
survives. Several programs to address low birth weight are under way in Nepal, including interventions
designed to improve maternal nutrition through quality antenatal care services and to care for small and
sick newborns at hospitals (Ministry of Health and Population 2022a).

The 2022 NDHS solicited information from mothers on the size of their live births in the 2 years preceding
the survey. Based on mothers’ reporting, 5% of babies were very small at birth, 10% were smaller than
average, and 85% were average or larger than average.

Information on birth weight was derived from written records or the mother’s recall. Overall, information
on birth weight was available for 81% of babies (data were captured through written records for 15% of
children and through the mother’s recall for 66%) (Table 10.1).

Child Health • 245

 10.2 VACCINATION OF CHILDREN
Universal immunization of children against common vaccine-preventable diseases is crucial in reducing
infant and child morbidity and mortality. In Nepal, routine childhood vaccines include bacille Calmette-
Guérin (BCG) (tuberculosis), oral polio vaccine (OPV) or fractional inactivated polio vaccine (fIPV),
pentavalent or DPT-HepB-Hib (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae type
B), pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, rotavirus vaccine, measles-rubella vaccine (MR), and Japanese
encephalitis.

Information on vaccination coverage was obtained in two ways during the survey: from written
vaccination records, including vaccination or health cards, and from verbal reports. For each child born in
the 3 years before the survey, mothers were asked to show the vaccination card or other document used for
recording the child’s immunizations. If the vaccination card or other document was available, the
interviewer copied the dates of each vaccination received. If a vaccination was not recorded on the
vaccination card or document as having been administered, the mother was asked to recall whether that
particular vaccination had been given.

If the mother was not able to present the vaccination card or other document for a child, she was asked to
recall whether the child had received the BCG, oral and injectable polio, DPT-HepB-Hib, pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine, rotavirus, measles-rubella, and Japanese encephalitis vaccines. If she indicated that the
child had received any of the multidose vaccines, she was asked the number of doses the child received.

10.2.1 Vaccination Card Ownership and Availability

Vaccination cards are a critical tool in ensuring that a child receives all recommended vaccinations on
schedule. Ninety-nine percent of children age 12–23 months and age 24–35 months ever had a vaccination
card or other document on which their vaccinations were recorded (Table 10.2). However, not all mothers
were able to produce their child’s vaccination card at the time of the interview. Vaccination cards were
available and seen at the time of the interview for 79% of children age 12–23 months and 61% of children
age 24–35 months.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Vaccination card retention increases with increasing mother’s education. For instance, vaccination
cards were seen for 74% of children age 12–23 months whose mothers had no education, as compared
with 83% of those whose mothers had a secondary education.

▪ The percentage of children age 12–23 months with a vaccination card seen ranged from 74% in the
lowest wealth quintile to 84% in the middle wealth quintile.

10.2.2 Basic Antigen Coverage

Fully vaccinated: basic antigens

Percentage of children who received specific vaccines at any time before the
survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report). To have
received all basic antigens, a child must receive at least:
▪ One dose of BCG vaccine, which protects against tuberculosis
▪ Three doses of polio vaccine given as oral polio vaccine (OPV)
▪ Three doses of DPT-containing vaccine, which protects against diphtheria,
pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus
▪ One dose of measles-containing vaccine given as measles-rubella (MR)
Sample: Children age 12–23 months

246 • Child Health

Historically, an important measure Figure 10.1 Childhood vaccinations
of vaccination coverage has been Percentage of children age 12–23 months vaccinated at
the proportion of children receiving any time before the survey
all “basic” antigens. Children are
considered fully vaccinated against BCG 95
all basic antigens if they have 1 95
received the BCG vaccine, three
2 93
doses each of oral polio vaccine and Polio
DTP-containing vaccine, and a 3 86
single dose of measles-rubella
1 92
vaccine. In Nepal, the BCG vaccine fIPV
is usually given at birth or at first 2 85
clinic contact, while the OPV and
DPT-containing vaccines are given
1 95
at age 6, 10, and 14 weeks. A first
measles-rubella should be given at DPT-HepB-Hib 2 93
or soon after age 9 months.
3 89
Nationally, 80% of children age 1 93
12–23 months were fully vaccinated
Pneumococcal 2 91
with basic antigens at any time
before the survey. Four percent of 3 81
children age 12–23 months did not 1 78
receive any vaccinations (Table Rotavirus
2 72
10.3 and Figure 10.1).
Japanese encephalitis 81

Measles-rubella 89

All basic antigens 80

Fully vaccinated
52
(national schedule)
None 4

Child Health • 247

 Trends: The percentage of children age 12–23 Figure 10.2 Trends in childhood
months who received all basic antigens at any time vaccinations
before the survey increased from 43% in 1996 to Percentage of children age 12–23 months
78% in 2016 and 80% in 2022 (Figure 10.2). who received all basic antigens at any
time before the survey
Patterns by background characteristics
83 87
78 80
▪ Among children age 12–23 months, those 66 All basic antigens
receiving all basic antigens declines as birth
order increases, from 82% for first-order births 43
to 66% for fourth- to fifth-order births (Table
20
10.4). No vaccinations
1 3 3 1 4
▪ A higher percentage of children age 12–23
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
months in the mountain zone (89%) than in the NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
hill (84%) or terai (77%) zone received all basic
antigens. Figure 10.3 Vaccination coverage
by province
▪ The proportion of children age 12–23 months
Percentage of children age 12–23 months
who are fully immunized with basic antigens is who received all basic antigens
highest in Gandaki Province (93%) and lowest in at any time before the survey
Madhesh Province (68%) (Figure 10.3). Gandaki Province 93

▪ Six percent of children age 12–23 months whose Sudurpashchim

89
Province
mothers had no education did not receive any
vaccinations, as compared with only 2% of those Lumbini Province 85
whose mothers had a secondary education. Karnali Province 84

Bagmati Province 83

Koshi Province 81

Madhesh Province 68
10.2.3 National Schedule Coverage

Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (age 12–23 months)

Percentage of children who received specific vaccines at any time before the
survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report). To be fully
vaccinated according to the national schedule, a child must receive the
following:
▪ One dose of BCG vaccine
▪ Three doses of OPV and two doses of fIPV
▪ Three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib
▪ Three doses of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
▪ Two doses of rotavirus vaccine
▪ One dose of MR
▪ One dose of Japanese encephalitis
Sample: Children age 12–23 months

A second measure of vaccination coverage is the percentage of children age 12–23 months who are fully
vaccinated according to the national schedule. In this report, a child age 12–23 months is considered to be
fully vaccinated according to the national schedule if the child has received all basic antigens as well as
two doses of fIPV, three doses of the pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose

248 • Child Health

of Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Nationally, 52% of children age 12–23 months are fully vaccinated
according to the national immunization schedule (Table 10.4).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ A higher percentage of male children age 12–23 Figure 10.4 Vaccination coverage by
months are fully vaccinated according to the mother’s education
national schedule than female children (55% Percentage of children age 12–23 months
versus 49%). who were fully vaccinated
(according to national schedule)
▪ The percentage of children age 12–23 months at any time before the survey
who are fully vaccinated according to the
national schedule increases with increasing
(65)
mother’s education, from 39% among those 59
whose mother has no education to 59% among 51
those whose mother has a secondary education 39
(Figure 10.4).

▪ The percentage of children age 12–23 months

fully vaccinated according to the national
No education Basic Secondary More than
schedule is highest (57%) in the fourth wealth education (9–12) secondary
quintile and lowest in the second wealth quintile (1–8) (13 and
(45%). above)
Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49
unweighted cases.
Source of Vaccinations

Almost all children in Nepal (98%) receive vaccinations from the public medical sector. The private
medical sector is not a prominent source of vaccinations across the provinces with the exception of
Bagmati Province, where 5% of children receive vaccinations from the private medical sector (Table
10.5).

Impact of COVID-19 on Receiving Vaccinations

The 2022 NDHS asked if any of the vaccines were missed or delayed due to COVID-19. Overall,
vaccinations were missed or delayed due to COVID-19 for 18% of children. In the case of 21% of children
who did not receive any vaccinations, COVID-19 was reported as a reason for not receiving the vaccines
(Table 10.6).

10.3 SYMPTOMS OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY INFECTION AND CARE-SEEKING BEHAVIOR

Acute respiratory infections are a major public health problem among children under age 5 in Nepal, and
pneumonia has emerged as the leading cause of death among children in that age group. The Community-
Based Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illness (CB-IMNCI) program focuses on five
major diseases among children under age 5: pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, measles, and malnutrition.

Under the CB-IMNCI program, female community health volunteers (FCHVs) carry out health
promotional activities, provide essential commodities such as oral rehydration salts (ORS) and zinc,
identify and assess diseases, and refer children to a health facility if danger signs appear (Ministry of
Health and Population 2021).

Child Health • 249

 Care seeking for symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI)
Children with symptoms of ARI for whom advice or treatment was sought. ARI
symptoms consist of short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or difficult
breathing that is chest-related.
Sample: Children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks before
the survey

Only 1% of children under age 5 had symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the survey (Table 10.7).
Seventy-five percent of children who had ARI symptoms were taken to a health facility or provider for
advice or treatment, and 39% received treatment on the same day (data not shown).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Children living in households where solid fuel is used for cooking (2%) were more likely to have
symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the survey than children in households using clean fuel
and technology (1%).

▪ The percentage of children with symptoms of ARI is higher in Karnali Province (4%) than in the other
provinces (2% or less).

Source of Advice or Treatment for Symptoms of ARI

Among children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI, advice or treatment was more often sought from
private medical sector facilities (60%) than from public sector facilities (19%) (Table 10.8).

Among private sector facilities, the prominent sources are private clinics (40%) and pharmacies (25%).
Health posts are the most common public sector source (14%).

10.4 FEVER AND CARE-SEEKING BEHAVIOR

Fever is the most common illness among children in Nepal. It can be the manifestation of mild illnesses
such as the common cold or severe illnesses such as malaria, measles, pneumonia, or Japanese
encephalitis.

Care seeking for fever

Children with fever for whom advice or treatment was sought.
Sample: Children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks before the survey

Twenty-three percent of children under age 5 had a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey. Seventy-
eight percent of these children were taken to a health facility or provider for advice or treatment, and 41%
received antibiotics. Advice or treatment was sought the same or next day for 55% of these children
(Table 10.9).

Trends: The percentage of children under age 5 with fever for whom advice or treatment was sought
increased from 53% in 1996 to 80% in 2016 before decreasing slightly to 78% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of children under age 5 with fever increases from 18% among those under age 6
months to 27% among those age 6–11 months and generally declines thereafter (Table 10.9).

▪ The percentage of children with fever is highest in Karnali Province (28%) and lowest in Madhesh
Province (20%).

250 • Child Health

▪ The percentage of children with fever for whom advice or treatment was sought ranges from 70% in
Karnali Province to 89% in Madhesh Province.

▪ The percentage of children with fever who took antibiotics is highest in Madhesh Province (53%) and
lowest in Karnali Province (32%).

▪ Children with fever were more likely to be taken to a health facility or provider for advice or treatment
if their mother had no education (82%) than if their mother had more than a higher secondary
education (76%).

Source of Advice or Treatment for Fever

Among children under age 5 with fever, advice or treatment was more likely to be sought from a private
medical sector facility (63%) than from a public sector facility (16%) (Table 10.10). Private clinics (31%)
and pharmacies (29%) are the most common private sector sources.

10.5 DIARRHEAL DISEASE

Diarrheal disease remains an important cause of mortality and morbidity among young children in Nepal.
Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and supplemental zinc, combined with continued feeding, are the
recommended interventions for treating diarrhea. ORT can be provided as increased fluids (especially
increased breastfeeding), as fluid prepared from a packet of oral rehydration salts (ORS), or as homemade
fluids. Zinc has been shown to reduce the severity and duration of diarrhea, and the CB-IMNCI protocol
recommends that all children with diarrhea receive a 10-day course of zinc.

10.5.1 Diarrhea and Care-seeking Behavior

Care seeking for diarrhea

Children with diarrhea for whom advice or treatment was sought.
Sample: Children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey

The survey findings show that the prevalence of diarrhea among children under age 5 is 10%. Advice or
treatment was sought for 57% of children who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey (Table
10.11).

Trends: The percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhea for whom advice or treatment was sought
increased from 44% in 2001 to 64% in 2016 before declining slightly to 57% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The prevalence of diarrhea is highest (18%) Figure 10.5 Diarrhea prevalence by age
among children age 6–11 months and followed Percentage of children under age 5 who
by those age 12–23 months and less than age 6 had diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the
months (13% each) (Figure 10.5). survey

▪ The percentage of children under age 5 with

diarrhea varies according to source of drinking
water. Surprisingly, the percentage is lower
among those with an unimproved source of 18
13 13
drinking water (4%) than among those with an 10 8
10
7
improved source (11%).

<6 6–11 12–23 24–35 36–47 48–59 Total

Age in months

Child Health • 251

 ▪ The percentage of children with diarrhea is highest in Bagmati Province (13%) and lowest in Gandaki
Province (8%).

10.5.2 Feeding Practices

Appropriate feeding practices

Children with diarrhea are given more liquids than usual and as much food or
more than usual.
Sample: Children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey

Twenty percent of children under Figure 10.6 Feeding practices during diarrhea
age 5 suffering from diarrhea were Percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhea in the
given more fluids than their usual 2 weeks before the survey
intake, while 62% were given the
More Same Less None Never gave
same volume of liquids and 15%
were given a lesser amount of
liquids. More than half (55%) of Liquids
20 62 15 3
children with diarrhea were given given
(compared to
the same amount of food (as usual)
recommended), while only 4% were <1
given a small quantity of food.
Three percent of children were not Food given 10 55 24 10
(compared to
given any fluids during diarrhea, usual)
and less than 1% were given no
food (Table 10.12 and Figure 10.6).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Twenty-two percent of male children under age 5 with diarrhea were given more fluids, as compared
with 17% of female children (Table 10.12).

▪ Similarly, 22% of urban children with diarrhea were given more fluids, compared with 16% of rural
children.

▪ Sixty-five percent of children with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding survey were breastfed as usual.

▪ Feeding practices among children with diarrhea vary considerably by ecological zone. For example,
the percentage of children with diarrhea who were given increased fluids was much higher in the hill
zone than in the terai zone (28% versus 16%).

▪ The percentage of children with diarrhea who received more liquids increases substantially with
increasing mother’s education, from 7% among those whose mothers had no education to 26% among
those whose mothers had a secondary education (Table 10.12).

10.5.3 Oral Rehydration Therapy, Zinc, Continued Feeding, and Other Treatments

Oral rehydration therapy

Children with diarrhea are given increased fluids or a fluid made from a special
packet of oral rehydration salts (ORS).
Sample: Children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey

252 • Child Health

As per the CB-IMNCI protocol, cases of diarrhea Figure 10.7 Treatment of diarrhea
should be treated with ORS and zinc. The 2022 Percentage of children under age 5 with
NDHS results show that 38% of children under age 5 diarrhea in the 2 weeks before the survey
with diarrhea received ORS and 18% received zinc,
Advice or treatment
while 11% received both ORS and zinc as 57
sought
recommended. Thirty-six percent of children were
Fluid from ORS packet 38
given ORS and continued feeding (Table 10.13 and
Figure 10.7). Increased fluids 20

The CB-IMNCI protocol recommends that children ORS or increased fluids 48

under age 5 with diarrhea be treated with zinc for 10 ORT and continued
45
days. Among children with diarrhea who were given feeding
zinc, only 2% received the full dose (Table 10.14). ORS and continued
36
feeding
Trends: The proportion of children under age 5 with Zinc 18
diarrhea who were treated with zinc and ORS
Zinc and ORS 11
increased from 5% in 2011 to 11% in 2022.
However, the proportion who took zinc for the Antibiotics 17
recommended 10 days declined from 30% in 2016 to
2% in 2022. Home remedy/other 24

No treatment 28
Patterns by background characteristics

▪ More female children under age 5 with diarrhea were given ORS and zinc than male children (12%
and 9%, respectively) (Table 10.13).

▪ The percentage of children with diarrhea who were given ORT and continued feeding is higher in the
hill zone (56%) than in the terai zone (39%).

▪ The proportion of children with diarrhea who were given ORT and continued feeding increases from
36% among those whose mother has no education to 47% among those whose mother has a secondary
education.

▪ Similarly, the percentage of children with diarrhea who received ORS and zinc is lower among those
whose mother has no education (8%) than among those whose mother has a secondary education
(12%).

▪ Female children (33%) were more likely than male children (25%) to be given no treatment.

Source of Advice or Treatment for Diarrhea

Among children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, 42% were taken to private
medical sector facilities for advice or treatment while only 15% were taken to public sector facilities. The
primary private medical sector service providers are private clinics (22%) and pharmacies (19%). Health
posts are the prominent public sector source (11%) (Table 10.15).

Among children with diarrhea who received ORS, 52% were taken to a private medical sector facility for
advice or treatment and 31% were taken to a public sector facility. Similarly, among children who received
zinc, 69% were taken to private sector facilities, while only 25% were taken to public sector facilities.

Child Health • 253

 10.6 TREATMENT OF CHILDHOOD ILLNESS
During the 2 weeks preceding the survey, fever was Figure 10.8 Symptoms of childhood
the most common illness among children under age 5 illness and care seeking
(23%). Children with fever were more often taken for
Percentage of Among those with
advice or treatment (78%) than those with symptoms children under age 5 symptoms of illness,
of ARI (75%); only slightly more than half (57%) of with symptoms in the percentage for whom
children with diarrhea were taken for advice or 2 weeks before the advice or treatment
survey was sought
treatment (Figure 10.8).

75 78

57

23
10
1

ARI Fever Diar- ARI Fever Diar-

rhea rhea

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on child health, see the following tables:

▪ Table 10.1 Child’s size

▪ Table 10.2 Possession and observation of vaccination cards
▪ Table 10.3 Vaccinations by source of information
▪ Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics
▪ Table 10.5 Source of vaccinations
▪ Table 10.6 Children receiving vaccinations impacted by COVID-19
▪ Table 10.7 Children with symptoms of ARI
▪ Table 10.8 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI
▪ Table 10.9 Children with fever and care seeking for fever
▪ Table 10.10 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever
▪ Table 10.11 Children with diarrhea and care seeking for diarrhea
▪ Table 10.12 Feeding practices during diarrhea
▪ Table 10.13 Oral rehydration salts, zinc, continued feeding, and other treatments for diarrhea
▪ Table 10.14 Duration of treatment with zinc for diarrhea
▪ Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhea

254 • Child Health

Table 10.1 Child’s size
Percent distribution of live births in the 2 years preceding the survey by mother’s estimate of baby’s size at birth and percentage of live
births in the 2 years preceding the survey that have a reported birth weight by source of information (written record or mother’s report),
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of births that
Percent distribution of births by size of baby have a reported birth
at birth based on mother’s estimate weight according to:
Smaller
Background Very than Average Don’t Written Mother’s Number of
characteristic small average or larger know Total record report Either births
Mother’s age at birth
<20 5.5 11.0 83.3 0.2 100.0 12.2 66.7 78.9 365
20–34 4.4 9.5 85.8 0.2 100.0 15.5 66.0 81.5 1,534
35–49 1.1 17.7 81.2 0.0 100.0 14.1 65.2 79.3 78
Birth order
1 6.0 10.2 83.4 0.3 100.0 15.3 74.3 89.6 821
2–3 3.2 9.7 87.0 0.1 100.0 15.4 61.8 77.2 976
4–5 3.8 10.7 85.3 0.3 100.0 11.0 49.1 60.1 156
6+ (10.8) (22.1) (67.0) (0.0) 100.0 (2.9) (69.2) (72.1) 24
Mother’s smoking status
Smokes cigarettes/tobacco (14.5) (9.3) (76.2) (0.0) 100.0 (13.4) (54.7) (68.1) 38
Does not smoke 4.3 10.1 85.3 0.2 100.0 14.9 66.3 81.2 1,939
Residence
Urban 4.8 9.6 85.6 0.0 100.0 15.4 66.4 81.8 1,295
Rural 3.9 11.2 84.4 0.5 100.0 13.9 65.3 79.3 683
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.4 12.2 81.7 0.6 100.0 12.3 65.3 77.7 132
Hill 3.2 8.9 87.7 0.2 100.0 15.9 68.3 84.2 648
Terai 5.1 10.6 84.2 0.1 100.0 14.6 64.9 79.5 1,197
Province
Koshi Province 4.0 10.7 85.1 0.2 100.0 23.9 59.7 83.6 368
Urban 4.6 9.5 85.9 0.0 100.0 25.3 60.6 85.9 242
Rural 2.8 13.0 83.6 0.6 100.0 21.2 57.9 79.2 126
Madhesh Province 3.0 8.7 88.3 0.0 100.0 5.5 60.3 65.8 514
Urban 4.0 8.5 87.6 0.0 100.0 5.7 58.5 64.2 377
Rural 0.5 9.3 90.1 0.0 100.0 5.0 65.3 70.3 137
Bagmati Province 5.0 7.7 87.3 0.0 100.0 21.2 68.1 89.3 299
Urban 5.2 8.2 86.5 0.0 100.0 23.8 69.1 93.0 219
Rural 4.5 6.1 89.4 0.0 100.0 14.2 65.2 79.4 81
Gandaki Province 3.6 14.9 81.5 0.0 100.0 19.6 68.6 88.3 117
Urban 3.2 16.2 80.6 0.0 100.0 16.3 78.1 94.4 76
Rural 4.3 12.5 83.3 0.0 100.0 25.9 50.7 76.7 40
Lumbini Province 5.6 9.9 84.2 0.3 100.0 13.3 74.7 88.1 335
Urban 6.7 11.1 82.3 0.0 100.0 11.8 75.8 87.6 187
Rural 4.3 8.4 86.7 0.7 100.0 15.2 73.4 88.6 148
Karnali Province 6.1 12.2 80.6 1.1 100.0 8.8 67.3 76.1 152
Urban 5.1 8.0 86.4 0.6 100.0 8.5 70.7 79.3 75
Rural 7.1 16.3 75.1 1.5 100.0 9.0 64.0 73.0 78
Sudurpashchim Province 6.0 12.6 81.1 0.3 100.0 17.2 72.9 90.2 192
Urban 5.4 10.1 84.6 0.0 100.0 19.5 73.7 93.2 120
Rural 7.0 16.9 75.3 0.9 100.0 13.5 71.7 85.2 72
Mother’s education
No education 2.4 12.9 84.6 0.1 100.0 8.2 53.3 61.5 367
Basic education (1–8) 6.3 11.2 82.2 0.3 100.0 13.2 62.7 75.9 677
Lower basic education
(1–5) 6.5 14.1 79.2 0.2 100.0 11.0 58.2 69.3 340
Upper basic education
(6–8) 6.2 8.3 85.2 0.3 100.0 15.3 67.3 82.6 337
Secondary (9–12) 3.9 8.2 87.7 0.2 100.0 18.0 73.9 91.9 842
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.4 7.5 87.8 0.3 100.0 18.6 71.6 90.2 505
Higher secondary
(11–12) 3.2 9.2 87.6 0.1 100.0 17.1 77.3 94.4 337
More than secondary (13
and above) 5.1 8.5 86.4 0.0 100.0 25.5 69.7 95.2 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 5.6 11.8 82.2 0.4 100.0 8.4 60.7 69.1 444
Second 2.7 11.1 86.1 0.1 100.0 14.4 61.1 75.4 443
Middle 6.1 6.8 87.0 0.2 100.0 16.0 64.0 79.9 388
Fourth 3.4 10.8 85.5 0.2 100.0 18.4 70.3 88.7 396
Highest 5.0 9.7 85.3 0.0 100.0 19.2 78.2 97.3 306
Total 4.5 10.1 85.2 0.2 100.0 14.9 66.1 80.9 1,977

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

Child Health • 255

 Table 10.2 Possession and observation of vaccination cards
Percentage of children age 12–23 months and children age 24–35 months who ever had a vaccination card, and percentage with a
vaccination card seen, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Children age 12–23 months Children age 24–35 months
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
who ever had with a who ever had with a
Background a vaccination vaccination Number of a vaccination vaccination Number of
characteristic card1 card seen1 children card1 card seen1 children
Sex
Male 98.6 79.2 486 99.1 61.9 537
Female 99.0 77.7 474 98.0 60.0 529
Birth order
1 99.7 75.9 401 99.6 66.4 440
2–3 98.6 80.8 463 98.5 59.6 507
4–5 96.5 79.4 80 95.3 46.8 101
6+ * * 15 (94.6) (44.9) 18
Residence
Urban 99.4 78.0 623 99.0 60.4 685
Rural 97.8 79.4 336 97.9 62.0 381
Ecological zone
Mountain 99.3 83.5 68 97.9 57.5 66
Hill 98.8 78.1 301 99.2 63.5 375
Terai 98.8 78.1 591 98.3 59.8 625
Province
Koshi Province 98.9 76.7 168 98.3 61.1 165
Urban 100.0 79.3 106 98.2 57.5 103
Rural 97.1 72.2 61 98.3 67.1 63
Madhesh Province 98.8 74.4 269 98.1 52.7 304
Urban 99.3 75.1 206 98.8 53.3 235
Rural 97.4 72.3 63 95.8 50.6 69
Bagmati Province 98.8 85.6 134 97.9 65.0 178
Urban (100.0) (87.2) 90 98.5 64.2 131
Rural 96.3 82.2 44 96.3 67.3 47
Gandaki Province 100.0 72.3 51 100.0 61.0 67
Urban (100.0) (66.1) 27 (100.0) (54.2) 45
Rural (100.0) (79.4) 24 (100.0) (74.7) 22
Lumbini Province 98.8 81.5 172 100.0 68.8 184
Urban 100.0 76.8 96 100.0 73.3 84
Rural 97.2 87.3 76 100.0 65.1 100
Karnali Province 97.4 73.4 79 97.6 61.5 79
Urban 94.6 65.1 39 98.5 66.6 33
Rural 100.0 81.4 40 96.9 57.8 45
Sudurpashchim Province 99.5 85.6 87 99.0 63.8 89
Urban 100.0 87.3 59 100.0 68.4 54
Rural 98.4 82.3 28 97.4 56.5 35
Mother’s education
No education 96.4 73.9 197 96.2 47.0 262
Basic education (1–8) 98.9 76.7 338 99.0 64.3 367
Lower basic education (1–5) 97.8 73.8 168 99.3 62.7 179
Upper basic education (6–8) 100.0 79.5 171 98.8 65.9 188
Secondary (9–12) 99.9 83.4 385 99.6 65.1 378
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.8 85.2 234 99.3 66.1 229
Higher secondary (11–12) 100.0 80.7 150 100.0 63.6 150
More than secondary (13 and
above) (100.0) (67.4) 39 100.0 74.8 59
Wealth quintile
Lowest 96.8 74.0 233 97.5 54.5 265
Second 99.1 76.8 224 99.0 64.4 210
Middle 99.6 84.0 180 98.8 63.3 232
Fourth 99.6 78.0 193 98.1 58.6 199
Highest 100.0 82.2 129 100.0 66.6 160
Total 98.8 78.5 959 98.6 60.9 1,066

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record

256 • Child Health

Table 10.3 Vaccinations by source of information
Percentage of children age 12–23 months and children age 24–35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey, by source
of information (vaccination card or mother’s report), and percentage who received specific vaccines by the appropriate age, Nepal DHS 2022
Children age 12–23 months Children age 24–35 months
Vaccinated Vaccinated
Either source by Either source by
Vaccination Mother’s (crude appropriate Vaccination Mother’s (crude appropriate
Vaccine card1 report coverage) age2,3, card1 report coverage) age3,4
BCG 78.0 17.2 95.2 95.1 60.2 32.9 93.2 92.6
DPT-HepB-Hib
1 78.0 16.7 94.7 94.6 60.9 32.1 93.1 92.4
2 77.3 16.2 93.4 93.2 60.4 31.5 91.8 91.3
3 74.8 14.3 89.1 87.7 59.8 29.2 89.0 87.0
OPV
OPV 1 77.9 17.0 94.9 94.9 60.9 33.0 94.0 93.3
OPV 2 76.7 16.2 92.9 92.6 60.4 32.5 92.9 92.4
OPV 3 72.2 13.3 85.6 83.8 58.3 27.8 86.1 83.7
fIPV
1 75.6 15.9 91.5 91.5 58.2 31.5 89.7 89.0
2 69.9 15.2 85.1 82.9 51.4 30.2 81.6 79.7
Pneumococcal
1 77.8 15.4 93.3 93.0 60.7 30.1 90.8 89.6
2 76.4 14.4 90.8 90.2 59.7 28.4 88.1 86.8
3 69.5 11.0 80.5 76.4 57.9 22.7 80.6 75.7
Rotavirus
1 65.5 12.3 77.8 77.6 9.7 22.2 31.9 23.4
2 60.3 11.5 71.8 71.2 7.7 19.9 27.6 20.1
Measles-rubella
1 73.6 14.9 88.5 83.4 59.8 30.7 90.5 81.7
2 na na na na 54.8 28.5 83.3 82.3
Japanese encephalitis 66.9 14.0 80.9 80.9 57.5 30.6 88.1 87.6
Fully vaccinated (basic
antigens)5 69.0 11.0 80.0 76.0 56.9 24.6 81.6 73.8
Fully vaccinated
(according to national
schedule)6 45.6 6.5 52.1 48.7 6.3 12.3 18.6 13.6
No vaccinations 0.2 4.2 4.4 na 0.0 5.5 5.5 na

Number of children 752 207 959 959 650 416 1,066 1,066

na = Not applicable
BCG = Bacille Calmette-Guérin
DPT = Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
HepB = Hepatitis B
Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b
OPV = Oral polio vaccine
fIPV = Fractional inactivated polio vaccine
1
Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record
2
Received by age 12 months
3
For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date of vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations
given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination.
4
Received by age 12 months for all vaccines except measles-rubella 2 and Japanese encephalitis, which should be received by age 24 months
5
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, three doses of polio vaccine, and one dose of measles-rubella vaccine
6
For children age 12–23 months: BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, three doses of OPV, two doses of fIPV, three doses of pneumococcal
vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, one dose of measles-rubella, and one dose of Japanese encephalitis

Child Health • 257

 Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics
Percentage of children age 12–23 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report), percentage fully vaccinated (basic antigens), percentage
fully vaccinated according to national schedule, and percentage who received no vaccinations, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Fully
vacci-
Fully nated
vacci- accord-
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV fIPV Pneumococcal Rotavirus Japa- nated ing to
Measles nese (basic national No Number
Background -rubella ence- anti- sche- vacci- of
characteristic BCG 1 2 3 OPV 1 OPV 2 OPV 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 phalitis gens)1 dule2 nations children
Sex
Male 95.5 95.3 93.8 90.0 95.3 93.6 87.5 91.4 86.0 93.5 91.4 81.9 79.0 72.4 90.4 84.6 81.5 54.7 4.3 486
Female 94.8 94.1 93.1 88.2 94.6 92.2 83.6 91.7 84.2 93.1 90.3 79.0 76.6 71.1 86.6 77.1 78.4 49.4 4.5 474
Birth order
1 95.0 94.8 94.2 90.8 94.7 93.2 86.4 91.1 86.2 93.4 91.2 83.1 78.5 72.4 90.6 84.4 81.8 54.9 4.9 401
2–3 95.7 95.4 93.9 89.9 95.6 94.1 88.0 93.1 87.1 93.8 91.3 80.2 77.4 71.0 89.5 80.2 81.3 51.4 3.5 463
4–5 92.8 89.9 86.8 79.8 91.8 85.1 71.0 84.8 69.9 89.4 86.1 70.8 74.8 70.9 73.8 65.8 66.2 39.6 7.2 80
6+ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 15
Vaccination
card3
Seen 99.4 99.4 98.5 95.4 99.3 97.8 92.1 96.4 89.1 99.2 97.4 88.6 83.5 76.8 93.9 85.2 87.9 58.1 0.2 752
Not seen or no
longer has 82.9 80.9 78.4 69.4 82.3 78.7 64.7 77.8 74.1 74.9 70.1 53.3 59.7 55.8 72.0 67.8 53.6 31.3 17.1 195
Never had * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 11
Residence
Urban 94.8 94.8 93.7 89.0 95.1 93.2 85.3 92.1 85.8 93.1 91.2 81.1 78.7 71.8 89.1 81.6 79.8 52.6 4.7 623
Rural 95.9 94.5 93.0 89.2 94.7 92.3 86.1 90.4 83.9 93.7 90.1 79.2 76.3 71.8 87.4 79.6 80.3 51.1 3.8 336
Ecological zone
Mountain 99.3 98.6 98.6 95.3 98.0 97.4 92.6 94.7 92.6 95.3 93.1 87.4 80.4 74.5 94.4 85.6 89.1 60.3 0.7 68
Hill 93.6 92.6 92.2 90.3 93.0 92.2 87.9 90.6 87.2 92.0 91.0 85.3 77.9 73.3 90.6 84.7 84.3 58.7 6.0 301
Terai 95.5 95.3 93.5 87.8 95.5 92.8 83.6 91.7 83.2 93.7 90.5 77.2 77.5 70.7 86.8 78.4 76.7 47.7 4.0 591
Province
Koshi Province 94.3 93.2 93.2 91.9 93.3 89.9 81.5 89.4 84.2 88.9 85.7 75.7 72.4 68.4 91.8 78.7 80.8 45.0 5.7 168
Urban 93.9 93.9 93.9 92.6 93.9 89.9 84.3 90.1 86.1 89.4 86.4 74.8 73.7 71.8 91.5 78.8 83.3 49.6 6.1 106
Rural 95.2 91.9 91.9 90.8 92.3 89.9 76.7 88.0 81.1 88.0 84.5 77.4 70.0 62.6 92.3 78.6 76.7 37.2 4.8 61
Madhesh
Province 95.0 94.8 90.8 82.4 95.4 91.6 76.7 89.2 76.5 93.1 88.1 70.4 77.6 68.0 80.9 74.4 67.7 41.9 4.0 269
Urban 95.1 95.2 92.0 84.3 96.0 93.4 76.6 90.5 78.3 92.9 88.8 72.4 80.6 70.2 83.4 77.0 68.9 42.4 4.0 206
Rural 94.8 93.5 86.9 76.0 93.4 85.8 77.2 84.8 70.6 93.5 85.6 63.9 67.8 60.7 72.8 65.7 63.7 40.5 4.0 63
Bagmati
Province 90.7 90.1 89.6 87.9 90.1 89.6 89.1 89.1 87.0 89.6 88.6 84.1 75.0 69.9 85.0 81.4 83.4 60.3 9.3 134
Urban (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (90.3) (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (92.1) (86.8) (75.6) (69.7) (87.5) (84.3) (85.7) (62.1) (7.9) 90
Rural 87.8 86.1 84.4 83.1 86.1 84.4 83.1 82.9 76.5 84.5 81.5 78.5 73.9 70.2 79.8 75.5 78.5 56.6 12.2 44
Gandaki
Province 100.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 100.0 100.0 96.8 99.0 98.0 99.0 99.0 93.5 89.8 89.8 97.6 95.2 93.4 79.2 0.0 51
Urban (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (96.8) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (87.9) (87.9) (100.0) (94.7) (96.8) (82.0) (0.0) 27
Rural (100.0) (97.9) (97.9) (97.9) (100.0) (100.0) (96.7) (97.9) (95.8) (97.9) (97.9) (86.0) (92.0) (92.0) (94.8) (95.8) (89.4) (75.9) (0.0) 24

(Continued…)

258 • Child Health

Table 10.4—Continued
Fully
vacci-
Fully nated
vacci- accord-
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV fIPV Pneumococcal Rotavirus Japa- nated ing to
Measles nese (basic national No Number
Background -rubella ence- anti- sche- vacci- of
characteristic BCG 1 2 3 OPV 1 OPV 2 OPV 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 phalitis gens)1 dule2 nations children
Lumbini
Province 96.6 96.6 96.6 90.8 96.6 96.0 92.3 94.6 89.7 96.6 96.1 88.6 83.7 77.1 92.5 85.1 85.3 57.6 3.4 172
Urban 96.2 96.2 96.2 87.9 96.2 95.0 90.6 95.1 88.9 96.2 96.2 90.6 83.4 72.6 92.8 85.4 82.2 56.8 3.8 96
Rural 97.2 97.2 97.2 94.4 97.2 97.2 94.4 94.0 90.8 97.2 95.9 86.1 84.1 82.8 92.1 84.7 89.2 58.6 2.8 76
Karnali
Province 96.5 95.4 94.9 92.1 95.5 93.4 87.8 90.8 86.2 93.6 91.8 83.9 74.4 71.2 91.9 83.2 84.3 55.8 2.9 79
Urban 92.9 91.8 90.7 89.6 92.0 89.8 86.1 87.2 82.8 88.1 88.1 83.8 74.0 69.4 92.9 85.8 85.0 60.0 5.9 39
Rural 100.0 98.9 98.9 94.5 98.9 96.9 89.3 94.3 89.4 98.9 95.3 84.1 74.8 72.9 90.9 80.8 83.6 51.7 0.0 40
Sudurpash-
chim
Province 97.2 97.3 97.3 94.5 97.2 97.2 93.8 97.2 93.1 97.8 96.6 88.3 77.9 72.2 95.0 85.7 88.8 54.0 1.5 87
Urban 95.9 96.7 96.7 94.0 96.7 96.7 93.2 96.7 92.1 96.7 96.7 88.8 76.8 72.9 94.1 83.4 87.2 53.6 2.2 59
Rural 100.0 98.5 98.5 95.5 98.4 98.4 95.0 98.4 95.1 100.0 96.5 87.2 80.2 70.8 96.9 90.6 92.1 54.8 0.0 28
Mother’s
education
No education 92.6 92.0 89.7 79.7 93.2 89.0 76.0 87.8 76.7 89.2 85.3 66.2 76.7 68.6 75.9 68.6 65.8 38.8 6.1 197
Basic
education
(1–8) 94.5 93.8 92.5 88.6 93.7 91.9 85.4 90.4 83.5 92.5 90.0 81.7 76.7 71.1 88.0 78.9 80.5 50.6 5.3 338
Lower basic
education
(1–5) 93.8 92.8 90.2 84.2 92.3 89.5 82.7 90.0 83.3 92.1 88.0 79.7 76.0 67.1 84.6 73.6 77.1 47.7 5.9 168
Upper basic
education
(6–8) 95.2 94.7 94.7 93.1 95.0 94.3 88.0 90.8 83.8 92.9 91.9 83.8 77.4 75.1 91.3 84.2 83.8 53.5 4.8 171
Secondary
(9–12) 97.4 97.1 96.8 94.4 97.2 96.3 90.4 94.9 90.5 96.5 95.1 86.3 79.5 74.2 95.1 88.3 86.3 58.8 2.3 385
Lower
secondary
(9–10) 97.2 97.0 97.0 93.5 96.7 95.3 88.9 94.1 89.5 96.0 94.2 87.5 78.2 71.8 96.1 87.9 85.7 56.6 2.5 234
Higher
secondary
(11–12) 97.6 97.3 96.3 95.8 97.9 97.9 92.9 96.1 92.0 97.3 96.3 84.5 81.5 78.0 93.6 88.9 87.2 62.2 2.1 150
More than
secondary
(13 and
above) (91.7) (91.7) (87.8) (87.8) (91.7) (88.1) (88.1) (88.1) (88.1) (88.1) (84.1) (84.1) (76.6) (69.0) (91.7) (87.6) (84.1) (64.9) (8.3) 39

(Continued…)

Child Health • 259

 Table 10.4—Continued
Fully
vacci-
Fully nated
vacci- accord-
DPT-HepB-Hib OPV fIPV Pneumococcal Rotavirus Japa- nated ing to
Measles nese (basic national No Number
Background -rubella ence- anti- sche- vacci- of
characteristic BCG 1 2 3 OPV 1 OPV 2 OPV 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 phalitis gens)1 dule2 nations children
Wealth quintile
Lowest 93.5 91.7 90.1 85.2 92.3 88.5 81.5 87.6 79.6 89.7 85.7 76.3 76.1 70.8 85.7 78.5 75.8 50.0 6.0 233
Second 92.6 92.9 90.8 85.6 92.9 91.0 79.9 89.3 83.0 91.7 89.0 77.5 76.9 69.1 84.0 73.1 74.1 45.1 6.7 224
Middle 98.1 97.9 97.5 92.9 97.9 96.7 89.3 93.9 85.5 95.3 93.7 85.2 81.4 73.0 92.9 82.6 85.0 55.1 1.7 180
Fourth 97.0 96.5 96.5 92.3 97.0 95.7 90.3 95.0 90.9 96.5 95.3 81.2 79.4 77.2 92.0 87.5 85.2 57.1 2.6 193
Highest 96.0 96.0 93.6 92.0 96.0 94.9 90.5 94.0 89.4 94.9 92.5 85.4 75.1 68.2 90.2 86.4 82.8 55.9 4.0 129
Total 95.2 94.7 93.4 89.1 94.9 92.9 85.6 91.5 85.1 93.3 90.8 80.5 77.8 71.8 88.5 80.9 80.0 52.1 4.4 959

Note: Children are considered to have received the vaccine if it was either written on the child’s vaccination card or reported by the mother. For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date
of vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination. This table does not present
results for children age 24–35 months in terms of whether they are fully vaccinated according to the national schedule as rotavirus vaccine was introduced in July 2020 and most of these children would not have received
that vaccine. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
BCG = Bacille Calmette-Guérin
DPT = Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus
HepB = Hepatitis B
OPV = Oral polio vaccine
Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b
fIPV = Fractional inactivated polio vaccine
1
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib (pentavalent), three doses of polio vaccine, and one dose of measles-rubella
2
BCG, three doses of DPT-HepB-Hib, three doses of OPV, two doses of fIPV, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, one dose of measles-rubella, and one dose of Japanese encephalitis

260 • Child Health

Table 10.5 Source of vaccinations
Among children age 12–23 months who received at least one vaccination, percent distribution by source of most vaccinations, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Children age 12–23 months who received at least one vaccination1
Background Public medical Private medical NGO medical Number of
characteristic sector sector sector Other Total children
Sex
Male 97.6 1.1 0.5 0.8 100.0 465
Female 98.5 1.3 0.0 0.2 100.0 452
Birth order
1 98.0 1.6 0.1 0.4 100.0 382
2–3 97.8 1.1 0.4 0.7 100.0 447
4–5 99.6 0.0 0.4 0.0 100.0 74
6+ * * * * 100.0 14
Vaccination card1
Seen 98.4 1.1 0.3 0.2 100.0 739
Not seen or no longer has 97.2 1.0 0.0 1.8 100.0 174
Never had * * * * 100.0 4
Residence
Urban 98.2 1.4 0.1 0.3 100.0 594
Rural 97.7 0.9 0.6 0.9 100.0 323

Ecological zone
Mountain 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 67
Hill 96.0 2.6 0.8 0.6 100.0 283
Terai 98.8 0.6 0.0 0.5 100.0 567
Province
Koshi Province 96.1 2.3 0.0 1.6 100.0 158
Urban 96.7 1.6 0.0 1.7 100.0 100
Rural 95.0 3.4 0.0 1.6 100.0 58
Madhesh Province 99.7 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 258
Urban 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 198
Rural 98.6 1.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 60
Bagmati Province 94.7 5.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 122
Urban (92.2) (7.8) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 83
Rural 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 38
Gandaki Province 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 51
Urban (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 27
Rural (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 24
Lumbini Province 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 166
Urban 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 92
Rural 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 74
Karnali Province 98.4 0.0 0.0 1.6 100.0 77
Urban 99.2 0.0 0.0 0.8 100.0 36
Rural 97.6 0.0 0.0 2.4 100.0 40
Sudurpashchim Province 96.2 0.0 2.8 1.0 100.0 85
Urban 99.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 100.0 57
Rural 90.6 0.0 6.4 3.1 100.0 28
Mother’s education
No education 97.6 0.5 0.6 1.4 100.0 185
Basic education (1–8) 98.0 1.5 0.1 0.3 100.0 320
Lower basic education
(1–5) 98.6 1.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 158
Upper basic education
(6–8) 97.5 1.6 0.3 0.6 100.0 163
Secondary (9–12) 99.5 0.0 0.2 0.3 100.0 376
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 100.0 228
Higher secondary
(11–12) 99.5 0.0 0.3 0.2 100.0 147
More than secondary (13
and above) (85.5) (14.5) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 36
Wealth quintile
Lowest 97.4 0.4 1.0 1.2 100.0 218
Second 98.6 0.9 0.1 0.4 100.0 209
Middle 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 177
Fourth 98.5 0.9 0.0 0.6 100.0 188
Highest 94.8 5.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 124
Total 98.0 1.2 0.3 0.5 100.0 917

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
NGO = Nongovernmental organization
1
Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record

Child Health • 261

 Table 10.6 Children receiving vaccinations impacted by COVID-19
Percentage of children age 12–23 months whose vaccinations were
delayed or missed due to COVID-19, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage whose
Background vaccination was Number
characteristic delayed or missed of children
Sex
Male 19.1 486
Female 17.4 474
Birth order
1 19.9 401
2–3 15.7 463
4–5 21.3 80
6+ * 15
Vaccination status
Fully vaccinated (according
to national schedule) 17.9 855
No vaccinations 20.6 103
Residence
Urban 20.3 623
Rural 14.4 336
Ecological zone
Mountain 12.2 68
Hill 14.8 301
Terai 20.7 591
Province
Koshi Province 29.9 168
Urban 33.7 106
Rural 23.4 61
Madhesh Province 19.5 269
Urban 19.6 206
Rural 19.1 63
Bagmati Province 12.3 134
Urban (14.0) 90
Rural 8.7 44
Gandaki Province 16.3 51
Urban (19.9) 27
Rural (12.1) 24
Lumbini Province 11.4 172
Urban 14.2 96
Rural 7.8 76
Karnali Province 18.2 79
Urban 21.1 39
Rural 15.4 40
Sudurpashchim Province 15.9 87
Urban 17.9 59
Rural 11.8 28
Mother’s education
No education 20.8 197
Basic education (1–8) 17.6 338
Lower basic education
(1–5) 18.0 168
Upper basic education
(6–8) 17.3 171
Secondary (9–12) 17.9 385
Lower secondary (9–10) 14.7 234
Higher secondary (11–12) 23.0 150
More than secondary (13
and above) (13.7) 39
Wealth quintile
Lowest 17.6 233
Second 19.9 224
Middle 20.9 180
Fourth 14.2 193
Highest 18.9 129
Total 18.2 959

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An

asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.

262 • Child Health

Table 10.7 Children with symptoms of ARI
Among children under age 5, percentage who had symptoms of acute
respiratory infection (ARI) in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among children under age 5:
Percentage
with
Background symptoms Number of
characteristic of ARI1 children
Age in months
<6 1.7 533
6–11 2.0 434
12–23 1.3 959
24–35 1.1 1,066
36–47 1.8 1,048
48–59 1.2 1,000
Sex
Male 1.3 2,639
Female 1.6 2,401
Mother’s smoking status
Smokes cigarettes/tobacco 1.2 138
Does not smoke 1.5 4,902
Cooking fuels and technologies
Clean fuel and technology2 1.3 1,775
Solid fuel3 1.5 3,260
Gasoline/diesel * 3
No food cooked in household * 2
Residence
Urban 1.3 3,276
Rural 1.7 1,764
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.4 317
Hill 1.8 1,744
Terai 1.3 2,979
Province
Koshi Province 1.7 859
Urban 2.2 553
Rural 0.6 306
Madhesh Province 1.0 1,352
Urban 0.5 1,013
Rural 2.6 338
Bagmati Province 1.3 814
Urban 1.4 596
Rural 1.2 218
Gandaki Province 1.4 331
Urban 1.7 216
Rural 0.8 116
Lumbini Province 0.8 862
Urban 0.5 452
Rural 1.2 410
Karnali Province 3.7 371
Urban 3.4 178
Rural 4.0 193
Sudurpashchim Province 1.9 451
Urban 2.1 267
Rural 1.7 184
Mother’s education
No education 1.3 1,103
Basic education (1–8) 1.6 1,767
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.5 898
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.7 869
Secondary (9–12) 1.4 1,955
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.4 1,217
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.5 738
More than secondary (13 and above) 1.4 215

(Continued)

Child Health • 263

 Table 10.7—Continued
Among children under age 5:
Percentage
with
Background symptoms Number of
characteristic of ARI1 children
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.9 1,213
Second 1.5 1,037
Middle 1.4 1,048
Fourth 1.1 969
Highest 1.3 774
Total 1.4 5,040

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Symptoms of ARI include short, rapid breathing that is chest-related
and/or difficult breathing that is chest-related.
2
Includes stoves/cookers using electricity, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG)/natural gas/biogas, and solar
3
Includes coal/lignite, charcoal, wood, straw/shrubs/grass, agricultural
crops, animal dung/waste, processed biomass (pellets) or woodchips,
and sawdust

Table 10.8 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI
Percentage of children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the survey
for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, and among children under age
5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the survey for whom advice or treatment was
sought, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, Nepal DHS
2022
Percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought from each source:
Among children with
symptoms of ARI for
Among children with whom advice or
Source symptoms of ARI1 treatment was sought1
Public sector 19.0 25.5
Government hospital 2.9 3.9
Health post 13.8 18.5
Basic health care center 0.8 1.1
Other public sector2 1.9 2.6
Private medical sector 60.3 80.8
Private hospital 6.3 8.4
Private clinic 40.1 53.8
Pharmacy 25.0 33.5
Number of children 73 54

Note: Advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI may have been sought from more
than one source.
1
Symptoms of ARI include short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or difficult breathing
that is chest related.
2
Includes primary health centers, urban health centers, community health units, and female
community health volunteers

264 • Child Health

Table 10.9 Children with fever and care seeking for fever
Among children under age 5, percentage who had a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and among children with a fever in the
2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage for whom advice or treatment was
sought the same or next day following the onset of fever, and percentage who received antibiotics as treatment, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among children under age 5: Among children under age 5 with fever:
Percentage for
whom advice
Percentage for or treatment
whom advice was sought Percentage Number of
Background Percentage Number of or treatment the same or who took children with
1
characteristic with fever children was sought next day1 antibiotics fever
Age in months
<6 18.0 533 78.9 61.5 37.7 96
6–11 27.3 434 80.5 57.7 42.7 118
12–23 24.3 959 78.9 52.6 43.7 233
24–35 24.3 1,066 79.2 54.3 43.1 259
36–47 24.7 1,048 76.8 54.3 36.6 259
48–59 19.3 1,000 74.9 57.2 41.3 193
Sex
Male 23.6 2,639 78.0 55.8 42.2 624
Female 22.3 2,401 77.9 54.9 39.5 535
Residence
Urban 23.3 3,276 79.9 58.6 42.2 765
Rural 22.3 1,764 74.3 49.2 38.6 394
Ecological zone
Mountain 20.3 317 71.3 39.9 34.9 64
Hill 26.1 1,744 69.2 38.7 33.6 455
Terai 21.5 2,979 84.9 68.8 46.9 639
Province
Koshi Province 25.7 859 76.2 55.7 34.8 221
Urban 27.1 553 76.5 59.2 31.4 150
Rural 23.2 306 75.4 48.2 41.9 71
Madhesh Province 19.7 1,352 88.7 71.5 53.2 267
Urban 18.5 1,013 88.7 72.0 52.2 188
Rural 23.3 338 88.8 70.3 55.6 79
Bagmati Province 21.4 814 75.5 48.7 41.5 174
Urban 23.0 596 81.5 54.4 44.5 137
Rural 17.0 218 53.3 28.0 30.3 37
Gandaki Province 25.8 331 72.1 52.2 35.8 86
Urban 27.3 216 72.8 56.5 35.6 59
Rural 23.0 116 70.5 42.8 36.1 27
Lumbini Province 23.0 862 78.5 58.9 40.3 198
Urban 24.7 452 82.3 59.3 47.4 112
Rural 21.1 410 73.6 58.4 31.2 87
Karnali Province 28.0 371 70.2 30.2 31.9 104
Urban 29.3 178 70.0 32.2 34.8 52
Rural 26.8 193 70.4 28.1 29.0 52
Sudurpashchim Province 24.1 451 70.5 46.1 36.8 109
Urban 25.0 267 69.4 49.3 36.5 67
Rural 22.9 184 72.2 41.0 37.2 42
Mother’s education
No education 19.8 1,103 82.0 57.6 46.2 218
Basic education (1–8) 22.6 1,767 77.0 54.5 38.6 400
Lower basic education (1–5) 22.4 898 77.2 54.4 36.8 201
Upper basic education (6–8) 22.9 869 76.8 54.6 40.4 199
Secondary (9–12) 25.1 1,955 77.5 56.1 41.5 490
Lower secondary (9–10) 23.8 1,217 78.6 56.5 41.8 290
Higher secondary (11–12) 27.1 738 76.0 55.5 40.9 200
More than secondary (13 and
above) 23.3 215 (72.8) (45.9) (32.2) 50
Wealth quintile
Lowest 21.8 1,213 68.4 34.1 30.4 264
Second 25.2 1,037 73.7 51.8 44.6 261
Middle 23.8 1,048 82.4 65.5 44.0 249
Fourth 23.6 969 88.5 71.5 46.2 228
Highest 20.1 774 79.1 57.8 40.4 156
Total 23.0 5,040 78.0 55.4 41.0 1,159

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private sector, nongovernment sector, and shop. Excludes
advice or treatment from a traditional practitioner.

Child Health • 265

 Table 10.10 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever
Percentage of children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey for whom
advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, and among children under age 5 with a
fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage
for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought from each source:
Among children with
fever for whom advice
Among children or treatment was
Source with fever sought
Public sector 15.8 20.3
Government hospital 3.0 3.9
Health post 10.3 13.2
Basic health care center 0.9 1.1
Private medical sector 63.3 81.0
Private hospital 4.6 5.9
Private clinic 31.2 40.0
Pharmacy 28.6 36.6
Other private sector 0.3 0.4
Shop 0.1 0.1
Traditional practitioner 0.2 0.2
Other 0.7 0.9
Number of children 1,159 905

266 • Child Health

Table 10.11 Children with diarrhea and care seeking for diarrhea
Percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and among
children with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among children under
age 5 with diarrhea:
Percentage
for whom
advice or Number of
Background Percentage Number of treatment children with
characteristic with diarrhea children was sought1 diarrhea
Age in months
<6 12.7 533 55.1 68
6–11 17.5 434 53.2 76
12–23 13.2 959 55.9 126
24–35 9.7 1,066 63.5 103
36–47 6.7 1,048 60.7 71
48–59 8.1 1,000 52.7 81
Sex
Male 10.6 2,639 58.3 281
Female 10.1 2,401 55.6 243
Source of drinking water2
Improved 10.5 4,950 57.0 521
Unimproved 4.2 83 * 3
Surface * 7 * 0
Type of toilet facility3
Improved sanitation facility 10.4 4,507 57.5 469
Unimproved facility (16.9) 32 * 5
Open defecation 10.0 500 53.0 50
Residence
Urban 11.1 3,276 56.5 364
Rural 9.1 1,764 58.3 161
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.9 317 (50.8) 22
Hill 9.5 1,744 53.2 166
Terai 11.3 2,979 59.4 336
Province
Koshi Province 11.0 859 48.7 95
Urban 12.9 553 (52.0) 71
Rural 7.7 306 (38.7) 23
Madhesh Province 10.0 1,352 56.8 135
Urban 9.8 1,013 59.3 99
Rural 10.7 338 (49.9) 36
Bagmati Province 13.0 814 58.8 106
Urban 14.8 596 (60.0) 88
Rural 8.1 218 (52.8) 18
Gandaki Province 7.8 331 (48.7) 26
Urban 7.2 216 * 15
Rural 8.8 116 * 10
Lumbini Province 9.8 862 65.0 84
Urban 10.0 452 (52.2) 45
Rural 9.6 410 (79.7) 39
Karnali Province 10.4 371 56.4 38
Urban 12.1 178 (54.3) 22
Rural 8.8 193 (59.2) 17
Sudurpashchim Province 8.8 451 62.6 40
Urban 8.5 267 (67.2) 23
Rural 9.1 184 (56.3) 17
Mother’s education
No education 11.2 1,103 59.8 124
Basic education (1–8) 10.8 1,767 55.0 191
Lower basic education (1–5) 11.1 898 54.0 100
Upper basic education (6–8) 10.5 869 56.0 91
Secondary (9–12) 9.9 1,955 54.7 194
Lower secondary (9–10) 10.3 1,217 53.3 125
Higher secondary (11–12) 9.3 738 57.1 68
More than secondary (13 and above) 7.4 215 * 16

(Continued)

Child Health • 267

 Table 10.11—Continued
Among children under
age 5 with diarrhea:
Percentage
for whom
advice or Number of
Background Percentage Number of treatment children with
characteristic with diarrhea children was sought1 diarrhea
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.9 1,213 49.0 107
Second 11.4 1,037 64.9 118
Middle 12.7 1,048 53.5 133
Fourth 11.1 969 56.0 107
Highest 7.6 774 (66.2) 59
Total 10.4 5,040 57.1 524

Note: Advice or treatment for children with diarrhea may have been sought from more than one source.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is
based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private sector, nongovernment
sector, and shop. Excludes advice or treatment from a traditional practitioner.
2
See Table 16.1 for definition of categories.
3
See Table 16.6 for definition of categories.

268 • Child Health

Table 10.12 Feeding practices during diarrhea
Percent distribution of children under age 5 who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey by amount of liquids and food given compared with normal practice, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Amount of liquids given Amount of food given Number
of
Same Some- Don’t Some- Never Don’t children
Background as what Much know/ Same what Much gave know/ with
characteristic More usual less less None missing Total More as usual less less None food missing Total diarrhea
Age in months
<6 5.1 76.2 10.9 0.0 7.7 0.0 100.0 3.2 20.3 7.5 0.0 0.0 68.9 0.0 100.0 68
6–11 15.4 56.8 20.3 3.2 4.3 0.0 100.0 10.9 47.9 20.6 13.0 2.4 5.2 0.0 100.0 76
12–23 17.4 65.9 12.0 1.3 3.5 0.0 100.0 8.6 63.8 22.3 4.5 0.2 0.6 0.0 100.0 126
24–35 19.7 63.0 15.8 1.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 11.1 59.9 27.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 103
36–47 28.4 52.7 10.7 4.1 4.1 0.0 100.0 12.9 71.5 11.3 4.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 71
48–59 33.4 57.1 7.5 0.8 0.0 1.2 100.0 15.9 56.4 23.6 2.9 0.0 0.0 1.2 100.0 81
Sex
Male 22.1 62.9 11.9 0.6 2.1 0.4 100.0 12.9 52.4 18.9 5.7 0.2 9.5 0.4 100.0 281
Female 17.4 61.3 14.2 3.0 4.1 0.0 100.0 7.6 58.1 20.8 2.9 0.7 10.1 0.0 100.0 243
Breastfeeding status
Breastfeeding 14.6 64.9 15.0 1.7 3.7 0.0 100.0 8.0 50.5 21.1 4.8 0.6 15.0 0.0 100.0 334
Not breastfeeding (22.3) (66.6) (10.2) (0.0) (0.9) (0.0) 100.0 (16.0) (61.0) (15.9) (4.0) (0.0) (3.1) (0.0) 100.0 39
Residence
Urban 21.7 62.4 10.4 1.7 3.8 0.0 100.0 11.6 56.0 17.3 4.5 0.4 10.2 0.0 100.0 364
Rural 15.9 61.7 18.6 2.0 1.2 0.6 100.0 7.9 52.7 25.4 4.2 0.4 8.8 0.6 100.0 161
Ecological zone
Mountain (23.3) (71.3) (5.4) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (12.4) (66.7) (14.8) (0.0) (0.0) (6.1) (0.0) 100.0 22
Hill 28.4 56.9 11.7 0.3 2.1 0.6 100.0 17.2 51.4 20.7 1.9 0.4 7.9 0.6 100.0 166
Terai 15.5 64.2 14.0 2.6 3.6 0.0 100.0 7.0 56.1 19.7 5.9 0.4 10.9 0.0 100.0 336
Province
Koshi Province 18.3 61.3 17.1 0.0 3.4 0.0 100.0 17.0 53.0 23.2 0.0 0.0 6.9 0.0 100.0 95
Urban (19.1) (61.3) (15.1) (0.0) (4.5) (0.0) 100.0 (16.9) (55.0) (24.2) (0.0) (0.0) (4.0) (0.0) 100.0 71
Rural (15.9) (61.0) (23.1) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (17.3) (47.1) (20.0) (0.0) (0.0) (15.6) (0.0) 100.0 23
Madhesh Province 7.6 68.1 16.4 5.5 2.4 0.0 100.0 1.3 54.2 22.5 8.9 0.0 13.1 0.0 100.0 135
Urban 7.7 71.5 11.4 6.1 3.3 0.0 100.0 1.7 56.8 18.2 10.1 0.0 13.2 0.0 100.0 99
Rural (7.3) (58.9) (30.1) (3.8) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (0.0) (47.4) (34.1) (5.9) (0.0) (12.7) (0.0) 100.0 36
Bagmati Province 32.4 56.2 8.2 0.0 2.3 0.9 100.0 15.6 57.2 18.6 2.0 0.0 5.6 0.9 100.0 106
Urban (32.8) (56.5) (7.9) (0.0) (2.8) (0.0) 100.0 (14.2) (59.7) (17.5) (2.4) (0.0) (6.2) (0.0) 100.0 88
Rural (30.3) (54.7) (9.4) (0.0) (0.0) (5.6) 100.0 (22.7) (44.7) (24.1) (0.0) (0.0) (3.0) (5.6) 100.0 18
Gandaki Province (13.4) (84.6) (2.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (0.0) (62.1) (10.0) (4.8) (0.0) (23.1) (0.0) 100.0 26
Urban * * * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * * 100.0 15
Rural * * * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * * 100.0 10
Lumbini Province 22.1 58.4 13.8 1.6 4.1 0.0 100.0 10.0 52.4 18.1 6.7 1.6 11.1 0.0 100.0 84
Urban (34.9) (46.6) (10.8) (0.0) (7.7) (0.0) 100.0 (18.7) (44.3) (12.6) (5.1) (3.1) (16.2) (0.0) 100.0 45
Rural (7.4) (71.9) (17.2) (3.4) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (0.0) (61.7) (24.5) (8.6) (0.0) (5.2) (0.0) 100.0 39
Karnali Province 28.5 60.3 7.8 0.0 3.5 0.0 100.0 18.0 58.2 15.4 2.1 0.6 5.7 0.0 100.0 38
Urban (31.6) (60.9) (4.0) (0.0) (3.6) (0.0) 100.0 (18.9) (59.9) (12.6) (2.2) (0.0) (6.5) (0.0) 100.0 22
Rural (24.6) (59.5) (12.6) (0.0) (3.4) (0.0) 100.0 (16.9) (56.0) (19.0) (2.0) (1.3) (4.8) (0.0) 100.0 17
Sudurpashchim
Province 23.9 55.7 14.2 1.1 5.1 0.0 100.0 12.8 54.7 19.7 2.7 1.2 9.0 0.0 100.0 40
Urban (23.5) (60.1) (13.6) (0.0) (2.9) (0.0) 100.0 (14.7) (56.7) (16.6) (2.9) (0.0) (9.2) (0.0) 100.0 23
Rural (24.4) (49.8) (15.1) (2.6) (8.0) (0.0) 100.0 (10.1) (52.0) (24.0) (2.4) (2.7) (8.7) (0.0) 100.0 17
Mother’s education
No education 7.2 70.6 15.9 3.8 1.8 0.8 100.0 3.3 57.4 20.7 7.6 0.4 9.9 0.8 100.0 124
Basic education (1–8) 18.6 65.2 14.0 0.9 1.3 0.0 100.0 8.7 54.2 23.4 2.0 0.7 11.0 0.0 100.0 191
Lower basic
education (1–5) 14.7 68.1 16.2 0.0 1.0 0.0 100.0 4.6 57.0 24.6 3.4 1.4 9.0 0.0 100.0 100
Upper basic
education (6–8) 23.0 62.0 11.5 1.8 1.7 0.0 100.0 13.1 51.1 22.1 0.5 0.0 13.2 0.0 100.0 91
Secondary (9–12) 25.9 56.8 10.1 1.5 5.7 0.0 100.0 14.7 56.5 15.6 3.9 0.1 9.1 0.0 100.0 194
Lower secondary
(9–10) 24.8 63.3 6.0 2.0 3.9 0.0 100.0 13.9 60.3 10.3 2.5 0.2 12.8 0.0 100.0 125
Higher secondary
(11–12) 27.9 44.9 17.6 0.6 9.0 0.0 100.0 16.3 49.6 25.3 6.6 0.0 2.2 0.0 100.0 68
More than secondary
(13 and above) * * * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * * 100.0 16
Wealth quintile
Lowest 18.8 59.6 17.3 2.0 2.2 0.0 100.0 10.3 57.1 21.5 3.3 0.6 7.1 0.0 100.0 107
Second 18.2 62.7 13.7 1.9 2.6 0.8 100.0 6.0 52.9 21.5 7.6 0.0 11.1 0.8 100.0 118
Middle 18.0 70.9 9.2 1.6 0.4 0.0 100.0 13.1 55.9 14.1 3.4 0.0 13.5 0.0 100.0 133
Fourth 17.7 65.0 11.9 2.5 2.9 0.0 100.0 8.8 57.3 20.0 2.8 1.3 9.8 0.0 100.0 107
Highest (33.5) (41.4) (13.9) (0.0) (11.3) (0.0) 100.0 (16.6) (49.3) (25.7) (4.9) (0.0) (3.5) (0.0) 100.0 59
Total 19.9 62.2 12.9 1.8 3.0 0.2 100.0 10.4 55.0 19.8 4.4 0.4 9.8 0.2 100.0 524

Note: It is recommended that children be given more liquids to drink during diarrhea and that food not be reduced. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Child Health • 269

Table 10.13 Oral rehydration salts, zinc, continued feeding, and other treatments for diarrhea
Among children under age 5 who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage given fluid from an ORS packet or prepackaged ORS fluid; zinc; ORS and zinc;
ORS and continued feeding; ORS, zinc, and continued feeding; ORS or increased fluids; ORT (ORS or increased fluids) and continued feeding; and other treatments, and
percentage given no treatment, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of children with diarrhea who were given:
Fluid from
ORS ORT
packet (ORS or
or pre- ORS, increased Percent- Number of
packaged ORS and zinc, and ORS or fluids) and Anti- Home age given children
Background ORS ORS and continued continued increased continued Antibiotic motility remedy/ Don’t no with
characteristic liquid Zinc zinc feeding1 feeding1 fluids feeding1 drugs drugs other know treatment diarrhea
Age in months
<6 7.1 19.2 3.2 4.5 3.2 10.9 6.1 12.6 0.0 27.3 0.0 49.1 68
6–11 25.0 16.6 6.6 20.6 4.7 38.2 29.9 24.1 1.0 20.3 0.0 31.9 76
12–23 37.5 19.2 11.2 34.7 11.2 44.0 40.8 16.5 1.1 24.4 0.0 31.7 126
24–35 54.5 13.0 10.4 54.5 10.4 64.9 64.9 20.2 1.8 20.8 0.0 20.6 103
36–47 55.9 27.3 21.8 55.9 21.8 65.0 65.0 19.2 0.0 18.1 0.0 16.5 71
48–59 42.8 14.4 10.7 40.8 10.7 59.1 57.1 7.2 1.8 33.1 0.9 21.9 81
Sex
Male 41.4 15.9 9.2 37.8 8.7 52.7 47.9 16.4 1.0 23.3 0.0 24.5 281
Female 35.0 20.3 12.4 34.8 12.4 42.9 42.2 17.1 1.0 24.7 0.3 32.6 243
Residence
Urban 39.4 17.3 10.1 37.7 9.8 49.5 47.0 16.4 1.1 25.4 0.0 28.0 364
Rural 36.2 19.4 12.1 33.6 11.8 45.2 41.3 17.5 0.9 20.7 0.5 28.8 161
Ecological zone
Mountain (54.6) (15.5) (13.4) (54.6) (13.4) (61.4) (61.4) (14.3) (0.0) (4.7) (0.0) (36.5) 22
Hill 47.3 15.2 12.8 46.2 12.5 59.0 56.2 13.1 1.1 17.5 0.0 28.9 166
Terai 32.9 19.4 9.5 30.4 9.2 42.0 38.8 18.7 1.0 28.4 0.2 27.4 336
Province
Koshi Province 38.0 16.2 9.6 38.0 9.6 49.8 49.8 17.8 0.0 17.6 0.0 28.0 95
Urban (42.3) (18.9) (11.1) (42.3) (11.1) (52.8) (52.8) (19.8) (0.0) (21.0) (0.0) (19.2) 71
Rural (25.0) (8.1) (4.9) (25.0) (4.9) (40.9) (40.9) (11.9) (0.0) (7.3) (0.0) (54.7) 23
Madhesh Province 35.9 17.4 7.6 31.1 7.6 36.8 32.0 12.8 2.2 33.3 0.6 30.1 135
Urban 40.4 19.8 8.0 35.3 8.0 40.4 35.3 14.1 1.4 31.3 0.0 28.9 99
Rural (23.5) (10.8) (6.4) (19.7) (6.4) (26.9) (23.1) (9.2) (4.1) (38.9) (2.1) (33.2) 36
Bagmati Province 39.6 8.6 8.6 38.6 8.6 58.2 55.2 20.4 1.5 32.7 0.0 26.5 106
Urban (38.7) (7.0) (7.0) (38.7) (7.0) (58.2) (55.7) (22.8) (1.8) (34.7) (0.0) (25.9) 88
Rural (44.0) (16.3) (16.3) (38.4) (16.3) (58.1) (52.5) (8.9) (0.0) (22.5) (0.0) (29.5) 18
Gandaki Province (23.1) (2.3) (0.0) (23.1) (0.0) (36.5) (29.7) (9.8) (0.0) (13.9) (0.0) (53.1) 26
Urban * * * * * * * * * * * * 15
Rural * * * * * * * * * * * * 10
Lumbini Province 36.9 28.8 16.6 34.5 15.5 48.5 46.1 22.8 0.0 17.2 0.0 20.7 84
Urban (33.9) (22.6) (14.5) (31.7) (12.3) (53.1) (50.9) (14.1) (0.0) (16.7) (0.0) (27.4) 45
Rural (40.4) (35.9) (19.1) (37.7) (19.1) (43.2) (40.5) (32.7) (0.0) (17.8) (0.0) (13.1) 39
Karnali Province 53.9 23.8 18.0 53.0 18.0 60.0 59.1 11.0 0.9 10.3 0.0 29.2 38
Urban (47.0) (24.0) (16.3) (47.0) (16.3) (56.2) (56.2) (9.9) (1.6) (10.1) (0.0) (28.2) 22
Rural (62.8) (23.6) (20.2) (60.7) (20.2) (64.9) (62.8) (12.4) (0.0) (10.5) (0.0) (30.4) 17
Sudurpashchim
Province 43.0 30.3 16.9 41.8 15.7 51.8 48.0 15.3 1.5 17.6 0.0 26.3 40
Urban (44.3) (36.0) (19.6) (44.3) (19.6) (47.1) (47.1) (13.4) (2.5) (17.1) (0.0) (29.9) 23
Rural (41.3) (22.6) (13.2) (38.6) (10.4) (58.1) (49.3) (17.8) (0.0) (18.3) (0.0) (21.3) 17
Mother’s education
No education 38.1 16.2 7.6 34.7 7.2 39.8 36.4 19.7 0.6 25.7 0.6 30.7 124
Basic education (1–8) 42.2 19.1 12.1 40.4 12.1 50.9 48.5 10.2 0.5 20.8 0.0 26.2 191
Lower basic
education (1–5) 37.6 18.8 11.6 35.8 11.6 44.5 42.3 6.7 0.0 21.3 0.0 33.7 100
Upper basic
education (6–8) 47.3 19.4 12.7 45.4 12.7 57.8 55.2 14.0 1.0 20.4 0.0 18.0 91
Secondary (9–12) 33.5 18.9 12.1 32.2 11.6 48.7 46.5 19.3 1.9 25.1 0.0 29.5 194
Lower secondary
(9–10) 28.3 17.9 9.5 28.3 9.5 44.6 44.2 15.9 0.0 21.5 0.0 33.8 125
Higher secondary
(11–12) 43.1 20.6 17.0 39.4 15.6 56.2 50.6 25.6 5.5 31.6 0.0 21.6 68
More than secondary
(13 and above) * * * * * * * * * * * * 16
Wealth quintile
Lowest 43.5 17.7 14.4 42.7 14.0 53.9 52.2 11.6 0.3 11.8 0.0 32.7 107
Second 41.8 20.9 11.6 36.7 11.6 47.9 42.4 17.6 0.5 23.5 0.0 26.4 118
Middle 34.5 16.8 6.5 32.6 6.5 43.5 40.9 19.1 1.6 24.1 0.6 25.0 133
Fourth 30.7 15.0 8.0 29.8 7.0 44.1 42.8 14.9 0.0 30.5 0.0 30.3 107
Highest (45.3) (20.4) (16.7) (45.3) (16.7) (56.2) (52.5) (22.8) (3.9) (34.5) (0.0) (27.4) 59

Total 38.4 17.9 10.7 36.4 10.4 48.2 45.3 16.8 1.0 23.9 0.1 28.2 524

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
ORS = Oral rehydration salts
ORT = Oral rehydration therapy
1
Continued feeding includes children who were given more, the same as usual, or somewhat less food during the diarrhea episode.

270 • Child Health

Table 10.14 Duration of treatment with zinc for diarrhea
Among children under age 5 who had diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the
survey, percentage given zinc for recommended days, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
Background children with
characteristic <10 days 10 days diarrhea
Age in months
<6 (22.5) (0.0) 47
6–11 (12.5) (2.2) 49
12–23 16.6 2.9 90
24–35 14.3 3.0 103
36–47 15.5 4.0 108
48–59 14.6 0.8 127
Sex
Male 14.3 1.5 281
Female 17.0 3.3 243
Residence
Urban 15.1 2.2 364
Rural 16.7 2.5 161
Ecological zone
Mountain (11.5) (3.9) 22
Hill 13.2 1.9 166
Terai 17.0 2.4 336
Province
Koshi Province 14.4 1.8 95
Urban (16.5) (2.4) 71
Rural (8.1) (0.0) 23
Madhesh Province 14.9 2.5 135
Urban 16.4 3.5 99
Rural (10.8) (0.0) 36
Bagmati Province 5.9 2.7 106
Urban (4.8) (2.2) 88
Rural (11.4) (4.8) 18
Gandaki Province (2.3) (0.0) 26
Urban * * 15
Rural * * 10
Lumbini Province 25.0 3.8 84
Urban (22.6) (0.0) 45
Rural (27.7) (8.1) 39
Karnali Province 21.8 1.1 38
Urban (22.0) (2.0) 22
Rural (21.6) (0.0) 17
Sudurpashchim Province 28.8 1.5 40
Urban (33.5) (2.6) 23
Rural (22.6) (0.0) 17
Mother’s education
No education 11.6 4.3 124
Basic education (1–8) 17.8 1.3 191
Lower basic education
(1–5) 17.1 1.6 100
Upper basic education
(6–8) 18.4 0.9 91
Secondary (9–12) 17.2 1.6 194
Lower secondary (9–10) 15.7 2.2 125
Higher secondary
(11–12) 20.0 0.6 68
More than secondary
(13 and above) * * 16
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.5 2.9 107
Second 19.4 1.5 118
Middle 14.1 2.7 133
Fourth 13.4 1.6 107
Highest (17.0) (3.3) 59
Total 15.6 2.3 524

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An

asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.

Child Health • 271

 Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhea
Percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey for whom advice or
treatment was sought from specific sources; among children under age 5 with diarrhea in the 2 weeks preceding
the survey for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from
specific sources; among children with diarrhea who received ORS, percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought from specific sources; and among children with diarrhea who were given zinc tablets or syrup,
percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage for whom advice or treatment
was sought from each source:
Among children
with diarrhea for Among children Among children
whom advice or with diarrhea with diarrhea
Among children treatment who received who were
Source with diarrhea was sought ORS1 given zinc
Public sector 15.3 26.8 30.6 25.0
Government hospital 1.3 2.3 2.1 3.1
Health post 11.3 19.8 24.3 18.1
Basic health care center 0.8 1.4 1.3 2.0
Female Community Health Volunteer 1.1 1.9 1.9 1.3
Other public sector 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.0
Private medical sector 41.5 72.7 51.9 68.7
Private hospital 2.8 4.8 4.7 1.3
Private clinic 21.5 37.6 25.1 42.6
Pharmacy 18.6 32.6 22.9 24.7
Other private sector 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.5
Traditional practitioner 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.5
Other 2.1 3.7 1.1 0.8
Number of children 524 300 201 94

Note: Advice or treatment for children with diarrhea may have been sought from more than one source.
ORS = Oral rehydration salts
1
Fluids from ORS packet or prepackaged ORS fluid

272 • Child Health

NUTRITION OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS 11
Key Findings
▪ Nutritional status of children: 25% of children under
age 5 are stunted (short for their age), 8% are wasted
(thin for their height), 19% are underweight (thin for their
age), and 1% are overweight (too heavy for their height).
▪ Breastfeeding: 55% of children under age 2 are
breastfed within 1 hour of birth, and 56% of children
under age 6 months are exclusively breastfed.
▪ Children’s dietary practices: 48% of children age 6–23
months receive meals with a minimum dietary diversity,
82% receive meals at the minimum frequency, and 43%
are fed a minimum acceptable diet. Forty-three percent of
children age 6–23 months consume sweet beverages
and 69% consume unhealthy foods.
▪ Anemia in children and women: 43% of children age
6–59 months and 34% of women age 15–49 are anemic.
▪ Nutritional status of women: 10% of women age 20–49
and 27% of adolescent girls age 15–19 are of short
stature. In addition, 10% of women and 26% of
adolescent girls are thin. The prevalence of overweight or
obesity is 35% among women and 6% among adolescent
girls.
▪ Women’s dietary practices: 56% of women age 15–49
consume meals with a minimum dietary diversity, 54%
consume unhealthy foods, and 66% consume sweet
beverages.
▪ Coverage of vitamin A and deworming in children:
During the 6 months before the survey, 85% of children
age 6–59 months received a vitamin A capsule, and 84%
of children age 12–59 months received deworming
medication.

N
utrition is the foundation for the health and development of children and adults. This chapter
reports on nutritional status and anemia among children and adults, infant and young child feeding
(IYCF) practices, and women’s dietary practices. In addition, the chapter presents key nutrition
interventions including IYCF counseling, child growth monitoring, micronutrient supplementation,
deworming for children, and the presence of iodine in household cooking salt. Chapter 9 presents
information on nutritional interventions provided during the antenatal period such as maternal nutrition
counseling, breastfeeding counseling, deworming, iron-containing supplementation and sources of the
supplements, and postnatal breastfeeding counseling and observation. Chapter 10 presents information on
child feeding practices during diarrhea.

11.1 NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF CHILDREN

Anthropometry is commonly used to measure child nutritional status. The anthropometric measurements
are used to report on child growth indicators. The distribution of height and weight among children under
age 5 was compared with the WHO Child Growth Standards reference population (WHO 2006). The
distribution of a well-nourished population will be similar to that of the reference population, while the

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 273

 distribution of a poorly nourished population will not. The indices height-for-age, weight-for-height, and
weight-for-age can be expressed in standard deviation units (z scores) from the median of the reference
population. Values that are greater than two standard deviations below the median of the WHO Child
Growth Standards are used to define malnutrition.

Stunting, or low height-for-age, is a measure of growth faltering. Stunting is a marker of the deficient
growth environment to which children have been exposed and reflects the overall well-being of a
population (Perumal et al. 2018). Suboptimal nutrition can contribute to stunting, while other causes
include recurrent infection, chronic diseases, and more; many of the causes of stunting are complex and
unknown (WHO 2014a).

Wasting, or low weight-for-height, is a measure of acute undernutrition. It represents the failure to receive
adequate nutrition in the period immediately before the survey. Wasting may result from inadequate food
intake or from a recent episode of illness or infection causing weight loss.

Underweight, or low weight-for-age, is a composite index of weight-for-height and height-for-age. It

reflects children who are stunted, wasted, or both.

Overweight, or high weight-for-height, results from an imbalance between energy consumed (too much)
and energy expended (too little).

Stunting (assessed via height-for-age)

Height-for-age is a measure of growth faltering. Children whose height-for-age
z score is below minus two standard deviations (–2 SD) from the median of the
reference population are considered short for their age (stunted). Children
whose z score is below minus three standard deviations (–3 SD) from the
median are considered severely stunted.
Sample: Children under age 5

Wasting (assessed via weight-for-height)

The weight-for-height index measures body mass in relation to body height or
length and describes acute undernutrition. Children whose weight-for-height z
score is below minus two standard deviations (–2 SD) from the median of the
reference population are considered thin (wasted). Children whose z score is
below minus three standard deviations (–3 SD) from the median are
considered severely wasted.
Sample: Children under age 5

Underweight (assessed via weight-for-age)

Weight-for-age is a composite index of height-for-age and weight-for-height
that takes into account both wasting and stunting. Children whose weight-for-
age z score is below minus two standard deviations (–2 SD) from the median
of the reference population are classified as underweight. Children whose z
score is below minus three standard deviations (–3 SD) from the median are
considered severely underweight.
Sample: Children under age 5

Overweight (assessed via weight-for-height)

Children whose weight-for-height z score is more than two standard deviations
(+2 SD) above the median of the reference population are considered
overweight.
Sample: Children under age 5

274 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

The means of the z scores for height-for-age, weight-for-height, and weight-for-age are also calculated as
summary statistics that represent the nutritional status of children in a population. The mean scores
describe the nutritional status of the entire population of children without the use of a cutoff point. A mean
z score of less than 0 (a negative mean value for stunting, wasting, or underweight) suggests a downward
shift in the entire sample population’s nutritional status relative to the reference population. The farther
away mean z scores are from 0, the higher the prevalence of malnutrition.

Child Growth Measures of Malnutrition

Information on anthropometry training, standardization, and data collection methodology can be found in
Chapter 1. Appendix C, Table C.7 provides the standardization results. The 2022 NDHS identified a total
of 2,765 children under age 5 who were eligible for height and weight measurements (Appendix C, Table
C.8). During measurements, 1% of children had hairstyles or ornamentation that interfered with height
measurement, and 7% of children were not minimally dressed or wore heavy permanent ornaments that
interfered with weight measurement (Appendix C, Table C.10). Valid height-for-age measurements were
obtained for 97% of eligible children, valid weight-for-height measurements were obtained for 97% of
eligible children, and valid weight-for-age measurements were obtained for 98% of eligible children
(Appendix C, Table C.8). Appendix C, Table C.8 provides additional information on the completeness and
quality of anthropometry data for children.

Data collection included remeasurement of children as described in Chapter 1. The calculation of final z
scores was based on the first measurement among children randomly selected for remeasurement, while
the calculation of final z scores was based on the second measurement among children flagged for
remeasurement. The remeasurement completion rate was 95%. Appendix C, Table C.9 provides additional
information on remeasurement data (WHO and UNICEF 2019).

Overall, 25% of children under age 5 are stunted, with 6% being severely stunted; 8% are wasted, with 1%
severely wasted; and 19% are underweight, with 4% severely underweight. One percent of children are
overweight (Table 11.1).

Trends: The prevalence of stunting Figure 11.1 Trends in child growth measures
and underweight among children
Percentage of children under age 5 who
under age 5 decreased markedly are malnourished
between 1996 and 2022, from 57%
to 25% and from 42% to 19%,
respectively. At the same time, 57 57
wasting declined from 15% in 1996 49
42 43 41
to 8% in 2022. The proportion of 39
36
children who are overweight has 29 27 25
remained steady at 1% since 1996
Stunted
(Figure 11.1). There has been a 15 13
19
Underweight
11 11 10
gradual decline in the proportion of 8 Wasted
children who are severely stunted 1 1 1 1 1 1 Overweight
(Figure 11.2). 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 275

 Figure 11.2 Trends in stunting
Percentage of children under age 5 who are stunted

57 57
49
41
36
25 27 27
20
16
12
6

1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
Any stunting Severe stunting

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The prevalence of stunting and underweight is higher among children age 24–59 months (27% and
20%, respectively) than among children age 0–23 months (22% and 16%, respectively).

▪ Fifty-four percent of children reported to be very small at birth are stunted and 49% are underweight.
In contrast, only 22% of children reported to be average or larger at birth are stunted, and only 17% are
underweight.

▪ The prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight is higher among children whose mothers are thin
(33%, 17%, and 35%, respectively) than among those whose mothers have a normal body mass index
(26%, 7%, and 19%, respectively).

▪ The proportion of children who are stunted is Figure 11.3 Stunting in children
highest in the mountain zone (42%), while the by province
proportion of wasting is highest in the terai zone Percentage of children under age 5 who
(10%). are stunted

Karnali Province 36
▪ The proportion of children who are stunted is
highest in Karnali Province (36%) and Madhesh Madhesh Province 29
Province (29%) and lowest in Bagmati Province Sudurpashchim
(18%) (Figure 11.3). Wasting is highest in Province
28
Lumbini Province (16%), followed by Madhesh Lumbini Province 25
Province (10%).
Gandaki Province 20
▪ The prevalence of stunting, wasting, and
Koshi Province 20
underweight is higher among children born to
mothers with no education (36%, 10%, and Bagmati Province 18
30%, respectively) than among children born to
mothers with a basic education or higher.

276 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

▪ Stunting is nearly threefold higher among Figure 11.4 Stunting in children
children from the lowest wealth quintile (37%) by household wealth
than among children from the highest wealth Percentage of children under age 5 who
quintile (13%) (Figure 11.4). are stunted

11.2 GROWTH MONITORING AND

PROMOTION
37
Growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) programs
28
include monitoring children’s nutritional status 22
18
through physical growth measurements and using 13
this information to provide caregivers with
counseling and referrals of children whose growth
appears abnormal (WHO 2013; WHO 2017a). An Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest
important component of growth monitoring is Poorest Wealthiest
regular measurement of children’s weight,
length/height, and/or mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC). The Government of Nepal has prioritized
GMP as a nutritional intervention, particularly monitoring of children’s growth on a monthly basis until
age 2 (Ministry of Health and Population 2020a; Ministry of Health and Population 2022a).

Weight measured in the last 3 months

Percentage of children under age 5 who had their weight measured in the last
3 months.
Weight and height measured in the last 3 months
Percentage of children under age 5 who had their weight and height measured
in the last 3 months.
Mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) measured in the last 3 months
Percentage of children under age 5 who had their MUAC measured in the last
3 months.
Weight, height, and MUAC measured in the last 3 months
Percentage of children under age 5 who had their weight, height, and MUAC
measured in the last 3 months.
Sample: Children under age 5

Forty-five percent of children under age 5 had their weight measured by a health care provider in the 3
months preceding the survey. However, only 9% of children had both height and weight measurements
taken, and 14% had MUAC measurements taken. Only 6% of children under age 5 had measurements
taken for all three crucial aspects of growth monitoring—height, weight, and MUAC—in the 3 months
preceding the survey (Table 11.2). Overall, 47% of children had measurements taken for at least one of the
crucial components of growth monitoring (Table 11.3).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Measurement of all crucial markers of growth monitoring is lower in the terai zone (4%) than in the
hill (8%) and mountain (12%) zones.

▪ The percentage of children who had height, weight, and MUAC measurements taken is highest in
Sudurpashchim Province (15%) and lowest in Koshi Province (2%).

▪ The percentage of children who had both weight and height measurements taken increases from 8%
among those whose mothers have no education to 20% among those whose mothers have more than a
secondary education (20%) (Table 11.2).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 277

 Discussion of Child Growth during Growth Monitoring

Thirty-nine percent of children under age 5 with weight, height, or MUAC measurements during the 3
months preceding the survey had a health care provider or female community health volunteer (FCHV)
talk to their mother about their growth (Table 11.3).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of children for whom a health care provider or FCHV talked to their mother about their
growth is higher in rural than urban areas (46% versus 34%).

▪ Sudurpashchim Province (61%) had the highest proportion of children for whom a health care provider
or FCHV talked to their mother about their growth, while Koshi Province had the lowest (26%).

▪ The proportion of children for whom a health care provider or FCHV talked to their mother about their
growth is higher among those whose mother has more than a secondary education than among those
whose mother has no education (51% versus 35%).

Reasons for Not Participating in Growth Monitoring

The main reasons children were not measured were that mothers lacked awareness about the need for their
children to be measured (68%) and mothers did not receive counseling or information on the need for
participating in growth monitoring of their children (58%). The percentage of children who were not
measured owing to fear of COVID-19 or lockdowns was negligible (less than 1%) (Table 11.4).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Lack of awareness about the need for children to be measured was more often mentioned as a reason
in the mountain zone (74%) than in the hill and terai zones (68% each).

▪ Lack of awareness about the need for children to be measured is lower in Sudurpashchim Province
(43%) than in Koshi Province, Madhesh Province, Lumbini Province, and Karnali Province (70% or
above).

▪ In Madhesh Province, mothers not receiving counseling or information on growth monitoring is a

major hinderance to children receiving growth monitoring services (76%).

▪ Four percent of children of mothers with more than a secondary education did not receive growth
monitoring services owing to fear of COVID-19 or lockdowns, as compared with less than 1% of
children of mothers at other educational levels.

The 2022 NDHS solicited information from mothers with children age 6–23 months regarding their
awareness about GMP at the nearest health facility. Twelve percent of women age 15–49 with a youngest
child age 6–23 months were aware about GMP in the nearest health facility. Among these women, more
than half (52%) attended GMP sessions at a health facility and 20% attended at a primary health care
outreach clinic (Table 11.5). However, 18% of women did not participate in a GMP session for their
children.

Among those who attended GMP sessions, 42% reported that they received counseling on nutrition and
health, while 31% received counseling on interpreting the child growth chart (Table 11.6). Overall, 73% of
women reported that their child’s weight was measured at birth, 71% during an immunization visit, and
52% during a sick child visit.

278 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

11.3 INFANT AND YOUNG CHILD FEEDING PRACTICES
Optimal infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices are critical to the health and survival of young
children. Recommended IYCF practices include early initiation of breastfeeding (within the first hour after
birth), exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days after birth, exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months
of life, continued breastfeeding for 2 years or more, and introduction of safe, appropriate, and adequate
complementary foods at age 6 months. This section reports on IYCF indicators for children under age 2
(WHO and UNICEF 2021).

11.3.1 Ever Breastfed, Early Initiation of Breastfeeding, and Exclusive Breastfeeding

for the First 2 Days after Birth

Breastfeeding supports children’s growth and development and also benefits mothers’ health. Initiation of
breastfeeding within the first hour of birth is important for both the mother and the child. The first breast
milk contains colostrum, which is highly nutritious and has antibodies that protect the newborn from
infections. Early initiation of breastfeeding also encourages bonding between the mother and her newborn,
especially through skin-to-skin contact, which facilitates the production of breast milk. Feeding newborns
anything other than breast milk in the first 2 days after birth can delay early initiation of breastfeeding and
interrupt exclusive breastfeeding and is not recommended unless medically indicated (WHO and UNICEF
2021).

Ever breastfed
Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were ever breastfed.
Early initiation of breastfeeding
Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were put to the breast within
1 hour of birth.
Exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days after birth
Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were fed exclusively with breast
milk for the first 2 days after birth.
Sample: Children age 0–23 months

Almost all children under age 2 (99%) have been breastfed at some point. Over half (55%) of children are
put to the breast within 1 hour of birth, and 59% are exclusively breastfed for the first 2 days after birth
(Table 11.7).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Both early initiation of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days after birth are
lower among cesarean section births (17% and 21%, respectively) than among vaginal births (63% and
68%, respectively).

▪ The percentage of children who were put to the breast within 1 hour is higher in rural areas (63%) than
in urban areas (51%).

▪ The percentage of children breastfed within 1 hour of birth is highest in Sudurpashchim Province
(69%) and lowest in Bagmati Province (43%). Similarly, 82% of children in Sudurpashchim Province
are exclusively breastfed for the first 2 days after birth, as compared with 48% of children in Bagmati
Province.

▪ The proportions of children breastfed within 1 hour of birth and exclusively breastfed for the first 2
days are highest in the lowest wealth quintile (62% and 82%, respectively) and lowest in the highest
wealth quintile (41% and 40%, respectively).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 279

 ▪ Early initiation of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days also vary according to
mother’s education. Sixty-one percent of children born to mothers with no education were put to the
breast within 1 hour and 58% were exclusively breastfed for the first 2 days, whereas the
corresponding figures among children born to mothers with more than a secondary education are 36%
and 32%.

11.3.2 Exclusive Breastfeeding and Mixed Milk Feeding

In the first 6 months, children should be exclusively breastfed; that is, they should be given nothing but
breast milk. Exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months lowers the risk of infections that can lead to diarrhea and
respiratory illnesses and provides all of the nutrients and liquid an infant requires for optimal growth and
development. Mixed milk feeding, in which children are fed both breast milk and formula or animal milk
within the first 6 months, has the adverse effect of reducing breast milk output because the production of
breast milk is modulated by the frequency and intensity of suckling. Mixed feeding under age 6 months
also can increase children’s risk of diarrhea, alter their intestinal microflora, and lead to early cessation of
breastfeeding (WHO and UNICEF 2021).

Exclusive breastfeeding under 6 months

Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed exclusively with breast
milk during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother

Mixed milk feeding under 6 months

Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed both breast milk and
formula or animal milk during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother

Nationally, only 56% of children Figure 11.5 Infant feeding practices by age
age 0–5 months are exclusively Percent distribution of youngest children age 0–5 months
breastfed, while 20% receive mixed
milk feeding (Table 11.8). 100 Unknown

Figure 11.5 shows the pattern of 80 Not breastfed

how children are fed in the first 6
Breast milk and solid,
months of life. At age 0–1 month, 60 semisolid, or soft foods
only 70% of children are Breast milk and formula
exclusively breastfed as per WHO and/or animal milk
40
recommendations. Twenty-eight Breast milk and non-milk
percent of children are not being liquids
fed according to recommended 20 Breast milk and plain
water only
guidelines, with 6% receiving Exclusive breastfeeding
breast milk and plain water only, 0
1% receiving breast milk and non- 0–1 2–3 4–5
Age in months
milk liquids, 18% receiving breast
milk and formula and/or animal milk, and 3% receiving breast milk and solid, semisolid, or soft foods. By
age 2–3 months, there is a small decline in the percentage of children exclusively breastfed, with more than
one-third (33%) of children receiving liquids or foods other than breast milk. By age 4–5 months, the
percentage of children exclusively breastfed declines sharply to 41% and the majority of children are
receiving liquids or foods other than breast milk, primarily breast milk and solid, semisolid, or soft foods
(26%) (Table 11.9 and Figure 11.5).

280 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Trends: Exclusive breastfeeding has fluctuated over Figure 11.6 Trends in
time, with a sharp dip in 2006 (Figure 11.6). exclusive breastfeeding
However, exclusive breastfeeding has been steadily Percentage of children age 0–5 months
declining since 2011, from 70% to 56%.
75
Patterns by background characteristics 68 70 66
56
▪ Exclusive breastfeeding is highest in 53
Sudurpashchim Province and Karnali Province
(74% each) and lowest in Lumbini Province
(36%) (Table 11.8).

▪ The proportion of children age 0–5 months who

are exclusively breastfed fluctuates across
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
wealth quintiles. The proportion is highest in the NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
lowest wealth quintile (64%) and lowest in the
highest quintile (44%).

▪ Twenty-two percent of children born in a health facility receive mixed milk feeding (breast milk and
fresh, packaged, or powdered animal milk or infant formula), as compared with 12% of those born at
home.

▪ Children of mothers with a secondary education more often receive mixed milk feeding than children
of mothers with no education (28% versus 9%).

11.3.3 Continued Breastfeeding and Bottle Feeding

Breastfeeding should continue for the first 2 years or beyond because breast milk lowers children’s risk of
illness, promotes their recovery during illness, and remains an important source of nutrients for healthy
growth and development. Longer durations of breastfeeding have many health benefits for women,
including reducing risks of certain breast and ovarian cancers and diabetes. The nipple on a feeding bottle
is susceptible to contamination and increases the risk of disease among children (WHO and UNICEF
2021). Thus, bottle feeding is not recommended for children under age 2.

Continued breastfeeding
Percentage of children age 12–23 months who were fed breast milk during the
previous day.
Sample: Children age 12–23 months

Bottle feeding
Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were fed from a bottle with a
nipple during the previous day.
Sample: Children age 0–23 months

Among children age 12–23 months, 94% are currently breastfeeding. Around one-fifth (22%) of children
less than age 2 are bottle fed (Table 11.8).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of children who are bottle fed is higher in urban areas (26%) than in rural areas (15%).

▪ Use of a bottle with a nipple is lowest in Karnali Province (11%) and Madhesh Province (12%) and
highest in Bagmati Province (43%).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 281

 ▪ The proportion of children who are bottle fed increases with increasing mother’s education, from 12%
among those whose mothers have no education to 49% among those whose mothers have more than a
secondary education.

▪ Use of a bottle with a nipple is highest in the highest wealth quintile (46%) and lowest in the lowest
quintile (11%).

11.3.4 Introduction of Complementary Foods

After the first 6 months, breast milk alone is no longer sufficient to meet all of the nutritional needs of an
infant. After 6 months, appropriate complementary foods should be introduced while breastfeeding is
continued until age 2 or older. The transition from exclusive breastfeeding to complementing breastfeeding
with family foods is when children are most vulnerable to becoming undernourished. During this time, it is
important that children receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods (WHO 2003; WHO and UNICEF 2021).

Introduction of solid, semisolid, or soft foods

Percentage of children age 6–8 months who were fed solid, semisolid, or soft
foods during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 6–8 months living with their mother

Overall, 85% of children were introduced to solid, semisolid, or soft foods at age 6–8 months (Table
11.14). Sixty-seven percent of these breastfeeding children received food made from grains; 66% received
beans, peas, lentils, nuts, and seeds; 26% received white/pale starchy roots, tubers, and plantains; 18%
received vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; 11% received eggs; 5% received meat, fish, poultry, or organ
meats; and 30% received other fruits and vegetables (Table 11.11).

11.3.5 Minimum Dietary Diversity, Minimum Meal Frequency, Minimum Milk Feeding
Frequency, Minimum Acceptable Diet, and Egg and/or Flesh Food
Consumption

Infants and young children should be fed a minimum acceptable diet, which means that they are fed meals
with appropriate frequency and a variety of foods to meet their energy and nutrient needs. The minimum
acceptable diet indicator is a combination of minimum dietary diversity and minimum meal frequency for
breastfeeding children and the same combination along with minimum milk feeding frequency for
nonbreastfed children.

Minimum dietary diversity is a proxy for adequate micronutrient density of foods. Consumption of food
from at least five groups means that the child has a higher likelihood of consuming at least one animal
source of food and at least one fruit or vegetable in addition to a staple food such as grains, roots, or tubers.
The five groups should come from a list of eight food groups: breast milk; grains, roots, and tubers;
legumes and nuts; dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese); flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry, and organ
meat); eggs; vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; and other fruits and vegetables.

Minimum meal frequency is a proxy for meeting energy requirements. Breastfed children age 6–8 months
are considered to be fed with a minimum meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods at
least twice a day. Breastfed children age 6–23 months are considered to be fed with a minimum meal
frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods at least three times a day. Nonbreastfed children
age 6–23 months are considered to be fed with a minimum meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid,
or soft foods or milk feeds at least four times a day and if at least one of the feeds is a solid, semisolid, or
soft food.

Minimum milk feeding frequency is a proxy for meeting the nutrient needs of nonbreastfed children. Milk
and milk products are important sources of nutrients. Nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months are

282 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

considered to be fed with a minimum milk feeding frequency if they receive at least two feeds of milk
and/or milk products each day.

Egg and/or flesh food consumption by breastfed and nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months increases
energy, protein, and nutrient intake. Eggs, meat, fish, poultry, and organ meats are important sources of
nutrients that support healthy child growth (WHO and UNICEF 2021).

Minimum dietary diversity

Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum of five
out of eight defined food groups during the previous day. The eight food
groups are as follows: breast milk; grains, roots, and tubers; legumes and
nuts; dairy products (milk, yogurt, and cheese); flesh foods (meat, fish,
poultry, and organ meat); eggs; vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; and
other fruits and vegetables.
Minimum meal frequency
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed solid, semisolid,
or soft foods (including milk feeds for nonbreastfed children) the minimum
number of times or more during the previous day.
Minimum milk feeding frequency
Percentage of nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months who were given at
least two milk feeds during the previous day.
Minimum acceptable diet
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum
acceptable diet during the previous day. This indicator is a composite of
children fed with a minimum dietary diversity and a minimum meal
frequency, with the additional requirement that nonbreastfed children are
fed with a minimum milk feeding frequency.
Sample: Youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother

Egg and/or flesh food consumption

Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed eggs and/or flesh
food during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother

Overall, 48% of children age 6–23 months received Figure 11.7 IYCF indicators on minimum
the minimum number of food groups during the acceptable diet by breastfeeding status
previous day, 82% were fed the minimum number of
Percentage of children age 6–23 months
times, and 43% were fed a minimum acceptable diet meeting feeding practice
(Table 11.12 and Figure 11.7). Thirty-seven percent recommendations
of children consumed eggs and/or flesh food (Table Breastfed Non- All children
11.13). breastfed 6–23 months
82 82 82
Patterns by background characteristics
49 48 44 43
▪ The percentages of children fed with a minimum 38 33
dietary diversity and fed a minimum acceptable
diet are lowest among those age 6–11 months
(32% and 30%, respectively) and highest among Minimum dietary Minimum meal Minimum
those age 18–23 months (61% and 53%, diversity frequency acceptable diet
respectively) (Table 11.12).

▪ The proportion of children fed a minimum acceptable diet is lower in the terai zone (38%) than in the
hill and mountain zones (50% each).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 283

 ▪ By province, the percentages of children fed with a minimum dietary diversity and fed a minimum
acceptable diet are lowest in Madhesh Province (36% and 31%, respectively) and highest in Gandaki
Province (57% and 52%, respectively). The percentages of children fed with a minimum meal
frequency are 76% in Madhesh Province and 83% in Gandaki Province.

▪ Minimum dietary diversity and minimum acceptable diet are lowest among children whose mothers
have no education (26% and 23%, respectively) and highest among children whose mothers have a
secondary education (59% and 52%, respectively).

▪ Only 23% of children age 6–11 months received eggs and/or flesh food, as compared with 46% of
children age 12–17 months (Table 11.13).

▪ Consumption of eggs or flesh food is lowest in Madhesh Province (23%) and highest in Gandaki
Province (54%).

▪ Only 24% of children whose mothers have no education consumed eggs or flesh food, compared with
43% of children whose mothers have a secondary education.

11.3.6 Sweet Beverage Consumption, Unhealthy Food Consumption, and Lack of

Vegetable or Fruit Consumption among Children

Unhealthy infant and young child feeding practices should be avoided because they can replace nutritious
foods that provide important nutrients for children and promote unhealthy weight gain. For infants and
young children, consumption of sweet foods and beverages increases the risk of dental caries and obesity
in childhood. In addition, too much salt in the diet increases the risk of noncommunicable diseases, and
unhealthy fats and refined carbohydrates contribute to unhealthy weight gain. Children consuming diets
low in vegetables and fruits have reduced nutrient intakes, which can negatively impact healthy growth and
development; low vegetable and fruit consumption is also associated with noncommunicable diseases later
in life. The indicator definition below for unhealthy food consumption describes “sentinel unhealthy
foods,” which are foods high in sugar, salt, and/or unhealthy fats that are commonly consumed by infants
and young children (WHO and UNICEF 2021).

Sweet beverage consumption

Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given a sweet beverage
during the previous day.
Unhealthy food consumption
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed sentinel unhealthy
foods during the previous day.
Zero vegetable or fruit consumption
Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were not fed any vegetables or
fruits during the previous day.
Sample: Youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother

Overall, 69% of children age 6–23 months consumed unhealthy foods during the previous day, while 43%
consumed a sweet beverage. Around one-third (33%) of children were not given any vegetables or fruits
(Table 11.13).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Children’s consumption of unhealthy foods increases with age. Forty-nine percent of children age 6–
11 months consume unhealthy foods, as compared with 78% of children age 12–23 months.

284 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

▪ Thirty percent of children age 6–11 months Figure 11.8 Unhealthy feeding practices
consume sweet beverages, compared with 52% among children age 6–23 months
of children age 18–23 months. by residence
Percentage of children age 6–23 months
▪ There is no difference by residence in
consumption of unhealthy foods; however, Total Urban Rural
sweet beverage consumption is higher in urban
69 69 69
areas than in rural areas (45% versus 41%)
(Figure 11.8). 43 45 41
33 32 35
▪ Consumption of unhealthy foods is higher in the
terai zone (73%) than in the hill (62%) and
mountain (59%) zones.
Consumed sweet Consumed Consumed zero
▪ Consumption of unhealthy foods ranges from beverages the day unhealthy foods vegetables or
before the the day before fruits the day
57% in Karnali Province to 78% in Koshi survey the survey before the survey
Province.

▪ The percentage of children who are not consuming vegetables and fruits decreases with increasing age,
from 54% among those age 6–11 months to 20% among those age 18–23 months.

11.3.7 Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) Indicators

Table 11.14 summarizes all 16 WHO-UNICEF IYCF indicators. These indicators align with the National
Nutritional Strategy (2020) and National Multi-Sectoral Nutritional Plan for Nepal (Ministry of Health and
Population 2020a).

11.4 INFANT AND YOUNG CHILD FEEDING COUNSELING

IYCF counseling helps support appropriate breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices (WHO
2003; WHO 2018a). Counseling is an interactive process that helps empower mothers and caregivers to
follow the recommended IYCF practices. Counseling can take place in health facilities and the community
and is delivered by trained health providers, community health workers, and others in the community.

Mothers who received IYCF counseling in the last 6 months

Percentage of mothers with children age 6–23 months who received IYCF
counseling in the last 6 months from a health care provider or female
community health volunteer (FCHV).
Sample: Women whose youngest child age 6–23 months is living with them

Twenty-seven percent of women with a child age 6–23 months received IYCF counseling from a health
care provider or FCHV in the past 6 months (Table 11.15).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women who received IYCF counseling is higher in rural areas (32%) than in urban
areas (25%).

▪ Twenty-one percent of women in terai zone received IYCF counseling, as compared with 36% of
women in the hill zone and 43% of those in the mountain zone.

▪ IYCF counseling is lowest in Madhesh Province (13%) and highest in Sudurpashchim Province (56%).

Among women with children age 6–23 months who received IYCF counseling, the major sources of
counseling were FCHVs (60%) and doctors/nurses/midwives (49%). Women most often received

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 285

 counseling during visits to health facilities (66%), followed by FCHV home visits (26%) and Health
Mother’s Group meetings (21%) (Table 11.16).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ A higher proportion of women in rural areas than urban areas receive IYCF counseling from an FCHV
(65% versus 57%).

▪ Women in urban areas more often receive IYCF counseling during a visit to a health facility (69%)
than women in rural areas (61%). In contrast, women in rural areas are more likely to receive IYCF
counseling during FCHV home visits (31% versus 23%) and Health Mothers’ Group meetings (26%
versus 18%).

▪ The proportion of women receiving IYCF counseling during Health Mothers’ Group meetings is
highest in the hill zone (25%) and lowest in the terai zone (18%) (Table 11.16).

▪ Women in the mountain zone more often receive IYCF counseling during FCHV home visits (34%)
than women in the terai (28%) and hill (22%) zones.

The primary topics discussed during IYCF counseling sessions are giving children a variety of foods
(66%), introducing complementary foods at age 6 months (64%), and exclusive breastfeeding before age 6
months (52%) (Table 11.17).

11.5 ANEMIA PREVALENCE IN CHILDREN

Anemia is a condition characterized by insufficient hemoglobin, a protein responsible for transporting
oxygen in the blood (Chaparro and Suchdev 2019). In children, anemia can impair cognitive development
and is associated with long-term health consequences. When anemia is severe, it can cause death (Chaparro
and Suchdev 2019).

Anemia in children
Hemoglobin level in
Anemia status grams/deciliter*
Anemic <11.0
Mildly anemic 10.0–10.9
Moderately anemic 7.0–9.9
Severely anemic <7.0
Not anemic ≥11.0
* Hemoglobin levels are adjusted for altitude in
enumeration areas above 1,000 meters.
Sample: Children age 6–59 months

Overall, more than two-fifths (43%) of children age 6–59 months have anemia, with 25% having mild
anemia, 18% having moderate anemia, and 1% having severe anemia (Table 11.18).

286 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Trends: The prevalence of anemia among children Figure 11.9 Trends in childhood anemia
age 6–59 months has fluctuated over the past 16 Percentage of children age 6–59 months
years, declining from 48% in 2006 to 46% in 2011, classified as anemic
increasing to 53% in 2016, and then falling to 43%
in 2022. The prevalence of mild and severe anemia
has remained stagnant over the same period, while 53
48 46 1
moderate anemia has fluctuated from 18% to 26% 1 1 43 1 Severe
(Figure 11.9). 22 18 26
18 Moderate
Patterns by background characteristics
26 27 26 25 Mild
▪ A higher proportion of children age 6–23
months (66%) than children age 24–59 months 2006 2011 2016 2022
(34%) are anemic. NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS

▪ The prevalence of child anemia is higher in the Figure 11.10 Anemia in children
terai zone (49%) than in the mountain (43%) and by province
hill (34%) zones. Percentage of children age 6–59 months
classified as anemic
▪ Anemia in children is highest in Madhesh
Province (51%) and lowest in Gandaki Province Madhesh Province 51
(31%) (Figure 11.10). Lumbini Province 49
Sudurpashchim
▪ Mother’s level of education is associated with Province
45
anemia in children: 52% of children whose
Bagmati Province 43
mothers have no education are anemic, as
compared with 36% of children whose mothers Karnali Province 40
have more than a secondary education.
Koshi Province 34
▪ A higher proportion of children in the lowest
Gandaki Province 31
wealth quintile (42%) than the highest wealth
quintile (32%) are anemic.

11.6 MICRONUTRIENT SUPPLEMENTATION AND DEWORMING AMONG CHILDREN

Micronutrient deficiency is a major contributor to childhood morbidity and mortality. Micronutrient
deficiency can be caused by a lack of consumption of foods that supply vitamins and minerals, as well as
by infections and genetic abnormalities. Strategies to prevent or address micronutrient deficiency include
agricultural approaches such as biofortification, food-based approaches that can be complemented with
food fortification, and, for specific life stages and population groups, direct micronutrient supplementation
(USAID 2019).

Iron is a micronutrient that plays an important role in numerous biological systems. Iron deficiency is one
of the primary causes of anemia. Interventions targeting iron deficiency and anemia include periodically
giving children iron-containing supplements (WHO 2011a; WHO 2016b; WHO 2016c).

Vitamin A is a micronutrient that supports the immune system and plays an important role in maintaining
the epithelial tissue in the body. Severe vitamin A deficiency can cause eye damage, increase the severity
of infections such as those causing measles, and slow recovery from illness. Vitamin A supplementation
programs help reduce vitamin A deficiency and mortality in children (WHO 2011b).

Soil-transmitted helminth infections can cause internal bleeding, inflammation, impaired nutrient
absorption, diarrhea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Deworming programs help reduce the burden of
helminth infections (WHO 2017b).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 287

 Iron-containing supplements
Percentage of children age 6–59 months who were given iron-containing
supplements in the last 12 months, including tablets, syrup, or micronutrient
powders (Baal Vita).
Sample: Children age 6–59 months

Vitamin A supplements
Percentage of children age 6–59 months who were given vitamin A
supplements in the last 6 months.
Sample: Children age 6–59 months

Deworming medication
Percentage of children age 12–59 months who were given deworming
medication in the last 6 months.
Sample: Children age 12–59 months

The Government of Nepal initiated the National Vitamin A Program (NVAP) in 1993 to improve the
vitamin A status of children age 6–59 months. This nationwide program has integrated biannual
deworming tablet distribution for children age 12–59 months since 2000. The government initiated a
phase-wise launch of multiple micronutrient powder (Baal Vita) distribution in 2012 (Public Health Update
2020). The 2022 NDHS results showed that 85% of children age 6–59 months had received vitamin A
supplements in the last 6 months and 34% had received iron-containing supplements in the last 12 months.
In addition, 84% of children age 12–59 months had received deworming medication in the past 6 months
(Table 11.19).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of children given vitamin A supplements is lower among those age 6–23 months (77%)
than among those age 24–59 months (89%).

▪ Children age 12–23 months were less likely to be given deworming medication than children age 24–
59 months (69% versus 89%).

▪ The proportion of children who received multiple micronutrient powders (Baal Vita) is lower among
those age 6–23 months (28%) than among those age 24–59 months (36%).

▪ The proportion of children given multiple micronutrient powders (Baal Vita) is lowest in Karnali
Province (23%) and highest in Sudurpashchim Province (43%).

The 2022 NDHS asked women age 15–49 with at least one child age 0–59 months if they received
counseling on multiple micronutrient powders (Baal Vita). Thirty-eight percent of these women reported
that they received such counseling (Table 11.20).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women who were counseled on multiple micronutrient powders (Baal Vita) is higher
in rural areas (43%) than in urban areas (36%).

▪ The proportion of women counseled on multiple micronutrient powders (Baal Vita) is lowest in
Karnali Province (23%) and highest in Sudurpashchim Province (47%).

288 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

11.7 ADULTS’ NUTRITIONAL STATUS
Chronic energy deficiency is caused by eating too little or having an unbalanced diet that lacks adequate
nutrients. Women of reproductive age (age 15–49) are especially vulnerable to chronic energy deficiency
and malnutrition due to low dietary intakes, inequitable distribution of food within the household, improper
food storage and preparation, dietary taboos, infectious diseases, and inadequate care practices. Chronic
energy deficiency leads to low productivity among adults and greater morbidity and mortality (WHO
1995). In addition, undernutrition among women is a major risk factor for adverse birth outcomes.
Overweight and obesity have adverse health outcomes as well. Overweight and obesity are major risk
factors for several chronic diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer.

Body mass index (BMI) is the ratio of weight relative to height squared; it is used to measure nutritional
status among adults age 20–49. BMI values are independent of age and sex. Adult women age 20–49
whose height is less than 145 centimeters are classified as being of short stature.

BMI-for-age, the ratio of weight relative to height for different age groups, is used to measure nutritional
status among children and adolescents age 5–19 (WHO 2007). BMI-for-age is sex and age specific. The
reason is that adolescents are still growing and the timing of peak growth velocity differs in boys and girls.
In the DHS surveys, BMI-for-age is reported among adolescents age 15–19. Similarly, short stature among
adolescent women (age 15–19) is assessed according to low height-for-age.

Body mass index (BMI)

BMI is calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in meters
squared (kg/m2).
Adult status BMI
Too thin for height Less than 18.5
Normal Between 18.5 and 24.9
Overweight Between 25.0 and 29.9
Obese Greater than or equal to 30.0
Sample: Women age 20–49 who are not pregnant and who have not had a
birth in the 2 months before the survey and men age 20–49

BMI-for-age
BMI-for-age is measured in z score standard deviations (SD).
Adolescent status BMI-for-age
Too thin for height Less than –1 SD
Normal Between –1 SD and +1 SD
Overweight Between +1 SD and +2 SD
Obese Greater than +2 SD
Sample: Women age 15–19 who are not pregnant and who have not had a
birth in the 2 months before the survey and men age 15–19

Short stature
Percentage of women age 20–49 with height under 145 cm.
Sample: Women age 20–49
Percentage of women age 15–19 with height-for-age z score less than –2
SD.
Sample: Women age 15–19

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 289

 11.7.1 Nutritional Status of Women

Height and weight data were collected for 98% of eligible women age 15–49 (Appendix C, Table C.6).
During measurements, 1% of women had hairstyles or ornamentation that interfered with height
measurement, and 6% of women were not wearing lightweight clothing or wore heavy permanent
ornaments that interfered with weight measurement (Appendix C, Table C.11).

Among women age 20–49, data on Figure 11.11 Nutritional status of adolescent and adult
height and weight were used to women and men
calculate two measures of Percent distribution of women and men age 15–19 and
nutritional status: height and BMI. 20–49 by nutritional status
Overall, 10% of women are shorter
Adolescents Adults
than 145 cm. One in every 10 age 15–19 age 20–49
women (10%) are thin, while 26% 5
1 3
6
4 8
are overweight and 8% are obese
26
(Table 11.21.1 and Figure 11.11). 26 Obese
52
69 Overweight
Among adolescent women age 15–
19, data on height, weight, and age Normal weight
55 61
were used to calculate two Thin
measures of nutritional status: 41
26
height-for-age and BMI-for-age. 10 7
Overall, 27% of young women are Women Men Women Men
of short stature. Twenty-six percent
of young women are thin, 5% are overweight, and less than 1% are obese (Table 11.21.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women age 20–49 who are of short stature (below 145 cm) is highest in Madhesh
Province (13%) and lowest in Sudurpashchim Province (5%) (Table 11.21.1).

▪ The proportion of women who are thin is highest among those age 20–29 (15%), while the proportion
who are overweight or obese is highest among those age 40–49 (44%).

▪ A higher proportion of women in the terai zone (14%) than in the mountain (10%) and hill (6%) zones
are thin. Similarly, the proportion of young women (age 15–19) who are thin is highest in the terai
zone (33%) and lowest in the mountain zone (11%) (Table 11.21.2).

▪ The proportion of overweight or obesity among women age 20–49 is highest in Bagmati Province
(51%) and lowest in Sudurpashchim Province (18%) (Table 11.21.1).

▪ The proportion of women who are of short stature decreases with increasing education, from 14%
among those with no education to 4% among those with more than a secondary education.

▪ Overweight or obesity increases with increasing household wealth. Fifty-three percent of women in the
highest wealth quintile are overweight or obese, as compared with 20% in the lowest wealth quintile.

11.7.2 Nutritional Status of Men

Height and weight data were collected for 93% of eligible men age 15–49 (Appendix C, Table C.6).
During measurements, 1% of men had hairstyles or ornamentation that interfered with height
measurement, and 5% of men were not wearing lightweight clothing or wore heavy permanent ornaments
that interfered with weight measurement (Appendix C, Table C.11).

290 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Among men age 20–49, data on height and weight were used to calculate BMI. Overall, 7% of men are
thin, while 26% are overweight and 6% are obese (Table 11.21.3 and Figure 11.11).

Among adolescent men age 15–19, data on height, weight, and age were used to calculate BMI-for-age.
Forty-one percent of young men are thin, 4% are overweight, and 3% are obese (Table 11.21.4).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of men who are thin is highest among those age 20–29 (10%), while the proportion
who are overweight or obese is highest among those age 30–39 (35%) and age 40–49 (36%).

▪ The proportion of overweight or obesity among men age 20–49 is highest in Gandaki Province (45%)
and lowest in Karnali Province (15%) (Table 11.21.3).

▪ Overweight or obesity generally increases with increasing household wealth. Fifty percent of men in
the highest wealth quintile are overweight or obese, as compared with 13% in the lowest wealth
quintile.

▪ The proportion of young men (age 15–19) who are thin is higher in urban areas (45%) than in rural
areas (32%) (Table 11.21.4).

11.8 WOMEN’S DIETARY PRACTICES

Dietary practices that support a healthy diet include eating a variety of different foods and food groups and
limiting consumption of sugary beverages and unhealthy foods. Eating a variety of unprocessed foods
helps women consume the appropriate amount of essential vitamins and minerals. A healthy diet also
protects against overweight, obesity, and noncommunicable diseases.

Minimum dietary diversity for women is an indicator of diet diversity validated for nonpregnant women
age 15–49. The indicator is based on 10 food groups: grains, white/pale starchy roots, tubers, and
plantains; pulses (beans, peas, and lentils); nuts and seeds; dairy (milk and milk products); flesh foods
(meat, fish, poultry, and organ meat); eggs; dark green leafy vegetables; vitamin-A rich fruits and
vegetables; other vegetables; and other fruits. Women who consumed at least five of the 10 possible food
groups in the 24 hours before the survey were classified as having minimally adequate dietary diversity.
Deficiencies in micronutrients such as iron, iodine, vitamin A, folate, and zinc can have devastating
consequences for the human body. Women, particularly those of childbearing age, are especially vulnerable
due to their greater needs for essential vitamins and minerals. Having minimally adequate dietary diversity
is important for micronutrient adequacy (FAO 2021).

Unhealthy foods and sweet beverages should be limited because they are associated with overweight,
obesity, and noncommunicable diseases (Askari et al. 2020). Overweight and obesity among women can
affect reproductive health and increase complications in pregnancy (Mitchell and Shaw 2015). The
indicator for unhealthy food consumption describes “sentinel unhealthy foods,” which are fried foods or
foods high in sugar, salt, and/or unhealthy fats that are commonly consumed by women (FAO 2021).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 291

 Minimum dietary diversity for women
Percentage of women who consumed foods from at least five out of 10 defined
food groups during the previous day. The 10 food groups are as follows:
grains, white/pale starchy roots, tubers, and plantains; pulses (beans, peas,
and lentils); nuts and seeds; dairy (milk and milk products); flesh foods (meat,
fish, poultry, and organ meat); eggs; dark green leafy vegetables; vitamin-A
rich fruits and vegetables; other vegetables; and other fruits.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Sweet beverage consumption

Percentage of women who consumed sweet beverages during the previous
day.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Unhealthy food consumption

Percentage of women who consumed selected sentinel unhealthy foods
during the previous day.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Overall, 56% of women consumed foods from at least five of the 10 possible food groups (minimum
dietary diversity). Almost all women consumed food made from grains (99%); 83% consumed white/pale
starchy roots, tubers, and plantains; 74% consumed beans, peas, and lentils; 53% consumed milk products;
and 59% consumed dark green leafy vegetables. Thirty-nine percent of women consumed meat, fish, and
poultry, whereas only 17% consumed eggs. More than half of women (54%) consumed unhealthy foods,
and two-thirds (66%) consumed sweet beverages (Table 11.22 and Table 11.23).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Minimum dietary diversity among women is higher in urban (60%) than rural (46%) areas (Table
11.23).

▪ Minimum dietary diversity is lower in the mountain zone (48%) than in the terai (52%) and hill (63%)
zones.

▪ The proportion of women with minimum dietary Figure 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity
diversity is highest in Bagmati Province (72%) among women by education
and lowest in Madhesh Province (43%). Percentage of women age 15–49
achieving minimum dietary diversity the
▪ Minimum dietary diversity increases with day before the survey
increasing education, from 39% among women 89
with no education to 89% among women with
68
more than a secondary education (Figure 11.12).
50
▪ Minimum dietary diversity is lowest among 39
women in the lowest wealth quintile (35%) and
highest among those in the highest wealth
quintile (84%).
No education Basic Secondary More than
▪ The proportions of women consuming meat education secondary
products and eggs are lower in Madhesh
Province (28% and 9%, respectively) than in the other provinces (Table 11.22).

▪ Consumption of dark green leafy vegetables is lowest among Muslim (35%) and Madhesi (45%)
women and highest among Brahmin and Chhetri women (68% each) (Table 11.22).

292 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

11.9 ANEMIA PREVALENCE IN WOMEN
Anemia in adults can cause fatigue, lethargy, reduced physical productivity, and poor work performance
(Chaparro and Suchdev 2019). Anemia is a major concern among pregnant women because it can lead to
increased maternal mortality and poor birth outcomes (Haider et al. 2013).

Hemoglobin levels below which women are considered anemic

Hemoglobin level in
Respondents grams/deciliter*
Nonpregnant women age 15–49 Less than 12.0
Pregnant women age 15–49 Less than 11.0
* Hemoglobin levels are adjusted for cigarette smoking and
for altitude in enumeration areas above 1,000 meters.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Overall, 34% of women age 15–49 are anemic, with 18% mildly anemic, 15% moderately anemic, and 1%
severely anemic (Table 11.24). Similarly, 33% of pregnant women are anemic (20% with mild anemia,
12% with moderate anemia, and less than 1% with severe anemia).

Trends: The prevalence of anemia among women age 15–49 has fluctuated since 2006. The prevalence
decreased slightly from 36% in 2006 to 35% in 2011, increased to 41% in 2016, and subsequently declined
to 34% in 2022. Among pregnant women, the prevalence increased from 42% in 2006 to 48% in 2011
before declining to 46% in 2016 and 33% in 2022.

Past NDHS surveys used the cutoffs recommended in the Government of Nepal’s National Nutrition Policy
and Strategy 2004 (Ministry of Health and Population 2004). Based on this cutoffs, the prevalence of
moderate anemia among women age 15–49 has been constant at 6%–7% since 2006, while the prevalence
of severe anemia has remained below 1% (data not shown).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The prevalence of anemia is highest among women age 15–19 (39%) and lowest among those age 30–
39 (30%).

▪ Anemia is highest among Muslim (50%) and Madhesi (48%) women and lowest among
Brahmin/Chhetri women (26%).

▪ A higher proportion of women in the terai zone (45%) than in the mountain (23%) and hill (20%)
zones are anemic.

▪ Anemia is highest in Madhesh Province (52%) and lowest in Karnali Province (21%).

11.10 IRON AND FOLIC ACID SUPPLEMENTATION

Adolescent iron and folic acid (IFA) supplementation is the one of the priorities of the Ministry of Health
and Population. According to the National Nutritional Strategy 2002, one of the specific objectives of the
national nutritional program is to improve the health and nutritional status of schoolchildren. Under the
school health program, adolescent girls age 10–19 are supplemented with weekly IFA tablets on a biannual
basis (Ministry of Health and Population 2020a). Seventeen percent of adolescent girls age 15–19 received
IFA supplementation in the last 3 months (Table 11.25).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 293

 Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of women age 15–19 who received IFA supplementation is lowest among those from
the Muslim (7%) and Madhesi (8%) ethnic groups and highest among those in the Brahmin/Chhetri
group (25%).

▪ Only 13% of adolescent women in the terai zone received IFA supplementation, as compared with
22% of those in the hill zone and 24% of those in the mountain zone.

▪ IFA supplementation among adolescent women is highest in Sudurpashchim Province (34%) and
lowest in Madhesh Province (7%).

11.11 PRESENCE OF IODIZED SALT IN HOUSEHOLDS

Iodine is a micronutrient that plays an important role in thyroid function, which is critical for reproductive
function, growth, and development. It is recommended that household salt be fortified with iodine.
Sufficient iodine prevents goiter, brain damage, and other thyroid-related health problems (WHO 2014b).

Household salt iodization

Percentage of households with iodized salt.
Sample: Households in which salt was tested for iodine content

Control of iodine deficiency disorder and universal salt iodization are priorities of the Government of
Nepal. The MoHP is responsible for improving awareness and use of iodized salt at the household level
(Ministry of Health and Population 2022a). Almost all households (98%) in Nepal use iodized salt (Table
11.26).

11.12 HEALTH MOTHERS’ GROUP AND CHILD GRANT

Over the last two decades, FCHVs have played a key role in providing health-related information and
services to communities. FCHVs also lead Health Mothers’ Groups, which are community groups that
bring together women of reproductive age (15–49) on a monthly basis to promote and discuss safe
motherhood; maternal and child health; nutrition; family planning; water, sanitation, and hygiene; and
other related issues (Manandhar et al. 2022).

Twenty-nine percent of women age 15–49 are aware that there is a Health Mothers’ Group in their ward.
Among these women, 17% participated in a Health Mothers’ Group meeting in the past 6 months.
However, only 6% participated in six or more meetings (Table 11.27). The major topics discussed during
these meetings were child feeding practices (66%), maternal and child nutrition (52%), and reproductive
health/women’s health (39%) (Table 11.28).

Child Grant

In 2009, the Government of Nepal introduced a social protection program involving child grants for
children under age 5; these monthly cash transfers are worth about Rupees 532 per child for up to two
children per family. The program began in the Karnali district and focused on members of the Dalit ethnic
group living in poverty, after which child grants gradually expanded to other districts (Simet and Ganguly
2022). The 2022 NDHS collected information from mothers on child grants for their children under age 5.

Overall, according to mothers’ reports, child grants were received for 25% of children under age 5 (Table
11.29).

294 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of children for whom a child grant was received is higher among those age 24–59
months (28%) than among those age 0–23 months (19%).

▪ Child grants were received for 41% of children in the mountain zone, as compared with 20% in the hill
zone and 26% in the terai zone.

▪ The proportions of children for whom child grants were received are higher in Karnali Province
(50%), Madhesh Province (38%), and Sudurpashchim Province (31%) than in the other provinces.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on nutrition of children and adults, see the following tables:

▪ Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children

▪ Table 11.2 Child growth monitoring
▪ Table 11.3 Discussions of child growth
▪ Table 11.4 Reasons for not having child measured for growth monitoring
▪ Table 11.5 Growth monitoring and promotion
▪ Table 11.6 Counseling at growth monitoring and promotion sessions
▪ Table 11.7 Early breastfeeding
▪ Table 11.8 Breastfeeding status according to age
▪ Table 11.9 Infant feeding practices by age
▪ Table 11.10 Liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview
▪ Table 11.11 Foods consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview
▪ Table 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, and minimum acceptable
diet among children
▪ Table 11.13 Egg and/or flesh food consumption and unhealthy feeding practices among
children age 6–23 months
▪ Table 11.14 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators
▪ Table 11.15 Infant and young child feeding counseling
▪ Table 11.16 Providers and time when IYCF counseling received
▪ Table 11.17 Topics discussed during IYCF counseling
▪ Table 11.18 Prevalence of anemia in children
▪ Table 11.19 Micronutrient supplementation and deworming among children
▪ Table 11.20 Counseling on multiple micronutrient powders
▪ Table 11.21.1 Nutritional status of women age 20–49
▪ Table 11.21.2 Nutritional status of adolescent women age 15–19
▪ Table 11.21.3 Nutritional status of men age 20–49
▪ Table 11.21.4 Nutritional status of adolescent men age 15–19
▪ Table 11.22 Foods and liquids consumed by women in the day or night preceding the
interview
▪ Table 11.23 Minimum dietary diversity and unhealthy food and beverage consumption
among women
▪ Table 11.24 Prevalence of anemia in women
▪ Table 11.25 Iron and folic acid supplementation among adolescent women age 15–19
▪ Table 11.26 Presence of iodized salt in household
▪ Table 11.27 Health Mothers’ Group
▪ Table 11.28 Topics discussed during Health Mothers’ Group meetings
▪ Table 11.29 Receipt of child grant

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 295

Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children
Percentage of children under age 5 classified as malnourished according to three anthropometric indices of nutritional status: height-for-age, weight-for-height, and weight-
for-age, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age
Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent-
age age Mean Number age age age Mean Number age age Mean Number
Background below below z score of below below above z score of below below z score of
characteristic –3 SD –2 SD2 (SD) children –3 SD –2 SD2 +2 SD (SD) children –3 SD –2 SD2 (SD) children
Age in months
<6 5.8 18.2 –0.8 244 1.2 7.5 6.2 –0.0 241 3.4 11.1 –0.7 246
6–11 2.0 9.9 –0.6 215 1.8 8.7 3.0 –0.5 215 3.0 13.7 –0.7 215
12–23 6.7 28.5 –1.3 507 1.1 10.2 0.6 –0.6 507 3.9 19.9 –1.0 507
24–35 6.3 29.1 –1.4 573 0.6 8.0 0.2 –0.7 574 4.1 23.3 –1.2 583
36–47 6.0 26.8 –1.4 554 0.5 5.4 0.3 –0.5 555 2.3 17.2 –1.1 555
48–59 6.8 23.7 –1.3 537 0.8 7.2 1.1 –0.6 537 4.3 19.5 –1.2 537
0–23 5.4 21.8 –1.0 966 1.3 9.2 2.5 –0.4 962 3.6 16.3 –0.9 967
24–59 6.4 26.6 –1.4 1,664 0.6 6.9 0.5 –0.6 1,666 3.6 20.0 –1.2 1,675
Sex
Male 5.3 24.7 –1.2 1,368 0.8 8.5 1.6 –0.5 1,366 3.3 16.6 –1.0 1,371
Female 6.8 25.0 –1.3 1,262 1.0 6.9 0.9 –0.6 1,262 3.9 20.9 –1.1 1,272
Birth interval in
months3
First birth4 3.5 21.2 –1.1 860 0.8 6.7 1.5 –0.5 858 2.0 15.5 –1.0 866
<24 7.8 30.5 –1.4 384 1.0 8.3 1.5 –0.6 384 4.6 25.9 –1.3 385
24–47 9.7 32.3 –1.4 587 0.9 8.9 0.9 –0.6 587 6.0 23.1 –1.2 590
48+ 5.2 20.2 –1.1 525 1.0 9.7 1.3 –0.5 522 3.7 16.3 –1.0 528
Size at birth3,5
Very small 23.1 53.5 –2.1 54 0.9 13.6 5.3 –0.8 53 21.0 48.5 –1.8 54
Small 14.1 38.3 –1.7 143 4.6 17.5 2.9 –0.8 143 10.7 29.7 –1.6 143
Average or larger 4.4 22.1 –1.1 1,210 0.7 8.1 1.3 –0.5 1,207 2.6 17.2 –0.9 1,221
Mother’s interview
status
Interviewed 6.1 25.2 –1.2 2,356 0.9 8.2 1.3 –0.6 2,352 3.8 19.3 –1.1 2,369
Not interviewed but
in household 6.2 21.5 –1.3 214 0.0 3.9 1.1 –0.3 214 2.1 14.5 –1.0 214
Not interviewed and
not in the
household6 2.1 19.3 –0.9 60 2.2 3.8 0.9 –0.5 62 0.0 9.8 –0.9 60
Mother’s age3
<20 4.8 25.1 –1.4 462 0.5 6.6 1.2 –0.6 461 2.9 21.3 –1.2 465
20–34 6.2 24.9 –1.2 1,801 1.0 8.4 1.3 –0.5 1,798 4.0 18.6 –1.1 1,811
35–49 9.9 33.1 –1.4 93 1.5 13.1 0.9 –0.6 93 5.5 22.8 –1.2 93
Mother’s nutritional
status7
Thin 10.2 33.3 –1.6 326 2.1 17.2 0.0 –1.1 326 11.5 35.0 –1.7 326
Normal 5.5 25.6 –1.3 1,421 0.7 7.0 0.5 –0.6 1,420 2.6 18.5 –1.1 1,426
Overweight/obese 4.6 15.3 –0.9 557 0.5 5.5 3.1 –0.2 556 1.8 11.2 –0.6 561
Residence
Urban 4.8 21.5 –1.1 1,707 0.9 7.9 1.5 –0.5 1,706 3.2 16.9 –1.0 1,715
Rural 8.2 31.0 –1.5 923 0.8 7.5 0.9 –0.5 922 4.3 21.9 –1.2 927
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.2 41.7 –1.7 148 0.5 3.7 1.9 –0.2 148 3.8 19.1 –1.1 149
Hill 5.2 22.4 –1.2 922 0.2 3.9 1.2 –0.3 922 1.7 13.4 –0.9 926
Terai 6.1 24.7 –1.2 1,561 1.3 10.4 1.2 –0.7 1,558 4.7 21.7 –1.2 1,568
Province
Koshi Province 4.3 20.0 –1.0 481 0.7 3.8 2.1 –0.4 480 1.7 13.0 –0.9 487
Urban 4.5 20.3 –1.0 303 1.2 3.7 2.8 –0.4 303 1.5 14.1 –0.8 305
Rural 3.9 19.4 –1.1 178 0.0 4.1 0.9 –0.4 177 1.9 11.1 –0.9 182
Madhesh Province 6.6 29.3 –1.4 687 0.2 10.1 0.0 –0.8 687 5.1 26.8 –1.4 691
Urban 6.6 27.2 –1.4 515 0.0 10.5 0.0 –0.8 515 5.2 24.1 –1.4 518
Rural 6.6 35.6 –1.6 172 1.0 9.1 0.0 –0.8 173 4.8 34.8 –1.5 173
Bagmati Province 4.7 17.6 –0.9 417 0.4 4.5 3.2 –0.2 417 2.9 10.5 –0.7 420
Urban 3.9 13.1 –0.7 313 0.5 5.4 3.3 –0.2 313 3.4 9.5 –0.6 316
Rural 7.1 31.1 –1.5 105 0.0 2.0 3.0 –0.2 105 1.4 13.7 –1.0 105
Gandaki Province 6.9 19.7 –1.2 182 0.0 4.0 0.8 –0.4 182 1.6 18.1 –1.0 182
Urban 4.0 15.0 –1.1 113 0.0 3.5 0.0 –0.4 113 1.7 15.2 –0.9 113
Rural 11.7 27.6 –1.4 68 0.0 4.7 2.1 –0.3 68 1.6 22.9 –1.0 68
Lumbini Province 7.4 25.1 –1.3 435 3.3 16.2 0.3 –0.8 431 6.1 23.3 –1.3 435
Urban 2.9 18.9 –1.1 224 3.7 17.8 0.0 –0.8 221 3.7 20.0 –1.2 224
Rural 12.1 31.8 –1.5 211 2.8 14.5 0.6 –0.8 210 8.6 26.9 –1.4 211
Karnali Province 8.6 35.8 –1.6 195 0.6 3.8 0.7 –0.4 195 2.3 17.7 –1.2 195
Urban 5.6 26.6 –1.4 96 1.0 2.9 1.0 –0.4 96 0.5 14.8 –1.1 96
Rural 11.5 44.9 –1.9 98 0.3 4.7 0.4 –0.4 98 4.1 20.5 –1.3 98
Sudurpashchim
Province 5.0 28.4 –1.3 233 0.3 5.1 2.4 –0.3 236 2.3 13.9 –1.0 233
Urban 4.7 27.0 –1.3 143 0.4 4.5 3.9 –0.2 144 1.2 11.6 –0.9 143
Rural 5.4 30.7 –1.4 91 0.0 6.1 0.0 –0.4 92 3.9 17.6 –1.1 91

Continued...

296 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.1—Continued
Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age
Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent-
age age Mean Number age age age Mean Number age age Mean Number
Background below below z score of below below above z score of below below z score of
characteristic –3 SD –2 SD2 (SD) children –3 SD –2 SD2 +2 SD (SD) children –3 SD –2 SD2 (SD) children
Mother’s education8
No education 12.4 36.3 –1.7 549 1.1 10.4 0.2 –0.8 549 8.4 29.7 –1.5 551
Basic education (1–
8) 4.5 27.5 –1.3 922 0.5 7.6 1.1 –0.5 921 2.4 19.5 –1.1 924
Lower basic
education (1–5) 5.7 28.2 –1.3 470 0.6 8.4 1.0 –0.5 470 2.9 20.2 –1.1 470
Upper basic
education (6–8) 3.3 26.8 –1.3 452 0.4 6.8 1.3 –0.5 451 1.9 18.8 –1.1 454
Secondary (9–12) 4.4 17.6 –1.1 982 1.1 6.7 1.7 –0.5 980 2.5 13.7 –0.9 990
Lower secondary
(9–10) 5.2 19.3 –1.1 635 1.1 6.7 0.7 –0.6 634 2.7 15.8 –1.0 642
Higher secondary
(11–12) 2.9 14.6 –0.9 347 1.0 6.8 3.6 –0.3 346 2.1 9.8 –0.7 349
More than secondary
(13 and above) 3.6 12.0 –0.5 117 0.0 6.7 3.1 –0.3 116 0.9 6.9 –0.5 117
Wealth quintile
Lowest 10.2 36.9 –1.6 626 0.9 5.6 1.0 –0.5 627 4.7 20.4 –1.3 628
Second 5.7 28.4 –1.4 567 0.5 7.8 0.8 –0.6 567 3.9 22.8 –1.2 568
Middle 4.5 22.3 –1.2 547 0.4 8.5 1.7 –0.6 548 2.4 19.2 –1.1 551
Fourth 4.7 17.7 –1.1 479 1.4 8.4 0.5 –0.6 479 3.6 17.0 –1.0 480
Highest 3.6 13.1 –0.7 411 1.4 9.2 2.5 –0.4 407 2.8 11.7 –0.7 416
Total 6.0 24.8 –1.2 2,630 0.9 7.7 1.3 –0.5 2,628 3.6 18.7 –1.1 2,643

Note: Each of the indices is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards. Total includes 1 case for which size at birth
of the child is not known.
1
Recumbent length is measured for children under age 2; standing height is measured for all other children.
2
Includes children who are below –3 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Child Growth Standards population median
3
Excludes children whose mothers were not interviewed
4
First-born twins (triplets, etc.) are counted as first births because they do not have a previous birth interval.
5
Information available only for children age 0–35 months
6
Includes children whose mothers are deceased
7
Excludes children whose mothers were not weighed and measured, children whose mothers were not interviewed, and children whose mothers are pregnant or gave birth
within the preceding 2 months. Mother’s nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for mothers age 20–49 and BMI-for-age for mothers age 15–19 (as
presented in Tables 11.21.1 and 11.21.2).
8
For women who were not interviewed, information is taken from the Household Questionnaire. Excludes children whose mothers were not listed in the Household
Questionnaire.

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 297

 Table 11.2 Child growth monitoring
Percentage of children under age 5 who had selected measurements performed by a health care provider or female community health volunteer
in the 3 months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Background Weight and Weight, height, Number of
characteristic Weight Height MUAC height and MUAC children
Age in months
<6 71.9 5.9 4.9 5.6 3.0 533
6–11 63.9 9.9 13.4 9.9 5.2 434
12–23 53.6 12.7 20.8 12.3 8.9 959
24–35 39.8 10.6 13.9 10.0 6.2 1,066
36–47 36.0 8.6 13.1 8.4 6.0 1,048
48–59 29.0 6.8 12.2 6.6 5.0 1,000
0–23 61.0 10.2 14.7 9.9 6.4 1,926
24–59 35.0 8.7 13.1 8.4 5.7 3,114
Sex
Male 46.0 8.9 12.9 8.6 5.6 2,639
Female 43.8 9.7 14.6 9.4 6.4 2,401
Mother’s age
15–19 41.9 9.9 15.9 9.5 6.8 987
20–29 44.7 8.0 12.9 7.7 5.3 3,286
30–39 50.3 14.5 13.7 14.5 8.5 716
40–49 43.6 5.6 20.0 4.6 1.7 52
Residence
Urban 44.7 9.0 10.3 8.7 5.1 3,276
Rural 45.5 9.8 20.0 9.5 7.6 1,764
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.0 13.8 20.9 13.7 11.6 317
Hill 56.0 12.8 20.3 12.7 8.0 1,744
Terai 37.2 6.7 9.1 6.3 4.2 2,979
Province
Koshi Province 43.3 5.4 6.9 4.5 1.8 859
Urban 41.7 5.9 4.4 4.6 1.3 553
Rural 46.3 4.4 11.5 4.4 2.8 306
Madhesh Province 25.0 6.4 8.2 6.2 4.6 1,352
Urban 25.1 6.6 8.3 6.4 4.8 1,013
Rural 24.4 6.0 7.8 5.6 4.1 338
Bagmati Province 57.6 14.5 12.5 14.5 6.9 814
Urban 62.5 15.3 10.8 15.3 6.3 596
Rural 44.2 12.4 17.2 12.4 8.4 218
Gandaki Province 63.7 10.3 17.5 10.3 7.7 331
Urban 68.2 10.5 14.2 10.5 6.6 216
Rural 55.3 9.9 23.6 9.9 9.9 116
Lumbini Province 51.1 8.9 20.6 8.5 6.5 862
Urban 51.4 7.4 11.4 7.2 4.8 452
Rural 50.8 10.4 30.7 10.1 8.4 410
Karnali Province 44.8 7.4 12.4 7.2 5.3 371
Urban 42.8 7.8 10.3 7.5 5.1 178
Rural 46.8 7.1 14.4 6.9 5.5 193
Sudurpashchim Province 59.6 17.5 30.6 17.2 14.9 451
Urban 55.6 13.2 24.1 12.9 11.1 267
Rural 65.4 23.7 39.9 23.5 20.4 184
Mother’s education
No education 28.8 7.8 12.0 7.5 6.3 1,103
Basic education (1–8) 41.2 8.5 13.5 8.2 5.4 1,767
Lower basic education (1–5) 37.4 8.6 12.7 8.2 5.1 898
Upper basic education (6–8) 45.2 8.4 14.4 8.3 5.8 869
Secondary (9–12) 55.2 9.6 15.3 9.2 6.5 1,955
Lower secondary (9–10) 51.0 8.5 13.9 8.0 5.9 1,217
Higher secondary (11–12) 62.2 11.4 17.7 11.2 7.5 738
More than secondary (13 and
above) 64.8 20.2 9.3 20.0 4.6 215
Wealth quintile
Lowest 42.3 10.4 19.9 10.1 7.6 1,213
Second 41.2 9.0 15.1 8.7 6.9 1,037
Middle 41.1 7.8 10.9 7.2 4.8 1,048
Fourth 44.5 6.6 11.2 6.6 4.7 969
Highest 59.8 13.2 9.0 12.8 5.5 774
Total 45.0 9.3 13.7 9.0 6.0 5,040

Note: “Height” refers to length (recumbent measurement) or height (standing measurement).

MUAC = Mid-upper-arm circumference

298 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.3 Discussions of child growth
Percentage of children under age 5 who were measured (weight, height, or mid-upper-arm circumference [MUAC]) by a health care
provider or female community health volunteer (FCHV) in the 3 months preceding the survey, and among those measured, percentage
for whom a health care provider or FCHV talked about their growth with their mother, according to background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022
Among children under age 5 who were
measured:
Percentage of children Percentage for whom
who were measured health care provider or
Background (weight, height, or Number of FCHV talked about Number of children
characteristic MUAC) children their growth who were measured
Age in months
<6 72.2 533 30.4 384
6–11 64.9 434 42.7 282
12–23 56.5 959 41.8 542
24–35 42.9 1,066 40.9 457
36–47 38.4 1,048 39.0 402
48–59 31.0 1,000 34.4 310
0–23 62.7 1,926 38.4 1,208
24–59 37.6 3,114 38.5 1,170
Sex
Male 48.2 2,639 38.0 1,271
Female 46.1 2,401 39.1 1,106
Mother’s age
15–19 45.5 987 36.2 449
20–29 46.6 3,286 39.5 1,532
30–39 51.9 716 37.6 372
40–49 49.3 52 27.2 25
Residence
Urban 45.9 3,276 34.0 1,503
Rural 49.6 1,764 46.1 875
Ecological zone
Mountain 58.8 317 33.2 186
Hill 59.2 1,744 43.4 1,032
Terai 38.9 2,979 34.9 1,159
Province
Koshi Province 45.5 859 25.9 390
Urban 43.8 553 21.2 242
Rural 48.5 306 33.6 148
Madhesh Province 26.3 1,352 27.2 355
Urban 26.2 1,013 24.7 265
Rural 26.6 338 34.6 90
Bagmati Province 59.1 814 33.0 481
Urban 62.8 596 33.9 375
Rural 48.7 218 29.9 106
Gandaki Province 65.6 331 39.2 217
Urban 68.7 216 33.4 148
Rural 59.9 116 51.6 69
Lumbini Province 55.7 862 49.0 480
Urban 52.9 452 38.5 239
Rural 58.8 410 59.5 241
Karnali Province 46.3 371 38.1 172
Urban 44.2 178 41.7 79
Rural 48.3 193 35.1 93
Sudurpashchim Province 62.6 451 61.0 282
Urban 58.2 267 60.1 155
Rural 68.9 184 62.1 127

Mother’s education
No education 30.5 1,103 34.9 337
Basic education (1–8) 43.8 1,767 36.2 774
Lower basic education (1–5) 40.3 898 37.1 362
Upper basic education (6–8) 47.4 869 35.4 412
Secondary (9–12) 57.6 1,955 39.6 1,126
Lower secondary (9–10) 53.8 1,217 37.1 655
Higher secondary (11–12) 63.8 738 43.1 471
More than secondary (13 and
above) 65.5 215 50.7 141
Wealth quintile
Lowest 45.9 1,213 44.0 557
Second 44.0 1,037 37.9 456
Middle 42.9 1,048 36.0 449
Fourth 46.3 969 37.2 448
Highest 60.5 774 36.0 468
Total 47.2 5,040 38.5 2,378

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 299

 Table 11.4 Reasons for not having child measured for growth monitoring
Percentage of children under age 5 who were not measured by a health care provider or female community health volunteer in
the 3 months preceding the survey by reasons for not being measured, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Mother did not
receive
Mother was not counseling or
aware about the information on Fear of COVID-
Background need for the child growth 19 and/or Number of
characteristic to be measured monitoring lockdown Other children
Age in months
<6 62.7 54.2 0.3 18.3 146
6–11 61.6 60.8 2.4 8.7 151
12–23 70.8 59.2 1.7 5.4 416
24–35 71.6 61.0 0.9 4.4 601
36–47 65.2 55.0 0.0 8.1 638
48–59 70.0 57.2 0.2 5.7 680
0–23 67.2 58.5 1.6 8.7 713
24–59 68.9 57.7 0.4 6.1 1,919
Sex
Male 70.7 55.2 0.7 6.4 1,352
Female 66.1 60.7 0.6 7.2 1,279
Mother’s age
15–19 69.7 52.9 0.9 6.9 532
20–29 68.6 60.6 0.6 6.4 1,736
30–39 65.8 52.3 1.0 8.4 337
40–49 (63.4) (53.3) (0.0) (7.5) 26
Residence
Urban 67.6 58.5 0.7 6.3 1,752
Rural 70.1 56.6 0.6 7.8 879
Ecological zone
Mountain 73.6 47.4 0.7 5.6 130
Hill 67.6 45.8 0.5 9.1 700
Terai 68.4 63.4 0.8 6.0 1,801
Province
Koshi Province 72.5 42.6 0.8 8.0 461
Urban 74.2 41.0 0.8 6.5 307
Rural 69.3 45.6 0.7 11.2 155
Madhesh Province 70.1 75.9 0.2 3.9 985
Urban 71.0 75.3 0.2 2.8 739
Rural 67.3 78.0 0.0 7.2 246
Bagmati Province 64.3 47.9 0.7 8.6 329
Urban 53.2 55.4 1.0 10.2 220
Rural 86.4 32.8 0.0 5.5 110
Gandaki Province 62.7 45.9 0.8 8.4 114
Urban 64.0 38.6 1.3 8.6 68
Rural 60.8 56.5 0.0 8.0 46
Lumbini Province 73.0 56.1 0.6 5.5 378
Urban 71.0 49.3 0.0 6.5 209
Rural 75.6 64.5 1.4 4.2 168
Karnali Province 73.8 42.4 1.6 7.5 197
Urban 78.5 43.5 2.8 5.7 99
Rural 69.0 41.3 0.4 9.4 99
Sudurpashchim Province 43.1 43.9 2.6 17.9 167
Urban 42.2 44.8 2.4 20.1 112
Rural 44.8 42.1 3.0 13.4 55
Mother’s education
No education 70.4 66.6 0.4 5.0 759
Basic education (1–8) 72.8 55.9 0.6 6.7 976
Lower basic education (1–5) 73.3 57.4 0.3 7.0 523
Upper basic education (6–8) 72.3 54.2 0.9 6.3 453
Secondary (9–12) 63.4 52.2 0.8 8.5 825
Lower secondary (9–10) 67.3 51.1 0.6 7.1 560
Higher secondary (11–12) 55.3 54.6 1.2 11.3 265
More than secondary (13 and
above) 46.4 58.3 3.6 8.0 71
Wealth quintile
Lowest 70.8 50.4 0.8 7.4 646
Second 74.6 61.1 0.6 5.9 576
Middle 69.0 61.7 0.5 6.9 594
Fourth 64.4 58.5 0.6 6.6 514
Highest 57.6 59.0 1.0 7.2 302
Total 68.4 57.9 0.7 6.8 2,632

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

300 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.5 Growth monitoring and promotion
Among women age 15–49 with a youngest child age 6–23 months who is living with them, percentage who know about growth monitoring and promotion at the
closest health facility, and among those who know about growth monitoring and promotion, percent distribution by place where they attended the sessions, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women who know about growth monitoring and promotion sessions:
Number of Number of
Percentage women whose women whose
who know youngest child youngest child
about growth age 6–23 Attended at age 6–23
monitoring and months is primary health months is
Background promotion living with care outreach Attended at a Did not living with
characteristic sessions them clinic health facility Other participate Total them1
Age
15–19 14.1 126 * * * * 100.0 18
20–29 12.0 955 20.7 47.8 9.8 20.8 100.0 114
30–39 12.0 269 (15.8) (63.2) (7.6) (9.7) 100.0 32
40–49 * 16 * * * * 100.0 1
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 12.5 364 26.4 46.0 6.4 20.4 100.0 45
Dalit 13.3 262 (13.3) (62.4) (4.3) (16.6) 100.0 35
Janajati 12.6 404 22.7 57.8 11.6 7.9 100.0 51
Madhesi 11.8 248 (12.4) (33.4) (17.2) (33.6) 100.0 29
Muslim 5.7 85 * * * * 100.0 5
Other * 2 * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 9.3 881 16.1 51.3 10.1 22.5 100.0 82
Rural 17.1 485 23.5 51.7 8.5 13.3 100.0 83
Ecological zone
Mountain 13.2 93 * * * * 100.0 12
Hill 15.3 460 25.6 52.6 6.3 15.5 100.0 70
Terai 10.1 812 16.7 47.8 11.7 21.1 100.0 82
Education
No education 8.6 261 (17.8) (63.9) (0.0) (18.3) 100.0 23
Basic education (1–8) 12.7 465 19.8 59.6 8.2 12.3 100.0 59
Lower basic education (1–5) 13.2 235 (18.3) (62.4) (10.2) (9.0) 100.0 31
Upper basic education (6–8) 12.2 230 (21.4) (56.6) (6.0) (16.0) 100.0 28
Secondary (9–12) 13.7 571 21.7 39.8 13.4 23.1 100.0 78
Lower secondary (9–10) 14.8 342 21.2 32.5 15.8 28.1 100.0 51
Higher secondary (11–12) 12.0 229 (22.7) (53.1) (8.9) (14.0) 100.0 28
More than secondary (13 and
above) (7.7) 68 * * * * 100.0 5
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.8 321 29.3 54.1 1.0 15.5 100.0 47
Second 16.3 300 15.6 45.7 10.8 27.1 100.0 49
Middle 8.9 267 * * * * 100.0 24
Fourth 12.0 272 (11.8) (40.7) (22.6) (18.1) 100.0 33
Highest 6.0 206 * * * * 100.0 12
Total 12.1 1,366 19.8 51.5 9.3 17.9 100.0 165

Note: Disaggregation by province is not presented due to few cases. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Total includes 3 women who did not know where they attended growth monitoring and promotion sessions.

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 301

 Table 11.6 Counseling at growth monitoring and promotion sessions
Among women age 15–49 with a youngest child age 6–23 months living with them who know about growth monitoring and promotion at the
closest health facility and attended growth monitoring and promotion sessions, percentage who reported that there was counseling on nutrition
and health, percentage who reported that there was counseling on interpreting the growth chart, and percentage who reported various occasions
when the weight of their child was measured, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who Percentage who
reported reported Percentage who reported child’s weight measured at
counseling on counseling on different occasions:
Background nutrition and interpreting Number of
characteristic health growth chart At birth At immunization At sick child visit women
Age
15–19 * * * * * 18
20–29 40.5 31.1 69.1 65.2 51.2 114
30–39 (47.6) (33.4) (79.9) (88.6) (59.1) 32
40–49 * * * * * 1
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 50.9 42.6 70.1 74.3 55.7 45
Dalit (32.9) (28.9) (70.7) (60.1) (42.1) 35
Janajati 48.3 29.4 81.1 86.2 58.8 51
Madhesi (23.7) (16.2) (61.2) (49.9) (40.6) 29
Muslim * * * * * 5
Residence
Urban 49.8 35.2 69.9 66.4 46.4 82
Rural 33.5 27.5 75.1 75.5 57.5 83
Ecological zone
Mountain * * * * * 12
Hill 52.3 41.8 72.6 77.2 60.0 70
Terai 32.8 20.1 69.8 62.9 45.1 82
Education
No education (38.1) (18.4) (59.8) (62.8) (60.3) 23
Basic education (1–8) 44.3 36.0 78.4 78.9 54.3 59
Lower basic education (1–5) (39.2) (30.2) (75.2) (85.5) (54.0) 31
Upper basic education (6–8) (49.9) (42.4) (81.9) (71.5) (54.6) 28
Secondary (9–12) 39.4 28.3 69.9 65.5 47.2 78
Lower secondary (9–10) 34.1 24.7 64.0 58.5 40.5 51
Higher secondary (11–12) (49.1) (34.9) (80.7) (78.4) (59.6) 28
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * * 5
Wealth quintile
Lowest 44.7 37.1 63.5 73.4 60.7 47
Second 33.2 24.4 64.6 65.8 41.7 49
Middle * * * * * 24
Fourth (37.7) (36.6) (81.9) (66.7) (53.1) 33
Highest * * * * * 12
Total 41.7 31.4 72.5 71.0 52.0 165

Note: Disaggregation by province is not presented due to few cases. There are no cases for the “other” ethnic group category. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.

302 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.7 Early breastfeeding
Percentage of children born in the last 2 years who were ever breastfed, percentage who were put to the breast within 1 hour of birth,
and percentage who were exclusively breastfed for the first 2 days after birth, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Percentage put to the Percentage exclusively
Background Percentage ever breast within 1 hour of breastfed for the first 2 Number of children
characteristic breastfed birth days after birth1 born in last 2 years
Sex
Male 98.3 55.0 58.4 1,042
Female 98.9 54.2 59.6 936
Breastfeeding counseling during
ANC2
Counseled 98.9 55.8 63.2 971
Not counseled/don’t know 98.4 53.7 53.9 910
Did not receive ANC 96.7 51.3 63.9 97
Assistance at delivery
Health personnel3 98.7 53.8 56.7 1,611
Traditional birth attendant 100.0 60.5 51.4 126
Other 97.0 57.8 77.9 222
No one (97.6) (45.7) (78.2) 19
Place of delivery
Health facility 98.7 54.0 57.0 1,570
At home 98.2 58.2 67.7 370
Other 95.1 45.7 54.6 38
Type of delivery
Vaginal birth 98.7 63.0 67.5 1,618
Cesarean section 98.1 17.0 20.5 360
Breastfeeding counseling during
PNC2,4
Counseled 99.3 54.8 55.8 1,224
Not counseled/don’t know 97.6 54.8 64.4 709
Breastfeeding observation
during PNC2,4
Observed 99.9 56.2 57.7 1,142
Not observed/don’t know 97.0 52.7 60.7 790
Residence
Urban 98.7 50.5 54.7 1,295
Rural 98.3 62.5 67.1 683
Ecological zone
Mountain 96.7 60.6 82.3 132
Hill 98.2 53.2 67.6 648
Terai 99.0 54.7 51.6 1,197
Province
Koshi Province 97.8 47.3 56.1 368
Urban 97.8 45.2 51.4 242
Rural 97.7 51.3 64.9 126
Madhesh Province 99.0 54.8 51.0 514
Urban 99.2 52.6 51.6 377
Rural 98.5 61.1 49.4 137
Bagmati Province 96.7 42.9 47.7 299
Urban 96.1 35.9 40.2 219
Rural 98.4 61.7 68.1 81
Gandaki Province 99.6 49.2 54.0 117
Urban 100.0 35.0 43.1 76
Rural 98.9 76.2 74.6 40
Lumbini Province 99.6 62.6 59.1 335
Urban 100.0 58.2 58.0 187
Rural 99.1 68.1 60.6 148
Karnali Province 99.5 63.0 88.4 152
Urban 100.0 61.1 86.4 75
Rural 98.9 64.8 90.4 78
Sudurpashchim Province 98.6 69.1 82.4 192
Urban 100.0 72.3 79.4 120
Rural 96.3 63.9 87.4 72
Mother’s education
No education 97.9 60.8 58.4 367
Basic education (1–8) 98.7 58.3 64.5 677
Lower basic education (1–5) 97.9 54.1 60.4 340
Upper basic education (6–8) 99.4 62.5 68.6 337
Secondary (9–12) 98.8 51.0 57.7 842
Lower secondary (9–10) 98.5 54.4 62.2 505
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.1 45.8 50.8 337
More than secondary (13 and
above) 98.4 35.9 31.8 91

Continued...

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 303

 Table 11.7—Continued
Percentage put to the Percentage exclusively
Background Percentage ever breast within 1 hour of breastfed for the first 2 Number of children
characteristic breastfed birth days after birth1 born in last 2 years
Wealth quintile
Lowest 98.7 61.7 82.1 444
Second 98.5 61.1 60.5 443
Middle 97.8 56.8 56.7 388
Fourth 98.8 47.9 47.8 396
Highest 99.2 41.0 40.4 306
Total 98.6 54.6 58.9 1,977

Note: Table is based on children born in the 2 years preceding the survey regardless of whether the children were living or dead at the
time of the interview. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
ANC = Antenatal care
PNC = Postnatal care
1
Children given nothing other than breast milk to eat or drink during the first 2 days after delivery
2
Information available for the most recent live birth only
3
Doctor, nurse/midwife, or auxiliary midwife
4
Women were asked about counseling on breastfeeding by any health care provider in the first 2 days after their most recent live birth
regardless of where they gave birth.

304 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.8 Breastfeeding status according to age
Among youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother, percentage exclusively breastfeeding and percentage receiving mixed milk feeding; among all
children age 12–23 months, percentage currently breastfeeding; and among all children age 0–23 months, percentage using a bottle with a nipple, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among youngest children age 0–5 months living with Among all children age 12–23 Among all children age 0–23
their mother: months: months:
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
Background exclusively receiving mixed Number of currently Number of using a bottle Number of
characteristic breastfeeding milk feeding1 children breastfeeding2 children with a nipple children
Age in months
0–1 69.6 19.5 165 na na 16.7 165
2–3 62.5 19.1 161 na na 17.0 165
4–5 40.7 21.3 201 na na 15.5 202
6–11 na na na na na 30.7 434
12–15 na na na 97.6 344 25.3 344
16–19 na na na 95.0 322 20.4 322
20–23 na na na 88.1 294 20.0 294
Sex
Male 53.7 20.2 265 94.6 486 24.9 1,011
Female 59.1 19.9 262 93.0 474 19.7 915
Breastfeeding counseling
during ANC3
Counseled 58.0 20.2 244 95.8 478 22.4 955
Not counseled/don’t know 55.3 19.2 264 95.9 430 22.3 886
Did not receive ANC * * 19 57.8 52 23.5 85
Place of delivery
Health facility 54.8 21.7 432 94.0 745 25.4 1,546
At home 63.4 12.4 85 93.4 200 9.3 344
Other * * 10 * 14 (18.5) 35
Residence
Urban 56.8 21.8 362 94.1 623 26.2 1,265
Rural 55.5 16.2 165 93.3 336 15.1 661
Ecological zone
Mountain 51.1 18.2 32 96.7 68 16.2 127
Hill 61.9 19.7 166 94.5 301 26.6 635
Terai 54.1 20.4 328 93.1 591 20.8 1,163
Province
Koshi Province 52.7 20.5 109 94.4 168 25.4 351
Urban 52.5 20.6 74 94.7 106 28.6 230
Rural (53.1) (20.2) 35 94.0 61 19.3 121
Madhesh Province 65.0 9.5 137 90.8 269 12.0 501
Urban 72.2 9.4 105 90.6 206 12.6 367
Rural (41.7) (9.7) 32 91.6 63 10.4 133
Bagmati Province 42.6 38.6 82 93.7 134 43.4 294
Urban (33.8) (45.2) 60 (94.6) 90 51.8 215
Rural (67.3) (20.2) 22 91.8 44 20.7 79
Gandaki Province (63.7) (20.4) 35 94.5 51 26.7 117
Urban * * 26 (96.3) 27 31.3 76
Rural * * 9 (92.4) 24 18.0 40
Lumbini Province 36.3 24.0 73 95.9 172 24.1 330
Urban (35.6) (25.3) 41 97.7 96 30.0 185
Rural (37.2) (22.4) 32 93.6 76 16.6 144
Karnali Province 73.8 10.0 34 96.7 79 10.8 149
Urban (74.5) (12.1) 20 97.1 39 11.0 74
Rural (72.7) (7.1) 14 96.3 40 10.6 75
Sudurpashchim Province 73.8 18.3 57 95.1 87 15.1 185
Urban 69.8 21.6 36 95.8 59 17.6 117
Rural (81.1) (12.4) 20 93.7 28 10.7 68
Mother’s education
No education 59.0 8.7 80 92.7 197 11.5 349
Basic education (1–8) 60.7 13.7 179 92.6 338 14.1 660
Lower basic education (1–5) 58.0 17.5 88 92.4 168 13.1 328
Upper basic education (6–8) 63.3 10.0 91 92.8 171 15.1 332
Secondary (9–12) 52.7 27.5 245 95.8 385 30.7 827
Lower secondary (9–10) 60.2 21.8 145 96.8 234 25.1 494
Higher secondary (11–12) 41.9 35.7 99 94.4 150 39.1 333
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * 22 (90.1) 39 48.8 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 64.1 15.9 99 96.0 233 10.8 429
Second 58.2 9.4 117 91.3 224 12.2 425
Middle 60.5 17.4 106 95.7 180 23.6 378
Fourth 54.4 28.6 107 92.7 193 27.0 389
Highest 44.1 30.6 97 93.6 129 45.6 305
Total 56.4 20.0 527 93.8 959 22.4 1,926

Note: Breastfeeding status refers to a “24-hour” period (yesterday during the day or at night). Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An
asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = Not applicable
ANC = Antenatal care
1
Received breast milk and milk from animals, such as fresh, tinned milk, or powdered milk, or infant formula. Excludes yogurt drinks because they are generally not
fed as a substitute for breast milk.
2
Corresponds to the IYCF indicator “continued breastfeeding”
3
Information available for the most recent live birth only

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 305

 Table 11.9 Infant feeding practices by age
Percent distribution of youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother by feeding category, according to age in months, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
youngest
Breast milk Breast milk Breast milk children age
only Breast milk Breast milk and formula and solid, 0–5 months
Age group (exclusively and plain and non-milk and/or animal semisolid, or living with their
in months breastfed) water only liquids1 milk2 soft foods3 Not breastfed Unknown4 Total mother
0–1 69.6 6.1 1.0 18.0 2.7 0.0 2.6 100.0 165
2–3 62.5 7.2 2.5 17.5 5.8 1.8 2.7 100.0 161
4–5 40.7 18.0 0.2 10.0 26.0 2.2 3.1 100.0 201
0–5 56.4 11.0 1.1 14.8 12.5 1.4 2.8 100.0 527

Note: Breastfeeding status refers to a “24-hour” period (yesterday during the day or at night). The categories of breast milk only; breast milk and plain water
only; breast milk and non-milk liquids; breast milk and formula and/or animal milk; breast milk and solid, semisolid, or soft foods; and not breastfed are
hierarchical and mutually exclusive. Thus, children who receive breast milk and non-milk liquids and who do not receive breast milk and formula and/or animal
milk and who do not receive any solid, semisolid, or soft foods are classified in the non-milk liquid category even though they may also get plain water. When
combined with children whose feeding category is classified as unknown due to “don’t know” responses, the percentages in each row add to 100%.
1
Non-milk liquids include fruit juice or fruit-flavored drinks, chocolate-flavored drinks, sodas, malt drinks, sports drinks, energy drinks, clear broth or soup, tea,
coffee, herbal drinks, and other liquids.
2
Animal milk here includes liquid yogurt but does not include solid yogurt. Note that animal milk in Table 11.8 excludes liquid yogurt and solid yogurt.
3
Solid, semisolid, or soft foods includes solid yogurt but not liquid yogurt.
4
Not classified elsewhere due to “don’t know” responses

Table 11.10 Liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview

Percentage of youngest children under age 2 living with their mother by type of liquids consumed in the day or night preceding the interview, according to age and breastfeeding
status, Nepal DHS 2022
Fresh, powdered, Sweet
and packaged bottled Tea, coffee, and
animal milk Yogurt drinks drinks herbal drinks Other liquids
such as
Fruit juice, Coke, Number of
fruit drinks Fanta, or youngest
such as Sprite or children
Real or energy under age
Frooti, or drinks Clear 2 living
Age in Plain Infant Sweet/ Sweet/ sugar such as Sweet/ broth and Sweet/ with their
months water formula1 Any flavored Any flavored cane juice Red Bull Any flavored clear soup Any flavored2 mother
BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN
0–1 11.5 11.7 9.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 165
2–3 16.1 11.2 10.1 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.4 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 158
4–5 43.1 8.2 14.4 3.2 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 3.4 3.4 1.9 0.1 0.0 196
6–8 86.5 9.6 37.1 8.3 0.6 0.0 9.8 0.7 8.1 7.0 9.0 3.4 0.0 230
9–11 96.7 10.7 40.5 9.6 1.4 0.6 9.5 2.2 20.8 18.1 13.9 6.9 0.0 187
12–17 99.0 5.7 37.7 11.9 4.0 0.3 14.4 3.8 30.6 28.4 14.0 7.8 0.3 481
18–23 99.4 1.5 44.4 15.5 5.9 1.3 15.1 4.2 32.6 30.2 15.9 9.2 0.4 411
0–5 24.8 10.2 11.6 2.4 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.3 1.8 1.7 1.0 0.1 0.0 519
6–11 91.1 10.1 38.6 8.9 1.0 0.3 9.7 1.4 13.8 12.0 11.2 5.0 0.0 417
12–23 99.2 3.8 40.8 13.6 4.9 0.8 14.7 4.0 31.5 29.2 14.9 8.4 0.3 892
6–23 96.6 5.8 40.1 12.1 3.6 0.6 13.1 3.2 25.9 23.7 13.7 7.3 0.2 1,309
Total (0–23) 76.2 7.0 32.0 9.3 2.6 0.4 9.8 2.4 19.0 17.4 10.1 5.3 0.2 1,828
NONBREASTFEEDING CHILDREN
6–23 100.0 27.1 66.2 27.1 4.6 0.0 14.3 0.0 14.0 14.0 15.2 8.7 0.0 57
Total (0–23) 97.1 32.3 60.8 24.1 4.1 0.0 12.7 0.0 12.4 12.4 13.5 7.8 0.0 65

1
Infant formula such as Lactogen, Farex, or Nan
2
Horlicks, Bournvita, or Viva

306 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.11 Foods consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview
Percentage of youngest children under age 2 living with their mother by type of foods consumed in the day or night preceding the interview, according to age and breastfeeding
status, Nepal DHS 2022
Solid or semisolid foods
Fried and
salty foods
such as
chips,
kurekure,
chisbal,
Sweet foods instant
such as noodles
cake, (e.g., Wai
biscuits, Wai or Yum Number of
White/pale cookies, Yum), youngest
starchy Beans, Meat, fish, Vitamin A- jeri/jalebi, samosa, Other solid, children
roots, peas, lentils, poultry, rich fruits Other fruits mithai, pakora, puri, semisolid, under age 2
Age in Foods made tubers, and nuts, and Cheese and organ and and toffees, or and tareko and soft living with
months from grains1 plantains2 seeds3 yogurt4 meats5 Eggs vegetables6 vegetables7 ice cream khaja foods their mother
BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN
0–1 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.7 1.3 165
2–3 0.7 0.8 1.6 0.0 1.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.7 0.0 2.0 158
4–5 9.4 1.4 17.3 0.7 0.4 0.7 2.4 5.7 8.9 1.2 4.3 196
6–8 67.0 25.8 66.4 0.8 5.4 11.4 17.8 30.2 37.1 7.7 9.9 230
9–11 89.4 45.5 76.9 5.0 22.2 12.5 31.4 39.1 52.4 26.4 10.8 187
12–17 95.6 64.9 72.4 5.8 32.0 21.3 46.9 48.9 68.2 44.6 8.4 481
18–23 97.9 74.2 73.3 7.2 28.0 20.8 54.3 64.3 68.2 51.3 8.9 411
0–5 3.8 0.8 7.5 0.3 0.6 0.4 1.1 2.5 4.3 0.7 2.6 519
6–11 77.0 34.6 71.2 2.7 12.9 11.9 23.9 34.2 44.0 16.0 10.3 417
12–23 96.7 69.2 72.8 6.5 30.1 21.1 50.3 56.0 68.2 47.7 8.7 892
6–23 90.4 58.2 72.3 5.3 24.6 18.1 41.9 49.1 60.5 37.6 9.2 1,309
Total (0–23) 65.8 41.9 53.9 3.9 17.8 13.1 30.3 35.8 44.5 27.1 7.3 1,828
NONBREASTFEEDING CHILDREN
6–23 96.3 65.2 86.9 16.2 20.4 24.8 45.7 41.5 73.7 34.7 6.4 57
Total (0–23) 85.6 57.9 77.2 14.4 18.2 22.1 40.6 36.9 65.4 30.8 5.7 65

1
Includes rice, paratha, naan, roti, pau roti, makai, and dhido
2
Includes potatoes, yams, wild yams, and white sweet potatoes
3
Includes lito, jaulo, daal, chickpeas, beans, soybeans, quanti, almonds, peanuts, cashews, pistachios, and walnuts
4
Includes paneer or cheese
5
Includes liver, organ meat, sausages, ham, bacon, canned meat, other meat (e.g., goat, mountain goat, lamb/sheep, pig, yak), chicken, and fresh or dried fish
6
lncludes ripe yellow pumpkin, carrots, ripe mangoes, papayas, apricot, persimmon, saag, spinach, mustard greens, fennel greens, pumpkin shoots, taro leaves, amaranth greens,
gundruk, braised greens, fenugreek greens, and broccoli
7
Includes tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, gourd, eggplant, apple, banana, guava, watermelon, and mulberries

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 307

 Table 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, and minimum acceptable diet among children
Percentage of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother who are fed a minimum acceptable diet based on breastfeeding status, number of food groups, and times they are fed during the day or night preceding the survey,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among youngest breastfed children age 6–23 months living Among youngest nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months living with their Among all youngest children age 6–23 months living with
with their mother, percentage fed: mother, percentage fed: their mother, percentage fed:
Number of Number of
Minimum Minimum breastfed Minimum milk Minimum Minimum nonbreastfed Minimum Minimum Number of all
Background dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age feeding dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age
characteristic diversity1 frequency2 diet3 6–23 months frequency4 diversity1 frequency5 diet6 6–23 months diversity1 frequency7 diet8 6–23 months
Age in months
6–11 32.4 76.2 30.2 417 * * * * 17 32.4 76.4 30.2 433
6–8 26.0 71.4 24.7 230 * * * * 6 25.3 70.9 24.1 236
9–11 40.4 82.0 37.0 187 * * * * 10 40.9 83.0 37.7 197
12–17 51.4 82.5 45.2 481 * * * * 17 51.3 82.9 45.1 498
18–23 61.9 86.3 54.8 411 (55.4) (36.4) (73.9) (28.7) 24 60.5 85.6 53.4 435
Sex
Male 48.0 81.5 43.7 702 * * * * 29 47.5 81.4 43.3 731
Female 49.5 81.9 43.2 607 (63.8) (39.1) (85.4) (33.1) 28 49.0 82.0 42.7 635
Residence
Urban 51.6 80.9 45.6 844 (72.4) (36.8) (84.9) (36.8) 37 51.0 81.1 45.2 881
Rural 43.3 83.0 39.6 465 (61.5) (41.1) (77.4) (25.5) 20 43.2 82.8 39.1 485
Ecological zone
Mountain 52.1 91.1 51.1 91 * * * * 2 51.2 90.8 50.2 93
Hill 54.1 86.5 50.1 438 * * * * 22 53.7 86.3 49.8 460
Terai 45.2 77.9 38.8 779 (60.8) (35.4) (82.1) (27.4) 33 44.8 78.0 38.3 812
Province
Koshi Province 51.5 82.3 47.0 230 * * * * 7 51.8 82.3 47.5 237
Urban 50.1 81.5 44.5 149 * * * * 3 51.0 81.9 45.5 152
Rural 53.9 83.6 51.7 81 * * * * 4 53.1 83.2 51.1 85
Madhesh Province 36.6 75.4 31.7 332 * * * * 17 35.9 75.9 31.2 349
Urban 40.2 75.8 34.6 238 * * * * 15 39.1 76.5 33.9 253
Rural 27.6 74.4 24.1 93 * * * * 3 27.4 74.3 24.1 96
Bagmati Province 52.0 89.5 49.2 190 * * * * 17 51.7 88.9 49.2 208
Urban 55.4 89.0 51.9 137 * * * * 15 54.4 88.0 51.3 152
Rural 43.2 91.0 42.4 53 * * * * 3 44.5 91.4 43.8 56
Gandaki Province 57.6 83.3 53.6 78 * * * * 4 56.5 82.8 52.2 81
Urban (65.2) (80.6) (59.7) 49 * * * * 2 (62.9) (81.3) (57.6) 51
Rural 44.8 87.7 43.4 29 * * * * 2 46.1 85.2 43.4 31
Lumbini Province 52.2 83.9 45.9 246 * * * * 7 52.3 84.0 45.0 253
Urban 52.9 78.8 45.6 141 * * * * 1 53.3 79.0 46.0 142
Rural 51.3 90.8 46.2 105 * * * * 6 50.9 90.4 43.7 111
Karnali Province 50.5 87.0 46.5 111 * * * * 2 49.8 86.7 45.9 114
Urban 65.2 90.2 59.8 53 * * * * 1 64.2 90.3 58.9 53
Rural 37.4 84.1 34.6 59 * * * * 1 37.1 83.5 34.3 60
Sudurpashchim Province 56.6 74.8 45.8 121 * * * * 3 55.3 74.6 44.8 124
Urban 63.0 78.9 51.8 77 * * * * 1 61.8 78.2 50.8 79
Rural 45.4 67.6 35.4 44 * * * * 1 44.1 68.5 34.4 46
Continued...

308 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.12—Continued
Among youngest breastfed children age 6–23 months living Among youngest nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months living with their Among all youngest children age 6–23 months living with
with their mother, percentage fed: mother, percentage fed: their mother, percentage fed:
Number of Number of
Minimum Minimum breastfed Minimum milk Minimum Minimum nonbreastfed Minimum Minimum Number of all
Background dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age feeding dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age dietary Minimum meal acceptable children age
characteristic diversity1 frequency2 diet3 6–23 months frequency4 diversity1 frequency5 diet6 6–23 months diversity1 frequency7 diet8 6–23 months
Mother’s education
No education 26.8 76.0 23.8 249 * * * * 12 25.7 76.1 22.7 261
Basic education (1–8) 44.0 81.3 39.7 447 * * * * 18 43.7 81.5 39.4 465
Lower basic education (1–5) 41.3 81.4 36.0 222 * * * * 13 40.9 81.8 35.3 235
Upper basic education (6–8) 46.6 81.2 43.5 225 * * * * 5 46.6 81.1 43.6 230
Secondary (9–12) 59.6 83.9 52.7 555 * * * * 16 59.3 84.1 52.4 571
Lower secondary (9–10) 54.7 85.1 50.5 337 * * * * 5 55.1 85.3 50.6 342
Higher secondary (11–12) 67.3 82.2 56.1 218 * * * * 11 65.7 82.3 55.0 229
More than secondary (13 and
above) (74.5) (87.3) (68.6) 57 * * * * 11 (72.7) (84.8) (67.6) 68
Wealth quintile
Lowest 39.4 84.8 36.7 317 * * * * 5 39.1 84.5 36.3 321
Second 43.9 82.7 39.9 285 * * * * 14 43.2 83.0 39.4 300
Middle 45.8 80.1 41.9 256 * * * * 11 45.5 79.9 41.2 267
Fourth 54.0 80.3 47.1 264 * * * * 8 53.1 80.5 46.0 272
Highest 67.9 78.9 57.2 187 * * * * 19 67.0 79.3 57.3 206
Total 48.7 81.7 43.5 1,309 68.6 38.3 82.3 32.9 57 48.2 81.7 43.0 1,366

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Minimum dietary diversity is receiving foods from five or more of the following eight food groups: a. breast milk; b. grains, white/pale starchy roots, tubers, and plantains; c. beans, peas, lentils, nuts, and seeds; d. dairy products (tinned, powdered,
or fresh animal milk; infant formula; yogurt; cheese); e. flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry, organ meats); f. eggs; g. vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; h. other fruits and vegetables.
2
For breastfed children, minimum meal frequency is receiving solid, semisolid, or soft food at least twice a day for infants age 6–8 months and at least three times a day for children age 9–23 months.
3
For breastfed children, minimum acceptable diet is being fed a minimum dietary diversity (footnote 1) and a minimum meal frequency (footnote 2).
4
For nonbreastfed children, minimum milk feeding frequency is two or more feedings of infant formula; tinned, powdered, or fresh animal milk; and liquid or solid yogurt.
5
For nonbreastfed children, minimum meal frequency is receiving solid, semisolid, or soft food or milk feeds at least four times a day. At least one of the feeds must be a solid, semisolid, or soft feed.
6
For nonbreastfed children, minimum acceptable diet is being fed a minimum dietary diversity (footnote 1), a minimum milk feeding frequency (footnote 4), and a minimum meal frequency (footnote 5).
7
Minimum meal frequency is receiving the minimum recommended number of feeds per day according to age and breastfeeding status as defined in footnotes 2 and 5.
8
Minimum acceptable diet is being fed a minimum dietary diversity (footnote 1), a minimum meal frequency (footnotes 2 and 5), and a minimum milk feeding frequency (footnote 4).

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 309

 Table 11.13 Egg and/or flesh food consumption and unhealthy feeding practices among children age 6–23 months
Percentage of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother who consumed eggs and/or flesh food, and percentage who
experienced each specified unhealthy feeding practice, during the day or night preceding the survey, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Number of
youngest children
Unhealthy feeding practices: age 6–23 months
Background Eggs and/or flesh Zero vegetables or living with their
characteristic food1 Sweet beverage2 Unhealthy food3 fruits4 mother
Age in months
6–11 22.7 30.3 49.3 53.5 433
6–8 16.4 24.7 38.9 63.0 236
9–11 30.3 36.9 61.9 42.1 197
12–17 45.6 47.3 77.6 27.6 498
18–23 41.8 51.8 77.7 19.6 435
Sex
Male 34.1 41.4 67.8 33.6 731
Female 40.6 45.5 69.7 32.9 635
Breastfeeding status
Breastfeeding 37.1 43.1 68.3 33.1 1,309
Not breastfeeding 36.9 47.5 76.6 37.7 57
Residence
Urban 40.5 44.7 68.7 32.3 881
Rural 31.0 40.8 68.6 35.0 485
Ecological zone
Mountain 35.3 49.5 58.9 32.8 93
Hill 42.2 45.5 62.3 30.3 460
Terai 34.4 41.3 73.4 35.0 812
Province
Koshi Province 43.6 45.3 78.1 25.6 237
Urban 45.3 40.9 79.5 26.5 152
Rural 40.5 53.0 75.4 24.0 85
Madhesh Province 23.0 41.8 70.3 41.3 349
Urban 25.7 43.9 70.7 39.3 253
Rural 16.0 36.1 69.3 46.7 96
Bagmati Province 47.2 43.2 64.2 30.2 208
Urban 49.7 46.1 61.0 32.3 152
Rural 40.6 35.5 72.8 24.6 56
Gandaki Province 53.8 43.6 63.8 41.7 81
Urban (51.6) (52.0) (64.4) (40.4) 51
Rural 57.3 29.8 62.6 43.8 31
Lumbini Province 37.6 40.5 72.2 28.3 253
Urban 42.5 42.0 68.9 28.9 142
Rural 31.2 38.6 76.4 27.5 111
Karnali Province 36.3 44.3 56.8 37.5 114
Urban 49.6 45.2 62.1 26.2 53
Rural 24.5 43.5 52.1 47.5 60
Sudurpashchim Province 36.5 48.6 60.7 31.0 124
Urban 44.0 51.3 63.1 26.2 79
Rural 23.4 43.9 56.5 39.2 46
Mother’s education
No education 23.6 33.6 65.2 46.0 261
Basic education (1–8) 35.5 39.5 74.8 33.7 465
Lower basic education (1–5) 30.5 34.4 73.6 34.8 235
Upper basic education (6–8) 40.7 44.8 76.1 32.5 230
Secondary (9–12) 43.4 50.5 67.2 28.9 571
Lower secondary (9–10) 43.2 50.4 70.7 32.7 342
Higher secondary (11–12) 43.7 50.6 62.0 23.2 229
More than secondary (13 and
above) (47.0) (46.4) (52.1) (18.5) 68
Wealth quintile
Lowest 31.4 37.3 61.0 36.1 321
Second 35.3 37.6 74.1 32.1 300
Middle 38.4 45.8 71.5 41.0 267
Fourth 38.4 49.1 74.4 30.8 272
Highest 45.4 50.0 61.5 23.7 206
Total 37.1 43.3 68.7 33.3 1,366

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

1
Eggs and/or flesh food include meat, fish, poultry, organ meats, and eggs.
2
Sweet beverages include sweet/flavored milk and yogurt drinks, fruit juice and fruit-flavored drinks, sodas, malt drinks, sports drinks,
energy drinks, sweetened tea, coffee, herbal drinks, and other sweetened liquids.
3
Unhealthy foods are a group of sentinel food types that include sweet foods such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, jeri/jalebi, mithai, toffees,
and ice cream and fried and salty foods such as chips, kurekure, chisbal, instant noodles (e.g., Wai Wai or Yum Yum), samosa, pakora,
puri, and tareko khaja.
4
Vegetables or fruits include dark green leafy vegetables such as saag, spinach, mustard greens, fennel greens, pumpkin shoots, taro
leaves, amaranth greens, gundruk, braised greens, fenugreek greens, broccoli; ripe yellow pumpkin;, carrots; ripe mangoes, papayas,
apricot, or persimmon; and other fruits and vegetables such as tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, gourd, eggplant, apple, banana, guava,
watermelon, or mulberries.

310 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.14 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators
Percentage of children fed according to various IYCF practices, Nepal DHS 2022
IYCF IYCF DHS8
# abbreviation Table# Indicator Indicator definition and denominator Value

1 EvBF 11.7 Ever breastfed Percentage of children born in the last 2 years who were ever breastfed 98.6
Number of children age 0–23 months 1,977

2 EIBF 11.7 Early initiation of breastfeeding Percentage of children born in the last 2 years who were put to the breast within 1 hour
of birth 54.6
Number of children age 0–23 months 1,977

3 EBF2D 11.7 Exclusively breastfed for the first Percentage of children born in the last 2 years who were fed exclusively with breast
2 days after birth milk for the first 2 days after birth 58.9
Number of children age 0–23 months 1,977

4 EBF 11.8 Exclusive breastfeeding under 6 Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed exclusively with breast milk
months during the previous day 56.4
Number of youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother 527

5 MixMF 11.8 Mixed milk feeding under Percentage of children age 0–5 months who were fed both breast milk and formula or
6 months animal milk during the previous day 20.0
Number of youngest children age 0–5 months living with their mother 527

6 CBF 11.8 Continued breastfeeding Percentage of children age 12–23 months who were fed breast milk during the previous
12–23 months day 93.8
Number of children age 12–23 months 959

7 ISSSF - Introduction of solid, semisolid, Percentage of children age 6–8 months who were fed solid, semisolid, or soft foods
or soft foods 6–8 months during the previous day 84.6
Number of youngest children age 6–8 months living with their mother 236

8 MDD 11.12 Minimum dietary diversity Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed foods and beverages from at
6–23 months least five out of eight defined food groups during the previous day 48.2
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

9 MMF 11.12 Minimum meal frequency Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed solid, semisolid, or soft foods
6–23 months (also including milk feeds for nonbreastfed children) the minimum number of times or
more during the previous day 81.7
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

10 MMFF 11.12 Minimum milk feeding frequency Percentage of nonbreastfed children age 6–23 months who were given at least two milk
for nonbreastfed children 6–23 feeds during the previous day 68.6
months Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother who were not
breastfed 57

11 MAD 11.12 Minimum acceptable diet Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed a minimum acceptable diet
6–23 months during the previous day 43.0
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

12 EFF 11.13 Egg and/or flesh food Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed eggs and/or flesh food during
consumption 6–23 months the previous day 37.1
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

13 SWB 11.13 Sweet beverage consumption Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were given a sweet beverage during the
6–23 months previous day 43.3
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

14 UFC 11.13 Unhealthy food consumption 6– Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were fed selected sentinel unhealthy
23 months foods during the previous day 68.7
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

15 ZVF 11.13 Zero vegetable or fruit Percentage of children age 6–23 months who were not fed any vegetables or fruits
consumption 6–23 months during the previous day 33.3
Number of youngest children age 6–23 months living with their mother 1,366

16 BoF 11.8 Bottle feeding 0–23 months Percentage of children age 0–23 months who were fed from a bottle with a nipple
during the previous day 22.4
Number of children age 0–23 months 1,926

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 311

 Table 11.15 Infant and young child feeding counseling
Among women age 15–49 whose youngest child age 6–23 months is living with
them, percentage who talked with a health care provider or female community
health volunteer about how or what to feed their child in the last 6 months,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of women
Counseled in last 6 whose youngest child
Background months about how or age 6–23 months is
characteristic what to feed their child living with them
Child’s age in months
6–11 28.8 433
12–23 26.5 933
Child’s sex
Male 27.1 731
Female 27.4 635
Age
15–19 28.1 126
20–29 26.4 955
30–39 28.7 269
40–49 * 16
Residence
Urban 24.6 881
Rural 32.1 485
Ecological zone
Mountain 42.9 93
Hill 35.6 460
Terai 20.7 812
Province
Koshi Province 22.6 237
Urban 18.8 152
Rural 29.5 85
Madhesh Province 13.2 349
Urban 14.1 253
Rural 10.7 96
Bagmati Province 24.7 208
Urban 27.4 152
Rural 17.3 56
Gandaki Province 34.1 81
Urban (28.7) 51
Rural 42.9 31
Lumbini Province 32.6 253
Urban 28.4 142
Rural 37.9 111
Karnali Province 36.9 114
Urban 32.7 53
Rural 40.6 60
Sudurpashchim Province 55.9 124
Urban 49.0 79
Rural 67.7 46
Education
No education 18.3 261
Basic education (1–8) 27.1 465
Lower basic education (1–5) 27.8 235
Upper basic education (6–8) 26.3 230
Secondary (9–12) 31.3 571
Lower secondary (9–10) 30.9 342
Higher secondary (11–12) 32.0 229
More than secondary (13 and
above) (28.8) 68
Wealth quintile
Lowest 36.2 321
Second 28.4 300
Middle 21.0 267
Fourth 24.7 272
Highest 23.2 206
Total 27.3 1,366

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk

indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

312 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.16 Providers and time when IYCF counseling received
Among women age 15–49 whose youngest child age 6–23 months is living with them and who talked with a health care provider or female community health volunteer
(FCHV) in the last 6 months about how or what to feed their child, percentage by type of provider of counseling and percentage by when they received counseling,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women
whose
youngest
child age
6–23 months
Source of counseling: Occasion when counseling received:
is living with
Health them and
Mothers’ who received
Background Doctor/nurse/ Other health Health facility FCHV home Group IYCF
characteristic midwife worker1 FCHV Other2 visit visit meeting Other counseling
Child’s age in months
6–11 61.9 13.2 52.1 2.8 76.4 21.8 18.7 0.7 125
12–23 42.9 10.6 64.6 7.7 60.3 27.9 22.6 4.2 247
Sex
Male 49.4 11.9 60.0 5.7 69.3 25.3 20.3 2.7 198
Female 49.1 11.0 60.7 6.4 61.6 26.6 22.4 3.4 175
Age
15–19 53.0 6.8 60.9 5.5 62.1 26.0 26.3 3.1 35
20–29 47.4 14.0 60.9 6.5 65.9 25.5 20.8 3.5 252
30–39 51.6 5.4 59.7 5.4 65.5 28.0 20.1 1.7 77
40–49 * * * * * * * * 7
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 56.3 8.7 62.8 8.1 67.5 26.4 24.4 4.7 130
Dalit 51.0 11.5 59.1 3.4 68.3 17.5 22.8 2.4 71
Janajati 46.0 11.8 60.6 5.4 63.0 28.2 21.1 2.9 121
Madhesi (36.0) (19.7) (54.6) (6.5) (60.3) (34.0) (12.8) (0.0) 45
Muslim * * * * * * * * 5
Residence
Urban 51.9 8.1 57.0 5.7 69.0 22.6 17.7 3.0 217
Rural 45.5 16.2 65.0 6.5 61.2 30.5 26.3 3.0 156
Ecological zone
Mountain 56.0 12.9 65.6 1.0 67.7 33.6 20.5 2.2 40
Hill 57.0 11.4 52.6 7.2 67.9 21.8 25.1 3.6 164
Terai 40.1 11.2 66.7 6.1 63.1 28.0 17.7 2.6 168
Education
No education 51.7 9.0 65.9 6.8 63.8 31.8 21.1 1.2 48
Basic education (1–8) 48.9 14.1 62.4 2.8 69.3 22.6 22.7 1.3 126
Lower basic education (1–5) 49.5 13.6 61.8 4.7 73.9 19.0 22.6 0.0 65
Upper basic education (6–8) 48.3 14.6 63.2 0.7 64.3 26.6 22.9 2.8 60
Secondary (9–12) 45.0 11.6 62.0 8.8 61.3 28.0 22.4 5.0 179
Lower secondary (9–10) 44.9 15.1 56.5 9.2 59.3 25.2 26.9 4.0 106
Higher secondary (11–12) 45.2 6.5 69.9 8.1 64.3 32.0 15.9 6.4 73
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * * * * * 20
Wealth quintile
Lowest 57.2 12.0 60.4 4.9 65.7 23.4 31.7 3.5 116
Second 37.4 13.1 71.3 6.2 61.5 28.7 23.1 4.0 85
Middle 38.5 9.5 64.2 11.1 52.6 36.6 18.2 4.2 56
Fourth 50.2 16.4 56.4 6.0 72.6 15.3 17.9 2.2 67
Highest (62.3) (2.4) (42.1) (2.6) (79.1) (29.3) (1.0) (0.0) 48
Total 49.2 11.5 60.4 6.0 65.7 25.9 21.3 3.0 372

Note: Disaggregation by province is not presented due to few cases. There are no cases for the “other” ethnic group category. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–
49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes health assistant/auxiliary health worker, maternal and child health worker, and village health worker
2
Includes traditional birth attendant, mother’s group, social mobilizer, and other

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 313

 Table 11.17 Topics discussed during IYCF counseling
Among women age 15–49 whose youngest child age 6–23 months is living with them
and who received counseling on how and what to feed their child in the last 6 months,
percentage who received counseling on various IYCF topics, by residence, Nepal DHS
2022
Residence
Topic Urban Rural Total
Breastfeeding and not giving water or other
liquids before age 6 months 54.4 48.1 51.8
Introducing soft or solid food when the baby
reaches age 6 months 62.8 64.7 63.6
Giving a variety of foods 70.1 60.1 65.9
How often to give foods 41.5 41.1 41.3
Giving animal-source foods (eggs, milk, meat,
fish) 43.0 46.5 44.5
Giving fruits and vegetables 24.1 32.4 27.6
Not giving sugar-sweetened beverages 2.8 5.7 4.0
Other 1.8 1.7 1.8
Number of women 217 156 372

314 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.18 Prevalence of anemia in children
Percentage of children age 6–59 months classified as having anemia, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Anemia status by hemoglobin level Number of
Background Any Mild Moderate Severe children age
characteristic (<11.0 g/dl) (10.0–10.9 g/dl) (7.0–9.9 g/dl) (<7.0 g/dl) 6–59 months
Age in months
6–11 69.9 30.6 38.6 0.7 214
12–23 63.9 32.1 30.6 1.2 493
24–35 43.1 24.5 18.1 0.4 573
36–47 31.2 20.7 10.4 0.2 540
48–59 26.0 19.5 6.5 0.0 524
6–23 65.7 31.6 33.1 1.0 706
24–59 33.7 21.6 11.8 0.2 1,637
Sex
Male 43.9 26.1 17.3 0.4 1,206
Female 42.7 23.1 19.2 0.5 1,138
Mother’s interview status
Interviewed 44.4 25.0 19.0 0.4 2,082
Not interviewed but in household 38.6 24.6 14.0 0.0 204
Not interviewed and not in the
household1 22.8 12.0 6.6 4.1 57
Residence
Urban 43.7 24.2 18.9 0.5 1,506
Rural 42.7 25.4 17.0 0.4 837
Ecological zone
Mountain 43.2 24.1 18.4 0.7 131
Hill 33.7 20.1 13.3 0.4 826
Terai 49.1 27.4 21.2 0.5 1,387
Province
Koshi Province 33.9 19.9 14.0 0.0 422
Urban 33.2 18.9 14.3 0.0 261
Rural 35.1 21.7 13.5 0.0 161
Madhesh Province 50.6 28.0 21.9 0.6 619
Urban 50.5 27.9 21.9 0.7 463
Rural 50.8 28.4 22.0 0.4 156
Bagmati Province 42.5 23.8 18.6 0.0 359
Urban 44.4 25.1 19.3 0.0 268
Rural 36.8 20.1 16.8 0.0 92
Gandaki Province 30.7 19.6 11.1 0.0 168
Urban 25.9 16.3 9.6 0.0 104
Rural 38.5 25.1 13.4 0.0 64
Lumbini Province 48.9 27.7 20.4 0.8 392
Urban 49.8 25.3 23.4 1.0 198
Rural 48.0 30.2 17.3 0.5 194
Karnali Province 39.7 24.8 14.6 0.3 179
Urban 38.0 26.1 11.9 0.0 86
Rural 41.2 23.6 17.1 0.5 93
Sudurpashchim Province 45.4 23.7 20.2 1.6 204
Urban 47.9 23.6 22.4 1.9 126
Rural 41.4 23.7 16.5 1.1 78
Mother’s education2
No education 52.4 28.0 23.3 1.0 506
Basic education (1–8) 42.4 26.0 16.3 0.2 821
Lower basic education (1–5) 44.3 24.7 19.6 0.0 422
Upper basic education (6–8) 40.4 27.3 12.8 0.3 399
Secondary (9–12) 41.2 22.9 18.1 0.2 860
Lower secondary (9–10) 42.8 24.6 18.2 0.0 567
Higher secondary (11–12) 38.0 19.6 17.8 0.6 293
More than secondary (13 and
above) 36.0 19.2 16.7 0.0 99
Wealth quintile
Lowest 41.7 22.5 18.4 0.8 574
Second 45.5 24.3 21.2 0.0 513
Middle 45.9 29.8 15.9 0.2 485
Fourth 49.2 29.2 19.0 1.0 424
Highest 32.3 15.9 16.0 0.3 349
Total 43.3 24.6 18.2 0.5 2,344

Note: Table is based on children who stayed in the household on the night before the interview and who were tested for anemia.
Prevalence of anemia, based on hemoglobin levels, is adjusted for altitude using formulas in CDC 1998 and cutoffs defined in
WHO 2017c. Hemoglobin is measured in grams per deciliter (g/dl) using the HemoCue 201+ device.
1
Includes children whose mothers are deceased
2
For women who are not interviewed, information is taken from the Household Questionnaire. Excludes children whose mothers
are not listed in the Household Questionnaire.

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 315

 Table 11.19 Micronutrient supplementation and deworming among children
Among children age 6–59 months, percentage who were given multiple micronutrient powders in the last 12 months and percentage who were
given vitamin A supplements in the last 6 months, and among children age 12–59 months, percentage who were given deworming medication in
the last 6 months, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among children age 6–59 months: Among children age 12–59 months:
Percentage given
multiple Percentage given Percentage given
micronutrient vitamin A deworming
Background powders in last supplements in last Number of medication in last Number of
1,2
characteristic 12 months 6 months3 children 6 months1,4 children
Age in months
6–8 6.5 45.8 237 na na
9–11 16.4 69.6 197 na na
12–17 32.0 84.6 501 57.9 501
18–23 39.3 87.7 458 81.2 458
24–35 44.5 90.2 1,066 87.9 1,066
36–47 34.4 89.6 1,048 89.7 1,048
48–59 29.5 86.5 1,000 88.8 1,000
6–23 27.9 76.9 1,393 69.0 959
24–59 36.3 88.8 3,114 88.8 3,114
Sex
Male 33.4 85.0 2,372 84.9 2,114
Female 34.0 85.3 2,135 83.4 1,959
Breastfeeding status5
Breastfeeding 33.6 81.5 1,997 77.3 1,582
Not breastfeeding 38.2 87.3 649 85.7 630
Mother’s age
15–19 26.6 76.4 193 72.3 136
20–29 35.3 84.2 3,050 82.7 2,776
30–39 30.8 88.6 1,171 88.7 1,072
40–49 29.7 91.5 94 93.2 90
Residence
Urban 32.7 84.3 2,908 83.5 2,634
Rural 35.6 86.6 1,599 85.4 1,439
Ecological zone
Mountain 28.4 89.1 285 90.2 257
Hill 32.8 88.3 1,577 87.4 1,409
Terai 34.8 82.8 2,645 81.6 2,407
Province
Koshi Province 30.1 84.1 748 81.7 676
Urban 29.0 82.1 478 79.8 430
Rural 32.0 87.6 270 85.1 246
Madhesh Province 38.3 79.7 1,215 80.3 1,120
Urban 37.8 80.6 909 80.8 852
Rural 39.6 77.1 306 78.8 268
Bagmati Province 34.0 87.9 730 83.8 655
Urban 30.4 87.8 533 85.8 472
Rural 43.9 88.2 196 78.7 182
Gandaki Province 24.1 94.4 296 92.4 265
Urban 21.0 95.1 190 93.2 166
Rural 29.6 93.4 106 91.1 99
Lumbini Province 33.2 88.2 788 88.7 704
Urban 33.4 85.7 410 87.4 363
Rural 32.9 91.1 377 90.1 342
Karnali Province 23.3 81.9 337 84.0 301
Urban 21.2 79.9 158 80.6 143
Rural 25.1 83.8 179 87.2 158
Sudurpashchim Province 42.9 88.3 393 86.3 352
Urban 41.4 87.8 230 84.0 208
Rural 45.1 89.0 164 89.6 144
Mother’s education
No education 34.2 84.3 1,023 82.7 951
Basic education (1–8) 35.5 84.9 1,588 83.8 1,446
Lower basic education (1–5) 36.4 84.6 810 81.0 737
Upper basic education (6–8) 34.6 85.1 778 86.6 709
Secondary (9–12) 32.7 85.4 1,704 85.3 1,513
Lower secondary (9–10) 32.3 85.3 1,069 84.0 957
Higher secondary (11–12) 33.2 85.4 636 87.7 556
More than secondary (13 and above) 24.6 90.0 192 85.2 163
Wealth quintile
Lowest 33.1 85.2 1,114 84.5 1,016
Second 39.2 86.0 919 83.4 836
Middle 36.9 85.6 939 83.1 851
Fourth 26.9 83.1 861 82.2 773
Highest 31.3 85.8 675 88.6 598
Total 33.7 85.1 4,508 84.1 4,073

na = Not applicable
1
Based on mother’s recall
2
The local multiple micronutrient powder is Baal Vita.
3
Based on both mother’s recall and the vaccination card (where available)
4
Deworming for intestinal parasites is commonly done for helminths and schistosomiasis.
5
Information available for children age 0–35 months only

316 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.20 Counseling on multiple micronutrient powders
Percentage of women age 15–49 with at least one child age 0–59 months who were
counseled on multiple micronutrient powders, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Number of women with
Background Counseled on multiple at least one child age
1
characteristic micronutrient powders 0–59 months
Child’s age in months
0–5 11.3 527
6–8 20.6 236
9–11 19.7 197
12–17 38.5 498
18–23 46.1 435
24–35 48.8 913
36–47 47.0 768
48–59 39.5 643
6–23 35.1 1,366
24–59 45.6 2,324
Child’s sex
Male 37.9 2,259
Female 38.0 1,958
Age
15–19 37.2 902
20–29 38.7 2,647
30–39 35.6 620
40–49 (40.9) 47
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 39.8 1,090
Dalit 38.5 737
Janajati 37.5 1,384
Madhesi 38.6 754
Muslim 28.9 249
Other * 2
Residence
Urban 35.6 2,782
Rural 42.5 1,435
Ecological zone
Mountain 34.3 261
Hill 38.3 1,529
Terai 38.1 2,426
Province
Koshi Province 34.4 747
Urban 31.6 488
Rural 39.6 259
Madhesh Province 37.8 1,029
Urban 36.6 779
Rural 41.4 250
Bagmati Province 42.1 723
Urban 36.9 544
Rural 57.9 179
Gandaki Province 32.3 303
Urban 27.1 200
Rural 42.4 103
Lumbini Province 41.5 736
Urban 41.8 397
Rural 41.3 339
Karnali Province 23.4 305
Urban 20.6 150
Rural 26.1 155
Sudurpashchim Province 46.8 374
Urban 43.8 224
Rural 51.2 150
Education
No education 38.5 852
Basic education (1–8) 37.4 1,457
Lower basic education (1–5) 37.7 722
Upper basic education (6–8) 37.1 735
Secondary (9–12) 38.5 1,700
Lower secondary (9–10) 37.8 1,045
Higher secondary (11–12) 39.5 656
More than secondary (13 and above) 35.1 207
Wealth quintile
Lowest 38.4 956
Second 38.6 847
Middle 40.4 882
Fourth 32.9 830
Highest 39.4 701
Total 37.9 4,216

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk

indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
The local multiple micronutrient powder is Baal Vita.

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 317

Table 11.21.1 Nutritional status of women age 20–49
Among women age 20–49, percentage with height below 145 cm, mean body mass index (BMI), and percentage with specific BMI levels, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Short stature Body mass index1
<17
(moder-
Height Mean body 18.5–24.9 ately and ≥25.0 (total 25.0–29.9
Background below Number of mass index (total <18.5 (total 17.0–18.4 severely overweight (over- ≥30.0 Number of
characteristic 145 cm women (BMI) normal) thin) (mildly thin) thin) or obese) weight) (obese) women
Age
20–29 8.7 2,524 22.3 63.5 14.6 9.9 4.7 22.0 16.8 5.2 2,275
30–39 8.8 2,088 24.4 51.2 7.1 4.9 2.2 41.7 32.7 9.0 2,029
40–49 13.1 1,446 24.6 48.0 7.9 5.0 2.9 44.1 31.4 12.7 1,446
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 7.1 1,722 23.8 55.9 8.5 5.6 2.9 35.6 26.7 8.9 1,633
Dalit 13.8 881 23.3 53.2 15.1 9.5 5.6 31.7 22.0 9.7 834
Janajati 9.5 2,257 24.3 53.6 6.5 4.9 1.6 39.8 29.7 10.1 2,178
Madhesi 11.6 946 22.3 60.5 15.9 10.8 5.2 23.5 19.9 3.7 880
Muslim 10.0 247 22.3 53.3 19.2 11.1 8.1 27.5 25.3 2.2 221
Other * 4 * * * * * * * * 4
Residence
Urban 9.0 4,191 24.0 52.3 9.5 6.6 2.9 38.2 28.6 9.6 3,979
Rural 11.6 1,867 22.8 62.0 12.0 7.6 4.4 26.0 20.3 5.7 1,770
Ecological zone
Mountain 12.4 309 22.9 65.8 9.5 6.5 3.0 24.7 20.6 4.1 284
Hill 8.6 2,451 24.5 52.5 5.5 4.1 1.4 42.1 30.2 11.9 2,356
Terai 10.4 3,298 23.0 56.5 14.0 9.1 4.9 29.6 23.4 6.2 3,110
Province
Koshi Province 11.5 1,048 23.4 58.5 8.6 4.4 4.3 32.9 26.6 6.3 993
Urban 11.8 696 23.5 56.4 9.3 4.7 4.6 34.3 28.1 6.2 666
Rural 11.0 352 23.3 62.7 7.3 3.7 3.6 30.1 23.6 6.5 327
Madhesh Province 13.2 1,163 22.1 58.7 18.5 12.1 6.4 22.8 19.8 3.0 1,074
Urban 12.4 870 22.2 58.9 17.3 11.7 5.6 23.8 20.7 3.1 794
Rural 15.6 292 21.6 58.0 22.0 13.3 8.7 20.0 17.3 2.8 280
Bagmati Province 7.2 1,315 25.4 45.1 4.0 2.8 1.2 50.9 35.4 15.5 1,265
Urban 5.8 1,091 25.7 42.4 3.8 2.7 1.1 53.7 37.3 16.4 1,053
Rural 13.7 224 24.2 58.4 4.7 3.3 1.3 36.9 26.2 10.7 212
Gandaki Province 9.8 575 25.0 48.6 4.5 3.7 0.8 46.9 32.7 14.2 556
Urban 9.2 404 25.1 47.5 4.6 3.8 0.7 48.0 32.7 15.3 389
Rural 11.2 171 24.8 51.2 4.5 3.5 1.0 44.3 32.6 11.6 167
Lumbini Province 10.1 1,107 23.5 55.9 11.8 8.3 3.5 32.3 24.2 8.1 1,060
Urban 8.5 626 23.9 51.6 10.8 8.4 2.4 37.7 27.8 9.9 599
Rural 12.3 481 22.9 61.4 13.1 8.1 5.0 25.5 19.7 5.8 462
Karnali Province 8.8 343 22.8 66.3 10.1 7.3 2.8 23.7 18.2 5.5 321
Urban 9.2 192 23.6 58.6 9.2 7.0 2.2 32.2 23.9 8.3 182
Rural 8.3 150 21.7 76.3 11.2 7.7 3.5 12.4 10.7 1.8 139
Sudurpashchim Province 5.4 509 22.0 66.9 15.1 11.7 3.3 18.0 15.7 2.3 480
Urban 5.3 312 22.4 64.0 13.3 11.0 2.2 22.7 19.5 3.2 297
Rural 5.5 196 21.3 71.6 18.0 12.9 5.1 10.4 9.5 0.9 183
Education
No education 14.0 1,779 22.8 59.1 13.8 8.7 5.2 27.1 21.7 5.4 1,728
Basic education (1–8) 10.2 1,830 24.1 53.5 8.9 6.7 2.2 37.7 27.2 10.5 1,730
Lower basic education (1–5) 11.7 1,016 24.1 52.9 8.7 6.1 2.7 38.4 26.4 11.9 965
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.3 813 24.0 54.2 9.1 7.4 1.6 36.8 28.1 8.7 765
Secondary (9–12) 7.0 2,082 23.6 55.0 9.7 6.4 3.3 35.3 27.1 8.3 1,941
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.3 1,179 24.0 52.6 7.8 4.9 2.9 39.6 29.2 10.4 1,105
Higher secondary (11–12) 5.3 903 23.1 58.2 12.0 8.3 3.7 29.7 24.3 5.5 836
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.8 367 25.2 47.0 2.7 2.2 0.6 50.3 36.2 14.1 351
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.0 1,013 22.2 66.5 13.9 9.6 4.3 19.6 16.3 3.2 958
Second 13.5 1,166 22.5 61.1 14.2 9.3 4.9 24.6 19.7 4.9 1,112
Middle 8.3 1,224 23.0 59.3 12.3 7.7 4.6 28.4 22.8 5.6 1,158
Fourth 9.4 1,241 24.5 51.4 7.4 5.0 2.4 41.2 29.0 12.2 1,163
Highest 5.4 1,414 25.4 42.4 5.1 4.0 1.1 52.5 38.3 14.1 1,359
Total 9.8 6,058 23.6 55.3 10.3 6.9 3.3 34.5 26.0 8.4 5,750

2
Note: Body mass index (BMI) is expressed as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of height in meters (kg/m ). An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the preceding 2 months

318 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.21.2 Nutritional status of adolescent women age 15–19
Among women age 15–19, percentage with height-for-age below –2 standard deviations (SD), mean body mass index (BMI)-for-age z score, and percentage with specific
BMI-for-age levels, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Short stature Body mass index-for-age1
Below
–2 SD Above Above
-1 SD to Below (moder- +1 SD +1 SD to
Height-for- Mean BMI- +1 SD Below –1 SD to ately or (total over- +2 SD Above
Background age below Number of for-age (total –1 SD –2 SD severely weight or (over- +2 SD Number of
characteristic –2 SD women z score normal) (total thin)2 (mildly thin) thin) obese)3 weight) (obese) women
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 19.9 368 –0.5 68.2 27.4 22.0 5.4 4.4 3.9 0.5 356
Dalit 34.7 235 –0.4 71.5 23.3 20.3 3.1 5.1 4.0 1.1 216
Janajati 25.8 415 –0.1 75.1 15.6 12.4 3.2 9.3 8.4 0.9 387
Madhesi 32.5 221 –0.8 58.5 39.1 30.3 8.8 2.4 2.4 0.0 203
Muslim 30.2 67 –0.7 51.3 42.5 32.0 10.5 6.1 6.1 0.0 67
Other * 1 * * * * * * * * 1
Residence
Urban 26.7 868 –0.4 67.0 26.5 20.5 6.0 6.6 5.9 0.7 811
Rural 28.0 440 –0.4 71.4 24.3 20.7 3.5 4.3 3.8 0.5 419
Ecological zone
Mountain 26.6 74 –0.2 82.0 10.8 10.1 0.7 7.2 6.0 1.2 72
Hill 23.7 512 –0.2 75.6 17.6 14.6 3.0 6.8 5.8 1.0 483
Terai 29.6 723 –0.6 61.9 33.1 26.0 7.1 5.0 4.7 0.3 676
Province
Koshi Province 34.4 197 –0.4 68.0 27.5 22.6 4.9 4.5 4.1 0.5 190
Urban 33.1 114 –0.4 71.3 25.4 20.5 4.9 3.3 3.3 0.0 111
Rural 36.2 82 –0.4 63.5 30.3 25.5 4.8 6.2 5.1 1.1 79
Madhesh Province 33.6 308 –0.7 64.8 32.3 26.3 6.1 2.8 2.8 0.0 282
Urban 32.4 226 –0.7 64.3 32.6 25.6 7.0 3.1 3.1 0.0 207
Rural 36.9 83 –0.6 66.2 31.7 28.2 3.5 2.1 2.1 0.0 75
Bagmati Province 20.5 242 –0.1 75.6 13.8 9.8 3.9 10.7 10.3 0.4 229
Urban 17.5 186 –0.1 73.8 14.9 10.6 4.3 11.3 11.3 0.0 174
Rural 30.5 56 –0.1 81.1 10.1 7.4 2.7 8.8 7.2 1.6 54
Gandaki Province 26.1 117 –0.2 68.8 20.9 17.7 3.2 10.4 9.1 1.3 112
Urban 25.3 85 –0.2 66.7 20.3 17.2 3.2 13.0 11.8 1.2 81
Rural 28.4 32 –0.2 74.2 22.4 19.1 3.3 3.4 1.9 1.5 31
Lumbini Province 24.8 209 –0.6 59.0 34.3 26.7 7.6 6.7 5.0 1.8 199
Urban 29.7 124 –0.7 51.5 41.4 30.9 10.5 7.2 4.1 3.0 115
Rural 17.8 86 –0.4 69.3 24.6 21.0 3.6 6.2 6.2 0.0 84
Karnali Province 26.7 107 –0.4 77.8 18.8 16.6 2.2 3.4 2.4 1.0 100
Urban 29.4 56 –0.3 74.0 20.8 17.9 2.9 5.3 3.3 2.0 51
Rural 23.7 51 –0.4 81.7 16.8 15.3 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.0 49
Sudurpashchim Province 17.7 128 –0.6 72.0 26.2 20.4 5.8 1.8 1.8 0.0 119
Urban 17.2 78 –0.6 71.5 25.5 19.1 6.5 3.0 3.0 0.0 72
Rural 18.6 50 –0.6 72.9 27.1 22.4 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 48
Education
No education (37.6) 57 (–0.7) (64.7) (32.5) (24.6) (7.9) (2.8) (2.8) (0.0) 51
Basic education (1–8) 33.8 489 –0.5 67.3 28.4 23.5 4.9 4.3 3.0 1.3 453
Lower basic education (1–
5) 45.0 145 –0.5 56.2 37.3 33.3 4.0 6.5 5.5 1.0 132
Upper basic education (6–
8) 29.0 344 –0.5 71.9 24.7 19.5 5.3 3.4 2.0 1.4 322
Secondary (9–12) 22.1 759 –0.4 69.8 23.2 18.1 5.1 7.0 6.7 0.3 723
Lower secondary (9–10) 23.5 475 –0.4 68.6 24.9 18.9 6.0 6.5 6.3 0.2 449
Higher secondary (11–12) 19.9 284 –0.3 71.6 20.6 16.9 3.7 7.8 7.5 0.3 273
More than secondary (13 and
above) * 3 * * * * * * * * 3
Wealth quintile
Lowest 33.5 263 –0.3 79.5 18.2 16.2 2.0 2.3 2.0 0.3 249
Second 33.0 308 –0.5 67.2 28.8 22.7 6.1 4.0 4.0 0.0 288
Middle 26.5 271 –0.6 68.3 29.4 28.3 1.0 2.3 2.1 0.2 253
Fourth 24.1 243 –0.4 63.1 26.2 17.2 9.1 10.6 7.8 2.8 224
Highest 15.5 224 –0.4 63.1 25.5 17.3 8.2 11.5 11.5 0.0 216
Total 27.1 1,308 –0.4 68.5 25.7 20.6 5.1 5.8 5.2 0.6 1,230

Note: Height-for-age and body mass index (BMI)-for-age are expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Growth Reference for adolescent
women age 15–19. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
Excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the preceding 2 months
2
Includes adolescent women age 15–19 who are below –2 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Growth Reference population median
3
Includes adolescent women age 15–19 who are above +2 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Growth Reference population median

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 319

Table 11.21.3 Nutritional status of men age 20–49
Among men age 20–49, mean body mass index (BMI) and percentage with specific BMI levels, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Body mass index
Mean body <17 (moder- ≥25.0 (total
Background mass index 18.5–24.9 <18.5 (total 17.0–18.4 ately and overweight or 25.0–29.9 Number of
characteristic (BMI) (total normal) thin) (mildly thin) severely thin) obese) (overweight) ≥30.0 (obese) men
Age
20–29 22.4 68.7 9.7 8.7 0.9 21.6 20.3 1.4 306
30–39 23.9 58.9 6.5 5.0 1.5 34.6 26.6 8.1 485
40–49 24.0 59.4 5.1 4.5 0.6 35.5 29.0 6.5 577
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 23.5 60.8 7.5 6.8 0.7 31.7 26.3 5.4 380
Dalit 23.1 65.5 7.8 6.8 1.0 26.8 20.2 6.6 187
Janajati 23.9 60.0 4.9 4.6 0.3 35.1 29.1 6.0 558
Madhesi 23.5 59.7 8.7 5.9 2.9 31.6 25.4 6.2 197
Muslim (23.2) (72.7) (5.4) (2.3) (3.1) (21.9) (16.5) (5.4) 43
Other * * * * * * * * 3
Residence
Urban 23.8 58.6 6.5 5.5 1.0 34.9 28.2 6.7 949
Rural 23.1 67.4 6.8 5.9 0.9 25.8 21.5 4.3 419
Province
Koshi Province 23.4 59.4 10.0 10.0 0.0 30.6 24.0 6.6 246
Urban 23.2 58.9 12.1 12.1 0.0 29.0 22.0 7.0 167
Rural 23.8 60.4 5.5 5.5 0.0 34.1 28.1 5.9 79
Madhesh Province 23.6 60.7 7.6 4.3 3.3 31.7 26.3 5.3 223
Urban 23.7 60.8 6.9 3.0 3.9 32.3 28.2 4.1 162
Rural 23.4 60.4 9.7 7.8 1.8 29.9 21.2 8.7 61
Bagmati Province 24.4 56.3 4.8 4.3 0.5 38.9 30.0 8.9 326
Urban 24.5 53.9 5.0 4.4 0.6 41.1 30.9 10.2 264
Rural 23.6 66.2 3.9 3.9 0.0 29.9 26.4 3.5 63
Gandaki Province 24.7 50.7 4.0 3.2 0.8 45.3 35.1 10.2 146
Urban 24.8 47.4 5.3 4.1 1.2 47.3 36.7 10.6 101
Rural 24.4 58.2 1.0 1.0 0.0 40.8 31.4 9.3 44
Lumbini Province 22.9 71.8 4.7 4.3 0.4 23.4 21.7 1.7 236
Urban 23.3 70.0 2.3 2.3 0.0 27.7 25.6 2.1 139
Rural 22.3 74.5 8.2 7.2 1.1 17.3 16.1 1.1 97
Karnali Province 22.3 74.9 9.6 7.8 1.8 15.4 11.1 4.3 84
Urban 23.1 69.1 8.1 8.1 0.0 22.8 16.0 6.8 48
Rural 21.2 82.6 11.7 7.4 4.3 5.7 4.6 1.0 36
Sudurpashchim Province 22.8 62.7 7.3 6.7 0.7 30.0 28.8 1.2 107
Urban 23.2 56.6 6.8 5.8 1.0 36.6 34.7 1.8 69
Rural 22.3 73.5 8.3 8.3 0.0 18.2 18.2 0.0 38
Education
No education 22.5 71.9 9.1 7.9 1.3 19.0 12.4 6.6 148
Basic education (1–8) 23.3 61.1 8.0 6.7 1.2 30.9 25.6 5.3 593
Lower basic education (1–5) 23.3 61.0 7.1 6.2 0.9 31.8 26.0 5.8 335
Upper basic education (6–8) 23.2 61.2 9.1 7.5 1.6 29.7 25.2 4.5 259
Secondary (9–12) 24.2 56.8 4.7 3.9 0.7 38.5 31.9 6.6 519
Lower secondary (9–10) 24.3 55.1 5.1 4.6 0.6 39.8 32.3 7.4 328
Higher secondary (11–12) 24.0 59.7 4.0 2.9 1.1 36.3 31.2 5.1 190
More than secondary (13 and
above) 23.9 69.3 4.0 3.5 0.5 26.7 21.0 5.6 105
Wealth quintile
Lowest 21.7 75.0 12.2 10.7 1.5 12.8 11.9 0.9 251
Second 22.6 68.5 9.0 7.9 1.1 22.5 19.9 2.6 246
Middle 22.9 72.1 5.5 4.6 0.9 22.4 18.9 3.5 241
Fourth 24.3 49.3 6.1 4.9 1.2 44.6 37.1 7.5 325
Highest 25.7 48.5 1.4 1.0 0.4 50.1 37.1 13.0 305
Total 23.6 61.3 6.6 5.6 1.0 32.1 26.2 5.9 1,367

Note: Body mass index (BMI) is expressed as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of height in meters (kg/m 2). Total includes 2 men with missing information on
education. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.

320 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.21.4 Nutritional status of adolescent men age 15–19
Among men age 15–19, mean body mass index (BMI)-for-age z score and percentage with specific BMI-for-age levels, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Body mass index-for-age
Below Below Above +1 SD
–1 SD to Below –1 SD to –2 SD (total Above +1 SD
Background Mean BMI-for- +1 SD (total –1 SD (total –2 SD (mildly (moderately or overweight or to +2 SD Above +2 SD Number of
characteristic age z score normal) thin)1 thin) severely thin) obese)2 (overweight) (obese) men
Residence
Urban –0.7 48.2 45.1 32.4 12.7 6.7 3.1 3.6 98
Rural –0.8 61.8 32.0 16.5 15.5 6.2 6.2 0.0 43
Education
Basic education (1–8) (–1.0) (44.9) (52.7) (31.7) (21.1) (2.4) (2.4) (0.0) 46
Lower basic education (1–5) * * * * * * * * 10
Upper basic education (6–8) (–1.0) (52.6) (44.4) (21.7) (22.8) (3.0) (3.0) (0.0) 36
Secondary (9–12) –0.6 56.5 34.8 24.8 10.0 8.7 4.9 3.8 93
Lower secondary (9–10) –0.5 51.7 35.8 27.5 8.3 12.5 5.4 7.1 50
Higher secondary (11–12) (–0.7) (62.1) (33.6) (21.7) (11.9) (4.3) (4.3) (0.0) 43
More than secondary (13 and
above) * * * * * * * * 1
Wealth quintile
Lowest (–0.9) (64.6) (35.4) (26.7) (8.7) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 22
Second (–0.8) (52.0) (44.2) (33.4) (10.8) (3.8) (3.8) (0.0) 25
Middle (–0.8) (67.5) (27.4) (12.1) (15.3) (5.1) (5.1) (0.0) 34
Fourth (–0.6) (46.2) (40.3) (19.8) (20.4) (13.5) (4.5) (9.1) 39
Highest * * * * * * * * 20
Total –0.7 52.4 41.1 27.5 13.6 6.6 4.0 2.5 140

Note: Body mass index (BMI)-for-age is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Growth Reference for adolescent men age 15–19.
Disaggregation by ethnicity, ecological zone, and province is not presented due to few cases. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes adolescent men age 15–19 who are below –2 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Growth Reference population median
2
Includes adolescent men age 15–19 who are above +2 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Growth Reference population median

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 321

Table 11.22 Foods and liquids consumed by women in the day or night preceding the interview
Percentage of women age 15–49 by type of foods and liquids consumed in the day or night preceding the interview, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Fried and
salty foods
such as
chips,
kurekure,
chisbal,
instant
Sweet noodles Sweet
foods such (e.g., Wai bottled
as cakes, Wai or Yum drinks such Sweetened
biscuits, Yum), as Coke, tea, coffee,
White/pale Milk, tea Other cookies, samosa, Fanta, or herbal
starchy with milk, Meat, fish, vitamin A- jeri/jalebi, pakora, Fruit juice Sprite or drinks, and
Foods roots, Beans, lassi, dahi, poultry, Dark green rich fruits mithai, puri, and and fruit- energy other
Background made from tubers, and peas, Nuts and paneer or organ leafy and Other toffees, or tareko flavored drinks such sweetened Number of
1 6 7 8 9
characteristic grains plantains2 lentils3 seeds4 cheese meats5 Eggs vegetables vegetables vegetables Other fruits ice cream khaja drinks as Red Bull beverages10 women
Age
15–19 99.3 81.2 72.1 15.3 49.6 36.7 16.6 54.3 21.1 70.0 37.4 51.9 49.5 10.4 10.8 55.7 2,643
20–29 99.3 84.3 74.7 15.6 51.3 39.9 18.4 57.3 21.6 73.6 35.5 41.2 36.4 9.7 10.2 58.2 5,072
30–39 99.2 84.0 75.4 15.6 55.3 40.5 18.2 61.0 22.1 75.9 36.9 33.3 26.4 7.4 10.5 61.9 4,169
40–49 99.3 82.4 73.4 13.3 56.1 37.9 14.6 64.7 20.8 74.0 35.7 27.8 21.1 5.8 9.3 64.3 2,961
Maternity status
Pregnant 99.5 81.5 74.7 19.5 57.5 32.8 18.8 52.0 24.8 74.1 42.5 40.7 31.4 13.2 8.4 56.4 587
Not pregnant11 99.3 83.4 74.2 14.9 52.9 39.4 17.2 59.6 21.4 73.6 36.0 38.1 32.9 8.2 10.3 60.2 14,258
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 99.5 83.6 84.3 20.9 70.8 29.1 19.0 68.3 26.2 71.9 48.7 42.4 33.9 10.5 7.9 72.1 4,152
Dalit 99.3 78.4 73.5 9.4 38.0 40.3 12.4 52.4 15.7 68.1 25.7 32.4 28.7 6.2 7.8 50.3 2,240
Janajati 99.3 81.3 67.4 14.1 41.3 54.0 21.8 64.5 20.4 71.5 35.6 38.9 37.0 8.4 15.6 54.9 5,428
Madhesi 98.7 91.3 72.4 13.6 64.1 19.7 7.7 44.6 21.3 84.4 27.1 35.4 28.2 6.9 5.0 60.2 2,333
Muslim 99.3 85.5 74.8 10.7 49.5 45.1 19.3 34.9 20.6 83.1 31.6 34.8 22.5 7.6 5.9 58.3 676
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 99.2 84.8 75.5 17.6 56.2 41.3 19.0 59.0 23.6 77.5 40.2 39.7 33.9 9.1 10.7 61.3 10,178
Rural 99.3 79.9 71.4 9.7 46.3 34.5 13.6 59.8 16.9 65.3 27.7 34.9 30.6 6.9 9.0 57.2 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 99.9 68.2 82.3 12.4 50.8 33.8 17.0 71.6 11.7 46.7 33.5 36.8 29.9 10.4 11.6 64.7 791
Hill 99.2 81.1 78.9 15.8 55.8 42.3 23.2 65.6 26.0 71.6 42.2 42.0 35.5 10.8 14.9 64.8 5,872
Terai 99.2 86.4 70.0 14.9 51.3 37.4 13.0 53.6 19.2 77.8 32.3 35.6 31.2 6.5 6.7 56.1 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 99.4 81.7 73.3 14.7 55.6 42.1 15.4 76.8 13.2 70.7 31.6 38.3 37.3 6.0 10.2 64.8 2,493
Urban 99.4 81.6 74.7 15.3 55.3 42.7 15.7 76.1 13.6 72.9 33.8 37.9 37.2 5.9 9.8 64.3 1,640
Rural 99.4 82.0 70.6 13.5 56.1 40.9 15.0 78.1 12.3 66.5 27.4 39.2 37.5 6.2 11.1 65.6 853
Madhesh Province 98.7 90.6 71.4 10.6 54.2 27.9 8.7 40.2 18.1 81.8 25.1 29.8 24.3 6.2 6.0 48.5 3,010
Urban 98.7 90.7 72.7 10.5 55.6 28.7 8.7 39.2 19.6 82.2 26.1 29.2 24.6 6.7 5.8 49.6 2,226
Rural 98.8 90.4 67.7 10.8 50.1 25.7 8.7 43.0 13.7 80.4 22.4 31.3 23.3 4.8 6.3 45.3 783
Bagmati Province 99.0 86.3 77.0 22.9 58.8 46.7 29.2 69.4 30.3 84.6 47.8 49.6 37.6 11.4 16.8 70.3 3,062
Urban 99.0 87.4 79.4 26.8 63.4 47.6 31.7 68.7 33.9 87.4 51.8 52.1 39.0 12.3 16.4 71.6 2,464
Rural 99.0 81.8 67.3 7.2 40.0 42.9 19.1 72.3 15.5 73.0 31.4 39.3 31.7 7.6 18.3 64.9 599
Gandaki Province 99.7 82.6 79.0 16.7 58.0 54.1 23.0 52.8 26.0 78.0 46.4 44.3 38.2 13.6 18.6 67.4 1,401
Urban 99.6 82.7 79.4 20.7 60.6 57.7 24.7 53.0 30.7 83.2 51.6 48.3 40.0 15.2 20.5 68.8 992
Rural 99.8 82.5 77.8 7.1 51.9 45.3 19.0 52.3 14.5 65.3 33.9 34.8 33.8 9.8 14.1 63.9 409
Lumbini Province 99.5 80.8 70.1 14.2 44.9 39.5 15.2 48.2 26.9 73.8 39.9 37.0 31.5 8.9 10.1 55.8 2,691
Urban 99.5 82.5 70.9 16.7 50.6 42.7 16.2 48.7 26.6 76.6 46.0 36.8 31.7 9.9 11.2 57.3 1,553
Rural 99.6 78.5 69.0 10.7 37.0 35.2 13.7 47.5 27.2 69.9 31.5 37.4 31.3 7.6 8.5 53.8 1,138
Karnali Province 99.4 68.6 83.4 10.7 42.4 30.7 15.3 68.4 17.2 43.8 30.1 27.4 28.6 5.2 2.6 50.1 909
Urban 99.4 74.1 82.9 14.3 44.1 34.2 19.4 70.6 17.6 50.2 35.6 29.3 31.7 4.8 2.5 50.7 507
Rural 99.4 61.6 84.0 6.2 40.3 26.3 10.0 65.6 16.7 35.8 23.0 24.9 24.8 5.6 2.7 49.3 402
Sudurpashchim Province 99.8 78.4 72.6 11.0 51.2 30.4 12.0 69.9 11.4 50.5 29.7 34.1 33.2 6.5 0.8 61.1 1,279
Urban 100.0 81.5 71.9 13.6 50.0 34.7 13.1 69.8 12.2 55.0 34.2 36.5 35.5 5.9 0.7 61.2 796
Rural 99.6 73.3 73.6 6.7 53.1 23.3 10.0 70.0 10.0 43.1 22.1 30.1 29.5 7.4 0.8 61.0 484
Continued...

322 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.22—Continued
Fried and
salty foods
such as
chips,
kurekure,
chisbal,
instant
Sweet noodles Sweet
foods such (e.g., Wai bottled
as cakes, Wai or Yum drinks such Sweetened
biscuits, Yum), as Coke, tea, coffee,
White/pale Milk, tea Other cookies, samosa, Fanta, or herbal
starchy with milk, Meat, fish, vitamin A- jeri/jalebi, pakora, Fruit juice Sprite or drinks, and
Foods roots, Beans, lassi, dahi, poultry, Dark green rich fruits mithai, puri, and and fruit- energy other
Background made from tubers, and peas, Nuts and paneer or organ leafy and Other toffees, or tareko flavored drinks such sweetened Number of
characteristic grains1 plantains2 lentils3 seeds4 cheese meats5 Eggs vegetables6 vegetables7 vegetables8 Other fruits9 ice cream khaja drinks as Red Bull beverages10 women
Education
No education 99.3 81.6 70.1 6.2 42.7 34.5 9.9 54.0 15.1 68.9 20.2 22.0 19.0 4.0 6.1 51.0 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 99.1 81.3 70.1 11.5 47.8 39.6 15.0 58.3 18.8 70.8 31.2 35.6 31.9 7.2 9.4 58.9 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 99.3 81.0 68.1 10.9 46.7 39.5 13.9 56.9 18.2 72.6 28.7 29.6 26.5 5.6 9.5 57.9 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 98.9 81.6 72.1 12.2 48.8 39.8 16.1 59.6 19.5 69.0 33.8 41.7 37.5 8.7 9.4 59.9 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 99.4 85.1 78.8 21.1 60.8 41.1 21.9 62.4 25.1 77.1 47.1 49.2 42.2 11.6 13.1 65.3 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 99.6 84.3 76.2 18.5 58.1 40.4 20.1 62.1 23.8 74.5 42.8 45.6 40.2 11.0 12.3 64.4 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.0 86.1 82.3 24.5 64.4 42.0 24.3 62.7 26.8 80.5 52.6 53.9 44.6 12.4 14.1 66.5 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 99.4 91.5 84.9 38.4 81.3 45.0 34.9 69.8 44.9 90.8 68.9 52.6 37.4 13.7 13.8 73.4 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 99.5 70.0 71.3 5.7 40.6 29.8 11.1 64.8 14.1 48.9 20.0 26.6 26.8 5.2 6.4 48.3 2,628
Second 99.1 84.3 68.5 9.1 43.2 36.5 11.4 56.4 15.1 68.7 26.2 31.8 28.2 5.9 7.8 54.0 2,857
Middle 99.2 86.4 71.1 10.0 47.5 36.6 13.6 54.0 15.7 75.8 27.7 33.9 30.7 6.0 7.7 56.9 3,028
Fourth 99.5 86.0 74.7 16.8 56.8 42.8 19.9 57.9 22.9 82.1 41.1 43.4 38.6 10.0 11.6 65.9 3,197
Highest 98.9 87.8 84.2 31.5 74.1 48.1 28.6 63.8 37.8 88.2 62.5 52.6 38.5 14.1 16.5 72.3 3,135
Total 99.3 83.3 74.2 15.1 53.1 39.1 17.3 59.3 21.5 73.7 36.3 38.2 32.9 8.4 10.2 60.0 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes rice, paratha, naan, roti, pau roti, maize, and dhido
2
Includes potatoes, yams, wild yams, and white sweet potatoes
3
Includes daal, chickpeas, beans, soybeans, and quanti
4
Includes almonds, peanuts, cashews, pistachios, and walnuts
5
Includes liver or organ meat, sausages, ham, bacon, canned meat, other meat (e.g., goat, mountain goat, lamb/sheep, pig, yak), chicken, and fresh or dried fish
6
Includes saag, spinach, mustard greens, fennel greens, pumpkin shoots, taro leaves, amaranth greens, gundruk, braised greens, fenugreek greens, and broccoli
7
Includes ripe yellow pumpkin, carrots, ripe mangoes, papayas, apricot, and persimmon
8
Including tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, gourd, and eggplant
9
Including Other fruits such as apple, banana, guava, watermelon, and mulberries
10
Including chiya with sugar, coffee with sugar, sweet lassi, milk with sugar, Horlicks, Bournvita, Viva, and other sweetened beverages
11
Includes women who do not know if they are pregnant

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 323

 Table 11.23 Minimum dietary diversity and unhealthy food and beverage consumption among women
Percentage of women age 15–49 consuming sweet beverages, percentage consuming unhealthy foods, and
percentage achieving minimum dietary diversity for women, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Minimum dietary
Background diversity for Sweet beverage Unhealthy food Number of
characteristic women1 consumption2 consumption3 women
Age
15–19 53.1 64.1 70.9 2,643
20–29 56.4 65.2 58.0 5,072
30–39 56.9 67.2 47.6 4,169
40–49 55.4 68.5 40.4 2,961
Maternity status
Pregnant 58.7 64.7 54.1 587
Not pregnant4 55.6 66.3 53.8 14,258
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 67.0 76.3 57.7 4,152
Dalit 42.8 55.6 46.5 2,240
Janajati 55.9 64.3 57.5 5,428
Madhesi 48.7 63.7 47.8 2,333
Muslim 51.3 63.2 44.7 676
Other * * * 15
Residence
Urban 60.4 67.8 55.7 10,178
Rural 45.6 62.6 49.9 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 48.2 72.2 51.3 791
Hill 62.5 72.5 58.7 5,872
Terai 51.6 61.1 50.6 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 59.3 70.9 56.3 2,493
Urban 61.1 70.1 55.4 1,640
Rural 55.8 72.2 57.9 853
Madhesh Province 42.8 53.0 41.5 3,010
Urban 44.4 54.4 41.3 2,226
Rural 38.3 48.8 42.3 783
Bagmati Province 72.3 78.4 65.5 3,062
Urban 77.2 80.0 68.5 2,464
Rural 52.0 72.2 53.3 599
Gandaki Province 67.5 76.2 60.9 1,401
Urban 73.8 77.9 64.5 992
Rural 52.0 72.0 52.2 409
Lumbini Province 51.9 63.3 53.3 2,691
Urban 56.7 65.9 54.0 1,553
Rural 45.4 59.8 52.4 1,138
Karnali Province 43.3 53.7 44.0 909
Urban 50.4 53.9 48.5 507
Rural 34.5 53.4 38.3 402
Sudurpashchim Province 43.8 63.0 50.6 1,279
Urban 48.8 63.1 53.9 796
Rural 35.5 62.9 45.3 484
Education
No education 38.6 55.0 33.3 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 50.2 64.7 52.2 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 48.0 63.3 46.0 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 52.4 66.1 58.6 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 67.6 73.1 67.0 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 63.9 71.5 63.7 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 72.5 75.3 71.2 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 88.9 80.4 68.0 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 34.7 53.5 41.3 2,628
Second 43.1 59.7 46.6 2,857
Middle 48.1 61.6 49.7 3,028
Fourth 64.1 72.5 60.4 3,197
Highest 83.9 80.7 68.3 3,135
Total 55.7 66.2 53.9 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Minimum dietary diversity for women is defined as consuming foods from five or more of the following 10 food groups:
a. grains, white/pale starchy roots, tubers, and plantains; b. pulses (beans, peas, lentils); c. nuts and seeds; d. dairy
(milk, cheese, yogurt, other milk products); e. meat, fish, poultry, and organ meats; f. eggs; g. dark green leafy
vegetables; h. other vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; i. other vegetables; j. other fruits.
2
Sweet beverages include fruit juice and fruit-flavored drinks, sodas, malt drinks, sports drinks and energy drinks,
sweetened tea, coffee, herbal drinks, sweet lassi, Horlicks, Bournvita, Viva, and other sweetened liquids.
3
Unhealthy foods include sweet foods such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, jeri/jalebi, mithai, toffees, and ice cream and
fried and salty foods such as chips, kurekure, chisbal, instant noodles (Wai Wai, Yum Yum), samosa, pakora, puri,
and tareko khaja.
4
Includes women who do not know if they are pregnant

324 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.24 Prevalence of anemia in women
Percentage of women age 15–49 classified as having anemia, by pregnancy status, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Anemia status by hemoglobin level
Any Mild Moderate Severe
Background Nonpregnant <12.0 g/dl 11.0–11.9 g/dl 8.0–10.9 g/dl <8.0 g/dl Number of
characteristic Pregnant <11.0 g/dl 10.0–10.9 g/dl 7.0–9.9 g/dl <7.0 g/dl women
Age
15–19 39.4 21.3 16.2 2.0 1,305
20–29 34.5 20.4 13.4 0.7 2,514
30–39 30.2 15.9 13.4 0.8 2,070
40–49 33.5 16.1 16.5 0.9 1,440
Number of children ever born
0 36.0 19.8 14.7 1.5 2,083
1 31.3 19.3 11.2 0.8 1,329
2–3 32.9 18.2 14.1 0.7 2,915
4–5 36.3 15.5 19.4 1.3 832
6+ 36.2 14.7 20.9 0.6 170
Maternity status
Pregnant 32.7 20.2 12.4 0.2 307
Not pregnant1 34.0 18.4 14.6 1.0 7,022
Using IUCD
Yes 39.1 22.7 14.6 1.8 81
No 33.9 18.4 14.5 1.0 7,248
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 25.6 15.9 9.2 0.5 2,082
Dalit 36.3 20.2 15.4 0.7 1,108
Janajati 31.4 17.0 13.4 0.9 2,668
Madhesi 48.4 23.9 22.7 1.8 1,157
Muslim 50.0 21.2 25.7 3.0 309
Other * * * * 5
Residence
Urban 33.8 17.9 14.9 1.0 5,030
Rural 34.2 19.6 13.7 1.0 2,299
Ecological zone
Mountain 23.0 12.7 9.4 0.9 380
Hill 20.0 12.7 7.0 0.4 2,950
Terai 45.3 23.3 20.6 1.5 3,999
Province
Koshi Province 27.6 15.3 11.4 0.9 1,235
Urban 28.5 14.6 12.9 1.1 807
Rural 25.8 16.8 8.5 0.5 428
Madhesh Province 52.4 25.2 25.3 1.9 1,458
Urban 52.4 24.9 25.8 1.6 1,087
Rural 52.6 26.1 23.8 2.8 371
Bagmati Province 23.1 14.6 8.0 0.5 1,546
Urban 22.6 14.0 7.9 0.7 1,266
Rural 25.1 17.0 8.1 0.0 280
Gandaki Province 25.1 15.8 8.9 0.4 689
Urban 24.1 16.1 7.5 0.6 485
Rural 27.4 15.1 12.3 0.0 203
Lumbini Province 44.4 23.4 19.5 1.5 1,318
Urban 46.0 22.6 21.7 1.6 749
Rural 42.4 24.4 16.7 1.3 569
Karnali Province 21.2 13.3 7.5 0.4 450
Urban 21.8 13.3 8.0 0.5 249
Rural 20.5 13.3 6.8 0.4 201
Sudurpashchim Province 27.3 14.6 12.6 0.2 634
Urban 25.9 14.0 11.8 0.0 387
Rural 29.6 15.4 13.8 0.4 246
Education
No education 38.3 18.1 19.3 0.9 1,819
Basic education (1–8) 33.5 17.8 14.7 1.1 2,312
Lower basic education (1–5) 32.3 16.1 14.7 1.4 1,163
Upper basic education (6–8) 34.7 19.4 14.6 0.7 1,149
Secondary (9–12) 32.8 19.5 12.2 1.1 2,829
Lower secondary (9–10) 34.5 20.3 13.3 0.9 1,645
Higher secondary (11–12) 30.6 18.4 10.7 1.5 1,185
More than secondary (13 and
above) 24.3 16.5 7.8 0.0 368
Wealth quintile
Lowest 25.7 14.8 10.2 0.7 1,273
Second 35.4 19.1 15.8 0.5 1,464
Middle 41.2 21.1 18.8 1.3 1,486
Fourth 37.1 19.1 16.6 1.4 1,475
Highest 29.7 17.7 11.0 1.0 1,630
Total 34.0 18.4 14.5 1.0 7,329

Note: Prevalence of anemia, based on hemoglobin levels, is adjusted for altitude and for cigarette smoking, if known, using formulas in CDC 1998 and
cutoffs defined in WHO 2017c. Hemoglobin is measured in grams per deciliter (g/dl) using the HemoCue 201+ device. An asterisk indicates that a figure
is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes women who do not know if they are pregnant

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 325

 Table 11.25 Iron and folic acid supplementation among
adolescent women age 15–19

Among women age 15–19, percentage who received iron and folic acid
supplementation in the 3 months prior to the survey, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of
women who
received iron and
Background folic acid Number of
characteristic supplementation women
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 24.9 724
Dalit 18.9 471
Janajati 16.7 839
Madhesi 7.7 434
Muslim 6.7 171
Other * 3
Residence
Urban 13.9 1,758
Rural 23.7 885
Ecological zone
Mountain 23.8 148
Hill 22.3 1,011
Terai 13.1 1,483
Province
Koshi Province 11.6 409
Urban 10.5 244
Rural 13.2 164
Madhesh Province 7.4 619
Urban 5.9 450
Rural 11.5 168
Bagmati Province 11.4 489
Urban 7.3 377
Rural 25.0 112
Gandaki Province 22.8 238
Urban 20.3 177
Rural 30.1 61
Lumbini Province 28.0 434
Urban 26.2 249
Rural 30.4 185
Karnali Province 22.5 203
Urban 22.2 111
Rural 22.8 92
Sudurpashchim Province 33.7 250
Urban 26.3 149
Rural 44.5 101
Education
No education 5.6 140
Basic education (1–8) 18.2 927
Lower basic education (1–5) 8.7 278
Upper basic education (6–8) 22.2 650
Secondary (9–12) 17.7 1,572
Lower secondary (9–10) 21.9 956
Higher secondary (11–12) 11.3 616
More than secondary (13 and
above) * 4
Wealth quintile
Lowest 27.0 535
Second 19.2 568
Middle 14.7 533
Fourth 14.4 571
Highest 9.3 436
Total 17.2 2,643

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

326 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.26 Presence of iodized salt in household
Among all households, percentage with salt tested for iodine content, percentage with salt in the household but the salt was not tested, and
percentage with no salt in the household, and among households with salt tested, percentage with iodized salt, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among households with
Among all households, percentage: tested salt:
Background With salt but salt With no salt in Number of Percentage with Number of
characteristic With salt tested not tested1 the household households iodized salt households
Residence
Urban 99.0 0.2 0.8 9,244 98.4 9,148
Rural 99.0 0.1 0.9 4,542 96.9 4,497
Ecological zone
Mountain 99.0 0.1 1.0 843 96.4 834
Hill 99.1 0.1 0.7 6,017 98.3 5,966
Terai 98.8 0.3 0.9 6,926 97.7 6,846
Province
Koshi Province 99.0 0.1 1.0 2,441 98.5 2,416
Urban 98.9 0.1 1.0 1,589 98.9 1,571
Rural 99.1 0.0 0.9 853 97.8 845
Madhesh Province 98.7 0.3 1.0 2,462 97.8 2,430
Urban 98.8 0.3 0.9 1,796 97.6 1,775
Rural 98.4 0.3 1.3 666 98.4 656
Bagmati Province 98.7 0.4 0.9 3,177 98.5 3,137
Urban 98.7 0.4 0.9 2,454 99.5 2,423
Rural 98.8 0.3 0.9 723 95.2 714
Gandaki Province 99.7 0.0 0.3 1,453 98.3 1,448
Urban 99.7 0.0 0.3 982 99.2 978
Rural 99.8 0.0 0.2 471 96.2 470
Lumbini Province 99.1 0.1 0.7 2,332 96.8 2,312
Urban 99.1 0.1 0.7 1,281 96.6 1,269
Rural 99.2 0.1 0.7 1,051 96.9 1,042
Karnali Province 99.0 0.0 1.0 819 97.5 810
Urban 98.8 0.0 1.2 463 98.6 458
Rural 99.2 0.0 0.8 355 96.0 352
Sudurpashchim Province 99.1 0.1 0.8 1,102 97.2 1,092
Urban 99.2 0.1 0.7 680 97.5 674
Rural 99.0 0.0 1.0 422 96.8 418
Wealth quintile
Lowest 98.9 0.1 1.1 2,868 95.5 2,836
Second 99.0 0.2 0.8 2,685 97.5 2,658
Middle 99.1 0.1 0.8 2,647 98.1 2,624
Fourth 98.6 0.3 1.1 2,843 99.2 2,803
Highest 99.3 0.2 0.4 2,743 99.2 2,725
Total 99.0 0.2 0.8 13,786 97.9 13,646

Note: Salt was tested for the presence of potassium iodate.

1
Includes households in which salt could not be tested for technical or logistical reasons, including availability of test kits

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 327

 Table 11.27 Health Mothers’ Group
Percentage of women age 15–49 who report having a Health Mothers’ Group in their ward, and among those who report having a Health Mothers’ Group, percent
distribution by number of meetings they attended in the past 6 months, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage who
report having a
Health Mothers’ Number of meetings attended
Background Group in their Number of 6 meetings or Did not Number of
characteristic ward women 1 to 5 meetings more participate Total women
Age
15–19 25.5 2,643 6.2 1.2 92.7 100.0 675
20–29 27.9 5,072 15.2 7.2 77.6 100.0 1,418
30–39 30.8 4,169 11.7 7.2 81.1 100.0 1,282
40–49 31.8 2,961 9.2 5.7 85.1 100.0 941
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 36.0 4,152 10.6 7.6 81.7 100.0 1,494
Dalit 31.5 2,240 11.4 4.4 84.2 100.0 706
Janajati 29.2 5,428 11.7 6.2 82.1 100.0 1,583
Madhesi 18.2 2,333 13.9 2.3 83.8 100.0 426
Muslim 15.3 676 9.5 2.5 88.0 100.0 104
Other * 15 * * * * 4
Residence
Urban 23.4 10,178 10.2 4.4 85.5 100.0 2,386
Rural 41.4 4,667 13.0 7.8 79.2 100.0 1,930
Ecological zone
Mountain 45.9 791 13.8 7.0 79.2 100.0 363
Hill 33.3 5,872 10.7 7.8 81.6 100.0 1,953
Terai 24.4 8,182 11.7 3.9 84.4 100.0 2,000
Province
Koshi Province 17.1 2,493 13.6 3.7 82.8 100.0 427
Urban 12.9 1,640 12.3 1.6 86.1 100.0 212
Rural 25.2 853 14.8 5.7 79.4 100.0 215
Madhesh Province 15.4 3,010 11.9 2.4 85.7 100.0 463
Urban 12.4 2,226 11.6 2.2 86.1 100.0 276
Rural 23.8 783 12.4 2.5 85.0 100.0 187
Bagmati Province 20.1 3,062 11.5 3.8 84.7 100.0 617
Urban 16.7 2,464 12.5 1.2 86.3 100.0 412
Rural 34.3 599 9.5 9.1 81.4 100.0 205
Gandaki Province 31.0 1,401 9.8 3.0 87.1 100.0 435
Urban 29.5 992 7.1 2.8 90.1 100.0 293
Rural 34.7 409 15.5 3.6 80.9 100.0 142
Lumbini Province 41.0 2,691 11.8 7.1 81.1 100.0 1,103
Urban 35.2 1,553 8.9 5.3 85.7 100.0 546
Rural 48.9 1,138 14.6 8.8 76.6 100.0 557
Karnali Province 55.4 909 9.4 6.6 84.1 100.0 504
Urban 53.4 507 9.2 5.9 84.9 100.0 271
Rural 57.9 402 9.6 7.3 83.1 100.0 233
Sudurpashchim Province 60.1 1,279 11.6 10.5 77.9 100.0 768
Urban 47.3 796 10.3 9.7 80.0 100.0 377
Rural 81.0 484 12.9 11.3 75.9 100.0 392
Education
No education 30.2 3,796 10.0 4.9 85.1 100.0 1,147
Basic education (1–8) 30.8 4,595 12.8 7.0 80.3 100.0 1,417
Lower basic education (1–5) 28.9 2,314 12.3 6.6 81.1 100.0 669
Upper basic education (6–8) 32.8 2,281 13.1 7.3 79.6 100.0 747
Secondary (9–12) 28.0 5,798 11.8 5.9 82.3 100.0 1,621
Lower secondary (9–10) 28.0 3,270 13.7 6.4 79.9 100.0 915
Higher secondary (11–12) 27.9 2,529 9.3 5.3 85.4 100.0 706
More than secondary (13 and
above) 20.0 656 5.6 3.4 91.1 100.0 131
Wealth quintile
Lowest 43.6 2,628 11.6 9.0 79.4 100.0 1,146
Second 32.3 2,857 13.2 6.1 80.8 100.0 923
Middle 29.0 3,028 12.7 5.3 82.0 100.0 878
Fourth 23.0 3,197 11.8 4.0 84.2 100.0 737
Highest 20.2 3,135 6.3 3.3 90.4 100.0 632
Total 29.1 14,845 11.4 5.9 82.7 100.0 4,316

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

328 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

Table 11.28 Topics discussed during Health Mothers’ Group meetings
Among women age 15–49 who attended Health Mothers’ Group meetings in the past 6
months, percentage who reported various topics that were discussed during these
meetings, by residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Residence
Topic Urban Rural Total
Nutrition
Received information on child feeding 61.9 68.9 65.7
Received information on food/cooking 36.2 37.4 36.8
Received information on gardening 1.0 1.6 1.3
Received information on poultry 2.4 1.4 1.9
Received information on processing food 14.6 11.5 12.9
Watch demo on cooking 11.6 10.1 10.8
Discussed maternal/child nutrition 48.5 54.3 51.6
Received information on adolescent nutrition 3.9 7.7 5.9
Sanitation
Discussed handwashing 25.5 30.2 28.0
Discussed toilet 4.5 6.6 5.7
Reproductive health
Received information on reproductive
health/women’s health 39.3 39.6 39.4
Discussed family planning 28.1 40.5 34.7
Other topics
Discussed gender issues 2.2 2.1 2.1
Discussed diarrhea 7.5 10.7 9.2
Discussed COVID-19 18.1 17.7 17.9
Other 4.3 3.0 3.6
Number of women 347 402 749

Nutrition of Children and Adults • 329

 Table 11.29 Receipt of child grant
Percentage of children under age 5 for whom their mother received a
child grant, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage for
Background whom child grant Number of
characteristic was received children
Age in months
<6 5.8 533
6–11 18.5 434
12–23 26.4 959
24–35 28.2 1,066
36–47 28.3 1,048
48–59 28.9 1,000
0–23 18.9 1,926
24–59 28.4 3,114
Sex
Male 25.2 2,639
Female 24.4 2,401
Mother’s age
15–19 24.6 987
20–29 25.1 3,286
30–39 23.6 716
40–49 25.0 52
Residence
Urban 23.1 3,276
Rural 28.0 1,764
Ecological zone
Mountain 40.7 317
Hill 19.8 1,744
Terai 26.0 2,979
Province
Koshi Province 11.8 859
Urban 10.8 553
Rural 13.6 306
Madhesh Province 38.2 1,352
Urban 38.3 1,013
Rural 37.9 338
Bagmati Province 7.7 814
Urban 7.3 596
Rural 8.8 218
Gandaki Province 18.9 331
Urban 20.2 216
Rural 16.5 116
Lumbini Province 20.8 862
Urban 19.9 452
Rural 21.8 410
Karnali Province 50.1 371
Urban 36.7 178
Rural 62.5 193
Sudurpashchim Province 31.4 451
Urban 24.4 267
Rural 41.5 184
Mother’s education
No education 34.5 1,103
Basic education (1–8) 24.0 1,767
Lower basic education (1–5) 25.7 898
Upper basic education (6–8) 22.1 869
Secondary (9–12) 21.5 1,955
Lower secondary (9–10) 21.8 1,217
Higher secondary (11–12) 20.9 738
More than secondary (13 and
above) 12.3 215
Wealth quintile
Lowest 32.0 1,213
Second 26.8 1,037
Middle 24.7 1,048
Fourth 21.4 969
Highest 15.1 774
Total 24.8 5,040

330 • Nutrition of Children and Adults

DISABILITY 12
Key Findings

▪ Prevalence of disability: 6% of de facto household

members age 5 and above have a lot of difficulty or
cannot function at all in at least one domain.
▪ Disability by age: The percentage of household
members with a lot of difficulty or who cannot function at
all is highest among those age 60 and above (27%) and
those age 50–59 (10%).
▪ Disability by sex: 8% of women and 7% of men age 15
and above have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all
in at least one domain.
▪ Marital status and disability: The proportions of both
women and men who have a lot of difficulty or cannot
function at all in at least one domain are highest among
those who are widowed (31% and 29%, respectively).
▪ Disability by domain: Walking or climbing steps is the
primary domain in which both women (4%) and men (3%)
have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all. Three
percent of women and 2% of men have a lot of difficulty
seeing or cannot see at all, and 2% each of women and
men have a lot of difficulty hearing or cannot hear at all.

he 2022 NDHS included The DHS Program’s Disability Module, a series of questions based on the

T Washington Group on Disability Statistics Short Set on Functioning (WG-SS) questions, which in
turn are based on the framework of the World Health Organization’s International Classification of
Functioning, Disability, and Health. The questions address six core functional domains—seeing, hearing,
communication, cognition, walking, and self-care—and provide basic necessary information on disability.
The WG-SS focuses on the activity limitations component. This information is comparable to that
collected worldwide using the WG-SS disability tools.

The Washington Group (WG) seeks to identify the population of individuals who have difficulties in
carrying out basic, universal activities that would place them at greater risk than the general population of
social exclusion if their surroundings were unaccommodating (Washington Group on Disability Statistics
2023). The severity scale is used to categorize the full spectrum of functioning from mild to severe. Those
who have a lot of difficulty or do not have the ability to function at all are considered to be at the greater
risk category than general population.

12.1 DISABILITY BY DOMAIN AND AGE

The respondent to the Household Questionnaire provided information for all household members and
visitors on whether they had no difficulty, some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or no ability at all in the
specified domain. The results, based on 24,529 de facto household members age 5 and older, are presented
in Table 12.1.

Disability • 331
 Functional domains
Seeing, hearing, communicating, remembering or concentrating, walking or
climbing steps, and washing all over or dressing.
Sample: De facto household population age 5 and above

Overall, 71% of de facto household members age 5 Figure 12.1 Degree of difficulty in functional
and above have no difficulty in any of the functional domains
domains. Twenty-three percent have some level of Percent distribution of de facto household
difficulty in at least one domain, 5% have a lot of population age 5 and over
difficulty in at least one domain, and 1% cannot Some
function at all in at least one domain (Figure 12.1). difficulty
Thus, 6% of de facto household members age 5 and 23%
above either have a lot of difficulty functioning or
cannot function at all in at least one domain (Table
12.1). No
difficulty A lot of
71% difficulty
▪ The percentage of de facto household members 5%
who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at Cannot do
all in at least one of the domains is lowest at all
among those below age 40 (4% or less) and 1%
highest among those age 60 and above (27%)
and those age 50–59 (10%) (Table 12.1).

▪ The most common domain in which household members have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at
all is walking or climbing (3%), followed by seeing and hearing (2% each) (Table 12.1).

12.2 DISABILITY AMONG ADULTS BY OTHER BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS

Functional domains
Seeing, hearing, communicating, remembering or concentrating, walking or
climbing steps, and washing all over or dressing.
Sample: De facto household population age 15 and above

Tables 12.2.1 and 12.2.2 present disability data Figure 12.2 Level of difficulty in at least
among the de facto household population age 15 and one domain
older by background characteristics. Sixty-six Percentage of women and men age 15
percent of women and 68% of men have no and above
difficulty in any domain. Overall, 27% of women Women Men
and 25% of men have some difficulty in at least one 27
25
domain, while 7% of women and 6% of men have a
lot of difficulty and 1% each cannot function at all in
at least one domain (Figure 12.2).

Eight percent of women and 7% of men have a lot of

7 6
difficulty or cannot function at all in at least one
domain. About 3% each of women and men have a 1 1
lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in more than
Some difficulty A lot of difficulty Cannot do at all
one domain.

332 • Disability
Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentages of both women and men who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in at
least one domain are highest among those who are widowed (31% and 29%, respectively) (Table
12.2.1 and Table 12.2.2).

▪ The percentage of women and men who have a Figure 12.3 A lot of difficulty or cannot do at
lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in at all in at least one domain by education
least one domain is highest in Karnali Province Percentage of women and men age 15
(10% each) (Table 12.2.1 and Table 12.2.2). and above
Women Men
▪ The proportions of women and men who have a
20
lot of difficulty or cannot function in at least one
15
domain decrease with increasing education,
from 15% among women and 20% among men
6
with no education to less than 1% among 4
1 2 1
women and 1% among men with more than a <1
secondary education (Figure 12.3). No education Basic Secondary More than
education (9-12) secondary
▪ Similarly, the proportions of women and men (1-8) (13 and
with difficulty functioning decrease with above)
increasing wealth. Ten percent of women and
12% of men in the lowest wealth quantile have a lot of difficulty or cannot function in at least one
domain, as compared with 5% of women and 3% of men in the highest quintile (Table 12.2.1 and
Table 12.2.2).

12.3 FUNCTIONAL DISABILITY ACCORDING TO DOMAIN

Table 12.3.1 and Table 12.3.2 present information by domain on difficulty functioning among women and
men age 15 and above, respectively. Individuals who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in a
given domain are most at risk and require attention from a program and policy perspective.

Walking or climbing steps is the primary domain in which both women (4%) and men (3%) have a lot of
difficulty or cannot function at all. Three percent of women and 2% of men have a lot of difficulty seeing
or cannot see at all. Similarly, 2% each of women and men have a lot of difficulty hearing or cannot hear at
all.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Higher percentages of widowed women and men have a lot of difficulty or cannot function in almost
all domains. For instance, 20% of both women and men have issues with walking or climbing steps,
12% of women and 9% of men have a lot of difficulty seeing or cannot see at all, 8% each of women
and men have a lot of difficulty hearing or cannot hear at all, and 7% of women and 6% of men have a
lot of difficulty taking care of themselves (washing all over or dressing) or cannot take care of
themselves at all, depicting their vulnerability (Table 12.3.1 and Table 12.3.2).

▪ The proportions of women and men who have a lot of difficulty seeing or cannot see at all are highest
in Karnali Province (5% and 4%, respectively) and higher in the rural areas of the province (5% and
7%, respectively) than in the urban areas (4% and 3%, respectively).

▪ The proportions of women and men who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in each of the
six domains are higher among those with no education than among those with more than a secondary
education. A stark difference is seen in the physical mobility domain (walking or climbing steps). Nine
percent of women and 10% of men with no education have a lot of difficulty walking or climbing steps

Disability • 333
 or cannot walk or climb steps, as compared with less than 1% of women and 1% of men with more
than a secondary education (Table 12.3.1 and Table 12.3.2).

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on disability, see the following tables:

▪ Table 12.1 Disability by domain and age

▪ Table 12.2.1 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Women
▪ Table 12.2.2 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Men
▪ Table 12.3.1 Functional disability according to domain: Women
▪ Table 12.3.2 Functional disability according to domain: Men

334 • Disability
Table 12.1 Disability by domain and age
Percent distribution of the de facto household population age 5 and over by degree of difficulty in functioning according to domain, and percent distribution by the
highest degree of difficulty in functioning in at least one domain by age, Nepal DHS 2022
Degree of difficulty A lot of
No Some A lot of Cannot Don’t difficulty or Number of
Domain and age difficulty difficulty difficulty do at all know Total cannot do at all persons
Domain
Difficulty seeing 84.5 13.5 1.8 0.1 0.0 100.0 1.9 24,529
Difficulty hearing 92.3 6.2 1.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.5 24,529
Difficulty communicating 96.7 2.4 0.6 0.4 0.0 100.0 0.9 24,529
Difficulty remembering or
concentrating 90.9 7.8 1.0 0.3 0.0 100.0 1.3 24,529
Difficulty walking or
climbing steps 88.3 8.6 2.6 0.5 0.0 100.0 3.1 24,529
Difficulty washing all over
or dressing 96.1 2.5 0.9 0.5 0.0 100.0 1.4 24,529
Difficulty in at least one
domain1
5–9 81.4 14.5 3.1 1.0 0.0 100.0 4.1 2,704
10–14 91.2 7.1 1.3 0.4 0.0 100.0 1.7 2,891
15–19 89.8 8.6 0.9 0.7 0.1 100.0 1.5 2,517
20–29 88.8 9.6 0.8 0.7 0.0 100.0 1.5 4,358
30–39 78.4 19.4 1.7 0.6 0.0 100.0 2.2 3,588
40–49 59.3 36.4 3.7 0.6 0.0 100.0 4.3 2,777
50–59 47.0 43.3 8.6 1.0 0.1 100.0 9.6 2,680
60+ 25.7 47.2 23.9 3.2 0.0 100.0 27.1 3,014
Age 15 and over 66.7 26.0 6.2 1.1 0.0 100.0 7.3 18,934
Total 71.2 22.5 5.3 1.0 0.0 100.0 6.3 24,529

1
If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown.

Disability • 335
Table 12.2.1 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Women
Percentage of de facto female household members age 15 and over who have difficulty in functioning according to domain, and by highest degree of difficulty in at least one
domain, and percentage who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in more than one domain, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
A lot of
difficulty
Some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot do at all Difficulty in at least one domain1
or cannot
No Remem- A lot of do at all in
difficulty bering or Walking or Washing difficulty or more than
Background in any Communi- concen- climbing all over or Some A lot of Cannot cannot do one Number of
characteristic domain Seeing Hearing cating trating steps dressing difficulty difficulty do at all at all domain women
Marital status
Never married 86.9 5.6 3.5 3.4 5.3 3.2 1.8 9.8 1.7 1.6 3.3 2.6 1,753
Married/living together 66.7 19.1 7.8 2.3 9.2 14.2 2.0 27.9 5.1 0.4 5.4 1.3 7,816
Divorced or separated 56.0 29.5 12.7 5.1 19.9 14.6 3.2 37.2 5.3 1.5 6.7 4.3 115
Widowed 23.8 50.4 28.4 13.3 33.3 51.7 17.2 45.5 26.0 4.7 30.7 14.3 1,041
Residence
Urban 66.5 19.5 8.6 3.4 10.3 15.4 3.2 26.3 6.3 0.8 7.2 2.7 7,238
Rural 64.0 21.1 10.4 4.1 12.6 17.5 3.9 27.6 7.0 1.3 8.3 3.0 3,487
Province
Koshi Province 65.1 21.0 10.8 4.0 11.3 16.3 4.1 26.4 7.7 0.8 8.5 3.0 1,827
Urban 64.5 21.7 10.9 4.3 10.1 16.7 3.9 26.4 8.1 1.0 9.1 3.0 1,192
Rural 66.3 19.8 10.4 3.5 13.6 15.7 4.3 26.4 7.0 0.3 7.3 3.0 635
Madhesh Province 73.8 14.5 5.7 2.7 4.7 13.1 2.6 20.2 5.3 0.7 6.0 2.2 2,157
Urban 72.8 15.2 5.8 2.9 4.9 13.6 2.7 20.9 5.5 0.8 6.3 2.2 1,611
Rural 76.7 12.6 5.5 2.2 4.1 11.8 2.4 18.2 4.4 0.7 5.1 2.3 546
Bagmati Province 67.1 18.3 8.2 3.1 11.0 14.2 3.6 25.5 6.2 1.2 7.4 3.1 2,199
Urban 69.1 16.2 7.3 2.3 9.5 12.7 2.8 24.7 5.2 1.0 6.2 2.7 1,693
Rural 60.2 25.4 11.2 5.7 16.0 19.2 6.3 28.2 9.6 2.0 11.5 4.5 505
Gandaki Province 66.0 24.1 10.4 2.9 9.4 13.6 3.6 26.0 6.9 1.1 8.0 2.7 1,079
Urban 68.1 22.9 9.4 2.2 7.7 13.1 3.3 24.2 6.7 0.9 7.7 2.7 741
Rural 61.2 26.8 12.7 4.5 13.2 14.7 4.0 30.0 7.2 1.6 8.8 2.6 338
Lumbini Province 62.7 20.5 8.7 3.6 13.8 18.5 2.9 30.5 5.8 1.0 6.8 2.4 1,937
Urban 63.1 21.1 7.9 2.9 14.1 17.1 2.6 31.2 5.4 0.3 5.6 2.0 1,086
Rural 62.1 19.8 9.7 4.5 13.4 20.2 3.2 29.5 6.4 1.9 8.4 2.8 851
Karnali Province 57.7 27.0 14.2 4.7 16.7 18.7 4.6 31.9 8.7 1.6 10.3 3.5 609
Urban 59.0 26.2 12.7 4.6 18.3 16.8 4.2 31.8 7.8 1.5 9.3 3.5 340
Rural 56.2 28.1 16.1 5.0 14.7 21.0 5.0 32.1 9.8 1.8 11.6 3.6 270
Sudurpashchim
Province 55.8 24.6 12.5 6.1 17.8 23.0 4.1 35.4 7.8 0.9 8.7 3.6 918
Urban 54.0 25.4 12.9 7.6 19.4 24.6 4.7 36.4 8.6 0.9 9.5 4.0 576
Rural 58.8 23.3 11.7 3.6 15.1 20.3 3.1 33.7 6.3 1.0 7.3 2.9 341
Education
No education 46.2 33.3 16.0 7.1 18.9 29.8 7.1 38.7 13.1 2.0 15.1 5.9 4,504
Basic education (1–8) 72.3 14.3 6.0 1.8 7.3 9.3 1.0 24.1 3.1 0.4 3.6 1.0 2,701
Lower basic
education (1–5) 66.9 16.4 7.5 2.3 8.9 12.1 1.3 28.6 4.0 0.4 4.5 1.2 1,428
Upper basic
education (6–8) 78.4 11.9 4.2 1.2 5.6 6.0 0.6 19.1 2.1 0.4 2.6 0.7 1,273
Secondary (9–12) 85.4 7.4 2.9 0.6 4.1 3.8 0.6 13.6 0.9 0.1 1.0 0.3 3,162
Lower secondary
(9–10) 83.5 8.9 2.7 0.9 5.3 4.6 0.6 15.0 1.4 0.2 1.5 0.4 1,739
Higher secondary
(11–12) 87.7 5.6 3.1 0.2 2.6 2.8 0.7 11.9 0.3 0.0 0.4 0.1 1,423
More than secondary
(13 and above) 87.6 8.6 2.2 0.0 0.7 3.3 0.1 12.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 348
Wealth quintile
Lowest 60.0 25.4 13.4 4.7 15.0 18.8 3.9 29.9 8.7 1.3 10.0 3.5 2,027
Second 64.1 22.4 10.0 4.3 11.4 16.6 3.7 27.0 7.4 1.5 8.9 3.4 2,003
Middle 62.7 21.1 8.8 3.7 10.8 17.9 4.1 29.5 6.7 1.1 7.8 2.8 2,145
Fourth 68.2 17.4 7.8 3.7 10.8 15.1 3.0 25.6 5.5 0.8 6.3 2.6 2,337
Highest 72.6 14.7 6.2 1.8 7.5 12.3 2.5 22.3 4.7 0.5 5.2 1.7 2,214
Total 65.7 20.0 9.2 3.6 11.0 16.1 3.4 26.8 6.5 1.0 7.5 2.8 10,725

Note: Total includes 11 cases with missing information on level of education.

1
If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown.

336 • Disability
Table 12.2.2 Disability among adults according to background characteristics: Men
Percentage of de facto male household members age 15 and over who have difficulty in functioning according to domain, and by highest degree of difficulty in at least one domain,
and percentage who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all in more than one domain, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
A lot of
difficulty or
Some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot do at all Difficulty in at least one domain1
cannot do
No Remem- A lot of at all in
difficulty bering or Walking or Washing difficulty or more than
Background in any Communi- concen- climbing all over or Some A lot of Cannot cannot do one Number
characteristic domain Seeing Hearing cating trating steps dressing difficulty difficulty do at all at all domain of men
Marital status
Never married 89.4 3.3 3.8 3.1 4.0 2.6 1.7 7.5 1.2 1.8 3.1 2.1 1,974
Married/living
together 62.9 22.7 10.1 3.1 9.7 14.5 2.5 29.9 6.3 0.8 7.1 2.1 5,870
Divorced or
separated 44.9 24.0 23.3 16.2 32.3 19.5 8.9 45.3 6.5 3.2 9.8 5.1 66
Widowed 30.9 44.8 27.3 12.7 37.2 46.5 17.2 39.9 23.6 5.7 29.2 12.0 298
Residence
Urban 70.1 17.4 8.3 3.1 8.5 11.7 2.3 24.1 4.7 1.0 5.8 1.9 5,629
Rural 63.3 22.2 11.4 4.6 11.8 15.3 4.0 27.1 7.9 1.7 9.6 3.8 2,580
Province
Koshi Province 66.0 20.8 10.4 4.5 12.4 13.0 3.9 25.5 7.2 1.3 8.4 3.5 1,470
Urban 67.7 20.2 10.1 4.0 11.3 12.2 3.2 24.8 6.4 1.0 7.3 2.6 959
Rural 62.8 21.8 11.0 5.3 14.3 14.5 5.3 26.7 8.7 1.8 10.5 5.1 511
Madhesh Province 73.6 15.7 6.9 2.6 4.8 11.4 1.8 20.3 4.6 1.4 6.0 1.6 1,649
Urban 73.1 15.9 6.4 2.6 5.2 11.6 1.6 21.7 4.1 1.2 5.2 1.2 1,208
Rural 75.1 15.0 8.4 2.7 3.9 10.8 2.6 16.7 6.1 2.2 8.2 2.8 441
Bagmati Province 72.5 14.6 8.4 2.5 7.3 10.1 2.3 22.5 4.3 0.7 5.0 2.0 1,991
Urban 75.8 11.6 7.0 1.7 6.3 8.5 1.7 20.8 2.9 0.5 3.4 1.2 1,611
Rural 58.4 27.4 14.6 6.1 11.8 17.1 4.7 29.6 10.5 1.3 11.9 5.3 380
Gandaki Province 64.4 23.5 11.1 4.6 9.9 11.7 3.2 27.4 6.8 1.4 8.2 2.2 732
Urban 66.3 23.1 8.5 4.4 8.3 10.7 3.1 26.3 6.5 1.0 7.4 1.6 490
Rural 60.6 24.3 16.2 5.0 13.1 13.7 3.5 29.6 7.5 2.3 9.8 3.3 242
Lumbini Province 64.9 19.4 8.7 3.5 11.2 16.0 3.5 27.7 5.6 1.6 7.2 3.2 1,347
Urban 65.9 19.0 8.9 3.1 10.4 15.2 3.1 26.7 5.5 1.8 7.3 3.5 744
Rural 63.8 19.8 8.6 4.0 12.3 17.1 4.1 29.0 5.9 1.3 7.2 2.8 603
Karnali Province 58.5 27.4 14.7 4.7 16.3 16.5 4.0 31.2 8.7 1.6 10.3 3.2 415
Urban 62.1 24.4 12.7 4.8 15.1 14.8 3.4 31.7 5.1 1.2 6.2 1.9 229
Rural 54.1 31.1 17.2 4.6 17.9 18.7 4.6 30.6 13.2 2.1 15.3 4.8 186
Sudurpashchim
Province 60.0 24.6 11.2 5.4 14.1 16.7 2.3 32.1 6.6 1.3 7.9 2.6 605
Urban 60.4 24.3 11.3 5.6 14.3 16.8 2.3 31.5 6.8 1.3 8.1 2.4 388
Rural 59.3 25.3 10.8 5.1 13.7 16.6 2.4 33.2 6.3 1.2 7.5 2.9 217
Education
No education 42.7 36.1 21.5 9.4 22.4 31.6 8.7 37.3 15.9 4.0 19.9 8.1 1,597
Basic education
(1–8) 65.1 21.1 8.9 3.2 8.7 12.8 2.4 28.7 5.2 1.0 6.2 1.8 3,034
Lower basic
education (1–5) 56.2 28.2 11.4 3.6 10.3 17.5 3.2 35.3 7.5 1.0 8.5 2.3 1,661
Upper basic
education (6–8) 75.8 12.5 6.0 2.7 6.7 7.1 1.4 20.8 2.6 0.9 3.5 1.3 1,372
Secondary (9–12) 81.4 9.6 4.4 1.4 4.7 4.4 0.7 16.5 1.7 0.2 1.9 0.6 2,987
Lower secondary
(9–10) 78.2 10.9 5.2 2.0 6.0 5.8 0.9 18.9 2.5 0.3 2.8 0.6 1,781
Higher secondary
(11–12) 86.2 7.7 3.2 0.6 2.8 2.4 0.4 13.0 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.5 1,205
More than
secondary (13 and
above) 84.0 7.9 2.0 0.2 4.1 4.0 0.4 15.0 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.4 561
Wealth quintile
Lowest 55.8 30.2 14.9 5.4 15.8 18.8 4.3 32.0 10.5 1.6 12.2 4.7 1,337
Second 64.2 20.0 10.7 4.5 10.5 15.1 3.6 27.4 6.5 1.8 8.3 3.0 1,566
Middle 67.7 19.7 8.5 3.7 8.6 13.0 3.0 24.9 6.0 1.3 7.3 2.5 1,584
Fourth 72.3 15.8 7.2 3.2 7.8 11.1 2.5 22.1 4.5 1.1 5.6 1.9 1,789
Highest 75.6 12.4 6.8 1.7 6.8 8.3 1.5 21.1 2.6 0.6 3.2 1.0 1,932
Total 68.0 18.9 9.3 3.6 9.6 12.8 2.9 25.0 5.7 1.2 7.0 2.5 8,209

Note: Total includes 31 cases with missing information on level of education.

1
If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown.

Disability • 337
 Table 12.3.1 Functional disability according to domain: Women
Percentage of de facto female household members age 15 and over who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all by specific domain,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
A lot of difficulty or cannot do at all
Remembering Washing all
Background Communi- or Walking or over or Number of
characteristic Seeing Hearing cating concentrating climbing steps dressing women
Marital status
Never married 0.6 1.2 2.5 2.2 1.4 1.2 1,753
Married/living together 1.8 1.1 0.3 0.8 2.7 0.5 7,816
Divorced or separated 3.4 2.6 0.8 2.3 3.4 0.0 115
Widowed 11.6 8.3 3.3 6.0 20.0 7.1 1,041
Residence
Urban 2.4 1.6 0.9 1.5 4.0 1.2 7,238
Rural 2.9 2.3 1.1 1.8 4.5 1.3 3,487
Province
Koshi Province 2.3 1.8 1.0 1.5 5.3 1.4 1,827
Urban 2.5 1.6 1.2 1.7 5.8 1.5 1,192
Rural 1.9 2.2 0.7 1.1 4.3 1.3 635
Madhesh Province 1.6 1.3 0.8 1.2 3.7 1.4 2,157
Urban 1.7 1.4 0.7 1.2 3.7 1.3 1,611
Rural 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.0 3.7 1.6 546
Bagmati Province 2.8 1.5 1.1 1.7 4.1 1.5 2,199
Urban 2.2 1.3 0.8 1.4 3.4 1.4 1,693
Rural 5.1 2.2 1.9 3.0 6.2 1.8 505
Gandaki Province 4.2 1.6 0.9 1.8 3.5 1.4 1,079
Urban 4.6 1.0 0.9 1.8 3.5 1.4 741
Rural 3.4 2.9 0.9 1.9 3.7 1.4 338
Lumbini Province 1.9 1.8 0.9 1.5 3.9 0.7 1,937
Urban 1.7 1.3 0.6 1.1 3.3 0.4 1,086
Rural 2.2 2.3 1.4 2.1 4.7 1.1 851
Karnali Province 4.6 3.5 1.1 2.0 3.8 1.3 609
Urban 4.3 3.2 1.2 1.7 2.9 1.0 340
Rural 5.0 3.9 1.0 2.3 4.9 1.7 270
Sudurpashchim
Province 3.1 2.9 1.1 1.8 4.9 1.2 918
Urban 2.8 3.1 1.3 2.2 5.9 1.6 576
Rural 3.6 2.5 0.7 1.2 3.3 0.6 341
Education
No education 5.3 3.7 1.9 3.3 8.7 2.8 4,504
Basic education (1–8) 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.6 0.3 2,701
Lower basic
education (1–5) 1.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.9 0.5 1,428
Upper basic
education (6–8) 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.3 1.2 0.1 1,273
Secondary (9–12) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.1 3,162
Lower secondary
(9–10) 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.1 1,739
Higher secondary
(11–12) 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 1,423
More than secondary
(13 and above) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 348
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.1 3.0 1.2 2.4 4.4 1.2 2,027
Second 3.6 2.3 1.4 1.8 5.0 1.6 2,003
Middle 2.3 1.5 0.9 1.5 4.8 1.4 2,145
Fourth 1.8 1.5 1.0 1.2 4.0 1.4 2,337
Highest 1.5 0.9 0.4 1.1 2.9 0.8 2,214
Total 2.6 1.8 1.0 1.6 4.2 1.3 10,725

Note: Total includes 11 cases with missing information on level of education.

338 • Disability
Table 12.3.2 Functional disability according to domain: Men
Percentage of de facto male household members age 15 and over who have a lot of difficulty or cannot function at all by specific domain,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
A lot of difficulty or cannot do at all
Remembering Washing all
Background Communi- or Walking or over or Number of
characteristic Seeing Hearing cating concentrating climbing steps dressing men
Marital status
Never married 0.4 1.1 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.0 1,974
Married/living together 2.4 1.8 0.6 0.7 3.3 1.0 5,870
Divorced or separated 0.9 6.0 7.4 3.2 0.9 2.7 66
Widowed 8.8 7.9 3.2 5.8 19.8 5.5 298
Residence
Urban 1.7 1.5 0.8 1.0 2.8 1.0 5,629
Rural 3.2 2.9 1.6 1.8 4.6 1.6 2,580
Province
Koshi Province 2.7 2.3 1.5 2.6 3.7 1.4 1,470
Urban 2.1 2.2 1.0 2.2 3.0 1.0 959
Rural 3.8 2.4 2.5 3.3 5.1 2.2 511
Madhesh Province 1.5 1.2 0.6 0.9 3.4 0.8 1,649
Urban 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.7 3.2 0.5 1,208
Rural 2.8 2.2 0.9 1.5 4.0 1.6 441
Bagmati Province 1.8 1.6 0.6 0.4 2.5 0.9 1,991
Urban 1.2 0.9 0.3 0.1 1.9 0.7 1,611
Rural 4.5 4.5 1.6 1.4 5.3 1.5 380
Gandaki Province 3.2 3.2 1.2 0.9 2.2 0.8 732
Urban 3.1 2.5 0.9 0.7 2.1 0.6 490
Rural 3.3 4.6 1.9 1.3 2.5 1.2 242
Lumbini Province 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 4.7 2.1 1,347
Urban 1.7 1.4 1.7 1.7 4.8 2.4 744
Rural 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.1 4.6 1.7 603
Karnali Province 4.4 2.7 1.7 1.4 3.8 1.8 415
Urban 2.5 1.1 1.5 0.9 2.2 1.2 229
Rural 6.8 4.7 2.1 2.1 5.9 2.5 186
Sudurpashchim
Province 2.0 3.0 1.4 1.6 3.4 0.7 605
Urban 1.8 3.2 1.4 1.8 3.0 1.0 388
Rural 2.3 2.7 1.5 1.3 4.1 0.2 217
Education
No education 6.5 6.4 3.6 3.9 10.1 3.7 1,597
Basic education (1–8) 1.9 1.4 0.8 0.9 2.9 0.8 3,034
Lower basic education
(1–5) 2.6 1.7 1.0 0.9 4.0 1.2 1,661
Upper basic education
(6–8) 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.9 1.7 0.4 1,372
Secondary (9–12) 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.4 2,987
Lower secondary
(9–10) 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.5 1.0 0.4 1,781
Higher secondary
(11–12) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 1,205
More than secondary
(13 and above) 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.4 561
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.7 2.8 1.7 2.0 5.8 2.0 1,337
Second 2.6 3.0 1.5 1.6 3.5 1.1 1,566
Middle 2.4 2.0 0.9 1.1 3.9 1.4 1,584
Fourth 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.1 2.9 0.9 1,789
Highest 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 1.7 0.8 1,932
Total 2.1 1.9 1.1 1.2 3.4 1.2 8,209

Note: Total includes 31 cases with missing information on level of education.

Disability • 339
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR
RELATED TO HIV AND AIDS 13
Key Findings
▪ Knowledge of HIV or AIDS: 80% of women and 96% of
men have heard of HIV or AIDS.
▪ Knowledge and attitudes on mother-to-child
transmission of HIV: 37% of women and 33% of men
know that the risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT)
can be reduced by the mother taking special drugs, and
47% of women and 37% of men know all three means
(during pregnancy, during delivery, and during
breastfeeding) through which HIV can be transmitted
from a mother to her child.
▪ Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with
HIV: 51% of women and 42% of men expressed
discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV.
▪ HIV testing: 10% of women and 13% of men have ever
been tested for HIV and received the results.
▪ Self-reported prevalence of STIs: 25% of women and
10% of men who had ever had sexual intercourse
reported having had a sexually transmitted infection (STI)
and/or STI symptoms in the 12 months preceding the
survey.
▪ Knowledge about HIV prevention among young
people: 16% of young women and 27% of young men
age 15–24 are knowledgeable about HIV prevention.

T
his chapter presents information on the current status of HIV knowledge, attitudes, and testing
coverage in the general population and the young population. The prevalence of HIV is very low
among the general population in Nepal, estimated at 0.12% in the adult population age 15 and
above, with an incidence of 0.02%. The HIV epidemic in Nepal remains largely concentrated among key
populations (men who have sex with men and transgender people, people who inject drugs, sex workers
and their clients, and male labor migrants and their wives) (Ministry of Health and Population 2022d). The
national HIV response in Nepal will benefit from the data derived from this survey in terms of HIV policy
and programming, and this information will help track progress towards Nepal’s commitment to achieving
the 95–95–95 targets by 2026 as laid out in the National HIV Strategic Plan 2021–2026.

13.1 KNOWLEDGE OF HIV OR AIDS

Eighty percent of women and 96% of men have heard of HIV or AIDS (Table 13.1). Although knowledge
of HIV or AIDS is fairly uniform among men, there are variations among women. This pattern has been
observed since 2001.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women age 15–49 in urban areas are more likely to have heard of HIV or AIDS than those in rural
areas (82% versus 77%).

▪ Knowledge on HIV or AIDS ranges from a high of 95% among women from the Brahmin/Chhetri
ethnic group to a low of 33% among women from the Muslim group.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 341

 ▪ Only 44% of women in Madhesh Province have heard of HIV or AIDS, as compared with 97% of
women in Gandaki Province.

▪ Knowledge on HIV or AIDS increases with increasing education. Only 54% of women and 82% of men
with no education have heard about HIV or AIDS, compared with almost all women and men with
more than a secondary education (more than 99%).

13.2 KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES ABOUT MEDICINES TO TREAT OR PREVENT HIV

Antiretroviral medicines, or ARVs, are a powerful Figure 13.1 Knowledge of medicines to
tool in the fight against HIV. ARVs are taken by treat HIV or prevent HIV transmission
people living with HIV to keep them healthy by Percentage of women and men
preventing the virus from progressing to AIDS and to age 15–49 who:
help them live a normal life. By taking ARVs, Women
individuals living with HIV also greatly reduce the Men
risk of passing the virus on to others. Women living 26
with HIV who take ARVs during pregnancy and Heard that ARVs
treat HIV
breastfeeding reduce the chances of passing the virus
37
on to their children. In addition, people who are HIV
negative can take ARVs to reduce their chances of
acquiring HIV. This is called preexposure
prophylaxis, or PrEP. People with occupational
exposure to HIV can also take ARV drugs, which is Know that the risk of 37
called postexposure prophylaxis (PEP). Knowledge MTCT can be
reduced by mother
about and positive attitudes towards these treatment taking special drugs 33
and prevention measures help promote their use and
prevent transmission of HIV.

More men (37%) than women (26%) age 15–49 have

Figure 13.2 Trends in knowledge of
heard of ARVs that treat HIV, whereas more women
mother-to-child transmission (MTCT)
(37%) than men (33%) know that the risk of mother-
to-child transmission (MTCT) can be reduced by the Percentage of women and men
age 15–49 who know that the risk of
mother taking special drugs (Table 13.2 and Figure MTCT can be reduced by mother taking
13.1). special drugs

Thirty-seven percent of men and 47% of women

know all three means (during pregnancy, during
delivery, and during breastfeeding) through which 44 Women
44 37
HIV can be transmitted from a mother to her child
(Table 13.3). 35 36 Men 33

Trends: The percentage of women age 15–49 who

know that the risk of MTCT can be reduced by the
2011 NDHS 2016 NDHS 2022 NDHS
mother taking special drugs increased from 35% in
2011 to 44% in 2016 before decreasing to 37% in 2022. Among men, the proportion decreased from 44%
in 2011 to 36% in 2016 and 33% in 2022 (Figure 13.2). The proportion of respondents who know all three
means through which HIV can be transmitted from a mother to her child decreased from 55% in 2011 to
47% in 2022 among women and from 52% in 2011 to 37% in 2022 among men.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentages of women who have heard of ARVs that treat HIV and who know that the risk of
MTCT can be reduced by the mother taking special drugs are lowest in Madhesh Province (10% and
15%, respectively) and highest in Sudurpashchim Province (48% and 51%, respectively) (Table 13.2).

342 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

▪ Knowledge that ARVs can treat HIV and that MTCT can be reduced by the mother taking special
drugs increases with increasing education. For instance, only 14% of women and 29% of men with no
education have heard of ARVs, as compared with 60% of women and 64% of men with more than a
secondary education.

▪ Women age 15–19 are least likely to have heard of ARVs (18%) and also less likely to know that the
risk of MTCT can be reduced by the mother taking special drugs (35%) (Table 13.2). However, a
higher proportion of women in this age group (54%) than in other age groups know all three means
through which HIV can be transmitted by a mother to her child (during pregnancy, during delivery,
and during breastfeeding) (Table 13.3).

13.3 DISCRIMINATORY ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV

Widespread stigma and discrimination in a population can adversely affect both people’s willingness to be
tested and their adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART). Thus, reduction of stigma and discrimination in
a population is an important indicator of the success of programs targeting HIV prevention and control.

Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV

Women and men were asked two questions to assess discriminatory attitudes
towards people living with HIV. Respondents with discriminatory attitudes
towards people living with HIV are those who say that they would not buy fresh
vegetables from a shopkeeper or vendor if they knew that person had HIV or
who say that children living with HIV should not be allowed to attend school
with children who do not have HIV.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49 who have heard of HIV or AIDS

Fifty-one percent of women who have heard of HIV or AIDS expressed discriminatory attitudes towards
people living with HIV, as compared with 42% of men (Table 13.4).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Rural women (61%) and men (49%) are more likely to have discriminatory attitudes towards people
living with HIV than urban women (47%) and men (39%).

▪ Discriminatory attitudes are more common among women and men in Madhesh Province (70% and
68%, respectively) than in the other provinces.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 343

 ▪ Women and men with no Figure 13.3 Discriminatory attitudes towards people
education are most likely to living with HIV by education
have discriminatory attitudes Percentage among women and men age 15–49 who
(72% and 75%, respectively), have heard of HIV
while those with more than a
Women Men
secondary education are least
likely to have such attitudes 72 75
(17% and 13%, respectively)
58 54
(Figure 13.3).
43
▪ The percentage of women who 33
have discriminatory attitudes 17 13
towards people living with HIV
decreases with increasing
household wealth, from 69% No education Basic education Secondary More than
(1–8) (9–12) secondary
among those in the lowest (13 and above)
wealth quintile to 32% among
Note: Respondents have discriminatory attitudes if they do not think that children living
those in the highest quintile. with HIV should be able to attend school with children who are HIV negative or would not
However, the pattern among buy fresh vegetables from a shopkeeper who has HIV.

men is not as distinct (Table 13.4).

13.4 MULTIPLE SEXUAL PARTNERS

Three percent of men had two or Figure 13.4 Sex and condom use with
more sexual partners in the last 12 noncohabiting partners
months, and 29% of them used a Percentage of men age 15–49
condom during their last sexual
intercourse (Table 13.5). Nine
percent of men had intercourse in 70
the last 12 months with a person
who neither was their wife nor lived
with them, and 70% used a condom
during their last sexual intercourse
with such a partner (Figure 13.4).
The mean lifetime number of sexual 9
partners among men is 2.5.
Had sex in the last 12 months Among those who had sex with a
Patterns by background with a person who neither was noncohabiting partner, percentage
characteristics their wife nor lived with them who used a condom during last sex
(noncohabiting partner) with a noncohabiting partner
▪ Three percent of men with
more than a secondary education had two or more partners in the last 12 months, as compared with 1%
of men with no education. Similarly, 12% each of men with a secondary education and more than a
secondary education had sexual intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their
wife nor lived with them, compared with 2% of those with no education (Table 13.5).

▪ The percentage of men with two or more partners in the last 12 months who reporting using a condom
during their last sexual intercourse is higher in urban (34%) than rural (12%) areas.

▪ Men in the highest wealth quintile (12%) are more likely to have had sexual intercourse in the last 12
months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them than those in the lowest wealth
quintile (6%).

344 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

13.5 COVERAGE OF HIV TESTING SERVICES
HIV testing programs diagnose people living with HIV so that they can be linked to care and access
antiretroviral therapy (ART). Knowledge of HIV status helps HIV-negative individuals reduce their risk
and remain disease free.

13.5.1 Provision of Information and HIV Testing of Pregnant Women

Women attending antenatal care (ANC) clinics should be provided information on mother-to-child
transmission of HIV, ways to prevent HIV, and the need to get tested for HIV. Only 6% of women
reported that they were provided all three types of key information during their ANC visit (Table 13.6).
The percentages of women provided the three types of information were highest in Sudurpashchim
Province (11%) and Lumbini Province (9%) and lowest in Madhesh Province (2%) and Koshi Province
(5%).

Only 20% of women who gave birth in the 2 years preceding the survey had an HIV test during ANC and
received the test results (Table 13.7). Similarly, 22% of women who were tested for HIV during either
ANC or labor had an HIV test and received the results.

Muslim women (6%) who had an HIV test during ANC were less likely to received their test results than
women in the other ethnic groups; Brahmin/Chhetri women most often received their test results (31%).
Women with more than a secondary education (52%) were more likely to receive their HIV test results
than those with no education (5%).

13.5.2 Experience with Prior HIV Testing

Ten percent of women and 13% of men have ever Figure 13.5 HIV testing
been tested for HIV, and almost all of these Percentage of women and men
respondents received their test results (Table 13.8.1 age 15–49
and Table 13.8.2). Only 3% of women and 2% of Women Men
men were tested for HIV in the 12 months preceding
the survey and received the results of the last test
(Figure 13.5). Six percent of women and 7% of men
had been tested for HIV only once in their lifetime
(Table 13.9).
10 13
3 2

Ever tested for HIV and Tested in 12 months

received the result before the survey and
received the result

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 345

 Trends: The percentage of men who have ever been Figure 13.6 Trends in HIV testing
tested for HIV and received the results decreased Percentage of women and men age
from 20% in 2016 to 13% in 2022. Among women, 15–49 who have ever been tested for HIV
the percentage was 10% in both 2016 and 2022 and received the results
(Figure 13.6). Over the same period, the percentage
of respondents who were tested for HIV in the last 12
months and received the results decreased from 8%
to 2% among men and from 4% to 3% among
women.

Patterns by background characteristics 20

14 Men 13

▪ Women and men from the Brahmin/Chhetri 10 Women 10

ethnic group are more likely to have ever been 2011 NDHS 2016 NDHS 2022 NDHS
tested for HIV and to have received the results
(15% and 16%, respectively) than those from other groups. Only 3% of Muslim women have ever been
tested for HIV and received results (Table 13.8.1 and Table 13.8.2).

▪ The percentage of men who have ever been tested for HIV and received the results ranges from 8% in
Madhesh Province to 19% in Gandaki Province. Among women, the proportion ranges from 4% in
Madhesh Province to 15% in Bagmati Province (Table 13.8.1 and Table 13.8.2).

▪ The percentage of women who Figure 13.7 HIV testing by education

have ever been tested for HIV Percentage of women and men age
and received the results of the 15–49 who have ever been tested for HIV
last test is highest among those and received results
with more than a secondary No Basic Secondary More than
education and lowest among education education (9–12) secondary
those with no education (33% (1–8) (13 and above)
and 3%, respectively). The
corresponding figures among
men are 24% and 4%, 33
respectively (Figure 13.7). 24
14 14
Knowledge and Coverage of 8 10
3 4
Self-testing
Women Men
Six percent of women and 9% of
men have ever heard of HIV self-test kits. However, less than 1% of both men and women have used an
HIV self-test kit (Table 13.10).

Women and men with more than a secondary education are more likely to have heard about HIV self-test
kits (20% and 21%, respectively) than those with no education (2% each). Only 3% of women from
Madhesh Province have heard of HIV self-test kits, as compared with 11% of those from Bagmati
Province (Table 13.10).

13.6 SELF-REPORTING OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and symptoms

Respondents who have ever had sex were asked whether they had an STI or
symptoms of an STI (a bad-smelling, abnormal discharge from the
vagina/penis or a genital sore or ulcer) in the 12 months before the survey.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49 who have ever had sex

346 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Twenty-five percent of women and 10% of men who had ever had sexual intercourse reported having had
a sexually transmitted infection (STI) and/or STI symptoms in the 12 months preceding the survey (Table
13.11).

The percentage of women who reported having had an STI and/or symptoms of an STI is higher (34%)
among those who have never been married than among those who are currently married (25%) or divorced,
separated, or widowed (22%). Men who have never been married were more likely to report STIs and/or
STI symptoms (14%) than men who are currently married (9%).

13.7 KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOR RELATED TO HIV AND AIDS AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE
This section addresses HIV-related knowledge among young people age 15–24 and also assesses the extent
to which young people engage in behaviors that may place them at risk of contracting HIV.

13.7.1 Knowledge about HIV Prevention

Knowledge about HIV prevention

Knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having
just one uninfected faithful partner can reduce the chances of getting HIV,
knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two major
misconceptions about HIV transmission: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito
bites and a person can become infected by sharing food with a person who
has HIV.
Sample: Women and men age 15–24

Knowledge of how HIV is transmitted is crucial in enabling people to avoid HIV infections, and this is
especially true for young people, who are often at greater risk because they may have shorter relationships
with more partners or engage in other risky behaviors.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 347

 Only 16% of women and 27% of Figure 13.8 Knowledge about HIV prevention among
men age 15–24 are knowledgeable young people
about HIV prevention (Table Percentage of women and men age 15–24 with
13.12.1, Table 13.12.2, and Figure specified knowledge
Women
13.8).
Men
Patterns by background HIV risk is reduced by using a 65
characteristics condom every time they have sex 88

▪ Knowledge about HIV HIV risk is reduced by having sex 69

prevention is lower among with only one uninfected partner
who has no other partners 85
young women who have ever
been married than among those
A healthy-looking person can 65
who have never been married
have HIV 77
(12% and 19%, respectively).

▪ Knowledge about HIV HIV cannot be transmitted by 32

mosquito bites 46
prevention is lowest among
young women from the Muslim
A person cannot get HIV by 44
(3%) ethnic group, followed by sharing food with a person who
those from the Madhesi (7%) has HIV 59
group. In the case of young
men, knowledge about HIV Have knowledge about HIV 16
prevention is lowest among prevention 27
those in the Madhesi (15%) and
Dalit (17%) groups.

▪ Among young women, knowledge about HIV prevention increases with increasing education. Only
2% of young women with no education have knowledge about HIV prevention, as compared with 48%
of those with more than a secondary education.

13.7.2 First Sex

Young people who have sex at an early age are typically at higher risk of becoming pregnant or
contracting an STI than young people who have sex later. Consistent condom use can reduce such risks.
Four percent of women and 2% of men age 15–24 had sexual intercourse before age 15. A higher
percentage of young women (32%) than young men (18%) age 18–24 had sexual intercourse before age 18
(Table 13.13).

348 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Trends: The proportion of women age 15–24 who Figure 13.9 Trends in age at first sexual
had sexual intercourse before age 15 decreased from intercourse among young people
24% in 1996 to 4% in 2022. The proportion among Percentage who had first sexual
young men decreased from 11% in 2001 to 2% in intercourse by age 15
2022 (Figure 13.9).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Eleven percent of young women with no 24

education had their first sexual intercourse 18
Women age
before age 15, while no young women with more 15–24
Men age 8 7
than a secondary education had sex before that 15–24 11 5 4
age. 4 3 3 2
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2022
▪ The percentages of women and men age 18–24 NFHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS NDHS
who had their first sexual intercourse before age
18 are higher in rural areas (36% and 28%, respectively) than in urban areas (30% and 15%,
respectively).

13.7.3 Premarital Sex

Ninety-eight percent of never-married women and 75% of never-married men age 15–24 have never had
sexual intercourse. Overall, more men (25%) engaged in premarital sex than women (2%) (Table 13.14).

Trends: The proportion of never-married young women who have had premarital sexual intercourse has
increased slightly over time, from less than 1% in 2006 to 1% in 2016 and to 2% in 2022, while the
proportion among never-married young men increased from 17% in 2006 to 22% in 2011 and has
remained unchanged at 25% since 2016.

13.7.4 Multiple Sexual Partners

Three percent of men age 15–24 had two or more partners in the last 12 months, and 15% had sex with a
person who neither was their wife nor lived with them. Seventy-two percent of young men used a condom
during their last sexual intercourse with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them (Table
13.15).

13.7.5 Recent HIV Testing

Seeking an HIV test may be more difficult for young people than adults because many young people lack
experience in accessing health services for themselves and because there are often barriers to young people
obtaining services.

Six percent of women and 3% of men age 15–24 who had sex in the 12 months preceding the survey were
tested for HIV and received the results of the last test (Table 13.16).

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 349

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to HIV and AIDS, see the following
tables:

▪ Table 13.1 Knowledge of HIV or AIDS

▪ Table 13.2 Knowledge of and attitudes about medicines to treat HIV or prevent HIV
transmission
▪ Table 13.3 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV
▪ Table 13.4 Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV
▪ Table 13.5 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months:
Men
▪ Table 13.6 Information on HIV provided during antenatal care visits
▪ Table 13.7 Pregnant women tested for HIV
▪ Table 13.8.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women
▪ Table 13.8.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men
▪ Table 13.9 Number of times tested for HIV in lifetime
▪ Table 13.10 Knowledge and coverage of self-testing for HIV
▪ Table 13.11 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI
symptoms
▪ Table 13.12.1 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Women
▪ Table 13.12.2 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Men
▪ Table 13.13 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people
▪ Table 13.14 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people
▪ Table 13.15 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months
among young people: Men
▪ Table 13.16 Recent HIV tests among young people

350 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.1 Knowledge of HIV or AIDS
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have heard of HIV or AIDS, by background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Background Has heard of Number of Has heard of Number of
characteristic HIV or AIDS women HIV or AIDS men
Age
15–24 80.2 5,280 94.7 1,842
15–19 78.0 2,643 93.7 985
20–24 82.3 2,637 95.8 857
25–29 83.0 2,435 97.0 716
30–39 81.6 4,169 98.1 1,255
40–49 76.8 2,961 94.9 1,100
Marital status
Never married 86.7 3,203 95.2 1,768
Ever had sex 97.1 84 98.9 539
Never had sex 86.4 3,120 93.6 1,229
Married/living together 78.5 11,180 96.4 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed 82.2 462 (93.5) 44
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 94.9 4,152 98.5 1,232
Dalit 69.5 2,240 92.5 658
Janajati 91.2 5,428 97.3 1,869
Madhesi 53.2 2,333 92.9 917
Muslim 33.0 676 93.1 228
Other * 15 * 8
Residence
Urban 81.7 10,178 96.6 3,462
Rural 77.3 4,667 94.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 84.9 791 92.3 255
Hill 94.7 5,872 98.3 1,973
Terai 69.6 8,182 94.5 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 84.9 2,493 95.6 882
Urban 87.5 1,640 96.6 604
Rural 79.9 853 93.4 278
Madhesh Province 43.7 3,010 90.4 997
Urban 41.9 2,226 91.0 722
Rural 48.8 783 89.0 275
Bagmati Province 94.5 3,062 98.4 1,214
Urban 96.6 2,464 98.8 1,016
Rural 86.2 599 96.5 198
Gandaki Province 96.5 1,401 98.9 387
Urban 97.6 992 99.6 264
Rural 94.1 409 97.2 123
Lumbini Province 85.3 2,691 97.2 812
Urban 90.2 1,553 97.2 468
Rural 78.6 1,138 97.2 344
Karnali Province 84.5 909 97.3 266
Urban 89.8 507 99.2 154
Rural 77.8 402 94.8 113
Sudurpashchim Province 92.6 1,279 96.9 355
Urban 93.9 796 97.8 233
Rural 90.5 484 95.2 122
Education
No education 54.1 3,796 81.7 393
Basic education (1–8) 78.1 4,595 94.2 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 72.5 2,314 92.8 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 83.7 2,281 95.5 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 97.1 5,798 99.3 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 95.4 3,270 98.9 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 99.2 2,529 99.7 959
More than secondary (13 and above) 99.7 656 99.6 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 77.3 2,628 91.2 751
Second 68.6 2,857 93.5 933
Middle 74.4 3,028 95.4 957
Fourth 83.7 3,197 98.4 1,135
Highest 95.9 3,135 99.1 1,137
Total 80.3 14,845 95.9 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 351

 Table 13.2 Knowledge of and attitudes about medicines to treat HIV or prevent HIV transmission
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have heard of antiretroviral medicines (ARVs) that treat
HIV and percentage who know that the risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV can be reduced
by the mother taking special drugs, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
know that the risk
Percentage who of MTCT can be
have heard of reduced by mother
Background ARVs that taking special Number of
characteristic treat HIV drugs respondents
WOMEN

Age
15–24 21.1 36.3 5,280
15–19 17.5 35.1 2,643
20–24 24.6 37.4 2,637
25–29 28.9 37.2 2,435
30–39 31.8 38.2 4,169
40–49 25.6 34.6 2,961
Marital status
Never married 23.1 38.7 3,203
Ever had sex 29.2 44.8 84
Never had sex 22.9 38.5 3,120
Married/living together 27.2 36.0 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 26.7 38.0 462
Residence
Urban 28.0 38.2 10,178
Rural 22.5 33.1 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 24.0 49.8 791
Hill 28.2 43.0 5,872
Terai 25.1 30.8 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 17.6 43.4 2,493
Urban 18.7 43.8 1,640
Rural 15.7 42.4 853
Madhesh Province 10.1 15.4 3,010
Urban 10.0 14.8 2,226
Rural 10.3 16.9 783
Bagmati Province 32.0 41.2 3,062
Urban 35.4 44.2 2,464
Rural 18.3 28.6 599
Gandaki Province 29.6 43.5 1,401
Urban 30.3 45.3 992
Rural 27.8 39.2 409
Lumbini Province 34.6 36.2 2,691
Urban 38.1 42.3 1,553
Rural 29.7 27.8 1,138
Karnali Province 23.5 42.9 909
Urban 28.9 44.9 507
Rural 16.8 40.4 402
Sudurpashchim Province 48.0 51.4 1,279
Urban 50.9 52.3 796
Rural 43.3 49.9 484
Education
No education 13.5 22.2 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 21.6 35.0 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 20.3 31.7 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 22.9 38.4 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 34.5 45.6 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 30.8 44.9 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 39.4 46.5 2,529
More than secondary (13 and above) 59.7 51.9 656
Total 26.3 36.6 14,845

(Continued…)

352 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.2—Continued
Percentage who
know that the risk
Percentage who of MTCT can be
have heard of reduced by mother
Background ARVs that taking special Number of
characteristic treat HIV drugs respondents
MEN
Age
15–24 24.6 30.2 1,842
15–19 19.1 28.5 985
20–24 30.9 32.1 857
25–29 41.0 36.4 716
30–39 45.4 36.9 1,255
40–49 44.2 32.4 1,100
Marital status
Never married 27.5 31.8 1,768
Ever had sex 34.0 37.1 539
Never had sex 24.6 29.4 1,229
Married/living together 41.8 34.2 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed (47.6) (34.2) 44
Residence
Urban 36.7 31.9 3,462
Rural 36.6 36.7 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 20.2 23.2 255
Hill 34.9 30.3 1,973
Terai 39.6 36.5 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 35.5 34.6 882
Urban 38.4 34.0 604
Rural 29.3 36.1 278
Madhesh Province 34.0 40.5 997
Urban 33.5 40.0 722
Rural 35.2 42.0 275
Bagmati Province 31.6 22.9 1,214
Urban 32.6 23.0 1,016
Rural 26.3 22.4 198
Gandaki Province 32.0 35.4 387
Urban 34.8 33.7 264
Rural 25.8 39.2 123
Lumbini Province 52.0 35.8 812
Urban 49.6 34.7 468
Rural 55.3 37.2 344
Karnali Province 36.3 32.2 266
Urban 36.4 31.0 154
Rural 36.2 33.7 113
Sudurpashchim Province 35.1 38.2 355
Urban 37.1 33.2 233
Rural 31.2 47.8 122
Education
No education 28.7 30.2 393
Basic education (1–8) 29.4 31.5 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 28.1 32.7 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 30.7 30.4 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 39.7 35.0 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 38.5 36.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 41.2 33.6 959
More than secondary (13 and above) 63.8 35.7 377
Total 36.7 33.3 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 353

 Table 13.3 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV
Among women and men age 15–49 who have heard of HIV or AIDS, percentage who know that HIV can be
transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy, during delivery, by breastfeeding, and by all three means,
according to age, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who knows that HIV can be transmitted from
mother to child:
During During By breast- By all three Number of
Age pregnancy delivery feeding means respondents
WOMEN

15–24 82.2 76.3 56.2 50.5 4,232

15–19 82.9 77.6 59.9 54.0 2,062
20–24 81.5 75.2 52.8 47.2 2,170
25–29 78.4 73.0 49.4 42.4 2,021
30–39 79.2 74.5 51.5 45.3 3,401
40–49 80.1 75.6 54.7 49.4 2,274
Total 80.3 75.1 53.4 47.4 11,927
MEN
15–24 76.7 71.1 44.0 36.6 1,744
15–19 77.8 72.2 46.4 38.9 923
20–24 75.4 69.8 41.3 34.0 821
25–29 78.5 74.0 43.9 37.3 695
30–39 77.4 73.2 39.2 33.8 1,230
40–49 80.8 75.4 45.0 39.5 1,044
Total 78.1 73.0 43.0 36.6 4,714

354 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.4 Discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV
Among women and men age 15–49 who have heard of HIV or AIDS, percentage who do not think that children living with HIV should be able to attend
school with children who are HIV negative, percentage who would not buy fresh vegetables from a shopkeeper who has HIV, and percentage with
discriminatory attitudes towards people living with HIV, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Percentage Percentage
who do not who do not
think that think that
children living children living
with HIV Percentage Percentage with HIV Percentage Percentage
should be who would with should be who would with
able to attend not buy fresh discriminatory able to attend not buy fresh discriminatory
school with vegetables attitudes Number of school with vegetables attitudes Number of
children who from a towards women who children who from a towards men who
Background are HIV shopkeeper people living have heard of are HIV shopkeeper people living have heard of
1 1
characteristic negative who has HIV with HIV HIV or AIDS negative who has HIV with HIV HIV or AIDS
Age
15–24 38.1 50.2 54.9 4,232 28.1 41.7 46.4 1,744
15–19 39.1 54.5 58.6 2,062 29.0 47.2 51.4 923
20–24 37.2 46.0 51.4 2,170 27.0 35.4 40.8 821
25–29 36.1 43.6 47.5 2,021 34.4 38.1 42.7 695
30–39 36.0 42.3 46.2 3,401 27.8 32.2 36.0 1,230
40–49 42.2 49.5 54.1 2,274 31.4 37.0 41.5 1,044
Marital status
Never married 30.8 45.1 49.0 2,776 25.2 36.7 42.0 1,684
Ever had sex 27.7 34.9 40.1 81 21.6 31.4 36.7 533
Never had sex 30.9 45.4 49.3 2,695 26.9 39.2 44.5 1,151
Married/living together 40.1 47.3 51.7 8,771 32.2 38.2 42.2 2,989
Divorced/separated/widowed 41.0 43.8 49.3 380 (29.4) (32.5) (37.8) 41
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 31.6 40.7 44.4 3,942 15.6 24.2 27.8 1,214
Dalit 45.4 54.1 59.1 1,556 39.9 49.4 54.8 609
Janajati 35.5 44.0 48.8 4,951 22.7 29.2 33.5 1,819
Madhesi 53.9 62.8 66.7 1,241 50.8 59.6 64.3 852
Muslim 65.1 69.2 73.2 223 56.1 63.4 71.1 213
Other * * * 13 * * * 8
Residence
Urban 33.6 42.7 46.8 8,318 27.6 34.7 39.1 3,343
Rural 48.1 55.9 60.7 3,609 34.7 44.7 49.4 1,371
Ecological zone
Mountain 50.2 54.8 60.4 672 31.0 35.7 42.3 235
Hill 34.9 43.8 48.3 5,561 17.2 26.6 30.2 1,940
Terai 39.5 48.6 52.5 5,695 39.0 46.2 51.2 2,538
Province
Koshi Province 40.6 47.6 52.5 2,117 24.7 33.4 37.4 843
Urban 39.4 45.9 51.2 1,435 25.0 32.1 36.0 584
Rural 42.9 51.0 55.3 682 23.9 36.1 40.4 259
Madhesh Province 57.2 66.0 69.7 1,314 57.3 63.1 68.4 902
Urban 56.9 65.5 69.0 932 57.0 62.4 68.0 657
Rural 57.9 67.3 71.4 382 58.2 64.9 69.5 245
Bagmati Province 26.8 34.6 38.8 2,895 17.8 25.6 29.4 1,195
Urban 21.5 29.8 33.6 2,379 16.2 23.7 27.6 1,003
Rural 51.4 56.9 62.9 516 26.1 35.8 38.9 191
Gandaki Province 28.4 41.0 45.0 1,353 15.1 23.1 26.2 383
Urban 24.6 37.6 41.2 968 13.6 18.7 21.8 263
Rural 37.8 49.5 54.5 385 18.4 33.0 35.8 120
Lumbini Province 37.2 46.3 50.6 2,295 29.7 37.5 42.9 789
Urban 32.9 42.5 46.7 1,401 25.9 31.2 36.8 455
Rural 43.9 52.1 56.7 894 34.8 46.2 51.3 334
Karnali Province 49.0 56.9 62.8 768 31.0 40.0 46.4 259
Urban 42.6 52.6 58.3 455 23.6 32.7 38.7 152
Rural 58.4 63.2 69.5 313 41.5 50.3 57.4 107
Sudurpashchim Province 44.4 54.1 57.5 1,185 25.8 37.8 40.8 344
Urban 38.8 50.2 53.5 748 22.1 37.4 38.6 228
Rural 53.9 60.6 64.3 438 32.9 38.5 45.2 116
Education
No education 60.8 66.1 71.9 2,055 64.5 69.6 75.1 321
Basic education (1–8) 44.2 52.9 57.7 3,588 40.1 49.0 54.1 1,789
Lower basic education (1–5) 48.5 55.2 61.1 1,678 43.2 51.8 57.3 827
Upper basic education (6–8) 40.4 50.9 54.8 1,910 37.4 46.7 51.4 962
Secondary (9–12) 28.7 39.5 43.1 5,630 20.0 28.5 32.5 2,228
Lower secondary (9–10) 34.5 45.0 48.7 3,121 23.1 32.4 35.2 1,271
Higher secondary (11–12) 21.6 32.7 36.0 2,509 16.0 23.3 28.9 957
More than secondary (13 and
above) 11.1 13.3 17.0 654 7.5 10.0 13.1 376

(Continued…)

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 355

 Table 13.4—Continued
Women Men
Percentage Percentage
who do not who do not
think that think that
children living children living
with HIV Percentage Percentage with HIV Percentage Percentage
should be who would with should be who would with
able to attend not buy fresh discriminatory able to attend not buy fresh discriminatory
school with vegetables attitudes Number of school with vegetables attitudes Number of
children who from a towards women who children who from a towards men who
Background are HIV shopkeeper people living have heard of are HIV shopkeeper people living have heard of
1 1
characteristic negative who has HIV with HIV HIV or AIDS negative who has HIV with HIV HIV or AIDS
Wealth quintile
Lowest 57.3 62.9 68.7 2,032 34.4 45.2 50.3 685
Second 48.2 56.6 62.4 1,960 38.5 46.0 51.1 872
Middle 41.8 51.0 55.3 2,253 39.6 47.0 52.0 914
Fourth 33.0 43.5 46.6 2,675 27.0 35.0 39.1 1,117
Highest 19.7 28.9 32.3 3,007 14.7 21.6 25.0 1,126
Total 38.0 46.7 51.0 11,927 29.7 37.6 42.1 4,714

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and
has been suppressed.
1
Percentage who do not think that children living with HIV should be able to attend school with children who are HIV negative and/or would not buy fresh
vegetables from a shopkeeper who has HIV

356 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.5 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months: Men
Among all men age 15–49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage who had intercourse in the last 12
months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them; among men having more than one partner in the last 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was
used during last intercourse; among men who had sexual intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them, percentage who used
a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner; and among men who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Men who had intercourse
in the last 12 months with
a person who neither was
Men who had 2+ partners their wife nor lived Men who ever had sexual
All men in the last 12 months with them intercourse1
Percentage
who had Percentage
intercourse in who reported
the last 12 Percentage using a
months with who reported condom
Percentage a person who using a during last
who had neither was condom sexual Mean number
2+ partners their wife nor during last intercourse of sexual
Background in the last lived with Number of sexual inter- Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
characteristic 12 months them men course men partner men lifetime men
Age
15–24 2.8 15.1 1,842 (41.3) 51 72.0 278 2.6 721
15–19 1.6 10.1 985 * 16 69.0 99 1.9 185
20–24 4.1 20.9 857 (51.0) 35 73.6 179 2.8 536
25–29 4.4 13.4 716 (31.5) 32 69.1 96 2.6 643
30–39 2.3 3.4 1,255 (19.6) 29 (74.4) 43 2.7 1,222
40–49 1.9 1.6 1,100 * 20 * 18 2.4 1,089
Marital status
Never married 2.9 20.2 1,768 (55.7) 52 72.6 358 3.5 537
Married or living together 2.5 2.3 3,101 10.1 78 61.5 70 2.4 3,095
Divorced/separated/widowed (4.6) (15.5) 44 * 2 * 7 (3.2) 43
Type of union
In polygynous union (31.0) (4.6) 39 * 12 * 2 (4.0) 39
In nonpolygynous union 2.2 2.2 3,063 10.6 66 61.8 69 2.4 3,056
Not currently in union 3.0 20.1 1,812 (55.3) 54 71.9 364 3.4 580
Residence
Urban 2.9 9.1 3,462 33.9 99 70.4 317 2.7 2,540
Rural 2.3 8.1 1,451 12.4 33 69.9 118 2.2 1,135
Ecological zone
Mountain 3.9 10.6 255 * 10 (65.5) 27 3.2 212
Hill 2.5 10.3 1,973 (20.6) 50 72.9 203 2.9 1,467
Terai 2.7 7.6 2,685 37.0 72 68.3 204 2.2 1,996
Province
Koshi Province 1.9 6.7 882 * 17 58.5 59 2.1 652
Urban 2.2 6.5 604 * 13 (55.5) 39 2.1 449
Rural 1.3 7.1 278 * 4 (64.4) 20 2.1 203
Madhesh Province 1.7 4.8 997 * 17 (70.0) 48 1.7 699
Urban 1.7 5.0 722 * 13 * 36 1.5 504
Rural 1.8 4.2 275 * 5 * 12 2.0 196
Bagmati Province 3.2 11.8 1,214 * 39 74.2 143 3.9 873
Urban 3.6 13.2 1,016 * 36 76.3 134 4.2 711
Rural 1.1 4.6 198 * 2 * 9 2.3 162
Gandaki Province 3.3 11.4 387 * 13 73.2 44 2.6 317
Urban 3.3 10.8 264 * 9 (68.0) 29 2.6 216
Rural 3.4 12.7 123 * 4 (82.5) 16 2.5 101
Lumbini Province 3.1 10.3 812 * 25 66.5 84 2.3 647
Urban 2.8 9.0 468 * 13 (66.3) 42 2.4 365
Rural 3.5 12.2 344 * 12 (66.6) 42 2.2 282
Karnali Province 3.4 9.1 266 * 9 76.3 24 2.6 221
Urban 4.1 9.5 154 * 6 (69.9) 15 2.5 127
Rural 2.5 8.5 113 * 3 * 10 2.6 95
Sudurpashchim Province 3.3 9.1 355 * 12 75.4 32 2.3 266
Urban 3.8 9.3 233 * 9 (68.2) 22 2.4 169
Rural 2.5 8.8 122 * 3 * 11 2.1 97
Education
No education 0.8 2.3 393 * 3 * 9 1.6 370
Basic education (1–8) 2.5 5.5 1,898 (17.5) 47 62.3 103 2.7 1,528
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.9 4.4 891 * 17 (69.3) 39 2.4 815
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.0 6.4 1,007 (16.1) 30 58.0 64 3.0 713
Secondary (9–12) 3.1 12.3 2,244 35.3 70 71.6 277 2.7 1,469
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.7 8.7 1,284 (31.0) 35 60.8 111 2.7 868
Higher secondary (11–12) 3.7 17.3 959 (39.5) 36 78.9 166 2.7 601
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.1 11.9 377 * 12 (75.8) 45 2.3 307

(Continued…)

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 357

Table 13.5—Continued
Men who had intercourse
in the last 12 months with
a person who neither was
Men who had 2+ partners their wife nor lived Men who ever had sexual
All men in the last 12 months with them intercourse1
Percentage
who had Percentage
intercourse in who reported
the last 12 Percentage using a
months with who reported condom
Percentage a person who using a during last
who had neither was condom sexual Mean number
2+ partners their wife nor during last intercourse of sexual
Background in the last lived with Number of sexual inter- Number of with such a Number of partners in Number of
characteristic 12 months them men course men partner men lifetime men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.5 6.4 751 * 12 69.2 48 2.2 593
Second 2.5 8.3 933 (27.8) 23 63.3 77 2.5 722
Middle 2.4 6.7 957 (33.5) 23 71.6 64 2.3 724
Fourth 3.3 10.0 1,135 (22.8) 37 65.5 113 2.6 829
Highest 3.3 11.7 1,137 (37.5) 37 78.0 133 3.0 808
Total 2.7 8.8 4,913 28.5 132 70.2 435 2.5 3,675

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses.

358 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.6 Information on HIV provided during antenatal care visits
Among women age 15–49 who received antenatal care for their last live birth, percentage who were provided
information on HIV, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
Percentage who were provided information on HIV during women who
antenatal care visits: received
Babies can antenatal care
Background get HIV from Ways to Need to get All three types for their last
characteristic their mother prevent HIV tested for HIV of information live birth
Age
15–24 7.5 7.3 10.6 4.9 1,267
15–19 5.7 4.8 8.1 2.5 232
20–24 7.9 7.9 11.1 5.4 1,035
25–29 10.3 10.3 14.8 8.2 861
30–39 8.6 8.3 13.3 6.2 612
40–49 (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) 31
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 12.6 12.4 20.6 9.3 711
Dalit 7.8 7.4 8.9 4.9 484
Janajati 8.5 7.8 11.9 5.9 867
Madhesi 6.2 7.2 8.4 5.3 530
Muslim 1.8 2.2 2.9 1.8 177
Other * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 8.4 8.2 12.9 5.9 1,816
Rural 9.0 8.9 11.4 6.7 955
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.9 11.8 16.0 9.4 185
Hill 10.3 9.9 15.1 7.8 952
Terai 7.3 7.2 10.4 4.9 1,634
Province
Koshi Province 7.8 6.6 10.3 5.1 484
Urban 8.6 6.4 11.0 5.3 311
Rural 6.3 6.9 9.0 4.6 173
Madhesh Province 2.7 3.8 5.4 2.1 717
Urban 2.2 4.0 5.8 1.9 538
Rural 4.3 3.3 4.1 2.9 179
Bagmati Province 8.2 7.4 16.4 7.1 446
Urban 9.4 8.3 17.9 7.9 338
Rural 4.4 4.4 11.6 4.4 109
Gandaki Province 12.0 12.6 13.9 8.3 179
Urban 11.4 11.3 13.4 7.2 118
Rural 13.1 15.1 15.0 10.4 60
Lumbini Province 13.1 12.9 17.5 9.3 475
Urban 14.2 14.1 20.0 9.7 254
Rural 11.9 11.5 14.7 8.8 221
Karnali Province 8.5 7.7 10.4 5.7 210
Urban 9.1 8.8 11.9 6.4 98
Rural 8.0 6.7 9.1 5.1 113
Sudurpashchim Province 16.3 15.8 19.8 11.4 259
Urban 14.7 13.2 18.7 9.3 159
Rural 18.8 20.0 21.7 14.8 100
Education
No education 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 523
Basic education (1–8) 5.8 5.1 7.9 3.6 948
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.1 3.9 5.9 2.8 461
Upper basic education (6–8) 7.3 6.2 9.9 4.3 487
Secondary (9–12) 13.1 13.0 18.3 9.9 1,152
Lower secondary (9–10) 11.0 11.7 14.4 8.6 689
Higher secondary (11–12) 16.2 14.8 24.0 11.8 463
More than secondary (13 and
above) 9.4 11.7 26.1 7.8 149
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.9 8.5 10.1 5.7 616
Second 8.1 7.3 8.9 6.0 590
Middle 5.8 5.7 10.7 4.3 574
Fourth 10.1 8.5 12.2 6.2 542
Highest 11.7 13.2 22.5 9.7 448
Total 8.6 8.4 12.4 6.2 2,771

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on
fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 359

 Table 13.7 Pregnant women tested for HIV
Among all women age 15–49 who gave birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who received
an HIV test during antenatal care (ANC) for their most recent birth by whether they received their results and
percentage who received an HIV test during ANC or labor for their most recent birth by whether they received
their results, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who were Percentage who had an
tested for HIV during HIV test during ANC or
antenatal care and who: labor and who:1 Number of
Did not Did not women who
Background Received receive Received receive gave birth in the
characteristic results results results results last 2 years2
Age
15–24 16.3 0.3 17.5 0.4 981
15–19 10.8 0.4 12.0 0.8 213
20–24 17.9 0.2 19.0 0.3 768
25–29 23.3 0.5 24.5 0.3 570
30–39 27.1 1.1 29.7 1.1 362
40–49 * * * * 19
Marital status
Married or living together 20.4 0.5 21.7 0.5 1,918
Divorced/separated/widowed * * * * 15
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 30.5 1.0 32.3 1.2 499
Dalit 12.8 1.0 13.4 0.8 359
Janajati 23.1 0.2 25.8 0.2 588
Madhesi 14.1 0.0 14.4 0.0 354
Muslim 5.6 0.0 5.6 0.0 131
Other * * * * 2
Residence
Urban 22.0 0.5 23.6 0.5 1,266
Rural 17.0 0.5 18.0 0.5 666
Ecological zone
Mountain 18.7 0.5 21.0 0.5 129
Hill 27.2 0.6 29.4 0.6 639
Terai 16.7 0.4 17.6 0.4 1,166
Province
Koshi Province 19.7 0.3 23.0 0.3 358
Urban 21.0 0.0 24.1 0.0 232
Rural 17.3 0.7 21.1 0.7 126
Madhesh Province 9.7 0.0 9.7 0.0 500
Urban 10.7 0.0 10.7 0.0 367
Rural 7.1 0.0 7.1 0.0 132
Bagmati Province 32.8 0.6 35.1 0.6 295
Urban 38.2 0.0 41.4 0.0 216
Rural 17.8 2.4 17.8 2.4 79
Gandaki Province 23.8 2.4 26.3 1.4 117
Urban 24.1 3.7 27.9 2.1 76
Rural 23.4 0.0 23.4 0.0 40
Lumbini Province 25.7 0.4 26.4 0.4 329
Urban 27.2 0.6 27.9 0.6 185
Rural 23.7 0.0 24.4 0.0 145
Karnali Province 12.5 1.6 13.6 2.2 149
Urban 15.7 2.8 17.4 3.6 73
Rural 9.5 0.4 9.9 0.9 76
Sudurpashchim Province 24.2 0.2 25.2 0.3 185
Urban 23.9 0.2 24.7 0.5 117
Rural 24.8 0.0 26.1 0.0 69
Education
No education 4.9 0.1 5.6 0.2 357
Basic education (1–8) 12.4 0.3 14.0 0.2 656
Lower basic education (1–5) 9.1 0.5 10.8 0.3 332
Upper basic education (6–8) 15.7 0.1 17.3 0.1 325
Secondary (9–12) 29.7 0.9 31.3 0.9 828
Lower secondary (9–10) 23.0 0.7 23.8 0.7 497
Higher secondary (11–12) 39.6 1.2 42.6 1.3 332
More than secondary (13 and
above) 51.7 0.0 52.5 0.0 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.3 0.2 15.2 0.3 431
Second 12.1 0.5 13.5 0.5 432
Middle 14.4 0.4 16.3 0.4 381
Fourth 23.4 1.3 24.1 1.0 386
Highest 43.9 0.0 46.4 0.2 303
Total 20.3 0.5 21.7 0.5 1,933

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Women were asked whether they received an HIV test during labor only if they gave birth in a health facility.
2
Denominator for percentages includes women who did not receive antenatal care for their last birth in the
past 2 years.

360 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.8.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test, percentage of women
ever tested, and percentage of women who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percent distribution of women by testing Percentage
status and by whether they received the who have been
results of the last test tested for HIV
in the past 12
Ever tested, months and
Ever tested did not received the
Background and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
characteristic results results tested1 Total ever tested last test women
Age
15–24 6.3 0.1 93.5 100.0 6.5 2.5 5,280
15–19 1.6 0.1 98.2 100.0 1.8 1.1 2,643
20–24 11.0 0.1 88.8 100.0 11.2 4.0 2,637
25–29 17.5 0.3 82.2 100.0 17.8 4.8 2,435
30–39 13.9 0.4 85.7 100.0 14.3 3.0 4,169
40–49 5.7 0.3 94.0 100.0 6.0 1.0 2,961
Marital status
Never married 1.9 0.1 98.0 100.0 2.0 0.4 3,203
Ever had sex 10.9 0.0 89.1 100.0 10.9 4.1 84
Never had sex 1.7 0.1 98.2 100.0 1.8 0.3 3,120
Married/living together 12.5 0.3 87.2 100.0 12.8 3.5 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 10.8 0.3 88.9 100.0 11.1 1.8 462
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 15.0 0.3 84.6 100.0 15.4 4.0 4,152
Dalit 8.2 0.4 91.5 100.0 8.5 2.2 2,240
Janajati 9.9 0.3 89.8 100.0 10.2 2.7 5,428
Madhesi 6.0 0.1 93.9 100.0 6.1 1.9 2,333
Muslim 2.7 0.0 97.3 100.0 2.7 0.4 676
Other * * * 100.0 * * 15
Residence
Urban 11.3 0.2 88.5 100.0 11.5 3.1 10,178
Rural 7.8 0.3 91.9 100.0 8.1 2.0 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.0 0.3 92.7 100.0 7.3 1.9 791
Hill 12.5 0.4 87.1 100.0 12.9 3.7 5,872
Terai 8.8 0.2 91.0 100.0 9.0 2.2 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 9.7 0.2 90.1 100.0 9.9 2.6 2,493
Urban 10.5 0.1 89.4 100.0 10.6 2.7 1,640
Rural 8.3 0.3 91.4 100.0 8.6 2.3 853
Madhesh Province 3.6 0.0 96.4 100.0 3.6 1.0 3,010
Urban 3.9 0.0 96.1 100.0 3.9 1.1 2,226
Rural 2.7 0.0 97.3 100.0 2.7 0.9 783
Bagmati Province 14.5 0.2 85.3 100.0 14.7 4.0 3,062
Urban 16.6 0.2 83.3 100.0 16.7 4.6 2,464
Rural 5.8 0.5 93.6 100.0 6.4 1.3 599
Gandaki Province 10.6 0.4 89.0 100.0 11.0 3.0 1,401
Urban 11.7 0.6 87.8 100.0 12.2 3.5 992
Rural 8.1 0.1 91.8 100.0 8.2 1.7 409
Lumbini Province 12.0 0.2 87.8 100.0 12.2 3.0 2,691
Urban 13.0 0.3 86.7 100.0 13.3 3.3 1,553
Rural 10.6 0.2 89.3 100.0 10.7 2.5 1,138
Karnali Province 7.5 0.5 92.1 100.0 7.9 2.5 909
Urban 9.6 0.7 89.8 100.0 10.2 3.7 507
Rural 4.8 0.3 94.9 100.0 5.1 1.0 402
Sudurpashchim Province 13.8 0.7 85.5 100.0 14.5 3.6 1,279
Urban 14.1 0.6 85.4 100.0 14.6 3.2 796
Rural 13.3 1.1 85.7 100.0 14.3 4.3 484
Education
No education 3.1 0.2 96.7 100.0 3.3 0.7 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 7.6 0.2 92.2 100.0 7.8 1.7 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 6.5 0.2 93.3 100.0 6.7 1.6 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.7 0.2 91.1 100.0 8.9 1.8 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 14.3 0.3 85.4 100.0 14.6 4.1 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 12.1 0.3 87.6 100.0 12.4 3.0 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 17.1 0.4 82.5 100.0 17.5 5.6 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 33.0 0.4 66.6 100.0 33.4 9.7 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.9 0.3 92.8 100.0 7.2 2.0 2,628
Second 5.8 0.3 93.8 100.0 6.2 1.5 2,857
Middle 8.3 0.2 91.5 100.0 8.5 1.8 3,028
Fourth 10.3 0.2 89.6 100.0 10.4 2.9 3,197
Highest 18.5 0.3 81.2 100.0 18.8 5.3 3,135
Total 10.2 0.3 89.6 100.0 10.4 2.8 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes respondents who have not heard of HIV or who refused to answer questions on testing

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 361

 Table 13.8.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by HIV testing status and by whether they received the results of the last test, percentage of men ever
tested, and percentage of men who were tested in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
Percent distribution of men by testing who were
status and by whether they received tested for HIV
the results of the last test in the past 12
Ever tested, months and
Ever tested did not received the
Background and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
characteristic results results tested1 Total ever tested last test men
Age
15–24 4.9 0.1 95.1 100.0 4.9 1.4 1,842
15–19 1.7 0.2 98.2 100.0 1.8 0.4 985
20–24 8.5 0.0 91.5 100.0 8.5 2.5 857
25–29 18.5 0.2 81.3 100.0 18.7 3.7 716
30–39 18.8 0.2 81.0 100.0 19.0 2.9 1,255
40–49 14.2 0.4 85.4 100.0 14.6 1.7 1,100
Marital status
Never married 7.1 0.1 92.8 100.0 7.2 1.9 1,768
Ever had sex 15.6 0.0 84.4 100.0 15.6 4.6 539
Never had sex 3.3 0.1 96.5 100.0 3.5 0.8 1,229
Married/living together 15.6 0.3 84.2 100.0 15.8 2.2 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed (14.4) (0.0) (85.6) 100.0 (14.4) (7.7) 44
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 15.7 0.1 84.3 100.0 15.7 3.2 1,232
Dalit 9.1 0.4 90.5 100.0 9.5 1.5 658
Janajati 13.5 0.4 86.2 100.0 13.8 2.2 1,869
Madhesi 9.4 0.0 90.6 100.0 9.4 1.6 917
Muslim 9.0 0.0 91.0 100.0 9.0 0.4 228
Other * * * 100.0 * * 8
Residence
Urban 14.0 0.2 85.8 100.0 14.2 2.5 3,462
Rural 8.9 0.1 91.0 100.0 9.0 1.4 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 9.8 0.3 89.9 100.0 10.1 0.4 255
Hill 14.0 0.2 85.9 100.0 14.1 2.6 1,973
Terai 11.7 0.2 88.1 100.0 11.9 2.0 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 9.5 0.0 90.5 100.0 9.5 1.2 882
Urban 11.0 0.0 89.0 100.0 11.0 1.4 604
Rural 6.2 0.0 93.8 100.0 6.2 0.9 278
Madhesh Province 8.4 0.0 91.6 100.0 8.4 1.4 997
Urban 9.0 0.0 91.0 100.0 9.0 1.3 722
Rural 6.8 0.0 93.2 100.0 6.8 1.5 275
Bagmati Province 14.1 0.2 85.6 100.0 14.4 3.1 1,214
Urban 16.0 0.3 83.7 100.0 16.3 3.5 1,016
Rural 4.8 0.0 95.2 100.0 4.8 1.2 198
Gandaki Province 18.9 0.5 80.6 100.0 19.4 4.7 387
Urban 21.1 0.6 78.3 100.0 21.7 5.3 264
Rural 14.0 0.4 85.6 100.0 14.4 3.2 123
Lumbini Province 14.1 0.5 85.5 100.0 14.5 1.8 812
Urban 14.6 0.6 84.8 100.0 15.2 2.3 468
Rural 13.3 0.3 86.4 100.0 13.6 1.2 344
Karnali Province 10.1 0.1 89.8 100.0 10.2 1.3 266
Urban 13.0 0.0 87.0 100.0 13.0 1.1 154
Rural 6.1 0.2 93.7 100.0 6.3 1.5 113
Sudurpashchim Province 16.9 0.4 82.7 100.0 17.3 2.1 355
Urban 19.8 0.6 79.6 100.0 20.4 2.8 233
Rural 11.4 0.0 88.6 100.0 11.4 0.9 122
Education
No education 4.3 0.2 95.4 100.0 4.6 0.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 9.9 0.2 89.9 100.0 10.1 2.0 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 10.0 0.0 90.0 100.0 10.0 2.5 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 9.8 0.4 89.8 100.0 10.2 1.6 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 14.1 0.3 85.6 100.0 14.4 2.3 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 12.7 0.3 87.0 100.0 13.0 1.5 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 16.0 0.2 83.8 100.0 16.2 3.4 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 24.4 0.0 75.6 100.0 24.4 4.2 377

(Continued…)

362 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.8.2—Continued
Percentage
Percent distribution of men by testing who have
status and by whether they received been tested
the results of the last test for HIV in the
past 12
Ever tested, months and
Ever tested did not received the
Background and received receive Never Percentage results of the Number of
characteristic results results tested1 Total ever tested last test men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.7 0.3 93.0 100.0 7.0 1.2 751
Second 7.7 0.1 92.2 100.0 7.8 1.2 933
Middle 9.5 0.1 90.4 100.0 9.6 1.9 957
Fourth 14.4 0.2 85.4 100.0 14.6 2.1 1,135
Highest 20.8 0.4 78.8 100.0 21.2 4.0 1,137
Total 12.5 0.2 87.3 100.0 12.7 2.2 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes respondents who have not heard of HIV or who refused to answer questions on testing

Table 13.9 Number of times tested for HIV in lifetime

Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49 by number of times they have been tested for HIV in their lifetime, according to age, Nepal
DHS 2022
Number of times tested for HIV in lifetime Never Number of
Age 1 2 3 4 5 6+ tested Total respondents
WOMEN

15–24 4.1 1.9 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 93.5 100.0 5,280
15–19 1.4 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.2 100.0 2,643
20–24 6.8 3.5 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 88.8 100.0 2,637
25–29 10.3 5.0 1.5 0.7 0.0 0.2 82.2 100.0 2,435
30–39 8.2 3.8 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 85.7 100.0 4,169
40–49 3.8 1.2 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.0 94.0 100.0 2,961
Total 6.2 2.8 0.9 0.3 0.1 0.1 89.6 100.0 14,845
MEN
15–24 3.2 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.4 95.1 100.0 1,842
15–19 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.2 100.0 985
20–24 4.9 1.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.8 91.5 100.0 857
25–29 10.2 2.6 2.7 0.6 1.0 1.6 81.3 100.0 716
30–39 9.1 2.8 2.7 1.2 1.1 2.1 81.0 100.0 1,255
40–49 6.5 1.8 2.1 1.3 0.6 2.3 85.4 100.0 1,100
Total 6.5 1.7 1.7 0.8 0.6 1.4 87.3 100.0 4,913

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 363

 Table 13.10 Knowledge and coverage of self-testing for HIV
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who have ever heard of HIV self-test kits, and percentage who have ever
used an HIV self-test kit, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Ever heard Ever used Ever heard Ever used
Background of HIV self- an HIV self- Number of of HIV self- an HIV self- Number of
characteristic test kits test kit women test kits test kit men
Age
15–19 3.8 0.1 2,643 4.8 0.0 985
20–24 6.0 0.6 2,637 7.2 0.9 857
25–29 6.0 0.5 2,435 10.5 1.3 716
30–34 8.0 0.4 2,144 14.3 0.4 616
35–39 6.3 0.4 2,025 8.7 0.5 639
40–44 4.8 0.3 1,629 10.6 0.5 604
45–49 5.2 0.2 1,332 8.1 1.7 496
Residence
Urban 6.8 0.4 10,178 9.3 0.8 3,462
Rural 3.6 0.2 4,667 7.6 0.5 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 3.2 0.1 791 7.7 0.2 255
Hill 8.2 0.3 5,872 8.9 0.7 1,973
Terai 4.2 0.4 8,182 8.8 0.8 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 5.0 0.4 2,493 11.3 0.2 882
Urban 5.3 0.4 1,640 11.7 0.3 604
Rural 4.4 0.2 853 10.6 0.0 278
Madhesh Province 2.7 0.5 3,010 9.5 0.9 997
Urban 3.0 0.7 2,226 9.4 1.1 722
Rural 1.7 0.0 783 9.9 0.5 275
Bagmati Province 10.9 0.3 3,062 7.4 0.5 1,214
Urban 12.5 0.3 2,464 8.0 0.6 1,016
Rural 4.1 0.0 599 4.8 0.0 198
Gandaki Province 6.5 0.6 1,401 9.2 0.8 387
Urban 7.4 0.8 992 11.3 1.1 264
Rural 4.4 0.4 409 4.8 0.0 123
Lumbini Province 5.0 0.2 2,691 6.8 1.3 812
Urban 5.7 0.2 1,553 7.5 1.2 468
Rural 4.0 0.3 1,138 5.8 1.4 344
Karnali Province 3.7 0.2 909 10.4 1.3 266
Urban 4.4 0.3 507 10.2 2.0 154
Rural 2.7 0.1 402 10.7 0.4 113
Sudurpashchim Province 4.4 0.5 1,279 8.0 0.0 355
Urban 5.0 0.4 796 9.2 0.0 233
Rural 3.5 0.5 484 5.7 0.0 122
Education
No education 1.7 0.1 3,796 2.3 0.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 3.4 0.2 4,595 5.1 0.3 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.9 0.1 2,314 5.3 0.1 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.9 0.2 2,281 5.0 0.6 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 8.6 0.6 5,798 10.9 0.7 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 6.9 0.2 3,270 9.3 0.2 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 10.8 1.0 2,529 13.0 1.4 959
More than secondary (13 and above) 20.4 1.5 656 21.4 3.2 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.3 0.2 2,628 5.4 0.5 751
Second 3.1 0.2 2,857 6.8 0.2 933
Middle 3.7 0.4 3,028 6.5 0.5 957
Fourth 6.3 0.4 3,197 8.3 0.3 1,135
Highest 12.5 0.8 3,135 15.1 1.8 1,137
Total 5.8 0.4 14,845 8.8 0.7 4,913

364 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.11 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI symptoms
Among women and men age 15–49 who ever had sexual intercourse, percentage reporting having an STI and/or symptoms of an STI in the last 12
months, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of women who reported having Percentage of men who reported having
in the past 12 months: in the past 12 months:
Number STI/ Number
of women Bad- abnormal of men
Bad- STI/ who ever smelling/ discharge who ever
smelling/ genital had abnormal from had
abnormal Genital discharge/ sexual discharge Genital penis/ sexual
Background genital sore or sore or inter- from sore or sore or inter-
characteristic STI discharge ulcer ulcer course STI penis ulcer ulcer course
Age
15–24 0.2 27.0 5.2 28.7 2,429 0.1 10.6 6.2 15.5 722
15–19 0.0 28.2 3.6 29.9 584 0.0 14.3 7.5 20.2 185
20–24 0.3 26.6 5.7 28.3 1,844 0.1 9.3 5.7 13.9 537
25–29 0.3 25.5 6.3 28.1 2,256 1.2 6.2 5.0 11.5 645
30–39 0.4 22.3 4.8 24.1 4,097 0.2 4.4 3.6 7.7 1,224
40–49 0.1 18.1 5.1 20.7 2,930 0.3 4.2 3.1 6.7 1,093
Marital status
Never married 0.0 31.9 12.6 33.6 84 0.0 10.5 5.1 14.4 539
Married or living together 0.3 22.8 5.2 25.0 11,168 0.4 5.1 4.1 8.8 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed 0.1 21.3 4.0 22.2 460 (0.0) (5.8) (3.1) (7.4) 43
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 0.2 21.3 6.7 24.3 3,187 0.4 4.3 4.0 8.2 929
Dalit 0.4 25.0 5.9 27.1 1,826 0.5 10.2 4.9 12.6 512
Janajati 0.2 22.7 5.0 24.7 4,265 0.3 3.7 3.2 7.2 1,455
Madhesi 0.2 23.7 3.5 25.1 1,887 0.4 8.0 6.6 13.5 621
Muslim 0.0 22.4 2.2 23.5 536 0.0 12.5 3.3 15.3 159
Other * * * * 11 * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 0.2 22.9 5.6 25.2 7,934 0.5 5.1 4.3 9.2 2,547
Rural 0.3 22.7 4.5 24.4 3,777 0.1 7.6 4.0 10.6 1,136
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.0 21.5 7.1 24.8 653 0.9 7.7 8.6 15.8 212
Hill 0.3 22.4 6.1 24.7 4,524 0.5 3.5 2.1 5.9 1,469
Terai 0.2 23.3 4.5 25.2 6,534 0.2 7.4 5.3 11.6 2,001
Province
Koshi Province 0.0 22.6 7.0 25.2 1,977 0.0 8.0 4.4 12.3 655
Urban 0.0 22.6 7.2 25.5 1,302 0.0 7.3 4.3 11.6 453
Rural 0.0 22.5 6.5 24.8 675 0.0 9.6 4.6 13.8 203
Madhesh Province 0.2 22.1 2.4 23.1 2,482 0.4 9.8 6.1 13.8 699
Urban 0.1 22.3 2.4 23.1 1,832 0.5 8.8 7.0 13.9 504
Rural 0.6 21.8 2.4 23.0 650 0.0 12.3 3.6 13.8 196
Bagmati Province 0.4 23.0 7.3 25.8 2,285 1.0 3.9 3.0 7.7 876
Urban 0.4 23.5 8.0 26.7 1,806 1.1 3.1 3.2 7.5 715
Rural 0.3 21.1 4.6 22.2 480 0.4 7.3 2.1 8.9 162
Gandaki Province 0.4 24.4 5.0 26.4 1,109 0.2 3.1 1.5 4.8 317
Urban 0.5 24.8 5.5 26.8 776 0.0 3.0 1.5 4.5 216
Rural 0.3 23.5 3.8 25.4 333 0.5 3.5 1.5 5.5 101
Lumbini Province 0.2 22.3 4.6 24.4 2,135 0.2 4.2 3.8 7.2 648
Urban 0.1 22.0 4.6 24.1 1,203 0.4 2.6 3.6 6.0 365
Rural 0.3 22.7 4.4 24.7 932 0.0 6.3 4.1 8.9 283
Karnali Province 0.3 27.8 8.6 31.4 723 0.2 6.4 6.7 12.0 221
Urban 0.4 27.2 10.0 31.9 401 0.3 5.7 4.9 9.4 127
Rural 0.3 28.5 6.8 30.7 322 0.0 7.2 9.2 15.6 95
Sudurpashchim Province 0.3 20.4 3.6 22.3 1,000 0.0 3.5 4.7 7.5 266
Urban 0.4 20.0 4.1 22.2 615 0.0 4.1 5.0 8.5 169
Rural 0.3 20.8 3.0 22.3 385 0.0 2.6 4.3 5.8 97
Education
No education 0.1 19.6 3.8 21.3 3,690 0.0 6.3 3.6 8.5 370
Basic education (1–8) 0.1 25.6 6.0 27.5 3,849 0.4 6.4 5.0 10.7 1,531
Lower basic education (1–5) 0.3 24.1 5.8 25.7 2,092 0.1 5.4 5.4 10.3 815
Upper basic education (6–8) 0.0 27.3 6.3 29.6 1,757 0.6 7.5 4.6 11.0 716
Secondary (9–12) 0.4 23.5 5.8 26.2 3,677 0.2 6.0 4.2 9.8 1,473
Lower secondary (9–10) 0.3 23.6 6.1 26.4 2,282 0.3 6.2 5.3 11.3 871
Higher secondary (11–12) 0.5 23.2 5.4 25.8 1,395 0.1 5.6 2.6 7.6 602
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.0 20.3 5.6 23.9 495 1.6 2.3 1.0 4.9 309
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.1 22.5 4.6 24.1 2,137 0.1 5.4 4.7 9.2 593
Second 0.2 21.9 4.4 23.5 2,309 0.1 6.9 4.5 9.8 722
Middle 0.2 22.6 4.4 24.6 2,445 0.3 7.8 4.2 11.6 725
Fourth 0.2 25.0 6.5 27.4 2,494 0.7 6.3 4.3 10.4 832
Highest 0.5 21.9 6.1 25.1 2,327 0.6 3.1 3.6 7.1 811
Total 0.2 22.8 5.2 25.0 11,711 0.4 5.9 4.2 9.6 3,683

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 365

 Table 13.12.1 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Women
Percentages of young women age 15–24 who, in response to prompted questions, say that people can reduce their risk of getting HIV by using condoms
every time they have sexual intercourse and by having one sex partner who is not infected and has no other partners, that a healthy-looking person can
have HIV, that HIV cannot be transmitted by mosquito bites, and that a person cannot get HIV by sharing food with a person who has HIV, and percentage
with knowledge about HIV prevention, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who know:
People can reduce their risk
of getting HIV by:
Having sex
with only one A person
Using a uninfected cannot get HIV Percentage
condom every partner who A healthy- HIV cannot be by sharing food with knowledge
Background time they has no other looking person transmitted by with a person about HIV Number of
characteristic have sex partners can have HIV mosquito bites who has HIV prevention1 women
Age
15–19 60.8 66.2 62.7 30.8 39.5 14.1 2,643
15–17 59.6 65.1 62.0 29.2 36.8 12.5 1,542
18–19 62.5 67.8 63.6 33.0 43.3 16.3 1,100
20–24 68.2 72.4 67.7 33.3 48.1 17.8 2,637
20–22 67.0 71.9 67.2 31.5 46.0 15.7 1,645
23–24 70.2 73.2 68.4 36.3 51.6 21.4 993
Marital status
Never married 68.5 74.6 71.6 37.2 49.9 19.4 2,897
Ever had sex (92.5) (91.9) (75.4) (43.3) (70.3) (21.8) 54
Never had sex 68.0 74.2 71.6 37.1 49.5 19.3 2,843
Ever married 59.7 62.9 57.3 25.9 36.4 11.8 2,383
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 79.7 83.9 81.7 43.9 57.1 23.9 1,394
Dalit 51.9 58.0 53.5 26.7 36.2 11.2 879
Janajati 74.3 79.7 73.7 37.2 55.1 18.6 1,791
Madhesi 47.5 51.5 48.1 16.3 20.1 7.4 922
Muslim 22.3 24.1 21.2 8.9 8.5 3.1 284
Other * * * * * * 9
Residence
Urban 66.0 70.1 66.2 34.0 46.3 17.3 3,595
Rural 61.4 67.6 62.9 28.0 38.5 13.2 1,685
Ecological zone
Mountain 73.3 80.9 75.0 38.7 55.3 24.9 276
Hill 75.3 81.3 77.0 39.6 57.4 18.9 2,010
Terai 56.5 60.2 56.3 26.4 33.6 13.2 2,994
Province
Koshi Province 69.0 73.0 70.7 31.1 46.5 15.3 854
Urban 72.9 75.1 72.2 33.6 50.0 18.0 530
Rural 62.5 69.7 68.1 26.9 40.8 10.9 324
Madhesh Province 35.5 39.1 35.1 12.0 14.3 5.1 1,217
Urban 35.1 38.8 34.6 11.3 14.4 4.9 912
Rural 36.7 40.0 36.8 14.2 14.0 6.0 306
Bagmati Province 77.1 81.5 78.5 49.0 64.9 25.9 967
Urban 80.0 84.5 82.0 51.6 67.4 27.9 755
Rural 66.6 70.8 66.3 39.8 55.9 18.7 212
Gandaki Province 75.1 84.3 77.7 37.9 59.8 18.6 463
Urban 74.9 82.5 77.2 39.1 62.3 19.7 343
Rural 75.7 89.3 79.0 34.5 52.8 15.5 120
Lumbini Province 69.7 74.5 71.0 33.9 46.7 15.9 915
Urban 73.3 77.6 74.7 38.1 50.4 17.4 538
Rural 64.6 70.0 65.9 27.8 41.4 13.8 377
Karnali Province 69.1 74.9 66.1 33.1 43.7 13.4 373
Urban 73.7 76.3 68.1 36.8 49.4 15.6 209
Rural 63.3 73.1 63.6 28.5 36.4 10.6 165
Sudurpashchim Province 80.9 85.7 80.2 40.4 50.4 23.8 490
Urban 83.3 87.5 82.7 43.5 55.6 24.9 309
Rural 76.8 82.7 75.9 35.2 41.7 22.1 182
Education
No education 12.8 15.2 12.9 7.1 8.3 2.2 362
Basic education (1–8) 46.0 50.2 45.1 21.2 24.9 6.7 1,676
Lower basic education (1–5) 30.4 33.3 29.8 14.4 13.4 3.3 586
Upper basic education (6–8) 54.3 59.3 53.3 24.9 31.0 8.5 1,090
Secondary (9–12) 79.5 85.1 81.0 39.7 56.9 21.4 3,132
Lower secondary (9–10) 74.6 81.4 75.6 33.6 48.3 14.9 1,587
Higher secondary (11–12) 84.5 88.8 86.6 46.0 65.8 28.1 1,545
More than secondary (13 and
above) 92.0 90.1 91.4 60.6 77.0 48.1 109

(Continued…)

366 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.12.1—Continued
Percentage who know:
People can reduce their risk
of getting HIV by:
Having sex
with only one A person
Using a uninfected cannot get HIV Percentage
condom every partner who A healthy- HIV cannot be by sharing food with knowledge
Background time they has no other looking person transmitted by with a person about HIV Number of
characteristic have sex partners can have HIV mosquito bites who has HIV prevention1 women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 61.8 68.1 62.4 28.9 37.6 11.7 1,012
Second 54.6 59.4 53.3 22.2 34.3 10.5 1,075
Middle 59.1 64.9 57.7 28.7 38.7 13.3 1,059
Fourth 67.5 72.7 71.2 34.4 45.0 17.7 1,183
Highest 80.9 82.5 82.2 47.4 65.6 27.3 951
Total 64.5 69.3 65.2 32.1 43.8 16.0 5,280

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
Knowledge about HIV prevention means knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected faithful
partner can reduce the chance of getting HIV, knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two major misconceptions about HIV
transmission: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito bites and a person can become infected by sharing food with a person who has HIV.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 367

 Table 13.12.2 Knowledge about HIV prevention among young people: Men
Percentages of young men age 15–24 who, in response to prompted questions, say that people can reduce their risk of getting HIV by using condoms
every time they have sexual intercourse and by having one sex partner who is not infected and has no other partners, that a healthy-looking person can
have HIV, that HIV cannot be transmitted by mosquito bites, and that a person cannot get HIV by sharing food with a person who has HIV, and percentage
with knowledge about HIV prevention, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who know:
People can reduce their risk
of getting HIV by:
Having sex
with only one A person
Using a uninfected cannot get HIV Percentage
condom every partner who A healthy- HIV cannot be by sharing food with knowledge
Background time they has no other looking person transmitted by with a person about HIV Number
characteristic have sex partners can have HIV mosquito bites who has HIV prevention1 of men
Age
15–19 86.8 83.5 73.6 44.1 54.8 23.4 985
15–17 86.9 82.6 70.5 45.1 56.3 25.0 591
18–19 86.7 84.9 78.2 42.6 52.7 21.1 393
20–24 88.6 85.6 81.5 47.6 62.7 30.7 857
20–22 87.9 84.1 80.9 46.9 61.1 30.9 551
23–24 89.8 88.4 82.6 48.9 65.5 30.2 306
Marital status
Never married 88.1 84.9 77.0 46.7 60.0 27.9 1,493
Ever had sex 93.2 90.6 79.0 51.8 64.7 30.5 373
Never had sex 86.4 83.0 76.4 44.9 58.4 27.1 1,120
Ever married 85.6 82.8 78.4 41.7 52.1 22.0 349
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 93.9 87.8 86.8 56.1 73.4 36.6 427
Dalit 83.6 77.3 67.4 40.2 47.4 17.0 270
Janajati 90.3 89.6 81.5 50.4 66.5 31.9 635
Madhesi 81.8 79.0 66.9 31.8 42.4 15.1 396
Muslim 78.3 79.6 76.9 39.8 37.9 22.8 110
Other * * * * * * 4
Residence
Urban 88.7 85.0 79.1 47.6 61.5 29.0 1,321
Rural 85.0 83.3 72.8 41.0 50.7 21.1 521
Ecological zone
Mountain 85.6 76.7 74.0 31.7 54.1 13.8 79
Hill 93.7 92.0 84.7 55.5 74.3 38.6 730
Terai 83.5 79.8 72.3 39.9 47.7 19.5 1,034
Province
Koshi Province 84.3 83.1 83.5 42.7 55.2 24.7 312
Urban 85.7 83.6 85.2 42.4 57.7 24.2 207
Rural 81.5 82.2 80.2 43.3 50.2 25.7 105
Madhesh Province 77.0 74.6 63.7 27.8 29.3 10.0 430
Urban 77.6 75.8 67.4 28.4 30.7 11.4 312
Rural 75.3 71.5 54.1 26.2 25.6 6.3 118
Bagmati Province 93.4 90.1 82.4 55.3 75.1 38.0 456
Urban 94.1 90.1 83.1 56.7 77.5 40.0 397
Rural 88.8 90.1 77.8 45.3 58.9 24.5 59
Gandaki Province 92.2 91.5 87.0 63.0 77.2 40.4 123
Urban 93.5 93.4 88.6 63.3 77.0 43.8 86
Rural 89.0 87.3 83.2 62.5 77.7 32.3 37
Lumbini Province 91.3 88.8 73.9 48.1 62.1 25.8 277
Urban 91.8 85.6 75.7 53.6 65.5 30.1 160
Rural 90.6 93.2 71.6 40.6 57.3 19.9 116
Karnali Province 91.3 81.6 76.5 55.2 68.9 27.8 104
Urban 93.4 86.6 76.6 60.8 79.7 32.0 61
Rural 88.2 74.5 76.3 47.1 53.5 21.9 43
Sudurpashchim Province 95.2 87.4 87.2 49.3 70.3 36.0 140
Urban 95.8 87.3 85.7 50.5 71.9 34.6 98
Rural 93.7 87.8 90.5 46.4 66.6 39.3 42
Education
No education (43.1) (44.6) (45.8) (13.8) (16.5) (3.3) 48
Basic education (1–8) 81.5 75.8 64.0 38.4 44.7 16.8 611
Lower basic education (1–5) 74.1 64.9 56.4 30.4 33.3 7.4 169
Upper basic education (6–8) 84.3 79.9 66.9 41.4 49.1 20.4 441
Secondary (9–12) 92.7 90.6 85.4 50.2 66.5 32.2 1,139
Lower secondary (9–10) 91.9 88.3 82.5 43.8 59.5 25.5 570
Higher secondary (11–12) 93.5 93.0 88.4 56.5 73.4 38.8 569
More than secondary (13 and
above) (90.5) (90.9) (85.3) (67.0) (88.4) (52.1) 44

(Continued…)

368 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

 Table 13.12.2—Continued
Percentage who know:
People can reduce their risk
of getting HIV by:
Having sex
with only one A person
Using a uninfected cannot get HIV Percentage
condom every partner who A healthy- HIV cannot be by sharing food with knowledge
Background time they has no other looking person transmitted by with a person about HIV Number
characteristic have sex partners can have HIV mosquito bites who has HIV prevention1 of men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 85.0 80.8 73.4 43.6 57.9 24.9 278
Second 83.9 80.2 74.0 35.0 46.7 19.0 365
Middle 86.2 78.9 73.7 40.7 48.8 18.9 355
Fourth 88.8 88.2 80.3 46.5 64.0 27.6 449
Highest 92.9 91.9 82.8 60.7 72.2 41.4 396
Total 87.6 84.5 77.3 45.7 58.5 26.8 1,842

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.
1
Knowledge about HIV prevention means knowing that consistent use of condoms during sexual intercourse and having just one uninfected faithful
partner can reduce the chance of getting HIV, knowing that a healthy-looking person can have HIV, and rejecting two major misconceptions about HIV
transmission: HIV can be transmitted by mosquito bites and a person can become infected by sharing food with a person who has HIV.

Table 13.13 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people

Percentage of young women and young men age 15–24 who had sexual intercourse before age 15 and percentage of young women and young men age 18–24 who
had sexual intercourse before age 18, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women age 15–24 Women age 18–24 Men age 15–24 Men age 18–24
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
who had sexual who had sexual who had sexual who had sexual
Background intercourse Number of intercourse Number of intercourse Number of intercourse Number of
characteristic before age 15 women before age 18 women before age 15 men before age 18 men
Age
15–19 2.4 2,643 na na 2.1 985 na na
15–17 1.7 1,542 na na 2.2 591 na na
18–19 3.4 1,100 26.5 1,100 1.8 393 20.5 393
20–24 4.8 2,637 33.9 2,637 1.9 857 17.2 857
20–22 4.5 1,645 33.4 1,645 1.9 551 16.5 551
23–24 5.5 993 34.7 993 1.8 306 18.5 306
Residence
Urban 3.6 3,595 30.0 2,601 1.9 1,321 14.5 909
Rural 3.7 1,685 35.6 1,137 2.2 521 28.2 341
Education
No education 11.1 362 66.9 293 (1.7) 48 (17.3) 42
Basic education (1–8) 7.5 1,676 57.5 1,032 2.6 611 26.1 350
Lower basic education (1–5) 9.1 586 58.9 430 2.2 169 26.2 133
Upper basic education (6–8) 6.6 1,090 56.4 602 2.7 441 26.1 217
Secondary (9–12) 0.8 3,132 17.0 2,303 1.7 1,139 15.2 814
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.3 1,587 30.8 912 2.0 570 18.8 302
Higher secondary (11–12) 0.4 1,545 8.0 1,392 1.4 569 13.1 512
More than secondary (13 and
above) 0.0 109 4.0 109 (1.2) 44 (12.6) 44
Total 3.6 5,280 31.7 3,738 2.0 1,842 18.3 1,251

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

na = Not applicable

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 369

 Table 13.14 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people
Among never-married women and men age 15–24, percentage who have never had sexual
intercourse, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women age 15–24 Men age 15–24
Percentage Percentage
who have who have
never had Number of never had Number of
Background sexual never-married sexual never-married
characteristic intercourse women intercourse men
Age
15–19 99.1 2,071 85.2 939
15–17 99.5 1,386 91.3 584
18–19 98.2 686 75.1 354
20–24 95.8 826 57.8 555
20–22 97.0 615 62.5 400
23–24 92.0 210 45.5 155
Residence
Urban 97.9 2,052 75.5 1,096
Rural 98.7 845 73.8 397
Education
No education 100.0 81 * 26
Basic education (1–8) 99.0 706 78.3 448
Lower basic education (1–5) 99.2 194 68.0 106
Upper basic education (6–8) 98.9 512 81.5 343
Secondary (9–12) 97.9 2,032 74.2 981
Lower secondary (9–10) 98.9 931 81.4 482
Higher secondary (11–12) 97.0 1,102 67.2 500
More than secondary (13 and
above) 95.3 78 (56.1) 37
Total 98.1 2,897 75.0 1,493

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

370 • Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS

Table 13.15 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the last 12 months among young people: Men
Among all young men age 15–24, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the last 12 months and percentage who had
intercourse in the last 12 months with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them; among young men having more than one partner in the last 12
months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; and among young men age who had sexual intercourse in the last 12 months
with a person who neither was their wife nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Men age 15–24 who had
intercourse in the last 12 months
Men age 15–24 who had 2+ with a person who neither was
Men age 15–24 partners in the last 12 months their wife nor lived with them
Percentage who
had intercourse
in the last 12 Percentage who
months with a Percentage who reported using a
Percentage who person who reported using a condom during
had 2+ partners neither was their condom during last sexual
Background in the last wife nor lived Number last sexual Number intercourse with Number
characteristic 12 months with them of men intercourse of men such a partner of men
Age
15–19 1.6 10.1 985 * 16 69.0 99
15–17 1.4 5.9 591 * 8 (64.8) 35
18–19 2.0 16.3 393 * 8 71.3 64
20–24 4.1 20.9 857 (51.0) 35 73.6 179
20–22 2.8 20.1 551 * 16 76.9 111
23–24 6.3 22.3 306 * 19 68.2 68
Marital status
Never married 2.4 17.3 1,493 (50.4) 36 73.8 258
Ever married 4.3 5.7 349 * 15 * 20
Residence
Urban 3.0 14.9 1,321 (48.8) 40 72.6 197
Rural 2.2 15.6 521 * 11 70.4 81
Education
No education (0.0) (11.9) 48 * 0 * 6
Basic education (1–8) 2.8 10.6 611 * 17 59.6 65
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.0 12.5 169 * 3 * 21
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.1 9.9 441 * 14 (58.2) 44
Secondary (9–12) 2.6 17.0 1,139 (46.1) 30 75.2 193
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.9 12.6 570 * 16 66.0 72
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.4 21.4 569 * 14 80.6 122
More than secondary (13 and
above) (9.6) (31.9) 44 * 4 * 14
Total 2.8 15.1 1,842 (41.3) 51 72.0 278

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.

Table 13.16 Recent HIV tests among young people

Among young women and young men age 15–24 who have had sexual intercourse in the last 12 months,
percentage who were tested for HIV in the last 12 months and received the results of the last test, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women age 15–24 who have Men age 15–24 who have
had sexual intercourse in the had sexual intercourse in the
last 12 months: last 12 months:
Percentage who Percentage who
have been tested have been tested
for HIV in the last for HIV in the last
12 months and 12 months and
received the received the
Background results of the Number of results of the Number of
characteristic last test women last test men
Age
15–19 4.7 547 0.0 141
15–17 3.9 149 (0.0) 40
18–19 5.0 398 0.0 101
20–24 5.8 1,613 3.7 460
20–22 4.8 923 4.6 251
23–24 7.3 689 2.6 208
Marital status
Never married (3.0) 39 4.8 258
Ever married 5.6 2,121 1.3 342
Total 5.5 2,159 2.8 601

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior Related to HIV and AIDS • 371

BLOOD PRESSURE 14
Key Findings
▪ High blood pressure or hypertension: In Nepal, 18%
of women and 23% of men age 15 and older have high
blood pressure or hypertension. Among individuals age
60 and older, 46% of women and 42% of men have high
blood pressure or hypertension.
▪ Trends in hypertension: The proportion of respondents
age 15 and older with hypertension has remained stable
since 2016. The proportion among women was 17% in
2016 and 18% in 2022, while the proportion among men
was remained 23% in both years.
▪ Awareness of hypertension: 48% of women and 52%
of men age 15 and older with hypertension are unaware
about their high blood pressure. Nineteen percent of
women and 16% of men are aware about their condition,
report taking prescribed medication, and have their blood
pressure controlled. However, 16% of women and 12% of
men are aware about their condition and taking
prescribed medication but do not have their high blood
pressure controlled. Seventeen percent of women and
20% of men are aware about their condition but have not
been treated.

N
oncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are a significant and growing burden on the health of
individuals and populations worldwide. Screening and prevention are key tools in the control of
NCDs. Goal 3 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) focuses on ensuring healthy lives
and promoting well-being for all and includes Target 3.4, which is to reduce premature mortality from
NCDs by a third by 2030 through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being
(National Planning Commission 2020a). The Multi-sectoral Action Plan (MSAP) for NCDs (2021–2025)
developed by Nepal focuses on creating actions that are potentially implementable, have high health
impact, are politically and culturally acceptable, and are financially feasible across multiple sectors and
stakeholders. MSAP II targets for 25% reduction in prevalence of raised blood pressure from 2013 level,
i.e., to 19%, by 2025 (Ministry of Health and Population 2022a).

This chapter presents information on blood pressure screening and blood pressure status. In half of the
households selected for collection of biomarker information, blood pressure measurements were carried
out among all women and men age 15 and older. A total of 6,021 women and 4,601 men were eligible for
blood pressure measurements. Among these individuals, 96% of women and 92% of men had their blood
pressure measured and almost all had three measurements conducted as per the protocol of the survey (data
not shown separately).

14.1 HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE OR HYPERTENSION

Blood pressure rises and falls throughout the day. When blood pressure stays elevated over time, it is
called high blood pressure. The medical term for high blood pressure is hypertension. Raised or high blood
pressure is an established risk factor for developing ischemic heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease.

Blood Pressure • 373

 All eligible and consenting respondents had three measurements of systolic and diastolic blood pressure
(measured in millimeters of mercury [mmHg]) taken during the survey, with an interval of at least 5
minutes between measurements, using a digital oscillometric blood pressure measuring device with
automatic upper-arm inflation and automatic pressure release. The average of the second and third
measurements was used to classify individuals with respect to hypertension. Respondents whose blood
pressure fell into two different categories based on their average systolic and average diastolic levels were
classified according to the highest blood pressure category in which they fell on either of the two
measurements. If the third blood pressure measurement was missing, the second measurement was
considered the average. If the second and third measurements were missing, the first measurement was
considered the average.

Average blood pressure

The average blood pressure is based on the average of the second and third
measurements. If there is no third measurement, the average is the second
measurement. If there is neither a second nor a third measurement, the
average is the first measurement. When a respondent’s systolic and diastolic
blood pressure fell into disparate categories, the higher category was applied.
Sample: Women and men age 15 and above

Elevated blood pressure was classified as mild, moderate, or severe according to the cut-off points
recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO 1999; Whitworth 2003).

Blood pressure category Systolic (mmHg) Diastolic (mmHg)

Optimal <120 AND <80
Normal 120–129 OR 80–84
High normal 130–139 OR 85–89
Level of hypertension
Grade 1, mildly elevated 140–159 OR 90–99
Grade 2, moderately elevated 160–179 OR 100–109
Grade 3, severely elevated 180+ OR 110+

The blood pressure measurements taken in the 2022 NDHS were not intended to provide a medical
diagnosis of the disease; rather, they provide a cross-sectional assessment to estimate the prevalence of
raised blood pressure in the population at the time of the survey. Written results of the blood pressure
measurements were returned to respondents at the end of the interview, accompanied by a verbal
explanation of their blood pressure category, and those with high blood pressure were told that they should
visit their doctor to share the results. Individuals with extremely high blood pressure were told that they
should visit their doctor on the same day or immediately.

14.2 HISTORY OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE OR HYPERTENSION

Tables 14.1.1 and 14.1.2 show that 80% of women and 72% of men age 15 and older had ever had their
blood pressure measured by a doctor or other health worker. Thirteen percent of women and 15% of men
were ever told by a doctor or other health worker that they had high blood pressure or hypertension.

Among those who were ever told by a doctor or other health worker that they had high blood pressure or
hypertension, 73% of women and 68% of men were informed in the past 12 months. Fifty-nine percent of
these women and 55% of men were prescribed medication to control their blood pressure, but only 47% of
women and 43% of men reported that they were taking the medication (Table 14.1.1 and Table 14.1.2).

374 • Blood Pressure

Trends: The proportion of women age 15 and older Figure 14.1 Trends in blood pressure
who had their blood pressure measured prior to the measurement prior to the survey
survey remained stable at 80% between 2016 and Percentage of women and men age
2022, while the proportion among men increased 15 and older
from 65% to 72% (Figure 14.1).
Women Men
Patterns by background characteristics 80 80
72
65
▪ Thirty-three percent of women and 30% of men
age 60 and older were ever told by a doctor or
other health worker that they had high blood
pressure or hypertension (Table 14.1.1 and
Table 14.1.2).

▪ Thirty-two percent of women and 43% of men 2016 NDHS 2022 NDHS
who are obese were ever told by a doctor or
other health worker that they had high blood pressure or hypertension.

▪ Among those who were told by a doctor or other health worker that they had high blood pressure or
hypertension, a higher proportion of women and men in urban areas (62% and 59%, respectively) than
in rural areas (53% and 47%, respectively) were prescribed medication to control their blood pressure.

▪ Compliance with prescribed treatment among women and men who were told by a doctor or other
health worker that they had high blood pressure or hypertension is nearly twice as high among those
age 60 and older (63% each) than among those age 15–59 (38% and 33%, respectively). Similarly,
urban women and men (52% and 49%, respectively) are more compliant with treatment than their rural
counterparts (36% and 31%, respectively).

14.3 BLOOD PRESSURE STATUS

High blood pressure or hypertension

A person is classified as having hypertension if, at the time of the survey, she
or he had an average systolic blood pressure (SBP) level of 140 mmHg or
above or an average diastolic blood pressure (DBP) level of 90 mmHg or
above or had normal blood pressure and was currently taking antihypertensive
medication.
Three blood pressure measurements were taken from each eligible
respondent, and the average systolic and diastolic readings of the second and
third measurements were used in this calculation. The term hypertension as
used in this report is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease;
rather, it provides a statistical description of the survey population at the time
of the survey.
Sample: Women and men age 15 and older with valid blood pressure
measurements

Tables 14.2.1 and 14.2.2 show that 18% of women and 23% of men age 15 and older have hypertension.
Four percent of both women and men with no elevated blood pressure levels at the time of the survey are
taking medications to control their blood pressure. Among individuals age 60 and older, 46% of women
and 42% of men have elevated blood pressure or hypertension.

Trends: The proportion of respondents age 15 and older with hypertension remained stable between 2016
and 2022. The proportion among women was 17% in 2016 and 18% in 2022, while the proportion among
men was 23% in both years.

Blood Pressure • 375

 Patterns by background characteristics

▪ As expected, the prevalence of hypertension increases with age among both women and men; the rise
is smooth for women, while there are spikes among men at age 45–49 and 65–69 (Table 14.2.1 and
Table 14.2.2).

▪ The prevalence of hypertension is consistently higher among men than women until age 55–59, after
which the prevalence among women generally exceeds that among men.

▪ The prevalence of hypertension Figure 14.2 Hypertension prevalence by age

is twice as high among men Percentage of women and men
age 35–39 (25%) as among age 15 and older
women of the same age (13%) 52
(Figure 14.2). 45
41
37 38 37
▪ The proportion of women and 43 45
men with hypertension is Men 37
25 24 33 35
higher among those age 60 and 28
older (46% and 42%, 15 22
10 Women
respectively) than among those 5
2 13
age 15–59 (13% and 19%, 8
respectively) (Table 14.2.1 and 2 5
15–19
2 25–29 35–39 45–49 55–59 65–69
Table 14.2.2). 20–24 30–34 40–44 50–54 60–64 70+
Age
▪ Ten percent of women and 14% Note: Hypertension = SBP >140 mmHg or DBP >90 mmHg or taking antihypertensive
of men who were never medication.

previously diagnosed by a doctor or health

worker had high blood pressure or hypertension. Figure 14.3 Prevalence of hypertension
by nutritional status
▪ There are substantial differences in the Percentage of women and men age
prevalence of hypertension among women and 15 and older
men according to their nutritional status. Women Men
Hypertension levels are higher among
overweight/obese adults than among those of
49
normal weight. For instance, the prevalence of 40 36
hypertension is more than double among obese
24
women (36%) than among those who are thin or 14 13 14 18
of normal weight (14% each). Among men, the
prevalence increases from 13% among thin men
to 49% among obese men (Figure 14.3). Thin Normal Overweight Obese
Note: Hypertension = SBP >140 mmHg or DBP >90 mmHg or
taking antihypertensive medication.

376 • Blood Pressure

▪ The prevalence of hypertension is highest in Figure 14.4 Hypertension by province
Koshi Province (25% among women and 27% Percentage of women and men age
among men) and lowest in Karnali Province 15 and older
(12% among women and 18% among men) Women
25
(Figure 14.4). Koshi Province
27 Men

▪ The prevalence of hypertension is highest Bagmati Province

20
among individuals in the highest wealth quintile 25
(21% among women and 29% among men) 19
Gandaki Province
(Figure 14.5). 23

Sudurpashchim 14
14.4 CONTROLLED BLOOD PRESSURE Province 23
STATUS
18
Lumbini Province
18
Controlled hypertension is defined as having an SBP
less than 140 and DBP less than 90 mmHg and Madhesh Province
12
currently taking antihypertensive medication. 23
Among those with hypertension, almost one in five 12
Karnali Province
(19%) women and one in six (17%) men have 18
controlled hypertension (Table 14.3.1 and Table Note: Hypertension = SBP >140 mmHg or DBP >90 mmHg or
14.3.2). taking antihypertensive medication.

Patterns by background characteristics Figure 14.5 Hypertension by

household wealth
▪ Controlled hypertension is highest among
individuals age 60 and older (25% among Percentage of women and men age
15 and older
women and 27% among men) (Table 14.3.1 and
Table 14.3.2). Women Men

▪ Controlled hypertension is highest among 29

24
women who are overweight (26%) and those 19 19 21 21 21
18
who are obese (25%). Among men, controlled 16 16
hypertension is higher among obese men (25%)
than other men.

▪ The prevalence of controlled hypertension is Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

lowest in Sudurpashchim Province (4% among Poorest Wealthiest
women and 6% among men) and highest in Note: Hypertension = SBP >140 mmHg or DBP >90 mmHg or
Bagmati Province (29% among women and 27% taking antihypertensive medication.

among men).

▪ The prevalence of controlled hypertension among women increases with increasing education, from
18% among those with no education to 26% among those with a secondary education. This pattern is
not observed among men.

▪ The prevalence of controlled hypertension among both women and men is higher in urban areas (22%
and 18%, respectively) than in rural areas (14% and 11%, respectively).

▪ In general, respondents from wealthier households are more compliant with treatment. For example,
the prevalence of controlled hypertension is 9% among women in the lowest wealth quintile, as
compared with 33% among women in the highest wealth quintile. The corresponding percentages
among men are 8% and 29%.

Blood Pressure • 377

 14.5 AWARENESS, MEDICATION, AND CONTROL OF HYPERTENSION
It is important for individuals to be aware about their condition so that appropriate measures can be taken
to bring their blood pressure under control. Data on levels of awareness and treatment status among
women and men age 15 and older with raised blood pressure or hypertension are presented in Figure 14.6.
The results show that 48% of women with raised blood pressure or hypertension are not aware that they
have raised blood pressure. Nineteen percent of women with raised blood pressure or hypertension are
aware about their condition, report taking medicine, and have their blood pressure controlled within the
normal range. Another 16% of women are aware of their condition and taking medication but do not have
their blood pressure controlled. Seventeen percent of women are aware about their condition but have not
been treated.

Figure 14.6 Awareness of hypertension and treatment status

Percent distribution of women age 15 Percent distribution of men age 15
and older and older

Aware, not Aware, not

treated treated
17% 20%

Aware,
Unaware Aware, treated,
treated, not Unaware
48% not controlled
controlled 52%
16% 12%

Aware, Aware,
treated, treated,
controlled controlled
19% 16%

Similarly, 52% of men with raised blood pressure or hypertension are not aware that they have raised blood
pressure. Sixteen percent of men with raised blood pressure or hypertension are aware about their
condition, report taking medicine, and have their blood pressure controlled within the normal range.
Another 12% of men are aware of their condition and taking medication but do not have their blood
pressure controlled. Twenty percent of men are aware about their condition but have not been treated.

Although the overall rate of hypertension among adults has remained stable since 2016 (18% among
women and 23% among men), hypertension is a serious health problem among adults age 45 and older and
those who are obese. Approximately half of adults with high blood pressure are not aware about their
condition. A first step toward bringing hypertension under control is awareness by individuals of their
condition and its implications in terms of premature disability and death. Many women and men in Nepal
may suffer from hypertension but do not know it; hypertension is often termed the “silent killer” because
of the lack of warning signs or symptoms. Educating the population about the adverse effects of
hypertension and promoting blood pressure screening, particularly among older individuals, should be an
important focus of health programs.

378 • Blood Pressure

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on blood pressure, see the following tables:

▪ Table 14.1.1 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by women
▪ Table 14.1.2 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by men
▪ Table 14.2.1 Blood pressure status of women
▪ Table 14.2.2 Blood pressure status of men
▪ Table 14.3.1 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among women
▪ Table 14.3.2 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among men

Blood Pressure • 379

 Table 14.1.1 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by women
Percentage of women age 15 and above who have ever had their blood pressure measured by a doctor or other health worker and percentage who have been told
by a doctor or other health worker that they have high blood pressure or hypertension, and among women who have been told they have high blood pressure,
percentage told in the last 12 months they have high blood pressure or hypertension, percentage prescribed medication to control their blood pressure, and
percentage taking medication to control their blood pressure, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women who have been told by a doctor or other
Percentage ever health worker they have high blood pressure or hypertension,
Percentage who told they have percentage who were:
ever had blood high blood Told in the last
pressure pressure or 12 months they Prescribed Taking
measured by a hypertension by have high blood medication to medication to
Background doctor or other a doctor or other Number of pressure or control their control their Number of
characteristic health worker health worker women hypertension blood pressure blood pressure women
Age
15–29 68.2 3.3 2,148 60.4 24.2 3.4 71
15–19 38.0 1.3 717 * * * 9
20–24 78.7 3.5 748 (49.3) (15.5) (2.9) 26
25–29 88.4 5.2 683 (68.1) (34.3) (4.7) 36
30–44 89.9 9.9 1,679 70.0 40.9 32.9 166
30–34 89.6 5.3 642 (61.8) (19.4) (12.8) 34
35–39 90.0 11.8 563 68.9 34.2 25.2 67
40–44 90.1 13.8 474 75.3 58.9 51.1 66
45–69 84.6 25.4 1,563 73.1 66.8 54.6 398
45–49 86.2 20.6 347 71.0 60.0 50.6 72
50–54 86.0 25.0 394 72.1 62.9 48.7 99
55–59 80.9 23.2 328 77.2 73.3 53.9 76
60–64 87.2 31.6 286 69.1 68.9 58.6 90
65–69 81.1 29.4 209 78.4 69.7 64.0 61
70+ 83.3 37.1 373 83.6 78.1 64.7 138
15–59 79.2 9.9 4,895 70.3 50.9 37.7 483
60+ 84.1 33.4 868 78.0 73.5 62.7 290
1
Nutritional status
Thin 64.4 7.2 825 72.4 56.0 33.6 60
Normal 77.4 9.6 3,210 68.2 55.4 40.4 309
Overweight 91.0 20.8 1,302 73.5 65.0 55.4 271
Obese 96.3 31.9 406 83.9 59.2 52.5 130
Not weighed and measured * * 21 * * * 4
Residence
Urban 81.5 14.2 3,866 73.4 62.1 51.5 549
Rural 76.8 11.8 1,897 72.5 52.7 36.2 224
Ecological zone
Mountain 75.1 10.5 313 (64.0) (54.3) (23.1) 33
Hill 81.8 13.4 2,375 77.0 58.0 50.0 319
Terai 79.0 13.7 3,076 71.0 60.8 46.7 422
Province
Koshi Province 77.6 15.4 1,038 75.6 59.7 45.4 159
Urban 77.7 15.8 672 80.4 62.9 50.9 106
Rural 77.4 14.5 366 66.1 53.3 34.3 53
Madhesh Province 74.5 10.8 1,122 63.9 61.3 48.4 121
Urban 75.0 11.4 829 58.4 61.4 53.3 95
Rural 73.4 9.0 293 (83.6) (60.9) (30.9) 26
Bagmati Province 85.1 17.7 1,203 77.9 65.6 56.3 213
Urban 88.1 18.6 947 78.1 69.0 60.8 176
Rural 73.8 14.2 257 (76.7) (49.0) (34.4) 36
Gandaki Province 90.3 13.8 562 79.4 59.2 50.1 78
Urban 91.3 14.7 383 80.2 62.8 50.4 56
Rural 88.2 12.0 180 (77.2) (49.8) (49.2) 22
Lumbini Province 81.2 14.0 1,008 73.1 54.8 44.6 141
Urban 82.6 13.7 555 73.9 56.9 45.8 76
Rural 79.5 14.3 454 72.2 52.4 43.3 65
Karnali Province 70.5 8.0 336 58.5 34.9 18.5 27
Urban 73.6 10.4 184 (54.5) (26.5) (18.5) 19
Rural 66.6 5.0 151 * * * 8
Sudurpashchim Province 76.6 7.0 494 63.0 50.2 19.1 35
Urban 77.1 7.0 296 (64.7) (51.6) (21.7) 21
Rural 76.0 7.1 198 (60.3) (48.2) (15.2) 14
Education
No education 81.7 20.6 2,359 77.0 67.5 52.5 485
Basic education (1–8) 76.0 10.4 1,467 68.3 46.0 34.8 153
Lower basic education (1–5) 82.0 13.8 779 70.2 51.0 41.9 107
Upper basic education (6–8) 69.3 6.6 688 (63.6) (34.2) (18.0) 46
Secondary (9–12) 78.5 6.2 1,704 69.5 49.7 45.3 106
Lower secondary (9–10) 76.4 8.2 996 72.4 53.4 49.5 82
Higher secondary (11–12) 81.4 3.4 709 * * * 24
More than secondary (13 and
above) 97.8 12.6 227 * * * 29

Continued…

380 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.1.1—Continued
Among women who have been told by a doctor or other
Percentage ever health worker they have high blood pressure or hypertension,
Percentage who told they have percentage who were:
ever had blood high blood Told in the last
pressure pressure or 12 months they Prescribed Taking
measured by a hypertension by have high blood medication to medication to
Background doctor or other a doctor or other Number of pressure or control their control their Number of
characteristic health worker health worker women hypertension blood pressure blood pressure women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 68.9 9.1 1,099 65.2 52.3 30.4 100
Second 74.7 11.8 1,228 70.0 50.0 36.4 145
Middle 80.1 11.2 1,086 77.7 61.4 46.2 122
Fourth 84.4 15.7 1,089 74.3 55.0 43.3 171
Highest 90.5 18.6 1,262 75.3 70.2 63.9 235
Total 79.9 13.4 5,763 73.2 59.4 47.1 773

Note: Total includes 7 women with missing information on education. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for women age 20–49 and using BMI-for-age for women age 15–19 as presented in Tables 11.21.1 and
11.21.2. Excludes pregnant women.

Blood Pressure • 381

 Table 14.1.2 Blood pressure measured and medication prescribed and taken by men
Percentage of men age 15 and above who have ever had their blood pressure measured by a doctor or other health worker and percentage who have been told by
a doctor or other health worker that they have high blood pressure or hypertension, and among men who have been told they have high blood pressure, percentage
told in the last 12 months they have high blood pressure or hypertension, percentage prescribed medication to control their blood pressure, and percentage taking
medication to control their blood pressure, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage ever Among men who have been told by a doctor or other health worker they
Percentage who told they have have high blood pressure or hypertension, percentage who were:
ever had blood high blood Told in the last
pressure pressure or 12 months they Prescribed Taking
measured by a hypertension by have high blood medication to medication to
Background doctor or other a doctor or other Number of pressure or control their control their Number of
characteristic health worker health worker men hypertension blood pressure blood pressure men
Age
15–29 51.1 2.5 1,462 (53.4) (23.1) (3.5) 37
15–19 26.7 0.7 613 * * * 4
20–24 62.6 2.2 438 * * * 10
25–29 75.2 5.6 411 (55.7) (32.4) (5.7) 23
30–44 85.4 14.6 1,143 61.1 40.9 23.4 166
30–34 83.2 8.4 391 (59.1) (14.2) (12.9) 33
35–39 85.4 16.5 378 59.6 55.6 23.3 62
40–44 87.7 19.0 374 63.4 40.4 28.4 71
45–69 79.6 23.8 1,394 70.1 60.3 51.1 331
45–49 84.0 20.4 314 66.9 44.6 35.3 64
50–54 80.7 21.7 349 65.6 51.4 46.7 76
55–59 76.0 24.0 295 65.2 66.8 52.9 71
60–64 81.0 26.6 241 76.5 72.2 60.7 64
65–69 74.7 29.1 195 (78.7) (68.4) (61.4) 57
70+ 84.7 32.1 335 75.5 74.1 64.6 108
15–59 70.0 11.6 3,563 62.8 46.2 32.7 414
60+ 81.0 29.6 771 76.6 72.1 62.7 228
Nutritional status1
Thin 46.3 5.6 612 (70.1) (57.3) (44.8) 34
Normal 71.3 11.0 2,667 67.7 57.3 42.8 295
Overweight 87.6 27.4 867 67.8 53.6 42.7 237
Obese 92.9 43.1 174 65.8 52.3 46.4 75
Not weighed and measured * * 13 * * * 1
Residence
Urban 74.7 15.6 2,918 68.5 58.8 48.7 455
Rural 66.1 13.2 1,416 65.9 47.2 30.6 187
Ecological zone
Mountain 65.4 10.4 240 (77.7) (55.1) (25.2) 25
Hill 77.0 17.1 1,774 59.3 51.7 42.6 304
Terai 68.7 13.5 2,320 75.1 59.1 45.6 314
Province
Koshi Province 66.3 15.6 808 65.7 51.4 35.4 126
Urban 66.0 15.5 519 66.2 53.4 41.6 80
Rural 66.9 15.8 289 64.9 47.7 24.5 46
Madhesh Province 65.4 12.5 781 85.3 60.1 50.3 98
Urban 66.1 12.6 561 (87.5) (62.8) (55.1) 71
Rural 63.5 12.3 221 (79.6) (53.2) (37.6) 27
Bagmati Province 78.1 17.5 1,005 64.1 63.6 54.2 176
Urban 81.6 18.7 802 62.4 66.4 58.8 150
Rural 64.2 12.7 203 (73.6) (47.4) (27.6) 26
Gandaki Province 85.1 19.3 412 65.7 44.8 36.8 80
Urban 84.4 16.5 286 (67.9) (48.1) (40.7) 47
Rural 86.7 25.8 126 62.3 40.1 31.1 32
Lumbini Province 71.5 12.9 765 69.7 53.6 43.9 99
Urban 77.9 14.3 423 (76.1) (55.3) (47.0) 60
Rural 63.7 11.2 342 (59.6) (50.8) (39.0) 38
Karnali Province 66.5 13.8 223 47.1 48.8 24.8 31
Urban 71.8 18.7 120 (40.0) (47.7) (22.5) 22
Rural 60.3 8.1 103 * * * 8
Sudurpashchim Province 70.7 10.0 340 60.9 50.9 28.4 34
Urban 75.6 11.9 207 (66.2) (58.2) (35.1) 25
Rural 63.1 7.2 133 * * * 10
Education
No education 72.8 16.9 784 67.7 59.6 44.2 132
Basic education (1–8) 68.2 16.3 1,667 67.7 52.6 41.3 271
Lower basic education
(1–5) 73.1 19.9 913 66.1 56.0 45.1 182
Upper basic education
(6–8) 62.4 11.9 755 70.9 45.6 33.6 90
Secondary (9–12) 71.3 11.7 1,588 70.5 55.3 44.1 186
Lower secondary (9–10) 68.4 12.8 964 78.0 56.6 46.6 124
Higher secondary (11–12) 75.7 9.9 624 55.6 52.8 39.0 62
More than secondary (13 and
above) 96.1 18.5 284 (57.5) (59.1) (49.0) 53

Continued…

382 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.1.2—Continued

Percentage ever Among men who have been told by a doctor or other health worker they
Percentage who told they have have high blood pressure or hypertension, percentage who were:
ever had blood high blood Told in the last
pressure pressure or 12 months they Prescribed Taking
measured by a hypertension by have high blood medication to medication to
Background doctor or other a doctor or other Number of pressure or control their control their Number of
characteristic health worker health worker men hypertension blood pressure blood pressure men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 60.0 10.6 780 59.0 44.2 26.6 83
Second 64.8 11.9 828 64.1 45.8 36.6 99
Middle 72.9 12.7 825 66.3 53.1 37.7 105
Fourth 73.4 15.4 902 74.1 53.4 36.2 139
Highest 85.1 21.8 999 69.3 66.5 60.2 218
Total 71.9 14.8 4,334 67.7 55.4 43.4 643

Note: Total includes 10 men with missing information on education. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for men age 20–49 and using BMI-for-age for men age 15–19 as presented in Tables 11.21.3 and
11.21.4.

Blood Pressure • 383

Table 14.2.1 Blood pressure status of women
Among women age 15 and above, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking antihypertensive medication, and
prevalence of hypertension, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Classification of blood pressure
Normal Elevated
Mildly Moderately Normal
elevated elevated Severely blood
Normal SBP High normal (Grade 1) (Grade 2) elevated pressure
Optimal 120–129 SBP 130– SBP 140– SBP 160– (Grade 3) and taking
SBP <120 and DBP 139 and 159 or DBP 179 or DBP SBP 180+ antihyper- Prevalence
Background and DBP 80–84 DBP 85–89 90–99 100–109 or DBP tensive of hyper- Number of
characteristic <80 mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg 110+ mmHg Total medication tension1 women2
Age
15–29 80.1 12.4 4.8 2.5 0.1 0.1 100.0 0.1 2.8 2,148
15–19 85.9 9.5 3.0 1.5 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 1.6 717
20–24 80.5 13.1 4.2 2.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 0.1 2.3 748
25–29 73.6 14.8 7.3 4.0 0.0 0.2 100.0 0.2 4.5 683
30–44 60.5 17.8 10.3 8.5 2.0 0.9 100.0 2.2 13.5 1,679
30–34 68.2 15.5 8.4 5.6 1.8 0.5 100.0 0.2 8.1 642
35–39 57.0 21.4 10.9 9.4 0.5 0.9 100.0 2.1 12.9 563
40–44 54.1 16.9 12.2 11.2 4.2 1.4 100.0 4.9 21.7 474
45–69 39.8 17.7 14.6 17.8 7.0 3.1 100.0 7.5 35.4 1,563
45–49 45.6 22.6 11.0 14.7 3.5 2.6 100.0 6.9 27.7 347
50–54 39.2 15.5 16.2 17.8 8.3 3.0 100.0 3.9 32.9 394
55–59 37.8 17.7 14.6 18.1 7.2 4.6 100.0 7.5 37.4 328
60–64 37.1 15.9 17.8 21.3 6.0 1.8 100.0 11.3 40.5 286
65–69 37.6 16.4 13.1 17.7 11.1 4.0 100.0 9.9 42.7 209
70+ 30.5 16.4 13.3 21.7 12.8 5.4 100.0 12.1 51.9 373
15–59 64.8 15.6 8.7 7.7 2.1 1.1 100.0 2.1 13.0 4,895
60+ 34.4 16.2 14.8 20.6 10.2 3.9 100.0 11.3 45.9 868
Previously diagnosed with
high blood pressure by a
health provider
Ever diagnosed 24.6 15.2 16.2 25.9 12.8 5.2 100.0 26.0 70.0 773
Diagnosed in the last 12
months 20.2 14.8 17.0 28.5 13.5 6.0 100.0 28.8 76.9 566
Not diagnosed in the last 12
months 36.5 16.4 14.1 19.0 10.9 3.2 100.0 18.2 51.2 207
Never diagnosed 65.8 15.8 8.6 7.1 1.9 0.9 100.0 0.0 9.9 4,990
Currently taking
antihypertensive medication
Yes 25.5 14.2 15.5 25.8 14.1 4.9 100.0 55.2 100.0 364
No 62.6 15.8 9.2 8.5 2.6 1.2 100.0 0.0 12.4 5,399
Nutritional status3
Thin 72.1 9.6 5.6 7.2 3.4 2.3 100.0 0.9 13.7 825
Normal 64.8 15.3 8.1 8.0 2.6 1.2 100.0 2.2 14.1 3,210
Overweight 48.7 19.2 14.0 12.5 3.9 1.6 100.0 6.4 24.4 1,302
Obese 38.0 19.9 14.9 18.0 7.2 2.0 100.0 9.2 36.4 406
Not weighed and measured * * * * * * * * * 19
Residence
Urban 59.6 16.1 10.1 9.7 3.2 1.3 100.0 4.1 18.3 3,866
Rural 61.5 15.0 8.6 9.5 3.6 1.8 100.0 2.3 17.2 1,897
Ecological zone
Mountain 57.9 14.0 9.4 10.9 3.8 3.9 100.0 1.6 20.2 313
Hill 56.9 17.5 10.0 10.6 3.4 1.6 100.0 3.9 19.4 2,375
Terai 63.0 14.5 9.3 8.8 3.3 1.2 100.0 3.4 16.6 3,076

Continued…

384 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.2.1—Continued
Classification of blood pressure
Normal Elevated
Mildly Moderately Normal
elevated elevated Severely blood
Normal SBP High normal (Grade 1) (Grade 2) elevated pressure
Optimal 120–129 SBP 130– SBP 140– SBP 160– (Grade 3) and taking
SBP <120 and DBP 139 and 159 or DBP 179 or DBP SBP 180+ antihyper- Prevalence
Background and DBP 80–84 DBP 85–89 90–99 100–109 or DBP tensive of hyper- Number of
characteristic <80 mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg 110+ mmHg Total medication tension1 women2
Province
Koshi Province 51.8 16.1 10.4 13.3 5.9 2.6 100.0 3.0 24.8 1,038
Urban 49.9 17.4 11.1 13.9 5.8 2.0 100.0 3.0 24.6 672
Rural 55.2 13.7 9.2 12.3 6.1 3.6 100.0 3.1 25.1 366
Madhesh Province 69.5 13.0 8.6 6.5 2.0 0.5 100.0 3.1 12.0 1,122
Urban 68.3 13.3 9.3 6.7 2.0 0.4 100.0 3.7 12.9 829
Rural 72.9 12.3 6.6 5.8 1.9 0.5 100.0 1.5 9.7 293
Bagmati Province 56.8 18.4 10.3 9.1 3.6 1.7 100.0 5.9 20.3 1,203
Urban 58.2 18.5 10.0 8.6 3.5 1.2 100.0 6.8 20.0 947
Rural 51.8 18.1 11.2 11.1 4.3 3.4 100.0 2.5 21.3 256
Gandaki Province 58.5 15.6 10.4 9.6 3.4 2.3 100.0 4.0 19.4 562
Urban 56.5 17.1 11.4 9.3 3.4 2.4 100.0 4.5 19.5 383
Rural 62.8 12.5 8.5 10.4 3.6 2.3 100.0 2.8 19.1 180
Lumbini Province 62.0 14.8 9.3 10.6 2.5 0.9 100.0 3.6 17.6 1,008
Urban 63.4 12.9 9.5 11.3 2.0 0.9 100.0 3.9 18.1 555
Rural 60.2 17.1 9.0 9.8 3.0 0.9 100.0 3.2 16.9 454
Karnali Province 61.7 16.7 10.3 7.3 2.9 1.1 100.0 0.7 12.0 336
Urban 56.1 18.3 12.6 7.8 3.7 1.5 100.0 0.9 14.0 184
Rural 68.6 14.7 7.5 6.7 2.0 0.5 100.0 0.5 9.6 151
Sudurpashchim Province 62.7 15.6 8.0 9.8 2.3 1.5 100.0 0.6 14.2 494
Urban 61.0 16.3 8.5 10.9 1.9 1.6 100.0 0.5 14.8 296
Rural 65.4 14.7 7.3 8.3 3.0 1.3 100.0 0.8 13.4 198
Education
No education 47.9 16.8 11.5 14.5 6.4 2.8 100.0 5.3 29.1 2,359
Basic education (1–8) 65.7 14.3 9.2 7.9 2.1 0.8 100.0 2.4 13.2 1,467
Lower basic education (1–5) 57.9 15.6 11.3 11.6 2.3 1.1 100.0 3.7 18.8 779
Upper basic education (6–8) 74.5 12.7 6.9 3.7 1.8 0.4 100.0 0.8 6.8 688
Secondary (9–12) 70.9 15.5 7.7 4.9 0.6 0.4 100.0 2.0 7.9 1,704
Lower secondary (9–10) 68.5 15.8 9.0 5.1 0.9 0.6 100.0 2.7 9.3 996
Higher secondary (11–12) 74.3 15.1 5.9 4.5 0.2 0.1 100.0 1.0 5.8 709
More than secondary (13 and
above) 72.3 14.5 7.3 5.6 0.4 0.0 100.0 2.8 8.8 227
Wealth quintile
Lowest 59.6 13.7 9.0 12.3 3.7 1.7 100.0 1.8 19.4 1,099
Second 61.0 16.3 9.3 8.2 3.1 2.2 100.0 2.2 15.6 1,228
Middle 62.6 14.9 9.8 9.0 2.5 1.2 100.0 2.9 15.6 1,086
Fourth 59.1 17.0 9.3 9.2 4.1 1.3 100.0 3.4 18.0 1,089
Highest 59.1 16.4 10.5 9.7 3.3 1.0 100.0 6.9 20.9 1,262
Total 60.2 15.7 9.6 9.6 3.3 1.5 100.0 3.5 17.9 5,763

Note: When a respondent’s SBP and DBP fall into different classifications, the respondent is classified into the higher classification of blood pressure. If blood pressure was
measured 3 times, the average of the 2nd and 3rd blood pressure measurements is used to classify individuals with respect to hypertension. If the 3rd blood pressure
measurement is missing, the 2nd measurement is considered the average. If the 2nd and the 3rd blood pressure measurements are missing, the 1st measurement is considered
the average. Total includes 7 cases with missing information on education. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
SBP = Systolic blood pressure
DBP = Diastolic blood pressure
1
A woman is classified as having hypertension if, at the time of the survey, she had an average SBP level of 140 mmHg or above or an average DBP level of 90 mmHg or
above or was currently taking antihypertensive medication. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it
provides a statistical description of the survey population at the time of the survey.
2
Includes pregnant women
3
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for women age 20–49 and using BMI-for-age for women age 15–19 as presented in Tables 11.21.1 and 11.21.2.
Excludes pregnant women.

Blood Pressure • 385

Table 14.2.2 Blood pressure status of men
Among men age 15 and above, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking antihypertensive medication, and prevalence
of hypertension, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Classification of blood pressure
Normal Elevated
Mildly Moderately Normal
elevated elevated Severely blood
Normal SBP High normal (Grade 1) (Grade 2) elevated pressure
Optimal 120–129 SBP 130– SBP 140– SBP 160– (Grade 3) and taking
SBP <120 and DBP 139 and 159 or DBP 179 or DBP SBP 180+ antihyper- Prevalence
Background and DBP 80–84 DBP 85–89 90–99 100–109 or DBP tensive of hyper- Number of
characteristic <80 mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg 110+ mmHg Total medication tension1 men
Age
15–29 70.0 18.3 6.8 4.7 0.1 0.1 100.0 0.1 5.0 1,466
15–19 81.9 12.5 3.9 1.6 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 1.7 613
20–24 67.8 20.6 6.7 4.8 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 4.8 438
25–29 54.6 24.5 11.1 9.2 0.2 0.3 100.0 0.3 10.1 411
30–44 45.5 21.2 14.5 12.6 5.0 1.1 100.0 2.2 21.0 1,143
30–34 48.7 23.7 14.2 9.7 3.5 0.1 100.0 1.1 14.5 391
35–39 43.8 19.8 14.4 13.5 6.9 1.6 100.0 2.7 24.7 378
40–44 44.1 20.1 14.9 14.8 4.6 1.6 100.0 3.0 24.0 374
45–69 37.2 17.9 13.8 19.8 8.1 3.1 100.0 6.9 37.9 1,394
45–49 33.0 17.3 16.9 21.4 8.3 3.1 100.0 3.8 36.7 314
50–54 39.1 15.8 12.6 19.2 8.0 5.2 100.0 5.1 37.6 349
55–59 38.1 19.6 12.6 21.1 6.8 1.7 100.0 7.1 36.8 295
60–64 39.9 21.2 14.1 16.0 7.6 1.3 100.0 10.5 35.3 241
65–69 35.9 16.3 12.5 21.2 10.5 3.6 100.0 9.9 45.2 195
70+ 33.9 17.4 15.7 19.7 9.0 4.3 100.0 12.4 45.4 335
15–59 53.2 19.0 11.2 11.5 3.7 1.3 100.0 2.2 18.7 3,563
60+ 36.3 18.3 14.4 18.9 8.9 3.2 100.0 11.2 42.2 771
Previously diagnosed with high
blood pressure by a health
provider
Ever diagnosed 18.3 16.0 17.1 28.4 13.3 6.9 100.0 25.5 74.1 643
Diagnosed in the last 12 months 16.8 16.1 18.5 29.8 12.7 6.1 100.0 32.3 80.9 435
Not diagnosed in the last 12
months 21.5 15.8 14.3 25.4 14.6 8.5 100.0 11.4 59.8 208
Never diagnosed 55.8 19.4 10.8 10.1 3.2 0.7 100.0 0.0 14.0 3,691
Currently taking antihypertensive
medication
Yes 16.3 22.4 20.1 28.9 9.3 3.0 100.0 58.8 100.0 279
No 19.9 11.1 14.8 28.0 16.4 9.8 100.0 0.0 54.2 364
Nutritional status2
Thin 69.8 12.7 6.2 8.0 2.6 0.8 100.0 1.3 12.7 612
Normal 54.2 19.8 10.9 10.5 3.2 1.3 100.0 2.9 18.0 2,667
Overweight 28.7 21.3 16.6 21.2 8.9 3.4 100.0 6.5 40.0 867
Obese 28.2 15.2 19.8 23.3 12.3 1.2 100.0 11.9 48.7 174
Not weighed and measured * * * * * * * * * 13
Residence
Urban 48.6 18.8 11.9 13.8 5.2 1.7 100.0 4.6 25.3 2,918
Rural 53.4 19.2 11.5 10.9 3.6 1.5 100.0 2.0 17.9 1,416
Ecological zone
Mountain 56.1 13.7 11.1 14.3 3.2 1.5 100.0 0.8 19.9 240
Hill 49.9 20.5 11.2 12.7 4.1 1.6 100.0 4.6 23.0 1,774
Terai 49.9 18.2 12.3 12.7 5.2 1.7 100.0 3.5 23.2 2,320

Continued…

386 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.2.2—Continued
Classification of blood pressure
Normal Elevated
Mildly Moderately Normal
elevated elevated Severely blood
Normal SBP High normal (Grade 1) (Grade 2) elevated pressure
Optimal 120–129 SBP 130– SBP 140– SBP 160– (Grade 3) and taking
SBP <120 and DBP 139 and 159 or DBP 179 or DBP SBP 180+ antihyper- Prevalence
Background and DBP 80–84 DBP 85–89 90–99 100–109 or DBP tensive of hyper- Number of
characteristic <80 mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg 110+ mmHg Total medication tension1 men
Province
Koshi Province 44.4 18.0 13.2 15.5 5.8 3.1 100.0 2.2 26.7 808
Urban 43.2 17.3 14.7 14.4 7.6 2.9 100.0 3.3 28.2 519
Rural 46.5 19.3 10.6 17.5 2.6 3.5 100.0 0.3 23.9 289
Madhesh Province 52.8 17.2 10.4 13.3 5.1 1.3 100.0 3.1 22.8 781
Urban 52.1 16.4 10.1 14.6 5.6 1.4 100.0 3.6 25.1 561
Rural 54.6 19.3 11.1 10.0 3.9 1.1 100.0 1.9 16.9 221
Bagmati Province 48.2 23.0 10.8 12.4 4.3 1.2 100.0 6.6 24.5 1,005
Urban 47.5 24.0 10.5 12.9 3.9 1.2 100.0 7.5 25.5 802
Rural 50.9 19.2 12.2 10.4 6.0 1.2 100.0 2.8 20.5 203
Gandaki Province 51.3 17.5 11.9 12.6 5.3 1.5 100.0 4.0 23.4 412
Urban 52.3 15.5 11.7 13.0 5.7 1.7 100.0 3.8 24.3 286
Rural 48.8 21.8 12.2 11.5 4.5 1.1 100.0 4.3 21.4 126
Lumbini Province 55.0 18.1 12.6 9.3 4.0 1.0 100.0 3.8 18.1 765
Urban 51.5 17.5 12.9 12.2 4.7 1.3 100.0 4.3 22.5 423
Rural 59.3 18.8 12.3 5.8 3.1 0.7 100.0 3.2 12.8 342
Karnali Province 54.6 17.8 12.4 10.3 3.5 1.3 100.0 2.5 17.7 223
Urban 48.3 17.9 16.4 11.0 4.4 2.0 100.0 3.9 21.3 120
Rural 62.1 17.7 7.6 9.6 2.5 0.5 100.0 0.9 13.5 103
Sudurpashchim Province 49.1 17.1 12.0 16.3 3.4 2.1 100.0 1.3 23.1 340
Urban 46.6 16.3 11.3 19.2 3.8 2.8 100.0 1.9 27.7 207
Rural 53.1 18.4 13.1 11.8 2.6 1.1 100.0 0.4 15.9 133
Education
No education 42.3 18.2 12.8 15.7 8.7 2.4 100.0 4.8 31.6 784
Basic education (1–8) 49.7 19.1 12.0 12.7 3.9 2.5 100.0 3.7 22.8 1,677
Lower basic education (1–5) 45.2 19.3 13.0 15.1 4.8 2.6 100.0 5.1 27.6 913
Upper basic education (6–8) 55.2 18.8 10.8 9.8 2.9 2.5 100.0 2.0 17.1 755
Secondary (9–12) 55.4 17.8 10.5 11.8 4.0 0.6 100.0 2.9 19.2 1,588
Lower secondary (9–10) 51.5 18.5 12.0 12.1 4.9 1.0 100.0 3.1 21.2 964
Higher secondary (11–12) 61.5 16.6 8.2 11.2 2.5 0.0 100.0 2.5 16.2 624
More than secondary (13 and
above) 46.5 26.4 14.7 10.1 1.8 0.4 100.0 6.5 18.9 284
Wealth quintile
Lowest 55.4 16.2 10.8 11.1 4.9 1.5 100.0 1.4 18.9 780
Second 50.4 17.7 14.1 12.3 3.2 2.3 100.0 2.7 20.5 828
Middle 54.8 15.4 12.0 11.7 4.7 1.4 100.0 3.4 21.2 825
Fourth 46.8 21.2 10.3 14.4 5.2 2.1 100.0 2.1 23.8 902
Highest 45.2 22.8 11.7 13.9 5.2 1.1 100.0 8.4 28.7 999
Total 50.2 18.9 11.8 12.8 4.7 1.7 100.0 3.8 22.9 4,334

Note: When a respondent’s SBP and DBP fall into different classifications, the respondent is classified into the higher classification of blood pressure. If blood pressure was
measured 3 times, the average of the 2nd and 3rd blood pressure measurements is used to classify individuals with respect to hypertension. If the 3rd blood pressure
measurement is missing, the 2nd measurement is considered the average. If the 2nd and the 3rd blood pressure measurements are missing, the 1st measurement is considered
the average. Total includes 10 cases with missing information on education. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
SBP = Systolic blood pressure
DBP = Diastolic blood pressure
1
A man is classified as having hypertension if, at the time of the survey, he had an average SBP level of 140 mmHg or above or an average DBP level of 90 mmHg or above
or was currently taking antihypertensive medication. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides
a statistical description of the survey population at the time of the survey.
2
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for men age 20–49 and using BMI-for-age for men age 15–19 as presented in Tables 11.21.3 and 11.21.4.

Blood Pressure • 387

 Table 14.3.1 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among women
Among women age 15 and older with hypertension, percentage with controlled
hypertension, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Prevalence of
Background controlled Number of women
characteristic hypertension1 with hypertension2
Age
15–29 4.1 59
15–19 * 12
20–24 * 17
25–29 (5.4) 31
30–44 16.0 227
30–34 2.9 52
35–39 16.2 72
40–44 22.5 103
45–69 21.1 553
45–49 24.9 96
50–54 11.7 129
55–59 20.1 122
60–64 28.0 116
65–69 23.3 89
70+ 23.3 194
15–59 16.2 635
60+ 24.6 399
Previously diagnosed with high
blood pressure by a health
provider
Ever diagnosed 37.1 541
Diagnosed in the last 12 months 37.5 435
Not diagnosed in the last 12
months 35.5 106
Never diagnosed 0.0 492
Currently taking antihypertensive
medication
Yes 55.2 364
No 0.0 670
Nutritional status3
Thin 6.6 113
Normal 16.0 452
Overweight 26.3 318
Obese 25.4 148
Not weighed and measured * 3
Residence
Urban 22.2 706
Rural 13.5 327
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.9 63
Hill 20.1 461
Terai 20.3 510
Province
Koshi Province 12.3 257
Urban 12.2 165
Rural 12.5 92
Madhesh Province 25.9 135
Urban 28.8 107
Rural (15.3) 28
Bagmati Province 28.8 244
Urban 33.7 190
Rural 11.8 55
Gandaki Province 20.5 109
Urban 23.2 75
Rural 14.7 34
Lumbini Province 20.4 177
Urban 21.5 100
Rural 18.9 77
Karnali Province 6.0 40
Urban 6.6 26
Rural (4.9) 15
Sudurpashchim Province 4.2 70
Urban 3.2 44
Rural 5.8 27

Continued…

388 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.3.1—Continued
Prevalence of
Background controlled Number of women
characteristic hypertension1 with hypertension2
Education
No education 18.3 687
Basic education (1–8) 17.9 193
Lower basic education (1–5) 19.8 147
Upper basic education (6–8) (12.1) 47
Secondary (9–12) 25.6 134
Lower secondary (9–10) 28.8 93
Higher secondary (11–12) (18.2) 41
More than secondary (13 and
above) * 20
Wealth quintile
Lowest 9.1 213
Second 13.8 192
Middle 18.4 169
Fourth 19.0 196
Highest 32.9 263
Total 19.4 1,033

Note: When a respondent’s SBP and DBP fall into different classifications, the
respondent is classified into the higher classification of blood pressure. If blood
pressure was measured 3 times, the average of the 2nd and 3rd blood
pressure measurements is used to classify individuals with respect to
hypertension. If the 3rd blood pressure measurement is missing, the 2nd
measurement is considered the average. If the 2nd and the 3rd blood pressure
measurements are missing, the 1st measurement is considered the average.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
SBP = Systolic blood pressure
DBP = Diastolic blood pressure
1
Controlled hypertension is measured among persons with hypertension and
is defined as having an SBP less than 140 and DBP less than 90 mmHg and
currently taking antihypertensive medication.
2
A woman is classified as having hypertension if, at the time of the survey, she
had an average SBP level of 140 mmHg or above or an average DBP level of
90 mmHg or above or was currently taking antihypertensive medication. The
term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical
diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides a statistical description of the
survey population at the time of the survey.
3
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for women age 20–
49 and using BMI-for-age for women age 15–19 as presented in Tables
11.21.1 and 11.21.2. Excludes pregnant women.

Blood Pressure • 389

 Table 14.3.2 Prevalence of controlled hypertension among men
Among men age 15 and older with hypertension, percentage with controlled
hypertension, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Prevalence of
Background controlled Number of men
characteristic hypertension1 with hypertension2
Age
15–29 1.8 73
15–19 * 10
20–24 * 21
25–29 (3.1) 42
30–44 10.7 240
30–34 7.5 57
35–39 10.8 93
40–44 12.6 90
45–69 18.1 528
45–49 10.4 115
50–54 13.7 131
55–59 19.4 108
60–64 29.7 85
65–69 22.0 88
70+ 27.3 152
15–59 11.7 668
60+ 26.5 325
Previously diagnosed with high
blood pressure by a health
provider
Ever diagnosed 34.4 476
Diagnosed in the last 12 months 39.9 352
Not diagnosed in the last 12
months 19.0 124
Never diagnosed 0.0 517
Currently taking antihypertensive
medication
Yes 58.8 279
No 0.0 197
Nutritional status3
Thin 10.0 78
Normal 16.2 479
Overweight 16.2 347
Obese 24.5 85
Not weighed and measured * 4
Residence
Urban 18.3 739
Rural 11.3 254
Ecological zone
Mountain 4.0 48
Hill 20.0 408
Terai 15.0 538
Province
Koshi Province 8.4 215
Urban 11.7 146
Rural 1.4 69
Madhesh Province 13.6 178
Urban 14.3 141
Rural 11.3 37
Bagmati Province 26.8 246
Urban 29.4 205
Rural 13.8 42
Gandaki Province 17.0 96
Urban 15.8 69
Rural 19.9 27
Lumbini Province 21.0 139
Urban 19.3 95
Rural (24.9) 44
Karnali Province 14.2 39
Urban (18.4) 26
Rural (6.3) 14
Sudurpashchim Province 5.7 78
Urban 6.8 57
Rural (2.7) 21

Continued…

390 • Blood Pressure

Table 14.3.2—Continued
Prevalence of
Background controlled Number of men
characteristic hypertension1 with hypertension2
Education
No education 15.3 248
Basic education (1–8) 16.2 381
Lower basic education (1–5) 18.5 252
Upper basic education (6–8) 11.6 129
Secondary (9–12) 15.0 305
Lower secondary (9–10) 14.8 204
Higher secondary (11–12) 15.5 101
More than secondary (13 and
above) (34.5) 54
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.6 148
Second 13.1 169
Middle 15.9 174
Fourth 8.7 215
Highest 29.4 287
Total 16.5 993

Note: When a respondent’s SBP and DBP fall into different classifications, the
respondent is classified into the higher classification of blood pressure. If blood
pressure was measured 3 times, the average of the 2nd and 3rd blood
pressure measurements is used to classify individuals with respect to
hypertension. If the 3rd blood pressure measurement is missing, the 2nd
measurement is considered the average. If the 2nd and the 3rd blood pressure
measurements are missing, the 1st measurement is considered the average.
Total includes 5 cases with missing information on education. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that
a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
SBP = Systolic blood pressure
DBP = Diastolic blood pressure
1
Controlled hypertension is measured among persons with hypertension and
is defined as having an SBP less than 140 and DBP less than 90 mmHg and
currently taking antihypertensive medication.
2
A man is classified as having hypertension if, at the time of the survey, he
had an average SBP level of 140 mmHg or above or an average DBP level of
90 mmHg or above or was currently taking antihypertensive medication. The
term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical
diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides a statistical description of the
survey population at the time of the survey.
3
Nutritional status is defined using body mass index (BMI) for men age 20–49
and using BMI-for-age for men age 15–19 as presented in Tables 11.21.3 and
11.21.4.

Blood Pressure • 391

WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT 15
Key Findings
▪ Employment and control over earnings: 76% of
currently married women age 15–49 were employed at
any time in the past 12 months, and 48% earned cash for
their work. Forty-four percent of women who received
cash earnings made decisions mainly alone about the
use of their earnings.
▪ Ownership of assets: 15% of men own a house and
16% own land alone or jointly, as compared with 8% and
11% of women, respectively. The majority of women who
own a house or land have a title/deed and have their
name on it.
▪ Mobile phones and bank accounts: 80% of women and
92% of men have any type of mobile phone, with 60% of
women and 74% of men owning a smartphone. Forty-
nine percent of women and 53% of men reported having
and using a bank account.
▪ Participation in decision making: 48% of currently
married women participate alone or jointly with their
husband in decisions regarding their own health care,
major household purchases, and visits to their family or
relatives.
▪ Attitudes towards wife beating: 19% of women and
17% of men agree that a husband is justified in hitting or
beating his wife for at least one specified reason. These
percentages are much lower than they were in 2016.
▪ Negotiating safer sexual relations: 84% of women and
73% of men agree that a woman is justified in refusing to
have sexual relations with her husband if she knows that
he has sexual relations with other women, and 90% of
women and 94% of men agree that a wife is justified in
asking her husband to use a condom if she knows that he
has a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Ninety-one
percent of currently married women report that they can
say no to their husband if they do not want to have sex,
and 78% report that they can ask their husband to use a
condom.
▪ Participation in decision making on sexual and
reproductive health: 63% of married women make their
own informed decisions on three crucial aspects of their
sexual and reproductive health (sexual relations,
contraceptive use, and reproductive health care).

T
his chapter explores women’s empowerment in terms of employment, earnings, control over
earnings, and magnitude of earnings relative to those of their partners. The chapter also examines
women’s and men’s ownership of assets including houses, land, and mobile phones as well as their
use of bank accounts and mobile-money-service providers. In addition, responses to specific questions are
used to define three different indicators of women’s empowerment: women’s participation in household

Women’s Empowerment • 393

 decision making, women’s attitudes towards wife beating, and women’s participation in decision making
regarding sexual and reproductive health.

15.1 MARRIED WOMEN’S AND MEN’S EMPLOYMENT

Employment
Respondents are considered to be employed if they have done any work other
than their housework in the 12 months before the survey.
Sample: Currently married women and men age 15–49

Earning cash for employment

Respondents are asked if they are paid for their labor in cash or in-kind. Only
those who receive payment in cash only or in cash and in-kind are considered
to earn cash for their employment.
Sample: Currently married women and men age 15–49 employed in the
12 months before the survey

Almost all men (98%) age 15–49 were employed in the 12 months preceding the survey, as compared with
76% of currently married women (Table 15.1).

About half (48%) of employed women work for cash (cash only or cash and in-kind), compared with 88%
of men. The proportion of employed women who are not paid for the work they do is about 4.5 times that
for men (46% of women versus 10% of men).

Trends: The proportion of married women who were employed in the last 12 months has increased by 8
percentage points since 2016. Sixty-eight percent of currently married women were employed in 2016, a
lower percentage than in 2011 (77%) and 2006 (83%). In contrast, married men’s participation in the
workforce has remained relatively constant (at over 97%) during the same time period.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Married women’s participation in employment Figure 15.1 Employment by age

increases with age, from 55% among those age Percentage of currently married women
15–19 to 85% among those age 40–44 and and men who were employed at any time
declines slightly among those age 45–49 to 83%. in the 12 months before the survey
In contrast, married men’s participation in Currently married men
employment is high (92%) even in the youngest 97 98 98 99 98 97
92
age group (Figure 15.1).
81 84 85 83
▪ Married women age 15–19 and age 20–24 are 72
more likely to not be paid for their work (71% 62 Currently married women
55
and 56%, respectively) than older women.

15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49

Age group

394 • Women’s Empowerment

15.2 CONTROL OVER WOMEN’S EARNINGS

Control over one’s own cash earnings

Respondents are considered to have control over their own earnings if they
participate in decisions alone or jointly with their spouse about how their own
earnings will be used.
Sample: Currently married women and men age 15–49 who received cash
earnings for employment during the 12 months before the survey

Forty-four percent of currently married women who Figure 15.2 Control over women’s
receive cash earnings decide for themselves about earnings
how their earnings are used, while nearly half (49%) Percent distribution of currently married
decide how their earnings are used jointly with their women with cash earnings in the
husbands (Figure 15.2). Overall, 93% of women 12 months before the survey by who
participate in decision making regarding use of their mainly makes the decision about the use
of their cash earnings
own earnings. Only 5% of women say that their Mainly
husbands mainly decide how their earnings are used. husband
5%
A majority of women (71%) earn less than their Wife and Other
husbands. Overall, only 8% of women with cash husband 1
earnings said that they earn more than their jointly
49%
husbands, and 18% said that they earn about the
same as their husbands (Table 15.2.1). Mainly
wife
Trends: The proportion of married women who 44%
decide alone how their earnings are used rose from
31% in 2006 to 52%–53% in 2011 and 2016 before
declining to 44% in 2022; the proportion who participate alone or jointly with their husband in decisions
about how their earnings are used increased from 87% in 2006 to 93% in 2011, dropped again to 87% in
2016, and then increased to 93% in 2022. The proportion of women earning more than their husband has
remained unchanged at 8% since 2011.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Fifty-four percent of married women with no living children decide for themselves how their cash
earnings are used. This proportion decreases steadily with increasing numbers of living children. Only
34% of women with five or more living children mainly make their own decisions about how their
cash earnings are used.

▪ The proportion of women who mainly decide how their cash earning are used is higher in urban areas
(47%) than in rural areas (37%).

▪ Women in Karnali Province are less likely than women in the other provinces to decide on their own
how their cash earnings are used. Only 33% of women in Karnali Province decide on their own how
their earnings are used, as compared with 51% in Bagmati Province.

▪ Fifty-seven percent of women with more than a secondary education decide on their own how their
cash earnings are used, as compared with 41% of women with no education.

15.3 CONTROL OVER MEN’S EARNINGS

Only 32% of currently married men who are employed decide for themselves how their cash earnings are
used, while 54% make these decisions jointly with their wives (Table 15.2.2). Men’s and women’s reports

Women’s Empowerment • 395

 differ with respect to control over men’s cash earnings, with a lower proportion of women than men
claiming that the husband alone controls his earnings (20% versus 32%).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of married men who make decisions mainly alone on the use of their own earnings
varies by province. Nineteen percent of men in Karnali Province make decisions about their own
earnings mainly alone, as compared with 41% of men in Bagmati Province.

▪ The percentage of men who decide mainly alone how their earnings are used tends to increase with
increasing wealth. Twenty-eight percent of men in the lowest wealth quintile mainly make decisions
on their own the use of their income, compared with 36% of men in the highest wealth quintile.

15.4 WOMEN’S AND MEN’S OWNERSHIP OF ASSETS

15.4.1 Ownership of a House or Land and Documentation of Ownership

Ownership of a house or land

Respondents who own a house or land, whether alone or jointly with their
spouse, someone else, or both their spouse and someone else.
Documentation of ownership of a house or land
Respondents whose name is on the title/deed or other government-recognized
document.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Table 15.3.1 and Table 15.3.2 Figure 15.3 Ownership of assets

show patterns of house and land Percentage of women and men age
ownership among women and men 15–49 who:
age 15–49 by their current marital Women Men
status. In Nepal, a higher proportion
of men than women own a house or 92
land. Fifteen percent of men own a 80
74
house and 16% own land alone or 60
jointly, as compared with 8% and 49 53
11% of women, respectively
(Figure 15.3).
15 16
8 11
Eighty percent of women who own
a house have a title/deed, and
Own house Own land Use bank Own mobile Own smart-
almost all have their name on the (alone and/or (alone and/or account phone phone
title/deed (Table 15.4.1). Similarly, jointly) jointly)
among women who own land, 89%
have a title/deed and almost all have their name on the title/deed (Table 15.5.1). In the case of men who
own a house, 88% have a title/deed, and 86% have their name on the title/deed. Among men who own
land, 95% have a title/deed and 94% have their name on the title/deed (Table 15.4.2 and Table 15.5.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Ownership of a house or land increases with age. For example, 1% each of women and men age 15–19
own a house, as compared with 22% of women and 48% of men age 45–49 (Table 15.4.1 and Table
15.4.2).

▪ Only 7% of women from the Dalit ethnic group own a house and only 69% of these women have a
title/deed, with 67% having their name on the title/deed. These percentages are the lowest among all of

396 • Women’s Empowerment

 the ethnic groups (Table 15.4.1). A similar pattern is observed regarding land ownership among
women, although Muslim women are somewhat less likely than Dalit women to own land (Table
15.5.1).

▪ The proportion of women who have a title/deed for the house they own ranges from a low of 46%
among those in Karnali Province to a high of 96% among those in Lumbini Province (Table 15.4.1).
However, men in Karnali Province (98%) are more likely to have a title/deed for their house than those
in the other provinces (Table 15.4.2).

▪ Women’s possession of a title/deed for the house they own varies according to wealth; 88% of women
in the highest wealth quintile who own a house have a title/deed for the house, compared with 59% of
women in the lowest wealth quintile (Table 15.4.1). In contrast, there are only slight variations across
wealth quintiles among men (Table 15.4.2).

▪ The proportion of women who have a title/deed for land is lower among those in the lowest wealth
quintile (71%) than among those in the other quintiles (89% or higher) (Table 15.5.1). Among men
who own land, possession of a title/deed varies only minimally by wealth (Table 15.5.2).

15.4.2 Ownership and Use of Mobile Phones and Bank Accounts

Use of bank accounts or mobile-money-service providers

Respondents who have and use a bank account or who used a mobile phone
for financial transactions in the 12 months before the survey.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Nationally, 80% of women own any type of mobile phone, including 60% who own a smartphone (Table
15.6.1). Ownership of a mobile phone is higher among men than women, with 92% of men owning a
mobile phone and 74% owning a smartphone (Table 15.6.2). Only 9% of women reported that they used a
mobile phone for financial transactions in the last 12 months, as compared with 20% of men.

Nearly half (49%) of women reported having and using a bank account (Figure 15.3), and 40% reported
that they deposited or withdrew money from their own account in the last 12 months. The percentages
among men are slightly higher (53% and 43%, respectively).

Overall, 50% of women and 55% of men have and use a bank account or used a mobile phone for financial
transactions in the last 12 months.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Possession of any type of mobile phone is highest among women age 25–29 (91%) and men age 20–
29 (97%) (Table 15.6.1 and Table 15.6.2). Possession of a smartphone is less common among women
and men age 45–49 (37% and 47%, respectively) than among those age 20–24 (73% and 90%,
respectively).

▪ There are considerable differences in possession of any type of mobile phone by province, and the
variations are more distinct among women than men. The proportion of women who possess a mobile
phone range from a low of 64% in Madhesh Province to a high of 92% in Gandaki Province.

▪ Use of a mobile phone for financial transactions in the last 12 months varies by education among both
women and men. For instance, 63% of women and 76% of men with more than a secondary education
used a mobile phone for financial transactions, as compared with 1% each of women and men with no
education.

Women’s Empowerment • 397

 ▪ The proportion of women who have and use a bank account increases from 16% among those age 15–
19 to 65% among those age 30–34 before declining slightly to 61% among those age 45–49.

▪ Brahmin/Chhetri women and men are more likely (60% and 69%, respectively) than women and men
in the other ethnic groups to have and use a bank account.

▪ The proportion of women and men who have and use a bank account or who used a mobile phone for
financial transactions in the last 12 months varies greatly by province. The proportion among women
varies from a low of 34% in Madhesh Province to a high of 66% each in Bagmati Province and
Gandaki Province (Table 15.6.1), while the proportion among men ranges from 42% in Madhesh
Province to 69% in Bagmati Province (Table 15.6.2).

15.5 PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING

Participation in major household decisions

Women are considered to participate in household decisions if they make
decisions alone or jointly with their husband in all three of the following areas:
(1) their own health care, (2) major household purchases, and (3) visits to their
family or relatives.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49
Men are considered to participate in household decisions if they make
decisions alone or jointly with their wife in both of the following areas: (1) their
own health care and (2) major household purchases.
Sample: Currently married men age 15–49

Half (50%) of currently married women usually make decisions about their own health care in joint
consultation with their husband (Table 15.7). Only about one in five women (22%) make independent
decisions about their own health care, while 21% report that such decisions are mainly made by their
husband. By contrast, 49% of married men say that they make decisions mainly alone about their own
health care.

Overall, 48% of married women participate in all Figure 15.4 Women’s participation in
three specified household decisions alone or jointly decision making
with their husband; 72% participate in decisions Percentage of currently married women
about their own health care, 68% participate in age 15–49 participating in specific
decisions about visiting family or relatives, and 60% decisions
participate in decisions about major household Woman’s own health
72
purchases (Table 15.8.1 and Figure 15.4). Two- care
thirds (66%) of married men participate in both of Major household
60
the specified household decisions; 90% participate in purchases
decisions about their own health care, and 67% Visits to family or
68
participate in decisions about major household relatives
purchases (Table 15.8.2). Participate in all 3
48
decisions
Patterns by background characteristics Participate in none of
16
these decisions
▪ Married women’s and men’s participation in
household decision making tends to increase with age. For example, 15% of women age 15–19
participate in all three decisions, as compared with more than one in every two women age 30 or older
(Table 15.8.1). Similarly, the percentage of men who participate in both specified decisions increase
from 30% among those age 15–19 to 74% or more among those age 35 or older (Table 15.8.2).

398 • Women’s Empowerment

▪ Women’s participation in all three decisions alone or jointly with their husband increases with number
of living children. Only 28% of women with no children participate in all three decisions, while this
proportion increases to 49% or more among those with one or more children (Table 15.8.1). A similar
pattern is observed among men; only 44% of men with no children participate in both decisions,
compared with 87% of those with five or more children (Table 15.8.2).

▪ The percentage of women who participate in all three decisions is lowest in the Madhesi (38%) and
Muslim (37%) ethnic groups and highest in the Brahmin/Chhetri group (54%) (Table 15.8.1).

▪ Madhesh Province has the lowest proportion of women (39%) who participate in all three decisions,
while Gandaki Province has the highest (59%).

▪ The percentage of women who participate in all three decisions is much higher among those with more
than a secondary education (62%) than among those with no education (49%), a basic education
(47%), or a secondary education (46%) (Table 15.8.1).

15.6 ATTITUDES TOWARD WIFE BEATING

Attitudes toward wife beating

Respondents are asked if they agree that a husband is justified in hitting or
beating his wife under each of the following five circumstances: she burns the
food, she argues with him, she goes out without telling him, she neglects the
children, and she refuses to have sex with him. If respondents answer “yes” in
at least one circumstance, they are considered to have attitudes justifying wife
beating.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Nationally, 19% of women and 17% of men agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife
for at least one specified reason (Table 15.9.1 and Table 15.9.2). The most common reason for which wife
beating was justified by both women and men was neglecting the children (15% and 13%, respectively).

Trends: The proportion of women and men who justify wife beating has been declining over time. The
proportion declined from 29% in 2016 to 19% in 2022 among women and from 23% in 2016 to 17% in
2022 among men.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women and men age 15–19 are more likely to agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his
wife for at least one specified reason (21% and 24%, respectively) than those age 45–49 (16% and
14%, respectively).

▪ Women (22%) and men (21%) from the Dalit ethnic group are more likely to agree that a husband is
justified in hitting or beating his wife than women and men in other ethnic groups.

▪ Women and men in Karnali Province are more likely to justify wife beating (25% each) than women
and men in the other provinces.

▪ Women’s and men’s justification of wife beating declines with increasing education. For example,
18% of women and 23% of men with no education agree that wife beating is justified for at least one
reason, as compared with only 6% of women and 3% of men with more than a secondary education.

15.7 NEGOTIATING SEXUAL RELATIONS

To assess attitudes toward negotiating safer sexual relations with husbands, women and men were asked
whether they thought that a wife is justified in refusing to have sexual intercourse with her husband if she

Women’s Empowerment • 399

 knows he has sex with other women and asking that he use a condom if she knows he has a sexually
transmitted infection (STI).

Overall, 84% of women and 73% of men agree that a woman is justified in refusing to have sexual
relations with her husband if she knows that he has sexual relations with other women, and 90% of women
and 94% of men agree that a wife is justified in asking that her husband use a condom if she knows that he
has an STI (Table 15.10).

Ability to Negotiate Sexual Relations with Husband

To assess the ability of women to actually negotiate safer sexual relations with their husband, currently
married women were asked whether they could say no to their husband if they did not want to have sexual
intercourse and whether they could ask their husband to use a condom.

Nationally, 91% of currently married women can say no to their husband if they do not want to have sex,
and 78% can ask their husband to use a condom (Table 15.11).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportions of women who can refuse sex and negotiate condom use are lower among those in the
Muslim ethnic group than among those in the other groups. For example, 76% of Muslim women can
say no to their husband if they do not want to have sex and 42% can negotiate condom use, as
compared with 95% and 90%, respectively, of Brahmin/Chhetri women.

▪ Women’s ability to refuse sex and negotiate condom use varies by education. Eighty-five percent of
women with no education can refuse sex and 62% can ask their husband to use a condom, compared
with 98% and 96%, respectively, of women with more than a secondary education.

15.8 WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING REGARDING SEXUAL AND

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Informed decision making on sexual relations, contraceptive use, and

reproductive health
Women are considered to make their own informed decisions on sexual
relations, contraceptive use, and reproductive health if (1) they can say no to
their husband if they do not want to have sexual intercourse, (2) they make
decisions about use of family planning alone or jointly with their husband, and
(3) they make decisions about their own health care alone or jointly with their
husband.
Sample: Currently married women age 15–49

Table 15.12 presents the proportion of currently married women age 15–49 who make their own informed
decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use, and reproductive health care, which corresponds to
SDG 5.6.1.

Nationally, 63% of currently married women make informed decisions on all three crucial aspects of their
sexual and reproductive health.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Only 37% of currently married women age 15–19 make all three informed decisions about their sexual
and reproductive health, as compared with 61%–70% of women age 25 and above.

400 • Women’s Empowerment

▪ Muslim women are less likely to make all three of these informed decisions than women in other
ethnic groups. For example, 38% of Muslim women make these decisions, compared with 71% of
Brahmin/Chhetri women and 69% of Janajati women.

▪ The proportion of women who make all three informed decisions is lowest in Madhesh Province
(43%) and highest in Gandaki Province (74%).

▪ Women’s ability to make informed decisions Figure 15.5 Women’s participation in

about their own sexual and reproductive health is decision making regarding sexual and
more a function of their educational attainment reproductive health by education
than their household wealth status. The proportion Percentage of currently married women
of women who make all three decisions increases who make their own informed decisions
with increasing education, from 55% among those about sexual relations, contraceptive use,
and reproductive health care
with no education to 83% among those with more
than a secondary education (Figure 15.5), while
the proportion varies inconsistently by household 83
wealth. 70
55 61

No education Basic Secondary More than

education (9–12) secondary
(1–8) (13 and
above)

Women’s Empowerment • 401

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on women’s empowerment, see the following tables:

▪ Table 15.1 Employment and cash earnings of currently married women and men
▪ Table 15.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s cash
earnings
▪ Table 15.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings
▪ Table 15.3.1 House and land ownership: Women
▪ Table 15.3.2 House and land ownership: Men
▪ Table 15.4.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
▪ Table 15.4.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Men
▪ Table 15.5.1 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
▪ Table 15.5.2 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men
▪ Table 15.6.1 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Women
▪ Table 15.6.2 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Men
▪ Table 15.7 Participation in decision making
▪ Table 15.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics
▪ Table 15.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics
▪ Table 15.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women
▪ Table 15.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men
▪ Table 15.10 Attitudes toward negotiating safer sexual relations with husband
▪ Table 15.11 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with husband
▪ Table 15.12 Women’s participation in decision making regarding sexual and reproductive
health

402 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.1 Employment and cash earnings of currently married women and men
Percentage of currently married women and men age 15–49 who were employed at any time in the last 12 months and percent distribution of currently
married women and men employed in the last 12 months by type of earnings, according to age, Nepal DHS 2022
Among currently married Percent distribution of currently married respondents employed
respondents: in the last 12 months, by type of earnings
Percentage
employed in Number of Cash and Number of
Age last 12 months respondents Cash only in-kind In-kind only Not paid Total respondents
WOMEN

15–19 55.0 563 18.9 3.3 6.9 70.9 100.0 310

20–24 61.9 1,783 31.6 5.3 7.6 55.5 100.0 1,103
25–29 72.0 2,198 43.0 6.3 6.2 44.5 100.0 1,583
30–34 80.5 2,027 45.4 8.0 5.0 41.6 100.0 1,632
35–39 83.9 1,906 44.0 8.7 8.2 39.1 100.0 1,599
40–44 85.3 1,515 40.1 9.3 6.0 44.6 100.0 1,291
45–49 82.8 1,188 35.8 10.5 7.6 46.1 100.0 983
Total 76.1 11,180 40.0 7.8 6.7 45.5 100.0 8,502
MEN
15–19 92.3 46 (75.0) (2.8) (0.0) (22.2) 100.0 42
20–24 96.6 301 80.7 5.7 2.3 11.4 100.0 291
25–29 97.6 514 83.0 6.8 1.2 8.9 100.0 502
30–34 98.0 561 82.6 8.1 1.6 7.7 100.0 550
35–39 99.0 609 79.5 8.6 1.8 10.0 100.0 603
40–44 97.8 586 77.7 11.6 1.2 9.5 100.0 573
45–49 97.0 485 66.2 17.0 3.6 13.1 100.0 470
Total 97.7 3,101 78.3 9.7 1.9 10.1 100.0 3,031

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.

Women’s Empowerment • 403

 Table 15.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s cash earnings
Percent distribution of currently married women age 15–49 who received cash earnings for employment in the 12 months preceding the survey by person who
decides how wife’s cash earnings are used and by whether she earned more or less than her husband, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Person who decides how the wife’s Wife’s cash earnings compared with
cash earnings are used: husband’s cash earnings:
Wife and Husband Number
Background Mainly husband Mainly About has no Don’t of
characteristic wife jointly husband Other Total More Less the same earnings know Total women
Age
15–19 50.7 32.5 3.3 13.6 100.0 2.2 82.5 9.7 4.6 1.0 100.0 69
20–24 39.8 50.1 5.4 4.6 100.0 8.3 77.9 10.2 2.7 0.9 100.0 407
25–29 46.0 48.3 3.6 2.1 100.0 7.6 76.2 14.2 1.8 0.2 100.0 781
30–34 47.8 47.5 4.2 0.5 100.0 6.6 74.2 16.5 2.4 0.4 100.0 871
35–39 44.2 50.1 4.9 0.8 100.0 7.8 69.4 20.2 2.2 0.4 100.0 843
40–44 41.5 51.3 7.2 0.0 100.0 9.0 65.7 18.2 6.4 0.8 100.0 638
45–49 41.4 50.6 7.7 0.2 100.0 7.5 60.7 27.0 4.3 0.5 100.0 455
Number of living children
0 53.7 41.6 2.3 2.4 100.0 8.1 72.0 16.8 2.3 0.8 100.0 352
1–2 44.1 49.1 5.1 1.7 100.0 7.7 71.5 17.7 2.9 0.3 100.0 2,450
3–4 43.1 50.3 6.2 0.5 100.0 7.9 70.3 17.1 3.9 0.9 100.0 1,083
5+ 34.2 58.9 6.7 0.3 100.0 3.7 72.8 19.3 4.3 0.0 100.0 179
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 42.0 51.1 5.9 1.0 100.0 7.8 63.6 25.3 2.8 0.5 100.0 1,183
Dalit 49.8 43.1 3.9 3.2 100.0 5.5 83.5 8.0 2.6 0.4 100.0 601
Janajati 43.9 49.2 5.7 1.2 100.0 8.7 69.7 17.8 3.4 0.4 100.0 1,736
Madhesi 43.8 51.7 4.0 0.4 100.0 5.9 76.4 12.7 3.9 1.0 100.0 435
Muslim 45.5 51.4 1.9 1.3 100.0 6.5 89.9 0.9 2.6 0.0 100.0 106
Other * * * * * * * * * * 100.0 3
Residence
Urban 47.0 46.9 4.8 1.3 100.0 7.8 71.9 17.1 2.7 0.5 100.0 2,930
Rural 37.0 55.1 6.3 1.6 100.0 7.2 69.5 18.7 4.2 0.4 100.0 1,134
Ecological zone
Mountain 42.7 49.3 7.8 0.2 100.0 6.6 71.3 17.4 4.2 0.5 100.0 227
Hill 44.3 50.2 4.4 1.1 100.0 8.7 64.1 23.2 3.6 0.4 100.0 1,736
Terai 44.3 48.3 5.5 1.8 100.0 6.8 77.1 12.8 2.7 0.6 100.0 2,101
Province
Koshi Province 41.0 51.3 6.0 1.6 100.0 5.8 71.3 20.1 2.5 0.4 100.0 802
Urban 43.1 49.3 5.9 1.7 100.0 6.2 73.6 18.4 1.3 0.5 100.0 533
Rural 36.8 55.4 6.4 1.4 100.0 5.0 66.8 23.4 4.8 0.0 100.0 269
Madhesh Province 47.1 47.1 4.0 1.8 100.0 4.3 84.1 7.3 3.2 1.1 100.0 607
Urban 48.6 46.9 2.7 1.9 100.0 3.9 84.9 6.8 3.0 1.3 100.0 445
Rural 43.0 47.8 7.7 1.6 100.0 5.4 81.9 8.7 3.6 0.5 100.0 161
Bagmati Province 50.7 44.5 4.2 0.7 100.0 8.3 66.6 22.5 2.5 0.1 100.0 1,143
Urban 53.7 42.1 3.7 0.6 100.0 8.7 67.6 21.2 2.5 0.2 100.0 943
Rural 36.6 55.8 6.5 1.1 100.0 6.5 62.1 28.6 2.8 0.0 100.0 201
Gandaki Province 46.5 49.2 3.2 1.1 100.0 10.2 67.2 18.3 3.9 0.4 100.0 386
Urban 48.6 47.5 2.7 1.1 100.0 9.6 68.9 17.9 3.2 0.3 100.0 295
Rural 39.4 54.7 4.7 1.2 100.0 12.0 61.6 19.3 6.3 0.8 100.0 91
Lumbini Province 39.4 50.4 8.3 1.9 100.0 8.3 71.9 16.4 3.2 0.2 100.0 655
Urban 40.5 47.3 10.4 1.8 100.0 8.8 70.5 17.4 3.3 0.0 100.0 417
Rural 37.5 55.9 4.6 2.0 100.0 7.4 74.4 14.6 3.1 0.5 100.0 238
Karnali Province 32.7 60.2 5.4 1.6 100.0 11.2 67.1 15.3 5.5 1.0 100.0 207
Urban 40.9 55.4 2.8 0.9 100.0 13.2 66.6 14.7 4.4 1.0 100.0 121
Rural 21.4 66.9 9.1 2.7 100.0 8.3 67.7 16.1 7.0 0.9 100.0 87
Sudurpashchim Province 37.2 56.0 4.9 2.0 100.0 9.6 69.2 15.3 4.7 1.2 100.0 264
Urban 36.5 57.4 4.0 2.1 100.0 8.6 69.7 16.1 4.6 1.0 100.0 176
Rural 38.5 53.1 6.6 1.7 100.0 11.6 68.2 13.6 4.8 1.8 100.0 88
Education
No education 40.5 50.5 7.7 1.3 100.0 6.3 74.9 14.6 3.6 0.6 100.0 1,196
Basic education (1–8) 45.5 48.0 5.0 1.5 100.0 7.4 72.2 16.4 3.4 0.6 100.0 1,269
Lower basic education (1–5) 45.8 47.5 5.6 1.1 100.0 7.4 71.7 16.1 4.2 0.7 100.0 703
Upper basic education (6–8) 45.0 48.6 4.4 2.0 100.0 7.3 72.9 16.9 2.5 0.4 100.0 566
Secondary (9–12) 43.7 50.5 4.2 1.7 100.0 8.5 67.5 20.7 3.0 0.4 100.0 1,301
Lower secondary (9–10) 41.7 51.2 4.8 2.4 100.0 6.3 71.6 19.1 2.5 0.5 100.0 745
Higher secondary (11–12) 46.3 49.5 3.3 0.8 100.0 11.4 62.1 22.7 3.6 0.3 100.0 556
More than secondary (13 and
above) 56.6 43.2 0.2 0.0 100.0 10.4 68.7 20.0 0.9 0.0 100.0 299
Wealth quintile
Lowest 36.6 55.4 6.3 1.7 100.0 7.6 70.8 15.8 4.8 0.9 100.0 590
Second 38.4 52.4 7.3 1.9 100.0 6.5 75.8 14.0 2.9 0.8 100.0 735
Middle 42.7 48.9 6.5 1.9 100.0 7.2 73.6 15.3 3.3 0.5 100.0 790
Fourth 47.9 46.7 4.2 1.2 100.0 8.7 71.9 15.9 3.2 0.2 100.0 931
Highest 50.7 45.7 3.0 0.6 100.0 7.8 65.7 24.2 2.1 0.1 100.0 1,017
Total 44.2 49.2 5.2 1.4 100.0 7.6 71.2 17.5 3.1 0.5 100.0 4,064

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases
and has been suppressed.

404 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings
Percent distributions of currently married men age 15–49 who receive cash earnings and of currently married women age 15–49 whose husbands receive cash earnings,
by person who decides how husband’s cash earnings are used, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Men Women
Person who decides how husband’s Person who decides how husband’s
cash earnings are used: cash earnings are used:
Wife and Wife and
Background Mainly husband Mainly Number Mainly husband Mainly Number
characteristic wife jointly husband Other Total of men wife jointly husband Other Total of women
Age
15–19 (9.4) (49.5) (19.9) (21.1) 100.0 33 4.1 43.1 19.7 33.1 100.0 526
20–24 2.0 43.0 33.5 21.4 100.0 251 6.8 53.2 21.0 19.0 100.0 1,738
25–29 4.5 51.3 33.1 11.0 100.0 451 11.3 58.8 20.9 9.0 100.0 2,160
30–34 7.8 53.5 32.8 5.9 100.0 499 14.5 64.7 17.2 3.7 100.0 1,987
35–39 10.2 57.7 29.7 2.4 100.0 531 14.3 65.0 19.3 1.4 100.0 1,869
40–44 10.6 54.1 33.8 1.5 100.0 512 13.2 63.6 22.3 1.0 100.0 1,457
45–49 10.0 58.3 31.2 0.4 100.0 392 12.3 64.2 22.7 0.8 100.0 1,132
Number of living children
0 3.5 46.7 32.9 17.0 100.0 308 6.4 53.8 21.2 18.6 100.0 1,002
1–2 6.8 57.4 30.1 5.7 100.0 1,530 11.7 61.3 19.1 7.9 100.0 6,306
3–4 12.2 49.9 34.9 3.0 100.0 709 13.3 60.8 21.6 4.4 100.0 3,035
5+ 11.1 47.8 39.1 2.0 100.0 121 12.4 61.7 25.0 0.9 100.0 525
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 4.6 60.5 30.9 4.1 100.0 654 9.3 66.5 20.5 3.6 100.0 2,933
Dalit 8.3 49.9 34.9 7.0 100.0 393 14.4 55.8 18.6 11.2 100.0 1,692
Janajati 7.1 62.4 26.5 4.0 100.0 1,012 12.8 65.3 17.8 4.0 100.0 3,945
Madhesi 12.3 36.3 40.8 10.6 100.0 484 10.1 48.9 26.1 14.9 100.0 1,775
Muslim 16.8 29.3 39.6 14.3 100.0 120 13.0 44.5 22.1 20.4 100.0 513
Other * * * * 100.0 5 * * * * 100.0 11
Residence
Urban 8.4 54.7 31.1 5.8 100.0 1,854 12.0 60.3 20.2 7.6 100.0 7,367
Rural 7.3 51.6 34.4 6.7 100.0 814 11.1 60.9 20.4 7.5 100.0 3,502
Ecological zone
Mountain 4.0 62.4 27.1 6.6 100.0 161 7.6 67.4 22.8 2.1 100.0 605
Hill 5.8 60.7 31.2 2.3 100.0 969 10.8 67.2 19.4 2.6 100.0 4,148
Terai 9.9 48.4 33.2 8.5 100.0 1,538 12.7 55.2 20.6 11.5 100.0 6,116
Province
Koshi Province 8.5 56.4 30.7 4.4 100.0 470 12.6 61.6 22.0 3.9 100.0 1,858
Urban 8.2 55.8 33.6 2.4 100.0 337 12.0 63.8 20.5 3.6 100.0 1,231
Rural 9.0 58.2 23.2 9.6 100.0 132 13.7 57.2 24.7 4.4 100.0 627
Madhesh Province 15.3 35.1 36.8 12.8 100.0 540 13.7 44.3 23.6 18.3 100.0 2,345
Urban 14.7 35.0 36.4 13.9 100.0 388 13.5 43.7 23.1 19.6 100.0 1,737
Rural 16.7 35.3 37.8 10.1 100.0 152 14.3 46.2 24.9 14.5 100.0 608
Bagmati Province 7.1 47.9 41.0 4.0 100.0 590 11.5 65.3 21.8 1.4 100.0 2,114
Urban 7.1 52.4 36.8 3.7 100.0 482 11.5 66.2 21.0 1.3 100.0 1,671
Rural 7.4 27.9 59.3 5.4 100.0 109 11.5 62.0 24.5 1.9 100.0 443
Gandaki Province 6.9 67.8 24.0 1.2 100.0 221 14.8 66.9 14.6 3.7 100.0 1,011
Urban 7.8 68.2 22.9 1.1 100.0 153 15.8 67.3 14.3 2.6 100.0 707
Rural 4.9 66.7 26.8 1.6 100.0 67 12.6 65.7 15.2 6.5 100.0 304
Lumbini Province 5.3 62.0 26.8 5.9 100.0 491 10.6 62.0 19.0 8.3 100.0 1,965
Urban 5.5 68.4 20.9 5.2 100.0 279 10.4 61.0 21.6 7.0 100.0 1,090
Rural 5.2 53.5 34.4 6.9 100.0 211 10.9 63.3 15.8 10.0 100.0 875
Karnali Province 2.6 75.7 18.5 3.2 100.0 148 8.5 70.5 16.7 4.3 100.0 664
Urban 4.4 74.2 17.9 3.5 100.0 87 11.2 71.0 14.2 3.5 100.0 369
Rural 0.0 77.9 19.4 2.7 100.0 61 5.1 69.8 19.9 5.2 100.0 295
Sudurpashchim Province 2.6 62.6 28.9 5.9 100.0 208 6.4 70.8 16.3 6.5 100.0 913
Urban 4.3 60.2 28.2 7.3 100.0 128 7.6 68.4 16.4 7.5 100.0 563
Rural 0.0 66.4 29.9 3.7 100.0 81 4.5 74.5 16.2 4.7 100.0 350
Education
No education 15.2 43.6 37.1 4.1 100.0 312 12.7 57.3 23.1 6.9 100.0 3,356
Basic education (1–8) 10.4 54.4 29.6 5.6 100.0 1,159 13.8 58.3 19.5 8.4 100.0 3,610
Lower basic education (1–5) 12.4 54.9 28.7 4.1 100.0 626 14.5 57.4 21.2 6.9 100.0 1,953
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.2 53.8 30.7 7.4 100.0 533 13.0 59.3 17.5 10.2 100.0 1,657
Secondary (9–12) 3.9 53.8 34.7 7.6 100.0 965 9.1 64.9 18.1 7.9 100.0 3,440
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.5 53.5 34.1 7.9 100.0 616 9.4 63.9 18.8 7.9 100.0 2,152
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.9 54.2 35.8 7.1 100.0 349 8.5 66.7 16.9 7.9 100.0 1,288
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.8 64.0 27.2 5.0 100.0 231 7.4 67.4 22.1 3.2 100.0 463
Wealth quintile
Lowest 6.1 63.5 27.5 2.9 100.0 410 8.7 64.5 22.2 4.7 100.0 1,956
Second 9.2 53.8 30.3 6.7 100.0 508 11.2 58.0 20.9 9.9 100.0 2,159
Middle 8.6 48.8 34.9 7.7 100.0 541 14.2 56.4 20.2 9.2 100.0 2,258
Fourth 8.3 54.5 30.3 6.9 100.0 612 12.6 58.8 19.3 9.4 100.0 2,320
Highest 7.7 50.7 36.2 5.4 100.0 597 11.3 65.3 19.1 4.2 100.0 2,175
Total 8.1 53.7 32.1 6.1 100.0 2,668 11.7 60.5 20.3 7.6 100.0 10,869

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married, and the term wife includes a partner with whom a man is living as if married.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Women’s Empowerment • 405

 Table 15.3.1 House and land ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by current marital status, according to house ownership status
and land ownership status, Nepal DHS 2022
Marital status
Married/
Never living Divorced/
Ownership status married together separated Widowed Total
HOUSE OWNERSHIP

Alone 0.5 7.9 12.0 25.6 6.7

Jointly with husband only na 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.5
Jointly with someone else only 1.0 0.7 0.8 2.3 0.8
Jointly with husband and
someone else na 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1
Both alone and jointly 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Does not own 98.5 90.6 87.3 72.1 91.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 3,203 11,180 170 292 14,845
LAND OWNERSHIP
Alone 0.9 11.8 10.3 26.6 9.7
Jointly with husband only na 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.6
Jointly with someone else only 1.0 0.8 1.6 1.9 0.9
Jointly with husband and
someone else na 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Both alone and jointly 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Does not own 98.0 86.6 88.1 71.5 88.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 3,203 11,180 170 292 14,845

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married.
na = Not applicable

Table 15.3.2 House and land ownership: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by current marital status, according to house ownership status
and land ownership status, Nepal DHS 2022
Marital status
Married/
Never living Divorced/
Ownership status married together separated Widowed Total
HOUSE OWNERSHIP

Alone 1.1 21.0 (26.1) * 13.8

Jointly with wife only na 0.8 (0.0) * 0.5
Jointly with someone else only 0.3 0.3 (0.0) * 0.3
Jointly with wife and someone
else na 0.4 (0.0) * 0.2
Both alone and jointly 0.0 0.2 (0.0) * 0.1
Does not own 98.6 77.3 (73.9) * 85.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of men 1,768 3,101 31 12 4,913
LAND OWNERSHIP
Alone 1.1 23.3 (15.6) * 15.3
Jointly with wife only na 0.4 (0.0) * 0.3
Jointly with someone else only 0.3 0.5 (0.0) * 0.4
Jointly with wife and someone
else na 0.1 (0.0) * 0.1
Both alone and jointly 0.1 0.5 (0.0) * 0.3
Does not own 98.6 75.1 (84.4) * 83.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of men 1,768 3,101 31 12 4,913

Note: The term wife includes a partner with whom a man is living as if married. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = Not applicable

406 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.4.1 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of a house, and among women who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house owned has a title/deed
and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title/deed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
House has
Percentage who own a house: Percent- a title/deed1:
age who Woman’s Woman’s Number
Both do not name is name is Does not of women
Background alone and own a Number on not on have a Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly house Total of women title/deed1 title/deed1 title/deed1 know3 Total a house4
Age
15–19 0.2 1.0 0.1 98.8 100.0 2,643 (9.9) (0.0) (90.1) (0.0) 100.0 33
20–24 0.6 1.0 0.0 98.4 100.0 2,637 42.4 0.0 57.6 0.0 100.0 42
25–29 2.5 1.0 0.0 96.5 100.0 2,435 59.9 0.7 39.4 0.0 100.0 85
30–34 7.3 2.0 0.0 90.7 100.0 2,144 78.9 0.0 21.1 0.0 100.0 199
35–39 11.0 1.4 0.1 87.4 100.0 2,025 85.4 0.6 14.0 0.0 100.0 255
40–44 16.4 1.6 0.0 82.0 100.0 1,629 86.8 0.9 12.3 0.0 100.0 293
45–49 19.7 2.3 0.0 78.0 100.0 1,332 87.7 0.6 11.4 0.3 100.0 293
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 8.5 2.0 0.0 89.5 100.0 4,152 80.7 0.2 19.1 0.0 100.0 437
Dalit 5.7 1.6 0.0 92.7 100.0 2,240 67.4 1.3 31.3 0.0 100.0 162
Janajati 5.8 1.4 0.0 92.7 100.0 5,428 76.8 0.9 22.1 0.2 100.0 397
Madhesi 6.6 0.2 0.0 93.2 100.0 2,333 92.0 0.0 8.0 0.0 100.0 160
Muslim 5.7 0.8 0.0 93.5 100.0 676 (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 44
Other * * * * 100.0 15 * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 7.8 1.5 0.0 90.7 100.0 10,178 80.7 0.5 18.7 0.1 100.0 945
Rural 4.2 1.2 0.0 94.5 100.0 4,667 76.6 0.7 22.7 0.0 100.0 255
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.2 0.7 0.0 94.1 100.0 791 86.1 1.4 12.5 0.0 100.0 47
Hill 6.7 2.7 0.0 90.7 100.0 5,872 69.2 1.0 29.8 0.0 100.0 549
Terai 6.8 0.5 0.0 92.6 100.0 8,182 89.0 0.0 10.9 0.1 100.0 605
Province
Koshi Province 7.7 0.8 0.0 91.5 100.0 2,493 87.1 0.3 12.6 0.0 100.0 211
Urban 9.0 0.8 0.0 90.2 100.0 1,640 84.8 0.0 15.2 0.0 100.0 161
Rural 5.3 0.6 0.0 94.1 100.0 853 94.5 1.2 4.3 0.0 100.0 50
Madhesh Province 6.7 0.2 0.1 93.0 100.0 3,010 92.5 0.0 7.5 0.0 100.0 211
Urban 6.8 0.2 0.1 93.0 100.0 2,226 94.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 100.0 156
Rural 6.5 0.5 0.1 92.9 100.0 783 88.4 0.0 11.6 0.0 100.0 55
Bagmati Province 7.3 0.8 0.1 91.9 100.0 3,062 89.0 1.0 10.0 0.0 100.0 248
Urban 7.7 1.0 0.1 91.3 100.0 2,464 88.7 0.9 10.5 0.0 100.0 215
Rural 5.5 0.0 0.0 94.5 100.0 599 (91.0) (2.0) (6.9) (0.0) 100.0 33
Gandaki Province 8.8 6.8 0.0 84.3 100.0 1,401 55.5 0.7 43.7 0.0 100.0 219
Urban 10.3 6.6 0.0 83.2 100.0 992 60.2 0.7 39.1 0.0 100.0 167
Rural 5.3 7.4 0.1 87.2 100.0 409 40.5 1.0 58.6 0.0 100.0 52
Lumbini Province 5.5 0.2 0.0 94.3 100.0 2,691 96.3 0.0 3.7 0.0 100.0 154
Urban 8.0 0.2 0.0 91.8 100.0 1,553 97.2 0.0 2.8 0.0 100.0 128
Rural 2.1 0.3 0.0 97.7 100.0 1,138 (92.0) (0.0) (8.0) (0.0) 100.0 27
Karnali Province 6.6 5.7 0.0 87.6 100.0 909 45.3 0.8 53.9 0.0 100.0 113
Urban 8.2 7.5 0.0 84.3 100.0 507 40.5 1.2 58.4 0.0 100.0 79
Rural 4.7 3.6 0.0 91.7 100.0 402 56.8 0.0 43.2 0.0 100.0 33
Sudurpashchim Province 3.3 0.1 0.0 96.6 100.0 1,279 84.3 1.5 12.1 2.0 100.0 43
Urban 4.7 0.2 0.0 95.1 100.0 796 (82.4) (1.7) (13.6) (2.3) 100.0 39
Rural 1.0 0.0 0.0 99.0 100.0 484 * * * * 100.0 5
Education
No education 9.4 1.3 0.0 89.2 100.0 3,796 81.1 0.8 17.9 0.2 100.0 410
Basic education (1–8) 5.8 1.2 0.0 93.0 100.0 4,595 81.7 0.9 17.4 0.0 100.0 321
Lower basic education (1–5) 7.1 1.2 0.0 91.7 100.0 2,314 85.3 0.6 14.1 0.0 100.0 192
Upper basic education (6–8) 4.6 1.1 0.0 94.3 100.0 2,281 76.3 1.3 22.4 0.0 100.0 129
Secondary (9–12) 5.3 1.6 0.0 93.0 100.0 5,798 75.4 0.0 24.6 0.0 100.0 404
Lower secondary (9–10) 6.3 1.8 0.0 91.9 100.0 3,270 78.9 0.0 21.1 0.0 100.0 266
Higher secondary (11–12) 3.9 1.4 0.1 94.5 100.0 2,529 68.6 0.0 31.4 0.0 100.0 138
More than secondary (13 and
above) 8.9 0.9 0.0 90.2 100.0 656 (90.4) (0.0) (9.6) (0.0) 100.0 64
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.5 1.8 0.0 95.7 100.0 2,628 58.3 1.1 40.6 0.0 100.0 112
Second 4.9 1.2 0.0 94.0 100.0 2,857 77.4 0.3 22.3 0.0 100.0 172
Middle 5.7 0.9 0.1 93.3 100.0 3,028 75.5 0.0 24.1 0.4 100.0 202
Fourth 7.0 1.1 0.0 91.9 100.0 3,197 79.7 1.3 19.0 0.0 100.0 259
Highest 12.5 2.0 0.0 85.5 100.0 3,135 88.0 0.2 11.7 0.0 100.0 455
Total 6.7 1.4 0.0 91.9 100.0 14,845 79.8 0.5 19.6 0.1 100.0 1,200

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Title/deed or other government-recognized document
2
Jointly with husband, someone else, or both husband and someone else
3
Includes women who have a house with a title/deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and women who do not know
if there is a title/deed or other government-recognized document for the house
4
Includes women who own a house alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone else, or both alone and
jointly

Women’s Empowerment • 407

Table 15.4.2 House ownership and documentation of ownership: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by ownership of a house, and among men who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house owned has a title/deed and
whether or not the man’s name appears on the title/deed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
House has
Percentage who own a house: Percent- a title/deed1:
age who Man’s Man’s Number of
Both do not name is name is Does not men who
Background alone and own a Number of on not on have a Don’t own a
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly house Total men title/deed1 title/deed1 title/deed1 know3 Total house4
Age
15–19 0.4 0.1 0.0 99.6 100.0 985 * * * * 100.0 4
20–24 2.4 0.4 0.0 97.2 100.0 857 * * * * 100.0 24
25–29 4.9 0.6 0.0 94.5 100.0 716 (65.6) (3.5) (24.1) (6.7) 100.0 39
30–34 12.7 0.5 0.2 86.6 100.0 616 86.7 0.0 13.3 0.0 100.0 83
35–39 22.7 1.7 0.0 75.6 100.0 639 86.4 3.8 9.8 0.0 100.0 156
40–44 29.9 2.2 0.1 67.7 100.0 604 89.2 0.5 9.9 0.4 100.0 195
45–49 43.9 3.2 0.8 52.1 100.0 496 88.5 2.8 8.7 0.0 100.0 237
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 16.5 0.7 0.2 82.6 100.0 1,232 85.8 1.7 12.5 0.0 100.0 215
Dalit 11.1 1.0 0.0 88.0 100.0 658 87.3 0.6 8.7 3.3 100.0 79
Janajati 13.7 1.0 0.1 85.1 100.0 1,869 82.7 1.8 15.6 0.0 100.0 278
Madhesi 13.6 1.5 0.1 84.7 100.0 917 89.0 4.5 5.5 1.0 100.0 140
Muslim 9.4 2.1 0.0 88.5 100.0 228 * * * * 100.0 26
Other * * * * 100.0 8 * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 13.3 1.0 0.2 85.5 100.0 3,462 85.1 2.8 11.5 0.5 100.0 502
Rural 15.0 1.2 0.0 83.7 100.0 1,451 86.7 1.4 11.3 0.6 100.0 236
Ecological zone
Mountain 19.6 0.2 0.2 80.0 100.0 255 90.4 0.0 9.6 0.0 100.0 51
Hill 14.0 0.8 0.1 85.2 100.0 1,973 82.8 0.6 16.7 0.0 100.0 293
Terai 13.2 1.4 0.2 85.3 100.0 2,685 87.1 4.0 7.9 1.0 100.0 394
Province
Koshi Province 19.6 1.4 0.1 78.9 100.0 882 81.1 4.9 14.0 0.0 100.0 187
Urban 20.5 1.8 0.2 77.5 100.0 604 81.6 6.0 12.3 0.0 100.0 136
Rural 17.5 0.7 0.0 81.8 100.0 278 79.6 1.9 18.4 0.0 100.0 50
Madhesh Province 12.1 1.2 0.3 86.3 100.0 997 91.0 3.2 4.7 1.1 100.0 136
Urban 11.6 1.0 0.4 87.0 100.0 722 90.0 4.7 5.4 0.0 100.0 94
Rural 13.5 1.8 0.0 84.7 100.0 275 93.3 0.0 3.3 3.4 100.0 42
Bagmati Province 12.7 0.4 0.0 86.9 100.0 1,214 81.4 0.4 16.5 1.7 100.0 159
Urban 11.5 0.4 0.0 88.1 100.0 1,016 82.2 0.0 15.6 2.2 100.0 121
Rural 18.8 0.3 0.0 80.9 100.0 198 79.0 1.8 19.2 0.0 100.0 38
Gandaki Province 14.0 1.9 0.0 84.2 100.0 387 76.8 0.8 22.4 0.0 100.0 61
Urban 14.2 1.4 0.0 84.4 100.0 264 (75.7) (0.0) (24.3) (0.0) 100.0 41
Rural 13.5 2.9 0.0 83.6 100.0 123 (79.0) (2.5) (18.5) (0.0) 100.0 20
Lumbini Province 12.9 1.5 0.1 85.5 100.0 812 90.6 2.3 7.2 0.0 100.0 118
Urban 11.9 1.2 0.2 86.7 100.0 468 (90.7) (2.6) (6.7) (0.0) 100.0 62
Rural 14.3 1.8 0.0 83.8 100.0 344 90.4 1.9 7.7 0.0 100.0 56
Karnali Province 15.4 0.9 0.2 83.5 100.0 266 98.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 100.0 44
Urban 14.6 1.1 0.3 84.0 100.0 154 97.8 0.0 2.2 0.0 100.0 25
Rural 16.5 0.7 0.0 82.9 100.0 113 (98.2) (0.0) (1.8) (0.0) 100.0 19
Sudurpashchim Province 9.2 0.2 0.2 90.4 100.0 355 91.3 0.0 8.7 0.0 100.0 34
Urban 9.3 0.2 0.4 90.1 100.0 233 (89.2) (0.0) (10.8) (0.0) 100.0 23
Rural 8.8 0.0 0.0 91.2 100.0 122 * * * * 100.0 11
Education
No education 20.1 0.8 0.0 79.2 100.0 393 87.9 3.7 8.4 0.0 100.0 82
Basic education (1–8) 16.3 1.4 0.2 82.1 100.0 1,898 85.5 1.5 12.8 0.2 100.0 340
Lower basic education (1–5) 20.6 2.6 0.2 76.6 100.0 891 81.5 1.6 16.5 0.3 100.0 208
Upper basic education (6–8) 12.5 0.4 0.1 86.9 100.0 1,007 91.7 1.5 6.8 0.0 100.0 131
Secondary (9–12) 10.5 0.9 0.1 88.5 100.0 2,244 85.7 1.6 11.4 1.3 100.0 258
Lower secondary (9–10) 11.9 1.0 0.2 86.9 100.0 1,284 86.9 0.9 12.2 0.0 100.0 168
Higher secondary (11–12) 8.6 0.7 0.1 90.6 100.0 959 83.4 3.0 9.9 3.8 100.0 90
More than secondary (13 and
above) 14.9 0.6 0.1 84.4 100.0 377 83.0 8.4 8.6 0.0 100.0 59
Wealth quintile
Lowest 13.3 0.2 0.0 86.5 100.0 751 87.5 1.6 10.9 0.0 100.0 101
Second 13.4 1.4 0.1 85.1 100.0 933 85.2 0.4 14.4 0.0 100.0 139
Middle 14.7 0.9 0.0 84.3 100.0 957 85.5 2.0 11.5 1.0 100.0 151
Fourth 12.8 1.2 0.1 85.9 100.0 1,135 89.1 2.5 8.4 0.0 100.0 160
Highest 14.9 1.3 0.3 83.6 100.0 1,137 82.0 4.4 12.3 1.4 100.0 187
Total 13.8 1.1 0.1 85.0 100.0 4,913 85.6 2.4 11.5 0.6 100.0 738

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Title/deed or other government-recognized document
2
Jointly with wife, someone else, or both wife and someone else
3
Includes men who have a house with a title/deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and men who do not know if there
is a title/deed or other government-recognized document for the house
4
Includes men who own a house alone, jointly with their wife only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their wife and someone else, or both alone and jointly

408 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.5.1 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by ownership of land, and among women who own land, percent distribution by whether the land owned has a title/deed and
whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title/deed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Land has
Percentage who own land: a title/deed1:
Percent- Woman’s Woman’s Number of
Both age who name is name is Does not women
Background alone and do not Number of on not on have a Don’t who own
characteristic Alone Jointly2 jointly own land Total women title/deed1 title/deed1 title/deed1 know3 Total land4
Age
15–19 0.3 1.0 0.0 98.7 100.0 2,643 (26.0) (0.0) (74.0) (0.0) 100.0 35
20–24 1.1 1.1 0.0 97.8 100.0 2,637 54.6 0.0 45.4 0.0 100.0 59
25–29 6.1 1.0 0.0 92.8 100.0 2,435 84.9 0.0 14.4 0.8 100.0 174
30–34 12.8 2.0 0.0 85.2 100.0 2,144 91.5 0.0 7.5 1.0 100.0 318
35–39 17.6 1.7 0.0 80.7 100.0 2,025 92.8 0.5 6.7 0.0 100.0 391
40–44 20.2 1.8 0.0 78.0 100.0 1,629 93.4 0.0 6.6 0.0 100.0 359
45–49 21.9 2.6 0.0 75.6 100.0 1,332 90.0 0.3 9.7 0.0 100.0 326
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 12.4 2.0 0.0 85.6 100.0 4,152 88.4 0.2 11.3 0.1 100.0 599
Dalit 6.2 1.7 0.0 92.0 100.0 2,240 76.1 0.6 23.3 0.0 100.0 179
Janajati 8.9 1.7 0.0 89.4 100.0 5,428 87.9 0.1 11.5 0.5 100.0 574
Madhesi 10.9 0.2 0.0 88.8 100.0 2,333 97.2 0.0 2.8 0.0 100.0 260
Muslim 6.9 0.2 0.0 92.8 100.0 676 (97.3) (0.0) (0.0) (2.7) 100.0 49
Other * * * * 100.0 15 * * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 10.4 1.6 0.0 88.0 100.0 10,178 88.8 0.2 10.7 0.3 100.0 1,224
Rural 8.1 1.2 0.0 90.6 100.0 4,667 87.7 0.2 12.0 0.1 100.0 438
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.4 0.6 0.0 92.0 100.0 791 95.7 0.0 4.3 0.0 100.0 63
Hill 9.8 2.7 0.0 87.5 100.0 5,872 80.8 0.4 18.7 0.1 100.0 736
Terai 9.8 0.7 0.0 89.5 100.0 8,182 94.6 0.0 4.9 0.5 100.0 863
Province
Koshi Province 12.3 0.6 0.0 87.1 100.0 2,493 97.7 0.0 1.8 0.4 100.0 323
Urban 13.1 0.8 0.0 86.0 100.0 1,640 97.1 0.0 2.3 0.6 100.0 229
Rural 10.8 0.3 0.0 89.0 100.0 853 99.3 0.0 0.7 0.0 100.0 94
Madhesh Province 10.4 0.2 0.0 89.4 100.0 3,010 98.2 0.0 1.8 0.0 100.0 320
Urban 10.0 0.2 0.0 89.8 100.0 2,226 98.1 0.0 1.9 0.0 100.0 227
Rural 11.6 0.2 0.1 88.2 100.0 783 98.4 0.0 1.6 0.0 100.0 93
Bagmati Province 9.7 0.7 0.0 89.6 100.0 3,062 97.4 0.2 1.5 0.9 100.0 319
Urban 10.0 0.8 0.0 89.2 100.0 2,464 98.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 100.0 267
Rural 8.4 0.3 0.0 91.3 100.0 599 94.7 1.3 4.0 0.0 100.0 52
Gandaki Province 9.9 6.9 0.0 83.2 100.0 1,401 59.4 0.0 40.3 0.2 100.0 236
Urban 10.3 6.8 0.0 82.9 100.0 992 61.0 0.0 39.0 0.0 100.0 170
Rural 8.7 7.4 0.1 83.8 100.0 409 55.3 0.0 43.8 0.9 100.0 66
Lumbini Province 8.7 0.8 0.0 90.5 100.0 2,691 95.9 0.0 4.1 0.0 100.0 255
Urban 10.7 0.9 0.0 88.4 100.0 1,553 96.7 0.0 3.3 0.0 100.0 180
Rural 5.9 0.6 0.0 93.4 100.0 1,138 93.8 0.0 6.2 0.0 100.0 75
Karnali Province 10.0 6.1 0.0 83.9 100.0 909 60.9 1.4 37.7 0.0 100.0 146
Urban 11.5 8.1 0.0 80.4 100.0 507 57.6 2.0 40.3 0.0 100.0 100
Rural 8.0 3.6 0.0 88.4 100.0 402 67.9 0.0 32.1 0.0 100.0 47
Sudurpashchim Province 4.7 0.1 0.0 95.1 100.0 1,279 90.9 0.0 9.1 0.0 100.0 62
Urban 6.1 0.2 0.0 93.7 100.0 796 88.7 0.0 11.3 0.0 100.0 50
Rural 2.5 0.0 0.0 97.5 100.0 484 * * * * 100.0 12
Education
No education 11.8 1.4 0.0 86.7 100.0 3,796 90.8 0.1 9.1 0.0 100.0 503
Basic education (1–8) 9.0 1.1 0.0 89.9 100.0 4,595 88.5 0.2 11.0 0.3 100.0 464
Lower basic education (1–5) 9.7 0.9 0.0 89.4 100.0 2,314 89.3 0.0 10.1 0.5 100.0 245
Upper basic education (6–8) 8.4 1.2 0.0 90.4 100.0 2,281 87.6 0.5 11.9 0.0 100.0 219
Secondary (9–12) 8.0 1.8 0.0 90.2 100.0 5,798 84.9 0.2 14.4 0.6 100.0 571
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.7 2.1 0.0 89.2 100.0 3,270 84.7 0.3 14.3 0.8 100.0 355
Higher secondary (11–12) 7.1 1.5 0.0 91.4 100.0 2,529 85.2 0.0 14.5 0.3 100.0 216
More than secondary (13 and
above) 17.2 1.6 0.0 81.2 100.0 656 96.3 0.0 3.7 0.0 100.0 123
Wealth quintile
Lowest 4.6 1.7 0.0 93.6 100.0 2,628 70.7 0.0 29.3 0.0 100.0 167
Second 8.6 1.2 0.0 90.2 100.0 2,857 89.3 0.2 9.5 1.0 100.0 280
Middle 10.0 1.1 0.0 88.9 100.0 3,028 92.0 0.3 7.5 0.2 100.0 335
Fourth 10.1 1.5 0.0 88.4 100.0 3,197 89.2 0.0 10.5 0.4 100.0 372
Highest 14.3 1.9 0.0 83.8 100.0 3,135 91.2 0.2 8.6 0.0 100.0 508
Total 9.7 1.5 0.0 88.8 100.0 14,845 88.5 0.2 11.0 0.3 100.0 1,661

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Title/deed or other government-recognized document
2
Jointly with husband, someone else, or both husband and someone else
3
Includes women who have land with a title/deed or other government-recognized document, but they do not know if their name is on it, and women who do not know if
there is a title/deed or other government-recognized document for the land
4
Includes women who own land alone, jointly with their husband only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their husband and someone else, or both alone and jointly

Women’s Empowerment • 409

Table 15.5.2 Land ownership and documentation of ownership: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by ownership of land, and among men who own land, percent distribution by whether the land owned has a title/deed and whether
or not the man’s name appears on the title/deed, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who own land: Land has a title/deed1:
Percent- Man’s Man’s
age who name is name is Does not Number of
Background Both alone do not own Number of on not on have a men who
characteristic Alone Jointly2 and jointly land Total men title/deed1 title/deed1 title/deed1 Total own land3
Age
15–19 0.5 0.1 0.1 99.3 100.0 985 * * * 100.0 7
20–24 2.4 0.3 0.2 97.1 100.0 857 (78.2) (2.1) (19.8) 100.0 25
25–29 6.2 0.4 0.0 93.4 100.0 716 89.2 0.0 10.8 100.0 47
30–34 15.4 0.1 0.5 84.1 100.0 616 97.6 0.0 2.4 100.0 98
35–39 27.3 1.3 0.4 71.0 100.0 639 94.5 0.3 5.2 100.0 185
40–44 33.2 1.1 0.0 65.7 100.0 604 94.3 0.2 5.5 100.0 207
45–49 42.8 3.7 1.5 52.0 100.0 496 93.8 1.7 4.6 100.0 238
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 20.7 1.0 0.4 77.9 100.0 1,232 93.3 1.3 5.4 100.0 273
Dalit 10.9 0.5 0.0 88.6 100.0 658 92.8 0.7 6.5 100.0 75
Janajati 15.4 0.9 0.3 83.4 100.0 1,869 92.5 0.5 7.1 100.0 310
Madhesi 13.0 0.8 0.4 85.8 100.0 917 98.7 0.0 1.3 100.0 130
Muslim 8.0 0.0 0.4 91.6 100.0 228 * * * 100.0 19
Other * * * * 100.0 8 * * * 100.0 0
Residence
Urban 14.6 0.6 0.4 84.4 100.0 3,462 93.3 0.8 5.8 100.0 542
Rural 16.9 1.2 0.2 81.7 100.0 1,451 94.7 0.4 4.9 100.0 266
Ecological zone
Mountain 22.1 0.2 0.0 77.7 100.0 255 93.5 1.9 4.6 100.0 57
Hill 17.1 0.9 0.4 81.7 100.0 1,973 89.9 0.9 9.1 100.0 362
Terai 13.3 0.8 0.3 85.5 100.0 2,685 97.4 0.3 2.3 100.0 389
Province
Koshi Province 19.8 0.9 0.2 79.1 100.0 882 92.5 0.0 7.5 100.0 185
Urban 20.3 0.7 0.2 78.8 100.0 604 93.5 0.0 6.5 100.0 128
Rural 18.7 1.3 0.4 79.6 100.0 278 90.2 0.0 9.8 100.0 57
Madhesh Province 11.2 0.7 0.5 87.6 100.0 997 97.5 0.0 2.5 100.0 124
Urban 10.3 0.5 0.6 88.7 100.0 722 96.1 0.0 3.9 100.0 82
Rural 13.5 1.5 0.3 84.7 100.0 275 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 42
Bagmati Province 16.8 0.7 0.6 81.9 100.0 1,214 93.2 1.5 5.3 100.0 220
Urban 15.0 0.6 0.7 83.7 100.0 1,016 90.9 2.0 7.1 100.0 166
Rural 26.2 1.3 0.0 72.5 100.0 198 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 54
Gandaki Province 12.3 1.2 0.1 86.3 100.0 387 81.3 1.0 17.7 100.0 53
Urban 10.4 0.8 0.0 88.8 100.0 264 (82.7) (0.0) (17.3) 100.0 30
Rural 16.5 2.0 0.4 81.1 100.0 123 (79.6) (2.2) (18.2) 100.0 23
Lumbini Province 15.4 1.1 0.0 83.6 100.0 812 97.3 0.0 2.7 100.0 133
Urban 15.7 0.9 0.0 83.3 100.0 468 99.0 0.0 1.0 100.0 78
Rural 14.9 1.2 0.0 83.9 100.0 344 94.8 0.0 5.2 100.0 55
Karnali Province 19.9 0.5 0.0 79.6 100.0 266 98.3 0.0 1.7 100.0 54
Urban 20.8 0.5 0.0 78.7 100.0 154 98.6 0.0 1.4 100.0 33
Rural 18.7 0.4 0.0 80.9 100.0 113 97.8 0.0 2.2 100.0 22
Sudurpashchim Province 10.3 0.4 0.0 89.3 100.0 355 89.9 4.5 5.6 100.0 38
Urban 10.5 0.6 0.0 88.9 100.0 233 (87.1) (4.7) (8.2) 100.0 26
Rural 9.8 0.0 0.0 90.2 100.0 122 * * * 100.0 12
Education
No education 17.2 0.5 0.0 82.3 100.0 393 94.7 0.0 5.3 100.0 70
Basic education (1–8) 18.0 1.1 0.4 80.5 100.0 1,898 93.2 1.2 5.5 100.0 371
Lower basic education (1–5) 23.7 1.7 0.6 74.0 100.0 891 91.7 1.4 7.0 100.0 232
Upper basic education (6–8) 13.0 0.5 0.3 86.2 100.0 1,007 95.8 1.0 3.2 100.0 140
Secondary (9–12) 12.5 0.6 0.1 86.8 100.0 2,244 93.8 0.3 5.9 100.0 297
Lower secondary (9–10) 13.9 0.4 0.0 85.7 100.0 1,284 93.1 0.3 6.6 100.0 184
Higher secondary (11–12) 10.7 0.9 0.2 88.2 100.0 959 94.9 0.4 4.7 100.0 113
More than secondary (13 and
above) 16.1 0.8 1.5 81.7 100.0 377 95.8 0.0 4.2 100.0 69
Wealth quintile
Lowest 16.0 0.3 0.0 83.7 100.0 751 94.9 0.9 4.2 100.0 122
Second 15.4 1.5 0.3 82.8 100.0 933 90.2 1.5 8.3 100.0 161
Middle 14.6 1.1 0.3 84.1 100.0 957 95.9 0.4 3.7 100.0 152
Fourth 13.5 0.9 0.4 85.2 100.0 1,135 94.1 0.0 5.9 100.0 168
Highest 17.1 0.3 0.5 82.1 100.0 1,137 94.1 0.7 5.2 100.0 204
Total 15.3 0.8 0.3 83.6 100.0 4,913 93.8 0.7 5.5 100.0 807

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been
suppressed.
1
Title/deed or other government-recognized document
2
Jointly with wife, someone else, or both wife and someone else
3
Includes men who own land alone, jointly with their wife only, jointly with someone else only, jointly with their wife and someone else, or both alone and jointly

410 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.6.1 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who own any mobile phone, percentage who own a smartphone, and percentage who used a mobile phone to make financial
transactions in the last 12 months; percentage of women who have and use a bank account and percentage who deposited or withdrew money from their own
bank account in the last 12 months; and percentage of women who have and use a bank account or used a mobile phone for financial transactions in the last 12
months, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
have and use a
Mobile phone ownership: Bank account ownership and use:
Percentage who bank account or
used a mobile Percentage who used a mobile
phone for deposited or phone for
financial withdrew money financial
Percentage Percentage transactions Percentage who from their own transactions
Background who own any who own a in the last have and use a account in the in the last Number of
characteristic mobile phone smartphone 12 months1 bank account last 12 months 12 months women
Age
15–19 61.7 52.8 5.6 16.1 10.2 17.7 2,643
20–24 87.3 73.1 14.6 39.1 32.0 40.3 2,637
25–29 90.8 72.8 13.4 53.5 45.0 53.9 2,435
30–34 88.5 67.8 10.9 64.7 53.7 65.1 2,144
35–39 82.3 53.9 7.7 63.5 52.1 63.7 2,025
40–44 72.8 43.5 5.4 63.9 52.8 64.0 1,629
45–49 70.0 37.4 2.5 61.3 48.3 61.3 1,332
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 88.6 68.5 15.7 59.9 49.2 60.6 4,152
Dalit 71.0 48.8 3.1 38.4 29.5 38.9 2,240
Janajati 84.5 64.6 10.0 52.8 43.9 53.6 5,428
Madhesi 65.9 45.3 3.9 37.4 28.6 37.9 2,333
Muslim 61.7 50.3 1.9 30.0 23.5 30.2 676
Other * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 81.5 64.9 12.0 53.1 43.8 53.9 10,178
Rural 75.6 48.0 3.3 40.5 31.3 40.8 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 80.7 40.7 3.6 41.3 34.2 41.6 791
Hill 88.5 68.6 14.6 55.9 46.7 56.7 5,872
Terai 73.2 55.0 6.0 45.0 35.5 45.6 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 80.0 59.0 6.8 45.0 35.8 45.8 2,493
Urban 80.4 61.5 7.8 47.7 38.4 48.6 1,640
Rural 79.1 54.3 4.8 39.8 30.8 40.4 853
Madhesh Province 64.0 44.7 2.8 33.3 25.4 33.6 3,010
Urban 64.5 46.4 3.3 33.4 25.7 33.7 2,226
Rural 62.5 39.9 1.3 33.2 24.5 33.2 783
Bagmati Province 90.1 75.7 21.7 64.5 55.1 65.8 3,062
Urban 92.7 82.2 25.6 70.4 61.1 71.9 2,464
Rural 79.7 49.0 5.7 40.0 30.3 40.7 599
Gandaki Province 92.4 80.8 14.4 65.1 55.3 65.7 1,401
Urban 94.3 85.1 18.3 69.7 60.0 70.6 992
Rural 87.8 70.2 4.8 53.8 43.9 53.9 409
Lumbini Province 79.9 61.3 6.7 51.9 40.8 52.4 2,691
Urban 83.7 68.1 9.2 56.4 44.7 57.2 1,553
Rural 74.8 52.1 3.3 45.6 35.5 45.9 1,138
Karnali Province 81.5 43.2 3.4 37.5 30.2 37.8 909
Urban 83.2 50.9 4.6 42.8 36.0 43.0 507
Rural 79.4 33.5 1.8 30.7 23.0 31.2 402
Sudurpashchim Province 74.8 42.2 3.3 42.4 33.4 42.8 1,279
Urban 75.2 48.0 4.6 44.5 35.0 45.1 796
Rural 74.1 32.8 1.0 39.1 30.8 39.1 484
Education
No education 63.7 30.6 0.7 43.3 33.3 43.4 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 78.0 55.3 2.4 42.2 33.9 42.7 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 78.4 51.4 1.6 44.1 35.6 44.7 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 77.6 59.1 3.2 40.3 32.1 40.6 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 89.2 78.0 14.2 53.4 43.7 54.7 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 84.8 70.0 6.2 46.2 36.6 46.8 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 94.9 88.3 24.6 62.7 52.9 64.8 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 98.7 95.3 63.0 92.8 85.9 92.9 656
Wealth quintile
Lowest 71.8 36.0 1.5 27.2 21.2 27.5 2,628
Second 71.8 44.5 1.7 36.2 27.2 36.4 2,857
Middle 75.2 53.7 3.6 45.3 36.0 45.9 3,028
Fourth 83.6 70.3 8.9 55.7 45.4 56.6 3,197
Highest 93.6 87.9 28.4 76.1 65.3 77.4 3,135
Total 79.6 59.6 9.2 49.1 39.9 49.8 14,845

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents were asked about use of a mobile phone for financial transactions whether or not they owned a mobile phone.

Women’s Empowerment • 411

 Table 15.6.2 Ownership and use of mobile phones and bank accounts: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who own any mobile phone, percentage who own a smartphone, and percentage who used a mobile phone to make financial
transactions in the last 12 months; percentage of men who have and use a bank account and percentage who deposited or withdrew money from their own bank
account in the last 12 months; and percentage of men who have and use a bank account or used a mobile phone for financial transactions in the last 12 months,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
have and use a
Mobile phone ownership: Bank account ownership and use:
Percentage who bank account or
used a mobile Percentage who used a mobile
phone for deposited or phone for
financial withdrew money financial
Percentage Percentage transactions Percentage who from their own transactions
Background who own any who own a in the last have and use a account in the in the last Number
characteristic mobile phone smartphone 12 months1 bank account last 12 months 12 months of men
Age
15–19 82.8 77.5 10.9 15.5 10.4 18.9 985
20–24 96.5 89.9 30.0 51.5 42.5 53.8 857
25–29 97.0 83.0 28.6 60.8 50.4 61.7 716
30–34 94.7 79.9 26.1 68.9 57.2 69.2 616
35–39 94.1 69.2 19.6 66.1 54.1 66.6 639
40–44 89.7 58.1 13.2 66.1 53.6 66.5 604
45–49 87.7 46.8 10.5 66.8 52.6 66.8 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 94.3 79.6 33.6 68.9 60.2 69.9 1,232
Dalit 87.0 63.7 6.7 38.3 27.6 39.1 658
Janajati 91.9 75.8 19.0 51.5 42.0 53.3 1,869
Madhesi 90.6 70.6 15.5 47.6 34.6 49.3 917
Muslim 91.1 76.7 10.6 42.8 33.3 43.9 228
Other * * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 91.9 77.2 24.2 56.4 46.4 57.9 3,462
Rural 90.7 67.0 10.3 45.2 34.6 46.3 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 90.2 65.3 16.9 54.5 44.2 55.3 255
Hill 94.3 79.7 28.2 60.3 51.9 62.3 1,973
Terai 89.6 71.0 14.4 47.6 36.2 48.6 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 85.7 68.2 13.2 48.9 40.2 50.0 882
Urban 84.2 67.5 14.1 50.6 42.6 51.2 604
Rural 89.1 69.8 11.2 45.2 35.0 47.5 278
Madhesh Province 88.3 68.2 11.4 40.4 28.1 41.6 997
Urban 88.2 70.0 12.1 41.5 28.9 42.9 722
Rural 88.7 63.5 9.5 37.4 25.9 38.2 275
Bagmati Province 96.3 83.5 37.2 67.0 56.5 69.3 1,214
Urban 97.4 87.4 42.2 70.4 59.8 72.8 1,016
Rural 90.8 63.4 11.5 49.6 39.2 51.2 198
Gandaki Province 96.1 84.2 20.9 59.4 51.6 60.6 387
Urban 96.5 86.3 25.5 63.1 56.5 64.9 264
Rural 95.0 79.7 10.9 51.4 41.0 51.4 123
Lumbini Province 92.7 74.5 16.0 52.7 43.1 53.4 812
Urban 93.4 78.0 20.2 55.8 46.4 56.8 468
Rural 91.8 69.8 10.3 48.4 38.6 48.7 344
Karnali Province 92.2 65.9 14.1 50.5 41.8 51.6 266
Urban 92.6 71.1 19.4 56.9 49.6 57.5 154
Rural 91.5 58.7 6.9 41.8 31.2 43.4 113
Sudurpashchim Province 91.0 68.6 16.3 47.4 36.3 48.8 355
Urban 91.1 72.7 19.1 49.6 38.6 50.9 233
Rural 90.8 60.8 10.9 43.1 31.9 44.7 122
Education
No education 75.5 37.3 0.5 28.0 14.5 28.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 87.5 61.6 4.2 41.7 30.7 41.9 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 86.8 52.0 2.8 41.6 28.9 41.8 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 88.1 70.0 5.4 41.8 32.2 42.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 96.4 87.7 27.7 59.6 49.6 62.3 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 94.6 83.5 16.1 52.2 41.6 54.2 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 98.9 93.4 43.3 69.5 60.4 73.2 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 99.7 95.9 75.5 97.6 94.4 98.6 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 82.3 52.0 3.6 29.1 21.6 29.8 751
Second 86.7 62.7 6.4 36.8 25.9 37.5 933
Middle 91.6 69.0 9.1 44.5 33.7 45.2 957
Fourth 94.8 83.2 19.4 61.2 48.3 63.4 1,135
Highest 98.4 93.7 52.2 81.3 73.4 83.5 1,137
Total 91.6 74.2 20.1 53.1 42.9 54.5 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents were asked about use of a mobile phone for financial transactions whether or not they owned a mobile phone.

412 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.7 Participation in decision making
Percent distribution of currently married women and currently married men age 15–49 by person who usually
makes decisions about various issues, Nepal DHS 2022
Wife and
Mainly husband Mainly Someone
Decision wife jointly husband else Other Total Number
WOMEN

Own health care 22.2 49.5 20.5 6.8 0.9 100.0 11,180
Major household purchases 25.1 34.8 20.1 18.5 1.5 100.0 11,180
Visits to her family or relatives 29.3 38.9 16.8 13.7 1.2 100.0 11,180
MEN
Own health care 5.4 41.0 48.7 4.0 0.8 100.0 3,101
Major household purchases 13.9 36.5 30.7 16.3 2.7 100.0 3,101

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married, and the term wife includes
a partner with whom a man is living as if married.

Women’s Empowerment • 413

 Table 15.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 who usually make specific decisions either by themselves or jointly with
their husband, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Specific decisions
Making
Woman’s major Visits to her None of the
Background own health household family or All three three Number of
characteristic care purchases relatives decisions decisions women
Age
15–19 44.2 20.6 33.8 14.8 47.0 563
20–24 60.2 35.6 46.0 26.5 30.3 1,783
25–29 70.5 55.8 64.9 43.0 17.2 2,198
30–34 79.3 69.3 77.0 58.1 9.9 2,027
35–39 78.8 73.8 78.6 59.0 8.6 1,906
40–44 76.5 72.0 79.1 58.8 9.7 1,515
45–49 73.9 68.6 78.8 54.7 8.9 1,188
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 63.9 49.6 59.7 40.1 25.6 2,677
Employed for cash 79.4 71.2 77.4 57.5 8.4 4,064
Employed not for cash 69.4 55.8 65.1 43.6 17.4 4,439
Number of living children
0 61.9 33.8 49.5 27.7 29.7 1,055
1–2 73.6 61.0 69.5 48.8 14.6 6,449
3–4 70.6 65.7 71.4 51.9 15.2 3,133
5+ 74.7 64.6 72.5 51.8 13.3 543
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 78.6 64.7 75.6 53.6 9.5 3,031
Dalit 66.7 60.7 63.6 46.5 21.0 1,734
Janajati 76.9 63.2 74.7 50.2 9.6 4,042
Madhesi 58.8 47.6 52.6 37.7 31.0 1,835
Muslim 55.1 47.7 47.6 36.7 35.8 528
Other * * * * * 11
Residence
Urban 72.3 61.2 69.2 48.8 15.5 7,553
Rural 70.6 57.2 66.4 45.7 17.5 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 74.1 62.3 76.2 51.2 11.6 629
Hill 78.0 65.9 75.9 53.1 9.1 4,275
Terai 67.2 55.6 62.3 43.9 21.4 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 73.2 59.8 74.9 46.2 10.7 1,887
Urban 74.9 61.7 76.8 48.5 9.4 1,242
Rural 69.9 56.3 71.1 41.9 13.2 645
Madhesh Province 55.3 49.5 51.9 38.8 34.4 2,419
Urban 55.2 48.6 51.3 38.3 35.0 1,789
Rural 55.7 51.8 53.6 40.1 32.9 630
Bagmati Province 79.4 68.7 80.2 56.3 7.2 2,156
Urban 80.7 71.2 82.2 58.6 6.0 1,700
Rural 74.8 59.2 72.9 47.7 11.5 456
Gandaki Province 82.4 71.7 78.5 59.0 6.0 1,046
Urban 84.2 73.0 80.2 60.5 4.8 729
Rural 78.5 68.5 74.5 55.7 9.0 317
Lumbini Province 73.7 57.4 63.9 45.9 15.8 2,020
Urban 73.4 58.3 63.6 44.8 14.7 1,119
Rural 74.2 56.3 64.3 47.3 17.3 900
Karnali Province 74.0 64.3 69.2 51.5 14.5 691
Urban 76.9 65.6 69.6 53.0 12.4 381
Rural 70.4 62.7 68.7 49.7 17.1 310
Sudurpashchim Province 75.3 55.9 67.0 43.5 13.3 960
Urban 74.3 57.4 66.5 43.3 12.9 591
Rural 76.8 53.5 67.8 43.9 13.9 369
Education
No education 68.0 62.0 67.2 48.6 19.1 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 69.1 59.5 67.0 47.3 17.9 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 69.0 59.6 67.6 46.8 17.5 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 69.2 59.3 66.2 47.8 18.3 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 75.6 57.1 69.0 45.8 13.0 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 73.8 57.0 67.4 45.1 14.8 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 78.6 57.4 71.5 46.8 9.9 1,328
More than secondary (13 and above) 90.9 68.8 81.4 61.6 3.7 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 71.9 59.9 67.6 47.4 15.8 2,031
Second 67.1 55.6 63.3 42.7 20.2 2,217
Middle 68.4 58.1 65.7 46.7 19.1 2,323
Fourth 71.5 60.0 67.6 47.8 16.7 2,381
Highest 79.9 65.9 77.1 54.4 8.5 2,228
Total 71.7 59.9 68.3 47.8 16.1 11,180

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. An asterisk indicates that a figure is
based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

414 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics
Percentage of currently married men age 15–49 who usually make specific decisions either alone or jointly
with their wife, by background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Specific decisions
Making
major Neither of
Background Man’s own household Both the two Number of
characteristic health care purchases decisions decisions men
Age
15–19 78.8 29.8 29.8 21.2 46
20–24 81.8 41.7 40.8 17.3 301
25–29 87.8 55.6 54.0 10.6 514
30–34 90.4 66.8 65.5 8.4 561
35–39 93.4 75.1 74.0 5.5 609
40–44 89.7 77.4 74.6 7.5 586
45–49 92.3 77.2 76.0 6.4 485
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 84.9 44.4 44.4 15.1 71
Employed for cash 90.6 68.1 66.4 7.8 2,668
Employed not for cash 84.3 65.3 64.6 15.0 363
Number of living children
0 84.1 45.4 44.2 14.7 371
1–2 90.8 65.2 64.0 8.0 1,727
3–4 89.2 77.4 74.9 8.3 854
5+ 93.9 86.6 86.6 6.1 150
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 97.1 70.9 70.2 2.3 771
Dalit 85.7 65.9 64.0 12.3 437
Janajati 92.3 67.3 66.2 6.5 1,191
Madhesi 79.1 64.7 61.8 17.9 561
Muslim 80.9 58.7 56.5 16.9 136
Other * * * * 5
Residence
Urban 91.0 67.3 66.1 7.8 2,119
Rural 86.9 67.1 64.9 10.9 982
Ecological zone
Mountain 95.1 69.8 68.8 3.9 186
Hill 95.2 70.0 69.3 4.0 1,194
Terai 85.3 65.0 62.9 12.6 1,722
Province
Koshi Province 90.3 71.0 69.0 7.7 558
Urban 93.3 74.7 73.1 5.2 390
Rural 83.5 62.6 59.6 13.6 168
Madhesh Province 76.6 63.4 60.7 20.7 631
Urban 76.8 62.5 59.7 20.4 453
Rural 76.0 65.7 63.2 21.6 178
Bagmati Province 95.3 71.4 70.8 4.0 686
Urban 96.4 71.1 70.8 3.3 543
Rural 91.5 72.5 70.6 6.6 143
Gandaki Province 95.0 61.8 61.5 4.8 263
Urban 95.1 59.1 59.1 4.9 182
Rural 94.6 67.9 67.0 4.5 81
Lumbini Province 89.0 62.5 60.5 9.1 551
Urban 91.9 61.5 60.2 6.8 310
Rural 85.2 63.7 60.9 12.0 241
Karnali Province 96.6 72.7 71.3 2.1 185
Urban 96.4 71.1 69.0 1.6 103
Rural 96.8 74.6 74.2 2.8 82
Sudurpashchim Province 97.5 69.4 69.0 2.0 226
Urban 98.1 68.4 68.4 1.9 138
Rural 96.7 71.0 69.8 2.1 88
Education
No education 82.9 73.3 69.7 13.6 353
Basic education (1–8) 89.6 69.4 68.0 9.0 1,368
Lower basic education (1–5) 89.5 73.8 72.3 9.0 738
Upper basic education (6–8) 89.7 64.4 63.0 8.9 630
Secondary (9–12) 90.9 63.4 62.3 8.0 1,133
Lower secondary (9–10) 90.3 65.3 64.2 8.6 733
Higher secondary (11–12) 92.1 59.8 58.7 6.9 400
More than secondary (13 and above) 94.6 64.1 63.2 4.5 247
Wealth quintile
Lowest 93.8 75.4 73.7 4.6 525
Second 88.2 68.9 66.7 9.6 608
Middle 86.1 65.4 62.6 11.2 631
Fourth 88.8 65.4 65.0 10.8 682
Highest 92.3 62.7 62.0 7.0 655
Total 89.7 67.2 65.7 8.8 3,101

Note: The term wife includes a partner with whom a man is living as if married. An asterisk indicates that a
figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Women’s Empowerment • 415

 Table 15.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women
Percentage of all women age 15–49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons, by background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Percent- Does not
Refuses age who complete
to have agree with everyday
sexual at least routine
Goes out Neglects inter- one Brings less household
Background without the Argues course Burns the specified or no work on Talks to Number of
characteristic telling him children with him with him food reason dowry time other men women
Age
15–19 3.7 18.5 4.3 0.9 0.9 20.8 0.1 2.0 12.0 2,643
20–24 5.3 14.7 4.9 1.4 1.2 17.8 0.2 1.9 10.5 2,637
25–29 5.5 16.1 4.3 1.3 0.9 19.5 0.3 1.8 11.2 2,435
30–34 6.0 14.9 4.1 1.1 0.8 18.2 0.2 1.4 10.2 2,144
35–39 6.8 13.5 4.6 2.0 1.3 17.6 0.2 2.5 10.7 2,025
40–44 7.0 14.9 5.9 2.3 1.3 18.3 0.3 2.8 10.5 1,629
45–49 5.8 12.5 5.2 2.6 2.1 16.2 0.4 2.0 9.8 1,332
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 4.3 14.5 4.2 1.2 0.8 17.6 0.3 1.5 11.3 4,147
Employed for cash 6.0 15.1 4.5 1.4 1.3 18.2 0.1 2.1 9.4 5,194
Employed not for cash 6.2 16.0 5.2 2.0 1.3 19.6 0.3 2.4 11.8 5,504
Number of living children
0 3.5 15.5 3.7 0.9 0.8 18.1 0.1 1.8 9.9 4,288
1–2 6.3 16.2 4.6 1.5 1.1 19.5 0.3 1.7 10.2 6,708
3–4 6.3 13.4 5.7 2.1 1.6 17.3 0.2 2.8 12.6 3,279
5+ 8.5 13.9 6.8 3.8 2.7 18.2 0.8 3.8 14.2 570
Marital status
Never married 3.1 16.9 3.3 0.9 0.8 19.0 0.1 1.9 9.8 3,203
Married or living together 6.3 14.6 5.1 1.8 1.2 18.3 0.3 2.0 11.2 11,180
Divorced/separated/widowed 6.6 19.4 3.9 1.6 2.2 22.0 0.1 3.6 9.4 462
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.5 15.1 3.5 1.8 0.9 17.6 0.1 1.3 7.9 4,152
Dalit 7.7 18.1 5.3 2.2 1.5 21.8 0.3 2.4 15.0 2,240
Janajati 5.3 16.6 3.9 1.4 1.0 19.7 0.3 2.3 8.2 5,428
Madhesi 4.4 10.6 6.6 1.0 1.6 14.7 0.3 2.2 15.3 2,333
Muslim 5.7 12.9 8.9 1.3 1.5 18.0 0.3 2.8 20.8 676
Other * * * * * * * * * 15
Residence
Urban 5.2 15.0 4.6 1.4 1.1 18.2 0.2 1.9 10.5 10,178
Rural 6.4 15.9 4.7 2.0 1.3 19.4 0.3 2.4 11.4 4,667
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.0 16.1 3.4 2.3 1.2 19.5 0.1 2.1 7.3 791
Hill 5.9 15.6 3.7 1.8 1.1 18.3 0.4 2.0 8.7 5,872
Terai 5.4 15.0 5.5 1.3 1.2 18.6 0.1 2.1 12.7 8,182
Province
Koshi Province 6.9 19.7 5.5 1.5 1.4 24.0 0.2 2.8 10.7 2,493
Urban 6.9 20.3 5.3 1.3 1.5 24.7 0.1 2.9 10.7 1,640
Rural 6.9 18.4 5.9 1.9 1.2 22.6 0.2 2.7 10.7 853
Madhesh Province 4.1 9.9 6.3 0.8 1.6 13.6 0.2 2.0 16.9 3,010
Urban 3.7 9.8 6.3 0.5 1.5 13.7 0.1 1.7 17.4 2,226
Rural 5.1 10.0 6.3 1.8 1.9 13.1 0.3 3.0 15.4 783
Bagmati Province 4.8 13.6 3.1 1.2 0.9 15.9 0.5 1.6 5.3 3,062
Urban 4.2 12.9 3.0 1.0 1.0 15.2 0.5 1.4 4.3 2,464
Rural 7.1 16.2 3.6 1.8 0.5 18.7 0.2 2.5 9.4 599
Gandaki Province 4.1 13.9 1.8 1.3 0.6 15.8 0.1 1.1 10.0 1,401
Urban 3.9 14.1 1.7 1.4 0.6 15.7 0.1 0.8 10.2 992
Rural 4.6 13.6 2.1 1.1 0.7 16.0 0.3 1.6 9.4 409
Lumbini Province 6.7 17.6 4.6 2.1 1.1 21.2 0.1 1.8 11.1 2,691
Urban 6.1 17.3 4.7 1.9 0.7 20.4 0.1 1.2 10.1 1,553
Rural 7.5 17.9 4.3 2.4 1.8 22.4 0.1 2.5 12.5 1,138
Karnali Province 9.3 21.3 7.3 4.8 1.6 25.4 0.4 3.9 17.0 909
Urban 9.7 22.7 8.4 5.4 1.6 27.0 0.3 4.8 19.4 507
Rural 8.7 19.4 6.0 4.1 1.6 23.4 0.5 2.7 14.0 402
Sudurpashchim Province 5.3 16.0 4.4 1.2 0.4 18.6 0.2 1.7 5.9 1,279
Urban 5.9 16.8 4.7 1.3 0.5 19.6 0.1 2.2 5.9 796
Rural 4.4 14.7 3.9 1.0 0.3 17.1 0.4 0.8 6.0 484
Education
No education 7.0 13.9 6.5 2.3 2.0 18.1 0.3 2.9 13.9 3,796
Basic education (1–8) 6.9 17.1 5.9 1.7 1.5 21.2 0.3 2.8 12.3 4,595
Lower basic education (1–5) 7.1 15.6 6.0 1.7 1.6 20.3 0.2 3.1 12.5 2,314
Upper basic education (6–8) 6.8 18.5 5.9 1.8 1.4 22.1 0.4 2.6 12.2 2,281
Secondary (9–12) 4.1 16.0 2.9 1.1 0.5 18.2 0.1 1.0 8.5 5,798
Lower secondary (9–10) 5.3 19.0 3.6 1.5 0.7 21.7 0.2 1.4 10.1 3,270
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.5 12.2 2.0 0.5 0.2 13.7 0.0 0.6 6.5 2,529
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.8 4.4 0.9 0.3 0.1 5.7 0.0 0.0 2.4 656

(Continued…)

416 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.9.1—Continued
Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Percent- Does not
Refuses age who complete
to have agree with everyday
sexual at least routine
Goes out Neglects inter- one Brings less household
Background without the Argues course Burns the specified or no work on Talks to Number of
characteristic telling him children with him with him food reason dowry time other men women
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.6 17.5 5.6 3.0 1.8 21.9 0.4 2.9 10.8 2,628
Second 6.4 16.4 6.0 1.8 1.5 20.7 0.2 2.7 14.2 2,857
Middle 6.0 16.8 5.3 1.2 1.2 19.3 0.2 2.0 12.3 3,028
Fourth 5.8 15.3 4.0 1.2 0.9 19.0 0.3 1.9 10.9 3,197
Highest 2.6 10.8 2.6 0.9 0.5 12.7 0.1 0.9 6.2 3,135
Total 5.6 15.3 4.7 1.6 1.2 18.6 0.2 2.0 10.8 14,845

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.

Women’s Empowerment • 417

 Table 15.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men
Percentage of all men age 15–49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons, by background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022
Percent-
Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Does not
age who complete
Refuses agree with everyday
to have at least routine
Goes out Neglects sexual one Brings household
Background without the Argues intercourse Burns the specified less or no work on Talks to Number
characteristic telling him children with him with him food reason dowry time other men of men
Age
15–19 5.2 20.2 7.1 2.6 1.6 24.2 0.5 3.0 10.2 985
20–24 4.4 13.9 6.0 2.7 2.0 18.1 0.6 2.9 8.9 857
25–29 4.7 14.0 5.4 2.4 1.5 16.7 0.2 1.6 6.3 716
30–34 5.3 12.3 6.5 2.6 1.9 17.3 0.4 2.7 4.9 616
35–39 4.0 8.7 5.8 1.6 1.4 12.6 0.4 1.9 4.3 639
40–44 4.3 10.2 5.2 1.9 1.1 12.3 0.2 3.3 5.8 604
45–49 4.6 9.2 5.2 2.0 1.5 13.8 0.7 2.8 4.7 496

Employment (last 12 months)

Not employed 4.2 16.0 4.0 1.3 1.1 18.4 0.6 2.1 6.2 672
Employed for cash 4.7 12.8 6.2 2.4 1.8 16.8 0.4 2.7 6.8 3,548
Employed not for cash 4.8 13.7 7.0 2.8 1.3 17.6 0.3 2.8 7.7 693
Number of living children
0 4.4 15.3 5.5 2.6 1.6 18.9 0.6 2.4 8.1 2,150
1–2 4.2 11.7 5.7 1.9 1.3 15.1 0.2 2.2 5.5 1,746
3–4 6.0 12.0 7.0 2.4 2.3 17.3 0.5 3.8 6.2 864
5+ 5.8 12.1 10.8 2.3 1.6 16.4 0.2 3.6 9.3 153
Marital status
Never married 4.2 16.0 5.2 2.7 1.7 19.5 0.6 2.6 7.8 1,768
Married or living together 4.9 11.9 6.4 2.1 1.6 15.8 0.3 2.5 6.4 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed (5.1) (13.3) (5.9) (5.4) (2.3) (20.8) (0.0) (6.5) (2.6) 44
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 3.9 12.9 3.4 1.4 0.7 15.3 0.3 1.2 3.7 1,232
Dalit 6.9 16.3 6.9 4.1 2.3 20.7 0.8 4.5 11.0 658
Janajati 3.5 14.5 5.3 1.2 0.6 17.6 0.1 1.7 4.2 1,869
Madhesi 6.0 9.9 9.0 4.1 3.9 16.3 1.0 5.2 12.2 917
Muslim 6.7 12.9 10.9 4.0 3.3 17.8 0.4 2.1 12.8 228
Other * * * * * * * * * 8
Residence
Urban 4.0 12.2 5.7 2.1 1.4 15.9 0.4 2.6 5.9 3,462
Rural 6.2 16.2 6.6 2.9 2.0 20.2 0.5 2.5 9.3 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.7 15.8 6.5 3.0 1.4 19.8 0.7 2.0 7.2 255
Hill 3.7 11.8 3.4 1.2 0.6 14.4 0.3 1.0 3.3 1,973
Terai 5.3 14.3 7.8 3.0 2.4 18.9 0.6 3.9 9.5 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 4.7 13.7 6.9 2.3 1.2 16.6 0.3 2.8 5.4 882
Urban 5.6 14.3 7.8 2.1 1.4 17.3 0.2 3.1 5.0 604
Rural 2.8 12.4 5.1 2.6 0.9 15.1 0.4 2.2 6.2 278
Madhesh Province 4.8 8.9 9.0 3.4 3.8 15.1 0.8 4.6 13.1 997
Urban 4.5 9.6 9.0 3.1 3.0 14.5 0.6 5.1 12.5 722
Rural 5.4 7.0 9.1 4.1 6.0 16.6 1.6 3.5 14.7 275
Bagmati Province 2.9 9.4 3.5 1.0 0.7 12.4 0.4 1.3 3.4 1,214
Urban 2.4 7.8 3.0 0.9 0.6 10.9 0.5 1.1 2.8 1,016
Rural 5.3 17.9 5.9 1.5 1.0 20.4 0.3 2.2 6.4 198
Gandaki Province 3.5 12.6 4.3 1.7 0.2 15.9 0.7 1.3 3.6 387
Urban 2.1 12.0 4.8 2.0 0.2 16.1 1.0 0.9 3.1 264
Rural 6.6 14.1 3.0 1.0 0.3 15.4 0.0 2.2 4.8 123
Lumbini Province 6.4 19.9 5.3 2.2 1.3 22.7 0.1 2.3 8.2 812
Urban 5.6 18.5 4.8 2.5 1.5 21.7 0.2 3.0 6.1 468
Rural 7.4 21.9 6.0 1.8 0.9 23.9 0.0 1.4 11.1 344
Karnali Province 6.6 20.0 6.5 5.6 2.0 24.8 0.6 2.9 8.8 266
Urban 4.1 17.6 5.4 4.4 1.6 23.8 0.6 2.5 7.0 154
Rural 9.9 23.3 8.1 7.2 2.7 26.3 0.7 3.4 11.3 113
Sudurpashchim Province 6.1 19.5 6.9 2.6 1.3 23.7 0.3 2.7 4.1 355
Urban 4.1 17.9 5.4 2.0 1.4 21.3 0.2 1.9 3.0 233
Rural 10.1 22.6 9.7 3.5 1.2 28.2 0.3 4.2 6.3 122
Education
No education 7.9 15.6 12.8 6.0 5.0 23.3 1.0 7.1 11.1 393
Basic education (1–8) 6.7 16.6 8.2 3.4 2.4 21.3 0.7 4.0 10.2 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 6.3 17.4 8.9 4.3 2.8 21.7 0.9 4.3 11.5 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 7.0 15.9 7.6 2.6 2.0 20.9 0.6 3.8 9.0 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 3.1 12.0 3.8 1.1 0.6 14.9 0.2 1.0 4.4 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.1 13.3 5.5 1.5 0.9 16.8 0.2 1.1 6.2 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.6 10.3 1.5 0.5 0.2 12.4 0.0 0.9 1.9 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 0.7 2.8 0.5 0.3 0.1 3.4 0.1 0.3 0.7 377

(Continued…)

418 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.9.2—Continued
Percent-
Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Does not
age who complete
Refuses agree with everyday
to have at least routine
Goes out Neglects sexual one Brings household
Background without the Argues intercourse Burns the specified less or no work on Talks to Number
characteristic telling him children with him with him food reason dowry time other men of men
Wealth quintile
Lowest 7.5 19.6 8.3 3.4 2.2 22.6 0.4 3.9 8.2 751
Second 5.8 15.8 8.8 3.6 2.4 20.8 0.5 3.5 8.7 933
Middle 5.1 12.3 7.1 2.6 2.4 17.7 0.6 2.9 9.4 957
Fourth 3.9 13.9 5.7 2.1 1.3 17.2 0.6 2.9 6.9 1,135
Highest 2.2 7.6 1.6 0.5 0.2 10.0 0.2 0.5 2.2 1,137
Total 4.7 13.4 6.0 2.3 1.6 17.2 0.4 2.6 6.9 4,913

Note: The term wife includes a partner with whom a man is living as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An
asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Women’s Empowerment • 419

 Table 15.10 Attitudes toward negotiating safer sexual relations with husband
Percentage of women and men age 15–49 who believe that a woman is justified in refusing to have sexual intercourse with her husband if she
knows that he has sexual intercourse with other women, and percentage who believe that a woman is justified in asking that they use a condom
if she knows that her husband has a sexually transmitted infection (STI), according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Woman is justified in: Woman is justified in:
Refusing to Refusing to
have sexual have sexual
intercourse Asking that intercourse Asking that
with her they use a with her they use a
husband if she condom if she husband if she condom if she
knows he has knows that her knows he has knows that her
Background sex with other husband has Number of sex with other husband has Number of
characteristic women an STI women women an STI men
Age
15–24 84.6 86.0 5,280 72.8 93.9 1,842
15–19 83.6 81.6 2,643 71.3 92.9 985
20–24 85.6 90.5 2,637 74.6 95.1 857
25–29 84.1 92.8 2,435 73.3 95.1 716
30–39 82.4 92.4 4,169 72.2 94.0 1,255
40–49 82.9 90.2 2,961 73.9 91.1 1,100
Marital status
Never married 85.5 83.6 3,203 71.9 93.5 1,768
Ever had sex 79.9 94.8 84 71.9 94.6 539
Never had sex 85.6 83.3 3,120 71.9 93.0 1,229
Married/living together 83.0 91.6 11,180 73.8 93.6 3,101
Divorced/separated/widowed 83.3 89.1 462 (59.3) (86.5) 44
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 88.4 93.0 4,152 78.4 96.2 1,232
Dalit 84.4 86.8 2,240 70.6 91.6 658
Janajati 80.3 91.1 5,428 72.6 94.7 1,869
Madhesi 83.0 86.4 2,333 69.1 90.2 917
Muslim 79.0 80.6 676 69.7 88.8 228
Other * * 15 * * 8
Residence
Urban 84.7 90.6 10,178 74.2 93.4 3,462
Rural 81.1 87.9 4,667 70.0 93.8 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 84.9 89.9 791 76.7 91.4 255
Hill 86.2 90.2 5,872 76.8 95.0 1,973
Terai 81.5 89.5 8,182 69.8 92.6 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 83.0 92.3 2,493 76.4 93.1 882
Urban 82.7 92.3 1,640 80.4 93.5 604
Rural 83.7 92.3 853 67.7 92.2 278
Madhesh Province 81.9 85.1 3,010 67.1 89.8 997
Urban 82.9 85.6 2,226 66.8 90.2 722
Rural 78.9 83.9 783 67.8 88.7 275
Bagmati Province 86.6 89.9 3,062 79.8 94.7 1,214
Urban 88.2 91.9 2,464 79.3 94.2 1,016
Rural 79.9 81.7 599 82.2 97.7 198
Gandaki Province 83.4 90.3 1,401 78.1 95.0 387
Urban 83.8 90.6 992 79.7 95.5 264
Rural 82.5 89.4 409 74.4 94.1 123
Lumbini Province 82.1 91.1 2,691 65.6 94.8 812
Urban 83.3 92.6 1,553 66.0 93.2 468
Rural 80.5 89.0 1,138 65.1 97.1 344
Karnali Province 86.1 86.8 909 72.7 92.0 266
Urban 88.1 89.2 507 71.2 92.4 154
Rural 83.6 83.8 402 74.7 91.5 113
Sudurpashchim Province 82.6 94.3 1,279 69.3 97.0 355
Urban 84.5 94.4 796 71.6 97.8 233
Rural 79.6 94.1 484 65.1 95.6 122
Education
No education 78.1 85.2 3,796 61.2 84.2 393
Basic education (1–8) 81.2 87.8 4,595 68.8 92.4 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 81.1 87.4 2,314 67.2 90.2 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 81.2 88.3 2,281 70.2 94.4 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 88.1 93.5 5,798 76.9 96.1 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 86.2 92.2 3,270 77.3 96.1 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 90.5 95.1 2,529 76.5 96.1 959
More than secondary (13 and above) 91.9 97.5 656 82.9 93.1 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 82.4 85.4 2,628 69.1 92.0 751
Second 79.8 88.0 2,857 70.8 92.3 933
Middle 80.8 88.9 3,028 69.9 94.6 957
Fourth 84.8 91.3 3,197 73.5 94.5 1,135
Highest 89.4 94.5 3,135 79.4 93.5 1,137
Total 83.6 89.8 14,845 73.0 93.5 4,913

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted
cases and has been suppressed.

420 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 15.11 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with husband
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 who can say no to their husband if they do not want
to have sexual intercourse, and percentage who can ask their husband to use a condom, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who can
say no to their
husband if they do Percentage who can
Background not want to have ask their husband to Number of
characteristic sexual intercourse use a condom women
Age
15–24 88.6 72.1 2,346
15–19 84.6 63.6 563
20–24 89.9 74.8 1,783
25–29 92.7 82.0 2,198
30–39 91.7 79.4 3,933
40–49 89.5 76.4 2,703
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 94.8 90.4 3,031
Dalit 87.1 68.3 1,734
Janajati 94.2 85.7 4,042
Madhesi 84.0 58.0 1,835
Muslim 76.0 41.6 528
Other * * 11
Residence
Urban 91.3 78.5 7,553
Rural 89.5 75.9 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 93.8 84.5 629
Hill 93.5 86.0 4,275
Terai 88.5 71.3 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 93.6 85.0 1,887
Urban 94.0 85.3 1,242
Rural 93.0 84.4 645
Madhesh Province 81.4 50.9 2,419
Urban 82.4 50.6 1,789
Rural 78.7 51.8 630
Bagmati Province 94.5 87.6 2,156
Urban 95.1 90.1 1,700
Rural 92.0 78.2 456
Gandaki Province 92.9 86.2 1,046
Urban 93.6 87.9 729
Rural 91.4 82.3 317
Lumbini Province 92.0 80.6 2,020
Urban 93.9 84.5 1,119
Rural 89.8 75.7 900
Karnali Province 90.9 82.2 691
Urban 90.1 82.6 381
Rural 91.8 81.6 310
Sudurpashchim Province 94.6 89.4 960
Urban 94.8 89.7 591
Rural 94.1 89.0 369
Education
No education 84.5 61.5 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 90.8 77.7 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 89.0 73.9 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 93.0 82.2 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 95.7 91.1 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 95.0 89.5 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 96.9 93.7 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 97.6 95.8 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 89.1 73.8 2,031
Second 87.1 69.6 2,217
Middle 90.0 74.3 2,323
Fourth 91.9 79.7 2,381
Highest 95.3 90.4 2,228
Total 90.7 77.6 11,180

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. An asterisk
indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Women’s Empowerment • 421

 Table 15.12 Women’s participation in decision making regarding sexual and
reproductive health
Percentage of currently married women age 15–49 who make their own informed
decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use, and reproductive health care,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who
make decisions
regarding sexual
relations,
contraceptive use,
Background and reproductive Number of currently
characteristic care1 married women
Age
15–19 37.2 563
20–24 53.1 1,783
25–29 63.9 2,198
30–34 69.6 2,027
35–39 68.8 1,906
40–44 65.6 1,515
45–49 61.1 1,188
Employment (last 12 months)
Not employed 54.9 2,677
Employed for cash 70.4 4,064
Employed not for cash 60.2 4,439
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 70.5 3,031
Dalit 56.9 1,734
Janajati 69.2 4,042
Madhesi 47.6 1,835
Muslim 38.1 528
Other * 11
Residence
Urban 63.5 7,553
Rural 60.8 3,627
Ecological zone
Mountain 65.3 629
Hill 69.4 4,275
Terai 57.7 6,276
Province
Koshi Province 66.0 1,887
Urban 68.6 1,242
Rural 61.1 645
Madhesh Province 43.0 2,419
Urban 43.5 1,789
Rural 41.5 630
Bagmati Province 70.1 2,156
Urban 71.6 1,700
Rural 64.5 456
Gandaki Province 74.3 1,046
Urban 76.2 729
Rural 70.2 317
Lumbini Province 65.9 2,020
Urban 66.4 1,119
Rural 65.3 900
Karnali Province 64.2 691
Urban 66.1 381
Rural 61.8 310
Sudurpashchim Province 67.9 960
Urban 67.0 591
Rural 69.2 369
Education
No education 54.6 3,475
Basic education (1–8) 60.9 3,701
Lower basic education (1–5) 58.9 2,004
Upper basic education (6–8) 63.2 1,696
Secondary (9–12) 69.6 3,536
Lower secondary (9–10) 67.4 2,208
Higher secondary (11–12) 73.3 1,328
More than secondary (13 and above) 83.0 468
Wealth quintile
Lowest 61.7 2,031
Second 56.5 2,217
Middle 60.2 2,323
Fourth 63.1 2,381
Highest 71.6 2,228
Total 62.6 11,180

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and
has been suppressed.
1
Percentages of currently married women who make decisions regarding sexual relations,
contraceptive use, and health care are presented in Table 15.11, Table 7.15, and Table
15.8.1, respectively.

422 • Women’s Empowerment

HOUSEHOLD WATER, SANITATION,
AND HYGIENE 16
Key Findings

▪ Drinking water: In Nepal, almost all of the population

(98%) has access to at least basic drinking water service.
▪ Treatment of drinking water: 25% of the population
uses drinking water treated with appropriate methods
(boiling, bleaching, filtering, and solar disinfection).
▪ Sanitation: 73% of the population has access to at least
basic sanitation service.
▪ Appropriate management of excreta: 83% of the
population lives in households that appropriately manage
household excreta.
▪ Handwashing: 72% of the population has a basic
handwashing facility, while 27% has a limited
handwashing facility.
▪ Menstrual hygiene: 61% of women were able to wash
and change in privacy and used appropriate materials
during their last menstruation.

T
he extent to which households have access to and use of safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities and engage in hygienic practices has profound implications for the health, safety, and
overall well-being of the population. This chapter presents information on source of drinking water,
type of sanitation facility, disposal of excreta (including disposal of young children’s stools), handwashing,
and menstrual hygiene.

16.1 DRINKING WATER SOURCES, AVAILABILITY, AND TREATMENT

Improved sources of drinking water

Those that have the potential to deliver safe water by nature of their design
and construction. They include piped water, public taps, standpipes, tube
wells, boreholes, protected dug wells and springs, water delivered via a tanker
truck, and bottled water.
Sample: Households and de jure population

In Nepal, almost every household and the household population (98%) uses an improved source of
drinking water (Table 16.1). Eighty-six percent of de jure household members have drinking water on their
premises, whereas 14% have to fetch water (with most spending 30 minutes or less round trip). Forty-three
percent of de jure household members have piped water in their dwelling or yard or in a neighbor’s
dwelling or yard, while 8% use a public standpipe. Thirty-eight percent of de jure household members use
a tube well or borehole.

Trends: The percentage of households using an improved source of drinking water has increased over
time, from 65% in 1996 to 98% in 2022. The percentage of households using piped water in their dwelling,
yard, or plot doubled from 22% to 44% between 2011 and 2022.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 423

 Patterns by background characteristics

▪ There is minimal variation between the urban and rural populations in use of an improved source of
drinking water (99% and 97%, respectively).

▪ The rural population more often relies on a public tap or standpipe than the urban population (13%
versus 5%).

▪ Access to water on the premises is higher among urban residents (89%) than among rural residents
(80%).

▪ Bottled water is more often used by the urban population than the rural population (10% versus less
than 1%).

16.1.1 Drinking Water Service Ladder

Drinking water service ladder

Safely managed
Drinking water from an improved water source that is located on the premises,
available when needed, and free from fecal and priority chemical
contamination.
Basic
Drinking water from an improved source, provided either water is on the
premises or round-trip collection time is 30 minutes or less.
Limited
Drinking water from an improved source, and round-trip collection time is more
than 30 minutes.
Unimproved
Drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring.
Surface water
Drinking water directly from a river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, or
irrigation canal.
Sample: De jure population

Building off the classification of drinking water sources as improved or unimproved, the Joint Monitoring
Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (JMP) has devised a five-rung drinking water
service ladder to benchmark and compare progress towards achieving SDG targets (WHO/UNICEF 2018).
The 2022 NDHS captured information on four of the five rungs. Because the survey did not include testing
drinking water for fecal or priority chemical contamination, safely managed and basic drinking water
services cannot be distinguished and are grouped together in Table 16.2 as “at least basic service.”

At least basic service

Drinking water from an improved water source that can be safely managed or
basic service. As the survey did not include testing drinking water for fecal or
priority chemical contamination, safely managed and basic drinking water
services cannot be distinguished and are grouped together as “at least basic
service.”
Sample: De jure population

424 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Nearly the entire population (98%) in Nepal has Figure 16.1 Household population
access to at least basic drinking water service drinking water service by residence
(Figure 16.1). Percent distribution of de jure population
by drinking water service ladder
Trends: The proportion of the population using an <1 <1
<1
unimproved drinking water source declined from 2 1 3
34% in 1996 to 4% in 2016 and 2% in 2022. Use of 1 1
1 Surface water
surface water also decreased over the same period,
from 7% to less than 1%. Unimproved
98 98 96
Patterns by background characteristics Limited service

At least basic
▪ The proportion of the population with access to
service
at least basic drinking water service differs little
by province. The proportion ranges from 95%
Total Urban Rural
each in Lumbini Province and Karnali Province
Note: Figures may not add to 100% due to rounding.
to more than 99% in Madhesh Province.

▪ Similarly, only minimal differences are seen by household wealth, with a range of 95% in the lowest
wealth quintile to 99% in the fourth and highest quintiles.

16.1.2 Person Collecting Drinking Water

Fifteen percent of de jure household members do not Figure 16.2 Person collecting
have drinking water on their premises. In households drinking water
without drinking water, the individual collecting Among the de jure household population
water is more often an adult female age 15 or older without drinking water on premises,
(77%) than an adult male (11%). Similarly, female percent distribution by person who usually
collects drinking water
children under age 15 (9%) are more likely to be
responsible for collecting water than male children Female child
(2%) (Table 16.3 and Figure 16.2). under age 15
9%
Patterns by background characteristics

▪ In the population without drinking water on the Adult female Adult male
premises, water collection by children under age age 15+ age 15+
77% 11%
15 is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Male child
For instance, 10% of female children in rural under age 15
2%
areas collect water, as compared with 3% of
male children. Person not
in household
1%
▪ Adult male participation in collecting drinking
water is higher in the hill zone (14%) than in the
mountain (7%) and terai (8%) zones. In contrast, participation among women and girls is higher in the
terai zone (91%) than in the hill (81%) and mountain (89%) zones.

▪ In the population without drinking water on the premises, water collection by women and girls is
highest in Madhesh Province (94%) and lowest in Bagmati Province (75%).

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 425

 16.1.3 Availability of Drinking Water

Availability of sufficient drinking water

Percentage of the population with sufficient quantities of drinking water in the
last month.
Sample: De jure population

Eighty-eight percent of the population had sufficient Figure 16.3 Availability of sufficient
quantities of drinking water when needed in the quantities of drinking water by
month before the survey (Table 16.4). The ecological zone
availability of sufficient drinking water ranges from Percentage of household population with
76% in the mountain zone to 93% in the terai zone sufficient quantities of drinking water in the
(Figure 16.3) and from 74% in Karnali Province to last month
94% in Madhesh Province. 93
81
76
16.1.4 Treatment of Drinking Water

In Nepal, only one-fourth (25%) of the population

uses drinking water treated with appropriate methods
(boiling, bleaching, filtering, and solar disinfection).
Ceramic, sand, or other filters are the most common
(15%) method of water treatment, followed by
boiling (13%). More than one-fourth (28%) of the Mountain Hill Terai
urban population treats drinking water with an
appropriate method, as compared with about one-fifth (19%) of the rural population. The percentage of the
population treating drinking water with appropriate methods is highest in Bagmati Province (39%) and
lowest in Madhesh Province (7%) (Table 16.5).

16.2 SANITATION

Improved sanitation facilities

Those designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact. They
include flush/pour flush toilets that flush water and waste to a piped sewer
system, septic tank, pit latrine, or unknown destination; ventilated improved pit
(VIP) latrines; pit latrines with slabs; and composting toilets.
Sample: Households and de jure population

Ninety-two percent of the de jure population uses an improved sanitation facility. Among de jure
household members with a toilet or latrine facility, 27% have a facility in their own dwelling and 67% in
their own yard or plot (Table 16.6).

Trends: The proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities increased from 3% in 1996
to 83% in 2016 and 92% in 2022.

426 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

16.2.1 Sanitation Service Ladder

Sanitation service ladder

Safely managed
Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households and where
excreta are safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated off-site.
Basic
Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households.
Limited
Use of improved facilities shared by two or more households.
Unimproved
Use of pit latrines without a slab or platform or bucket latrines.
Open defecation
Disposal of human feces in fields, forests, bushes, open bodies of water, or
other open spaces or with solid waste.
Sample: De jure population

The JMP has devised a five-rung sanitation service ladder to benchmark and compare progress towards
achieving the SDG targets related to sanitation. The 2022 NDHS captured information about all five rungs.
Containment of excreta in septic tanks or pits and
Figure 16.4 Household population
containment in improved toilets not shared with
sanitation service by residence
other households are considered safely managed
sanitation services. According to the 2022 NDHS Percent distribution of de jure population
by sanitation service ladder
results, 50% of the de jure population has access to
such sanitation services (data not shown). However, 7 6 9
1 1 1
the survey did not collect information on 20 21 18 Open defecation
“containment” effectiveness for on-site facilities or
wastewater/sludge treatment effectiveness; thus, for Unimproved
those households whose excreta were taken off-site,
it is not possible to know if they were treated Limited service
73 73 73
appropriately. As a result, safely managed and basic
At least basic
sanitation services are grouped together in Table service
16.7 and Figure 16.4 as “at least basic service.”
Total Urban Rural
At least basic service
Sanitation service that can be safely managed or basic service. For
households whose excreta were taken off-site, it is not possible to know if they
were treated appropriately, and therefore safely managed and basic sanitation
services are grouped together as “at least basic service.”
Sample: De jure population

About three-quarters of the population (73%) has access to at least basic sanitation services, while one-
fifth of the population has access to limited sanitation services. One percent of the population uses an
unimproved sanitation facility and 7% uses open defecation (Table 16.7 and Figure 16.4).

Trends: The percentage of the population with at least basic sanitation service increased from 40% in 2011
to 73% in 2022. Over this same period, the percentage with limited sanitation service increased from 15%
to 20%, while the percentage using an unimproved sanitation facility decreased from 7% to 1%. Similarly,
the percentage of the population practicing open defecation decreased from 77% in 1996 to 16% in 2016
and 7% in 2022.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 427

 Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of the population with at least basic sanitation service is highest in Gandaki Province
(79%) and lowest in Madhesh Province (63%) (Figure 16.5).

▪ The proportion of the population with at least basic service increases with increasing wealth, from
66% in the lowest wealth quintile to 87% in the highest quintile.

▪ Open defecation is more often practiced in rural areas than in urban areas (9% versus 6%).

▪ Open defecation is more common in the terai zone (10%) than in the hill zone (3%) or the mountain
zone (4%).

▪ The practice of open defecation ranges from 1% in Gandaki Province to 18% in Madhesh Province. In
the rural areas of Madhesh Province, 21% of the population practices open defecation.

Figure 16.5 Household population sanitation service by province

Percent distribution of de jure population by sanitation service ladder
3 1 4 3
5 1 <1 1 6 <1 <1 1
18 19
17 24 17 22 25
<1 Open defecation
18
Unimproved

77 73 79 76 74 Limited service
63 71
At least basic
service

Koshi Madhesh Bagmati Gandaki Lumbini Karnali Sudur-

Province Province Province Province Province Province pash-
chim
Province

16.2.2 Removal and Disposal of Excreta

Disposal of excreta from on-site facilities

Excreta safely disposed of in situ
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste is buried in a covered pit,
waste is never emptied, and it is unknown if waste is ever emptied.
Excreta disposed of unsafely
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste is emptied in uncovered pits,
open ground, a water body, or other locations.
Excreta removed for treatment
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste is removed by a service
provider to a treatment plant or an unknown location or is removed by a non-
service provider to an unknown location.
Sample: De jure population with on-site sanitation facilities (septic tanks, pit
latrines, and composting toilets)

Information on the disposal of excreta from sanitation facilities that are not connected to a sewer system is
essential for assessing the proportion of the population using safely managed sanitation services.

428 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Overall, 80% of the population with improved, on-site sanitation facilities not connected to a sewer system
had excreta safely disposed of in situ. For 16% of the population with on-site sanitation facilities, excreta
were removed for treatment, while 4% had excreta disposed of unsafely (Table 16.8).

Table 16.9 presents information on appropriate Figure 16.6 Appropriate management of

management of household excreta. Eighty-three household excreta
percent of residents live in households that Percent distribution of household
appropriately manage household excreta; 68% safely population by management of
dispose of excreta from on-site sanitation facilities in household excreta
situ, 8% have sanitation facilities connected to a Removal of
excreta for
sewer system, and 7% have excreta removed for treatment off-site
treatment off-site (Figure 16.6). 7%

Patterns by background characteristics Lack

Safe disposal in
appropriate
situ of excreta from
▪ The practice of excreta being removed for management
on-site sanitation
of household
treatment is more common in urban areas than facilities
excreta
68%
in rural areas. For instance, 19% of the 17%

population with improved on-site sanitation

facilities had excreta removed for treatment in Connected to
sewer
urban areas, as compared with 11% in rural 8%
areas (Table 16.8).
Figure 16.7 Appropriate management of
▪ The proportion of the population practicing household excreta by wealth
appropriate management of household excreta is
Percentage of household population
higher in the hill (91%) and mountain (89%) connected to sewer or using improved
zones than in the terai zone (77%) (Table 16.9). on-site sanitation facilities with safe
disposal of excreta on-site or removal of
▪ Appropriate management of household excreta excreta for off-site treatment
94
generally increases with increasing household 86
78 77 80
wealth. Ninety-four percent of the population in
the highest wealth quintile appropriately
manages household excreta, compared with
77%–78% of the population in the lowest two
wealth quintiles (Figure 16.7).

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Poorest Wealthiest
16.3 DISPOSAL OF CHILDREN’S STOOLS

Appropriate disposal of children’s stools

The child’s last stools were put or rinsed into a toilet or latrine, or the child
used a toilet or latrine.
Sample: Youngest children under age 2 living with their mother

Forty-five percent of children under age 2 had their stools disposed of appropriately (Table 16.10).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Older children are more likely to have their stools disposed of appropriately than younger children. For
instance, 56% of children age 18–23 months had their stools disposed of appropriately, as compared
with 22% of children age 2–3 months and 26% of children age 0–1 month.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 429

 ▪ Appropriate disposal of stools is more common among children in households with an improved
sanitation facility than among those in households that practice open defecation (50% versus 3%).

▪ Appropriate disposal of children’s stools is highest in Bagmati Province (60%) and lowest in Madhesh
Province (23%).

16.4 HANDWASHING

Handwashing facilities
Basic
Availability of a handwashing facility on the premises with soap and water.
Limited
Availability of a handwashing facility on the premises without soap and water.
Sample: De jure population for whom a place for handwashing was observed
or with no place for handwashing in dwelling, yard, or plot; excludes the de
jure population for whom permission to see the facility was not granted

Handwashing is an important step in monitoring hygiene and preventing the spread of disease. Rather than
asking direct questions on the practice of handwashing, which can be subject to overreporting, interviewers
asked to see the place where members of the household most often washed their hands. A place for
washing hands was observed for nearly 100% of the de jure population (Table 16.11). Of the handwashing
places observed, 94% were in a fixed location and 6% were mobile. Three-fourths (72%) of the population
had a basic handwashing facility, while 27% had a limited handwashing facility.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of the population with a basic handwashing facility is higher in urban areas than in
rural areas (77% versus 63%).

▪ The population in the hill zone is more likely to have a basic handwashing facility than the population
in the mountain zone (78% versus 57%).

▪ Access to basic handwashing facilities increases with increasing wealth. Only 45% of the population
in the lowest wealth quintile has basic handwashing facilities, as compared with 97% of the population
in the highest quintile.

16.5 MENSTRUAL HYGIENE

Appropriate menstrual hygiene materials

Reusable sanitary pads, disposable sanitary pads, tampons, menstrual cup,
toilet paper, and/or cotton wool.
Sample: Women age 15–49 with a menstrual period in the last year

Privacy and use of appropriate menstrual hygiene materials

Percentage of women who were able to wash and change in privacy and who
used appropriate materials during their last menstruation.
Sample: Women age 15–49 with a menstrual period in the last year who were
home during their last menstrual period

The most common materials used during menstruation among Nepalese women age 15–49 are disposable
sanitary pads (60%) and cloth (48%) (Table 16.12). Almost all women report that they were able to wash
and change in privacy during their last menstruation. Overall, 61% of women were able to wash and

430 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

change in privacy and used appropriate materials during their last menstruation. The 2022 NDHS did not
consider cloth an appropriate material due to unhygienic practices related to its use (Morrison et al. 2018).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women who were able to wash and change in privacy and who used appropriate
materials during their last menstruation is higher among those age 15–19 (81%) than among those age
45–49 (34%) (Table 16.12).

▪ There were marked differences by province in Figure 16.8 Menstrual hygiene

the percentage of women who were able to wash by education
and change in privacy and who used appropriate Percentage of women who were able to
materials during their last menstruation; 74% of wash and change in privacy and who used
women in Bagmati Province were able to wash appropriate materials during last
menstruation
and change in privacy and used appropriate 94
materials during their last menstruation, as 80
compared with only 46% of women in Karnali 54
Province.
30
▪ Women with more than a secondary education
more often were able to wash and change in
No Basic Secondary More than
privacy and used appropriate materials during education education (9–12) secondary
their last menstruation than those with no (1–8) (13 and
education (94% versus 30%) (Figure 16.8). above)

▪ The percentage of women who were able to wash and change in privacy and who used appropriate
materials during their last menstruation increases with increasing wealth, from 40% among those in
the lowest quintile to 87% among those in the highest quintile (Table 16.12).

16.5.1 Restrictions on Activities during Menstruation

Menstruation is a natural part of the reproductive cycle, but it remains a taboo and is stigmatized in Nepal.
Although it has been outlawed by the Nepal Supreme Court since 2005, malpractice surrounding
menstruation continues (Morrison et al. 2018). The 2022 NDHS asked women age 15–49 with a menstrual
period in the last year if they were excluded from performing any activities during their last menstruation.

Overall, 65% each of women were excluded from entering a temple and from involvement in religious
activities. One-third of women (34%) were excluded from touching or cooking food. Only 15% of women
reported that they were not excluded from performing any activities during their last menstruation (Table
16.13).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Although common among women in all ethnic groups, exclusion from performing specific activities
during last menstruation is more common among those in the Brahmin/Chhetri ethnic group than
among those in the Muslim or Janajati group. For instance, only 4% of Brahmin/Chhetri women were
not excluded from performing any activities, as compared with 26% of Muslim women and 24% of
Janajati women.

▪ The practice of chhaupadi (seclusion), whereby women are not allowed to stay in the main house
during their menstrual period, is most prevalent in Karnali Province (26%) and Sudurpashchim
Province (20%).

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 431

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on water and sanitation characteristics, see the following tables:

▪ Table 16.1 Household drinking water

▪ Table 16.2 Drinking water service ladder
▪ Table 16.3 Person collecting drinking water
▪ Table 16.4 Availability of sufficient drinking water
▪ Table 16.5 Treatment of household drinking water
▪ Table 16.6 Household sanitation facilities
▪ Table 16.7 Sanitation service ladder
▪ Table 16.8 Emptying and removal of waste from on-site sanitation facilities
▪ Table 16.9 Management of household excreta
▪ Table 16.10 Disposal of children’s stools
▪ Table 16.11 Handwashing
▪ Table 16.12 Menstrual hygiene
▪ Table 16.13 Activities excluded from performing during menstrual period

432 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.1 Household drinking water
Percent distribution of households and de jure population by source of drinking water and by time to obtain drinking
water, according to residence, Nepal DHS 2022
Households Population
Characteristic Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Source of drinking water
Improved source 98.8 96.4 98.0 98.8 96.5 98.0
Piped into dwelling/yard/plot 42.8 45.7 43.7 41.0 42.6 41.5
Piped to neighbor 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.4
Public tap/standpipe 5.6 13.8 8.3 5.2 13.2 7.9
Tube well or borehole 34.1 33.1 33.8 38.8 37.4 38.4
Protected dug well 1.2 0.4 0.9 1.1 0.3 0.8
Protected spring 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.4
Tanker truck 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
Bottled water 11.9 0.2 8.0 9.8 0.2 6.6
Unimproved source 1.0 3.4 1.8 1.0 3.3 1.8
Unprotected dug well 0.4 1.4 0.7 0.5 1.6 0.9
Unprotected spring 0.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.8 0.9
Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Surface water 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Time to obtain drinking water
(round trip)
Water on premises1 88.0 78.9 85.0 88.5 79.7 85.5
30 minutes or less 11.4 20.2 14.3 10.9 19.5 13.8
More than 30 minutes 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.5
Don’t know 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/population 9,244 4,542 13,786 36,218 18,102 54,320

1
Includes water piped to a neighbor and those reporting a round-trip collection time of zero minutes

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 433

 Table 16.2 Drinking water service ladder
Percent distribution of de jure population by drinking water service ladder, according to background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022
Background At least basic Limited Number of
characteristic service1 service2 Unimproved3 Surface water Total persons
Residence
Urban 98.3 0.5 1.0 0.2 100.0 36,218
Rural 95.9 0.5 3.3 0.2 100.0 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 96.9 1.1 1.8 0.3 100.0 3,193
Hill 96.3 1.2 2.1 0.5 100.0 21,443
Terai 98.4 0.0 1.5 0.0 100.0 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 98.2 0.2 1.6 0.0 100.0 9,406
Urban 99.5 0.0 0.4 0.0 100.0 6,081
Rural 95.8 0.5 3.7 0.0 100.0 3,325
Madhesh Province 99.5 0.1 0.4 0.0 100.0 11,511
Urban 99.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 100.0 8,542
Rural 98.5 0.3 1.2 0.0 100.0 2,968
Bagmati Province 97.5 1.1 1.2 0.2 100.0 11,131
Urban 97.5 1.4 0.9 0.2 100.0 8,617
Rural 97.6 0.1 2.3 0.0 100.0 2,514
Gandaki Province 98.2 1.0 0.7 0.1 100.0 4,865
Urban 98.5 1.0 0.4 0.1 100.0 3,272
Rural 97.6 1.0 1.3 0.2 100.0 1,593
Lumbini Province 94.9 0.1 4.8 0.1 100.0 9,462
Urban 96.3 0.1 3.5 0.1 100.0 5,156
Rural 93.2 0.1 6.4 0.2 100.0 4,306
Karnali Province 94.9 2.2 2.7 0.3 100.0 3,334
Urban 96.2 1.8 1.7 0.2 100.0 1,755
Rural 93.4 2.6 3.7 0.3 100.0 1,579
Sudurpashchim Province 97.1 0.3 1.3 1.3 100.0 4,611
Urban 97.2 0.1 1.1 1.5 100.0 2,794
Rural 96.9 0.5 1.6 1.1 100.0 1,817
Wealth quintile
Lowest 94.7 1.0 3.5 0.8 100.0 10,866
Second 97.8 0.1 2.0 0.1 100.0 10,862
Middle 96.9 0.4 2.6 0.1 100.0 10,861
Fourth 99.1 0.4 0.4 0.0 100.0 10,865
Highest 99.0 0.7 0.3 0.0 100.0 10,866
Total 97.5 0.5 1.8 0.2 100.0 54,320

Note: Service ladder concept/definitions are based on the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply,
Sanitation, and Hygiene (JMP).
1
Defined as drinking water from an improved source, provided either water is on the premises or round-trip collection time is
30 minutes or less. Includes safely managed drinking water, which is not shown separately.
2
Drinking water from an improved source, and round-trip collection time is more than 30 minutes or is unknown
3
Drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring

434 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.3 Person collecting drinking water
Percentage of de jure population in households without drinking water on premises, and percent distribution of de jure population in households without drinking
water on premises by the person who usually collects drinking water used in the household, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
of de jure Number of
population persons
without Person who usually collects drinking water without
drinking Adult female Adult male drinking
Background water on Number of age 15 or age 15 or Female child Male child Person not in water on
characteristic premises1 persons older older under age 15 under age 15 household Total premises1
Residence
Urban 11.5 36,218 77.6 11.7 7.6 1.6 1.5 100.0 4,177
Rural 20.3 18,102 76.4 10.1 10.0 3.2 0.3 100.0 3,676
Ecological zone
Mountain 29.7 3,193 74.9 6.8 14.1 4.0 0.2 100.0 948
Hill 17.5 21,443 73.7 14.4 6.9 3.3 1.7 100.0 3,749
Terai 10.6 29,683 81.7 8.1 9.2 0.7 0.3 100.0 3,156
Province
Koshi Province 8.4 9,406 77.1 17.9 4.0 0.9 0.1 100.0 791
Urban 7.2 6,081 75.8 20.3 4.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 439
Rural 10.6 3,325 78.8 15.0 4.0 2.0 0.2 100.0 353
Madhesh Province 14.8 11,511 84.2 6.1 9.5 0.0 0.2 100.0 1,699
Urban 12.9 8,542 85.3 6.3 8.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,100
Rural 20.2 2,968 82.2 5.8 11.5 0.0 0.5 100.0 599
Bagmati Province 11.0 11,131 69.8 17.5 5.2 2.4 5.1 100.0 1,221
Urban 10.7 8,617 67.2 18.7 5.1 2.4 6.7 100.0 926
Rural 11.7 2,514 77.9 13.8 5.8 2.4 0.0 100.0 295
Gandaki Province 17.1 4,865 77.9 15.5 4.7 1.7 0.2 100.0 830
Urban 14.2 3,272 79.9 18.1 0.9 1.1 0.0 100.0 464
Rural 23.0 1,593 75.4 12.1 9.5 2.4 0.6 100.0 366
Lumbini Province 12.0 9,462 77.1 9.8 9.9 2.8 0.5 100.0 1,134
Urban 7.9 5,156 83.7 1.9 11.6 2.3 0.5 100.0 410
Rural 16.8 4,306 73.3 14.3 8.9 3.1 0.4 100.0 725
Karnali Province 33.6 3,334 74.2 8.0 13.6 4.2 0.0 100.0 1,120
Urban 22.3 1,755 73.7 9.2 14.8 2.4 0.0 100.0 391
Rural 46.1 1,579 74.5 7.4 13.0 5.1 0.1 100.0 728
Sudurpashchim Province 22.9 4,611 76.1 6.8 11.8 5.1 0.1 100.0 1,057
Urban 16.0 2,794 77.4 6.7 11.6 4.4 0.0 100.0 446
Rural 33.6 1,817 75.2 7.0 12.0 5.7 0.2 100.0 611
Source of drinking water
Improved 13.1 53,245 77.5 10.5 8.8 2.1 1.0 100.0 6,970
Unimproved 80.4 964 72.7 14.8 8.7 3.7 0.1 100.0 775
Surface 96.6 111 77.7 10.6 2.8 7.0 1.8 100.0 107
Wealth quintile
Lowest 31.7 10,866 76.4 9.1 11.0 3.4 0.1 100.0 3,441
Second 15.3 10,862 81.3 9.2 7.8 1.6 0.2 100.0 1,658
Middle 12.6 10,861 79.8 8.8 8.6 2.5 0.4 100.0 1,371
Fourth 8.3 10,865 78.0 15.1 6.8 0.0 0.1 100.0 902
Highest 4.4 10,866 57.0 29.3 0.0 0.8 12.9 100.0 481
Total 14.5 54,320 77.0 11.0 8.7 2.3 1.0 100.0 7,852

1
Excludes water piped to a neighbor and those reporting a round-trip collection time of zero minutes

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 435

 Table 16.4 Availability of sufficient drinking water
Percentage of de jure population with sufficient quantities of drinking
water when needed, according to background characteristics, Nepal
DHS 2022
Percentage with
drinking water
available in
Background sufficient Number of
characteristic quantities1 persons
Residence
Urban 87.7 36,218
Rural 87.4 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 76.1 3,193
Hill 81.2 21,443
Terai 93.4 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 88.3 9,406
Urban 89.3 6,081
Rural 86.4 3,325
Madhesh Province 94.1 11,511
Urban 95.0 8,542
Rural 91.3 2,968
Bagmati Province 81.4 11,131
Urban 80.6 8,617
Rural 83.9 2,514
Gandaki Province 82.6 4,865
Urban 81.8 3,272
Rural 84.3 1,593
Lumbini Province 92.6 9,462
Urban 92.1 5,156
Rural 93.3 4,306
Karnali Province 74.4 3,334
Urban 75.0 1,755
Rural 73.7 1,579
Sudurpashchim Province 89.6 4,611
Urban 90.3 2,794
Rural 88.3 1,817
Source of drinking water2
Improved 87.6 53,245
Unimproved 85.4 964
Surface 87.4 111
Time to obtain drinking
water (round trip)
Water on premises1 88.5 46,467
30 minutes or less 82.6 7,497
More than 30 minutes 72.6 295
Don’t know 100.0 60
Wealth quintile
Lowest 82.4 10,866
Second 88.6 10,862
Middle 91.3 10,861
Fourth 89.8 10,865
Highest 85.8 10,866
Total 87.6 54,320

1
Defined as having sufficient quantities of drinking water in the last
month
2
Includes water piped to a neighbor and those reporting a round-trip
collection time of zero minutes

436 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.5 Treatment of household drinking water
Percentage of de jure population using various methods to treat drinking water, and percentage using an appropriate treatment method, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
using an
Bleach/ Strained Ceramic, appropriate
Background chlorine through sand, or Solar Let stand No treatment Number of
characteristic Boiled added cloth other filter disinfection and settle Other treatment method1 persons
Residence
Urban 14.6 1.0 2.3 17.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 70.1 27.9 36,218
Rural 11.0 0.2 3.6 9.4 0.2 0.4 0.0 77.9 18.9 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 16.1 0.1 2.7 13.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 71.4 26.4 3,193
Hill 20.9 1.2 4.5 18.3 0.3 0.4 0.0 62.4 34.1 21,443
Terai 7.6 0.5 1.4 12.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 80.3 18.1 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 17.6 0.1 2.8 19.3 0.5 0.6 0.1 63.5 34.1 9,406
Urban 17.8 0.2 2.5 22.7 0.7 0.8 0.0 60.6 37.3 6,081
Rural 17.2 0.0 3.4 12.9 0.2 0.3 0.2 69.0 28.1 3,325
Madhesh Province 2.7 0.3 0.2 4.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 92.8 6.7 11,511
Urban 3.3 0.4 0.2 4.9 0.0 0.1 0.1 91.5 7.9 8,542
Rural 0.9 0.1 0.1 2.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 96.5 3.2 2,968
Bagmati Province 21.8 2.1 3.8 23.0 0.3 0.5 0.0 58.4 38.5 11,131
Urban 24.5 2.7 2.6 25.2 0.3 0.5 0.0 55.6 42.3 8,617
Rural 12.5 0.0 7.8 15.6 0.4 0.3 0.0 67.7 25.6 2,514
Gandaki Province 18.7 0.1 4.6 14.9 0.3 0.1 0.0 67.4 29.2 4,865
Urban 21.8 0.1 5.1 17.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 63.2 33.5 3,272
Rural 12.5 0.1 3.5 9.4 0.6 0.3 0.0 76.1 20.4 1,593
Lumbini Province 12.5 0.9 4.3 13.7 0.1 0.3 0.0 72.4 24.0 9,462
Urban 11.6 1.3 3.9 17.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 70.7 26.1 5,156
Rural 13.7 0.4 4.8 9.3 0.0 0.5 0.0 74.4 21.4 4,306
Karnali Province 13.1 0.3 3.9 20.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 68.3 28.3 3,334
Urban 16.2 0.4 3.8 27.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 60.4 36.3 1,755
Rural 9.6 0.2 4.1 12.1 0.0 0.6 0.0 77.1 19.4 1,579
Sudurpashchim Province 7.2 0.2 0.2 7.3 0.0 0.5 0.0 85.5 13.9 4,611
Urban 7.2 0.1 0.1 9.6 0.0 0.6 0.0 83.4 15.9 2,794
Rural 7.3 0.2 0.3 3.7 0.0 0.4 0.0 88.7 10.7 1,817
Source of drinking water
Improved 13.4 0.7 2.3 14.7 0.2 0.3 0.0 72.9 25.1 53,245
Unimproved 11.2 2.2 21.6 6.0 0.6 0.2 0.0 61.3 18.2 964
Surface 10.4 0.0 18.2 3.6 0.0 8.5 0.0 66.1 14.0 111
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.8 0.0 3.9 4.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 84.0 12.4 10,866
Second 10.6 0.2 3.2 6.7 0.1 0.5 0.0 81.0 16.2 10,862
Middle 8.8 0.4 3.7 10.6 0.1 0.1 0.0 78.5 18.3 10,861
Fourth 12.0 0.3 1.3 17.1 0.3 0.3 0.0 72.4 26.4 10,865
Highest 26.6 2.7 1.4 34.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 47.7 51.3 10,866
Total 13.4 0.7 2.7 14.5 0.2 0.3 0.0 72.7 24.9 54,320

Note: Respondents may report multiple treatment methods, so the sum of treatment may exceed 100%. Total includes 6 cases for which it is not known if the water
was treated.
1
Appropriate water treatment methods are boiling, bleaching, filtering, and solar disinfecting.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 437

 Table 16.6 Household sanitation facilities
Percent distribution of households and de jure population by type of toilet/latrine facilities, and percent distribution of
households and de jure population with a toilet/latrine facility by location of the facility, according to residence, Nepal DHS
2022

Type and location of Households Population

toilet/latrine facility Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Improved sanitation facility 93.9 90.5 92.8 93.3 90.5 92.4
Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system 13.2 0.2 8.9 11.4 0.2 7.6
Flush/pour flush to septic tank 44.1 30.8 39.7 43.2 29.8 38.7
Flush/pour flush to pit latrine 30.3 51.4 37.2 32.3 52.3 39.0
Flush/pour flush, don’t know where 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0
Pit latrine with slab 2.7 3.5 3.0 2.7 3.6 3.0
Composting toilet 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
Biogas attached flush toilet 2.5 3.6 2.9 2.6 3.7 3.0
Unimproved sanitation facility 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6
Flush/pour flush not to sewer/septic
tank/pit latrine 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Pit latrine without slab/open pit 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3
Other 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
Open defecation (no facility/
bush/field) 5.5 8.8 6.6 6.2 8.8 7.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/population 9,244 4,542 13,786 36,218 18,102 54,320
Location of toilet facility
In own dwelling 37.4 7.7 27.8 35.8 7.9 26.7
In own yard/plot 57.7 82.6 65.7 59.4 83.1 67.2
Elsewhere 4.9 9.7 6.4 4.8 9.0 6.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of households/population with a
toilet/latrine facility 8,738 4,143 12,881 33,980 16,500 50,480

438 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.7 Sanitation service ladder
Percent distribution of de jure population by type of sanitation service, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Background At least basic Limited Open Number of
characteristic service1 service2 Unimproved3 defecation Total persons
Residence
Urban 72.6 20.6 0.5 6.2 100.0 36,218
Rural 72.6 17.9 0.6 8.8 100.0 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 77.2 17.7 0.8 4.3 100.0 3,193
Hill 76.5 20.0 0.7 2.8 100.0 21,443
Terai 69.4 19.8 0.4 10.4 100.0 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 76.8 16.6 1.4 5.2 100.0 9,406
Urban 76.9 16.2 1.6 5.3 100.0 6,081
Rural 76.7 17.1 1.1 5.1 100.0 3,325
Madhesh Province 63.4 18.0 0.2 18.4 100.0 11,511
Urban 64.8 17.5 0.2 17.6 100.0 8,542
Rural 59.5 19.3 0.2 21.0 100.0 2,968
Bagmati Province 73.2 23.8 0.4 2.6 100.0 11,131
Urban 72.6 26.6 0.3 0.6 100.0 8,617
Rural 75.2 14.5 0.8 9.5 100.0 2,514
Gandaki Province 79.4 18.5 0.8 1.3 100.0 4,865
Urban 79.2 19.6 0.9 0.3 100.0 3,272
Rural 79.8 16.1 0.5 3.5 100.0 1,593
Lumbini Province 76.0 17.4 0.4 6.2 100.0 9,462
Urban 76.7 17.9 0.3 5.1 100.0 5,156
Rural 75.1 16.8 0.5 7.5 100.0 4,306
Karnali Province 74.0 21.7 0.4 3.9 100.0 3,334
Urban 72.5 25.0 0.4 2.1 100.0 1,755
Rural 75.7 18.0 0.4 5.8 100.0 1,579
Sudurpashchim Province 70.9 25.3 0.5 3.3 100.0 4,611
Urban 72.7 25.1 0.2 2.0 100.0 2,794
Rural 68.1 25.6 0.9 5.4 100.0 1,817
Wealth quintile
Lowest 65.5 18.1 1.2 15.2 100.0 10,866
Second 67.0 19.5 0.9 12.6 100.0 10,862
Middle 70.9 22.2 0.5 6.5 100.0 10,861
Fourth 72.7 26.1 0.2 1.0 100.0 10,865
Highest 87.2 12.7 0.0 0.1 100.0 10,866
Total 72.6 19.7 0.6 7.1 100.0 54,320

Note: Service ladder concept/definitions are based on the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply,
Sanitation, and Hygiene (JMP).
1
Defined as use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households. Includes safely managed sanitation service,
which is not shown separately.
2
Defined as use of improved facilities shared by two or more households
3
Use of flush/pour flush toilet not to sewer, septic tank, or pit latrine; pit latrine without a slab/open pit; or bucket

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 439

Table 16.8 Emptying and removal of waste from on-site sanitation facilities
Percent distribution of de jure population in households with septic tanks and improved latrines by method of emptying and removal, and percentage of the population with on-
site sanitation facilities for which excreta was safely disposed of in situ, percentage with on-site sanitation facilities for which excreta was disposed of unsafely, and percentage
with on-site sanitation facilities for which excreta was removed for treatment, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of population with
Percent distribution of method of emptying and disposal of waste from septic tanks or on-site sanitation facilities for
other on-site sanitation facilities which:
Emptied Number
Removed Removed to un- of
by a by a covered persons
service service pit, open Don’t Excreta Excreta Excreta with
provider provider, ground, know Don’t was was was improved
to don’t Buried in water where know if safely disposed removed on-site
Background treatment know a covered body, or waste Never ever disposed of for sanitation
characteristic plant where pit elsewhere Other was taken emptied emptied Total of in situ1 unsafely2 treatment3 facilities
Sanitation facility type
Flush to septic tank 3.4 9.1 3.1 1.8 0.0 0.6 79.4 2.7 100.0 85.2 1.8 13.0 21,038
Latrines and other
improved facilities 2.5 16.2 6.6 5.4 0.0 0.1 68.7 0.6 100.0 75.9 5.4 18.8 23,333
Flush to pit latrine 2.8 16.1 6.0 5.2 0.0 0.1 69.2 0.6 100.0 75.8 5.2 19.0 21,164
Ventilated improved pit
(VIP) latrine 0.0 24.1 13.9 5.9 0.0 0.0 55.7 0.3 100.0 70.0 5.9 24.1 522
Pit latrine with slab 0.0 14.2 12.4 7.1 0.0 0.0 65.7 0.7 100.0 78.7 7.1 14.2 1,614
Composting toilet 0.0 19.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 80.5 0.0 100.0 80.5 0.0 19.5 33
Residence
Urban 3.8 14.7 4.6 3.3 0.0 0.4 71.0 2.2 100.0 77.8 3.3 18.9 28,688
Rural 1.3 9.3 5.5 4.4 0.0 0.2 78.8 0.4 100.0 84.8 4.4 10.8 15,682
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.5 0.7 5.5 5.2 0.0 0.0 86.5 1.6 100.0 93.6 5.2 1.2 2,993
Hill 0.8 1.7 4.4 3.1 0.0 0.1 88.3 1.4 100.0 94.2 3.2 2.7 15,980
Terai 4.5 21.2 5.2 3.8 0.0 0.5 63.1 1.7 100.0 70.0 3.8 26.2 25,398
Province
Koshi Province 1.7 15.8 7.1 1.4 0.0 1.3 71.8 0.9 100.0 79.8 1.4 18.9 8,660
Urban 1.8 17.8 7.4 1.5 0.0 1.8 68.5 1.2 100.0 77.1 1.5 21.4 5,572
Rural 1.6 12.2 6.6 1.1 0.0 0.4 77.8 0.3 100.0 84.6 1.1 14.3 3,088
Madhesh Province 7.4 21.4 0.8 0.9 0.0 0.1 68.0 1.4 100.0 70.2 0.9 28.9 9,257
Urban 8.3 21.7 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.0 66.8 1.8 100.0 69.2 0.7 30.0 6,929
Rural 4.9 20.3 0.9 1.3 0.0 0.4 71.7 0.4 100.0 73.0 1.3 25.7 2,328
Bagmati Province 2.1 6.1 4.7 2.8 0.1 0.1 80.7 3.4 100.0 88.8 2.8 8.3 6,407
Urban 3.2 8.4 4.9 2.8 0.1 0.2 75.5 4.9 100.0 85.3 2.9 11.8 4,235
Rural 0.0 1.6 4.3 2.7 0.0 0.0 90.8 0.5 100.0 95.7 2.7 1.6 2,172
Gandaki Province 0.7 4.2 2.9 1.9 0.0 0.0 88.8 1.3 100.0 93.1 1.9 5.0 4,530
Urban 1.1 4.3 2.2 1.7 0.0 0.0 88.9 1.8 100.0 92.9 1.7 5.4 3,107
Rural 0.0 4.0 4.4 2.4 0.0 0.0 88.8 0.4 100.0 93.5 2.4 4.0 1,423
Lumbini Province 2.9 15.6 5.5 6.0 0.0 0.0 68.7 1.2 100.0 75.4 6.0 18.6 8,451
Urban 4.4 18.7 4.3 5.3 0.0 0.0 65.4 1.9 100.0 71.6 5.3 23.1 4,642
Rural 1.1 12.0 6.9 7.0 0.1 0.0 72.6 0.3 100.0 79.9 7.0 13.1 3,809
Karnali Province 0.2 2.4 6.2 5.7 0.0 0.1 83.4 2.0 100.0 91.6 5.7 2.7 3,179
Urban 0.4 3.0 5.7 4.6 0.0 0.2 83.1 2.9 100.0 91.7 4.6 3.6 1,698
Rural 0.0 1.6 6.8 6.9 0.0 0.1 83.8 0.8 100.0 91.4 6.9 1.7 1,481
Sudurpashchim Province 0.9 9.0 10.7 12.1 0.0 0.2 66.0 1.2 100.0 77.8 12.1 10.0 3,886
Urban 1.3 12.3 11.7 12.4 0.0 0.2 60.5 1.6 100.0 73.8 12.4 13.9 2,505
Rural 0.1 2.9 8.9 11.7 0.0 0.0 75.8 0.5 100.0 85.2 11.7 3.1 1,381
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.1 2.5 6.9 5.4 0.0 0.1 84.4 0.5 100.0 91.9 5.4 2.7 9,016
Second 2.5 12.1 4.8 4.5 0.0 0.1 75.6 0.3 100.0 80.7 4.5 14.8 9,147
Middle 3.0 16.4 5.6 4.1 0.0 0.2 69.6 1.1 100.0 76.3 4.1 19.5 9,429
Fourth 4.3 18.2 5.3 2.6 0.1 0.4 66.3 2.9 100.0 74.5 2.7 22.8 9,320
Highest 5.0 14.8 1.5 1.3 0.0 1.0 73.2 3.2 100.0 77.9 1.3 20.8 7,458
Total 2.9 12.8 4.9 3.7 0.0 0.3 73.8 1.6 100.0 80.3 3.7 16.0 44,370

Note: On-site sanitation facilities are those where excreta are stored in a septic tank, pit latrine, or composting toilet. Those using biogas attached toilets are excluded.
1
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste was buried in a covered pit, never emptied, and don’t know if ever emptied
2
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste was emptied to uncovered pits, open ground, water body, or other locations
3
Includes septic tanks and latrines in which waste was removed by a service provider to a treatment plant or an unknown location or was removed by a non-service provider to
an unknown location

440 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.9 Management of household excreta
Percent distribution of de jure population by management of excreta from household sanitation facilities, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
Using improved on-site sanitation facilities connected to
Safe disposal Unsafe Using sewer, with
in situ of disposal of improved safe disposal
excreta from excreta from Removal of sanitation Using on-site, or
on-site on-site excreta for facilities, on- unimproved Practicing with removal
Background Connected to sanitation sanitation treatment off- site status sanitation open for treatment Number of
characteristic sewer facilities facilities site unknown facilities defecation Total off-site persons
Residence
Urban 11.4 65.0 5.9 8.3 2.7 0.5 6.2 100.0 84.7 36,218
Rural 0.2 75.4 7.2 4.0 3.7 0.6 8.8 100.0 79.6 18,102
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.2 88.0 5.0 0.7 1.0 0.8 4.3 100.0 88.8 3,193
Hill 19.0 70.7 2.8 1.1 2.9 0.7 2.8 100.0 90.7 21,443
Terai 0.2 64.7 9.1 11.8 3.4 0.4 10.4 100.0 76.7 29,683
Province
Koshi Province 0.3 81.9 3.5 6.7 1.0 1.4 5.2 100.0 88.9 9,406
Urban 0.3 80.0 4.0 7.6 1.2 1.6 5.3 100.0 87.8 6,081
Rural 0.3 85.3 2.4 5.2 0.7 1.1 5.1 100.0 90.7 3,325
Madhesh Province 0.2 57.6 7.6 15.2 0.8 0.2 18.4 100.0 73.0 11,511
Urban 0.2 57.4 7.0 16.7 0.9 0.2 17.6 100.0 74.3 8,542
Rural 0.1 58.3 9.3 10.9 0.3 0.2 21.0 100.0 69.3 2,968
Bagmati Province 35.8 52.3 2.1 3.1 3.6 0.4 2.6 100.0 91.3 11,131
Urban 46.2 43.4 1.8 3.9 3.8 0.3 0.6 100.0 93.5 8,617
Rural 0.5 83.1 2.9 0.4 2.8 0.8 9.5 100.0 84.0 2,514
Gandaki Province 0.2 87.9 3.3 1.9 4.6 0.8 1.3 100.0 90.0 4,865
Urban 0.2 89.6 3.1 2.3 3.6 0.9 0.3 100.0 92.1 3,272
Rural 0.0 84.3 3.8 1.2 6.6 0.5 3.5 100.0 85.5 1,593
Lumbini Province 0.8 70.2 10.3 8.8 3.2 0.4 6.2 100.0 79.8 9,462
Urban 1.5 68.7 9.0 12.3 3.0 0.3 5.1 100.0 82.6 5,156
Rural 0.0 71.9 12.0 4.6 3.5 0.5 7.5 100.0 76.4 4,306
Karnali Province 0.1 88.2 6.3 0.8 0.3 0.4 3.9 100.0 89.1 3,334
Urban 0.1 89.8 5.5 1.4 0.6 0.4 2.1 100.0 91.3 1,755
Rural 0.0 86.4 7.2 0.2 0.0 0.4 5.8 100.0 86.6 1,579
Sudurpashchim Province 0.4 68.7 14.3 1.3 11.5 0.5 3.3 100.0 70.4 4,611
Urban 0.4 70.5 17.1 2.0 7.7 0.2 2.0 100.0 73.0 2,794
Rural 0.3 65.8 9.9 0.3 17.4 0.9 5.4 100.0 66.4 1,817
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.1 77.0 5.4 0.6 0.5 1.2 15.2 100.0 77.6 10,866
Second 0.3 71.2 7.3 5.8 2.0 0.9 12.6 100.0 77.2 10,862
Middle 1.1 71.2 8.4 7.3 5.1 0.5 6.5 100.0 79.5 10,861
Fourth 7.3 68.1 7.0 10.7 5.7 0.2 1.0 100.0 86.1 10,865
Highest 29.4 54.8 3.6 10.2 1.9 0.0 0.1 100.0 94.4 10,866
Total 7.6 68.4 6.3 6.9 3.1 0.6 7.1 100.0 83.0 54,320

Note: On-site sanitation facilities are those where excreta are stored in a septic tank, pit latrine, or composting toilet.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 441

Table 16.10 Disposal of children’s stools
Percent distribution of youngest children under age 2 living with their mother by the manner of disposal of the child’s last fecal matter, and percentage of children whose
stools are disposed of appropriately, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
of children
whose
Manner of disposal of children’s stools stools are
Child used Put/rinsed Put/rinsed disposed of
Background toilet or into toilet or into drain or Thrown into Left in the appro- Number of
characteristic latrine latrine Buried ditch garbage open Other Total priately1 children
Age of child in months
0–1 1.2 24.5 1.0 35.0 22.7 13.9 1.9 100.0 25.6 165
2–3 0.4 21.1 3.7 35.0 29.4 7.9 2.5 100.0 21.5 161
4–5 1.2 28.8 2.3 28.3 27.6 8.8 3.1 100.0 30.0 201
6–8 0.9 41.1 2.9 15.6 30.4 8.3 0.7 100.0 42.0 236
9–11 2.1 47.9 0.7 11.6 23.9 12.0 1.7 100.0 50.0 197
12–17 2.8 51.7 2.4 9.5 23.4 9.6 0.6 100.0 54.5 498
18–23 5.1 51.2 1.5 5.9 23.6 11.2 1.5 100.0 56.3 435
6–23 3.1 49.2 1.9 9.7 24.7 10.2 1.1 100.0 52.3 1,366
Type of toilet facility2
Improved sanitation facility 2.8 46.7 1.9 16.1 22.5 8.8 1.2 100.0 49.5 1,694
Unimproved facility * * * * * * * 100.0 * 15
Open defecation 0.0 3.4 3.4 14.7 52.1 22.3 4.1 100.0 3.4 184
Residence
Urban 3.1 42.1 2.3 15.1 25.5 10.4 1.6 100.0 45.1 1,243
Rural 1.4 43.2 1.6 17.9 24.8 9.7 1.4 100.0 44.6 650
Province
Koshi Province 1.6 45.3 2.1 17.6 20.3 11.2 1.9 100.0 46.9 345
Urban 2.1 44.2 1.4 16.0 19.8 14.1 2.5 100.0 46.3 225
Rural 0.7 47.3 3.4 20.5 21.4 5.7 1.0 100.0 48.0 120
Madhesh Province 4.6 18.2 2.1 16.1 37.3 18.8 2.9 100.0 22.8 486
Urban 4.6 19.7 2.4 16.1 36.1 17.7 3.3 100.0 24.3 358
Rural 4.6 13.9 1.2 15.9 40.7 21.9 1.8 100.0 18.5 128
Bagmati Province 0.7 58.8 1.4 10.9 21.5 6.3 0.4 100.0 59.5 290
Urban 0.9 57.6 1.9 8.6 25.2 5.8 0.0 100.0 58.6 212
Rural 0.0 62.0 0.0 17.3 11.4 7.7 1.6 100.0 62.0 78
Gandaki Province 3.6 54.2 0.7 19.0 15.9 5.4 1.2 100.0 57.8 117
Urban 4.9 48.3 1.1 20.0 20.0 5.7 0.0 100.0 53.2 76
Rural 1.2 65.5 0.0 17.2 8.0 4.8 3.5 100.0 66.6 40
Lumbini Province 2.5 49.6 1.2 14.5 28.6 3.0 0.7 100.0 52.0 327
Urban 3.6 53.6 0.9 12.7 24.5 4.2 0.6 100.0 57.2 183
Rural 1.0 44.5 1.6 16.7 34.0 1.5 0.8 100.0 45.5 143
Karnali Province 0.8 54.5 0.6 20.4 14.1 9.1 0.5 100.0 55.3 147
Urban 0.6 59.3 0.0 22.2 12.1 5.8 0.0 100.0 59.9 73
Rural 1.0 49.7 1.2 18.5 16.1 12.4 1.0 100.0 50.8 74
Sudurpashchim Province 2.3 45.9 6.5 18.6 17.4 8.3 1.0 100.0 48.2 181
Urban 3.6 45.4 8.9 17.9 18.3 5.1 0.8 100.0 49.0 115
Rural 0.0 46.8 2.3 19.8 15.8 13.8 1.4 100.0 46.8 66
Mother’s education
No education 3.3 16.9 1.7 19.1 37.3 19.6 2.2 100.0 20.1 341
Basic education (1–8) 2.1 37.0 2.4 19.8 27.3 10.6 0.7 100.0 39.1 645
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.4 33.7 2.4 19.5 30.2 11.4 1.5 100.0 35.0 324
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.7 40.4 2.5 20.1 24.4 9.8 0.0 100.0 43.2 321
Secondary (9–12) 2.3 57.7 1.8 12.9 17.0 6.4 1.8 100.0 60.0 816
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.2 54.0 1.5 14.8 17.1 8.1 2.4 100.0 56.1 487
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.5 63.3 2.3 10.2 17.0 4.0 0.8 100.0 65.8 329
More than secondary (13 and
above) 4.7 40.2 2.8 5.7 39.2 5.8 1.6 100.0 44.9 91
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.3 42.2 2.9 18.3 20.4 13.4 1.6 100.0 43.5 420
Second 1.1 35.1 2.9 19.7 25.0 13.5 2.7 100.0 36.2 417
Middle 3.7 39.6 0.4 19.5 23.7 12.2 0.9 100.0 43.4 374
Fourth 3.4 44.9 2.5 14.2 27.4 6.6 1.0 100.0 48.4 379
Highest 3.6 53.3 1.3 5.8 31.6 3.3 1.2 100.0 56.8 303
Total 2.5 42.5 2.0 16.0 25.3 10.2 1.5 100.0 45.0 1,893

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Children’s stools are considered to be disposed of appropriately if the child used a toilet or latrine or if the fecal matter was put/rinsed into a toilet or latrine.
2
See Table 16.6 for definition of categories.

442 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.11 Handwashing
Percentage of the de jure population for whom the place most often used for washing hands was observed, by whether the location was fixed or mobile, and total percentage of
the de jure population for whom the place for handwashing was observed; among the de jure population for whom the place for handwashing was observed, percentage with water
available, percentage with soap available, and percentage with a cleansing agent other than soap available; percentage of the de jure population with a basic handwashing facility;
and percentage with a limited handwashing facility, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
persons for
whom place
for hand-
washing
Percentage of de jure population for Percentage was
whom place for washing hands was Number of Percentage of de jure observed or
observed and: Place for handwashing observed and: persons for of de jure population with no
Place for whom place population with a place for
hand- Place for Cleansing for hand- with a basic limited hand-
washing hand- agent other washing hand- hand- washing in
Background was a fixed washing Number of Water Soap than soap was washing washing the dwelling,
characteristic place was mobile Total persons available available1 available2 observed facility3 facility4 yard, or plot
Residence
Urban 95.1 4.6 99.7 36,218 94.4 78.2 15.9 36,107 77.3 22.5 36,198
Rural 91.5 8.2 99.7 18,102 88.4 64.1 30.9 18,044 62.8 36.9 18,097
Ecological zone
Mountain 86.1 13.6 99.8 3,193 77.8 59.0 18.9 3,185 57.1 42.7 3,191
Hill 96.1 3.8 99.8 21,443 92.5 79.2 17.0 21,409 77.9 22.0 21,432
Terai 93.2 6.4 99.6 29,683 93.9 71.0 23.9 29,557 70.2 29.4 29,671
Province
Koshi Province 96.5 3.2 99.7 9,406 95.6 74.2 26.1 9,376 73.1 26.6 9,404
Urban 96.9 2.9 99.8 6,081 96.5 76.1 20.6 6,066 75.2 24.6 6,081
Rural 95.9 3.7 99.6 3,325 93.9 70.7 36.2 3,310 69.3 30.3 3,323
Madhesh Province 88.0 11.5 99.5 11,511 90.2 60.3 24.1 11,456 59.3 40.2 11,510
Urban 90.2 9.3 99.5 8,542 92.1 64.1 22.8 8,503 63.2 36.3 8,542
Rural 81.7 17.8 99.5 2,968 84.8 49.5 28.0 2,953 48.1 51.4 2,968
Bagmati Province 97.5 2.2 99.7 11,131 96.4 86.8 9.5 11,100 86.0 13.8 11,125
Urban 98.7 1.0 99.7 8,617 97.9 91.9 5.2 8,590 91.0 8.8 8,611
Rural 93.6 6.2 99.8 2,514 91.2 69.2 24.2 2,509 68.7 31.2 2,514
Gandaki Province 96.3 3.7 100.0 4,865 95.0 86.0 8.5 4,864 85.2 14.7 4,865
Urban 98.4 1.6 100.0 3,272 97.4 91.5 6.5 3,272 90.8 9.2 3,272
Rural 91.9 8.0 99.9 1,593 90.1 74.7 12.5 1,592 73.9 26.1 1,593
Lumbini Province 95.1 4.7 99.8 9,462 93.7 76.2 29.8 9,444 75.2 24.7 9,453
Urban 94.4 5.4 99.8 5,156 93.5 79.9 19.6 5,147 79.0 21.0 5,147
Rural 96.0 3.8 99.8 4,306 94.0 71.9 41.9 4,297 70.7 29.1 4,306
Karnali Province 85.2 14.6 99.8 3,334 74.9 56.7 17.0 3,329 54.2 45.7 3,332
Urban 88.3 11.7 100.0 1,755 80.2 65.2 14.0 1,755 62.7 37.3 1,755
Rural 81.8 17.9 99.7 1,579 69.1 47.1 20.3 1,574 44.8 55.0 1,577
Sudurpashchim Province 95.6 3.8 99.4 4,611 88.5 66.6 27.2 4,583 65.0 34.4 4,607
Urban 96.7 2.6 99.3 2,794 92.6 73.7 22.5 2,775 72.4 27.1 2,790
Rural 93.9 5.6 99.5 1,817 82.2 55.7 34.4 1,808 53.8 45.8 1,817
Wealth quintile
Lowest 85.7 13.8 99.5 10,866 78.2 46.9 26.2 10,809 44.6 54.9 10,859
Second 91.8 7.7 99.5 10,862 91.2 64.0 32.0 10,813 62.9 36.7 10,857
Middle 94.2 5.6 99.8 10,861 95.3 73.0 27.1 10,838 72.2 27.6 10,860
Fourth 98.0 1.8 99.7 10,865 97.4 86.8 15.4 10,833 85.8 14.0 10,860
Highest 99.7 0.2 99.9 10,866 99.7 96.9 3.8 10,859 96.7 3.3 10,859
Total 93.9 5.8 99.7 54,320 92.4 73.5 20.9 54,151 72.4 27.3 54,295

1
Soap includes soap or detergent in bar, liquid, powder, or paste form.
2
Cleansing agents other than soap include locally available materials such as ash, mud, or sand.
3
The availability of a handwashing facility on premises with soap and water
4
The availability of a handwashing facility on premises without soap and/or water

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 443

Table 16.12 Menstrual hygiene
Among women age 15–49 whose most recent menstrual period was in the last year, percentage who used specified materials to collect or absorb blood from the most recent menstrual
period, and among women age 15–49 whose most recent menstrual period was in the last year and were at home during their last menstrual period, percentage who were able to
wash and change in privacy while at home and percentage who were able to both wash and change in privacy and who used appropriate materials during their last menstruation,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women
whose most recent
menstrual period was
in the last year and
who were at home
Among women whose most recent menstrual period was in the last year, percentage who used the during their last
specified materials to collect or absorb blood from the most recent menstrual period menstrual period
Percent-
age able
to wash
and
change in
privacy
and who
used
Percent- appro-
age able priate
Dispos- to wash materials
Reusable able and during last
Background sanitary sanitary Menstrual Toilet Cotton Under- Number change in menstrua- Number of
characteristic pads pads Tampons cup Cloth paper wool wear only Nothing of women privacy tion1 women
Age
15–19 1.2 80.9 0.2 0.1 31.8 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.4 2,520 97.9 81.2 2,508
20–24 1.5 70.3 0.0 0.2 41.6 0.0 0.2 0.8 0.9 2,338 98.7 71.7 2,329
25–29 1.0 61.8 0.3 0.1 48.2 0.1 0.2 1.9 1.1 2,148 98.7 62.8 2,145
30–34 0.9 56.4 0.1 0.1 51.2 0.0 0.3 2.6 1.8 1,937 98.6 57.2 1,933
35–39 0.8 47.4 0.0 0.0 56.7 0.0 0.4 3.6 3.8 1,852 99.2 48.3 1,847
40–44 0.8 39.5 0.0 0.2 60.0 0.0 0.1 5.9 5.7 1,389 99.2 40.4 1,384
45–49 1.4 32.9 0.0 0.0 61.2 0.0 0.4 6.7 8.0 882 99.0 34.2 880
Residence
Urban 1.4 63.4 0.1 0.1 44.8 0.0 0.2 2.2 1.6 8,985 98.7 64.6 8,956
Rural 0.5 52.0 0.1 0.1 53.9 0.0 0.2 3.2 4.3 4,081 98.5 52.3 4,071
Province
Koshi Province 0.9 57.2 0.0 0.0 53.0 0.0 0.3 3.8 1.8 2,193 99.5 58.2 2,191
Urban 1.3 57.6 0.0 0.0 53.2 0.0 0.2 3.4 1.7 1,443 99.7 58.8 1,443
Rural 0.1 56.5 0.0 0.0 52.5 0.0 0.5 4.5 1.9 750 99.2 57.0 748
Madhesh Province 0.1 50.6 0.1 0.0 59.4 0.0 0.1 1.5 0.8 2,467 95.5 50.0 2,451
Urban 0.1 50.9 0.1 0.0 59.4 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.6 1,835 95.4 50.2 1,821
Rural 0.1 49.8 0.1 0.0 59.4 0.0 0.3 1.6 1.5 632 95.9 49.7 631
Bagmati Province 2.5 70.7 0.4 0.3 37.5 0.1 0.2 1.6 1.9 2,763 99.9 73.5 2,761
Urban 3.0 76.1 0.4 0.3 31.2 0.1 0.2 1.6 1.0 2,228 99.9 79.4 2,227
Rural 0.8 48.1 0.2 0.0 63.5 0.0 0.0 1.7 5.4 535 99.8 49.1 535
Gandaki Province 0.4 70.7 0.0 0.3 35.5 0.0 0.4 2.5 2.4 1,292 99.8 71.1 1,280
Urban 0.2 75.0 0.0 0.4 32.1 0.0 0.5 2.3 1.6 922 99.7 75.4 913
Rural 0.9 59.9 0.1 0.0 44.1 0.0 0.1 3.2 4.4 370 99.8 60.3 367
Lumbini Province 0.1 61.5 0.0 0.2 45.9 0.0 0.2 2.1 1.1 2,456 98.9 61.4 2,454
Urban 0.1 66.2 0.0 0.0 40.8 0.0 0.2 1.8 0.7 1,418 99.4 66.1 1,416
Rural 0.1 55.0 0.0 0.4 52.9 0.0 0.2 2.5 1.7 1,039 98.1 54.9 1,038
Karnali Province 1.3 45.4 0.0 0.0 51.5 0.0 0.1 5.1 8.1 781 99.3 46.3 778
Urban 1.6 51.1 0.0 0.0 51.0 0.0 0.1 3.8 5.1 442 99.2 52.3 441
Rural 1.1 37.8 0.0 0.0 52.2 0.0 0.1 6.7 12.0 339 99.5 38.5 337
Sudurpashchim Province 2.6 52.4 0.0 0.0 51.4 0.0 0.5 3.8 7.1 1,113 99.0 54.4 1,111
Urban 3.6 54.3 0.0 0.0 53.4 0.0 0.8 3.6 4.7 698 99.0 57.3 696
Rural 1.0 49.2 0.1 0.1 48.2 0.0 0.0 4.0 11.2 416 99.0 49.5 416
Education
No education 0.6 29.2 0.0 0.1 67.8 0.0 0.3 5.2 6.8 3,037 97.8 29.7 3,026
Basic education (1–8) 0.9 53.7 0.0 0.1 53.7 0.0 0.2 2.9 2.0 4,084 98.5 54.4 4,073
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.1 45.1 0.0 0.0 60.0 0.0 0.2 3.9 2.6 2,021 97.9 45.9 2,016
Upper basic education (6–8) 0.7 62.1 0.1 0.1 47.5 0.0 0.2 1.9 1.4 2,062 99.1 62.7 2,056
Secondary (9–12) 1.4 78.4 0.1 0.2 35.1 0.0 0.2 1.0 0.4 5,322 99.2 79.5 5,306
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.2 73.2 0.0 0.0 40.3 0.1 0.2 1.3 0.6 2,966 99.0 74.0 2,955
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.5 85.0 0.1 0.3 28.7 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.3 2,356 99.4 86.3 2,351
More than secondary (13 and
above) 2.0 91.0 1.2 0.2 16.7 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.0 623 100.0 93.5 622
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.0 39.0 0.0 0.0 59.7 0.0 0.2 4.7 7.5 2,280 98.2 39.7 2,275
Second 0.7 43.4 0.1 0.0 63.5 0.0 0.1 3.3 2.4 2,442 97.4 43.6 2,437
Middle 0.6 56.3 0.1 0.0 54.9 0.0 0.2 2.7 1.6 2,636 98.7 56.7 2,621
Fourth 1.3 68.9 0.1 0.1 42.6 0.0 0.2 1.7 0.8 2,868 99.2 70.2 2,859
Highest 1.7 84.8 0.3 0.4 22.7 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.6 2,839 99.7 86.7 2,835
Total 1.1 59.8 0.1 0.1 47.6 0.0 0.2 2.5 2.4 13,065 98.7 60.7 13,027

1
Reusable sanitary pads, disposable sanitary pads, tampons, menstrual cup, toilet paper, and/or cotton wool

444 • Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene

Table 16.13 Restrictions on activities during menstrual period
Among women age 15–49 whose most recent menstrual period was in the last year, percentage who were excluded from participating in specific activities during their
most recent menstrual period, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Not
Getting excluded
involved Touching Eating Staying from per-
in or with in the Touching Sleeping forming Number
Background Entering religious cooking family main Touching other Touching Fetching with any of
characteristic temple activities food members house plants people cattle water husband Other activities women
Age
15–19 62.7 62.5 36.4 7.9 7.4 5.0 4.9 4.2 14.8 1.3 2.2 17.2 2,520
20–24 63.0 62.1 32.3 6.6 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.1 14.4 3.4 2.1 16.2 2,338
25–29 63.5 63.0 30.8 5.2 4.9 4.9 3.3 3.0 13.2 4.1 1.4 16.2 2,148
30–34 66.7 66.2 33.6 7.0 5.6 5.4 2.5 3.7 13.9 5.5 1.6 14.3 1,937
35–39 67.1 67.1 34.9 6.1 5.7 7.1 3.2 4.7 13.8 6.2 1.8 14.3 1,852
40–44 68.0 68.8 35.7 6.9 7.4 5.5 3.9 5.8 15.1 6.7 1.7 12.3 1,389
45–49 69.6 68.7 40.9 9.8 7.2 8.4 5.4 6.0 16.7 7.8 1.5 10.0 882
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 77.9 68.0 73.8 17.8 12.2 7.3 9.6 9.8 34.6 10.0 1.2 3.9 3,735
Dalit 60.3 62.1 33.0 6.8 8.3 4.9 3.4 3.9 14.5 4.7 2.3 17.6 1,934
Janajati 61.5 56.5 14.6 1.5 1.4 5.7 1.3 1.0 4.7 1.1 0.6 23.9 4,879
Madhesi 65.0 81.6 17.9 1.1 6.0 3.7 0.2 2.1 3.5 2.6 4.6 8.1 1,942
Muslim 29.2 67.4 4.7 0.3 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.6 0.9 2.2 4.3 25.9 562
Other * * * * * * * * * * * * 14
Residence
Urban 66.5 65.9 34.1 6.2 4.8 5.2 3.5 3.1 12.9 4.0 1.7 14.2 8,985
Rural 62.1 62.4 34.8 8.3 9.1 6.4 4.3 6.1 17.4 5.4 2.0 16.8 4,081
Province
Koshi Province 71.8 75.8 31.3 5.7 3.3 15.2 5.7 4.5 15.8 4.3 2.2 13.6 2,193
Urban 71.2 77.0 34.5 6.8 2.3 15.5 6.5 4.8 16.4 4.5 2.5 12.8 1,443
Rural 72.9 73.5 25.1 3.4 5.3 14.8 4.2 4.1 14.8 4.0 1.8 15.0 750
Madhesh Province 54.4 80.6 8.3 0.5 4.7 2.5 0.2 1.5 1.5 2.1 5.3 13.0 2,467
Urban 54.0 80.0 8.6 0.4 4.8 2.5 0.3 1.8 1.7 2.1 4.8 13.9 1,835
Rural 55.8 82.5 7.4 0.6 4.4 2.4 0.0 0.6 1.1 2.1 6.7 10.7 632
Bagmati Province 68.7 50.1 33.9 3.1 1.9 3.3 2.2 1.4 9.5 1.3 0.3 21.0 2,763
Urban 73.2 55.0 34.4 3.0 1.2 2.9 1.8 1.0 8.3 1.1 0.4 16.5 2,228
Rural 50.1 29.7 31.9 3.3 4.4 5.3 3.7 2.9 14.6 1.9 0.1 39.8 535
Gandaki Province 64.7 61.6 36.6 8.6 3.6 3.9 1.5 1.9 8.9 4.9 0.5 19.7 1,292
Urban 67.0 63.5 37.1 8.8 2.8 3.5 1.4 1.4 8.6 5.1 0.5 18.9 922
Rural 58.8 56.7 35.5 8.0 5.5 5.1 1.7 3.2 9.8 4.4 0.3 21.8 370
Lumbini Province 61.6 60.3 37.5 5.1 4.0 3.5 1.5 2.1 11.3 2.7 0.4 16.0 2,456
Urban 63.2 59.9 41.1 6.2 4.6 3.3 1.9 1.3 12.1 3.4 0.4 15.6 1,418
Rural 59.5 60.8 32.6 3.7 3.2 3.7 1.0 3.1 10.3 1.7 0.3 16.4 1,039
Karnali Province 74.7 69.3 62.4 26.2 26.1 8.2 7.5 14.3 39.9 19.0 3.1 8.2 781
Urban 77.2 68.4 56.2 21.2 18.7 5.0 5.2 9.2 34.5 18.0 2.1 8.8 442
Rural 71.5 70.6 70.6 32.8 35.6 12.3 10.4 20.9 47.0 20.4 4.3 7.5 339
Sudurpashchim Province 68.4 55.3 69.7 21.0 19.6 3.5 16.7 15.5 46.8 11.3 0.9 4.4 1,113
Urban 67.7 54.9 67.4 17.3 15.7 4.4 16.1 12.4 44.1 8.6 0.8 5.0 698
Rural 69.5 55.9 73.5 27.1 26.0 2.1 17.7 20.6 51.3 15.7 1.2 3.5 416
Education
No education 60.5 68.8 25.1 6.4 8.0 5.8 3.5 5.5 13.1 6.2 2.6 14.8 3,037
Basic education (1–8) 62.1 62.6 31.3 6.3 6.0 6.5 3.4 4.1 13.7 4.6 2.1 16.7 4,084
Lower basic education (1–5) 60.6 62.6 29.3 5.2 5.1 7.3 3.2 4.2 12.1 5.1 2.5 17.6 2,021
Upper basic education (6–8) 63.4 62.7 33.3 7.3 6.9 5.7 3.7 4.0 15.2 4.2 1.8 16.0 2,062
Secondary (9–12) 68.5 64.2 40.0 7.7 5.6 5.2 4.3 3.6 16.0 3.5 1.3 14.5 5,322
Lower secondary (9–10) 67.9 65.5 38.7 6.9 6.1 5.7 4.4 4.3 16.3 3.5 1.7 14.6 2,966
Higher secondary (11–12) 69.3 62.4 41.7 8.8 4.9 4.4 4.3 2.8 15.7 3.6 0.8 14.5 2,356
More than secondary (13 and
above) 78.9 65.6 50.8 5.4 3.0 1.4 2.1 0.9 10.4 2.6 0.1 8.5 623
Wealth quintile
Lowest 57.9 58.8 43.3 14.9 14.5 9.8 8.0 11.1 28.5 9.1 2.1 17.9 2,280
Second 63.1 67.7 29.4 5.4 6.3 6.7 3.4 4.1 14.3 3.5 2.9 14.8 2,442
Middle 63.1 66.9 27.7 5.1 5.7 5.3 3.1 3.1 11.0 3.3 2.7 15.8 2,636
Fourth 67.2 66.1 30.0 4.5 4.1 4.0 2.6 2.2 11.2 4.1 1.4 14.6 2,868
Highest 72.4 63.9 42.1 5.7 1.8 3.0 2.5 1.3 9.3 3.1 0.3 12.6 2,839
Total 65.1 64.8 34.3 6.9 6.2 5.6 3.8 4.1 14.3 4.5 1.8 15.0 13,065

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene • 445

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 17
Key Findings
▪ Experience of violence: 23% of women in Nepal age
15–49 have experienced physical violence since age 15,
and 8% have ever experienced sexual violence. Six
percent of women who have ever been pregnant have
experienced violence during pregnancy.
▪ Controlling behaviors: 35% of women who have ever
had a husband/intimate partner have experienced
controlling behaviors, and 29% experienced such
behaviors in the 12 months preceding the survey. Eight
percent of women have a husband/intimate partner who
displays three or more of the specified controlling
behaviors.
▪ Intimate partner violence: 27% of women have
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence from
their current or most recent husband/intimate partner.
▪ Trends in intimate partner violence in the last 12
months: The percentage of ever-married women who
experienced spousal violence by any husband/partner in
the last 12 months increased from 14% in 2016 to 17% in
2022.
▪ Injuries due to intimate partner violence: 53% of
women who have ever experienced violence by their
husband/intimate partner have sustained injuries. The
most commonly reported injuries are cuts, bruises, or
aches.
▪ Help seeking: Only 28% of women who have ever
experienced any type of physical or sexual violence have
sought help to stop the violence.

G
ender-based violence against women is acknowledged worldwide as a violation of basic human
rights. Gender-based violence is defined by the United Nations as any act of violence that results
in physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, girls, men, and boys, as well as
threats of such acts, coercion, or the arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Increasing research has highlighted the
health burdens, intergenerational effects, and demographic consequences of such violence (United Nations
2006).

A common form of gender-based violence is intimate partner violence, which refers to behavior within an
intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual, or psychological harm and includes acts of physical
aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse, and controlling behavior. This definition of intimate
partner violence covers violence by both current and former spouses and intimate partners.1 This chapter
focuses on intimate partner violence and other types of domestic violence.

Historically, The DHS Program has collected detailed information only on intimate partner violence
experienced by ever-married women, defined as women who are currently married or living with a man as
if married and women who were formerly married or lived with a man as if married. More recently, the

1
https://apps.who.int/violence-info/intimate-partner-violence

Domestic Violence • 447

 questionnaire module used to capture intimate partner violence in a DHS survey was revised to also
capture intimate partner violence experienced by never-married women who reported that they currently or
formerly had an intimate partner. In the 2022 NDHS, the revised version of the domestic violence
questionnaire module was used for the first time, and therefore indicators on intimate partner violence are
reported for women who have ever had a husband or other intimate partner. In the context of the revised
questionnaire module and this report, the term “boyfriend” excludes anyone reported as an intimate
partner. With respect to assessing trends in intimate partner violence, only the estimates provided
separately for ever-married women and women living with a man as if married should be compared with
corresponding estimates from previous surveys.

The module on domestic violence was implemented in a subsample of households selected for the men’s
survey. In accordance with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on the ethical collection of
information on domestic violence, only one eligible woman per household was randomly selected for the
module, and the module was not implemented if privacy could not be obtained (WHO 2001). Of the
14,845 women age 15–49 who were eligible for the module, 5,177 were selected and interviewed. Only
seven women were selected for the module but were not interviewed with the Woman’s Questionnaire, and
six who were selected and interviewed with the Woman’s Questionnaire could not complete the module
due to privacy concerns. Special weights were used to adjust for the selection of only one woman per
household and to ensure that the domestic violence subsample was nationally representative.

17.1 MEASUREMENT OF VIOLENCE

Terminology for this chapter

Husband: a man with whom a woman is married or living as if married.
Intimate partner: a man with whom a never-married woman is in a relationship
that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy and for which the relationship
is or has the expectation of being longer lasting. As defined for the purposes of
this chapter, an intimate partner is not a husband or a man a woman is living
with and is also not a boyfriend with whom her relationship is casual or a man
with whom she has a one-time encounter.
Husband/intimate partner: the current husband for currently married women;
the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the
current intimate partner for never-married women who currently have an
intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for never-married women
who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past.
Boyfriend: a man with whom a woman has a casual relationship and who she
did not mention as an intimate partner.

In the 2022 NDHS, information was obtained from women age 15–49 on their experience of violence
committed by any perpetrator, including current and former husbands or other intimate partners. To
capture intimate partner violence, ever-married women were asked about their experience of violence
committed by their current and former husbands, and, if applicable, never-married women were asked
about their experience of violence committed by their current and former intimate partners. More
specifically, intimate partner violence was measured by asking women if their current or former
husband/intimate partner ever did the following to them:

▪ Physical violence: push you, shake you, or throw something at you; slap you; twist your arm or pull
your hair; punch you with his fist or with something that could hurt you; kick you, drag you, or beat
you up; try to choke you or burn you on purpose; or attack you with a knife, gun, or other weapon

▪ Sexual violence: physically force you to have sexual intercourse with him when you did not want to,
physically force you to perform any other sexual acts you did not want to do, or force you with threats
or in any other way to perform sexual acts you did not want to do

448 • Domestic Violence

▪ Emotional violence: say or do something to humiliate you in front of others, threaten to hurt or harm
you or someone you care about, or insult you or make you feel bad about yourself

In addition to the questions on different forms of intimate partner violence, information was also obtained
from all women about physical violence committed by anyone other than any husband/intimate partner
since they were age 15 by asking if anyone had hit, slapped, kicked, or done something else to hurt them
physically. Similarly, women were asked if they had experienced sexual violence committed by anyone
other than any husband/intimate partner. Specifically, they were asked if at any time in their life, as a child
or as an adult, they were forced in any way to have sexual intercourse or to perform any other sexual acts
which they did not want to do.

17.2 WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF PHYSICAL VIOLENCE

Physical violence by perpetrator

Percentage of women who have experienced any physical violence (committed
by a husband, intimate partner, or anyone else) since age 15 and in the 12
months before the survey.
Sample: Women age 15–49

Twenty-three percent of women age 15–49 have experienced physical violence since age 15, including
11% who experienced physical violence often or sometimes in the 12 months preceding the survey (Table
17.1).

Trends: In the last decade, the percentage of women who have experienced physical violence since age 15
has remained at 22%–23%. However, there has been a slight increase over time in the percentage of
women who experienced physical violence in the last 12 months, from 9% in 2011 and 2016 to 11% in
2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women’s experience of physical violence increases sharply with age, from 12% among those age 15–
19 to 29% among those age 40–49 (Table 17.1).

▪ The percentage of women who have experienced physical violence ranges from a low of 14% in the
Brahmin/Chhetri ethnic group to a high of 42% in the Muslim group.

▪ Women’s experience of physical violence varies from a low of 15% in Gandaki Province to a high of
37% in Madhesh Province.

Domestic Violence • 449

 ▪ Divorced, separated, or Figure 17.1 Women’s experience of violence
widowed women are more by marital status
likely to have experienced
Never married, Never married, Married or Divorced/
physical violence since age 15 never had an ever had an living together separated/
(47%) than women who have intimate partner intimate partner widowed
never been married and never
had an intimate partner (6%)
(Figure 17.1).

▪ Women’s experience of
physical violence declines
sharply with increasing 47
education, from 36% among
those with no education to 4% 26
among those with more than a 20
secondary education. 6 9 7 8
1

Percentage who Percentage who

have ever experienced physical have ever experienced sexual
violence since age 15 violence

17.2.1 Perpetrators of Physical Violence

Among women who had ever been married or had an intimate partner and who had experienced physical
violence since age 15, 81% reported their current husband or intimate partner as the perpetrator of the
violence; 14% named their former husband/intimate partner, and 5% each named their mother-in-law or
another in-law (Table 17.2).

17.2.2 Experience of Physical Violence during Pregnancy

Physical violence during pregnancy

Percentage of women who have experienced physical violence (committed by a
husband, intimate partner, or anyone else) during any pregnancy.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who have ever been pregnant

Six percent of women who have ever been pregnant experienced violence during a pregnancy (Table
17.3).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women below age 30 (7%), women from the Muslim ethnic group (14%), and women in Madhesh
Province (10%) are more likely than their counterparts to have experienced physical violence during
pregnancy (Table 17.3).

450 • Domestic Violence

▪ The prevalence of violence during pregnancy is Figure 17.2 Experience of physical
twice as high among women with three or four violence during pregnancy by number
children (8%) as among women with one or two of living children
children (4%). Thirteen percent of women with Percentage who experienced physical
five or more children have experienced violence violence when pregnant among women
during pregnancy (Figure 17.2). age 15–49 who have ever been pregnant

▪ Women with no education or a basic education

are more likely (7%) to experience violence
during pregnancy than women with more than a
secondary education (1%). 13
8
5 4 6

0 1–2 3–4 5+ Total

Number of living children

17.3 EXPERIENCE OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Sexual violence by any perpetrator

Percentage of women who have experienced any sexual violence (committed
by a husband, intimate partner, or anyone else) ever and in the 12 months
before the survey.
Sample: Women age 15–49

17.3.1 Prevalence of Sexual Violence

Eight percent of women age 15–49 have ever experienced sexual violence, and 4% experienced sexual
violence in the 12 months preceding the survey (Table 17.4).

Trends: The percentage of women who have ever experienced sexual violence declined from 12% in 2011
to 7% in 2016 before increasing slightly to 8% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Three percent of women age 15–19 have ever experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator,
compared with 10% of women age 40–49 (Table 17.4).

▪ Thirteen percent of Muslim women have experienced sexual violence, compared with 10% of Dalit
women, 9% of Madhesi women, and 6% each of Janajati and Brahmin/Chhetri women.

▪ Women in Madhesh Province (11%) and Karnali Province (10%) are more likely to have experienced
sexual violence than women in the other provinces. Women in Sudurpashchim Province are least
likely to have experienced sexual violence (4%).

▪ The percentage of women who have experienced sexual violence is twice as high (20%) among those
who are divorced, separated, or widowed as among those who are currently married or living with a
man as if married (8%) and those who have never been married but have had an intimate partner (7%).

▪ Women with no education are more likely to experience sexual violence (11%) than women with more
than a secondary education (3%).

Domestic Violence • 451

 17.3.2 Perpetrators of Sexual Violence

Among women who had ever been married or had an intimate partner and who had experienced sexual
violence, 82% reported their current husbands/intimate partners as perpetrators and 11% named former
husbands/intimate partners. Among all women age 15–49 who had experienced sexual violence, 4%
reported strangers and 5% reported friends/acquaintances as perpetrators (Table 17.5).

17.3.3 Experience of Sexual Violence by a Non-intimate Partner

Two percent of women age 15–49 report having ever experienced sexual violence by a non-intimate
partner, and less than 1% report having experienced such violence in the 12 months preceding the survey
(Table 17.6).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Muslim women (3%) are more likely to have ever experienced sexual violence by a non-intimate
partner than women in any other ethnic group (Table 17.6).

▪ The percentage of women who have experienced sexual violence by a non-intimate partner is higher in
the rural areas of Madhesh Province (4%) than in any other area of the country.

▪ Five percent of women who have never been married but have had an intimate partner report having
ever experienced sexual violence from a non-intimate partner, as compared with 2% or less of women
in other marital status categories.

17.3.4 Age at First Experience of Sexual Violence

Overall, 3% of women age 15–49 had experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator by age 18, and 5%
had experienced sexual violence by age 22. Looking exclusively at sexual violence committed by a non-
intimate partner, the results show that 1% each of women age 15–49 had experienced such violence by age
15 and by age 22 (Table 17.7).

17.4 EXPERIENCE OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF VIOLENCE

Physical violence or sexual violence may not occur in isolation; rather, women may experience a
combination of forms of violence, and these combinations of violence can have a long-lasting negative
effect on women’s lives, health, and well-being. Among all women, 16% have experienced physical
violence only, 1% have experienced sexual violence only, and 6% have experienced both physical and
sexual violence. Overall, 24% of women have ever experienced physical or sexual violence. The
percentage of women who have experienced physical or sexual violence increases sharply with age, from
13% among those age 15–19 to 30% among those age 40–49 (Table 17.8).

452 • Domestic Violence

17.5 FORMS OF CONTROLLING BEHAVIORS AND INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Controlling behavior
Percentage of women whose current or most recent husband/intimate partner
has demonstrated one or more controlling behaviors.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who ever had a husband or an intimate partner

Intimate partner violence

Percentage of women who have experienced any of the specified acts of
physical, sexual, or emotional violence committed by their current or most
recent husband/intimate partner, ever and in the 12 months preceding the
survey.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who ever had a husband or an intimate partner

17.5.1 Prevalence of Controlling Behaviors and Intimate Partner Violence

Controlling Behaviors

Controlling behaviors can be important warning signs and correlates of violence in intimate relationships.
The concentration of behaviors is more significant than the display of any single behavior and should be
assessed.

The 2022 NDHS results show that Figure 17.3 Forms of controlling behaviors
35% of women age 15–49 who Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a
have ever had a husband/intimate husband/intimate partner and have experienced specific
partner have experienced types of controlling behaviors
controlling behaviors from their Ever
Is jealous or angry if she talks to 24
husband/intimate partner (Table other men 17 Last 12 months
17.9). Twenty-four percent of
women reported that their Wrongly accuses her of being 8
husband/intimate partner is jealous unfaithful 6
or angry if they talk to other men, Does not permit her to meet her 6
21% reported that he insists on female friends 4
knowing where they are at all times,
8% said that he wrongly accuses Tries to limit her contact with her 5
family 4
them of being unfaithful, 6%
reported that he does not permit Insists on knowing where she is 21
them to meet their female friends, at all times 19
and 5% said that he tries to limit
their contact with their family 35
Any controlling behavior
29
(Figure 17.3). Overall, 8% of
women reported that their
husband/intimate partner displays at least three of the specified behaviors (Table 17.10).

Trends: The percentage of ever-married women who have experienced three or more controlling
behaviors from their current or most recent husband/partner was 8% in 2011, 9% in 2016, and 8% in 2022.

Patterns of controlling behaviors by background characteristics

▪ In Nepal, a higher percentage of women from the Dalit (11%), Muslim (10%), and Madhesi (10%)
ethnic groups have husbands/intimate partners who display three or more of the specified controlling
behaviors than women from the Janajati (7%) and Brahmin/Chhetri (5%) groups (Table 17.10).

Domestic Violence • 453

 ▪ Women in Madhesh Province (10%) and Lumbini Province (9%) are more likely to report that their
husband/intimate partner displays three or more of the specified controlling behaviors than women in
the other provinces. Women in Sudurpashchim Province are least likely to report that their
husband/intimate partner displays three or more controlling behaviors (4%).

▪ Never-married women are more likely (13%) to report that their partner displays three or more of the
specified controlling behaviors than ever-married women (7%).

▪ Women who are afraid of their husbands/intimate partners most of the time are more likely to have
experienced three or more of the specified controlling behaviors than those who are never afraid (30%
versus 2%).

Violence by Current or Most Recent Husband/Intimate Partner

Twenty-three percent of women who have ever had a husband/intimate partner reported having
experienced physical violence from their current or most recent husband/partner, including 11% who
experienced physical violence in the last 12 months; 7% reported having experienced sexual violence,
including 4% who experienced such violence in the last 12 months; and 13% reported having experienced
emotional violence, including 10% who experienced such violence in the last 12 months. Overall, 27% of
women have experienced one or more forms of physical, sexual, or emotional violence from their current
or most recent husband/intimate partner (Table 17.9).

Women who had experienced Figure 17.4 Forms of intimate partner violence
physical violence most commonly Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a
reported being slapped (21%), those husband/intimate partner and have ever experienced
who had experienced sexual specfic acts of violence by their husband/intimate partner
violence most often reported being
Said or did something to humiliate 7 Ever
physically forced to have sexual her in front of others 5
Last 12 months
Emotional

intercourse when they did not want

violence

Threatened to hurt or harm her or 4

to (7%), and those who had someone she cared about 3
experienced emotional violence Insulted her or made her feel bad 10
most commonly reported being about herself 8
insulted or made to feel bad about Pushed her, shook her, or threw 12
themselves (10%) (Figure 17.4). something at her 6

Slapped her 21
The percentage of ever- 9
married/partnered women who have 11
Twisted her arm or pulled her hair
experienced physical, sexual, or 4
Physical
violence

emotional violence increases to Punched her with his fist or with 9

28% if any current or previous something that could hurt her 3
husband/intimate partner is also Kicked her, dragged her, or beat 11
taken into consideration (Table her up 4
17.9). Tried to choke her or burn her on 3
purpose 2
Trends: The percentage of women Attacked her with a knife, gun, or 2
who have experienced spousal other weapon <1
physical, sexual, or emotional Physically forced her to have sexual 7
violence fell from 32% in 2011 to intercourse when she did not want to 4
violence
Sexual

26% in 2016 before increasing Physically forced her to perform any 3

other sexual acts she did not want to 1
slightly to 27% in 2022.
Forced her with threats to perform 2
sexual acts she did not want to 1

454 • Domestic Violence

Patterns of intimate partner violence by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women who have Figure 17.5 Intimate partner violence
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional by province
violence by their current or most recent Percentage of women who have ever had
husband/intimate partner is higher among those a husband/intimate partner and have ever
in the Muslim (55%), Madhesi (43%), and Dalit experienced emotional, physical, or sexual
violence by their husband/intimate partner
(36%) ethnic groups than among those in the
Janajati (21%) and Brahmin/Chhetri groups Madhesh Province 46
(18%) (Table 17.11).
Lumbini Province 29
▪ Women in Madhesh Province (46%) are more
Karnali Province 24
than twice as likely to experience physical,
sexual, or emotional violence by their current or Koshi Province 23
most recent husband/intimate partner as women
Sudurpashchim
in Sudurpashchim Province (20%), Bagmati 20
Province
Province (19%), and Gandaki Province (19%)
Gandaki Province 19
(Figure 17.5).
Bagmati Province 19
▪ The percentage of women who have
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence by their current or most recent husband/intimate
partner is highest among those with no education (39%) and lowest among those with more than a
secondary education (5%) (Table 17.11).

Patterns of intimate partner violence by husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s

empowerment indicators

▪ Women whose current or most recent Figure 17.6 Intimate partner violence by
husband/intimate partner is often drunk are more husband’s/intimate partner’s alcohol
likely (78%) to have experienced physical, consumption
sexual, or emotional violence than women Percentage of women who have ever had
whose husband/intimate partner does not drink a husband/intimate partner and have ever
alcohol (19%) or drinks but never gets drunk experienced emotional, physical, or sexual
violence by their husband/intimate partner
(15%) (Figure 17.6 and Table 17.12).
78
▪ Forty-one percent of women whose current or
most recent husband/intimate partner does not
have any education have experienced physical, 35
sexual, or emotional violence, as compared with 19 15
9% of women whose husband/intimate partner
has more than a secondary education (9%).
Does not Drinks/never Gets drunk Gets drunk
▪ Women whose fathers beat their mothers are drink gets drunk sometimes very often
much more likely to have experienced physical,
sexual, or emotional violence than women whose fathers did not beat their mothers (44% versus 23%).

▪ Seventy-two percent of women who are afraid of their husband/intimate partner most of the time
report having experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence, compared with 28% of women who
are sometimes afraid and 15% who are never afraid.

Domestic Violence • 455

 17.5.2 Intimate Partner Violence in the Last 12 Months Perpetrated by a
Husband/Intimate Partner

Intimate partner violence by any partner in the last 12 months

Percentage of women who experienced any of the specified acts of physical,
sexual, or emotional violence committed by a husband/intimate partner in the
12 months preceding the survey.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband or an intimate
partner

Seventeen percent of women who have ever had one or more husbands/intimate partners experienced
physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a husband/intimate partner in the last 12 months; 10%
experienced emotional violence, 12% experienced physical violence, and 4% experienced sexual violence
(Table 17.13).

Trends: The percentage of ever-married women who experienced physical, sexual, or emotional intimate
partner violence by a husband/partner in the last 12 months increased from 14% in 2016 to 17% in 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The percentage of women who experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence in the last 12
months by a husband/partner generally declines from 21% among those age 15–19 to 14% among
those age 40–49 (Table 17.13).

▪ Women in the Muslim (38%), Madhesi (28%), and Dalit (24%) ethnic groups are more likely to have
experienced physical, sexual, or emotional intimate partner violence by any husband/partner in the last
12 months than women in the Janajati and Brahmin/Chhetri groups (12% each).

17.6 INJURIES TO WOMEN DUE TO INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Injuries due to intimate partner violence

Percentage of women who experienced the following types of injuries from
intimate partner violence: cuts, bruises, or aches; eye injuries, sprains,
dislocations, or burns; or deep wounds, broken bones, broken teeth, or any
other serious injury.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who have experienced physical or sexual violence
committed by their current or most recent husband/intimate partner

Fifty-three percent of women age 15–49 who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence by their
current or most recent husband/intimate partner have sustained injuries. The most commonly reported
injuries are cuts, bruises, or aches (51%), followed by eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, or burns (13%)
and deep wounds, broken bones, broken teeth, or any other serious injury (11%) (Table 17.14).

17.7 VIOLENCE INITIATED BY WOMEN AGAINST HUSBANDS/INTIMATE PARTNERS

Initiation of physical violence by women

Percentage of women who have ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything
else to physically hurt their current or most recent husband/intimate partner at
times when he was not already beating or physically hurting them.
Sample: Women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband or an intimate
partner

456 • Domestic Violence

Two percent of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner have ever initiated
physical violence against their current or most recent husband/intimate partner when he was not already
beating or physically hurting them. One percent initiated such violence in the last 12 months (Table
17.15).

Trends: Instances of women initiating physical violence against their spouse are not common in Nepal,
with 3% of ever-married women initiating physical violence against their spouse in 2011 and 2% in 2016
and 2022.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women who have ever experienced intimate partner violence are more likely than women who have
never experienced such violence to have initiated violence against their husband/intimate partner. Six
percent of women who have experienced intimate partner violence also perpetrated such violence
against their husband/intimate partner, as compared with 1% who have never themselves experienced
intimate partner violence (Table 17.15).

▪ Women’s initiation of physical violence against their current or most recent husband/intimate partner
varies with age. Women age 15–19 are more likely to initiate husband/intimate partner violence (4%)
than those age 40–49 (2%).

▪ Women’s initiation of physical violence varies with their current or most recent husband’s/intimate
partner’s alcohol consumption. Only 1% of women whose husbands/intimate partners never drink
alcohol have ever initiated physical violence against their current or most recent husband/intimate
partner, compared with 7% of women whose husbands/intimate partners are often drunk (Table
17.16).

17.8 FORMS OF EMOTIONAL VIOLENCE IN THE HOUSEHOLD

Emotional violence in the household

Percentage of women who have not been given enough food to eat, not been
cared for when ill during pregnancy and the postpartum period, asked to go for
a forced abortion, threatened with divorce by their husband or in-laws, asked to
go for a forced divorce, abused for not bearing a son, abused for using a family
planning method, forced to get married, and forced to seclude during
menstruation.
Sample: Ever-married women age 15–49

The 2022 NDHS asked ever-married women age 15–49 if they had ever experienced any of the specified
acts of emotional violence in their households. Twelve percent of women reported that they were not cared
for when ill during pregnancy, delivery, or the postpartum period; 8% each were forced to get married and
threatened with divorce by their husband or in-laws; 7% were asked to go for a forced divorce; 6% were
not given enough food to eat; 5% each were forced to seclude during menstruation and abused for not
bearing a son; 2% were asked to go for a forced abortion; and 1% were abused for using a family planning
method (Table 17.17).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The specified forms of emotional violence in the household seem to be most common in the Muslim
and Dalit ethnic groups. For instance, Muslim women are most likely to mention being forced to get
married (23%), being threatened with divorce by their husband or in-laws (14%), and being abused for
using a family planning method (6%), while Dalit women are most likely to report not being cared for
when ill during pregnancy, delivery, or the postpartum period (11%) and being asked to go for a
forced divorce (11%) (Table 17.17).

Domestic Violence • 457

 ▪ The proportion of women who reported being forced to get married is highest in Madhesh Province
(20%).

▪ Women with no education or a basic education are more likely to face all of the specified types of
emotional violence in the household than women with more than a secondary education.

17.9 HELP SEEKING AMONG WOMEN WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED VIOLENCE

Overall, only 28% of women age 15–49 who have Figure 17.7 Help seeking by type of
ever experienced physical or sexual violence sought violence experienced
help to stop the violence. Women are more likely to Percentage of women age 15–49 who
seek help when they have experienced both physical have experienced physical or sexual
and sexual violence (45%) than when they have violence and sought help
experienced only sexual violence (36%) or only
physical violence (21%) (Table 17.18 and Figure
17.7).
45
Patterns by background characteristics 36
21
▪ A higher percentage of Brahmin/Chhetri women
(34%) than Dalit and Muslim women (22%
each) have sought help (Table 17.18). Physical violence Sexual violence Physical and
only only sexual violence
▪ Women from the mountain zone are more likely
(41%) to seek help than women from the hill (31%) and terai (26%) zones.

▪ Help-seeking behavior varies greatly by province: 33% of women in Bagmati Province have ever
sought help, as compared with only 16% of women in Sudurpashchim Province.

▪ Divorced, separated, or widowed women are more likely (48%) to seek help than women who are
married or living with a man as if married (27%).

Source for Help

Women who have experienced physical or sexual violence and sought help are most likely to ask for help
from their own family (63%), followed by neighbors (35%), friends (25%), and their husband/intimate
partner’s family (10%). Few women seek help from the police (7%) or social service organizations (1%),
and less than 1% each of women went to a religious leader or lawyer to seek help (Table 17.19).

The proportion of women seeking help from the police increased from 3% in 2016 to 7% in 2022.
However, there has been no improvement in the proportion of women seeking help from social service
organizations.

LIST OF TABLES
For more information on domestic violence, see the following tables:

▪ Table 17.1 Experience of physical violence by any perpetrator

▪ Table 17.2 Persons committing physical violence
▪ Table 17.3 Experience of violence during pregnancy
▪ Table 17.4 Experience of sexual violence by any perpetrator
▪ Table 17.5 Persons committing sexual violence
▪ Table 17.6 Experience of sexual violence by any non-intimate partner
▪ Table 17.7 Age at first experience of sexual violence
▪ Table 17.8 Experience of different forms of violence

458 • Domestic Violence

▪ Table 17.9 Forms of controlling behaviors and intimate partner violence
▪ Table 17.10 Controlling behaviors of husband/intimate partner by background
characteristics
▪ Table 17.11 Intimate partner violence by background characteristics
▪ Table 17.12 Intimate partner violence by husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and
women’s empowerment indicators
▪ Table 17.13 Violence by any husband/intimate partner in the last 12 months
▪ Table 17.14 Injuries to women due to intimate partner violence
▪ Table 17.15 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by women’s
background characteristics
▪ Table 17.16 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by
husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment
indicators
▪ Table 17.17 Forms of emotional violence in the household
▪ Table 17.18 Help seeking to stop violence
▪ Table 17.19 Sources for help to stop the violence

Domestic Violence • 459

 Table 17.1 Experience of physical violence by any perpetrator
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have experienced physical violence by any perpetrator since age 15 and percentage who
experienced physical violence by any perpetrator in the 12 months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics,
Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage who Percentage who experienced physical

have experienced violence in the last 12 months
Background physical violence Often or Number of
characteristic since age 151 Often Sometimes sometimes2 women
Age
15–19 11.5 0.8 8.2 9.1 957
20–24 16.3 1.5 7.6 9.1 921
25–29 24.5 2.5 10.1 13.0 847
30–39 28.3 1.4 10.4 12.4 1,404
40–49 28.5 1.3 7.6 9.1 1,048
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 14.3 0.9 4.7 5.9 1,436
Dalit 30.3 3.2 12.6 16.1 783
Janajati 18.4 1.1 6.1 7.7 1,910
Madhesi 33.3 1.3 15.9 17.3 807
Muslim 42.3 2.7 19.9 22.7 235
Other * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 21.9 1.6 8.7 10.7 3,530
Rural 23.7 1.1 9.2 10.6 1,647
Ecological zone
Mountain 15.6 0.4 4.2 5.0 290
Hill 16.2 1.0 5.3 6.6 2,028
Terai 27.6 1.9 11.9 14.1 2,858
Province
Koshi Province 20.5 1.4 6.8 8.8 877
Urban 20.8 1.9 6.4 8.9 581
Rural 19.9 0.6 7.7 8.6 297
Madhesh Province 36.5 2.6 17.6 20.2 1,042
Urban 34.1 2.9 17.1 20.0 765
Rural 42.9 1.7 19.1 20.9 277
Bagmati Province 17.4 0.4 6.0 6.7 1,037
Urban 17.4 0.4 6.1 6.7 813
Rural 17.4 0.2 5.8 6.7 224
Gandaki Province 15.0 1.4 5.2 6.8 496
Urban 15.8 1.5 5.7 7.4 349
Rural 12.9 1.2 4.0 5.2 147
Lumbini Province 23.4 1.6 8.1 10.2 947
Urban 20.5 1.9 6.9 9.5 555
Rural 27.5 1.3 9.9 11.2 392
Karnali Province 16.7 1.5 5.5 7.4 324
Urban 18.2 1.2 5.9 7.3 182
Rural 14.9 1.9 5.0 7.7 141
Sudurpashchim Province 16.1 1.1 7.1 8.8 455
Urban 16.9 1.2 7.6 9.3 286
Rural 14.9 0.9 6.4 8.0 170
Marital status
Never married 6.6 0.2 4.1 4.5 1,146
Never had intimate partner 6.1 0.2 4.1 4.3 932
Ever had intimate partner 9.0 0.0 4.2 5.2 214
Ever married 27.0 1.8 10.2 12.4 4,031
Married/living together 26.0 1.8 10.6 12.7 3,853
Divorced/separated/
widowed 47.3 2.8 2.2 5.6 178
Education
No education 35.5 2.4 13.2 15.9 1,364
Basic education (1–8) 26.3 1.7 10.1 12.2 1,579
Lower basic education (1–5) 29.7 1.9 10.4 12.7 795
Upper basic education (6–8) 22.9 1.5 9.8 11.6 784
Secondary (9–12) 12.4 0.8 5.6 6.7 2,055
Lower secondary (9–10) 15.4 1.1 7.2 8.8 1,123
Higher secondary (11–12) 8.8 0.4 3.8 4.1 932
More than secondary (13 and
above) 4.3 0.0 1.9 2.2 179
Wealth quintile
Lowest 23.8 1.6 8.4 10.4 955
Second 28.0 3.0 12.6 15.9 960
Middle 25.4 1.8 9.5 11.7 1,048
Fourth 23.1 0.9 9.7 10.8 1,173
Highest 12.5 0.3 4.2 4.7 1,041
Total 22.5 1.5 8.9 10.6 5,177

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes physical violence in the last 12 months. For women who were married or living together before age 15 and reported
violence only by their husband and for never-married women who had an intimate partner before age 15 and reported violence only
by their intimate partner, the violence could have occurred before age 15.
2
Includes women for whom frequency in the last 12 months is not known

460 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.2 Persons committing physical violence
Among women age 15–49 who have experienced physical violence
since age 15, percentage who report specific persons who committed
the violence, by respondent’s partnership status, Nepal DHS 2022
Partnership status
Ever Never
married/ married/
ever had never had
intimate intimate
Person partner partner Total
Current husband/intimate partner 81.2 na 77.2
Former husband/intimate partner 14.0 na 13.3
Current boyfriend 0.0 (0.0) 0.0
Former boyfriend 0.1 (0.0) 0.0
Father/stepfather 1.9 (16.9) 2.6
Mother/stepmother 2.5 (50.6) 4.8
Sister/brother 1.7 (37.1) 3.4
Daughter/son 0.0 (0.0) 0.0
Other relative 4.2 (3.4) 4.2
Mother-in-law 4.6 na 4.4
Father-in-law 1.9 na 1.8
Other in-law 5.2 na 4.9
Teacher 0.0 (6.7) 0.3
Schoolmate/classmate 0.5 (7.0) 0.8
Employer/someone at work 0.4 (0.0) 0.4
Police/soldier 0.1 (0.0) 0.1
Other 0.7 (4.2) 0.9
Number of women who have
experienced physical violence
since age 15 1,106 57 1,163

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living
as if married. Percentages add to more than 100% because women can
report more than one perpetrator. Figures in parentheses are based on
25–49 unweighted cases.
na = Not applicable

Domestic Violence • 461

 Table 17.3 Experience of violence during pregnancy
Among women age 15–49 who have ever been pregnant, percentage who
have ever experienced physical violence during pregnancy, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
who have Number of
experienced women who
Background violence during have ever been
characteristic pregnancy pregnant
Age
15–19 6.9 141
20–24 6.6 553
25–29 7.1 734
30–39 4.9 1,344
40–49 5.8 1,031
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 3.6 1,026
Dalit 7.9 578
Janajati 4.3 1,405
Madhesi 9.3 622
Muslim 14.0 168
Other * 6
Residence
Urban 5.7 2,535
Rural 6.3 1,268
Ecological zone
Mountain 4.5 232
Hill 4.9 1,464
Terai 6.8 2,108
Province
Koshi Province 5.5 633
Urban 4.4 418
Rural 7.6 215
Madhesh Province 10.0 821
Urban 9.4 601
Rural 11.4 220
Bagmati Province 4.5 713
Urban 4.3 535
Rural 5.1 178
Gandaki Province 5.2 359
Urban 5.8 245
Rural 3.9 114
Lumbini Province 4.5 684
Urban 4.2 380
Rural 4.8 304
Karnali Province 4.8 250
Urban 5.2 141
Rural 4.3 109
Sudurpashchim Province 4.1 343
Urban 4.0 215
Rural 4.3 127
Marital status
Never married * 0
Never had intimate partner * 0
Ever had intimate partner * 0
Ever married 5.9 3,804
Married/living together 5.6 3,636
Divorced/separated/widowed 11.8 167
Number of living children
0 5.1 156
1–2 4.3 2,353
3–4 8.2 1,094
5+ 13.0 201
Education
No education 7.3 1,284
Basic education (1–8) 6.6 1,289
Lower basic education (1–5) 8.6 707
Upper basic education (6–8) 4.2 583
Secondary (9–12) 3.9 1,114
Lower secondary (9–10) 4.9 697
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.4 417
More than secondary (13 and above) 1.2 118
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.6 740
Second 7.8 754
Middle 7.0 782
Fourth 3.4 807
Highest 2.6 721
Total 5.9 3,804

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

462 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.4 Experience of sexual violence by any perpetrator
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever experienced sexual violence by any
perpetrator and percentage who experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator in the 12
months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who have experienced
sexual violence by any perpetrator:
Background In the last Number of
characteristic Ever1 12 months women
Age
15–19 3.3 2.0 957
20–24 7.1 2.9 921
25–29 8.6 3.8 847
30–39 8.1 4.4 1,404
40–49 10.0 4.1 1,048
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 6.2 2.3 1,436
Dalit 9.7 4.5 783
Janajati 6.3 3.1 1,910
Madhesi 8.8 4.3 807
Muslim 13.2 9.1 235
Other * * 6
Residence
Urban 7.3 3.4 3,530
Rural 7.8 3.8 1,647
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.0 2.7 290
Hill 7.3 3.0 2,028
Terai 7.7 4.0 2,858
Province
Koshi Province 7.4 3.9 877
Urban 7.5 3.5 581
Rural 7.1 4.6 297
Madhesh Province 10.6 5.5 1,042
Urban 10.2 5.9 765
Rural 11.7 4.5 277
Bagmati Province 6.9 2.9 1,037
Urban 7.0 2.8 813
Rural 6.8 3.0 224
Gandaki Province 6.1 2.3 496
Urban 5.5 1.7 349
Rural 7.5 3.7 147
Lumbini Province 6.3 2.4 947
Urban 5.9 2.1 555
Rural 6.9 2.8 392
Karnali Province 9.5 4.5 324
Urban 8.7 3.6 182
Rural 10.5 5.8 141
Sudurpashchim Province 4.4 3.0 455
Urban 4.4 2.8 286
Rural 4.5 3.3 170
Marital status
Never married 2.4 0.2 1,146
Never had intimate partner 1.3 0.0 932
Ever had intimate partner 7.2 0.9 214
Ever married 8.9 4.5 4,031
Married/living together 8.4 4.6 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 19.8 2.3 178
Employment
Employed for cash 8.9 3.9 1,813
Employed not for cash 7.5 3.8 1,930
Not employed 5.7 2.8 1,434
Education
No education 10.7 4.9 1,364
Basic education (1–8) 8.8 5.1 1,579
Lower basic education (1–5) 10.3 5.8 795
Upper basic education (6–8) 7.3 4.5 784
Secondary (9–12) 4.8 1.8 2,055
Lower secondary (9–10) 5.1 1.9 1,123
Higher secondary (11–12) 4.5 1.7 932
More than secondary (13 and above) 2.5 0.0 179
Wealth quintile
Lowest 9.0 4.5 955
Second 10.2 5.2 960
Middle 7.1 3.6 1,048
Fourth 6.7 3.4 1,173
Highest 4.9 1.3 1,041
Total 7.5 3.5 5,177

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
Includes experience of sexual violence in the last 12 months

Domestic Violence • 463

 Table 17.5 Persons committing sexual violence
Among women age 15–49 who have experienced sexual violence, percentage who
report specific persons committed the violence, by respondent’s partnership status,
Nepal DHS 2022
Partnership status
Ever Never
married/ married/
ever had never had
intimate intimate
Person partner partner Total
Current husband/intimate partner 82.1 na 79.6
Former husband/intimate partner 10.7 na 10.4
Current/former boyfriend 1.0 * 1.0
Father/stepfather 0.6 * 1.8
Brother/stepbrother 0.5 * 0.5
Other relative 2.3 * 3.3
In-law 0.3 na 0.3
Own friend/acquaintance 3.8 * 5.2
Family friend 1.4 * 1.3
Teacher 2.3 * 2.3
Schoolmate/classmate 1.4 * 1.8
Employer/someone at work 1.2 * 1.2
Police/soldier 0.3 * 0.3
Priest/religious leader 0.1 * 0.1
Stranger 3.5 * 3.8
Other 0.3 * 0.3
Number of women who have experienced
sexual violence 376 12 388

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if
married. Percentages add to more than 100% because women can report more than
one perpetrator. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
na = Not applicable

464 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.6 Experience of sexual violence by any non-intimate partner
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever experienced sexual violence by
someone who is not a husband/intimate partner and percentage who experienced
sexual violence by someone who is not a husband/intimate partner in the 12 months
preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage who have
experienced sexual violence
by someone other than a
husband/intimate partner
Background In the last Number of
characteristic Ever1 12 months women
Age
15–19 1.6 0.0 957
20–24 2.3 0.0 921
25–29 2.0 0.1 847
30–39 0.9 0.2 1,404
40–49 1.0 0.0 1,048
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.4 0.0 1,436
Dalit 1.9 0.1 783
Janajati 1.4 0.1 1,910
Madhesi 0.9 0.0 807
Muslim 3.0 0.0 235
Other * * 6
Residence
Urban 1.4 0.1 3,530
Rural 1.6 0.1 1,647
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.2 0.0 290
Hill 1.8 0.0 2,028
Terai 1.3 0.1 2,858
Province
Koshi Province 1.2 0.0 877
Urban 1.0 0.0 581
Rural 1.4 0.0 297
Madhesh Province 1.8 0.0 1,042
Urban 1.1 0.0 765
Rural 3.5 0.0 277
Bagmati Province 2.1 0.0 1,037
Urban 2.2 0.0 813
Rural 1.9 0.0 224
Gandaki Province 1.6 0.1 496
Urban 1.8 0.0 349
Rural 1.0 0.2 147
Lumbini Province 1.2 0.2 947
Urban 1.3 0.3 555
Rural 1.1 0.0 392
Karnali Province 0.9 0.0 324
Urban 0.5 0.0 182
Rural 1.4 0.0 141
Sudurpashchim Province 0.7 0.3 455
Urban 0.8 0.2 286
Rural 0.5 0.5 170
Marital status
Never married 1.9 0.0 1,146
Never had intimate partner 1.3 0.0 932
Ever had intimate partner 4.9 0.0 214
Ever married 1.3 0.1 4,031
Married/living together 1.3 0.1 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 0.8 0.2 178
Education
No education 0.7 0.1 1,364
Basic education (1–8) 1.7 0.1 1,579
Lower basic education (1–5) 1.7 0.1 795
Upper basic education (6–8) 1.7 0.1 784
Secondary (9–12) 1.8 0.0 2,055
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.4 0.0 1,123
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.3 0.0 932
More than secondary (13 and above) 1.1 0.0 179
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.1 0.0 955
Second 1.5 0.2 960
Middle 0.7 0.1 1,048
Fourth 2.2 0.0 1,173
Highest 1.6 0.0 1,041
Total 1.5 0.1 5,177

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married.
An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.
1
Includes experience of violence in the last 12 months

Domestic Violence • 465

 Table 17.7 Age at first experience of sexual violence
Percentage of women age 15–49 who experienced sexual violence by specific exact ages, according to current age and type of perpetrator,
Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
who have not
Background Percentage who first experienced sexual violence by exact age: experienced Number of
characteristic 10 12 15 18 22 sexual violence women
Age
15–19 0.4 0.4 1.0 na na 96.7 957
20–24 0.6 0.6 1.6 4.7 na 92.9 921
25–29 0.1 0.3 1.4 3.3 5.9 91.4 847
30–39 0.1 0.1 0.6 2.7 4.8 91.9 1,404
40–49 0.0 0.2 0.8 2.5 4.8 90.0 1,048
18–29 0.4 0.4 1.5 4.0 na 92.9 2,190
Total 0.2 0.3 1.0 3.2 5.0 92.5 5,177
Type of perpetrator
Any husband/intimate
partner1 0.0 0.1 0.6 2.6 5.0 91.1 4,245
Any non-intimate
partner2 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.2 98.3 5,177

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married.
na = Not applicable
1
Includes only ever-married women and never-married women who have ever had an intimate partner
2
Includes all women

Table 17.8 Experience of different forms of violence

Percentage of women age 15–49 who have experienced various forms of
violence by current age, Nepal DHS 2022
Physical Sexual Physical Physical or
violence violence and sexual sexual Number of
Age only only violence violence women
15–19 9.4 1.2 2.1 12.6 957
15–17 8.3 1.0 1.6 11.0 535
18–19 10.7 1.4 2.7 14.8 422
20–24 10.9 1.8 5.3 18.0 921
25–29 17.5 1.6 7.0 26.0 847
30–39 21.2 1.1 7.1 29.3 1,404
40–49 19.7 1.1 8.8 29.6 1,048
Total 16.3 1.3 6.2 23.8 5,177

466 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.9 Forms of controlling behaviors and intimate partner violence
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and have experienced controlling
behaviors and various forms of intimate partner violence ever or in the 12 months preceding the survey perpetrated by a
husband/intimate partner, Nepal DHS 2022
Experienced in
Ever the last Frequency in the last 12 months
Type of violence experienced experienced 12 months Often Sometimes
Controlling behavior
Any controlling behavior 35.1 28.7 7.9 20.8
Is jealous or angry if she talks to other men 23.9 17.1 3.6 13.5
Wrongly accuses her of being unfaithful 8.0 5.5 1.5 4.1
Does not permit her to meet her female friends 5.6 4.1 1.3 2.8
Tries to limit her contact with her family 5.0 3.6 0.7 2.9
Insists on knowing where she is at all times 20.9 18.5 5.5 13.1
Physical violence
Any physical violence 23.1 11.2 1.7 9.6
Pushed her, shook her, or threw something at her 12.4 5.9 0.8 5.1
Slapped her 20.7 9.2 1.1 8.1
Twisted her arm or pulled her hair 10.7 4.4 0.7 3.7
Punched her with his fist or with something that
could hurt her 9.0 3.1 0.4 2.7
Kicked her, dragged her, or beat her up 10.5 4.0 0.5 3.5
Tried to choke her or burn her on purpose 2.9 1.5 0.2 1.2
Attacked her with a knife, gun, or other weapon 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.4
Sexual violence
Any sexual violence 7.3 4.1 0.7 3.4
Physically forced her to have sexual intercourse
with him when she did not want to 6.9 3.7 0.6 3.1
Physically forced her to perform any other sexual
acts she did not want to 3.0 1.4 0.2 1.2
Forced her with threats or in any other way to
perform sexual acts she did not want to 2.1 1.0 0.3 0.8
Emotional violence
Any emotional violence 13.4 10.1 1.8 8.2
Said or did something to humiliate her in front of
others 7.3 5.0 0.9 4.0
Threatened to hurt or harm her or someone she
cared about 4.4 3.4 0.5 2.8
Insulted her or made her feel bad about herself 10.2 7.7 1.3 6.4
At least three forms of controlling behaviors 7.6 6.2 3.8 2.4
Any form of physical and/or sexual violence 24.0 12.4 2.0 10.5
Any form of emotional and/or physical and/or sexual
violence 27.3 16.9 3.0 13.9
Intimate partner violence perpetrated by any
current or previous husband/intimate partner
Physical violence 24.1 11.6 na na
Sexual violence 7.9 4.3 na na
Emotional violence 14.3 10.4 na na
Any form of physical or sexual violence 25.1 12.9 na na
Any form of emotional or physical or sexual violence 28.3 17.2 na na
Number of ever-married or never-married women who
ever had an intimate partner 4,245 4,245 4,245 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Husband/intimate partner refers to
the current husband for currently married women; the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women;
the current intimate partner for never-married women who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate
partner for never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past.
na = Not available

Domestic Violence • 467

 Table 17.10 Controlling behaviors of husband/intimate partner by background characteristics
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner, percentage whose husband/intimate partner has ever demonstrated specific types
of controlling behaviors, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Number of
Percentage of women whose husband/intimate partner: women who
Is jealous or Wrongly Does not Tries to limit Insists on Displays 3 or ever had a
angry if she accuses her permit her to her contact knowing more of the Displays none husband/
Background talks to of being meet her with her where she is specific of the specific intimate
characteristic other men unfaithful female friends family at all times behaviors behaviors partner
Age
15–19 37.6 7.0 9.5 4.8 29.7 8.9 48.9 295
20–24 29.0 8.8 6.5 5.6 25.9 8.4 57.7 716
25–29 26.1 8.5 6.1 6.2 25.4 8.8 62.0 804
30–39 21.4 7.9 4.5 4.2 18.2 6.7 67.4 1,388
40–49 18.1 7.5 4.8 4.8 15.1 6.9 73.3 1,042
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 17.2 6.2 3.7 4.5 14.9 5.3 73.9 1,143
Dalit 30.6 12.0 8.6 5.5 27.4 11.1 55.8 660
Janajati 20.6 7.3 5.2 4.2 21.8 6.6 66.4 1,601
Madhesi 32.9 8.5 6.3 7.5 19.7 9.8 59.0 659
Muslim 38.5 9.9 7.1 3.8 32.7 10.0 48.1 176
Other * * * * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 24.6 8.1 5.9 5.1 21.4 8.1 64.4 2,860
Rural 22.4 7.9 5.0 4.7 19.9 6.5 65.9 1,384
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.9 4.8 3.7 6.5 13.6 3.8 74.4 244
Hill 20.0 8.0 5.3 4.7 18.2 6.6 69.6 1,673
Terai 28.0 8.3 6.0 5.0 23.6 8.7 60.6 2,328
Province
Koshi Province 23.2 7.1 4.9 7.0 24.6 7.0 62.1 728
Urban 23.1 6.6 5.6 7.5 25.1 7.1 62.2 486
Rural 23.5 8.0 3.7 6.2 23.7 6.8 61.9 242
Madhesh Province 36.6 9.5 7.1 5.3 24.2 10.2 54.2 871
Urban 34.7 8.9 6.4 5.5 23.1 10.3 56.3 638
Rural 41.7 11.1 9.0 4.6 27.0 10.0 48.7 233
Bagmati Province 16.6 8.2 5.2 4.1 19.7 7.4 71.7 837
Urban 17.9 8.9 6.1 4.4 20.5 8.7 71.4 639
Rural 12.3 6.3 2.1 3.0 17.1 3.1 72.5 198
Gandaki Province 22.3 7.3 2.9 3.3 16.7 5.3 69.7 417
Urban 24.9 7.2 2.9 2.8 15.6 5.0 68.4 290
Rural 16.2 7.7 2.9 4.4 19.4 6.0 72.7 127
Lumbini Province 23.8 8.8 7.7 5.7 21.8 8.6 62.6 753
Urban 24.1 8.1 8.8 5.6 23.0 9.0 61.4 423
Rural 23.5 9.7 6.2 5.8 20.4 8.1 64.1 331
Karnali Province 23.5 7.4 4.7 5.5 16.7 6.0 67.0 272
Urban 28.1 9.4 5.5 6.8 19.4 6.8 61.6 157
Rural 17.3 4.5 3.6 3.8 13.0 5.0 74.4 115
Sudurpashchim Province 14.1 5.4 3.4 2.4 14.6 4.4 78.0 367
Urban 16.8 6.5 2.7 2.1 17.1 5.2 75.2 229
Rural 9.5 3.7 4.6 2.8 10.4 3.2 82.7 138
Marital status
Never married 43.8 12.3 7.2 2.0 44.5 13.4 39.4 214
Never had intimate partner 44.5 9.6 7.8 2.6 43.2 11.2 38.5 165
Ever had intimate partner (41.6) (21.8) (5.3) (0.0) (48.9) (20.8) (42.6) 49
Ever married 22.8 7.8 5.5 5.2 19.7 7.3 66.3 4,031
Married/living together 22.4 7.0 4.9 4.7 19.5 6.8 66.8 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 32.0 24.7 18.2 14.3 23.8 17.4 54.2 178
Education
No education 25.0 9.4 6.1 5.5 19.3 9.1 65.5 1,315
Basic education (1–8) 25.2 8.6 7.2 6.1 20.7 8.6 62.7 1,371
Lower basic education (1–5) 23.0 9.0 8.0 6.2 19.0 8.4 64.6 730
Upper basic education (6–8) 27.6 8.2 6.2 6.0 22.5 8.9 60.6 641
Secondary (9–12) 23.1 6.8 4.0 3.6 23.6 5.7 64.7 1,400
Lower secondary (9–10) 24.2 7.3 4.4 3.9 23.7 6.1 64.0 825
Higher secondary (11–12) 21.5 6.0 3.5 3.3 23.5 5.1 65.7 575
More than secondary (13 and above) 10.5 1.8 1.6 3.5 12.6 2.8 81.1 158
Wealth quintile
Lowest 20.9 8.4 6.9 7.9 18.1 7.8 66.3 792
Second 27.7 11.0 6.0 4.7 22.4 8.9 61.5 813
Middle 28.5 8.6 6.1 6.1 22.0 8.3 59.5 881
Fourth 25.0 6.6 4.7 4.0 22.5 6.7 64.6 924
Highest 16.9 5.7 4.4 2.6 19.3 6.3 72.9 836

(Continued…)

468 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.10—Continued
Number of
Percentage of women whose husband/intimate partner: women who
Is jealous or Wrongly Does not Tries to limit Insists on Displays 3 or ever had a
angry if she accuses her permit her to her contact knowing more of the Displays none husband/
Background talks to of being meet her with her where she is specific of the specific intimate
characteristic other men unfaithful female friends family at all times behaviors behaviors partner
Woman afraid of husband/intimate
partner
Afraid most of the time 58.3 29.2 22.9 19.2 46.2 29.6 26.2 500
Sometimes afraid 26.3 7.5 4.4 4.5 22.0 7.1 62.3 1,854
Never afraid 12.4 2.9 2.1 1.7 13.1 2.2 77.7 1,890
Total 23.9 8.0 5.6 5.0 20.9 7.6 64.9 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Husband/intimate partner refers to the current husband for currently married
women; the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate partner for never-married women who currently have an intimate
partner; and the most recent intimate partner for never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Domestic Violence • 469

 Table 17.11 Intimate partner violence by background characteristics
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and have ever experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence
committed by their current or most recent husband/intimate partner, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women who
have ever
Physical and Physical or had a
Physical and sexual and Physical or sexual or husband/
Background Emotional Physical Sexual sexual emotional sexual emotional intimate
characteristic violence violence violence violence violence violence violence partner
Age
15–19 11.2 15.4 5.9 5.5 3.7 15.8 21.7 295
20–24 12.1 17.1 6.2 5.2 3.6 18.1 22.7 716
25–29 12.3 23.2 7.6 6.5 4.6 24.4 26.3 804
30–39 14.2 25.6 6.9 6.1 3.9 26.4 29.7 1,388
40–49 14.7 26.2 8.7 7.9 5.2 26.9 29.5 1,042
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 9.7 14.8 5.3 4.5 3.3 15.7 18.0 1,143
Dalit 17.3 31.7 9.0 8.1 5.7 32.6 35.7 660
Janajati 9.1 17.8 5.8 4.9 3.2 18.7 21.0 1,601
Madhesi 22.9 35.1 10.2 9.1 5.8 36.2 42.9 659
Muslim 27.3 48.8 16.2 16.2 9.2 48.8 55.0 176
Other * * * * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 13.5 23.1 7.3 6.6 4.4 23.8 27.1 2,860
Rural 13.2 23.2 7.3 6.0 4.0 24.5 27.7 1,384
Ecological zone
Mountain 10.0 14.7 6.4 4.6 2.8 16.5 19.3 244
Hill 10.6 16.3 6.6 5.5 4.4 17.3 19.8 1,673
Terai 15.8 28.9 7.9 7.2 4.3 29.6 33.5 2,328
Province
Koshi Province 9.9 20.2 6.9 6.3 4.1 20.8 23.0 728
Urban 9.9 20.4 6.7 6.2 3.8 20.9 23.1 486
Rural 10.1 19.6 7.4 6.5 4.5 20.5 22.9 242
Madhesh Province 24.8 39.0 11.6 11.1 7.4 39.6 45.8 871
Urban 23.6 37.6 12.0 11.7 7.7 37.9 43.9 638
Rural 28.1 42.8 10.6 9.4 6.5 44.0 50.8 233
Bagmati Province 9.7 16.2 6.1 5.3 4.1 17.0 19.0 837
Urban 10.2 17.1 6.3 5.7 4.2 17.6 19.6 639
Rural 8.2 13.5 5.4 4.1 3.4 14.8 17.2 198
Gandaki Province 9.3 15.3 5.2 4.2 3.2 16.3 19.1 417
Urban 9.7 16.3 4.1 3.7 3.0 16.8 20.8 290
Rural 8.4 12.9 7.7 5.6 3.6 15.1 15.4 127
Lumbini Province 13.2 24.6 6.0 5.2 3.2 25.4 28.6 753
Urban 12.3 22.0 5.7 4.7 2.9 23.1 25.8 423
Rural 14.3 27.9 6.4 6.0 3.6 28.3 32.2 331
Karnali Province 12.7 17.4 8.7 6.4 3.4 19.7 23.7 272
Urban 15.9 19.5 8.3 6.7 3.6 21.1 25.5 157
Rural 8.4 14.5 9.2 6.0 3.1 17.7 21.3 115
Sudurpashchim Province 7.3 17.2 4.3 2.9 2.0 18.6 19.9 367
Urban 7.7 18.3 4.3 3.2 1.8 19.3 21.1 229
Rural 6.6 15.5 4.3 2.4 2.4 17.4 17.9 138
Marital status
Never married 8.0 2.4 2.2 1.3 1.3 3.3 9.2 214
Currently has intimate partner 3.2 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 4.7 165
Had intimate partner (24.3) (5.6) (9.7) (5.6) (5.6) (9.7) (24.3) 49
Ever married 13.7 24.2 7.5 6.7 4.4 25.1 28.2 4,031
Currently married/living together 12.8 23.2 7.1 6.2 3.9 24.1 27.2 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 33.9 46.0 18.0 18.0 15.4 46.0 51.3 178
Employment
Employed for cash 12.9 24.6 8.0 7.2 4.5 25.4 28.2 1,583
Employed not for cash 13.9 22.5 7.2 6.1 4.2 23.7 26.9 1,663
Not employed 13.3 21.7 6.2 5.7 4.1 22.3 26.4 999
Education
No education 18.8 34.0 9.9 9.0 5.7 34.9 39.2 1,315
Basic education (1–8) 12.8 24.6 8.7 7.5 5.2 25.8 28.3 1,371
Lower basic education (1–5) 14.5 26.8 9.8 9.1 6.3 27.6 29.9 730
Upper basic education (6–8) 10.9 22.1 7.5 5.7 3.8 23.9 26.4 641
Secondary (9–12) 10.1 13.5 4.2 3.6 2.5 14.1 17.6 1,400
Lower secondary (9–10) 10.5 15.8 4.3 3.8 2.6 16.4 19.2 825
Higher secondary (11–12) 9.6 10.2 4.1 3.4 2.4 10.9 15.3 575
More than secondary (13 and above) 3.1 4.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 4.7 5.2 158
Wealth quintile
Lowest 12.6 23.4 9.5 7.5 5.4 25.5 27.6 792
Second 16.8 30.1 10.4 9.4 5.5 31.1 34.5 813
Middle 15.7 25.2 6.8 6.4 4.6 25.7 30.7 881
Fourth 13.6 23.7 5.8 5.1 3.4 24.4 27.3 924
Highest 8.2 13.3 4.2 4.0 2.7 13.5 16.2 836
Total 13.4 23.1 7.3 6.4 4.3 24.0 27.3 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Husband/intimate partner refers to the current husband for
currently married women; the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate partner for never-married women
who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner but
had one in the past. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25
unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

470 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.12 Intimate partner violence by husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment indicators
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and have ever experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence
committed by their current or most recent husband/intimate partner, according to the husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s
empowerment indicators, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women who
have ever
Physical and Physical or had a
Physical and sexual and Physical or sexual or husband/
Background Emotional Physical Sexual sexual emotional sexual emotional intimate
characteristic violence violence violence violence violence violence violence partner
Husband’s/intimate partner’s
alcohol consumption
Does not drink alcohol 8.6 15.8 4.0 3.4 1.9 16.4 19.2 2,069
Drinks alcohol but is never drunk 5.7 10.9 2.6 1.7 1.0 11.8 14.8 675
Is sometimes drunk 17.6 29.9 9.0 8.0 5.1 31.0 35.4 1,199
Is often drunk 47.3 73.9 33.3 31.8 24.9 75.4 77.9 301
Husband’s education1
No education 21.5 34.5 11.8 11.0 6.8 35.4 41.2 561
Basic education (1–8) 13.3 27.5 8.8 7.6 4.6 28.7 31.1 1,539
Lower basic education (1–5) 14.2 29.8 10.1 8.5 5.0 31.4 34.0 753
Upper basic education (6–8) 12.4 25.3 7.6 6.8 4.3 26.0 28.3 786
Secondary (9–12) 9.5 16.3 3.9 3.1 2.1 17.0 19.8 1,447
Lower secondary (9–10) 10.7 18.0 4.1 3.4 2.7 18.7 21.4 937
Higher secondary (11–12) 7.3 13.0 3.5 2.7 1.0 13.8 16.8 509
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.6 7.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 7.1 8.9 257
Spousal education difference1
Husband better educated 11.8 23.5 6.6 5.8 3.6 24.4 26.9 1,989
Wife better educated 12.5 20.9 7.8 6.6 4.2 22.2 25.0 852
Both equally educated 7.9 13.4 2.9 2.5 1.8 13.8 17.2 516
Neither educated 20.6 34.7 11.0 10.0 5.9 35.7 41.0 446
Spousal age difference1
Wife older 9.8 18.0 6.9 5.5 3.9 19.4 21.7 298
Wife is same age 8.1 19.5 5.7 4.2 2.6 21.0 22.1 287
Wife 1–4 years younger 12.7 22.6 6.7 5.7 3.5 23.6 27.1 1,766
Wife 5–9 years younger 13.2 25.5 6.7 6.1 3.7 26.1 28.9 1,118
Wife 10 or more years younger 17.5 26.4 11.0 10.5 7.9 26.9 30.2 385
Number of decisions in which
women participate2
0 20.3 27.3 10.0 9.3 7.7 28.0 34.2 627
1–2 10.4 21.0 6.5 5.5 3.0 22.1 24.7 1,428
3+ 12.0 23.5 6.5 5.6 3.3 24.4 26.7 1,798
Number of controlling behaviors
displayed by husband/intimate
partner3
0 4.3 12.4 1.8 1.4 0.5 12.8 14.5 2,755
1–2 21.9 35.6 11.4 10.4 6.7 36.7 42.1 1,168
3–4 56.3 67.1 36.0 31.9 23.8 71.2 80.4 275
5 85.6 84.6 57.0 54.9 48.9 86.7 95.7 47
Number of reasons for which wife
beating is justified4
0 13.2 21.6 6.9 6.1 4.1 22.4 26.0 3,433
1 14.0 28.7 8.9 7.7 5.1 29.9 32.1 710
2 14.3 33.6 7.0 7.0 5.0 33.6 35.1 90
3 * * * * * * * 12
Woman’s father beat mother
Yes 22.3 38.6 14.1 12.5 8.2 40.3 43.6 732
No 11.3 19.4 5.7 5.0 3.4 20.1 23.3 3,408
Don’t know 20.9 36.8 11.3 10.9 6.8 37.2 42.0 105
Woman afraid of husband/intimate
partner
Afraid most of the time 46.7 65.3 27.9 27.0 20.9 66.1 71.8 500
Sometimes afraid 12.0 23.6 7.1 6.0 3.1 24.7 28.2 1,854
Never afraid 5.9 11.5 2.0 1.4 1.0 12.1 14.5 1,890
Total 13.4 23.1 7.3 6.4 4.3 24.0 27.3 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Husband/intimate partner refers to the current husband for
currently married women; the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate partner for never-married women
who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner
but had one in the past. Total includes 49 women who do not know about their husband’s education. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on
fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes only currently married women
2
According to the wife’s report. Includes only currently married women. See Table 15.8.1 for list of decisions.
3
According to the woman’s report. See Table 17.9 for list of behaviors.
4
According to the woman’s report. See Table 15.9.1 for list of reasons.

Domestic Violence • 471

 Table 17.13 Violence by any husband/intimate partner in the last 12 months
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence by any
husband/intimate partner in the last 12 months, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women who
have ever
Physical and Physical or had a
Physical and sexual and Physical or sexual or husband/
Background Emotional Physical Sexual sexual emotional sexual emotional intimate
characteristic violence violence violence violence violence violence violence partner
Age
15–19 11.1 14.4 6.6 5.6 3.5 15.4 21.4 295
20–24 11.6 11.5 3.7 2.7 2.4 12.5 18.2 716
25–29 9.5 13.2 3.9 2.8 1.9 14.4 17.3 804
30–39 11.0 12.2 4.4 3.0 1.8 13.6 18.0 1,388
40–49 9.3 8.9 4.1 2.8 1.7 10.2 14.4 1,042
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 6.9 6.9 2.9 1.5 1.1 8.3 11.5 1,143
Dalit 13.1 17.3 5.4 4.3 3.0 18.4 23.5 660
Janajati 6.8 8.5 3.5 2.2 1.5 9.8 12.0 1,601
Madhesi 19.2 17.8 5.3 4.4 3.1 18.7 27.9 659
Muslim 23.4 26.8 12.1 10.3 5.9 28.6 38.2 176
Other * * * * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 10.2 11.9 4.2 3.1 2.0 13.0 17.2 2,860
Rural 10.8 11.0 4.5 2.9 2.0 12.6 17.3 1,384
Ecological zone
Mountain 7.7 5.2 3.2 1.1 0.4 7.3 11.9 244
Hill 6.9 7.3 3.7 2.2 1.8 8.8 11.6 1,673
Terai 13.2 15.4 4.8 3.8 2.4 16.4 21.8 2,328
Province
Koshi Province 8.3 9.3 4.7 3.2 1.8 10.7 14.4 728
Urban 8.3 9.3 4.2 2.8 1.7 10.7 14.5 486
Rural 8.2 9.2 5.6 3.9 2.0 10.8 14.1 242
Madhesh Province 20.9 21.5 6.6 5.6 4.1 22.5 31.8 871
Urban 20.1 22.0 7.1 6.3 4.4 22.7 30.9 638
Rural 23.1 20.1 5.4 3.7 3.3 21.7 34.5 233
Bagmati Province 5.7 6.8 3.6 2.1 1.6 8.2 9.8 837
Urban 5.5 6.9 3.6 2.2 1.6 8.3 9.8 639
Rural 6.4 6.5 3.4 1.7 1.7 8.2 10.1 198
Gandaki Province 6.8 7.6 2.6 1.6 1.2 8.6 11.7 417
Urban 7.1 8.4 2.1 1.3 1.1 9.1 13.0 290
Rural 6.2 5.7 4.0 2.1 1.6 7.6 8.8 127
Lumbini Province 9.4 11.9 2.9 2.3 1.4 12.5 15.9 753
Urban 8.1 11.7 2.6 2.0 1.2 12.2 14.6 423
Rural 11.2 12.2 3.3 2.7 1.7 12.8 17.5 331
Karnali Province 11.6 8.6 5.4 3.2 2.0 10.8 16.5 272
Urban 13.6 8.4 4.2 2.3 1.6 10.3 17.1 157
Rural 8.8 8.9 7.1 4.6 2.5 11.4 15.7 115
Sudurpashchim Province 5.8 10.3 3.3 1.5 0.6 12.1 14.6 367
Urban 5.8 10.9 3.2 1.7 0.2 12.4 15.4 229
Rural 5.8 9.4 3.4 1.3 1.3 11.5 13.3 138
Marital status
Never married 5.8 2.1 0.9 0.0 0.0 3.0 7.8 214
Never had intimate partner 3.2 1.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 2.6 5.8 165
Ever had intimate partner (14.6) (4.4) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (4.4) (14.6) 49
Ever married 10.7 12.1 4.4 3.2 2.1 13.4 17.7 4,031
Married/living together 10.9 12.5 4.6 3.2 2.1 13.8 18.3 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 4.5 4.4 2.1 2.1 2.1 4.4 5.1 178
Education
No education 13.9 15.8 4.9 3.6 2.4 17.1 23.3 1,315
Basic education (1–8) 10.9 12.2 5.8 4.3 3.1 13.8 17.9 1,371
Lower basic education (1–5) 12.5 12.6 6.3 5.1 3.7 13.7 18.4 730
Upper basic education (6–8) 9.1 11.9 5.4 3.4 2.4 13.9 17.4 641
Secondary (9–12) 7.6 8.1 2.6 1.6 0.9 9.2 12.5 1,400
Lower secondary (9–10) 8.0 10.1 2.5 1.7 1.2 10.9 14.0 825
Higher secondary (11–12) 7.0 5.3 2.7 1.4 0.6 6.6 10.4 575
More than secondary (13 and above) 1.9 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 2.4 158
Wealth quintile
Lowest 10.0 11.2 5.4 3.2 2.4 13.5 17.5 792
Second 13.3 17.4 6.0 5.0 3.2 18.3 23.5 813
Middle 12.3 12.1 4.2 3.2 2.4 13.0 19.3 881
Fourth 11.1 12.1 4.3 3.2 2.0 13.2 16.8 924
Highest 5.3 5.4 1.6 0.6 0.3 6.4 9.1 836
Total 10.4 11.6 4.3 3.0 2.0 12.9 17.2 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Any husband/intimate partner includes all current, most recent, and
former husbands for ever-married women and all current, most recent, or former intimate partners for never-married women. Figures in parentheses are
based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

472 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.14 Injuries to women due to intimate partner violence
Among women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and have experienced violence committed by their current
or most recent husband/intimate partner, percentage who have been injured as a result of the violence, by types of injuries, according
to type of violence, Nepal DHS 2022
Deep wounds, Number of women
Eye injuries, broken bones, who have
sprains, broken teeth, or experienced
Cuts, bruises, dislocations, any other serious Any of these specified type
Type of violence experienced or aches or burns injury injuries of violence
Physical violence1
Ever2 52.4 13.9 11.7 54.4 982
Last 12 months 51.7 15.4 11.1 54.1 477
Sexual violence
Ever2 60.5 23.1 18.1 63.8 309
Last 12 months 54.9 20.3 13.4 57.7 172
Physical or sexual violence1
Ever2 50.6 13.4 11.2 52.6 1,018
Last 12 months 49.6 14.7 10.7 51.8 527

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married. Husband/intimate partner refers to the current
husband for currently married women; the most recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate
partner for never-married women who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for never-married
women who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past.
1
Excludes women who reported violence only in response to a direct question on violence during pregnancy
2
Includes in the last 12 months

Domestic Violence • 473

 Table 17.15 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by women’s
background characteristics
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband or intimate partner and have
committed physical violence against their current or most recent husband/intimate partner when he
was not already beating or physically hurting them, ever and in the last 12 months, according to
women’s own experience of intimate partner violence and background characteristics, Nepal DHS
2022
Number of women
Percentage who have committed who have ever
physical violence against their had a
Background husband/intimate partner husband/intimate
characteristic Ever1 Last 12 months partner
Women’s experience of physical
intimate partner violence
Ever1 5.9 3.6 982
In the last 12 months 6.9 6.0 477
Never 1.1 0.6 3,263
Age
15–19 4.3 4.2 295
20–24 1.8 1.3 716
25–29 2.1 1.4 804
30–39 2.4 1.1 1,388
40–49 1.6 0.7 1,042
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.4 1.0 1,143
Dalit 3.6 2.2 660
Janajati 3.1 1.5 1,601
Madhesi 0.1 0.1 659
Muslim 2.3 2.3 176
Other * * 6
Residence
Urban 2.2 1.3 2,860
Rural 2.2 1.4 1,384
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.0 0.4 244
Hill 3.5 1.9 1,673
Terai 1.4 1.0 2,328
Province
Koshi Province 2.0 0.9 728
Urban 2.7 1.0 486
Rural 0.7 0.7 242
Madhesh Province 1.0 0.9 871
Urban 0.7 0.7 638
Rural 1.6 1.2 233
Bagmati Province 2.2 1.6 837
Urban 1.8 1.5 639
Rural 3.6 1.8 198
Gandaki Province 4.0 1.4 417
Urban 5.0 1.7 290
Rural 1.8 0.8 127
Lumbini Province 2.7 1.3 753
Urban 2.3 0.9 423
Rural 3.2 1.8 331
Karnali Province 4.1 3.1 272
Urban 5.2 4.3 157
Rural 2.5 1.5 115
Sudurpashchim Province 1.3 1.0 367
Urban 0.9 0.7 229
Rural 1.9 1.6 138
Marital status
Never married 3.6 1.8 214
Never had intimate partner 2.6 1.9 165
Ever had intimate partner (7.0) (1.4) 49
Ever married 2.1 1.3 4,031
Married/living together 2.1 1.3 3,853
Divorced/separated/widowed 3.2 0.9 178
Employment
Employed for cash 2.7 1.3 1,583
Employed not for cash 1.6 0.8 1,663
Not employed 2.5 2.0 999
Education
No education 1.6 0.7 1,315
Basic education (1–8) 2.9 1.7 1,371
Lower basic education (1–5) 3.0 1.5 730
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.7 1.9 641
Secondary (9–12) 2.4 1.7 1,400
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.2 1.3 825
Higher secondary (11–12) 2.7 2.2 575
More than secondary (13 and above) 0.0 0.0 158

(Continued…)

474 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.15—Continued
Percentage who have committed Number of women
physical violence against their who have ever
husband/intimate partner had a
Background husband/intimate
characteristic Ever1 Last 12 months partner
Wealth quintile
Lowest 3.0 1.5 792
Second 2.1 1.2 813
Middle 1.6 0.9 881
Fourth 3.2 2.1 924
Highest 1.2 0.7 836
Total 2.2 1.3 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married.
Husband/intimate partner refers to the current husband for currently married women; the most
recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate partner for never-
married women who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for
never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure
is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes in the last 12 months

Domestic Violence • 475

 Table 17.16 Violence by women against their husband/intimate partner by
husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment indicators
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever had a husband/intimate partner and have
committed physical violence against their current or most recent husband/intimate partner when
he was not already beating or physically hurting them, ever and in the last 12 months, according
to their husband’s/intimate partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment indicators, Nepal
DHS 2022
Percentage who have Number of
committed physical violence women who
against their husband/intimate have ever had a
Background partner husband/
characteristic Ever1 Last 12 months intimate partner
Husband’s/intimate partner’s alcohol
consumption
Does not drink alcohol 1.3 1.0 2,069
Drinks alcohol but is never drunk 2.1 0.3 675
Is sometimes drunk 2.7 1.6 1,199
Is often drunk 7.1 4.3 301
Husband’s education2
No education 1.8 1.3 561
Basic education (1–8) 2.7 1.6 1,539
Lower basic education (1–5) 2.7 1.3 753
Upper basic education (6–8) 2.8 1.8 786
Secondary (9–12) 1.8 1.2 1,447
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.8 1.0 937
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.9 1.5 509
More than secondary (13 and above) 0.9 0.6 257
Spousal education difference2
Husband better educated 1.8 1.1 1,989
Wife better educated 2.3 1.6 852
Both equally educated 3.4 1.9 516
Neither educated 1.8 1.1 446
Spousal age difference2
Wife older 3.2 1.4 298
Wife is same age 2.7 1.7 287
Wife 1–4 years younger 2.2 1.4 1,766
Wife 5–9 years younger 1.4 1.0 1,118
Wife 10 or more years younger 2.1 1.2 385
Number of decisions in which women
participate3
0 1.4 1.3 627
1–2 2.7 1.4 1,428
3+ 1.9 1.2 1,798
Number of controlling behaviors displayed
by husband/intimate partner4
0 1.2 0.7 2,755
1–2 3.4 1.8 1,168
3–4 5.1 3.4 275
5 18.5 15.8 47
Number of reasons for which wife beating
is justified5
0 2.1 1.4 3,433
1 2.7 1.1 710
2 3.2 1.3 90
3 * * 12
Woman’s father beat mother
Yes 5.5 3.1 732
No 1.6 0.9 3,408
Don’t know 0.9 0.9 105
Woman afraid of husband/intimate partner
Afraid most of the time 3.4 2.9 500
Sometimes afraid 1.9 1.0 1,854
Never afraid 2.2 1.2 1,890
Total 2.2 1.3 4,245

Note: The term husband includes a partner with whom a woman is living as if married.
Husband/intimate partner refers to the current husband for currently married women; the most
recent husband for divorced, separated, or widowed women; the current intimate partner for never-
married women who currently have an intimate partner; and the most recent intimate partner for
never-married women who do not currently have an intimate partner but had one in the past. Total
includes 49 women who do not know about their husband’s education. An asterisk indicates that
a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Includes in the last 12 months
2
Includes only currently married women
3
According to the wife’s report. Includes only currently married women. See Table 15.8.1 for list
of decisions.
4
According to the woman’s report. See Table 17.9 for list of behaviors.
5
According to the woman’s report. See Table 15.9.1 for list of reasons.

476 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.17 Forms of emotional violence in the household
Percentage of ever-married women age 15–49 who have faced various forms of emotional violence in their households, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Not cared
for when ill
during Threatened Abused for Forced to
pregnancy, Asked to with Asked to using a seclude
Not given delivery, or go for divorce by go for Abused for family Forced during
Background enough postpartum forced husband or forced not bearing planning to get menstru- Number of
characteristic food to eat period abortion in-laws divorce a son method married ation women
Age
15–19 1.3 6.9 1.5 4.5 3.9 2.9 0.1 11.3 4.0 200
20–24 5.1 8.2 1.8 8.4 7.6 4.3 1.2 9.6 5.3 631
25–29 3.5 10.0 1.7 8.0 6.3 3.6 1.0 6.5 4.7 784
30–39 5.2 12.9 1.6 8.2 7.5 5.1 1.9 7.5 5.3 1,374
40–49 8.4 14.6 1.9 8.7 7.0 6.3 1.5 8.7 5.2 1,042
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 5.4 11.9 2.0 7.9 7.1 2.8 1.0 4.9 8.3 1,089
Dalit 8.1 15.4 1.8 11.1 10.7 8.4 2.1 10.7 9.1 624
Janajati 4.2 10.7 1.5 6.0 5.7 3.0 0.6 4.8 2.2 1,492
Madhesi 5.7 11.0 1.8 9.3 5.7 8.2 2.0 15.1 3.8 646
Muslim 6.9 9.3 1.9 13.8 8.6 8.5 6.0 22.7 0.7 174
Other * * * * * * * * * 6
Residence
Urban 4.9 11.8 1.6 8.3 6.9 4.2 1.4 8.2 5.1 2,698
Rural 6.7 11.7 2.0 7.8 7.1 6.1 1.6 8.1 5.0 1,332
Ecological zone
Mountain 6.2 11.3 1.6 8.5 7.8 6.0 2.0 6.3 6.4 240
Hill 5.4 12.9 2.3 7.2 6.5 3.7 0.9 5.1 4.8 1,554
Terai 5.4 11.0 1.4 8.7 7.2 5.5 1.7 10.5 5.1 2,237
Province
Koshi Province 5.2 9.9 1.0 8.0 8.0 4.1 0.9 5.6 4.7 678
Urban 3.9 9.3 0.9 9.0 8.6 3.4 0.8 4.6 5.7 450
Rural 7.7 11.3 1.3 5.9 6.8 5.3 1.1 7.4 2.7 229
Madhesh Province 6.1 11.5 1.9 10.0 6.5 8.7 2.8 19.6 3.6 866
Urban 5.4 11.4 1.4 9.7 5.8 7.7 2.9 18.1 3.0 636
Rural 8.2 11.6 3.2 10.6 8.6 11.6 2.6 24.0 5.3 230
Bagmati Province 4.5 13.0 1.9 6.8 6.8 2.4 0.8 6.4 3.6 755
Urban 3.6 13.3 2.1 7.3 7.2 2.0 1.0 6.7 3.5 569
Rural 6.9 12.0 1.2 5.1 5.5 3.8 0.2 5.4 3.9 186
Gandaki Province 4.9 11.1 2.1 6.2 6.6 2.9 0.4 2.8 4.8 386
Urban 4.5 11.2 2.7 7.8 8.3 2.9 0.2 3.0 5.5 265
Rural 5.9 11.0 0.8 2.9 2.8 3.0 0.8 2.3 3.2 121
Lumbini Province 6.2 12.8 1.6 9.1 7.5 4.1 1.4 4.8 4.6 730
Urban 6.5 12.9 1.1 7.8 6.4 3.5 0.9 5.2 4.5 410
Rural 5.8 12.8 2.2 10.7 9.0 4.9 2.0 4.2 4.8 320
Karnali Province 7.3 16.5 2.9 9.6 7.8 6.9 2.3 6.2 10.6 260
Urban 7.9 18.1 2.3 10.6 7.4 5.8 2.0 6.3 10.4 148
Rural 6.4 14.5 3.6 8.4 8.2 8.3 2.8 6.0 10.8 112
Sudurpashchim Province 4.3 8.0 1.6 6.0 4.9 4.4 0.9 3.1 10.0 355
Urban 3.9 8.4 1.7 5.2 4.7 4.0 0.8 3.6 11.9 222
Rural 4.9 7.5 1.3 7.3 5.4 5.1 1.1 2.3 7.0 133
Education
No education 7.5 15.1 1.6 9.3 7.3 7.5 2.5 12.8 4.9 1,308
Basic education (1–8) 6.7 13.0 2.2 9.4 8.9 5.1 1.1 7.8 4.7 1,345
Lower basic education
(1–5) 7.9 14.7 2.6 9.9 9.2 5.9 1.3 8.7 5.4 726
Upper basic education
(6–8) 5.3 10.9 1.8 8.9 8.6 4.3 0.9 6.8 3.7 619
Secondary (9–12) 2.6 7.8 1.5 6.1 5.0 2.3 0.8 4.4 5.9 1,241
Lower secondary (9–10) 2.4 7.2 1.8 6.7 5.1 2.7 1.0 4.1 5.0 761
Higher secondary
(11–12) 2.8 8.8 0.9 5.2 4.9 1.6 0.3 4.9 7.1 480
More than secondary (13
and above) 0.4 3.3 0.5 2.4 1.8 0.3 0.3 1.5 4.1 137
Wealth quintile
Lowest 8.1 16.4 3.3 10.9 8.8 6.5 1.5 6.4 6.1 768
Second 7.6 13.8 1.9 7.4 7.2 6.7 1.5 10.3 5.3 784
Middle 5.5 11.0 1.7 8.9 7.5 6.3 1.8 8.7 4.1 842
Fourth 4.1 11.1 0.8 8.9 7.5 2.7 1.3 8.2 5.3 863
Highest 2.2 6.5 1.1 4.5 3.7 2.2 1.1 7.1 4.6 774
Total 5.5 11.7 1.7 8.1 7.0 4.9 1.4 8.2 5.1 4,031

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Domestic Violence • 477

 Table 17.18 Help seeking to stop violence
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence by their help-seeking
behavior, according to type of violence and background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
women who
have ever
Never sought Never sought experienced
Type of violence/ Sought help to help but told help, never told any physical or
background characteristic stop violence someone anyone Total sexual violence
Type of violence experienced
Physical only 21.0 15.8 63.2 100.0 842
Sexual only 36.1 6.7 57.2 100.0 68
Both physical and sexual 44.8 11.9 43.3 100.0 320
Age
15–19 20.7 20.5 58.8 100.0 121
20–24 31.7 12.3 56.0 100.0 166
25–29 24.1 17.2 58.6 100.0 220
30–39 27.7 12.2 60.1 100.0 412
40–49 32.1 13.7 54.2 100.0 311
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 34.1 13.8 52.1 100.0 224
Dalit 21.5 20.2 58.3 100.0 250
Janajati 31.5 14.4 54.1 100.0 376
Madhesi 26.2 10.5 63.3 100.0 277
Muslim 22.3 11.1 66.6 100.0 102
Other * * * 100.0 1
Residence
Urban 27.8 14.7 57.5 100.0 807
Rural 28.5 13.5 57.9 100.0 423
Ecological zone
Mountain 40.6 9.8 49.5 100.0 51
Hill 30.9 16.9 52.3 100.0 362
Terai 26.0 13.5 60.6 100.0 817
Province
Koshi Province 32.1 8.5 59.3 100.0 191
Urban 26.8 8.2 64.9 100.0 128
Rural 42.8 9.1 48.1 100.0 63
Madhesh Province 25.6 12.0 62.5 100.0 390
Urban 25.5 12.9 61.6 100.0 263
Rural 25.6 10.1 64.3 100.0 127
Bagmati Province 32.9 17.6 49.5 100.0 194
Urban 33.6 18.4 48.0 100.0 149
Rural 30.7 15.0 54.3 100.0 44
Gandaki Province 27.3 19.5 53.1 100.0 83
Urban 27.9 16.2 55.9 100.0 61
Rural 25.7 28.9 45.4 100.0 22
Lumbini Province 28.9 16.2 54.9 100.0 230
Urban 31.4 15.8 52.8 100.0 118
Rural 26.3 16.6 57.1 100.0 112
Karnali Province 27.9 13.6 58.5 100.0 63
Urban 27.9 19.0 53.0 100.0 37
Rural 27.8 6.1 66.1 100.0 27
Sudurpashchim Province 16.4 21.5 62.2 100.0 79
Urban 15.5 22.4 62.1 100.0 51
Rural 17.9 19.7 62.3 100.0 28
Marital status
Never married 27.7 21.8 50.6 100.0 95
Never had intimate partner (29.1) (20.5) (50.5) 100.0 64
Ever had intimate partner * * * 100.0 31
Ever married 28.0 13.7 58.3 100.0 1,135
Married/living together 26.5 13.4 60.2 100.0 1,051
Divorced/separated/widowed 47.8 17.8 34.4 100.0 84
Employment
Employed for cash 30.7 13.4 55.9 100.0 496
Employed not for cash 26.8 15.9 57.2 100.0 464
Not employed 25.1 13.3 61.6 100.0 270
Education
No education 27.7 13.0 59.3 100.0 499
Basic education (1–8) 26.8 15.6 57.6 100.0 435
Lower basic education (1–5) 26.1 15.8 58.1 100.0 241
Upper basic education (6–8) 27.6 15.4 57.0 100.0 194
Secondary (9–12) 29.7 15.1 55.2 100.0 288
Lower secondary (9–10) 29.6 17.0 53.4 100.0 191
Higher secondary (11–12) 30.0 11.1 58.9 100.0 96
More than secondary (13 and above) * * * 100.0 9

(Continued…)

478 • Domestic Violence

Table 17.18—Continued
Number of
women who
have ever
Never sought Never sought experienced
Type of violence/ Sought help to help but told help, never told any physical or
background characteristic stop violence someone anyone Total sexual violence
Wealth quintile
Lowest 29.8 12.9 57.3 100.0 247
Second 27.2 13.1 59.7 100.0 284
Middle 25.6 14.0 60.4 100.0 275
Fourth 29.7 17.0 53.3 100.0 280
Highest 27.8 14.6 57.6 100.0 144
Total 28.0 14.3 57.7 100.0 1,230

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than
25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

Table 17.19 Sources for help to stop the violence

Percentage of women age 15–49 who have experienced physical or sexual violence
and sought help by sources from which they sought help, and by type of violence
experienced, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of violence experienced
Both Physical or
Physical Sexual physical sexual
Source only only and sexual violence
Own family 61.4 * 65.8 62.6
Husband’s/intimate partner’s
family 10.6 * 10.0 10.2
Current/former husband/intimate
partner 0.8 * 0.0 0.4
Friend 21.5 * 23.4 25.3
Neighbor 35.4 * 39.4 35.1
Religious leader 0.4 * 0.0 0.2
Police 9.3 * 5.8 7.2
Lawyer 0.3 * 0.6 0.4
Social service organization 0.7 * 1.1 0.9
Other 3.3 * 2.7 2.9
Number of women who have
sought help 177 24 144 345

Note: Women can report more than one source from which they sought help. An
asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has
been suppressed.

Domestic Violence • 479

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES 18
Key Findings
▪ Road traffic injuries: There are 14 deaths due to road
traffic injuries per 100,000 population in Nepal. More
males (11 deaths per 100,000) than females (3 deaths
per 100,000) die due to road traffic injuries.
▪ Types of road traffic accidents: Motorcycle accidents
are the most common road traffic accidents or crashes in
Nepal, accounting for 68% of those killed or injured in the
12 months preceding the survey.
▪ Incidents other than road traffic injuries: There are 38
deaths due to incidents other than road traffic accidents
per 100,000 population. The likelihood of these deaths is
the same among males and females (19 deaths per
100,000).
▪ Mechanisms of death or injury: The majority of deaths
or injuries in the last 12 months that were not due to road
traffic accidents were accidental (82%), while 10%
occurred as a result of self-harm.
▪ Types of other accidents: Among the types of incidents
other than road traffic accidents, 74% of deaths or
injuries are due to falls, while 5% are due to occupation-
related agricultural accidents.

he 2022 NDHS included The DHS Program’s Accident and Injury Module. The respondent to the

T Household Questionnaire first reported whether any usual residents of the household had been
involved in a road traffic accident in the past 12 months, whether the victims were alive or dead,
and, if alive, what types of injuries they suffered and what types of health problems arose because of the
accident. Next, the respondent reported on any other deaths or injuries experienced by household members
in the last 12 months that were not caused by road traffic accidents. These deaths and injuries were further
classified by type of incident, cause, type of injury, and whether those who survived continue to experience
health problems.

18.1 ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS OR CRASHES

Worldwide, road traffic injuries are the eighth leading cause of death among people of all ages and the
leading cause of death among children and young adults age 5–29. The burden of road traffic deaths is
disproportionately high among low- and middle-income countries in relation to the size of their
populations and the number of motor vehicles in circulation (WHO 2018b). Road traffic crashes claim
approximately 1.3 million lives worldwide every year (WHO 2018b). Injuries caused by road traffic
accidents cause considerable economic losses to individuals, their families, and nations. Nations also suffer
social losses as a result of accidents. The estimated road traffic death rate in Nepal is 15.9 deaths per
100,000 population (National Planning Commission 2020a). Overall, there were 14,736 injuries and 2,789
deaths related to road traffic crashes in fiscal year 2018–19 (National Planning Commission 2020b). In
addition, a recently released report from the Nepal Police indicates that a total of 2,883 individuals died
and 7,282 others were severely injured due to road traffic crashes during the last fiscal year (2021–22)
(Nepal Police 2022). As part of a global commitment, Nepal has adopted SDG Target 3.6 on road safety

Accidents and Injuries • 481

 with the aim of halving the number of road traffic fatalities and injuries by 2030 (National Planning
Commission 2020a).

18.1.1 Deaths and Injuries from Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes

Death rate due to road traffic injuries

Number of road traffic fatal injury deaths per 100,000 population.
Sample: De facto population

Table 18.1 presents results on deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes among the de
facto household population in the 12 months preceding the survey. Nationally, the number of deaths due to
road traffic injuries is 14 deaths per 100,000 population. More males (11 deaths per 100,000) than females
(3 deaths per 100,000) die due to road traffic injuries in Nepal.

A large proportion of household members are involved in road traffic accidents and have nonfatal injuries.
Overall, 1,088 individuals per 100,000 population (301 per 100,000 females and 787 per 100,000 males)
sustain nonfatal injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes. There were 1,102 deaths and injuries for
every 100,000 people due to road traffic accidents and injuries in the 12 months preceding the survey
(Table 18.1).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Females and males age 15–24 are more prone to road traffic accidents that might lead to death or a
nonfatal injury (1,659 individuals dead or injured per 100,000 population) than those in other age
groups.

▪ Deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents are higher in urban areas (1,236 per 100,000
population) than in rural areas (833 per 100,000 population).

▪ Deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents are higher in the terai zone (1,316 per 100,000
population) than in the mountain zone (495 per 100,000 population) and the hill zone (892 per 100,000
population).

▪ Road traffic accidents or crashes cause the most deaths and injuries in Madhesh Province (1,430 per
100,000 population), followed by Bagmati Province (1,156 per 100,000 population), Sudurpashchim
Province (1,112 per 100,000 population), and Lumbini Province (1,017 per 100,000 population).

▪ Deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes increase with increasing household wealth,
from 590 per 100,000 population in the lowest wealth quintile to 1,511 per 100,000 population in the
highest wealth quintile.

482 • Accidents and Injuries

18.1.2 Types of Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes

Motorcycle accidents are the most common road Figure 18.1 Types of road traffic
traffic accidents or crashes in Nepal, accounting for accidents or crashes
68% of those killed or injured in the 12 months Percent distribution of persons killed or
preceding the survey (Table 18.2). Twelve percent of injured in road traffic accidents or crashes
individuals were involved in a bicycle accident, 4% in the last 12 months
in a bus accident, and another 4% in a three wheeler Pedestrian
tempo accident. Five percent were involved in a 5%
Bicycle
Three wheeler
pedestrian road accident or crash (Figure 18.1). 12%
tempo
4%
Patterns by background characteristics Other
Motorcycle vehicle
▪ The younger population (less than age 15) is 68% Car 1%
3%
more prone to accidents involving bicycles
Truck
(35%), while about three quarters of those age 3%
Bus
15–44 are involved in motorcycle accidents 4%
(Table 18.2).

▪ Motorcycle accidents are most prevalent in Bagmati Province (75%), while bicycle accidents are most
prevalent in Madhesh Province (21%) (Table 18.2).

▪ Motorcycle accidents are most prevalent (84%) among those in the highest wealth quintile and least
prevalent among those in the lowest wealth quintile (52%). However, pedestrian accidents are most
prevalent in the lowest wealth quintile (10%) (Table 18.2).

18.1.3 Types of Injuries due to Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes

Table 18.3 shows the types of injuries experienced by household members who survived road traffic
accidents. Nearly two-thirds (63%) of those who were injured in road traffic accidents in the last 12
months had a cut or open wound, while 28% had broken bones, 23% had internal injuries, and 13% had
head injuries.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Older household members involved in road traffic accidents more often had internal injuries than
younger household members. For example, 29% of household members age 45–49 suffered from
internal injuries, as compared with only 10% of those less than age 15 (Table 18.3).

▪ The proportions of household members experiencing head injuries (12%) and internal injuries (20%)
are lowest in Madhesh Province, which could be related to the types of accidents in which they were
involved (bicycle accidents).

18.1.4 Continuing Health Problems due to Road Traffic Accidents or Crashes

On average, 79% of those who were severely injured in road traffic accidents in the last 12 months had
chronic pain. One-fifth (21%) of severely injured individuals lost limb function, while 5% suffered brain
damage (Table 18.4).

18.2 OTHER INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS

Nepal has a high rate of accidents that are not related to road traffic accidents or crashes. These include
falls caused by the region’s geographical terrain and cuts caused by agricultural activities, fires, and natural
disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides. The 2022 NDHS solicited information on deaths or

Accidents and Injuries • 483

 injuries experienced by household members in the last 12 months that were not caused by road traffic
accidents.

18.2.1 Deaths and Injuries from Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents

Death rate due to non-road traffic accidents

Number of fatal injury deaths per 100,000 population excluding deaths caused
by road traffic accidents.
Sample: De facto population

Table 18.5 shows that the number of deaths due to incidents other than road traffic accidents is 38 deaths
per 100,000 population. The likelihood of these deaths is the same among women and men (19 deaths per
100,000). However, men more often experience nonfatal injuries from this type of accident than women
(818 per 100,000 men and 669 per 100,000 women). Overall, among the total de facto population, the
number of deaths and injuries due to non-road traffic accidents is 1,525 per 100,000 people (688 for
women and 837 for men).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Deaths and injuries due to non-road accidents are most prevalent in Karnali Province (2,508 per
100,000 population) and the mountain zone (2,434 per 100,000 population) (Table 18.5).

▪ The prevalence of non-road traffic accident deaths and injuries is higher among those in the lowest
wealth quintile (2,117 per 100,000) than among those in the highest wealth quintile (1,082 per 100,000
population). Deaths due to non-road traffic accidents are higher among women (51 deaths per
100,000) than men (34 deaths per 100,000) in the lowest wealth quintile (Table 18.5).

18.2.2 Mechanism of Deaths and Injuries from Incidents other than Road Traffic
Accidents

The majority of deaths or injuries in the last 12 months that were not due to road traffic accidents were
accidental (82%), while 10% occurred as a result of self-harm. Six percent of deaths or injuries were due to
violence, and 2% were due to natural disasters (Table 18.6).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The proportion of deaths or Figure 18.2 Mechanism of death or injury other than
injuries that are accidental is road traffic accidents by residence
higher in rural areas than in Percent distribution of persons killed or injured in the last
urban areas (85% versus 79%), 12 months
while self-harm is more 1 1 1 Don’t know
10 12 8
prevalent in urban areas (12% 5 2
6 7
versus 8%) (Figure 18.2). 2 1
Self-harm

▪ The proportion of deaths or

Violence
injuries due to self-harm is
82 79 85
highest in Koshi Province
Natural disaster
(19%) and lowest in Lumbini
Province (5%).
Accidental
▪ Among those who were injured Total Urban Rural
and survived, 10% had
attempted self-harm.

484 • Accidents and Injuries

▪ Those in the lowest wealth quintile are less prone to have been killed or injured due to violence (1%)
than those in the higher quintiles (9% each in the second and middle quintiles, 7% in the fourth
quintile, and 6% in the highest quintile).

18.2.3 Types of Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents

Among the types of incidents other Figure 18.3 Types of incidents other than road traffic
than road traffic accidents, 74% of accidents
deaths or injuries are due to falls, Percent distribution of persons killed or injured in
while 5% are due to occupation- incidents other than road traffic accidents in the last
related agricultural accidents (Table 12 months
Electrical
18.7 and Figure 18.3). Two percent injury Struck by
each of deaths and injuries are due 1% person/object
4%
to fire/burning and animal bites.
Cut/
stabbed
Patterns by background 4% Occupational
characteristics (factory)
4%
Fall
▪ Women are more prone to be 74% Occupational
(agriculture)
killed or injured due to falls 5%
than men (81% versus 68%), Other
while men are more often Fire/ 5%
impacted by occupational burning
2%
accidents (7% in factories and Animal bite
6% in agricultural occupations) 2%
than women (less than 1% in
factories and 3% in agricultural occupations).

▪ Falls are more prominent in the hill zone (80%) than in the terai zone (67%).

18.2.4 Types of Injuries due to Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents

Among individuals who survived injuries due to non-road traffic accidents in the last 12 months, 40% had
broken bones, 33% had cuts/bites/open wounds, and 29% experienced suffocation. Eight percent had
internal injuries and 2% had burns (Table 18.8).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Broken bones were the most common type of injury among individuals less than age 15 who survived
injuries due to non-road traffic accidents (57%) (Table 18.8).

▪ The percentages of individuals who had broken bones as a result of non-road traffic accidents are 40%
or higher in Madhesh Province (40%), Bagmati Province (40%), Lumbini Province (41%), and
Karnali Province (46%).

18.2.5 Continuing Health Problems due to Incidents other than Road Traffic Accidents

On average, 79% of those who were severely injured in non-road traffic accidents in the last 12 months
had continuing chronic pain. About one-fourth (24%) of severely injured individuals had continuing loss of
limb function, while 3% each had continuing brain damage and emotional trauma (Table 18.9).

Accidents and Injuries • 485

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on accidents and injuries, see the following tables:

▪ Table 18.1 Deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents or crashes
▪ Table 18.2 Types of road traffic accidents or crashes
▪ Table 18.3 Injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes
▪ Table 18.4 Continuing health problems due to road traffic accidents or crashes
▪ Table 18.5 Deaths and injuries from incidents other than road traffic accidents
▪ Table 18.6 Mechanism of death or injury other than road traffic accidents
▪ Table 18.7 Types of incidents other than road traffic accidents
▪ Table 18.8 Types of non-road traffic injuries
▪ Table 18.9 Continuing health problems due to incidents other than road traffic accidents

486 • Accidents and Injuries

Table 18.1 Deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents or crashes
Number of deaths due to road traffic injuries per 100,000 population, number of persons who had nonfatal injuries due to road traffic accidents
per 100,000 population, and number of deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents per 100,000 population, by sex, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of persons who had
Number of deaths due to road nonfatal injuries due to road Number of deaths and injuries
traffic injuries per 100,000 traffic accidents per 100,000 due to road traffic accidents per De facto
Background population1 population 100,000 population household
characteristic Females Males Total Females Males Total Females Males Total population
Age2
<15 0 0 0 353 471 824 353 471 824 9,213
15–24 0 23 23 381 1,255 1,636 381 1,278 1,659 8,223
25–34 0 11 11 396 1,121 1,518 396 1,132 1,528 8,852
35–44 0 17 17 399 901 1,301 399 918 1,318 8,423
45–59 0 0 0 198 698 896 198 698 896 10,738
60+ 22 23 45 128 414 541 149 437 586 7,614
Don’t know 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,314
Residence
Urban 5 14 19 341 876 1,217 346 890 1,236 36,349
Rural 0 5 5 219 609 828 219 614 833 18,036
Ecological zone
Mountain 0 0 0 103 391 495 103 391 495 3,119
Hill 0 10 10 239 643 882 239 653 892 21,403
Terai 6 13 18 366 932 1,298 371 945 1,316 29,863
Province
Koshi Province 0 0 0 249 660 909 249 660 909 9,388
Urban 0 0 0 294 626 920 294 626 920 6,088
Rural 0 0 0 165 722 888 165 722 888 3,300
Madhesh Province 0 12 12 347 1,071 1,418 347 1,083 1,430 11,640
Urban 0 17 17 366 1,062 1,428 366 1,079 1,444 8,632
Rural 0 0 0 294 1,095 1,389 294 1,095 1,389 3,008
Bagmati Province 0 12 12 294 849 1,144 294 861 1,156 11,095
Urban 0 15 15 319 983 1,303 319 998 1,318 8,601
Rural 0 0 0 208 389 597 208 389 597 2,495
Gandaki Province 34 0 34 382 384 766 416 384 800 4,897
Urban 50 0 50 486 405 892 536 405 942 3,299
Rural 0 0 0 166 339 505 166 339 505 1,598
Lumbini Province 0 25 25 243 749 993 243 774 1,017 9,505
Urban 0 45 45 198 854 1,051 198 899 1,097 5,189
Rural 0 0 0 298 624 922 298 624 922 4,316
Karnali Province 0 14 14 298 684 982 298 698 996 3,289
Urban 0 0 0 382 1,048 1,430 382 1,048 1,430 1,749
Rural 0 30 30 203 270 473 203 300 503 1,540
Sudurpashchim
Province 0 10 10 339 763 1,101 339 773 1,112 4,570
Urban 0 0 0 505 1,002 1,507 505 1,002 1,507 2,791
Rural 0 27 27 78 387 465 78 414 492 1,778
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0 31 31 148 411 559 148 442 590 10,760
Second 0 0 0 195 580 775 195 580 775 10,886
Middle 0 13 13 394 869 1,263 394 882 1,275 10,890
Fourth 15 0 15 290 1,047 1,337 305 1,047 1,352 10,998
Highest 0 12 12 475 1,024 1,499 475 1,036 1,511 10,851
Total 3 11 14 301 787 1,088 304 798 1,102 54,384

Note: Total includes 7 individuals with missing information on age.

1
SDG 3.6.1
2
For those who died, age is their age at death.

Accidents and Injuries • 487

 Table 18.2 Types of road traffic accidents or crashes
Percent distribution of persons killed or injured in a road traffic accident in the last 12 months, by type of road traffic accident, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of road traffic accident
Three Number
Background Motor- wheeler Other killed or
characteristic Car Truck Bus cycle Bicycle Pedestrian tempo vehicle Total injured
1
Age
<15 2.0 3.6 3.8 44.4 34.6 10.3 1.3 0.0 100.0 76
15–24 5.7 5.3 2.7 73.5 5.6 4.7 2.6 0.0 100.0 136
25–34 3.3 3.5 6.8 74.8 5.5 1.5 2.5 2.2 100.0 135
35–44 1.0 1.6 4.2 74.5 8.7 1.5 8.4 0.0 100.0 111
45–59 4.3 1.6 2.7 69.2 11.7 5.3 4.3 0.9 100.0 96
60+ (0.0) (0.0) (7.8) (54.7) (20.2) (10.6) (6.7) (0.0) 100.0 45
Sex
Male 3.3 4.0 3.2 70.4 10.6 3.9 3.8 0.9 100.0 434
Female 2.8 0.4 7.7 62.4 15.4 6.5 4.8 0.0 100.0 165
Residence
Urban 2.7 2.5 4.6 70.3 11.2 4.6 3.4 0.7 100.0 449
Rural 4.6 4.4 3.9 61.9 14.1 4.7 6.0 0.6 100.0 150
Ecological zone
Mountain * * * * * * * * 100.0 15
Hill 5.4 5.4 7.0 68.8 5.6 5.7 1.8 0.3 100.0 191
Terai 2.1 1.5 3.0 68.2 15.1 4.0 5.2 0.8 100.0 393
Province
Koshi Province 3.8 0.0 4.2 68.0 10.9 6.5 6.6 0.0 100.0 85
Urban (2.1) (0.0) (6.4) (75.1) (3.5) (7.6) (5.4) (0.0) 100.0 56
Rural (7.1) (0.0) (0.0) (54.6) (25.0) (4.4) (8.9) (0.0) 100.0 29
Madhesh
Province 2.2 2.0 0.9 65.3 21.3 4.4 2.7 1.2 100.0 166
Urban 3.0 1.4 1.2 65.5 21.3 4.2 2.6 0.9 100.0 125
Rural 0.0 3.7 0.0 64.7 21.4 5.1 3.0 2.2 100.0 42
Bagmati Province 5.3 6.0 4.3 75.2 6.5 2.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 128
Urban 4.6 4.7 3.6 77.6 6.9 2.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 113
Rural * * * * * * * * 100.0 15
Gandaki Province (3.2) (1.8) (18.5) (69.6) (4.9) (1.9) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 39
Urban (2.4) (2.3) (21.5) (65.1) (6.2) (2.4) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 31
Rural * * * * * * * * 100.0 8
Lumbini Province 1.5 3.4 5.8 69.0 6.2 2.4 10.4 1.3 100.0 97
Urban (0.0) (4.0) (6.3) (70.9) (4.7) (2.4) (9.5) (2.2) 100.0 57
Rural (3.6) (2.6) (5.2) (66.3) (8.3) (2.4) (11.6) (0.0) 100.0 40
Karnali Province 3.7 7.6 6.0 55.1 4.4 15.7 5.8 1.7 100.0 33
Urban (2.0) (5.0) (2.3) (62.2) (5.8) (14.9) (5.5) (2.3) 100.0 25
Rural * * * * * * * * 100.0 8
Sudurpashchim
Province 2.8 0.9 2.1 66.2 17.3 6.0 4.7 0.0 100.0 51
Urban 2.1 0.0 1.4 66.5 18.4 5.9 5.7 0.0 100.0 42
Rural * * * * * * * * 100.0 9
Survival status
Killed in incident * * * * * * * * 100.0 8
Injured in incident,
survived 3.2 2.8 4.1 69.1 12.1 4.2 3.9 0.6 100.0 592
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.8 11.0 9.5 51.8 9.6 9.7 5.6 0.0 100.0 64
Second 5.8 1.9 1.6 60.5 19.6 2.6 6.9 1.1 100.0 84
Middle 3.7 1.9 4.7 58.6 16.2 4.9 8.1 2.1 100.0 139
Fourth 1.1 2.1 6.6 70.9 12.5 4.8 1.9 0.0 100.0 149
Highest 3.4 2.2 1.7 84.2 4.7 3.3 0.5 0.0 100.0 164
Total 3.2 3.0 4.4 68.2 11.9 4.6 4.1 0.6 100.0 599

Note: Table includes only the most recent road traffic accident for those with more than one road traffic accident. Figures in parentheses are
based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
For those who died, age is their age at death.

488 • Accidents and Injuries

Table 18.3 Injuries due to road traffic accidents or crashes
Among persons who were injured in a road traffic accident in the last 12 months, percentage with various types of injuries, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of injury
Background Cut or open Broken Head Internal Number
characteristic wound bone Burn injury injury Suffocation Other injured1
Age2
<15 61.1 33.4 0.0 13.8 9.9 1.5 5.9 76
15–24 77.9 28.1 1.0 11.6 15.4 0.0 5.4 135
25–34 64.2 25.9 0.3 5.3 26.6 2.1 3.9 134
35–44 55.9 20.1 0.0 13.7 27.7 2.0 10.0 110
45–59 61.2 26.6 0.0 20.9 29.0 2.6 3.9 96
60+ (37.9) (52.0) (0.0) (20.1) (35.2) (3.9) (6.6) 41
Sex
Male 66.7 28.9 0.1 13.0 21.9 1.5 4.2 428
Female 53.6 26.6 0.8 12.8 26.3 2.3 10.0 164
Residence
Urban 64.9 28.3 0.3 12.1 22.8 1.5 5.8 442
Rural 57.6 27.9 0.2 15.3 24.0 2.4 5.8 149
Ecological zone
Mountain * * * * * * * 15
Hill 63.7 29.6 0.9 11.6 25.4 0.4 1.8 189
Terai 62.9 27.5 0.0 13.6 21.8 2.5 8.0 388
Province
Koshi Province 55.2 35.1 0.0 16.6 23.7 2.6 9.2 85
Madhesh Province 58.1 26.0 0.0 12.3 19.8 3.2 9.7 165
Bagmati Province 73.8 28.0 1.0 13.2 27.6 0.0 2.1 127
Gandaki Province (64.6) (26.3) (0.0) (1.4) (22.4) (1.8) (1.8) 37
Lumbini Province 63.6 27.5 0.0 13.3 23.3 2.3 6.3 94
Karnali Province 57.6 29.2 1.1 13.4 21.0 0.0 0.0 32
Sudurpashchim
Province 66.7 26.6 0.0 15.7 23.3 0.0 2.5 50
Wealth quintile
Lowest 61.6 30.3 0.0 11.7 16.5 0.0 4.5 60
Second 49.7 32.5 0.4 19.2 25.1 1.3 7.1 84
Middle 71.6 18.8 0.0 16.2 21.3 0.0 5.5 137
Fourth 63.8 26.7 0.0 12.1 25.0 3.7 5.1 147
Highest 62.6 34.6 0.8 8.1 24.4 2.3 6.5 163
Total 63.1 28.2 0.3 12.9 23.1 1.7 5.8 592

Note: Table includes only the most recent road traffic accident for those with more than one road traffic accident. Percentages add to more
than 100 because multiple responses were allowed. Disaggregation by residence for province is not shown due to few cases. Figures in
parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and
has been suppressed.
1
Injured persons do not include persons who died as a result of the road traffic accident.
2
For those who died but not as a result of the accident, age is their age at death.

Accidents and Injuries • 489

 Table 18.4 Continuing health problems due to road traffic accidents or crashes
Among persons who were severely injured in a road traffic accident in the last 12 months, percentage with various types of continuing health
problems, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Continuing health problem
Background Brain Disfigure- Loss of limb Loss of Chronic Emotional Number
characteristic Paralysis damage ment function hearing pain trauma Other injured1
Age2
<15 * * * * * * * * 20
15–24 (1.5) (3.4) (3.0) (15.8) (5.7) (75.7) (4.7) (2.6) 47
25–34 0.0 2.6 1.0 17.8 0.0 81.9 0.0 4.2 47
35–44 (0.0) (7.6) (0.0) (13.6) (0.0) (77.4) (1.3) (7.2) 42
45–59 (0.0) (5.7) (0.0) (25.3) (0.0) (89.4) (7.4) (0.0) 41
60+ (0.0) (5.5) (5.6) (39.0) (0.0) (85.1) (2.5) (0.0) 28
Sex
Male 0.0 3.8 2.4 20.8 1.9 80.2 3.6 4.5 146
Female 0.9 8.0 2.2 20.0 0.0 77.0 3.0 1.8 80
Residence
Urban 0.0 3.0 2.9 22.1 1.7 77.9 3.6 4.4 165
Rural 1.2 11.6 0.7 16.2 0.0 82.3 2.9 1.2 61
Ecological zone
Mountain * * * * * * * * 8
Hill 0.9 2.4 0.0 19.4 3.5 84.3 2.8 1.4 77
Terai 0.0 6.8 3.4 21.1 0.0 76.3 3.9 4.9 141
Province
Koshi Province * * * * * * * * 25
Madhesh Province (0.0) (11.5) (7.5) (22.9) (0.0) (82.3) (0.0) (0.0) 64
Bagmati Province (1.7) (4.4) (0.0) (15.5) (6.6) (84.9) (1.7) (1.0) 42
Gandaki Province * * * * * * * * 15
Lumbini Province (0.0) (5.7) (0.0) (8.4) (0.0) (90.0) (2.7) (7.1) 39
Karnali Province (0.0) (2.3) (2.2) (11.1) (0.0) (83.4) (7.1) (3.1) 20
Sudurpashchim
Province (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (27.3) (0.0) (74.4) (0.0) (7.2) 20
Wealth quintile
Lowest (0.0) (3.4) (7.1) (13.6) (0.0) (77.1) (0.0) (3.9) 26
Second (0.0) (19.8) (0.0) (24.9) (0.0) (79.5) (1.0) (5.2) 40
Middle (0.0) (1.5) (3.6) (24.1) (0.0) (74.3) (5.4) (1.2) 49
Fourth 1.2 4.0 0.0 9.8 0.0 87.5 5.0 7.2 58
Highest (0.0) (0.0) (3.1) (29.3) (5.3) (74.9) (3.2) (0.0) 52
Total 0.3 5.3 2.3 20.5 1.2 79.1 3.4 3.5 226

Note: Table includes only the most recent road traffic accident for those with more than one road traffic accident. Percentages add to more than
100 because multiple responses were allowed. Disaggregation by residence for province is not shown due to few cases. Figures in parentheses
are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Injured persons who are still alive and continue to have health problems as a result of the road traffic accident
2
For those who died but not as a result of the accident, age is their age at death.

490 • Accidents and Injuries

Table 18.5 Deaths and injuries from incidents other than road traffic accidents
Number of deaths due to non-road traffic injuries per 100,000 population, number of persons who had nonfatal injuries due to non-road traffic
accidents per 100,000 population, and number of deaths and injuries due to non-road traffic accidents per 100,000 population, by sex, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of persons who had
Number of deaths due nonfatal injuries due to non-road Number of deaths and injuries
to non-road traffic injuries traffic accidents due to non-road traffic accidents De facto
Background per 100,000 population per 100,000 population per 100,000 population household
characteristic Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total population
Age1
<15 12 13 25 519 1,268 1,787 531 1,281 1,812 9,142
15–24 27 34 61 317 617 933 343 651 994 8,308
25–34 0 12 12 476 616 1,092 476 628 1,105 9,028
35–44 4 12 16 761 570 1,331 765 582 1,347 8,440
45–59 36 18 54 885 747 1,632 920 766 1,686 10,749
60+ 35 33 67 948 905 1,853 982 938 1,921 7,496
Don’t know 0 0 0 1,385 2,103 3,488 1,385 2,103 3,488 1,213
Residence
Urban 16 18 34 579 771 1,350 595 789 1,384 36,349
Rural 24 22 46 851 911 1,762 875 933 1,808 18,036
Ecological zone
Mountain 33 77 110 843 1,481 2,324 877 1,557 2,434 3,119
Hill 16 16 31 899 911 1,810 915 926 1,841 21,403
Terai 19 16 35 486 681 1,167 505 698 1,203 29,863
Province
Koshi Province 12 21 33 548 941 1,489 560 962 1,522 9,388
Urban 18 0 18 460 1,002 1,462 479 1,002 1,481 6,088
Rural 0 61 61 710 828 1,538 710 889 1,599 3,300
Madhesh Province 39 5 45 483 566 1,049 522 571 1,093 11,640
Urban 36 0 36 509 546 1,056 545 546 1,091 8,632
Rural 49 21 70 408 621 1,030 457 642 1,099 3,008
Bagmati Province 0 22 22 737 930 1,667 737 952 1,689 11,095
Urban 0 28 28 557 789 1,346 557 818 1,375 8,601
Rural 0 0 0 1,358 1,415 2,773 1,358 1,415 2,773 2,495
Gandaki Province 0 38 38 711 703 1,414 711 741 1,452 4,897
Urban 0 56 56 671 690 1,362 671 746 1,418 3,299
Rural 0 0 0 792 730 1,522 792 730 1,522 1,598
Lumbini Province 23 8 32 739 749 1,487 762 757 1,519 9,505
Urban 23 15 38 537 766 1,303 559 781 1,341 5,189
Rural 24 0 24 982 727 1,709 1,006 727 1,733 4,316
Karnali Province 67 64 131 1,062 1,315 2,377 1,129 1,379 2,508 3,289
Urban 24 46 70 1,162 1,171 2,332 1,186 1,216 2,402 1,749
Rural 116 85 201 949 1,479 2,428 1,064 1,564 2,629 1,540
Sudurpashchim
Province 0 16 16 755 841 1,595 755 856 1,611 4,570
Urban 0 26 26 722 762 1,484 722 787 1,509 2,791
Rural 0 0 0 806 965 1,771 806 965 1,771 1,778
Wealth quintile
Lowest 51 34 86 874 1,158 2,031 925 1,192 2,117 10,760
Second 0 9 9 765 822 1,587 765 831 1,596 10,886
Middle 15 14 29 711 896 1,607 727 910 1,636 10,890
Fourth 13 17 31 428 742 1,170 441 759 1,201 10,998
Highest 13 23 36 572 473 1,046 586 496 1,082 10,851
Total 19 19 38 669 818 1,487 688 837 1,525 54,384

Note: Total includes 8 individuals with missing information on age.

1
For those who died, age is their age at death.

Accidents and Injuries • 491

 Table 18.6 Mechanism of death or injury other than road traffic accidents
Percent distribution of persons killed or injured in the last 12 months in incidents other than road traffic accidents, by mechanism of
the death or injury, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Mechanism of death or injury
Background Natural Number killed
characteristic Accidental disaster Violence Self-harm Don’t know Total or injured
Age1
<15 76.0 1.2 7.1 15.1 0.6 100.0 166
15–24 82.7 0.9 7.2 9.2 0.0 100.0 83
25–34 78.4 1.5 5.6 13.5 0.9 100.0 100
35–44 82.4 1.4 8.1 8.2 0.0 100.0 114
45–59 88.1 1.2 5.2 5.5 0.0 100.0 181
60+ 83.2 1.6 2.5 11.0 1.7 100.0 144
Sex
Male 80.1 1.3 6.8 11.1 0.8 100.0 455
Female 83.3 2.2 5.5 8.7 0.2 100.0 374
Residence
Urban 79.3 1.4 7.2 11.6 0.5 100.0 503
Rural 85.0 2.2 4.7 7.6 0.6 100.0 326
Ecological zone
Mountain 73.9 4.1 5.5 16.4 0.0 100.0 76
Hill 87.9 1.3 3.0 7.6 0.2 100.0 394
Terai 76.2 1.7 9.8 11.4 1.0 100.0 359
Province
Koshi Province 70.8 2.0 7.9 19.3 0.0 100.0 143
Urban 67.0 2.0 8.3 22.7 0.0 100.0 90
Rural 77.2 2.0 7.2 13.5 0.0 100.0 53
Madhesh Province 68.3 4.2 13.1 14.4 0.0 100.0 127
Urban 67.3 3.7 14.7 14.3 0.0 100.0 94
Rural (71.1) (5.7) (8.4) (14.8) (0.0) 100.0 33
Bagmati Province 87.6 0.4 4.6 5.6 1.8 100.0 187
Urban 84.4 0.0 5.0 8.6 2.1 100.0 118
Rural 93.0 1.1 4.0 0.6 1.3 100.0 69
Gandaki Province 91.0 1.0 2.2 5.8 0.0 100.0 71
Urban (92.5) (1.5) (2.3) (3.7) (0.0) 100.0 47
Rural 88.1 0.0 2.1 9.9 0.0 100.0 24
Lumbini Province 87.8 0.0 6.2 5.3 0.7 100.0 144
Urban 83.8 0.0 8.0 8.2 0.0 100.0 70
Rural 91.5 0.0 4.5 2.6 1.3 100.0 75
Karnali Province 90.4 1.6 2.2 5.8 0.0 100.0 83
Urban 91.6 3.1 3.4 1.9 0.0 100.0 42
Rural 89.2 0.0 1.0 9.7 0.0 100.0 40
Sudurpashchim
Province 78.6 4.7 3.2 13.6 0.0 100.0 74
Urban 83.8 0.0 1.7 14.5 0.0 100.0 42
Rural 71.7 10.9 5.1 12.3 0.0 100.0 31
Survival status
Killed in incident (64.3) (3.1) (0.0) (20.8) (11.9) 100.0 21
Injured in incident,
survived 82.0 1.7 6.3 9.7 0.2 100.0 809
Wealth quintile
Lowest 84.7 3.2 1.4 10.6 0.0 100.0 228
Second 81.3 1.0 8.9 8.2 0.6 100.0 174
Middle 82.9 1.7 8.9 6.0 0.5 100.0 178
Fourth 78.3 0.3 7.0 14.4 0.0 100.0 132
Highest 77.1 1.6 6.4 12.8 2.1 100.0 117
Total 81.5 1.7 6.2 10.0 0.5 100.0 829

Note: Table includes only the most recent incident for those with more than one incident. Total includes 42 individuals with missing
information on age. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
1
For those who died, age is their age at death.

492 • Accidents and Injuries

Table 18.7 Types of incidents other than road traffic accidents
Percent distribution of persons killed or injured in the last 12 months in incidents other than road traffic accidents, by type of incident, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of incident
Occu-
Occu- pational
Struck by pational accident Number
Background Fire/ Animal Electrical person/ Cut or accident (agri- killed or
characteristic burning bite Fall injury object stabbed (factory) culture) Other Total injured
1
Age
<15 2.3 2.9 79.4 0.9 2.2 5.6 0.0 2.4 4.2 100.0 166
15–24 0.0 1.2 66.6 0.0 3.9 6.6 6.8 4.7 10.2 100.0 83
25–34 3.0 0.5 64.1 2.9 6.4 2.7 11.8 4.2 4.5 100.0 100
35–44 1.1 1.8 69.3 1.6 7.8 6.8 3.6 6.1 1.9 100.0 114
45–59 3.8 1.6 74.4 0.0 3.4 4.4 4.3 4.7 3.4 100.0 181
60+ 1.0 0.4 84.6 0.0 0.9 1.1 3.2 3.8 4.9 100.0 144
Sex
Male 1.3 1.7 68.1 0.9 5.6 4.8 7.1 6.0 4.5 100.0 455
Female 2.8 2.0 81.0 0.5 2.4 3.6 0.4 2.6 4.5 100.0 374
Residence
Urban 2.0 2.0 71.5 0.7 4.5 3.8 5.5 5.0 4.8 100.0 503
Rural 1.9 1.6 77.6 0.8 3.6 5.0 1.8 3.7 4.0 100.0 326
Ecological zone
Mountain 1.2 2.3 72.8 0.0 6.8 3.9 5.4 1.5 6.2 100.0 76
Hill 1.1 1.5 80.0 0.9 1.9 4.0 3.3 4.4 2.9 100.0 394
Terai 3.1 2.2 67.4 0.7 6.2 4.7 4.6 5.2 5.9 100.0 359
Province
Koshi Province 1.3 2.0 70.8 0.9 7.1 5.1 2.8 3.2 6.7 100.0 143
Urban 0.0 1.2 73.3 1.5 8.0 4.6 3.5 3.4 4.4 100.0 90
Rural 3.4 3.4 66.6 0.0 5.6 5.9 1.6 2.9 10.6 100.0 53
Madhesh Province 5.2 1.9 66.2 1.5 7.7 2.1 2.6 8.1 4.7 100.0 127
Urban 6.4 1.9 64.9 0.0 8.9 1.4 3.6 8.0 4.9 100.0 94
Rural (1.8) (1.7) (69.8) (5.7) (4.4) (3.9) (0.0) (8.3) (4.3) 100.0 33
Bagmati Province 0.7 1.8 74.4 0.8 1.8 4.9 6.5 7.0 2.1 100.0 187
Urban 0.0 1.7 72.8 1.2 2.2 3.8 9.1 7.1 2.1 100.0 118
Rural 1.9 1.8 77.2 0.0 1.1 6.8 2.1 6.9 2.2 100.0 69
Gandaki Province 1.4 2.7 79.4 0.0 2.1 2.1 8.0 1.0 3.4 100.0 71
Urban (2.1) (4.1) (77.8) (0.0) (0.0) (1.5) (8.9) (1.5) (4.0) 100.0 47
Rural 0.0 0.0 82.4 0.0 6.1 3.2 6.1 0.0 2.2 100.0 24
Lumbini Province 1.8 2.1 80.7 0.0 2.8 5.3 2.9 1.5 3.1 100.0 144
Urban 3.7 4.3 73.4 0.0 1.1 5.4 4.2 1.6 6.4 100.0 70
Rural 0.0 0.0 87.5 0.0 4.3 5.2 1.6 1.4 0.0 100.0 75
Karnali Province 1.5 1.1 73.6 1.0 3.3 3.3 2.8 3.4 10.0 100.0 83
Urban 0.0 1.1 71.3 2.0 4.5 3.2 3.1 4.7 10.1 100.0 42
Rural 3.1 1.1 76.1 0.0 2.0 3.5 2.4 1.9 9.8 100.0 40
Sudurpashchim
Province 2.6 1.3 73.6 0.9 4.1 6.1 2.8 4.7 3.8 100.0 74
Urban 1.5 0.0 69.0 0.0 4.5 8.3 4.9 5.1 6.7 100.0 42
Rural 4.2 3.0 79.9 2.0 3.6 3.1 0.0 4.2 0.0 100.0 31
Survival status
Killed in incident (6.9) (4.7) (34.5) (3.3) (2.2) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (48.5) 100.0 21
Injured in incident,
survived 1.9 1.8 74.9 0.7 4.2 4.4 4.2 4.6 3.4 100.0 809
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.5 1.4 78.2 0.2 2.7 4.4 1.2 4.6 5.8 100.0 228
Second 1.2 1.2 72.7 0.8 7.4 4.2 4.4 4.0 4.2 100.0 174
Middle 2.3 3.4 73.7 1.0 4.2 4.5 3.7 5.0 2.1 100.0 178
Fourth 0.5 0.0 68.3 1.9 4.7 4.7 9.5 5.8 4.6 100.0 132
Highest 5.6 3.5 74.0 0.0 1.7 3.3 3.7 2.6 5.8 100.0 117
Total 2.0 1.8 73.9 0.7 4.2 4.3 4.1 4.5 4.5 100.0 829

Note: Table includes only the most recent incident for those with more than one incident. Total includes 42 individuals with missing information on age.
Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
1
For those who died, age is their age at death.

Accidents and Injuries • 493

 Table 18.8 Types of non-road traffic injuries
Among persons who were injured in incidents other than road traffic accidents in the last 12 months, percentage with various types of injuries,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Type of injury
Cut/bite/
Background open Broken Head Internal Number
characteristic wound bone Burn Poisoning injury injury Suffocation Other injured1
Age2
<15 32.4 57.4 3.7 0.0 0.0 6.0 11.3 1.7 163
15–24 43.0 25.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1 41.2 2.3 78
25–34 40.2 30.8 4.4 0.4 0.0 7.2 18.6 9.6 99
35–44 33.5 33.1 2.8 2.7 0.0 8.4 35.5 2.0 112
45–59 27.2 40.3 2.9 0.5 1.3 9.9 33.6 5.5 175
60+ 28.9 41.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 9.6 41.5 2.3 139
Sex
Male 40.1 37.8 2.1 0.8 0.4 10.4 26.6 2.7 445
Female 24.2 41.5 2.7 0.8 0.4 5.8 33.0 4.9 364
Residence
Urban 33.7 40.0 2.5 1.2 0.5 9.0 26.7 2.8 491
Rural 31.8 38.7 2.1 0.0 0.3 7.3 33.7 5.0 318
Ecological zone
Mountain 36.8 34.2 1.3 0.0 1.2 15.2 29.2 4.2 72
Hill 31.7 41.0 1.9 0.5 0.0 7.0 33.3 3.0 387
Terai 33.7 38.9 3.2 1.2 0.7 8.4 25.2 4.3 349
Province
Koshi Province 30.5 39.3 2.3 0.0 1.4 14.2 30.7 5.6 140
Urban 36.4 38.6 1.5 0.0 1.2 14.7 28.5 3.5 89
Rural 20.1 40.4 3.5 0.0 1.7 13.4 34.7 9.4 51
Madhesh Province 33.4 40.3 3.1 2.7 0.0 9.1 26.8 5.4 122
Urban 33.5 41.9 3.0 3.6 0.0 9.8 25.4 6.6 91
Rural (33.1) (35.8) (3.4) (0.0) (0.0) (7.1) (30.8) (2.1) 31
Bagmati Province 33.0 39.5 2.6 0.9 0.0 6.1 26.2 1.3 185
Urban 31.9 43.8 3.1 1.4 0.0 5.9 20.4 0.0 116
Rural 34.9 32.2 1.9 0.0 0.0 6.4 35.7 3.5 69
Gandaki Province 31.6 30.7 1.4 1.3 0.0 3.7 41.3 3.9 69
Urban (33.1) (28.1) (2.2) (2.1) (0.0) (3.7) (41.9) (2.2) 45
Rural 29.0 35.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 40.1 7.0 24
Lumbini Province 36.4 40.8 1.8 0.0 1.1 5.2 26.9 4.7 141
Urban 32.8 40.6 3.8 0.0 2.2 4.6 21.1 2.0 68
Rural 39.8 41.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.7 32.2 7.2 74
Karnali Province 32.8 45.5 1.6 0.5 0.0 8.3 34.1 2.6 78
Urban 35.5 44.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 10.8 38.8 2.0 41
Rural 30.0 47.3 3.4 0.0 0.0 5.5 29.0 3.3 37
Sudurpashchim
Province 31.6 37.9 3.5 0.0 0.0 12.3 28.5 2.1 73
Urban 34.0 36.4 2.9 0.0 0.0 15.3 23.5 3.8 41
Rural 28.5 39.9 4.2 0.0 0.0 8.2 35.1 0.0 31
Wealth quintile
Lowest 32.8 41.7 1.5 0.0 0.4 9.8 36.0 3.4 219
Second 33.6 37.8 2.0 0.0 0.9 7.2 33.3 5.7 173
Middle 33.3 32.9 2.6 1.8 0.0 7.6 31.4 4.8 175
Fourth 34.8 43.6 3.6 2.4 0.0 9.0 15.3 2.4 129
Highest 29.7 43.4 2.8 0.0 1.0 7.6 24.1 0.9 113
Total 33.0 39.5 2.4 0.8 0.4 8.4 29.4 3.7 809

Note: Percentages add to more than 100 because multiple responses were allowed. Total includes 42 individuals with missing information on
age. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
1
Injured persons do not include persons who died as a result of the incident.
2
For those who died but not as a result of the incident, age is their age at death.

494 • Accidents and Injuries

Table 18.9 Continuing health problems due to incidents other than road traffic accidents
Among persons who were injured in incidents other than road traffic accidents in the last 12 months, percentage with various types of continuing health problems,
according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Continuing health problem
Loss of
Background Brain Disfigure- limb Loss of Loss of Chronic Emotional Number
characteristic Paralysis damage ment function eyesight hearing pain trauma Other Don’t know injured1
Age2
<15 0.0 4.5 3.4 24.0 0.0 0.0 73.5 4.5 6.2 0.0 53
15–24 (3.3) (2.9) (1.2) (19.9) (0.0) (0.0) (77.2) (1.2) (5.9) (0.0) 36
25–34 0.0 3.4 2.2 25.4 2.4 1.0 80.4 4.2 5.4 0.0 52
35–44 0.7 5.9 0.0 16.8 3.3 0.0 79.5 2.0 2.6 1.0 68
45–59 0.0 0.9 0.0 21.3 0.5 0.0 82.2 3.7 1.9 0.0 123
60+ 2.6 1.2 0.0 33.1 1.8 0.0 75.7 2.3 0.6 0.0 104
Sex
Male 1.6 3.2 1.5 25.6 2.5 0.2 75.1 4.7 4.2 0.0 207
Female 0.5 2.0 0.4 21.9 0.3 0.0 82.4 1.4 1.8 0.3 244
Residence
Urban 0.7 3.6 0.9 23.3 1.1 0.2 78.2 2.7 2.2 0.0 250
Rural 1.4 1.3 1.0 23.9 1.6 0.0 80.0 3.3 3.7 0.3 201
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.0 2.8 1.7 13.0 0.0 0.0 90.2 5.3 0.0 0.0 45
Hill 0.8 2.1 0.3 23.3 1.8 0.2 83.0 2.6 2.7 0.3 248
Terai 1.6 3.1 1.7 27.0 1.0 0.0 69.7 2.8 4.0 0.0 157
Province
Koshi Province 2.3 2.6 0.2 23.0 0.8 0.0 76.0 5.0 6.8 0.0 81
Madhesh Province (0.0) (6.2) (4.3) (21.6) (0.0) (0.0) (69.6) (4.1) (1.9) (0.0) 58
Bagmati Province 0.7 0.8 0.8 24.3 2.3 0.0 81.7 2.0 0.7 0.7 95
Gandaki Province 0.0 0.0 1.0 18.4 2.9 0.0 78.4 4.9 3.5 0.0 42
Lumbini Province 1.7 1.3 0.0 25.9 1.9 0.0 79.4 0.0 4.1 0.0 80
Karnali Province 0.9 5.8 0.6 17.5 0.7 0.9 91.0 3.8 1.6 0.0 58
Sudurpashchim
Province 0.0 1.7 0.0 37.4 0.0 0.0 74.7 2.0 0.0 0.0 35
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.8 3.1 0.8 24.0 0.7 0.3 84.0 3.6 3.0 0.5 146
Second 0.8 3.0 0.0 18.4 2.4 0.0 83.1 2.5 2.6 0.0 95
Middle 1.2 3.1 2.3 21.6 0.0 0.0 73.9 5.6 2.8 0.0 100
Fourth (2.5) (0.0) (1.3) (33.3) (4.9) (0.0) (66.8) (0.0) (6.3) (0.0) 54
Highest (0.0) (1.8) (0.0) (25.4) (0.0) (0.0) (80.5) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 56
Total 1.0 2.6 0.9 23.6 1.3 0.1 79.1 3.0 2.9 0.2 450

Note: Percentages add to more than 100 because multiple responses were allowed. Disaggregation by residence for province is not shown due to few cases. Total
includes 15 individuals with missing information on age. Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases.
1
Injured persons who are still alive
2
For those who died but not as a result of the incident, age is their age at death.

Accidents and Injuries • 495

MENTAL HEALTH 19
Key Findings
▪ Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety according to a
standard definition: 22% of women and 11% of men
age 15–49 have symptoms of anxiety.
▪ Prevalence of symptoms of depression according to
a standard definition: 5% of women and 2% of men age
15–49 have symptoms of depression.
▪ Anxiety and depression according to the national
definition: 13% of young women and 7% of young men
age 15–19 have symptoms of anxiety, while 4% of young
women and 1% of young men have symptoms of
depression. Among adults age 20–49, 10% of women
and 3% of men have symptoms of anxiety and 6% of
women and 2% of men have symptoms of depression.
▪ Diagnosis of anxiety or depression: 4% of women
were ever told that they had symptoms of anxiety and 3%
were ever told that they had symptoms of depression.
▪ Care seeking and providers: 19% of women and 13%
of men who had any symptoms of anxiety or depression
in the 2 weeks preceding the survey reported that they
had ever sought help. Among those who sought help, 7%
of women and 8% of men sought help from health care
providers.
▪ Treatment: Among women who had a score of 6 or more
on the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale (GAD-7), 3%
took medicine and 4% received counseling in the 2
weeks preceding the survey. Seven percent of women
who had a score of 10 or more on the Patient Health
Questionnaire (PHQ-9) took medicine and 9% received
counseling in the 2 weeks preceding the survey.
Similarly, 3% each of men with a GAD-7 score of 6 or
more took medicine and received counseling, while 9%
with a PHQ-9 score of 10 or more took medicine and 6%
received counseling.

M
ental health is an integral component of overall health and well-being. Globally, around one in
eight people live with a mental disorder, and anxiety disorders and depression are among the
most common mental health conditions (Risal 2011; WHO 2022). Measuring the burden of
mental health conditions helps to highlight the need for increased investment in mental health services.
Lack of awareness, prevailing stigma and discrimination against mental health, and poor accessibility of
services are major barriers to seeking care in Nepal (Ministry of Health and Population 2020b). A number
of screening tools are available to measure mental health conditions at the population level. The 2022
NDHS included a module on mental health comprising two commonly used tools to screen for symptoms
of anxiety and depression along with questions on care seeking and treatment.

To assess symptoms of anxiety, the Mental Health Module includes the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7
scale (GAD-7), a series of seven items designed to measure the main feature of anxiety: persistent and
impairing worry (Spitzer et al. 2006a). The GAD-7 also captures characteristics of three other common
anxiety disorders: panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The scale has

Mental Health • 497

 good reliability as well as criterion, construct, factorial, and procedural validity (Spitzer et al. 2006b).
Moreover, it has a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 82% for general anxiety disorder using the
threshold score of 10 (Kroenke et al. 2007).

To assess symptoms of depression, the module includes nine items from the Patient Health Questionnaire,
or PHQ-9 (Kroenke and Spitzer 2002). The questions in the PHQ-9 are based on the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) criteria for diagnosis of depression. The PHQ-9 is a reliable
and valid measure of depression severity. A score of 10 or more has a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity
of 88% for major depression (Kroenke et al. 2001).

Both scales focus on symptoms experienced in the 2 weeks preceding the survey. Severity of symptoms for
both tools is depicted using a Likert scale in which scores of 0, 1, 2, and 3 are assigned to the response
categories “not at all” (never), “several days” (rarely), “more than half the days” (often), and “nearly every
day” (always), respectively. A total score is generated by adding together the scores of individual items. In
the 2022 NDHS, severity of symptoms was assessed using the validated Water Glass Pictorial Scale,
whereby an empty glass indicates “never,” a glass one-fourth filled indicates “rarely,” a half-filled glass
indicates “often,” and a glass three-fourths filled indicates “always.” This visual chart was helpful in
capturing the perceptions of respondents and contextualizing reported severity of symptoms; diagnostic
screening was not performed.

One of the key elements in implementing the Mental Health Module was the effort to use a validated set of
translated questionnaires for the GAD-7 and PHQ-9 in the local languages. The PHQ-9 has already been
validated in the adult population of Nepal (Kohrt et al. 2016), and the tool has been widely used in the
country. The 2022 NDHS adopted the validated PHQ-9 translation and made some minimal adjustments
based on experiences from the survey pretest. This was done in consultation with the Transcultural
Psychosocial Organization (TPO) Nepal, and experts from TPO Nepal supported the pretest training and
the training of the field interviewers. The Nepali versions of the questionnaires were then translated to the
Maithili and Bhojpuri languages and pretested before finalization.

In the 2022 NDHS, the Mental Health Module was implemented in a subsample of the households selected
for the men’s survey. In these households, all women and men age 15–49 were eligible for the module.
Upon completion of the module, respondents who had a score of 10 or higher on the PHQ-9 and/or
answered “rarely,” “often,” or “always” on the PHQ-9 suicidal ideation question were provided with a
referral for mental health services. TPO Nepal provided information on the helpline that has coverage
throughout the country for referrals.

19.1 SYMPTOMS OF ANXIETY

Table 19.1 shows the distribution of responses to each individual item in the GAD-7: (a) feeling nervous,
anxious, or on edge; (b) not being able to stop or control worrying; (c) worrying too much about different
things; (d) trouble relaxing; (e) being so restless that it is hard to sit still; (f) becoming easily annoyed or
irritable; and (g) feeling afraid as if something awful might happen.

The most common symptoms of anxiety that women and men reported having experienced “often” or
“always” were becoming easily annoyed or irritable (14% and 7%, respectively); feeling nervous, anxious,
or on edge (13% and 6%, respectively); and worrying too much about different things (12% and 7%,
respectively).

498 • Mental Health

19.1.1 Severity of Symptoms of Anxiety

GAD-7 score
The sum of the scores on each of the seven items in the GAD-7 forms the
overall score. Each symptom in the GAD-7 is assigned a score of 0, 1, 2, or 3
depending on how frequently the respondent reported experiencing the
symptom in the 2 weeks preceding the survey:
0 – Never
1 – Rarely
2 – Often
3 – Always
GAD-7 scores range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 21. Higher scores
are associated with more severe symptoms of anxiety.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

Tables 19.2.1 and 19.2.2 show the Figure 19.1 Severity of anxiety (GAD-7)
distributions of women and men,
Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49
respectively, according to the
severity of symptoms of anxiety. A Women Men
GAD-7 score of 0–5 is considered
mild, while a score of 6–14 is
considered moderate and 15–21 is
considered severe (Spitzer et al. 6–14 0–5
2006b). Twenty-one percent of 0–5 21% 89% 6–14
women and 11% of men age 15–49 78% 11%
had a GAD score of 6–14, and 1% 15–21
15–21
of women and less than 1% of men 1% <1%
had a score of 15–21 (Figure 19.1).

For the purpose of international comparison, in this report respondents age 15–49 are considered to have
symptoms of anxiety if their GAD-7 score is 6 or higher. Overall, 22% of women and 11% of men reported
experiencing symptoms of anxiety in the 2 weeks preceding the survey (Table 19.2.1 and Table 19.2.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women age 40–44 were most likely to have symptoms of anxiety, while women age 15–19 were least
likely to have symptoms (27% versus 18%). There is no consistent pattern in symptoms of anxiety by
age among men.

▪ Women (28%) and men (16%) from the Dalit ethnic group experience symptoms of anxiety more
often than those from other ethnic groups.

▪ Women (28%) and men (18%) in Karnali Province are more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety
than those in the other provinces. Women (18%) in Gandaki Province and men (7%) in Madhesh
Province are least likely to experience symptoms of anxiety.

Mental Health • 499

 ▪ The proportion of women experiencing Figure 19.2 Symptoms of anxiety
symptoms of anxiety is higher among those with by education
no education than among those with more than a Percentage of women and men
secondary education (25% versus 13%). In age 15-49
contrast, men with no education less often No edu- Basic Second- More than
exhibit symptoms of anxiety than those with cation educa- ary (9–12) secondary
more than a secondary education (8% versus tion (1–8) (13 and
above)
13%) (Figure 19.2).

19.2 SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION

25 24
Table 19.3 shows the distribution of responses to 19
13 12 11 13
each individual item in the PHQ-9: (a) little interest 8
or pleasure in doing things; (b) feeling down,
depressed, or hopeless; (c) trouble falling asleep or Women Men
staying asleep or sleeping too much; (d) feeling tired
or having little energy; (e) poor appetite or overeating; (f) feeling bad about yourself or that you are a
failure or have let yourself or your family down; (g) trouble concentrating on things such as reading the
newspaper or watching television; (h) moving or speaking so slowly that other people could have noticed
or the opposite (being so fidgety or restless that you have been moving around a lot more than usual); and
(i) thoughts that you would be better off dead or of hurting yourself in some way.

The most common symptoms of depression that women and men reported having experienced “often” or
“always” were feeling tired or having little energy (9% and 2%, respectively); feeling down, depressed, or
hopeless (8% and 3%, respectively); trouble falling asleep or staying asleep or sleeping too much (7% and
4%, respectively); and little interest or pleasure in doing things (7% and 3%, respectively).

19.2.1 Severity of Symptoms of Depression

PHQ-9 score
The sum of the scores on each of the nine items in the PHQ-9 forms the
overall score. Each symptom in the PHQ-9 is assigned a score of 0, 1, 2, or 3
depending on how frequently the respondent reported experiencing the
symptom in the 2 weeks preceding the survey:
0 – Never
1 – Rarely
2 – Often
3 – Always
PHQ-9 scores range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 27. Higher scores
are associated with more severe symptoms of depression.
Sample: Women and men age 15–49

500 • Mental Health

Tables 19.4.1 and 19.4.2 show the distributions of women and men, respectively, according to the severity
of symptoms of depression. A PHQ-9 score of 0–4 is considered minimal symptoms or no symptoms,
while a score of 5–9 is considered mild, 10–14 is considered moderate, 15–19 is considered moderately
severe, and 20–27 is considered
severe (Kroenke et al. 2001). Figure 19.3 Severity of depression (PHQ-9)
Sixteen percent of women and 9% Percent distribution of women and men age 15–49
of men age 15–49 had a PHQ-9
Women Men
score of 5–9, and 4% of women and
2% of men had a score of 10–14
(Figure 19.3). One percent or less
of women and men had a PHQ-9 5–9
score of 15–19 or higher. 16% 0–4
0–4 89% 5–9 10–14
79% 9% 2%
For the purpose of international 10–14
4%
comparison, in this report 15–19
respondents are considered to have 15–19 <1%
20–27 1%
symptoms of depression if their 20–27
<1% <1%
PHQ-9 score is 10 or higher.
Overall, 5% of women and 2% of men age 15–49 reported experiencing symptoms of depression during
the 2 weeks preceding the survey (Table 19.4.1 and Table 19.4.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Women age 40–44 (8%) more often reported experiencing symptoms of depression than those in other
age cohorts. Among men, those age 20–24 most often reported experiencing symptoms (3%).

▪ Women and men in Karnali Province most often report experiencing symptoms of depression (9% and
4%, respectively).

▪ Women and men in the highest wealth quintile are generally less likely than those in the other
quintiles to report experiencing symptoms of depression. One percent of men in the highest wealth
quintile report symptoms of depression, as compared with 3% in the lowest quintile. Among women,
3% of those in the highest wealth quintile report symptoms, compared with 6% each of those in the
lowest three quintiles.

19.3 SYMPTOMS OF ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION AMONG WOMEN AND MEN (USING
COUNTRY-SPECIFIC CUTOFFS FOR SYMPTOMS)
A validation study conducted in Nepal by TPO Nepal has identified cutoffs specific to adolescents and
adults. The study recommends that, to derive a realistic estimate based on the context of Nepal, the results
of the 2022 NDHS should be presented based on the cutoff values recommended for the country.1

The cutoff values recommended by the validation study for use in Nepal are as follows:

Cutoff score
Adolescents Adults
Tool (up to 19 years) (20 years and above)
GAD-7 7 or more 9 or more
PHQ-9 11 or more 10 or more

1
The manuscript on validation of the GAD-7 among adults and the GAD-7 and PHQ-9 among adolescents in
Nepal is yet to be published.

Mental Health • 501

 The 2022 NDHS results regarding the prevalence of Figure 19.4 Symptoms of anxiety and
symptoms of anxiety and depression according to depression according to cutoffs used
these national cutoffs are presented in Table 19.5. in Nepal
Percentage of women and men
Based on the national cutoff values for adolescents, age 15–49
13% of young women and 7% of young men age
Women Men
15–19 have symptoms of anxiety, while 4% of
young women and 1% of young men have symptoms
of depression (Table 19.5 and Figure 19.4).

Based on the national cutoff values for individuals 13

10
age 20–49, 10% of women and 3% of men have 7 6
3 4 2
1
symptoms of anxiety. Similarly, 6% of women and
2% of men have symptoms of depression. 15–19 20–49 15–19 20–49
Symptoms of Symptoms of
19.4 TREATMENT FOR SYMPTOMS OF anxiety depression
ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION
Regardless of their scores on the GAD-7 or PHQ-9, all respondents were asked (a) if a health care provider
had ever told them that they had anxiety or depression, (b) if they had taken medicine in the 2 weeks
before the survey that was prescribed by a health care provider for anxiety or depression, or (c) if they had
received counseling for their mental health condition in the 2 weeks before the survey.

Four percent of women and 1% of men age 15–49 were ever told by a health care provider that they had
anxiety, while 3% of women and 2% of men were ever told by a health care provider that they had
depression. One percent of women and less than 1% of men reported taking medicine prescribed by a
health care provider for depression or anxiety in the past 2 weeks. Similarly, 2% of women and 1% of men
received counseling for their mental health condition in the 2 weeks before the survey (Table 19.6.1 and
Table 19.6.2).

One percent of women and less than 1% of men took medicine prescribed by a health care provider for any
other mental health conditions (data not shown).

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Ten percent of women and 4% of men with a GAD-7 score of 6 or more were ever told by a health
care provider that they had anxiety. Among women and men with scores of 6 or more, 3% each took
medicine prescribed by a health care provider for depression or anxiety in the 2 weeks preceding the
survey, while 4% of women and 3% of men received counseling (Table 19.6.1 and Table 19.6.2).

▪ Among respondents with a PHQ-9 score of 10 or more, 15% of women and 10% of men were ever
told by a health care provider that they had depression. Seven percent of women and 9% of men with a
score of 10 or more took medicine prescribed by a health care provider for depression or anxiety in the
2 weeks before the survey, and 9% of women and 6% of men received counseling for their mental
health condition (Table 19.6.1 and Table 19.6.2).

19.5 CARE SEEKING FOR SYMPTOMS OF ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION

Respondents who said that they had experienced any symptoms of anxiety or depression during the 2
weeks before the survey, regardless of frequency (i.e., respondents with a score of 1 or higher on either the
GAD-7 or PHQ-9), were asked if they had ever sought help and the type of provider from whom they
sought help.

502 • Mental Health

Nineteen percent of women and 13% of men who experienced any symptoms of anxiety or depression in
the 2 weeks preceding the survey sought help (Table 19.7.1 and Table 19.7.2). Among those who sought
help, 7% of women and 8% of men sought help from a health care provider.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ Twenty-five percent of Muslim women who had symptoms of anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks
preceding the survey sought help, but only 4% sought help from a health care provider. In contrast,
18% of Brahmin/Chhetri women sought help, and 12% sought help from a health care provider (Table
19.7.1). Muslim men were less likely to seek help than men in the other ethnic groups (Table 19.7.2).

▪ Forty-four percent of women and 38% of men with a PHQ-9 score of 10 or more had ever sought help,
as compared with only 17% of women and 13% of men with a score of 0–9 (Table 19.7.1 and Table
19.7.2).

▪ Among men who had symptoms of anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, those
with no education were less likely to have ever sought for help than those with more than a secondary
education (8% versus 17%). This pattern was not observed among women (Table 19.7.1 and Table
19.7.2).

19.6 SYMPTOMS OF ANXIETY OR DEPRESSION ADJUSTED FOR TREATMENT

People with anxiety or depression who are receiving treatment may experience fewer symptoms or no
symptoms at all. In order to better understand the burden of anxiety and depression at the population level,
including individuals whose symptoms may be effectively managed through medicine or counseling, Table
19.8 shows the percentages of women and men (a) who were experiencing symptoms of either anxiety or
depression and (b) who were experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression and taking medicine
prescribed by a health care provider.

In Nepal, 23% of women and 12% of men are suffering from anxiety or depression and receiving
medicine.

Patterns by background characteristics

▪ The burden of anxiety or depression is higher among women age 40–44 (28%) than among women in
other age cohorts. This pattern is not observed among men.

▪ The burden of anxiety and/or depression is disproportionately felt by Dalit women (29%) and men
(16%).

▪ A higher proportion of women and men in Karnali Province experience anxiety or depression (29%
and 18%, respectively) than women and men in other provinces. Anxiety or depression is least
common among women in Gandaki Province (18%) and men in Madhesh Province (7%) (Table 19.8).

▪ Women with no education have a higher burden of anxiety or depression (26%) than women with
more than a secondary education (13%).

Mental Health • 503

 LIST OF TABLES
For more information on mental health, see the following tables:

▪ Table 19.1 Symptoms of anxiety

▪ Table 19.2.1 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Women
▪ Table 19.2.2 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Men
▪ Table 19.3 Symptoms of depression
▪ Table 19.4.1 Severity of symptoms of depression: Women
▪ Table 19.4.2 Severity of symptoms of depression: Men
▪ Table 19.5 Symptoms of anxiety and depression among women and men
▪ Table 19.6.1 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Women
▪ Table 19.6.2 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Men
▪ Table 19.7.1 Care seeking and providers: Women
▪ Table 19.7.2 Care seeking and providers: Men
▪ Table 19.8 Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety and/or depression unadjusted and adjusted for
treatment

504 • Mental Health

Table 19.1 Symptoms of anxiety
Percent distributions of women and men age 15–49 by frequency of symptoms of anxiety in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, according to
specific symptoms included in the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7) scale, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of
Symptom of anxiety Never Rarely Often Always Total respondents
WOMEN 15–49
Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge 50.9 36.4 9.0 3.7 100.0 7,410
Not being able to stop or control worrying 77.8 16.2 4.5 1.5 100.0 7,410
Worrying too much about different things 55.3 33.0 9.0 2.7 100.0 7,410
Trouble relaxing 69.2 23.5 5.2 2.1 100.0 7,410
Being so restless that it is hard to sit still 78.5 16.2 4.2 1.2 100.0 7,410
Becoming easily annoyed or irritable 43.9 42.5 10.7 2.9 100.0 7,410
Feeling afraid as if something awful might
happen 67.1 25.5 6.0 1.5 100.0 7,410
MEN 15–49
Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge 62.5 31.3 4.8 1.3 100.0 4,913
Not being able to stop or control worrying 88.2 9.9 1.5 0.3 100.0 4,913
Worrying too much about different things 64.2 28.6 6.0 1.2 100.0 4,913
Trouble relaxing 80.4 16.0 3.0 0.7 100.0 4,913
Being so restless that it is hard to sit still 83.9 12.7 2.6 0.7 100.0 4,913
Becoming easily annoyed or irritable 60.9 32.2 5.2 1.6 100.0 4,913
Feeling afraid as if something awful might
happen 75.7 20.3 3.1 0.9 100.0 4,913

Mental Health • 505

 Table 19.2.1 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by their Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7) score, and percentage with symptoms
of anxiety, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
with
Background GAD-7 score symptoms Number of
characteristic 0–5 6–14 15–21 Total of anxiety1 women
Age
15–19 81.7 17.3 1.0 100.0 18.3 1,322
20–24 77.2 21.2 1.6 100.0 22.8 1,289
25–29 78.1 21.1 0.8 100.0 21.9 1,230
30–34 78.5 20.3 1.1 100.0 21.5 1,062
35–39 79.1 18.8 2.0 100.0 20.9 1,005
40–44 72.9 24.7 2.4 100.0 27.1 804
45–49 76.6 22.0 1.4 100.0 23.4 698
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 79.3 19.6 1.1 100.0 20.7 2,049
Dalit 71.9 26.7 1.4 100.0 28.1 1,115
Janajati 80.4 18.0 1.5 100.0 19.6 2,735
Madhesi 76.2 21.8 2.0 100.0 23.8 1,149
Muslim 77.0 21.8 1.2 100.0 23.0 351
Other * * * 100.0 * 11
Residence
Urban 78.3 20.4 1.3 100.0 21.7 5,064
Rural 77.5 20.6 1.8 100.0 22.5 2,347
Ecological zone
Mountain 78.1 19.4 2.5 100.0 21.9 408
Hill 80.3 18.7 1.0 100.0 19.7 2,896
Terai 76.5 21.9 1.6 100.0 23.5 4,106
Province
Koshi Province 75.6 21.8 2.6 100.0 24.4 1,241
Urban 75.1 22.2 2.6 100.0 24.9 823
Rural 76.6 21.0 2.4 100.0 23.4 418
Madhesh Province 77.9 20.4 1.6 100.0 22.1 1,512
Urban 78.5 20.2 1.3 100.0 21.5 1,113
Rural 76.5 21.1 2.4 100.0 23.5 400
Bagmati Province 81.0 18.1 0.9 100.0 19.0 1,493
Urban 80.7 18.5 0.8 100.0 19.3 1,175
Rural 82.1 16.8 1.1 100.0 17.9 318
Gandaki Province 82.2 17.1 0.6 100.0 17.8 704
Urban 82.3 17.0 0.7 100.0 17.7 499
Rural 82.1 17.4 0.5 100.0 17.9 205
Lumbini Province 78.1 20.6 1.3 100.0 21.9 1,360
Urban 79.4 20.0 0.6 100.0 20.6 793
Rural 76.3 21.5 2.2 100.0 23.7 568
Karnali Province 72.2 26.4 1.4 100.0 27.8 458
Urban 75.3 23.2 1.6 100.0 24.7 257
Rural 68.2 30.6 1.2 100.0 31.8 201
Sudurpashchim Province 75.8 22.9 1.3 100.0 24.2 641
Urban 72.2 26.6 1.2 100.0 27.8 404
Rural 81.8 16.6 1.6 100.0 18.2 237
Education
No education 74.8 23.2 1.9 100.0 25.2 1,944
Basic education (1–8) 76.2 21.9 1.9 100.0 23.8 2,256
Lower basic education (1–5) 76.1 21.6 2.3 100.0 23.9 1,139
Upper basic education (6–8) 76.3 22.1 1.6 100.0 23.7 1,117
Secondary (9–12) 80.8 18.4 0.8 100.0 19.2 2,931
Lower secondary
(9–10) 80.9 18.4 0.7 100.0 19.1 1,603
Higher secondary (11–12) 80.7 18.3 0.9 100.0 19.3 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 86.7 12.8 0.5 100.0 13.3 280
Wealth quintile
Lowest 78.2 20.6 1.2 100.0 21.8 1,344
Second 74.5 23.4 2.1 100.0 25.5 1,372
Middle 75.4 22.7 1.9 100.0 24.6 1,512
Fourth 78.7 20.4 0.9 100.0 21.3 1,704
Highest 83.3 15.5 1.1 100.0 16.7 1,479
Total 78.1 20.5 1.4 100.0 21.9 7,410

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents with a GAD-7 score of 6 or higher

506 • Mental Health

Table 19.2.2 Severity of symptoms of anxiety: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by their Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7) score, and percentage with symptoms
of anxiety, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
with
Background GAD-7 score symptoms Number of
characteristic 0–5 6–14 15–21 Total of anxiety1 men
Age
15–19 90.0 10.0 0.0 100.0 10.0 985
20–24 86.6 12.9 0.5 100.0 13.4 857
25–29 87.7 11.7 0.6 100.0 12.3 716
30–34 90.1 9.8 0.1 100.0 9.9 616
35–39 89.7 10.2 0.1 100.0 10.3 639
40–44 89.0 10.7 0.3 100.0 11.0 604
45–49 88.0 11.9 0.1 100.0 12.0 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 86.1 13.4 0.6 100.0 13.9 1,232
Dalit 84.3 15.4 0.3 100.0 15.7 658
Janajati 89.4 10.5 0.2 100.0 10.6 1,869
Madhesi 92.4 7.5 0.1 100.0 7.6 917
Muslim 95.4 4.6 0.0 100.0 4.6 228
Other * * * 100.0 * 8
Residence
Urban 88.5 11.2 0.3 100.0 11.5 3,462
Rural 89.3 10.5 0.2 100.0 10.7 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 82.3 17.0 0.6 100.0 17.7 255
Hill 88.9 10.8 0.3 100.0 11.1 1,973
Terai 89.1 10.6 0.2 100.0 10.9 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 86.3 13.7 0.1 100.0 13.7 882
Urban 85.4 14.6 0.0 100.0 14.6 604
Rural 88.1 11.7 0.2 100.0 11.9 278
Madhesh Province 93.5 6.4 0.1 100.0 6.5 997
Urban 93.5 6.3 0.1 100.0 6.5 722
Rural 93.5 6.5 0.0 100.0 6.5 275
Bagmati Province 86.5 13.3 0.2 100.0 13.5 1,214
Urban 86.7 13.1 0.2 100.0 13.3 1,016
Rural 85.3 14.4 0.4 100.0 14.7 198
Gandaki Province 91.8 7.9 0.3 100.0 8.2 387
Urban 92.8 6.8 0.4 100.0 7.2 264
Rural 89.7 10.3 0.0 100.0 10.3 123
Lumbini Province 88.3 11.2 0.5 100.0 11.7 812
Urban 86.6 12.7 0.7 100.0 13.4 468
Rural 90.5 9.2 0.3 100.0 9.5 344
Karnali Province 82.2 17.0 0.8 100.0 17.8 266
Urban 82.8 16.0 1.1 100.0 17.2 154
Rural 81.3 18.3 0.4 100.0 18.7 113
Sudurpashchim Province 91.5 8.1 0.4 100.0 8.5 355
Urban 91.1 8.5 0.4 100.0 8.9 233
Rural 92.4 7.3 0.4 100.0 7.6 122
Education
No education 92.5 7.5 0.0 100.0 7.5 393
Basic education (1–8) 88.4 11.4 0.1 100.0 11.6 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 86.4 13.5 0.2 100.0 13.6 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 90.2 9.6 0.1 100.0 9.8 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 88.6 11.0 0.4 100.0 11.4 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.4 10.2 0.5 100.0 10.6 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 87.6 12.1 0.3 100.0 12.4 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 86.8 12.7 0.5 100.0 13.2 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 86.1 13.5 0.4 100.0 13.9 751
Second 86.6 13.0 0.3 100.0 13.4 933
Middle 91.2 8.8 0.0 100.0 8.8 957
Fourth 89.0 10.6 0.4 100.0 11.0 1,135
Highest 89.7 10.0 0.3 100.0 10.3 1,137
Total 88.7 11.0 0.3 100.0 11.3 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents with a GAD-7 score of 6 or higher

Mental Health • 507

 Table 19.3 Symptoms of depression
Percent distributions of women and men age 15–49 by frequency of symptoms of depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, according to specific
symptoms included in the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Nepal DHS 2022
Don’t know/ Number of
Symptom of depression Never Rarely Often Always no answer Total respondents
WOMEN 15–49
Little interest or pleasure in doing things 72.6 20.4 5.6 1.4 0.0 100.0 7,410
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless 66.1 26.1 6.1 1.6 0.0 100.0 7,410
Trouble falling asleep or staying asleep or
sleeping too much 69.3 23.4 5.6 1.7 0.0 100.0 7,410
Feeling tired or having little energy 62.0 29.4 6.9 1.6 0.0 100.0 7,410
Poor appetite or overeating 71.7 23.0 4.3 1.0 0.0 100.0 7,410
Feeling bad about yourself or that you are a
failure or have let yourself or your family down 87.8 9.2 2.3 0.7 0.0 100.0 7,410
Trouble concentrating on things such as
reading the newspaper or watching television 79.5 16.3 3.5 0.7 0.0 100.0 7,410
Moving or speaking so slowly that other people
could have noticed or the opposite (being so
fidgety or restless that you have been moving
around a lot more than usual) 89.2 8.6 1.8 0.5 0.0 100.0 7,410
Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of
hurting yourself in some way 93.2 5.3 1.2 0.4 0.0 100.0 7,410
MEN 15–49
Little interest or pleasure in doing things 78.6 18.0 2.8 0.6 0.0 100.0 4,913
Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless 78.6 18.1 2.8 0.5 0.0 100.0 4,913
Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or
sleeping too much 77.6 18.5 3.2 0.7 0.0 100.0 4,913
Feeling tired or having little energy 79.8 18.0 1.9 0.3 0.0 100.0 4,913
Poor appetite or overeating 84.6 13.1 1.9 0.4 0.0 100.0 4,913
Feeling bad about yourself or that you are a
failure or have let yourself or your family down 88.2 9.2 1.9 0.5 0.1 100.0 4,913
Trouble concentrating on things such as
reading the newspaper or watching television 86.2 12.2 1.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 4,913
Moving or speaking so slowly that other people
could have noticed or the opposite (being so
fidgety or restless that you have been moving
around a lot more than usual) 93.1 5.9 0.7 0.3 0.0 100.0 4,913
Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of
hurting yourself in some way 97.8 1.8 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 4,913

508 • Mental Health

Table 19.4.1 Severity of symptoms of depression: Women
Percent distribution of women age 15–49 by their Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) score, and percentage with symptoms of
depression, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
with
symptoms
Background PHQ-9 score of depres- Number of
characteristic 0–4 5–9 10–14 15–19 20–27 Total sion1 women
Age
15–19 81.7 13.8 3.1 1.1 0.3 100.0 4.5 1,322
20–24 78.3 16.2 3.7 1.4 0.4 100.0 5.5 1,289
25–29 79.3 15.2 3.8 1.3 0.4 100.0 5.6 1,230
30–34 79.0 15.7 4.2 0.7 0.4 100.0 5.3 1,062
35–39 79.8 14.8 3.6 1.3 0.5 100.0 5.4 1,005
40–44 76.3 16.2 4.6 2.4 0.6 100.0 7.5 804
45–49 75.6 19.6 3.5 1.0 0.2 100.0 4.8 698
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 79.0 15.6 3.4 1.6 0.3 100.0 5.3 2,049
Dalit 75.1 17.6 5.2 1.6 0.5 100.0 7.3 1,115
Janajati 80.0 15.3 3.2 0.9 0.5 100.0 4.6 2,735
Madhesi 80.1 14.8 3.6 1.1 0.4 100.0 5.1 1,149
Muslim 76.9 15.5 5.4 2.2 0.0 100.0 7.6 351
Other * * * * * 100.0 * 11
Residence
Urban 79.5 15.5 3.3 1.2 0.4 100.0 5.0 5,064
Rural 77.6 16.0 4.6 1.4 0.5 100.0 6.4 2,347
Ecological zone
Mountain 76.2 16.6 4.8 2.0 0.4 100.0 7.2 408
Hill 79.3 15.7 3.4 1.2 0.3 100.0 5.0 2,896
Terai 78.9 15.5 3.8 1.3 0.5 100.0 5.6 4,106
Province
Koshi Province 74.2 19.3 4.5 1.4 0.6 100.0 6.5 1,241
Urban 74.4 19.8 3.8 1.3 0.7 100.0 5.8 823
Rural 73.9 18.3 5.7 1.5 0.5 100.0 7.8 418
Madhesh Province 80.0 15.0 3.6 1.2 0.2 100.0 5.0 1,512
Urban 81.0 15.1 2.8 1.0 0.1 100.0 3.9 1,113
Rural 77.1 14.7 5.8 1.8 0.5 100.0 8.1 400
Bagmati Province 81.5 14.2 2.7 1.3 0.4 100.0 4.4 1,493
Urban 81.2 14.7 2.3 1.4 0.4 100.0 4.1 1,175
Rural 82.5 12.3 4.1 0.9 0.2 100.0 5.2 318
Gandaki Province 82.8 13.2 2.8 0.9 0.3 100.0 4.0 704
Urban 81.8 13.9 3.1 0.8 0.4 100.0 4.2 499
Rural 85.2 11.5 2.1 1.2 0.0 100.0 3.3 205
Lumbini Province 80.3 14.7 3.2 1.2 0.6 100.0 4.9 1,360
Urban 82.7 12.9 3.2 0.9 0.3 100.0 4.4 793
Rural 77.0 17.3 3.2 1.7 0.9 100.0 5.8 568
Karnali Province 71.0 19.7 6.8 2.4 0.1 100.0 9.3 458
Urban 74.2 16.8 6.5 2.4 0.0 100.0 8.9 257
Rural 66.8 23.3 7.3 2.4 0.2 100.0 9.8 201
Sudurpashchim Province 77.7 15.5 4.9 1.1 0.7 100.0 6.8 641
Urban 75.1 16.7 5.5 1.7 1.0 100.0 8.2 404
Rural 82.1 13.6 3.9 0.2 0.2 100.0 4.3 237
Education
No education 76.3 17.4 4.2 1.5 0.6 100.0 6.3 1,944
Basic education (1–8) 78.3 15.2 4.3 1.8 0.3 100.0 6.5 2,256
Lower basic education (1–5) 77.6 15.8 4.0 2.2 0.4 100.0 6.6 1,139
Upper basic education (6–8) 79.0 14.6 4.7 1.5 0.3 100.0 6.4 1,117
Secondary (9–12) 80.3 15.3 3.2 0.8 0.4 100.0 4.4 2,931
Lower secondary (9–10) 80.7 14.7 3.4 0.6 0.5 100.0 4.6 1,603
Higher secondary (11–12) 79.7 16.1 2.9 1.0 0.3 100.0 4.2 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 87.9 10.5 1.3 0.4 0.0 100.0 1.6 280
Wealth quintile
Lowest 77.1 16.5 4.6 1.5 0.3 100.0 6.4 1,344
Second 74.3 19.4 4.4 1.4 0.5 100.0 6.3 1,372
Middle 78.2 15.4 4.5 1.2 0.7 100.0 6.4 1,512
Fourth 80.8 14.3 3.5 1.3 0.1 100.0 4.9 1,704
Highest 83.3 13.3 1.8 1.1 0.5 100.0 3.4 1,479
Total 78.9 15.7 3.7 1.3 0.4 100.0 5.4 7,410

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents with a PHQ-9 score of 10 or higher

Mental Health • 509

 Table 19.4.2 Severity of symptoms of depression: Men
Percent distribution of men age 15–49 by their Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) score, and percentage with symptoms of
depression, according to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022

Percentage
with
symptoms
Background PHQ-9 score of depres- Number of
characteristic 0–4 5–9 10–14 15–19 20–27 Total sion1 men
Age
15–19 89.0 9.4 1.4 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.6 985
20–24 86.8 10.1 2.6 0.6 0.0 100.0 3.2 857
25–29 87.0 11.8 1.1 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.2 716
30–34 91.4 7.5 0.9 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.1 616
35–39 90.4 8.4 1.0 0.1 0.0 100.0 1.2 639
40–44 90.7 7.8 1.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.5 604
45–49 87.9 9.9 2.1 0.0 0.1 100.0 2.2 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 88.0 9.6 2.1 0.4 0.0 100.0 2.5 1,232
Dalit 86.8 10.9 2.2 0.1 0.0 100.0 2.4 658
Janajati 87.1 11.6 1.2 0.1 0.0 100.0 1.3 1,869
Madhesi 93.4 4.9 1.4 0.3 0.0 100.0 1.7 917
Muslim 96.6 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 228
Other * * * * * 100.0 * 8
Residence
Urban 88.9 9.4 1.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.7 3,462
Rural 88.8 9.4 1.6 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.8 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 79.7 17.3 2.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 2.9 255
Hill 88.5 9.8 1.3 0.3 0.0 100.0 1.6 1,973
Terai 90.0 8.3 1.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.7 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 87.4 10.3 2.1 0.2 0.1 100.0 2.3 882
Urban 88.0 9.7 2.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 2.3 604
Rural 86.1 11.5 1.6 0.7 0.2 100.0 2.4 278
Madhesh Province 95.3 4.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 0.5 997
Urban 95.0 4.4 0.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 0.6 722
Rural 96.2 3.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.3 275
Bagmati Province 85.5 12.6 1.7 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.9 1,214
Urban 86.5 11.9 1.4 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.6 1,016
Rural 80.5 16.2 2.9 0.4 0.0 100.0 3.3 198
Gandaki Province 91.2 7.2 1.3 0.3 0.0 100.0 1.6 387
Urban 90.3 7.5 1.7 0.4 0.0 100.0 2.2 264
Rural 93.2 6.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.3 123
Lumbini Province 88.0 9.9 1.9 0.2 0.0 100.0 2.1 812
Urban 86.4 11.3 2.1 0.3 0.0 100.0 2.3 468
Rural 90.2 8.1 1.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.7 344
Karnali Province 81.1 15.3 3.1 0.5 0.0 100.0 3.6 266
Urban 81.9 15.5 2.0 0.6 0.0 100.0 2.6 154
Rural 80.0 15.0 4.7 0.3 0.0 100.0 5.0 113
Sudurpashchim Province 91.2 7.3 1.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.5 355
Urban 91.3 6.7 1.8 0.2 0.0 100.0 2.1 233
Rural 91.2 8.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.4 122
Education
No education 92.6 6.3 1.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.1 393
Basic education (1–8) 88.3 9.5 1.9 0.3 0.0 100.0 2.2 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 86.6 10.8 2.3 0.3 0.0 100.0 2.7 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 89.9 8.4 1.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.7 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 88.6 9.9 1.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.5 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 89.7 8.5 1.3 0.4 0.0 100.0 1.8 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 87.1 11.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.2 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 89.6 8.9 1.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.4 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 86.2 10.8 2.8 0.2 0.1 100.0 3.0 751
Second 87.2 11.0 1.6 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.8 933
Middle 90.3 8.5 1.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.2 957
Fourth 89.2 9.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.8 1,135
Highest 90.5 8.1 0.8 0.5 0.0 100.0 1.3 1,137
Total 88.9 9.4 1.5 0.2 0.0 100.0 1.7 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
1
Respondents with a PHQ-9 score of 10 or higher

510 • Mental Health

Table 19.5 Symptoms of anxiety and depression among women and men
Percentages of women and men with symptoms of anxiety and depression, according to age group, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men Total
Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
with with with with with with Number of
symptoms symptoms of Number of symptoms symptoms of Number of symptoms symptoms of women and
1
Age group of anxiety depression2 women of anxiety 1
depression2 men of anxiety 1
depression2
men
15–19 13.4 3.6 1,322 6.8 1.2 985 10.6 2.6 2,307
20–49 10.0 5.6 6,088 3.4 1.8 3,928 7.4 4.1 10,016

1
Respondents with a score of 7 or higher on GAD-7 for age group 15–19; Respondents with a score of 9 or higher on GAD-7 for age group
20–49.
2
Respondents with a score of 11 or higher on PHQ-9 for age group 15–19; Respondents with a score of 10 or higher on PHQ-9 for age group
20–49.

Mental Health • 511

 Table 19.6.1 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Women
Percentage of women age 15–49 who have ever been told by a health care provider that they have anxiety or depression, percentage
who took medicine prescribed by a health care provider for anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and percentage
who received counseling from a health care provider for their mental health condition in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, according
to background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Took medicine Received
prescribed by a counseling from a
health care health care
provider for provider for
anxiety or mental health
Background Ever told had Ever told had depression in past condition in past 2 Number of
characteristic anxiety depression 2 weeks weeks women
Age
15–19 1.5 1.1 0.6 1.8 1,322
20–24 3.2 2.9 0.6 1.7 1,289
25–29 3.6 2.7 0.6 0.8 1,230
30–34 4.9 4.0 1.2 1.0 1,062
35–39 4.5 3.3 1.7 2.0 1,005
40–44 5.4 4.5 1.9 1.9 804
45–49 5.7 3.5 2.5 1.6 698
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 4.5 4.4 1.6 2.2 2,049
Dalit 4.4 3.1 1.1 1.4 1,115
Janajati 2.7 2.3 1.0 0.8 2,735
Madhesi 4.2 1.5 0.8 2.2 1,149
Muslim 6.1 3.7 1.4 0.8 351
Other * * * * 11
GAD-7 score
0–5 2.0 1.8 0.7 0.8 5,785
6+ 10.3 7.2 3.0 4.1 1,626
PHQ-9 score
0–9 3.0 2.3 0.9 1.1 7,008
10+ 18.4 15.0 7.0 8.9 403
Residence
Urban 3.8 3.1 1.3 1.4 5,064
Rural 4.1 2.8 1.0 1.7 2,347
Ecological zone
Mountain 5.1 4.1 1.1 1.0 408
Hill 3.7 3.0 1.2 1.1 2,896
Terai 3.8 2.9 1.2 1.8 4,106
Province
Koshi Province 3.4 2.7 1.1 2.2 1,241
Urban 3.3 2.7 1.1 2.4 823
Rural 3.4 2.7 1.0 1.7 418
Madhesh Province 3.9 2.1 0.9 1.1 1,512
Urban 3.5 2.0 1.0 0.8 1,113
Rural 5.1 2.4 0.7 2.1 400
Bagmati Province 3.5 3.6 1.3 1.1 1,493
Urban 3.6 3.7 1.1 0.9 1,175
Rural 3.1 3.5 1.8 1.7 318
Gandaki Province 3.7 2.3 0.4 0.5 704
Urban 4.2 2.5 0.4 0.3 499
Rural 2.6 1.9 0.5 1.0 205
Lumbini Province 4.5 3.5 1.6 2.0 1,360
Urban 3.5 3.6 2.1 2.3 793
Rural 5.8 3.3 0.9 1.5 568
Karnali Province 6.2 4.5 2.6 2.0 458
Urban 7.0 5.3 3.6 2.0 257
Rural 5.2 3.5 1.4 2.1 201
Sudurpashchim Province 2.8 2.8 0.7 1.8 641
Urban 3.5 3.2 0.9 2.1 404
Rural 1.6 2.1 0.4 1.2 237
Education
No education 4.9 2.9 1.9 1.1 1,944
Basic education (1–8) 3.8 3.4 0.9 1.4 2,256
Lower basic education (1–5) 4.5 3.6 0.7 1.0 1,139
Upper basic education (6–8) 3.1 3.2 1.0 1.8 1,117
Secondary (9–12) 3.3 2.9 1.1 1.9 2,931
Lower secondary (9–10) 3.3 2.5 1.3 1.5 1,603
Higher secondary (11–12) 3.2 3.4 0.9 2.3 1,328
More than secondary (13 and
above) 3.3 1.3 0.3 0.8 280
Wealth quintile
Lowest 2.7 2.3 0.6 0.8 1,344
Second 3.8 2.5 1.4 1.3 1,372
Middle 5.5 3.4 1.4 2.1 1,512
Fourth 3.0 2.8 0.8 1.6 1,704
Highest 4.2 3.9 1.7 1.6 1,479
Total 3.9 3.0 1.2 1.5 7,410

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire

512 • Mental Health

Table 19.6.2 Treatment for symptoms of anxiety or depression: Men
Percentage of men age 15–49 who have ever been told by a health care provider that they have anxiety or depression, percentage who
took medicine prescribed by a health care provider for anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and percentage who
received counseling from a health care provider for their mental health condition in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Took medicine Received
prescribed by a counseling from a
health care health care
provider for anxiety provider for mental
Background Ever told had Ever told had or depression in health condition in Number
characteristic anxiety depression past 2 weeks past 2 weeks of men
Age
15–19 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.6 985
20–24 1.1 1.8 0.9 1.0 857
25–29 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.7 716
30–34 0.8 1.7 0.2 1.2 616
35–39 0.5 2.1 0.5 0.1 639
40–44 0.8 2.2 0.3 0.5 604
45–49 2.7 2.8 0.8 0.2 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 1.9 2.1 0.7 1.1 1,232
Dalit 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.6 658
Janajati 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.2 1,869
Madhesi 1.2 1.6 0.7 1.1 917
Muslim 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 228
Other * * * * 8
GAD-7 score
0–5 0.7 1.0 0.2 0.3 4,358
6+ 3.6 6.2 3.0 3.2 555
PHQ-9 score
0–9 0.8 1.4 0.4 0.5 4,827
10+ 13.3 10.2 8.6 6.0 86
Residence
Urban 1.0 1.7 0.5 0.6 3,462
Rural 1.1 1.3 0.5 0.7 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.5 255
Hill 1.1 1.6 0.6 0.4 1,973
Terai 1.0 1.7 0.5 0.8 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 0.4 1.2 0.5 0.3 882
Urban 0.4 1.3 0.5 0.2 604
Rural 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.3 278
Madhesh Province 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.6 997
Urban 0.8 1.5 0.7 0.8 722
Rural 0.5 0.7 0.0 0.0 275
Bagmati Province 1.4 1.7 0.3 0.3 1,214
Urban 1.4 1.8 0.2 0.0 1,016
Rural 1.4 1.3 0.6 1.5 198
Gandaki Province 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.8 387
Urban 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.4 264
Rural 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.4 123
Lumbini Province 1.2 2.0 0.5 1.2 812
Urban 1.1 2.0 0.6 1.7 468
Rural 1.4 2.0 0.5 0.6 344
Karnali Province 2.1 2.4 1.1 1.7 266
Urban 1.4 2.5 1.1 1.8 154
Rural 3.2 2.3 1.0 1.7 113
Sudurpashchim Province 1.6 2.1 0.7 0.7 355
Urban 1.6 2.6 1.0 0.9 233
Rural 1.5 1.3 0.0 0.4 122
Education
No education 0.2 1.1 0.4 0.0 393
Basic education (1–8) 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.5 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.2 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.8 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 1.4 1.8 0.6 0.8 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 1.7 1.9 0.6 0.7 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 1.0 1.6 0.5 1.0 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 1.4 4.2 1.3 0.7 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 0.7 0.9 0.1 0.2 751
Second 0.9 1.4 0.7 0.5 933
Middle 1.0 1.4 0.9 0.8 957
Fourth 1.1 1.4 0.4 0.6 1,135
Highest 1.4 2.3 0.5 0.9 1,137
Total 1.0 1.5 0.5 0.6 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire

Mental Health • 513

 Table 19.7.1 Care seeking and providers: Women
Among women with any symptoms of anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage who have
ever sought help, and among those who sought help, type of provider from whom the help was sought, according to
background characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among women with any
symptoms of anxiety or
depression in the 2 weeks Among those who sought
preceding the survey1 help by type of provider
Background Ever sought Number of Health care Number of
characteristic help women provider Other women
Age
15–19 17.1 1,069 1.2 98.8 183
20–24 19.5 1,063 4.5 95.5 207
25–29 21.3 970 5.6 94.4 207
30–34 18.8 857 8.8 91.2 161
35–39 18.1 793 9.6 90.4 143
40–44 16.4 680 10.4 89.6 111
45–49 18.5 560 15.2 84.8 104
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 17.5 1,642 11.8 88.2 287
Dalit 17.1 938 7.4 92.6 161
Janajati 18.9 2,174 4.9 95.1 411
Madhesi 19.3 948 3.5 96.5 183
Muslim 24.9 280 4.1 95.9 70
Other * 9 * * 4
GAD-7 score
0–5 12.9 4,366 4.9 95.1 562
6+ 34.1 1,626 9.1 90.9 554
PHQ-9 score
0–9 16.8 5,589 5.5 94.5 940
10+ 43.8 403 15.1 84.9 176
Residence
Urban 19.0 4,099 8.0 92.0 780
Rural 17.8 1,892 4.7 95.3 336
Ecological zone
Mountain 13.1 339 12.7 87.3 44
Hill 17.3 2,264 8.6 91.4 392
Terai 20.0 3,389 5.7 94.3 679
Province
Koshi Province 19.1 1,054 4.8 95.2 201
Urban 18.6 704 6.0 94.0 131
Rural 20.1 350 2.4 97.6 70
Madhesh Province 19.1 1,239 2.8 97.2 237
Urban 19.1 898 3.6 96.4 172
Rural 19.1 341 0.7 99.3 65
Bagmati Province 15.4 1,198 12.6 87.4 185
Urban 16.9 953 12.6 87.4 161
Rural 9.7 245 (12.6) (87.4) 24
Gandaki Province 19.0 522 5.1 94.9 99
Urban 20.9 373 4.4 95.6 78
Rural 14.2 149 (7.5) (92.5) 21
Lumbini Province 20.6 1,074 8.6 91.4 221
Urban 19.6 617 10.7 89.3 121
Rural 21.9 457 6.1 93.9 100
Karnali Province 18.4 378 11.5 88.5 70
Urban 21.0 213 13.9 86.1 45
Rural 15.1 165 7.3 92.7 25
Sudurpashchim Province 19.6 527 6.4 93.6 103
Urban 21.1 341 7.3 92.7 72
Rural 16.9 186 4.3 95.7 31
Education
No education 17.4 1,610 9.8 90.2 280
Basic education (1–8) 17.6 1,820 5.9 94.1 320
Lower basic education (1–5) 17.0 918 8.8 91.2 156
Upper basic education (6–8) 18.2 903 3.3 96.7 165
Secondary (9–12) 20.3 2,345 6.4 93.6 475
Lower secondary (9–10) 19.0 1,272 6.4 93.6 242
Higher secondary (11–12) 21.8 1,073 6.4 93.6 234
More than secondary (13 and above) 18.6 217 (3.3) (96.7) 40
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.0 1,087 4.0 96.0 153
Second 19.8 1,114 9.1 90.9 221
Middle 18.6 1,237 4.0 96.0 230
Fourth 21.4 1,422 6.8 93.2 304
Highest 18.5 1,133 10.7 89.3 209
Total 18.6 5,992 7.0 93.0 1,116

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire
1
Includes respondents who said that they experienced any symptom of anxiety or depression during the 2 weeks before
the survey, regardless of frequency (i.e., respondents with a score of 1 or higher on either the GAD-7 or PHQ-9)

514 • Mental Health

Table 19.7.2 Care seeking and providers: Men
Among men with any symptoms of anxiety or depression in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage who have ever
sought help, and among those who sought help, type of provider from whom the help was sought, according to background
characteristics, Nepal DHS 2022
Among men with any
symptoms of anxiety or
depression in the 2 weeks Among those who sought
preceding the survey1 help by type of provider
Background Ever sought Number Health care Number
characteristic help of men provider Other of men
Age
15–19 11.5 761 5.6 94.4 88
20–24 15.0 654 3.8 96.2 98
25–29 15.4 540 6.2 93.8 83
30–34 13.8 442 13.9 86.1 61
35–39 11.7 439 8.0 92.0 51
40–44 11.8 379 9.8 90.2 45
45–49 13.1 347 13.8 86.2 46
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 14.5 918 11.8 88.2 133
Dalit 13.6 485 4.7 95.3 66
Janajati 13.7 1,404 5.3 94.7 192
Madhesi 11.1 613 11.6 88.4 68
Muslim 8.6 136 * * 12
Other * 5 * * 0
GAD-7 score
0–5 10.3 3,007 6.6 93.4 308
6+ 29.4 555 10.2 89.8 163
PHQ-9 score
0–9 12.6 3,476 7.6 92.4 439
10+ 37.5 86 (11.2) (88.8) 32
Residence
Urban 12.9 2,519 6.9 93.1 326
Rural 14.0 1,042 10.0 90.0 146
Ecological zone
Mountain 14.1 210 (2.9) (97.1) 30
Hill 14.6 1,489 6.5 93.5 217
Terai 12.1 1,862 9.8 90.2 224
Province
Koshi Province 14.9 632 2.6 97.4 94
Urban 15.2 417 (3.8) (96.2) 63
Rural 14.4 215 (0.0) (100.0) 31
Madhesh Province 7.5 627 (4.7) (95.3) 47
Urban 7.3 463 * * 34
Rural 8.2 163 * * 13
Bagmati Province 10.8 964 5.2 94.8 104
Urban 11.0 803 (4.8) (95.2) 88
Rural 9.8 161 * * 16
Gandaki Province 12.9 290 8.4 91.6 37
Urban 14.2 198 (8.4) (91.6) 28
Rural 10.0 92 * * 9
Lumbini Province 20.9 550 13.5 86.5 115
Urban 20.5 325 10.4 89.6 67
Rural 21.3 226 (17.8) (82.2) 48
Karnali Province 18.7 220 11.0 89.0 41
Urban 20.8 124 7.0 93.0 26
Rural 16.0 96 (17.8) (82.2) 15
Sudurpashchim Province 11.8 279 11.4 88.6 33
Urban 10.5 189 (16.6) (83.4) 20
Rural 14.4 90 (3.5) (96.5) 13
Education
No education 7.7 239 * * 18
Basic education (1–8) 12.3 1,395 8.2 91.8 172
Lower basic education (1–5) 10.9 666 7.1 92.9 73
Upper basic education (6–8) 13.6 728 9.0 91.0 99
Secondary (9–12) 14.2 1,661 6.6 93.4 236
Lower secondary (9–10) 14.8 942 8.0 92.0 139
Higher secondary (11–12) 13.5 719 4.6 95.4 97
More than secondary (13 and above) 16.9 266 (12.9) (87.1) 45
Wealth quintile
Lowest 14.0 570 3.5 96.5 80
Second 15.3 691 6.9 93.1 105
Middle 11.3 664 9.5 90.5 75
Fourth 11.3 797 7.7 92.3 90
Highest 14.4 839 10.7 89.3 121
Total 13.2 3,562 7.8 92.2 471

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25–49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer
than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire
1
Includes respondents who said that they experienced any symptom of anxiety or depression during the 2 weeks before
the survey, regardless of frequency (i.e., respondents with a score of 1 or higher on either the GAD-7 or PHQ-9)

Mental Health • 515

 Table 19.8 Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety and/or depression unadjusted and adjusted for treatment
Among women and men age 15–49, percentage with symptoms of anxiety and/or depression and percentage with symptoms of anxiety
and/or depression who are receiving treatment, Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Percentage Percentage
with symptoms with symptoms
of anxiety of anxiety
Percentage and/or Percentage and/or
with symptoms depression with symptoms depression
of anxiety who are of anxiety who are
Background and/or receiving Number of and/or receiving Number of
1
characteristic depression treatment2 women depression 1
treatment2 men
Age
15–19 18.7 19.1 1,322 10.2 10.2 985
20–24 23.6 24.0 1,289 13.7 14.1 857
25–29 22.1 22.3 1,230 12.5 12.7 716
30–34 21.7 22.3 1,062 10.2 10.2 616
35–39 21.1 21.9 1,005 10.3 10.5 639
40–44 27.3 27.8 804 11.1 11.3 604
45–49 24.0 25.0 698 12.6 12.8 496
Ethnic group
Brahmin/Chhetri 21.0 21.7 2,049 14.1 14.2 1,232
Dalit 28.7 29.0 1,115 15.8 16.0 658
Janajati 19.9 20.4 2,735 11.1 11.4 1,869
Madhesi 24.3 24.5 1,149 7.8 7.8 917
Muslim 23.2 24.3 351 4.6 4.6 228
Other * * 11 * * 8
Residence
Urban 21.9 22.5 5,064 11.7 11.9 3,462
Rural 23.1 23.5 2,347 11.0 11.3 1,451
Ecological zone
Mountain 22.2 22.8 408 17.7 17.7 255
Hill 20.2 20.6 2,896 11.3 11.6 1,973
Terai 23.8 24.4 4,106 11.1 11.2 2,685
Province
Koshi Province 24.6 25.1 1,241 13.9 14.4 882
Urban 24.9 25.6 823 14.6 15.1 604
Rural 23.8 24.1 418 12.4 12.9 278
Madhesh Province 22.5 22.9 1,512 6.6 6.7 997
Urban 21.8 22.2 1,113 6.7 6.8 722
Rural 24.3 24.8 400 6.5 6.5 275
Bagmati Province 19.5 20.2 1,493 13.8 13.8 1,214
Urban 19.7 20.3 1,175 13.6 13.6 1,016
Rural 19.0 19.6 318 15.0 15.3 198
Gandaki Province 17.8 17.9 704 8.5 8.9 387
Urban 17.7 17.7 499 7.7 8.1 264
Rural 18.1 18.3 205 10.3 10.6 123
Lumbini Province 22.3 23.0 1,360 12.1 12.2 812
Urban 20.7 21.6 793 13.6 13.6 468
Rural 24.5 24.9 568 10.1 10.3 344
Karnali Province 28.5 28.9 458 18.2 18.3 266
Urban 25.5 25.8 257 17.8 17.8 154
Rural 32.3 32.9 201 18.7 19.1 113
Sudurpashchim Province 24.6 25.0 641 8.5 8.5 355
Urban 28.3 28.8 404 8.9 8.9 233
Rural 18.4 18.4 237 7.6 7.6 122
Education
No education 25.4 26.2 1,944 7.5 7.5 393
Basic education (1–8) 24.2 24.6 2,256 12.0 12.2 1,898
Lower basic education (1–5) 24.3 24.4 1,139 14.1 14.3 891
Upper basic education (6–8) 24.2 24.8 1,117 10.0 10.3 1,007
Secondary (9–12) 19.6 20.1 2,931 11.6 11.7 2,244
Lower secondary (9–10) 19.5 20.0 1,603 10.8 11.0 1,284
Higher secondary (11–12) 19.8 20.2 1,328 12.5 12.7 959
More than secondary (13 and
above) 13.3 13.3 280 13.2 13.6 377
Wealth quintile
Lowest 22.4 22.6 1,344 14.1 14.1 751
Second 26.0 26.3 1,372 13.7 14.0 933
Middle 24.8 25.5 1,512 9.1 9.5 957
Fourth 21.5 21.8 1,704 11.2 11.4 1,135
Highest 17.2 18.1 1,479 10.3 10.4 1,137
Total 22.3 22.8 7,410 11.5 11.7 4,913

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale
PHQ-9 = Patient Health Questionnaire
1
Respondents with a score of 6 or higher on the GAD-7 or 10 or higher on the PHQ-9
2
Respondents with a score of 6 or higher on the GAD-7 or 10 or higher on the PHQ-9 who reported taking medicine prescribed by a
doctor or other health care worker for depression or anxiety during the last 2 weeks

516 • Mental Health

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SAMPLE DESIGN Appendix A
A.1 INTRODUCTION

T
he 2022 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (2022 NDHS) is the sixth survey of its kind
following the 1996 Nepal Family Health Survey and the 2001, 2006, 2011, and 2016 NDHS
surveys. The 2022 NDHS incorporated a nationally representative sample of 14,280 households
from 476 clusters. All women age 15–49 who were usual residents of the selected households or who slept
in the households the night before the survey were eligible for the survey. The survey was expected to
result in about 14,924 interviews of women age 15–49. As with the prior surveys, the main objectives of
the 2022 NDHS were to provide up-to-date information on fertility and childhood mortality levels; fertility
preferences; awareness, approval, and use of family planning methods; maternal and child health;
knowledge and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STI); and domestic
violence against women. The sample was designed to yield representative results for most indicators for
the country as a whole, for urban and rural areas separately, for the three ecological zones (mountain, hill,
and terai), and for each of the seven provinces and their urban and rural areas.

In half of the selected households, all men age 15–49 who were usual residents of the selected households
or who slept in the households the night before the survey were eligible for the survey. The survey
collected information on their basic demographic and social status, on their knowledge and use of family
planning methods, and on their knowledge and attitudes toward HIV/AIDS and other STIs. The survey was
expected to result in about 5,064 interviews of men age 15–49. In this subsample, a module on domestic
violence against women was administered to one woman per household randomly selected from all eligible
women from the household. Also in this subsample, a module on disability among the household
population was administered to collect disability information on household members age 5 and above, and
a module on mental health was implemented among all eligible women and men in these households. In
the other 50% of households not selected for the men’s survey, (1) all women who were eligible for the
survey and all children under age 5 were eligible for height and weight measurements and (2) all women
who were eligible for the survey and all children age 6–59 months were eligible for anemia testing.
Measurement of blood pressure among adults (age 15 or older) was carried out in half of the households
selected for biomarkers.

A.2 SAMPLE FRAME

The sampling frame used for the 2022 NDHS is the most recent Nepal Population and Housing Census,
which was conducted in 2011 (with major updates in 2016). The sampling frame is a complete list of
36,020 sub-wards covering the entire country provided by the National Statistical Office (NSO). Each sub-
ward has a residence type (urban or rural) and a measure of size in number of households. Nepal’s
Constituent Assembly declared a major administrative unit change and a redefinition of urban and rural
areas in the country in September 2015. Nepal is divided into seven provinces (Koshi Province, Madhesh
Province, Bagmati Province, Gandaki Province, Lumbini Province, Karnali Province, and Sudurpashchim
Province); each province is subdivided into districts, districts into municipalities, municipalities into
wards, and wards into sub-wards. Overall, the country is divided into 77 districts and 753 municipalities.
The change resulted in a major increase in the percentage of the population residing in urban areas.
According to the new definition, the country is mainly urban, with an urban percentage of 65%.

Table A.1 shows the distribution of households by province and by urban and rural residence. The most
populated province is Bagmati Province, accounting for about 23% of the households in the country; the
smallest province is Karnali Province, which represents only about 6% of households. Bagmati Province is

Appendix A • 523
 also the most urbanized province, with an urban percentage of approximately 75%. The country’s capital
city of Kathmandu is in Bagmati Province.

Table A.1 Distribution of households by province and type of residence

Number of households Percentage
Province Urban Rural Total Urban Province
Koshi Province 599,210 392,540 991,750 60.4 18.3
Madhesh Province 681,239 250,848 932,087 73.1 17.2
Bagmati Province 954,405 314,739 1,269,144 75.2 23.4
Gandaki Province 361,252 216,430 577,682 62.5 10.7
Lumbini Province 479,270 405,487 884,757 54.2 16.3
Karnali Province 155,748 142,426 298,174 52.2 5.5
Sudurpashchim Province 284,421 185,282 469,703 60.6 8.7
Nepal 3,515,545 1,907,752 5,423,297 64.8 100.0

Source: The 2011 Nepal Population and Housing Census updated sampling frame provided by the National Statistical
Office.

Table A.2 shows the distribution of sub-wards by province and by urban-rural residence. Among the
36,020 sub-wards, 16,102 are in urban areas and 19,918 are in rural areas. The urban sub-wards are
relatively large, with an average size of 218 households, while the rural sub-wards have an average size of
96 households; the overall average is 151 households per sub-ward. It was decided that sub-wards would
serve as the primary sampling units (PSUs) for the 2022 NDHS. Urban sub-wards are large in size and
were subdivided into enumeration areas (EAs). NSO provided a list of EAs for each of the urban sub-
wards.

Table A.2 Distribution of sub-wards by province and type of residence

Number of sub-wards Average sub-ward size
Province Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Koshi Province 2,354 3,856 6,210 255 102 160
Madhesh Province 4,652 2,406 7,058 146 104 132
Bagmati Province 2,602 3,442 6,044 367 91 210
Gandaki Province 1,884 2,684 4,568 192 81 126
Lumbini Province 2,004 3,512 5,516 239 115 160
Karnali Province 1,160 1,948 3,108 134 73 96
Sudurpashchim Province 1,446 2,070 3,516 197 90 134
Nepal 16,102 19,918 36,020 218 96 151

Source: The 2011 Nepal Population and Housing Census updated sampling frame provided by the National Statistical Office.

A.3 SAMPLE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

The sample for the 2022 NDHS was a stratified sample selected in two stages. Stratification was achieved
by separating each province into urban and rural areas, with the urban and rural areas of each province
forming a sampling stratum. In total, 14 sampling strata were created. Implicit stratification with
proportional allocation was achieved at each of the lower administrative unit levels by sorting the sampling
frame within the explicit stratum according to administrative unit in different levels before sample
selection and by using a probability proportional to size selection procedure at the first stage of sampling.

In the first stage, 476 PSUs were selected with probability proportional to PSU size and with independent
selection in each sampling stratum. The sample allocation is given in Table A.3. Among the 476 PSUs, 248
were from urban areas and 228 were from rural areas. With a fixed number of 30 households to be selected
per cluster, the total number of households was 14,280, 7,440 from urban areas and 6,840 from rural areas.
As noted, the survey was expected to result in about 14,924 interviews of women age 15–49 (8,010 in
urban areas and 6,914 in rural areas) (Table A.4), with a minimum sample of about 910 women
interviewed per survey domain. The sample allocation for the 2022 NDHS was a power allocation with
small adjustments to control the minimum sample size at the survey domain level.

524 • Appendix A
A household listing operation was carried out in all of the selected PSUs before the main survey. The
household listing operation consisted of visiting each of the 476 selected PSUs, drawing a location map
and a detailed sketch map, and recording on the household listing forms all residential households found in
the PSU with the address and the name of the head of the household. The resulting list of households
served as the sampling frame for the selection of households in the second stage. In the household listing
operation, some of the selected sub-wards were found to be large in size. Sub-wards with an estimated
number of households greater than 300 were segmented. Only one segment was selected for the survey
with probability proportional to segment size.

In the second stage, a fixed number of 30 households were selected from each PSU using the newly
updated household listing. The interviewers were asked to interview only the preselected households; to
prevent bias, no replacement was allowed for nonresponding households. In the event of nonresponse, the
interviewers were asked to make at least three callbacks to reduce the nonresponse rate.

Table A.3 Sample allocation of clusters and households by province and type of residence
Allocation of PSUs Allocation of households
Province Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Koshi Province 37 36 73 1,110 1,080 2,190
Madhesh Province 39 31 70 1,170 930 2,100
Bagmati Province 43 35 78 1,290 1,050 2,340
Gandaki Province 32 31 63 960 930 1,890
Lumbini Province 35 34 69 1,050 1,020 2,070
Karnali Province 30 31 61 900 930 1,830
Sudurpashchim Province 32 30 62 960 900 1,860
Nepal 248 228 476 7,440 6,840 14,280

Table A.4 Sample allocation of expected number of interviews by province and type of residence
Women age 15–49 Men age 15–49
Province Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Koshi Province 1,194 1,092 2,286 393 383 776
Madhesh Province 1,260 940 2,200 415 330 745
Bagmati Province 1,389 1,061 2,450 457 373 830
Gandaki Province 1,034 940 1,974 340 330 670
Lumbini Province 1,131 1,031 2,162 373 362 735
Karnali Province 968 940 1,908 319 330 649
Sudurpashchim Province 1,034 910 1,944 340 319 659
Nepal 8,010 6,914 14,924 2,637 2,427 5,064

Note: Men’s interviews were conducted in 50% of the households.

The above sample calculation used the survey results from the 2016 NDHS. The survey results showed
that there were on average 1.15 women age 15–49 per household in urban areas and 1.05 in rural areas.
The household completion rate was 96% in urban areas and 97% in rural areas, while the individual
response rate for women was 98% in urban areas and 99% in rural areas. There were on average 0.76 men
age 15–49 per household, and the individual response rate for men was 96%.

Tables A.5 and A.6 present response rates for women and men, respectively, by urban and rural areas and
by province. The men’s subsample constituted one in two of the households selected for the women’s
sample.

Appendix A • 525
 Table A.5 Sample implementation: Women
Percent distribution of households and eligible women age 15–49 by results of the household and individual interviews, and household, eligible
women, and overall women response rates, according to residence and province (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Residence Province
Sudur-
Koshi Madhesh Bagmati Gandaki Lumbini Karnali pashchim
Result Urban Rural Province Province Province Province Province Province Province Total
Selected households
Completed (C) 96.6 97.0 97.7 96.6 97.0 96.5 96.3 96.4 96.8 96.8
Household present
but no competent
respondent at home
(HP) 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2
Refused (R) 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1
Dwelling not found
(DNF) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
Household absent
(HA) 1.3 1.1 0.7 1.9 1.1 0.8 1.8 1.3 1.0 1.2
Dwelling vacant/
address not a
dwelling (DV) 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.5
Dwelling destroyed
(DD) 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0
Other (O) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of sampled
households 7,447 6,796 2,205 2,115 2,336 1,871 2,070 1,818 1,828 14,243
Household response
rate (HRR)1 99.6 99.8 99.8 99.7 99.9 99.3 99.7 99.5 99.7 99.7
Eligible women
Completed (EWC) 97.1 97.8 97.9 96.9 97.1 97.9 96.3 97.4 98.8 97.4
Not at home (EWNH) 1.9 1.2 1.4 2.0 1.2 0.9 2.8 1.6 0.8 1.6
Refused (EWR) 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
Incapacitated (EWI) 0.7 0.8 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.7
Other (EWO) 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of women 8,260 6,978 2,257 2,580 2,168 1,718 2,353 2,031 2,131 15,238
Eligible women
response rate
(EWRR)2 97.1 97.8 97.9 96.9 97.1 97.9 96.3 97.4 98.8 97.4
Overall women
response rate
(OWRR)3 96.7 97.6 97.6 96.5 97.0 97.3 96.0 96.9 98.5 97.1

1
Using the number of households falling into specific response categories, the household response rate (HRR) is calculated as:

100 * C
——————————
C + HP + P + R + DNF
2
The eligible women response rate (EWRR) is equivalent to the percentage of interviews completed (EWC).
3
The overall women response rate (OWRR) is calculated as:
OWRR = HRR * EWRR/100

526 • Appendix A
Table A.6 Sample implementation: Men
Percent distribution of households and eligible men age 15–49 by results of the household and individual interviews, and household, eligible men,
and overall men response rates, according to residence and province (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Residence Province
Sudur-
Koshi Madhesh Bagmati Gandaki Lumbini Karnali pashchim
Result Urban Rural Province Province Province Province Province Province Province Total
Selected households
Completed (C) 96.5 96.7 97.5 96.9 97.1 95.7 96.2 95.9 96.3 96.6
Household present
but no competent
respondent at home
(HP) 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.4 0.2
Refused (R) 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1
Dwelling not found
(DNF) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
Household absent
(HA) 1.5 1.2 0.8 2.0 1.2 0.9 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.3
Dwelling vacant/
address not a
dwelling (DV) 1.5 1.7 1.2 1.0 1.4 2.6 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.6
Dwelling destroyed
(DD) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
Other (O) 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of sampled
households 3,721 3,399 1,102 1,059 1,167 934 1,034 909 915 7,120
Household response
rate (HRR)1 99.7 99.7 99.8 100.0 99.9 99.3 99.8 99.2 99.5 99.7
Eligible men
Completed (EMC) 93.7 96.1 94.2 94.6 94.8 94.6 94.8 97.1 93.4 94.8
Not at home (EMNH) 4.9 2.5 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.4 1.8 5.5 3.9
Refused (EMR) 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.3
Incapacitated (EMI) 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.4 0.3 0.9 1.5 1.0 1.1 1.1
Other (EMO) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of men 2,901 2,284 844 932 877 534 757 622 619 5,185
Eligible men response
rate (EMRR)2 93.7 96.1 94.2 94.6 94.8 94.6 94.8 97.1 93.4 94.8
Overall men response
rate (OMRR)3 93.3 95.9 94.0 94.6 94.7 93.9 94.7 96.3 93.0 94.5

1
Using the number of households falling into specific response categories, the household response rate (HRR) is calculated as:

100 * C
——————————
C + HP + P + R + DNF
2
The eligible men response rate (EMRR) is equivalent to the percentage of interviews completed (EMC).
3
The overall men response rate (OMRR) is calculated as:
OMRR = HRR * EMRR/100

Appendix A • 527
 A.4 SAMPLE PROBABILITIES AND SAMPLING WEIGHTS
Due to the nonproportional allocation of the sample to the different provinces and to their urban and rural
areas and the possible differences in response rates, sampling weights are required for any analysis using
the 2022 NDHS data to ensure the actual representativeness of the survey results at the national level and
as well as at the domain level. Since the 2022 NDHS sample was a two-stage stratified cluster sample,
sampling weights were calculated based on sampling probabilities separately for each sampling stage and
for each cluster. The following notations were used:

P1hi: first-stage sampling probability of the ith cluster in stratum h

P2hi: second-stage sampling probability within the ith cluster (household selection)

Let nh be the number of clusters selected in stratum h, Mhi the number of households according to the
sampling frame in the ith cluster, and  M hi the total number of households in the stratum. The
probability of selecting the ith cluster in the 2022 NDHS sample is calculated as follows:

n h M hi
 M hi

Let s hi be the proportion of households in the selected segment relative to the total number of households
in sub-ward i in stratum h if the sub-ward is segmented; otherwise, shi = 1 . Then the probability of
selecting cluster i in stratum h in the sample is:

n h M hi
P1hi =  s hi
 M hi

Let Lhi be the number of households listed in the household listing operation in cluster i in stratum h, and
let mhi be the number of households selected in the cluster. The second stage’s selection probability for
each household in the cluster is calculated as follows:

mhi
P2 hi =
Lhi

The overall selection probability of each household in cluster i of stratum h is therefore the product of the
two-stage selection probabilities:

Phi = P1hi  P2 hi

The sampling weight for each household in cluster i of stratum h is the inverse of its overall selection
probability:

Whi = 1 / Phi

A spreadsheet containing all sampling parameters and selection probabilities was prepared to facilitate the
calculation of design weights. Design weights were adjusted for household nonresponse and for individual
nonresponse to obtain the sampling weights for households and for women, respectively. Similar weights
were calculated for the male survey. The differences between the household sampling weights and the
individual sampling weights are introduced by individual nonresponse. The weight for domestic violence
against women took the number of eligible women in the household into account. The final sampling
weights were normalized so that the total number of unweighted cases was equal to the total number of

528 • Appendix A
weighted cases at the national level for both household weights and individual weights. Several sets of
weights were calculated:

▪ one set for all households selected for the survey

▪ one set for the women’s individual survey
▪ one set for all households selected for the men’s survey
▪ one set for the men’s individual survey
▪ one set for domestic violence against women

It is important to note that normalized weights are relative weights that are valid for estimating means,
proportions, and ratios but not valid for estimating population totals or for pooled data. Also, the number of
weighted cases using the normalized weight has no direct relation with survey precision because it is
relative—especially for oversampled areas, where the number of weighted cases is much smaller than the
number of unweighted cases and only the latter are directly related to survey precision.

Sampling errors were calculated for selected indicators for the national sample, for urban and rural areas
separately, for the three ecological zones, and for each of the seven provinces and their urban and rural
areas.

Appendix A • 529
ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS Appendix B
T
he estimates from a sample survey are affected by two types of errors: nonsampling errors and
sampling errors. Nonsampling errors result from mistakes made in implementing data collection
and in data processing, such as failing to locate and interview the correct household,
misunderstanding of the questions on the part of either the interviewer or the respondent, and entering the
data incorrectly. Although numerous efforts were made during the implementation of the 2022 Nepal
Demographic and Health Survey (2022 NDHS) to minimize this type of error, nonsampling errors are
impossible to avoid and difficult to evaluate statistically.

Sampling errors, on the other hand, can be evaluated statistically. The sample of respondents selected in
the 2022 NDHS is only one of many samples that could have been selected from the same population,
using the same design and expected sample size. Each of these samples would yield results that differ
somewhat from the results of the selected sample. Sampling errors are a measure of the variability among
all possible samples. Although the exact degree of variability is unknown, it can be estimated from the
survey results.

Sampling error is usually measured in terms of the standard error for a particular statistic (mean,
percentage, and so on), which is the square root of the variance. The standard error can be used to calculate
confidence intervals within which the true value for the population can reasonably be assumed to fall. For
example, for any given statistic calculated from a sample survey, the value of that statistic will fall within a
range of plus or minus two times the standard error of that statistic in 95% of all possible samples of
identical size and design.

If the sample of respondents had been selected as a simple random sample, it would have been possible to
use straightforward formulas for calculating sampling errors. However, the 2022 NDHS sample is the
result of a multistage stratified design, and, consequently, it was necessary to use more complex formulas.
Sampling errors are computed through the SAS program. This program uses the Taylor linearization
method to estimate variances for estimated means, proportions, and ratios. The Jackknife repeated
replication method is used for variance estimation of more complex statistics such as fertility and mortality
rates.

The Taylor linearization method treats any percentage or average as a ratio estimate, r = y/x, where y
represents the total sample value for variable y and x represents the total number of cases in the group or
subgroup under consideration. The variance of r is computed using the formula given below, with the
standard error being the square root of the variance:

H  mh  mh 2 z h2 
(1 − f h )
1
SE (r ) = var (r ) = 2
2

h =1  −
  z hi − 
x  mh 1  i =1 mh 
in which

z hi = yhi − rxhi and z h = yh − rxh

Appendix B • 531
 where h represents the stratum, which varies from 1 to H;
mh is the total number of clusters selected in the hth stratum;
yhi is the sum of the weighted values of variable y in the ith cluster in the hth stratum;
xhi is the sum of the weighted number of cases in the ith cluster in the hth stratum; and
fh is the sampling fraction of PSU in the hth stratum.

The Jackknife repeated replication method derives estimates of complex rates from each of several
replications of the parent sample and calculates standard errors for these estimates using simple formulas.
Each replication considers all but one cluster in the calculation of the estimates. Pseudo-independent
replications are thus created. In the 2022 NDHS, there were 476 non-empty clusters. Hence, 476
replications were created. The variance of a rate r is calculated as follows:

k
1
SE (r ) = var (r ) =
2

k ( k − 1) i =1
(ri − r ) 2

in which

ri = kr − (k − 1)r(i )

where r is the estimate computed from the full sample of 476 clusters,
r(i) is the estimate computed from the reduced sample of 475 clusters (ith cluster excluded),
and
k is the total number of clusters.

In addition to the standard error, the design effect (DEFT) for each estimate is also calculated. The design
effect is defined as the ratio between the standard error using the given sample design and the standard
error that would result if a simple random sample had been used. A DEFT value of 1.0 indicates that the
sample design is as efficient as a simple random sample, while a value greater than 1.0 indicates the
increase in the sampling error due to the use of a more complex and less statistically efficient design (e.g.,
multistage and cluster sampling). Relative standard errors and confidence limits for the estimates are also
calculated.

Sampling errors for the 2022 NDHS are calculated for selected variables considered to be of primary
interest for the survey. The results are presented in this appendix for the country as a whole, for urban and
rural areas, for the three ecological zones, and for each of the seven provinces and their urban and rural
areas. For each variable, the type of statistic (mean, proportion, or rate) and the base population are given
in Table B.1. Tables B.2 to B.28 present the value of the statistic (R), its standard error (SE), the number
of unweighted (N) and weighted (WN) cases, the design effect (DEFT), the relative standard error (SE/R),
and the 95% confidence limits (R±2SE) for each variable. The DEFT is considered undefined when the
standard error considering a simple random sample is zero (when the estimate is close to 0 or 1).

The confidence interval (e.g., as calculated for mean number of children ever born to women age 15–49)
can be interpreted as follows: the sample estimate from the national sample is 1.770 (R), and its standard
error is 0.022 (SE). Therefore, to obtain the 95% confidence limits, one adds and subtracts twice the
standard error to the sample estimate, that is, 1.770 ± 2 × 0.022. There is a high probability (95%) that the
true mean number of children ever born to women age 15–49 is between 1.725 and 1.814.

For the total sample, the value of the design effect (DEFT), averaged over all variables for the women’s
survey, is 1.496. This means that, due to multistage clustering of the sample, the average standard error is
increased by a factor of 1.496 over that in an equivalent simple random sample.

532 • Appendix B
Table B.1 List of selected variables for sampling errors, Nepal DHS 2022
Variable Estimate Base population
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Electricity primary source of lighting Proportion De jure household population

Primary reliance on clean fuels and technology for cooking Proportion De jure household population
Births registered with civil authority Proportion De jure household population under 5
Improved drinking water source Proportion De jure household population
At least basic drinking water service Proportion De jure household population
Water available when needed Proportion De jure household population
Improved sanitation facility Proportion De jure household population
At least basic sanitation service Proportion De jure household population
Using open defecation Proportion De jure household population
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water Proportion De jure household population for whom handwashing place was observed
or with no on-site place for handwashing
WOMEN
Urban residence Proportion Women 15–49
No education Proportion Women 15–49
Secondary education or higher Proportion Women 15–49
Literacy Proportion Women 15–49
Use of the Internet in last 12 months Proportion Women 15–49
Current tobacco use Proportion Women 15–49
Currently married/in union Proportion Women 15–49
Married before age 15 Proportion Women 20–49
Married before age 18 Proportion Women 20–49
Had sexual intercourse before age 18 Proportion Women 20–49
Age-specific fertility rate 15–19 (last 3 years) Rate Woman-years of exposure to childbearing at age 15–19 in the 3 years
preceding the survey
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) Rate Woman-years of exposure to childbearing
Currently pregnant Proportion Women 15–49
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Mean Women 40–49
Mean number of children ever born to women age 15–49 Mean Women 15–49
Mean number of living children born to women age 15–49 Mean Women 15–49
Median birth interval Median Non-first births in the 5 years preceding the survey
Mean age at menarche Mean Women 15–49
First birth before age 18 Proportion Women 20–49
Want to delay next birth at least 2 years Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Want no more children Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Ideal number of children Mean Women 15–49 with numeric responses
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) Rate Woman-years of exposure to childbearing
Currently using any contraceptive method Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using any modern method Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using female sterilization Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using male sterilization Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using pill Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using injectables Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using implants Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using male condoms Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Currently using any traditional method Proportion Currently married women 15–49
12-month discontinuation rate due to method failure Rate Women 15–49
12-month discontinuation rate due to any reason Rate Women 15–49
12-month discontinuation rate due to switching to another method Rate Women 15–49
Unmet need for spacing Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Unmet need for limiting Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Unmet need total Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Demand satisfied by modern methods Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Participation in decision making about family planning Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources Proportion Women 15–49
Neonatal mortality rate¹ Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality
Postneonatal mortality rate¹ Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality
Infant mortality rate¹ Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality
Child mortality rate¹ Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality
Under-5 mortality rate¹ Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality
Perinatal mortality rate Rate Pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’ duration to women 15–49 in the 5 years
preceding the survey
Stillbirth rate Rate Pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’ duration to women 15–49 in the 5 years
preceding the survey
Early neonatal death rate Rate Pregnancies of 28 or more weeks’ duration to women 15–49 in the 5 years
preceding the survey
In any avoidable high-risk category Proportion Children born in the 5 years preceding the survey to women 15–49
Received ANC from a skilled provider Proportion Women 15–49 who had a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
4+ ANC visits Proportion Women 15–49 who had a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
8+ ANC visits Proportion Women 15–49 who had a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
Took any iron-containing supplements Proportion Women 15–49 who had a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth Proportion Women 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey
Delivered in a health facility (live births) Proportion Live births in the 2 years preceding the survey
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) Proportion Live births in the 2 years preceding the survey
Delivered by C-section (live births) Proportion Live births in the 2 years preceding the survey
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days Proportion Women 15–49 with a live birth in the 2 years preceding the survey

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 533
 Table B.1—Continued
Variable Estimate Base population
WOMEN
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days Proportion Most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey
Any problem accessing health care Proportion Women 15–49
Ever had vaccination card Proportion Children 12–23 months
Received BCG vaccination Proportion Children 12–23 months
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) Proportion Children 12–23 months
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) Proportion Children 12–23 months
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination Proportion Children 12–23 months
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) Proportion Children 12–23 months
Sought treatment for diarrhea Proportion Children under 5 with diarrhea in last 2 weeks
Treated with ORS Proportion Children under 5 with diarrhea in last 2 weeks
Height-for-age (–3 SD) Proportion Children under 5 who were measured
Height-for-age (–2 SD) Proportion Children under 5 who were measured
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) Proportion Children under 5 who were measured
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) Proportion Children under 5 who were measured
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) Proportion Children under 5 who were measured
Exclusive breastfeeding Proportion Youngest children 0–5 months living with their mother
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) Proportion Youngest children 6–23 months living with their mother
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin Proportion Children 6–59 months who were tested
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 Proportion Women 20–49 who were measured
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25 Proportion Women 20–49 who were measured
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) Proportion Adolescent women 15–19 who were measured
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) Proportion Adolescent women 15–19 who were measured
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) Proportion Women 15–49
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) Proportion Women 15–49 who were tested
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) (hemoglobin <12.0 g/dl) Proportion Nonpregnant women 15–49 who were tested
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) (hemoglobin <11.0 g/dl) Proportion Pregnant women 15–49 who were tested
Child had fever in last 2 weeks Proportion Child under 5
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV Proportion Women 15–49 who have heard of HIV/AIDS
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test Proportion Women 15–49
Employed in last 12 months Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Employed in last 12 months but not paid Proportion Currently married women 15–49 employed in last 12 months
Mobile phone ownership Proportion Women 15–49
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial Proportion Women 15–49
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) Proportion Currently married women 15–49
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in Proportion Women 15–49
wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, and Proportion Currently married women 15–49
reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator Proportion All women 15–49
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever Proportion All women 15–49
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner Proportion All women 15–50
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most recent Proportion Ever-married women 15–49
husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any Proportion Ever-married women 15–49
husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any Proportion Ever-married women 15–49
husband/intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
Urban residence Proportion Men 15–49
No education Proportion Men 15–49
Secondary education or higher Proportion Men 15–49
Literacy Proportion Men 15–49
Use of the Internet in last 12 months Proportion Men 15–49
Current tobacco use Proportion Men 15–49
Currently married/in union Proportion Men 15–49
Had sexual intercourse before age 18 Proportion Men 20–49
Want to delay next birth at least 2 years Proportion Currently married men 15–49
Want no more children Proportion Currently married men 15–49
Ideal number of children Mean Men 15–49 with numeric responses
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV Proportion Men 15–49 who have heard of HIV/AIDS
Condom use at last sex Proportion Men 15–49 with non-marital, non-cohabiting partner in last 12 months
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test Proportion Men 15–49
Mobile phone ownership Proportion Men 15–49
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial Proportion Men 15–49
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in Proportion Men 15–49
wife beating

1
Mortality rates are calculated for the 5 years before the survey for the national, urban, and rural samples and for the 10 years before the survey for the zonal
and provincial samples.

534 • Appendix B
Table B.2 Sampling errors: Total sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Electricity primary source of lighting 0.913 0.008 54,456 54,320 2.916 0.009 0.897 0.929
Primary reliance on clean fuels and technology for cooking 0.415 0.016 54,381 54,223 3.356 0.037 0.384 0.446
Births registered with civil authority 0.732 0.011 5,245 5,121 1.556 0.015 0.710 0.754
Improved drinking water source 0.980 0.004 54,456 54,320 2.961 0.004 0.972 0.988
At least basic drinking water service 0.975 0.004 54,456 54,320 2.802 0.004 0.967 0.983
Water available when needed 0.876 0.006 54,456 54,320 1.983 0.007 0.864 0.888
Improved sanitation facility 0.924 0.006 54,456 54,320 2.300 0.006 0.912 0.936
At least basic sanitation service 0.726 0.008 54,456 54,320 1.866 0.011 0.711 0.742
Using open defecation 0.071 0.006 54,456 54,320 2.369 0.085 0.059 0.083
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.747 0.016 14,779 17,598 1.971 0.021 0.715 0.779
WOMEN
Urban residence 0.686 0.007 14,845 14,845 1.852 0.010 0.671 0.700
No education 0.256 0.008 14,845 14,845 2.153 0.030 0.240 0.271
Secondary education or higher 0.435 0.010 14,845 14,845 2.397 0.022 0.415 0.454
Literacy 0.744 0.008 14,845 14,845 2.306 0.011 0.727 0.760
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.646 0.010 14,845 14,845 2.436 0.015 0.627 0.665
Current tobacco use 0.074 0.004 14,845 14,845 1.684 0.049 0.067 0.081
Currently married/in union 0.753 0.005 14,845 14,845 1.438 0.007 0.743 0.763
Married before age 15 0.103 0.004 12,068 12,202 1.442 0.039 0.095 0.111
Married before age 18 0.442 0.007 12,068 12,202 1.646 0.017 0.427 0.457
Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.439 0.007 12,068 12,202 1.584 0.016 0.425 0.454
Age-specific fertility rate 15–19 (last 3 years) 71.220 3.698 8,333 8,164 1.287 0.052 63.823 78.617
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.103 0.057 41,921 42,140 1.437 0.027 1.990 2.217
Currently pregnant 0.040 0.002 14,845 14,845 1.156 0.047 0.036 0.043
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.263 0.048 3,017 2,961 1.621 0.015 3.167 3.359
Mean number of children ever born to women age 15–49 1.770 0.022 14,845 14,845 1.687 0.013 1.725 1.814
Mean number of living children born to women age 15–49 1.661 0.020 14,845 14,845 1.651 0.012 1.621 1.701
Median birth interval 40.685 0.958 3,172 3,055 1.654 0.024 38.770 42.601
Mean age at menarche 13.643 0.019 14,349 14,308 1.573 0.001 13.604 13.682
First birth before age 18 0.191 0.005 12,068 12,202 1.411 0.026 0.180 0.201
Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.132 0.004 11,258 11,180 1.203 0.029 0.125 0.140
Want no more children 0.695 0.007 11,258 11,180 1.511 0.009 0.682 0.708
Ideal number of children 2.044 0.013 14,790 14,770 2.169 0.006 2.018 2.070
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.660 0.045 4,1921 42,140 1.348 0.027 1.569 1.750
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.572 0.008 11,258 11,180 1.629 0.013 0.557 0.588
Currently using any modern method 0.427 0.008 11,258 11,180 1.681 0.018 0.411 0.442
Currently using female sterilization 0.134 0.006 11,258 11,180 2.001 0.048 0.121 0.147
Currently using male sterilization 0.036 0.003 11,258 11,180 1.640 0.080 0.030 0.041
Currently using pill 0.045 0.002 11,258 11,180 1.241 0.054 0.040 0.050
Currently using injectables 0.093 0.004 11,258 11,180 1.383 0.041 0.086 0.101
Currently using implants 0.061 0.003 11,258 11,180 1.489 0.055 0.054 0.067
Currently using male condoms 0.045 0.003 11,258 11,180 1.379 0.060 0.039 0.050
Currently using any traditional method 0.146 0.005 11,258 11,180 1.518 0.035 0.136 0.156
12-month discontinuation rate due to any reason 48.714 1.069 8,404 7,998 1.409 0.022 46.576 50.852
12-month discontinuation rate due to method failure 2.471 0.239 8,404 7,998 1.330 0.097 1.992 2.949
12-month discontinuation rate due to switching to another method 7.583 0.499 8,404 7,998 1.335 0.066 6.585 8.581
Unmet need for spacing 0.074 0.003 11,258 11,180 1.314 0.044 0.067 0.080
Unmet need for limiting 0.133 0.005 11,258 11,180 1.436 0.035 0.124 0.142
Unmet need total 0.207 0.006 11,258 11,180 1.462 0.027 0.196 0.218
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.547 0.008 8,851 8,712 1.594 0.015 0.530 0.564
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.907 0.004 11,258 11,180 1.479 0.004 0.899 0.915
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.339 0.008 14,845 14,845 2.102 0.024 0.323 0.356
Neonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 20.792 2.334 5,371 5,194 1.148 0.112 16.124 25.461
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 7.591 1.204 5,387 5,210 1.007 0.159 5.183 9.998
Infant mortality (last 0–4 years) 28.383 2.688 5,377 5,199 1.124 0.095 23.008 33.759
Child mortality (last 0–4 years) 4.742 1.033 5,446 5,264 1.052 0.218 2.676 6.809
Under-5 mortality (last 0–4 years) 32.991 3.009 5,390 5,211 1.177 0.091 26.974 39.009
Perinatal mortality rate 26.801 2.509 5,435 5,244 1.087 0.094 21.782 31.820
Stillbirth rate 10.283 1.352 5,435 5,244 0.961 0.132 7.578 12.988
Early neonatal death rate 16.680 2.144 5,372 5,193 1.167 0.129 12.392 20.968
In any avoidable high-risk category 0.287 0.010 5,372 5,193 1.451 0.034 0.267 0.306
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.943 0.006 2,007 1,933 1.223 0.007 0.931 0.956
4+ ANC visits 0.805 0.013 2,007 1,933 1.415 0.016 0.780 0.830
8+ ANC visits 0.058 0.008 2,007 1,933 1.537 0.138 0.042 0.075
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.961 0.006 2,007 1,933 1.411 0.006 0.948 0.973
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.927 0.007 2,007 1,933 1.173 0.007 0.913 0.941
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.794 0.013 2,054 1,977 1.412 0.016 0.768 0.820
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.801 0.013 2,054 1,977 1.393 0.016 0.776 0.826
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.182 0.012 2,054 1,977 1.355 0.066 0.158 0.206
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.702 0.014 2,007 1,933 1.341 0.019 0.675 0.730
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.697 0.014 2,007 1,933 1.358 0.020 0.669 0.725
Any problem accessing health care 0.663 0.009 14,845 14,845 2.398 0.014 0.644 0.682
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.004 1,001 959 1.097 0.004 0.981 0.996
Received BCG vaccination 0.952 0.008 1,001 959 1.166 0.008 0.936 0.968

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 535
 Table B.2—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.891 0.013 1,001 959 1.267 0.014 0.866 0.916
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.805 0.017 1,001 959 1.306 0.021 0.771 0.838
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.885 0.013 1,001 959 1.266 0.015 0.859 0.911
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.521 0.020 1,001 959 1.220 0.038 0.481 0.560
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.571 0.026 522 524 1.201 0.046 0.518 0.623
Treated with ORS 0.384 0.029 522 524 1.332 0.075 0.327 0.441
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.060 0.006 2,687 2,630 1.154 0.092 0.049 0.071
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.248 0.011 2,687 2,630 1.251 0.044 0.226 0.270
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.077 0.007 2,687 2,628 1.212 0.086 0.064 0.091
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.013 0.003 2,687 2,628 1.225 0.217 0.007 0.018
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.187 0.010 2,696 2,643 1.285 0.055 0.166 0.207
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.564 0.027 540 527 1.267 0.048 0.510 0.618
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.482 0.016 1,423 1,366 1.238 0.034 0.450 0.515
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin <11.0 g/dl) 0.433 0.013 2,404 2,344 1.219 0.030 0.408 0.459
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.103 0.005 5,648 5,750 1.254 0.049 0.093 0.113
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.345 0.009 5,648 5,750 1.511 0.027 0.326 0.364
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.051 0.008 1,309 1,230 1.231 0.151 0.036 0.067
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.058 0.009 1,309 1,230 1.342 0.154 0.040 0.076
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.557 0.009 14,845 14,845 2.194 0.016 0.540 0.575
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.340 0.009 7,317 7,329 1.670 0.027 0.321 0.358
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) (hemoglobin <12.0 g/dl) 0.340 0.009 7,013 7,022 1.670 0.028 0.321 0.359
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) (hemoglobin <11.0 g/dl) 0.327 0.030 304 307 1.109 0.091 0.268 0.387
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.230 0.008 5,205 5,040 1.241 0.033 0.215 0.245
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.510 0.009 12,116 11,927 1.985 0.018 0.492 0.528
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.028 0.002 14,845 14,845 1.235 0.060 0.024 0.031
Employed in last 12 months 0.761 0.010 11,258 11,180 2.403 0.013 0.741 0.780
Employed in last 12 months but not paid 0.455 0.012 9,043 8,502 2.344 0.027 0.431 0.480
Mobile phone ownership 0.796 0.007 14,845 14,845 2.154 0.009 0.782 0.811
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial transactions 0.498 0.009 14,845 14,845 2.192 0.018 0.480 0.516
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.478 0.008 11,258 11,180 1.747 0.017 0.462 0.494
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in wife 0.186 0.005 14,845 14,845 1.542 0.027 0.176 0.195
beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, and 0.626 0.008 11,258 11,180 1.851 0.013 0.609 0.643
reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.225 0.008 5,178 5,177 1.465 0.038 0.208 0.242
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.075 0.005 5,178 5,177 1.393 0.068 0.065 0.085
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.015 0.002 5,178 5,177 1.280 0.146 0.010 0.019
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most recent 0.240 0.009 4,523 4,245 1.455 0.039 0.221 0.258
husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any husband or 0.283 0.010 4,523 4,245 1.489 0.035 0.263 0.303
intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any husband or 0.172 0.009 4,523 4,245 1.574 0.051 0.155 0.190
intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
Urban residence 0.705 0.009 4,913 4,913 1.453 0.013 0.686 0.724
No education 0.080 0.006 4,913 4,913 1.628 0.079 0.067 0.093
Secondary education or higher 0.533 0.012 4,913 4,913 1.720 0.023 0.509 0.558
Literacy 0.894 0.007 4,913 4,913 1.666 0.008 0.879 0.908
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.758 0.010 4,913 4,913 1.667 0.013 0.737 0.778
Current tobacco use 0.496 0.011 4,913 4,913 1.483 0.021 0.475 0.517
Currently married/in union 0.631 0.010 4,913 4,913 1.486 0.016 0.611 0.652
Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.198 0.009 3,902 3,928 1.437 0.046 0.180 0.217
Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.158 0.007 3,187 3,101 1.153 0.047 0.143 0.173
Want no more children 0.669 0.010 3,187 3,101 1.188 0.015 0.650 0.689
Ideal number of children 2.176 0.015 4,908 4,903 1.443 0.007 2.147 2.206
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.421 0.012 4,705 4,714 1.634 0.028 0.397 0.444
Condom use at last sex 0.702 0.025 416 435 1.123 0.036 0.652 0.753
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.022 0.003 4,913 4,913 1.385 0.133 0.016 0.027
Mobile phone ownership 0.916 0.006 4,913 4,913 1.399 0.006 0.904 0.927
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial transactions 0.545 0.011 4,913 4,913 1.546 0.020 0.523 0.567
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in wife 0.172 0.007 4,913 4,913 1.326 0.042 0.157 0.186
beating

536 • Appendix B
Table B.3 Sampling errors: Urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Electricity primary source of lighting 0.951 0.008 28,300 36,218 2.673 0.008 0.935 0.966
Primary reliance on clean fuels and technology for cooking 0.526 0.021 28,237 36,129 3.235 0.041 0.483 0.569
Births registered with civil authority 0.730 0.015 2,589 3,286 1.496 0.020 0.701 0.760
Improved drinking water source 0.988 0.003 28,300 36,218 2.409 0.003 0.981 0.995
At least basic drinking water service 0.983 0.004 28,300 36,218 2.259 0.004 0.975 0.990
Water available when needed 0.877 0.008 28,300 36,218 1.930 0.009 0.861 0.893
Improved sanitation facility 0.933 0.007 28,300 36,218 2.153 0.008 0.918 0.948
At least basic sanitation service 0.726 0.010 28,300 36,218 1.751 0.014 0.707 0.746
Using open defecation 0.062 0.007 28,300 36,218 2.223 0.120 0.047 0.077
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.825 0.016 9,309 13,734 1.823 0.019 0.793 0.857
WOMEN
No education 0.229 0.010 8,019 10,178 2.159 0.044 0.209 0.249
Secondary education or higher 0.478 0.013 8,019 10,178 2.353 0.027 0.452 0.505
Literacy 0.769 0.011 8,019 10,178 2.268 0.014 0.748 0.791
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.706 0.012 8,019 10,178 2.392 0.017 0.682 0.731
Current tobacco use 0.064 0.004 8,019 10,178 1.471 0.063 0.056 0.072
Age-specific fertility rate 15–19 (last 3 years) 64.499 4.783 4,523 5,607 1.278 0.074 54.934 74.064
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.972 0.073 22,776 29,007 1.395 0.037 1.826 2.118
Currently pregnant 0.039 0.002 8,019 10,178 1.086 0.060 0.035 0.044
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.087 0.064 1,577 1,996 1.596 0.021 2.960 3.214
Median birth interval 42.662 1.605 1,530 1,941 1.600 0.038 39.452 45.871
Want no more children 0.683 0.009 5,969 7,553 1.468 0.013 0.666 0.701
Ideal number of children 2.017 0.017 7,980 10,112 2.065 0.008 1.983 2.050
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.583 0.060 22,776 29,007 1.332 0.038 1.463 1.704
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.569 0.010 5,969 7,553 1.543 0.017 0.549 0.588
Currently using any modern method 0.407 0.010 5,969 7,553 1.580 0.025 0.386 0.427
Currently using female sterilization 0.137 0.008 5,969 7,553 1.832 0.059 0.121 0.154
Currently using male sterilization 0.034 0.004 5,969 7,553 1.608 0.110 0.027 0.042
Currently using pill 0.044 0.003 5,969 7,553 1.184 0.072 0.038 0.050
Currently using injectables 0.080 0.005 5,969 7,553 1.301 0.057 0.071 0.089
Currently using implants 0.046 0.004 5,969 7,553 1.443 0.085 0.038 0.054
Currently using male condoms 0.051 0.004 5,969 7,553 1.298 0.072 0.044 0.059
Currently using any traditional method 0.162 0.007 5,969 7,553 1.452 0.043 0.148 0.176
Unmet need for spacing 0.075 0.004 5,969 7,553 1.292 0.059 0.066 0.084
Unmet need for limiting 0.131 0.006 5,969 7,553 1.382 0.046 0.119 0.143
Unmet need total 0.206 0.007 5,969 7,553 1.403 0.036 0.191 0.220
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.525 0.011 4,654 5,848 1.509 0.021 0.503 0.547
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.908 0.005 5,969 7,553 1.435 0.006 0.898 0.919
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.325 0.011 8,019 10,178 2.050 0.033 0.303 0.346
Neonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 18.579 3.152 2,686 3,368 1.140 0.170 12.275 24.883
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 6.657 1.625 2,692 3,378 1.032 0.244 3.408 9.906
Infant mortality (last 0–4 years) 25.236 3.657 2,687 3,369 1.125 0.145 17.923 32.549
Child mortality (last 0–4 years) 5.102 1.476 2,720 3,424 1.008 0.289 2.150 8.054
Under-5 mortality (last 0–4 years) 30.209 4.183 2,694 3,379 1.188 0.138 21.842 38.576
Perinatal mortality rate 21.438 3.420 2,700 3,383 1.172 0.160 14.598 28.278
Stillbirth rate 6.440 1.557 2,700 3,383 1.008 0.242 3.326 9.553
Early neonatal death rate 15.072 2.954 2,686 3,367 1.172 0.196 9.164 20.979
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.942 0.008 1,029 1,266 1.104 0.009 0.926 0.958
4+ ANC visits 0.795 0.017 1,029 1,266 1.351 0.021 0.761 0.829
8+ ANC visits 0.066 0.012 1,029 1,266 1.500 0.177 0.042 0.089
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.960 0.009 1,029 1,266 1.409 0.009 0.943 0.977
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.928 0.009 1,029 1,266 1.134 0.010 0.910 0.946
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.809 0.017 1,052 1,295 1.373 0.021 0.775 0.843
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.814 0.017 1,052 1,295 1.355 0.020 0.781 0.848
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.215 0.017 1,052 1,295 1.290 0.079 0.181 0.249
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.716 0.018 1,029 1,266 1.260 0.025 0.681 0.751
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.700 0.019 1,029 1,266 1.313 0.027 0.663 0.738
Any problem accessing health care 0.629 0.012 8,019 10,178 2.275 0.020 0.605 0.654
Ever had vaccination card 0.994 0.003 511 623 0.870 0.003 0.988 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.948 0.010 511 623 1.015 0.011 0.927 0.968
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.890 0.017 511 623 1.189 0.019 0.857 0.924
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.811 0.022 511 623 1.271 0.027 0.767 0.856
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.891 0.017 511 623 1.179 0.019 0.858 0.924
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.526 0.025 511 623 1.134 0.048 0.475 0.576
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.565 0.033 278 364 1.121 0.059 0.498 0.632
Treated with ORS 0.394 0.039 278 364 1.312 0.098 0.317 0.471
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.048 0.007 1,353 1,707 1.149 0.141 0.035 0.062
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.215 0.014 1,353 1,707 1.211 0.065 0.187 0.242
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.079 0.009 1,352 1,706 1.128 0.112 0.061 0.097
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.015 0.004 1,352 1,706 1.173 0.264 0.007 0.022
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.169 0.013 1,357 1,715 1.213 0.078 0.143 0.196
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.568 0.035 297 362 1.228 0.062 0.497 0.639
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.510 0.022 716 881 1.162 0.043 0.466 0.553

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 537
 Table B.3—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.437 0.018 1,197 1,506 1.179 0.040 0.402 0.472
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.095 0.006 3,084 3,979 1.194 0.066 0.082 0.107
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.382 0.012 3,084 3,979 1.438 0.033 0.357 0.407
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.060 0.011 667 811 1.176 0.185 0.038 0.082
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.066 0.013 667 811 1.292 0.193 0.040 0.091
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.604 0.011 8,019 10,178 2.088 0.019 0.581 0.627
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.338 0.012 3,946 5,030 1.532 0.034 0.315 0.361
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.233 0.010 2,614 3,276 1.116 0.041 0.214 0.253
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.468 0.012 6,697 8,318 1.894 0.025 0.445 0.491
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.031 0.002 8,019 10,178 1.140 0.071 0.026 0.035
Mobile phone ownership 0.815 0.009 8,019 10,178 2.110 0.011 0.797 0.833
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.539 0.012 8,019 10,178 2.149 0.022 0.515 0.563
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.488 0.011 5,969 7,553 1.725 0.023 0.466 0.510
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.182 0.006 8,019 10,178 1.400 0.033 0.170 0.194
wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.635 0.011 5,969 7,553 1.731 0.017 0.613 0.656
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.219 0.011 2,745 3,530 1.376 0.050 0.197 0.241
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.073 0.007 2,745 3,530 1.354 0.092 0.060 0.087
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.014 0.003 2,745 3,530 1.220 0.197 0.008 0.019
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.238 0.012 2,371 2,860 1.336 0.049 0.214 0.261
recent husband or intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any husband 0.172 0.011 2,371 2,860 1.411 0.064 0.150 0.194
or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.073 0.008 2,717 3,462 1.570 0.107 0.058 0.089
Secondary education or higher 0.570 0.016 2,717 3,462 1.679 0.028 0.538 0.602
Literacy 0.906 0.009 2,717 3,462 1.605 0.010 0.888 0.924
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.797 0.013 2,717 3,462 1.688 0.016 0.771 0.823
Current tobacco use 0.484 0.014 2,717 3,462 1.418 0.028 0.457 0.511
Want no more children 0.658 0.013 1,703 2,119 1.114 0.019 0.633 0.684
Ideal number of children 2.141 0.019 2,713 3,452 1.358 0.009 2.103 2.178
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.391 0.015 2,629 3,343 1.533 0.037 0.362 0.420
Condom use at last sex 0.704 0.032 238 317 1.077 0.045 0.640 0.768
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.025 0.004 2,717 3,462 1.317 0.158 0.017 0.033
Mobile phone ownership 0.919 0.007 2,717 3,462 1.392 0.008 0.905 0.934
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.579 0.015 2,717 3,462 1.537 0.025 0.550 0.608
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.159 0.009 2,717 3,462 1.274 0.056 0.141 0.177
wife beating

538 • Appendix B
Table B.4 Sampling errors: Rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Electricity primary source of lighting 0.838 0.018 26,156 18,102 3.469 0.021 0.802 0.874
Primary reliance on clean fuels and technology for cooking 0.193 0.015 26,144 18,093 2.825 0.077 0.163 0.222
Births registered with civil authority 0.735 0.015 2,656 1,835 1.543 0.021 0.704 0.766
Improved drinking water source 0.965 0.009 26,156 18,102 3.756 0.010 0.946 0.984
At least basic drinking water service 0.959 0.010 26,156 18,102 3.604 0.010 0.940 0.979
Water available when needed 0.874 0.008 26,156 18,102 1.849 0.009 0.858 0.891
Improved sanitation facility 0.905 0.010 26,156 18,102 2.482 0.011 0.885 0.925
At least basic sanitation service 0.726 0.012 26,156 18,102 1.946 0.016 0.703 0.750
Using open defecation 0.088 0.010 26,156 18,102 2.546 0.113 0.068 0.109
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.468 0.027 5,470 3,864 1.766 0.057 0.415 0.522
WOMEN
No education 0.314 0.010 6,826 4,667 1.823 0.033 0.293 0.334
Secondary education or higher 0.340 0.011 6,826 4,667 1.982 0.033 0.317 0.363
Literacy 0.688 0.012 6,826 4,667 2.136 0.017 0.664 0.712
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.514 0.013 6,826 4,667 2.191 0.026 0.488 0.541
Current tobacco use 0.095 0.007 6,826 4,667 2.086 0.078 0.081 0.110
Age-specific fertility rate 15–19 (last 3 years) 85.954 5.529 3,810 2,557 1.204 0.064 74.896 97.012
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.400 0.079 19,146 13,133 1.368 0.033 2.243 2.557
Currently pregnant 0.040 0.003 6,826 4,667 1.207 0.071 0.035 0.046
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.627 0.062 1,440 965 1.405 0.017 3.503 3.750
Median birth interval 37.472 1.152 1,642 1,115 1.532 0.031 35.168 39.775
Want no more children 0.719 0.008 5,289 3,627 1.317 0.011 0.703 0.735
Ideal number of children 2.102 0.019 6,810 4,658 2.130 0.009 2.065 2.139
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.829 0.055 19,146 13,133 1.169 0.030 1.720 1.939
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.580 0.011 5,289 3,627 1.628 0.019 0.558 0.602
Currently using any modern method 0.468 0.012 5,289 3,627 1.702 0.025 0.445 0.492
Currently using female sterilization 0.128 0.010 5,289 3,627 2.223 0.080 0.107 0.148
Currently using male sterilization 0.038 0.004 5,289 3,627 1.493 0.103 0.030 0.046
Currently using pill 0.047 0.004 5,289 3,627 1.240 0.077 0.040 0.054
Currently using injectables 0.121 0.007 5,289 3,627 1.489 0.055 0.108 0.134
Currently using implants 0.091 0.006 5,289 3,627 1.562 0.068 0.079 0.104
Currently using male condoms 0.032 0.003 5,289 3,627 1.272 0.097 0.025 0.038
Currently using any traditional method 0.112 0.006 5,289 3,627 1.333 0.052 0.100 0.123
Unmet need for spacing 0.071 0.004 5,289 3,627 1.109 0.055 0.064 0.079
Unmet need for limiting 0.138 0.007 5,289 3,627 1.388 0.048 0.125 0.151
Unmet need total 0.210 0.008 5,289 3,627 1.412 0.038 0.194 0.225
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.593 0.012 4,197 2,864 1.574 0.020 0.569 0.617
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.904 0.006 5,289 3,627 1.386 0.006 0.893 0.915
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.371 0.011 6,826 4,667 1.911 0.030 0.349 0.393
Neonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 24.876 3.271 2,685 1,827 1.088 0.132 18.334 31.419
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–4 years) 9.315 1.671 2,695 1,832 0.915 0.179 5.973 12.656
Infant mortality (last 0–4 years) 34.191 3.676 2,690 1,829 1.044 0.108 26.838 41.543
Child mortality (last 0–4 years) 4.071 1.088 2,726 1,840 0.895 0.267 1.895 6.248
Under-5 mortality (last 0–4 years) 38.123 3.824 2,696 1,832 1.033 0.100 30.475 45.771
Perinatal mortality rate 36.554 3.424 2,735 1,860 0.925 0.094 29.706 43.403
Stillbirth rate 17.272 2.538 2,735 1,860 1.000 0.147 12.195 22.349
Early neonatal death rate 19.646 2.766 2,686 1,826 1.042 0.141 14.113 25.178
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.946 0.010 978 666 1.391 0.011 0.926 0.966
4+ ANC visits 0.824 0.017 978 666 1.364 0.020 0.790 0.857
8+ ANC visits 0.045 0.008 978 666 1.143 0.169 0.030 0.060
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.962 0.007 978 666 1.129 0.007 0.948 0.976
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.925 0.009 978 666 1.120 0.010 0.906 0.944
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.765 0.019 1,002 683 1.405 0.025 0.727 0.803
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.776 0.018 1,002 683 1.374 0.024 0.739 0.813
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.120 0.011 1,002 683 1.100 0.095 0.097 0.142
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.676 0.021 978 666 1.409 0.031 0.634 0.718
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.692 0.019 978 666 1.286 0.027 0.654 0.730
Any problem accessing health care 0.737 0.012 6,826 4,667 2.233 0.016 0.713 0.761
Ever had vaccination card 0.978 0.009 490 336 1.366 0.009 0.959 0.996
Received BCG vaccination 0.959 0.013 490 336 1.454 0.014 0.933 0.985
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.892 0.019 490 336 1.332 0.021 0.854 0.929
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.792 0.023 490 336 1.261 0.029 0.746 0.838
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.874 0.021 490 336 1.383 0.024 0.832 0.915
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.511 0.030 490 336 1.322 0.059 0.451 0.571
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.583 0.041 244 161 1.252 0.070 0.501 0.665
Treated with ORS 0.362 0.035 244 161 1.094 0.096 0.292 0.432
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.082 0.009 1,334 923 1.161 0.111 0.064 0.100
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.310 0.017 1,334 923 1.246 0.053 0.277 0.343
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.075 0.010 1,335 922 1.284 0.128 0.055 0.094
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.009 0.003 1,335 922 1.084 0.350 0.003 0.015
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.219 0.016 1,339 927 1.341 0.073 0.187 0.251
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.555 0.038 243 165 1.198 0.069 0.478 0.631
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.432 0.024 707 485 1.286 0.055 0.384 0.480

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 539
 Table B.4—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.427 0.017 1,207 837 1.160 0.039 0.394 0.461
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.120 0.008 2,564 1,770 1.286 0.068 0.103 0.136
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.260 0.011 2,564 1,770 1.317 0.044 0.237 0.283
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.035 0.008 642 419 1.006 0.212 0.020 0.051
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.043 0.009 642 419 1.116 0.212 0.025 0.062
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.456 0.013 6,826 4,667 2.091 0.028 0.430 0.481
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.342 0.015 3,371 2,299 1.859 0.044 0.312 0.373
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.223 0.012 2,591 1,764 1.444 0.055 0.199 0.248
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.607 0.012 5,419 3,609 1.784 0.020 0.583 0.631
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.020 0.002 6,826 4,667 1.247 0.105 0.016 0.025
Mobile phone ownership 0.756 0.010 6,826 4,667 1.987 0.014 0.735 0.777
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.408 0.011 6,826 4,667 1.813 0.026 0.387 0.430
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.457 0.010 5,289 3,627 1.461 0.022 0.437 0.477
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.194 0.009 6,826 4,667 1.779 0.044 0.177 0.211
wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.608 0.013 5,289 3,627 1.954 0.022 0.582 0.635
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.237 0.013 2,433 1,647 1.519 0.055 0.210 0.263
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.078 0.007 2,433 1,647 1.273 0.088 0.065 0.092
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.016 0.003 2,433 1,647 1.294 0.203 0.010 0.023
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.245 0.015 2,152 1,384 1.600 0.061 0.215 0.275
recent husband or intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any husband 0.173 0.015 2,152 1,384 1.834 0.086 0.143 0.203
or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.096 0.010 2,196 1,451 1.608 0.105 0.076 0.117
Secondary education or higher 0.446 0.015 2,196 1,451 1.440 0.034 0.416 0.477
Literacy 0.865 0.012 2,196 1,451 1.694 0.014 0.840 0.890
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.664 0.014 2,196 1,451 1.371 0.021 0.636 0.691
Current tobacco use 0.525 0.015 2,196 1,451 1.393 0.028 0.495 0.554
Want no more children 0.693 0.014 1,484 982 1.204 0.021 0.665 0.722
Ideal number of children 2.262 0.023 2,195 1,451 1.482 0.010 2.217 2.307
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.494 0.018 2,076 1,371 1.683 0.037 0.457 0.531
Condom use at last sex 0.699 0.035 178 118 1.026 0.051 0.628 0.770
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.014 0.002 2,196 1,451 0.999 0.181 0.009 0.019
Mobile phone ownership 0.907 0.007 2,196 1,451 1.142 0.008 0.893 0.921
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.463 0.013 2,196 1,451 1.197 0.028 0.438 0.489
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.202 0.011 2,196 1,451 1.264 0.054 0.180 0.224
wife beating

540 • Appendix B
Table B.5 Sampling errors: Mountain sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.831 0.027 582 342 1.499 0.032 0.777 0.884
At least basic drinking water service 0.969 0.011 5,090 3,193 1.837 0.011 0.948 0.990
Water available when needed 0.761 0.023 5,090 3,193 1.784 0.031 0.714 0.807
At least basic sanitation service 0.772 0.014 5,090 3,193 1.095 0.018 0.744 0.800
Using open defecation 0.043 0.007 5,090 3,193 1.137 0.164 0.029 0.057
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.417 0.142 1,322 861 4.461 0.340 0.133 0.701
WOMEN
No education 0.339 0.029 1,262 791 2.188 0.086 0.281 0.397
Secondary education or higher 0.344 0.028 1,262 791 2.124 0.083 0.287 0.401
Literacy 0.710 0.030 1,262 791 2.341 0.042 0.650 0.770
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.388 0.062 1,262 791 4.519 0.161 0.263 0.513
Current tobacco use 0.134 0.021 1,262 791 2.157 0.154 0.093 0.176
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.685 0.185 3,497 2,223 1.351 0.069 2.315 3.054
Currently pregnant 0.042 0.006 1,262 791 1.082 0.146 0.030 0.054
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.887 0.132 268 174 1.223 0.034 3.624 4.151
Median birth interval 40.011 2.964 375 214 1.381 0.074 34.082 45.940
Want no more children 0.740 0.017 978 629 1.208 0.023 0.706 0.774
Ideal number of children 2.105 0.026 1,258 787 1.224 0.012 2.052 2.157
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.027 0.145 3,497 2,223 0.948 0.072 1.737 2.317
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.627 0.020 978 629 1.304 0.032 0.587 0.668
Currently using any modern method 0.501 0.041 978 629 2.581 0.083 0.418 0.584
Currently using female sterilization 0.032 0.009 978 629 1.518 0.266 0.015 0.049
Currently using male sterilization 0.110 0.018 978 629 1.751 0.160 0.075 0.145
Currently using pill 0.028 0.009 978 629 1.675 0.317 0.010 0.045
Currently using injectables 0.178 0.032 978 629 2.643 0.182 0.113 0.243
Currently using implants 0.101 0.017 978 629 1.785 0.171 0.066 0.135
Currently using male condoms 0.034 0.008 978 629 1.344 0.228 0.019 0.050
Currently using any traditional method 0.126 0.027 978 629 2.501 0.211 0.073 0.180
Unmet need for spacing 0.080 0.010 978 629 1.200 0.130 0.059 0.101
Unmet need for limiting 0.111 0.014 978 629 1.361 0.123 0.084 0.138
Unmet need total 0.191 0.018 978 629 1.417 0.093 0.155 0.227
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.612 0.049 786 515 2.815 0.080 0.515 0.709
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.913 0.008 978 629 0.888 0.009 0.897 0.929
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.263 0.021 1,262 791 1.661 0.078 0.222 0.304
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 32.339 7.215 1,159 686 1.534 0.223 17.909 46.769
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 14.267 4.213 1,169 695 0.964 0.295 5.842 22.692
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 46.606 7.611 1,161 687 1.356 0.163 31.383 61.828
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.984 3.748 1,195 696 1.298 0.417 1.489 16.479
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 55.171 8.900 1,164 688 1.370 0.161 37.371 72.970
Perinatal mortality rate 38.248 9.700 581 336 1.068 0.254 18.849 57.647
Stillbirth rate 17.236 5.006 581 336 0.799 0.290 7.224 27.248
Early neonatal death rate 21.497 9.186 567 329 1.461 0.427 3.125 39.869
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.935 0.022 205 129 1.253 0.023 0.892 0.978
4+ ANC visits 0.905 0.022 205 129 1.062 0.024 0.861 0.948
8+ ANC visits 0.021 0.013 205 129 1.298 0.614 0.000 0.048
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.986 0.007 205 129 0.836 0.007 0.972 0.999
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.920 0.032 205 129 1.653 0.034 0.857 0.983
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.753 0.061 211 132 2.022 0.082 0.630 0.876
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.765 0.061 211 132 2.020 0.079 0.644 0.886
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.105 0.055 211 132 2.540 0.519 0.000 0.215
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.638 0.061 205 129 1.788 0.095 0.517 0.759
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.639 0.056 205 129 1.663 0.088 0.526 0.751
Any problem accessing health care 0.749 0.038 1,262 791 3.065 0.050 0.673 0.824
Ever had vaccination card 0.993 0.007 111 68 0.821 0.007 0.980 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.993 0.007 111 68 0.857 0.007 0.979 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.953 0.014 111 68 0.692 0.015 0.924 0.982
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.874 0.029 111 68 0.899 0.033 0.816 0.932
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.944 0.019 111 68 0.830 0.020 0.906 0.981
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.603 0.036 111 68 0.739 0.059 0.531 0.674
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.508 0.124 40 22 1.438 0.243 0.261 0.755
Treated with ORS 0.546 0.122 40 22 1.428 0.223 0.302 0.791
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.102 0.018 265 148 0.812 0.177 0.066 0.139
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.417 0.032 265 148 0.909 0.076 0.353 0.481
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.037 0.014 265 148 1.111 0.374 0.009 0.065
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.019 0.011 265 148 1.163 0.567 0.000 0.040
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.191 0.025 266 149 0.879 0.132 0.140 0.241
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.511 0.066 50 32 0.931 0.130 0.378 0.644
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.512 0.052 152 93 1.283 0.102 0.407 0.616
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin <11.0 0.432 0.036 236 131 1.042 0.084 0.359 0.504
g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.095 0.016 443 284 1.152 0.167 0.063 0.127
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.247 0.029 443 284 1.424 0.117 0.189 0.305
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.007 0.007 123 72 0.870 0.995 0.000 0.020
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.072 0.033 123 72 1.369 0.458 0.006 0.138

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 541
 Table B.5—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.482 0.042 1,262 791 2.985 0.087 0.398 0.566
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.230 0.026 607 380 1.516 0.113 0.178 0.281
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.203 0.024 549 317 1.265 0.116 0.156 0.250
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.604 0.040 1,045 672 2.652 0.067 0.524 0.685
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.019 0.009 1,262 791 2.368 0.480 0.001 0.037
Mobile phone ownership 0.807 0.020 1,262 791 1.756 0.024 0.768 0.846
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.416 0.058 1,262 791 4.121 0.138 0.301 0.531
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.512 0.026 978 629 1.612 0.050 0.460 0.563
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.195 0.013 1,262 791 1.126 0.064 0.170 0.220
wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.653 0.031 978 629 2.032 0.047 0.591 0.715
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.156 0.018 473 290 1.083 0.116 0.120 0.192
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.070 0.017 473 290 1.411 0.237 0.037 0.103
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.012 0.006 473 290 1.117 0.468 0.001 0.023
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.165 0.018 419 244 1.015 0.112 0.128 0.202
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any husband 0.119 0.023 419 244 1.465 0.196 0.072 0.165
or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.063 0.018 407 255 1.477 0.283 0.027 0.099
Secondary education or higher 0.456 0.037 407 255 1.477 0.080 0.383 0.529
Literacy 0.911 0.018 407 255 1.281 0.020 0.875 0.947
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.613 0.055 407 255 2.279 0.090 0.502 0.724
Current tobacco use 0.458 0.022 407 255 0.890 0.048 0.414 0.503
Want no more children 0.724 0.027 302 186 1.043 0.037 0.671 0.778
Ideal number of children 2.230 0.036 407 255 1.035 0.016 2.159 2.301
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.423 0.024 369 235 0.935 0.057 0.375 0.471
Condom use at last sex 0.655 0.049 37 27 0.624 0.075 0.557 0.753
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.004 0.003 407 255 0.932 0.708 0.000 0.010
Mobile phone ownership 0.902 0.013 407 255 0.871 0.014 0.877 0.928
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.553 0.039 407 255 1.558 0.070 0.476 0.630
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.198 0.022 407 255 1.089 0.109 0.155 0.242
wife beating

542 • Appendix B
Table B.6 Sampling errors: Hill sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.752 0.015 2,133 1,743 1.437 0.020 0.722 0.783
At least basic drinking water service 0.963 0.006 24,393 21,443 2.272 0.006 0.951 0.974
Water available when needed 0.812 0.012 24,393 21,443 2.199 0.014 0.789 0.835
At least basic sanitation service 0.765 0.011 24,393 21,443 1.999 0.014 0.743 0.786
Using open defecation 0.028 0.005 24,393 21,443 2.230 0.178 0.018 0.038
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.842 0.016 6,539 7,891 1.725 0.019 0.810 0.875
WOMEN
No education 0.183 0.009 6,606 5,872 1.889 0.049 0.165 0.201
Secondary education or higher 0.522 0.013 6,606 5,872 2.171 0.026 0.495 0.549
Literacy 0.843 0.008 6,606 5,872 1.762 0.009 0.827 0.859
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.665 0.015 6,606 5,872 2.548 0.022 0.635 0.694
Current tobacco use 0.092 0.005 6,606 5,872 1.417 0.055 0.082 0.102
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.833 0.078 18,659 16,732 1.385 0.042 1.678 1.989
Currently pregnant 0.030 0.002 6,606 5,872 1.028 0.071 0.026 0.035
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.118 0.075 1,386 1,215 1.655 0.024 2.968 3.267
Median birth interval 48.944 1.465 1,238 974 1.397 0.030 46.014 51.875
Want no more children 0.722 0.010 4,913 4,275 1.588 0.014 0.702 0.742
Ideal number of children 1.917 0.013 6,588 5,847 1.525 0.007 1.891 1.943
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.448 0.063 18,659 16,732 1.344 0.044 1.321 1.575
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.591 0.010 4,913 4,275 1.362 0.016 0.572 0.610
Currently using any modern method 0.411 0.011 4,913 4,275 1.520 0.026 0.390 0.432
Currently using female sterilization 0.047 0.004 4,913 4,275 1.460 0.094 0.038 0.055
Currently using male sterilization 0.055 0.006 4,913 4,275 1.862 0.110 0.043 0.067
Currently using pill 0.047 0.004 4,913 4,275 1.373 0.088 0.039 0.056
Currently using injectables 0.111 0.006 4,913 4,275 1.391 0.056 0.099 0.124
Currently using implants 0.084 0.006 4,913 4,275 1.484 0.070 0.072 0.095
Currently using male condoms 0.051 0.005 4,913 4,275 1.508 0.093 0.042 0.061
Currently using any traditional method 0.180 0.007 4,913 4,275 1.364 0.042 0.165 0.195
Unmet need for spacing 0.066 0.004 4,913 4,275 1.125 0.060 0.058 0.074
Unmet need for limiting 0.160 0.007 4,913 4,275 1.309 0.043 0.147 0.174
Unmet need total 0.226 0.008 4,913 4,275 1.270 0.034 0.211 0.241
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.503 0.011 3,996 3,493 1.451 0.023 0.480 0.526
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.920 0.005 4,913 4,275 1.390 0.006 0.909 0.931
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.267 0.010 6,606 5,872 1.767 0.036 0.248 0.286
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 18.922 2.333 4,485 3,637 1.002 0.123 14.256 23.588
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.160 1.554 4,481 3,640 1.068 0.190 5.051 11.268
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 27.082 2.839 4,488 3,640 1.000 0.105 21.404 32.760
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 4.362 1.035 4,536 3,693 1.081 0.237 2.293 6.431
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 31.326 3.058 4,491 3,643 1.006 0.098 25.210 37.442
Perinatal mortality rate 20.815 3.417 2,221 1,798 1.057 0.164 13.982 27.649
Stillbirth rate 9.857 2.254 2,221 1,798 1.032 0.229 5.348 14.366
Early neonatal death rate 11.066 2.331 2,198 1,780 1.003 0.211 6.404 15.727
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.940 0.010 802 639 1.231 0.011 0.920 0.961
4+ ANC visits 0.865 0.015 802 639 1.248 0.017 0.835 0.895
8+ ANC visits 0.081 0.018 802 639 1.856 0.221 0.045 0.117
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.961 0.008 802 639 1.132 0.008 0.946 0.977
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.897 0.012 802 639 1.141 0.014 0.872 0.921
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.816 0.018 816 648 1.257 0.022 0.780 0.852
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.810 0.019 816 648 1.278 0.023 0.773 0.847
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.183 0.020 816 648 1.382 0.107 0.144 0.222
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.701 0.023 802 639 1.407 0.032 0.656 0.747
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.687 0.023 802 639 1.426 0.034 0.640 0.734
Any problem accessing health care 0.670 0.015 6,606 5,872 2.638 0.023 0.640 0.701
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.005 389 301 0.845 0.005 0.978 0.998
Received BCG vaccination 0.936 0.016 389 301 1.240 0.017 0.904 0.969
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.903 0.019 389 301 1.210 0.021 0.864 0.941
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.853 0.021 389 301 1.088 0.024 0.812 0.894
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.906 0.020 389 301 1.288 0.022 0.866 0.946
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.587 0.031 389 301 1.167 0.052 0.525 0.648
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.532 0.039 206 166 1.047 0.072 0.455 0.609
Treated with ORS 0.473 0.038 206 166 1.035 0.080 0.398 0.549
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.052 0.009 1,115 922 1.186 0.169 0.034 0.070
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.224 0.016 1,115 922 1.200 0.073 0.191 0.256
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.039 0.007 1,116 922 1.134 0.173 0.026 0.053
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.012 0.004 1,116 922 1.092 0.331 0.004 0.020
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.134 0.013 1,118 926 1.197 0.097 0.108 0.160
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.619 0.039 211 166 1.151 0.062 0.542 0.696
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.537 0.024 574 460 1.170 0.045 0.488 0.586
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.337 0.017 1,007 826 1.058 0.049 0.304 0.371
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.055 0.005 2,545 2,356 1.100 0.089 0.045 0.064
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.421 0.014 2,545 2,356 1.461 0.033 0.393 0.449
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.030 0.010 601 483 1.363 0.333 0.010 0.050
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.068 0.014 601 483 1.269 0.202 0.040 0.095

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 543
 Table B.6—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.625 0.013 6,606 5,872 2.147 0.020 0.599 0.651
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.200 0.010 3,292 2,950 1.466 0.051 0.180 0.221
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.261 0.012 2,142 1,744 1.173 0.045 0.237 0.284
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.483 0.012 6,164 5,561 1.815 0.024 0.460 0.506
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.037 0.003 6,606 5,872 1.304 0.082 0.031 0.043
Mobile phone ownership 0.885 0.006 6,606 5,872 1.640 0.007 0.872 0.898
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.567 0.013 6,606 5,872 2.154 0.023 0.541 0.593
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.531 0.013 4,913 4,275 1.829 0.025 0.505 0.557
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.183 0.007 6,606 5,872 1.421 0.037 0.170 0.197
wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.694 0.010 4,913 4,275 1.468 0.014 0.675 0.714
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.162 0.009 2,384 2,028 1.159 0.054 0.144 0.179
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.073 0.007 2,384 2,028 1.382 0.101 0.058 0.088
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.018 0.004 2,384 2,028 1.341 0.205 0.010 0.025
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.173 0.010 2,087 1,673 1.208 0.058 0.153 0.193
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.116 0.009 2,087 1,673 1.308 0.079 0.098 0.135
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.029 0.004 2,150 1,973 1.192 0.148 0.021 0.038
Secondary education or higher 0.622 0.016 2,150 1,973 1.575 0.026 0.589 0.655
Literacy 0.964 0.005 2,150 1,973 1.136 0.005 0.955 0.973
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.788 0.015 2,150 1,973 1.702 0.019 0.758 0.818
Current tobacco use 0.450 0.016 2,150 1,973 1.468 0.035 0.418 0.481
Want no more children 0.679 0.014 1,368 1,194 1.134 0.021 0.650 0.707
Ideal number of children 2.078 0.019 2,147 1,966 1.334 0.009 2.040 2.116
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.302 0.012 2,114 1,940 1.197 0.040 0.278 0.325
Condom use at last sex 0.729 0.036 199 203 1.139 0.049 0.657 0.801
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.026 0.004 2,150 1,973 1.276 0.168 0.017 0.035
Mobile phone ownership 0.943 0.006 2,150 1,973 1.189 0.006 0.932 0.955
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.623 0.016 2,150 1,973 1.536 0.026 0.591 0.655
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified in 0.144 0.010 2,150 1,973 1.271 0.067 0.125 0.163
wife beating

544 • Appendix B
Table B.7 Sampling errors: Terai sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.709 0.016 2,530 3,036 1.509 0.022 0.677 0.741
At least basic drinking water service 0.984 0.006 24,973 29,683 3.273 0.006 0.972 0.996
Water available when needed 0.934 0.005 24,973 29,683 1.573 0.006 0.923 0.945
At least basic sanitation service 0.694 0.011 24,973 29,683 1.713 0.016 0.671 0.716
Using open defecation 0.104 0.010 24,973 29,683 2.209 0.096 0.084 0.124
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.694 0.025 6,918 8,846 1.951 0.036 0.643 0.744
WOMEN
No education 0.300 0.012 6,977 8,182 2.110 0.039 0.277 0.323
Secondary education or higher 0.381 0.014 6,977 8,182 2.420 0.037 0.353 0.409
Literacy 0.676 0.013 6,977 8,182 2.313 0.019 0.650 0.702
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.658 0.012 6,977 8,182 2.194 0.019 0.633 0.683
Current tobacco use 0.055 0.005 6,977 8,182 1.825 0.090 0.045 0.065
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.234 0.078 19,765 23,184 1.399 0.035 2.077 2.391
Currently pregnant 0.046 0.003 6,977 8,182 1.150 0.063 0.040 0.052
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.306 0.065 1,363 1,572 1.540 0.020 3.176 3.436
Median birth interval 37.210 1.023 1,559 1,867 1.592 0.027 35.164 39.256
Want no more children 0.672 0.009 5,367 6,276 1.438 0.014 0.654 0.691
Ideal number of children 2.129 0.021 6,944 8,136 2.342 0.010 2.088 2.170
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.769 0.062 19,765 23,184 1.295 0.035 1.645 1.893
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.554 0.012 5,367 6,276 1.701 0.021 0.531 0.577
Currently using any modern method 0.430 0.011 5,367 6,276 1.633 0.026 0.408 0.452
Currently using female sterilization 0.204 0.010 5,367 6,276 1.867 0.050 0.183 0.225
Currently using male sterilization 0.015 0.002 5,367 6,276 1.151 0.129 0.011 0.018
Currently using pill 0.045 0.003 5,367 6,276 1.100 0.069 0.039 0.051
Currently using injectables 0.072 0.004 5,367 6,276 1.229 0.060 0.064 0.081
Currently using implants 0.041 0.004 5,367 6,276 1.462 0.097 0.033 0.049
Currently using male condoms 0.042 0.003 5,367 6,276 1.281 0.084 0.035 0.048
Currently using any traditional method 0.124 0.007 5,367 6,276 1.531 0.055 0.111 0.138
Unmet need for spacing 0.078 0.005 5,367 6,276 1.338 0.063 0.069 0.088
Unmet need for limiting 0.117 0.006 5,367 6,276 1.439 0.054 0.104 0.130
Unmet need total 0.195 0.008 5,367 6,276 1.497 0.041 0.179 0.212
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.573 0.012 4,069 4,705 1.511 0.021 0.550 0.597
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.898 0.006 5,367 6,276 1.452 0.007 0.886 0.910
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.398 0.013 6,977 8,182 2.148 0.032 0.373 0.424
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 23.392 2.443 5,210 6,136 1.064 0.104 18.507 28.278
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 9.397 1.448 5,215 6,148 1.069 0.154 6.502 12.292
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 32.789 3.085 5,210 6,136 1.136 0.094 26.620 38.958
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 6.617 1.250 5,243 6,192 1.068 0.189 4.117 9.116
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 39.189 3.250 5,218 6,146 1.113 0.083 32.689 45.689
Perinatal mortality rate 29.023 3.597 2,633 3,110 1.069 0.124 21.828 36.218
Stillbirth rate 9.777 1.791 2,633 3,110 0.940 0.183 6.195 13.360
Early neonatal death rate 19.407 3.209 2,607 3,084 1.136 0.165 12.989 25.825
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.946 0.009 1,000 1,166 1.197 0.009 0.929 0.963
4+ ANC visits 0.760 0.018 1,000 1,166 1.353 0.024 0.724 0.797
8+ ANC visits 0.050 0.009 1,000 1,166 1.234 0.170 0.033 0.067
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.958 0.009 1,000 1,166 1.443 0.010 0.939 0.976
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.944 0.008 1,000 1,166 1.136 0.009 0.928 0.961
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.786 0.018 1,027 1,197 1.356 0.022 0.751 0.822
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.800 0.017 1,027 1,197 1.322 0.021 0.766 0.833
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.190 0.016 1,027 1,197 1.237 0.082 0.158 0.221
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.710 0.018 1,000 1,166 1.233 0.025 0.674 0.745
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.709 0.018 1,000 1,166 1.262 0.026 0.673 0.745
Any problem accessing health care 0.650 0.012 6,977 8,182 2.088 0.018 0.626 0.673
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.006 501 591 1.144 0.006 0.977 0.999
Received BCG vaccination 0.955 0.010 501 591 1.075 0.010 0.935 0.975
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.878 0.018 501 591 1.227 0.020 0.842 0.913
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.772 0.024 501 591 1.298 0.031 0.724 0.820
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.868 0.018 501 591 1.208 0.021 0.832 0.904
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 months) 0.477 0.027 501 591 1.230 0.057 0.423 0.532
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.594 0.035 276 336 1.187 0.059 0.524 0.664
Treated with ORS 0.329 0.038 276 336 1.326 0.115 0.254 0.405
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.061 0.007 1,307 1,561 1.109 0.119 0.047 0.076
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.247 0.015 1,307 1,561 1.229 0.061 0.217 0.277
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.104 0.010 1,306 1,558 1.108 0.096 0.084 0.123
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.012 0.004 1,306 1,558 1.210 0.299 0.005 0.020
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.217 0.015 1,312 1,568 1.245 0.069 0.187 0.247
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.541 0.036 279 328 1.191 0.066 0.470 0.613
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.448 0.022 697 812 1.190 0.050 0.403 0.493
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.491 0.018 1,161 1,387 1.225 0.038 0.454 0.528
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.140 0.008 2,660 3,110 1.187 0.057 0.124 0.156
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.296 0.013 2,660 3,110 1.483 0.044 0.270 0.322
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.071 0.012 585 676 1.100 0.165 0.048 0.095
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.050 0.013 585 676 1.460 0.266 0.023 0.076

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 545
 Table B.7—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.516 0.012 6,977 8,182 2.042 0.024 0.492 0.541
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.453 0.013 3,418 3,999 1.513 0.028 0.427 0.479
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.215 0.010 2,514 2,979 1.238 0.049 0.194 0.235
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.525 0.014 4,907 5,695 1.957 0.027 0.498 0.553
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.022 0.002 6,977 8,182 1.134 0.091 0.018 0.026
Mobile phone ownership 0.732 0.011 6,977 8,182 2.106 0.015 0.710 0.754
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.456 0.012 6,977 8,182 2.029 0.027 0.432 0.480
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.439 0.011 5,367 6,276 1.621 0.025 0.417 0.461
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.186 0.007 6,977 8,182 1.526 0.038 0.172 0.201
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.577 0.013 5,367 6,276 1.873 0.022 0.552 0.602
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.276 0.014 2,321 2,858 1.489 0.050 0.248 0.304
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.077 0.007 2,321 2,858 1.327 0.095 0.062 0.092
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.013 0.003 2,321 2,858 1.191 0.218 0.007 0.018
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.296 0.015 2,017 2,328 1.443 0.050 0.267 0.325
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.218 0.014 2,017 2,328 1.525 0.064 0.190 0.246
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.119 0.011 2,356 2,685 1.619 0.091 0.097 0.141
Secondary education or higher 0.476 0.017 2,356 2,685 1.637 0.035 0.442 0.509
Literacy 0.840 0.012 2,356 2,685 1.633 0.015 0.816 0.865
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.749 0.014 2,356 2,685 1.529 0.018 0.722 0.776
Current tobacco use 0.533 0.015 2,356 2,685 1.455 0.028 0.504 0.563
Want no more children 0.657 0.014 1,517 1,722 1.164 0.022 0.629 0.685
Ideal number of children 2.244 0.022 2,354 2,682 1.404 0.010 2.200 2.288
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.512 0.020 2,222 2,538 1.841 0.038 0.472 0.551
Condom use at last sex 0.683 0.041 180 204 1.176 0.060 0.601 0.765
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.020 0.004 2,356 2,685 1.418 0.204 0.012 0.028
Mobile phone ownership 0.896 0.009 2,356 2,685 1.426 0.010 0.878 0.914
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.486 0.014 2,356 2,685 1.371 0.029 0.458 0.515
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.189 0.011 2,356 2,685 1.307 0.056 0.168 0.210
in wife beating

546 • Appendix B
Table B.8 Sampling errors: Koshi Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.656 0.024 761 857 1.254 0.036 0.609 0.704
At least basic drinking water service 0.982 0.008 8,289 9,406 2.842 0.008 0.967 0.998
Water available when needed 0.883 0.015 8,289 9,406 1.972 0.017 0.853 0.912
At least basic sanitation service 0.768 0.017 8,289 9,406 1.719 0.022 0.735 0.801
Using open defecation 0.052 0.011 8,289 9,406 2.167 0.213 0.030 0.074
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.748 0.037 1,927 2,420 1.827 0.049 0.674 0.822
WOMEN
No education 0.184 0.016 2,209 2,493 1.912 0.086 0.153 0.216
Secondary education or higher 0.482 0.021 2,209 2,493 1.991 0.044 0.440 0.524
Literacy 0.813 0.018 2,209 2,493 2.141 0.022 0.778 0.849
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.587 0.021 2,209 2,493 2.032 0.036 0.545 0.630
Current tobacco use 0.104 0.010 2,209 2,493 1.543 0.097 0.084 0.124
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.200 0.127 6,310 7,129 1.360 0.058 1.947 2.454
Currently pregnant 0.030 0.004 2,209 2,493 1.214 0.146 0.022 0.039
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.936 0.103 462 518 1.484 0.035 2.730 3.142
Median birth interval 48.831 3.229 438 492 1.554 0.066 42.374 55.288
Want no more children 0.660 0.015 1,674 1,887 1.308 0.023 0.630 0.690
Ideal number of children 2.027 0.028 2,203 2,485 1.590 0.014 1.971 2.082
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.722 0.114 6,310 7,129 1.387 0.066 1.495 1.949
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.615 0.013 1,674 1,887 1.086 0.021 0.590 0.641
Currently using any modern method 0.435 0.017 1,674 1,887 1.407 0.039 0.401 0.470
Currently using female sterilization 0.120 0.020 1,674 1,887 2.456 0.163 0.081 0.159
Currently using male sterilization 0.013 0.004 1,674 1,887 1.352 0.286 0.006 0.021
Currently using pill 0.056 0.006 1,674 1,887 1.142 0.115 0.043 0.068
Currently using injectables 0.121 0.009 1,674 1,887 1.136 0.075 0.102 0.139
Currently using implants 0.077 0.010 1,674 1,887 1.593 0.135 0.056 0.098
Currently using male condoms 0.036 0.005 1,674 1,887 1.020 0.130 0.026 0.045
Currently using any traditional method 0.180 0.014 1,674 1,887 1.499 0.078 0.152 0.208
Unmet need for spacing 0.079 0.008 1,674 1,887 1.213 0.101 0.063 0.095
Unmet need for limiting 0.095 0.007 1,674 1,887 1.043 0.079 0.080 0.110
Unmet need total 0.174 0.010 1,674 1,887 1.100 0.059 0.154 0.194
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.552 0.021 1,325 1,490 1.512 0.038 0.510 0.593
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.929 0.009 1,674 1,887 1.355 0.009 0.912 0.946
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.341 0.019 2,209 2,493 1.882 0.056 0.303 0.379
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 19.690 4.341 1,562 1,755 1.082 0.220 11.008 28.371
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.312 2.731 1,560 1,752 1.107 0.329 2.849 13.775
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 28.002 5.322 1,564 1,757 1.139 0.190 17.358 38.645
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 5.826 2.195 1,547 1,733 1.001 0.377 1.436 10.217
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 33.665 6.320 1,564 1,757 1.251 0.188 21.026 46.304
Perinatal mortality rate 28.493 7.387 805 898 1.106 0.259 13.719 43.267
Stillbirth rate 5.003 2.576 805 898 1.030 0.515 0.000 10.155
Early neonatal death rate 23.614 6.812 800 894 1.087 0.288 9.990 37.238
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.904 0.018 314 358 1.053 0.019 0.869 0.939
4+ ANC visits 0.788 0.026 314 358 1.121 0.033 0.736 0.840
8+ ANC visits 0.063 0.016 314 358 1.131 0.246 0.032 0.095
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.967 0.011 314 358 1.048 0.011 0.946 0.988
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.904 0.019 314 358 1.172 0.022 0.866 0.943
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.815 0.029 322 368 1.313 0.036 0.757 0.873
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.818 0.028 322 368 1.267 0.034 0.762 0.874
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.273 0.033 322 368 1.318 0.122 0.207 0.340
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.773 0.028 314 358 1.170 0.036 0.718 0.829
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.719 0.034 314 358 1.346 0.048 0.650 0.787
Any problem accessing health care 0.742 0.018 2,209 2,493 1.934 0.024 0.706 0.778
Ever had vaccination card 0.989 0.007 147 168 0.867 0.007 0.975 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.943 0.021 147 168 1.130 0.023 0.901 0.986
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.919 0.023 147 168 1.018 0.025 0.874 0.965
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.757 0.049 147 168 1.398 0.065 0.659 0.856
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.918 0.023 147 168 1.025 0.025 0.872 0.964
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.450 0.050 147 168 1.214 0.110 0.351 0.549
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.487 0.061 81 95 1.090 0.125 0.365 0.609
Treated with ORS 0.380 0.066 81 95 1.185 0.172 0.249 0.511
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.043 0.013 426 481 1.248 0.295 0.017 0.068
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.200 0.023 426 481 1.178 0.116 0.153 0.246
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.038 0.009 425 480 0.910 0.225 0.021 0.056
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.021 0.007 425 480 1.025 0.339 0.007 0.035
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.130 0.020 431 487 1.190 0.151 0.091 0.169
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.527 0.064 93 109 1.232 0.122 0.399 0.656
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.518 0.037 208 237 1.075 0.072 0.443 0.593
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.339 0.027 377 422 1.085 0.079 0.285 0.393
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.086 0.013 877 993 1.389 0.153 0.060 0.113
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.329 0.021 877 993 1.307 0.063 0.288 0.371
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.049 0.016 177 190 0.986 0.337 0.016 0.081
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.045 0.016 177 190 0.977 0.346 0.014 0.077

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 547
 Table B.8—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.593 0.018 2,209 2,493 1.693 0.030 0.558 0.628
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.276 0.021 1,101 1,235 1.523 0.074 0.235 0.317
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.257 0.021 766 859 1.309 0.083 0.215 0.300
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.525 0.025 1,877 2,117 2.149 0.047 0.475 0.575
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.026 0.004 2,209 2,493 1.091 0.143 0.018 0.033
Mobile phone ownership 0.800 0.016 2,209 2,493 1.839 0.020 0.768 0.831
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.458 0.018 2,209 2,493 1.725 0.040 0.422 0.495
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.462 0.017 1,674 1,887 1.433 0.038 0.427 0.497
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.240 0.011 2,209 2,493 1.188 0.045 0.218 0.261
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.660 0.021 1,674 1,887 1.789 0.031 0.619 0.702
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.205 0.022 804 877 1.546 0.108 0.161 0.249
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.074 0.014 804 877 1.501 0.188 0.046 0.101
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.012 0.004 804 877 1.027 0.335 0.004 0.019
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.208 0.023 703 728 1.518 0.112 0.161 0.254
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.144 0.019 703 728 1.437 0.133 0.106 0.182
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.065 0.013 795 882 1.428 0.192 0.040 0.090
Secondary education or higher 0.526 0.024 795 882 1.327 0.045 0.479 0.573
Literacy 0.900 0.016 795 882 1.488 0.018 0.868 0.932
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.712 0.024 795 882 1.494 0.034 0.664 0.760
Current tobacco use 0.542 0.017 795 882 0.964 0.031 0.508 0.576
Want no more children 0.676 0.025 496 558 1.206 0.038 0.625 0.727
Ideal number of children 2.145 0.026 794 881 1.183 0.012 2.092 2.197
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.374 0.030 758 843 1.681 0.079 0.315 0.433
Condom use at last sex 0.585 0.070 58 59 1.078 0.120 0.444 0.726
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.012 0.005 795 882 1.337 0.427 0.002 0.023
Mobile phone ownership 0.857 0.017 795 882 1.387 0.020 0.823 0.892
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.500 0.024 795 882 1.366 0.048 0.452 0.549
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.166 0.015 795 882 1.162 0.092 0.135 0.196
in wife beating

548 • Appendix B
Table B.9 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.709 0.027 1,117 1,388 1.622 0.038 0.656 0.762
At least basic drinking water service 0.995 0.003 9,442 11,511 1.845 0.003 0.990 1.000
Water available when needed 0.941 0.008 9,442 11,511 1.470 0.009 0.924 0.957
At least basic sanitation service 0.634 0.019 9,442 11,511 1.606 0.029 0.597 0.672
Using open defecation 0.184 0.020 9,442 11,511 2.109 0.108 0.145 0.224
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.517 0.047 3,001 3,552 2.154 0.091 0.423 0.611
WOMEN
No education 0.459 0.023 2,499 3,010 2.261 0.049 0.413 0.504
Secondary education or higher 0.249 0.022 2,499 3,010 2.506 0.087 0.206 0.293
Literacy 0.465 0.023 2,499 3,010 2.334 0.050 0.418 0.512
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.619 0.023 2,499 3,010 2.340 0.037 0.574 0.665
Current tobacco use 0.020 0.003 2,499 3,010 1.167 0.164 0.013 0.026
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.657 0.117 7,015 8,457 1.326 0.044 2.422 2.891
Currently pregnant 0.067 0.006 2,499 3,010 1.164 0.087 0.055 0.078
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.977 0.111 484 561 1.482 0.028 3.755 4.200
Median birth interval 31.350 1.431 767 956 1.508 0.046 28.488 34.211
Want no more children 0.647 0.018 2,010 2,419 1.731 0.029 0.610 0.684
Ideal number of children 2.381 0.036 2,486 2,989 2.606 0.015 2.310 2.453
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.056 0.087 7,015 8,457 1.207 0.042 1.883 2.229
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.490 0.020 2,010 2,419 1.820 0.041 0.449 0.530
Currently using any modern method 0.405 0.019 2,010 2,419 1.763 0.048 0.367 0.444
Currently using female sterilization 0.283 0.019 2,010 2,419 1.881 0.067 0.245 0.321
Currently using male sterilization 0.005 0.002 2,010 2,419 1.418 0.451 0.000 0.009
Currently using pill 0.026 0.003 2,010 2,419 0.969 0.133 0.019 0.033
Currently using injectables 0.048 0.006 2,010 2,419 1.339 0.133 0.035 0.061
Currently using implants 0.018 0.004 2,010 2,419 1.208 0.199 0.011 0.025
Currently using male condoms 0.017 0.005 2,010 2,419 1.819 0.306 0.007 0.028
Currently using any traditional method 0.085 0.008 2,010 2,419 1.293 0.095 0.069 0.101
Unmet need for spacing 0.099 0.010 2,010 2,419 1.440 0.097 0.080 0.119
Unmet need for limiting 0.111 0.010 2,010 2,419 1.481 0.093 0.091 0.132
Unmet need total 0.211 0.015 2,010 2,419 1.596 0.069 0.182 0.240
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.578 0.021 1,435 1,695 1.624 0.037 0.536 0.621
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.861 0.012 2,010 2,419 1.534 0.014 0.837 0.884
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.577 0.023 2,499 3,010 2.357 0.040 0.530 0.624
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 27.178 3.862 2,271 2,769 1.054 0.142 19.455 34.901
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 11.090 2.579 2,284 2,789 1.199 0.233 5.931 16.249
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 38.268 5.229 2,271 2,769 1.230 0.137 27.811 48.725
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 5.162 1.805 2,337 2,857 1.228 0.350 1.552 8.772
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 43.233 5.306 2,274 2,773 1.187 0.123 32.621 53.844
Perinatal mortality rate 35.025 5.532 1,158 1,419 1.049 0.158 23.960 46.090
Stillbirth rate 10.253 2.529 1,158 1,419 0.867 0.247 5.194 15.311
Early neonatal death rate 25.009 4.821 1,143 1,406 1.079 0.193 15.367 34.650
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.960 0.012 414 500 1.193 0.012 0.937 0.983
4+ ANC visits 0.684 0.034 414 500 1.475 0.049 0.616 0.751
8+ ANC visits 0.047 0.015 414 500 1.435 0.318 0.017 0.077
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.935 0.019 414 500 1.537 0.020 0.898 0.972
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.954 0.011 414 500 1.090 0.012 0.931 0.976
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.668 0.028 427 514 1.242 0.043 0.611 0.724
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.680 0.028 427 514 1.217 0.041 0.625 0.736
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.139 0.019 427 514 1.130 0.140 0.100 0.178
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.578 0.030 414 500 1.231 0.052 0.518 0.638
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.643 0.031 414 500 1.305 0.048 0.582 0.705
Any problem accessing health care 0.729 0.016 2,499 3,010 1.823 0.022 0.696 0.761
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.008 220 269 1.140 0.008 0.972 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.950 0.015 220 269 1.021 0.016 0.920 0.980
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.824 0.032 220 269 1.251 0.039 0.760 0.887
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.704 0.038 220 269 1.260 0.054 0.628 0.781
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.809 0.032 220 269 1.223 0.040 0.745 0.873
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.419 0.038 220 269 1.154 0.090 0.344 0.495
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.568 0.057 112 135 1.188 0.101 0.454 0.682
Treated with ORS 0.359 0.062 112 135 1.328 0.174 0.234 0.483
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.066 0.010 554 687 0.980 0.154 0.046 0.086
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.293 0.024 554 687 1.217 0.081 0.246 0.341
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.101 0.014 555 687 1.048 0.141 0.073 0.130
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 555 687 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.268 0.024 557 691 1.224 0.091 0.219 0.316
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.650 0.057 111 137 1.256 0.088 0.536 0.765
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.359 0.035 291 349 1.244 0.098 0.289 0.429
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.506 0.027 499 619 1.163 0.053 0.452 0.560
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.185 0.015 889 1,074 1.129 0.079 0.156 0.215
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.228 0.021 889 1,074 1.489 0.092 0.186 0.270
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.061 0.018 237 282 1.169 0.300 0.024 0.098
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.028 0.011 237 282 1.054 0.403 0.006 0.051

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 549
 Table B.9—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.428 0.018 2,499 3,010 1.861 0.043 0.391 0.465
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.524 0.021 1,203 1,458 1.445 0.040 0.483 0.566
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.197 0.015 1,097 1,352 1.166 0.074 0.168 0.226
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.697 0.030 1,123 1,314 2.207 0.044 0.636 0.757
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.010 0.002 2,499 3,010 0.945 0.184 0.007 0.014
Mobile phone ownership 0.640 0.020 2,499 3,010 2.093 0.031 0.600 0.680
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.336 0.017 2,499 3,010 1.770 0.050 0.303 0.370
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.388 0.019 2,010 2,419 1.756 0.049 0.349 0.426
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.136 0.010 2,499 3,010 1.493 0.075 0.115 0.156
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.430 0.022 2,010 2,419 1.959 0.050 0.387 0.473
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.365 0.022 819 1,042 1.285 0.059 0.321 0.408
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.106 0.014 819 1,042 1.297 0.132 0.078 0.134
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.018 0.006 819 1,042 1.341 0.350 0.005 0.030
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.396 0.025 727 871 1.381 0.063 0.346 0.446
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.318 0.026 727 871 1.506 0.082 0.266 0.370
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.191 0.023 882 997 1.698 0.118 0.146 0.236
Secondary education or higher 0.423 0.027 882 997 1.634 0.064 0.368 0.477
Literacy 0.758 0.025 882 997 1.739 0.033 0.707 0.808
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.721 0.025 882 997 1.674 0.035 0.671 0.772
Current tobacco use 0.515 0.023 882 997 1.356 0.044 0.470 0.561
Want no more children 0.681 0.022 560 631 1.091 0.032 0.638 0.724
Ideal number of children 2.424 0.043 882 997 1.553 0.018 2.338 2.510
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.684 0.027 793 902 1.626 0.039 0.631 0.738
Condom use at last sex 0.700 0.090 40 48 1.221 0.129 0.520 0.881
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.014 0.005 882 997 1.202 0.343 0.004 0.023
Mobile phone ownership 0.883 0.016 882 997 1.474 0.018 0.851 0.915
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.416 0.023 882 997 1.367 0.055 0.371 0.461
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.151 0.018 882 997 1.496 0.120 0.115 0.187
in wife beating

na = not applicable

550 • Appendix B
Table B.10 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.707 0.032 610 825 1.563 0.045 0.643 0.770
At least basic drinking water service 0.975 0.007 7,920 11,131 1.824 0.007 0.962 0.989
Water available when needed 0.814 0.019 7,920 11,131 2.113 0.024 0.775 0.852
At least basic sanitation service 0.732 0.019 7,920 11,131 1.888 0.026 0.694 0.769
Using open defecation 0.026 0.008 7,920 11,131 2.154 0.327 0.009 0.043
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.927 0.013 3,230 5,695 1.460 0.014 0.901 0.953
WOMEN
No education 0.169 0.015 2,106 3,062 1.893 0.092 0.138 0.200
Secondary education or higher 0.573 0.026 2,106 3,062 2.390 0.045 0.522 0.625
Literacy 0.868 0.013 2,106 3,062 1.754 0.015 0.842 0.894
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.758 0.024 2,106 3,062 2.532 0.031 0.711 0.806
Current tobacco use 0.084 0.010 2,106 3,062 1.636 0.118 0.064 0.103
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.631 0.119 6,000 8,783 1.354 0.073 1.393 1.868
Currently pregnant 0.025 0.003 2,106 3,062 0.957 0.129 0.019 0.032
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.682 0.111 468 653 1.623 0.041 2.461 2.904
Median birth interval 54.883 2.336 333 437 1.144 0.043 50.210 59.556
Want no more children 0.714 0.018 1,503 2,156 1.511 0.025 0.679 0.750
Ideal number of children 1.846 0.025 2,092 3,031 1.806 0.014 1.795 1.896
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.337 0.105 6,000 8,783 1.335 0.078 1.127 1.546
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.662 0.019 1,503 2,156 1.516 0.028 0.625 0.699
Currently using any modern method 0.446 0.019 1,503 2,156 1.490 0.043 0.408 0.485
Currently using female sterilization 0.057 0.007 1,503 2,156 1.187 0.125 0.043 0.071
Currently using male sterilization 0.064 0.010 1,503 2,156 1.653 0.163 0.043 0.085
Currently using pill 0.050 0.007 1,503 2,156 1.328 0.150 0.035 0.065
Currently using injectables 0.123 0.012 1,503 2,156 1.414 0.097 0.099 0.147
Currently using implants 0.071 0.009 1,503 2,156 1.363 0.127 0.053 0.089
Currently using male condoms 0.067 0.008 1,503 2,156 1.306 0.126 0.050 0.084
Currently using any traditional method 0.215 0.014 1,503 2,156 1.322 0.065 0.187 0.243
Unmet need for spacing 0.043 0.005 1,503 2,156 0.980 0.120 0.032 0.053
Unmet need for limiting 0.117 0.010 1,503 2,156 1.221 0.086 0.097 0.138
Unmet need total 0.160 0.011 1,503 2,156 1.137 0.067 0.138 0.181
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.543 0.019 1,253 1,771 1.315 0.034 0.506 0.581
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.913 0.009 1,503 2,156 1.227 0.010 0.895 0.931
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.246 0.015 2,106 3,062 1.599 0.061 0.216 0.276
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 18.042 4.276 1,245 1,665 1.039 0.237 9.491 26.594
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 3.266 1.389 1,252 1,677 0.770 0.425 0.487 6.045
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 21.309 4.570 1,245 1,665 1.026 0.214 12.168 30.450
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 2.944 1.513 1,259 1,677 0.955 0.514 0.000 5.970
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 24.190 4.805 1,247 1,668 1.030 0.199 14.580 33.800
Perinatal mortality rate 17.158 5.279 621 830 0.905 0.308 6.599 27.716
Stillbirth rate 6.066 2.367 621 830 0.731 0.390 1.332 10.799
Early neonatal death rate 11.159 4.760 614 825 1.079 0.427 1.639 20.680
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.934 0.019 216 295 1.135 0.021 0.896 0.972
4+ ANC visits 0.888 0.029 216 295 1.334 0.032 0.831 0.946
8+ ANC visits 0.136 0.037 216 295 1.586 0.274 0.061 0.210
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.963 0.013 216 295 1.036 0.014 0.936 0.990
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.886 0.023 216 295 1.063 0.026 0.840 0.932
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.883 0.028 219 299 1.286 0.032 0.827 0.940
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.866 0.031 219 299 1.311 0.035 0.805 0.928
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.328 0.041 219 299 1.250 0.126 0.246 0.411
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.739 0.042 216 295 1.397 0.057 0.655 0.823
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.667 0.043 216 295 1.320 0.064 0.582 0.752
Any problem accessing health care 0.568 0.024 2,106 3,062 2.183 0.042 0.521 0.615
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.008 107 134 0.724 0.008 0.972 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.907 0.031 107 134 1.047 0.035 0.844 0.969
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.879 0.037 107 134 1.102 0.042 0.805 0.953
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.841 0.040 107 134 1.051 0.047 0.762 0.920
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.850 0.042 107 134 1.146 0.050 0.766 0.934
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.603 0.059 107 134 1.164 0.097 0.486 0.720
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.588 0.059 69 106 1.036 0.101 0.469 0.706
Treated with ORS 0.396 0.075 69 106 1.326 0.191 0.245 0.546
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.047 0.014 304 417 1.048 0.298 0.019 0.075
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.176 0.024 304 417 1.039 0.135 0.129 0.224
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.045 0.013 304 417 1.069 0.281 0.020 0.071
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.032 0.013 304 417 1.196 0.406 0.006 0.058
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.105 0.021 305 420 1.142 0.199 0.063 0.147
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.426 0.072 61 82 1.129 0.169 0.282 0.571
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.517 0.042 151 208 1.040 0.082 0.432 0.602
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.425 0.035 264 359 1.087 0.083 0.354 0.495
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.040 0.007 841 1,265 1.075 0.180 0.025 0.054
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.509 0.021 841 1,265 1.223 0.041 0.468 0.551
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.039 0.020 167 229 1.260 0.496 0.000 0.079

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 551
 Table B.10—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.107 0.034 167 229 1.362 0.314 0.040 0.174
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.723 0.018 2,106 3,062 1.879 0.025 0.686 0.759
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.231 0.018 1,047 1,546 1.396 0.079 0.195 0.267
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.214 0.018 605 814 1.067 0.086 0.177 0.251
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.388 0.018 1,949 2,895 1.636 0.047 0.352 0.424
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.040 0.005 2,106 3,062 1.147 0.123 0.030 0.050
Mobile phone ownership 0.901 0.011 2,106 3,062 1.738 0.013 0.879 0.924
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.658 0.023 2,106 3,062 2.174 0.034 0.613 0.703
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.563 0.022 1,503 2,156 1.733 0.039 0.519 0.608
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.159 0.011 2,106 3,062 1.440 0.072 0.136 0.182
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.701 0.016 1,503 2,156 1.336 0.023 0.669 0.732
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.174 0.019 767 1,037 1.393 0.110 0.136 0.212
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.069 0.012 767 1,037 1.353 0.179 0.044 0.094
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.021 0.006 767 1,037 1.210 0.296 0.009 0.034
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.170 0.018 666 837 1.237 0.106 0.134 0.206
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.098 0.014 666 837 1.206 0.142 0.071 0.126
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.031 0.006 831 1,214 0.965 0.188 0.019 0.042
Secondary education or higher 0.616 0.030 831 1,214 1.751 0.048 0.557 0.675
Literacy 0.954 0.010 831 1,214 1.373 0.010 0.934 0.974
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.847 0.022 831 1,214 1.734 0.026 0.804 0.890
Current tobacco use 0.455 0.028 831 1,214 1.644 0.063 0.398 0.512
Want no more children 0.662 0.023 505 686 1.110 0.035 0.615 0.708
Ideal number of children 2.037 0.030 828 1,206 1.314 0.015 1.977 2.097
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.294 0.022 815 1,195 1.389 0.075 0.250 0.338
Condom use at last sex 0.742 0.046 82 143 0.953 0.062 0.650 0.835
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.031 0.009 831 1,214 1.426 0.275 0.014 0.049
Mobile phone ownership 0.963 0.007 831 1,214 1.070 0.007 0.949 0.977
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.693 0.029 831 1,214 1.779 0.041 0.636 0.750
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.124 0.013 831 1,214 1.130 0.104 0.098 0.150
in wife beating

552 • Appendix B
Table B.11 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.687 0.030 393 324 1.245 0.044 0.626 0.748
At least basic drinking water service 0.982 0.006 6,011 4,865 1.821 0.006 0.970 0.994
Water available when needed 0.826 0.021 6,011 4,865 2.060 0.025 0.785 0.867
At least basic sanitation service 0.794 0.016 6,011 4,865 1.565 0.020 0.763 0.826
Using open defecation 0.013 0.006 6,011 4,865 2.350 0.475 0.001 0.026
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.873 0.034 1,584 1,581 2.122 0.039 0.805 0.942
WOMEN
No education 0.133 0.013 1,682 1,401 1.537 0.096 0.107 0.158
Secondary education or higher 0.533 0.024 1,682 1,401 1.970 0.045 0.485 0.581
Literacy 0.880 0.013 1,682 1,401 1.609 0.015 0.854 0.905
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.804 0.018 1,682 1,401 1.910 0.023 0.767 0.841
Current tobacco use 0.078 0.008 1,682 1,401 1.233 0.104 0.062 0.094
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.388 0.100 4,799 4,012 1.185 0.072 1.188 1.588
Currently pregnant 0.031 0.004 1,682 1,401 0.955 0.131 0.023 0.039
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.921 0.101 383 294 1.450 0.035 2.718 3.124
Median birth interval 54.835 2.537 219 173 1.155 0.046 49.760 59.909
Want no more children 0.737 0.014 1,273 1,046 1.145 0.019 0.709 0.765
Ideal number of children 1.876 0.020 1,677 1,396 1.205 0.011 1.836 1.916
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.169 0.084 4,799 4,012 1.113 0.072 1.002 1.336
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.515 0.019 1,273 1,046 1.366 0.037 0.477 0.553
Currently using any modern method 0.351 0.023 1,273 1,046 1.740 0.066 0.305 0.398
Currently using female sterilization 0.054 0.009 1,273 1,046 1.494 0.176 0.035 0.073
Currently using male sterilization 0.063 0.010 1,273 1,046 1.475 0.159 0.043 0.084
Currently using pill 0.050 0.007 1,273 1,046 1.144 0.140 0.036 0.064
Currently using injectables 0.062 0.008 1,273 1,046 1.197 0.130 0.046 0.079
Currently using implants 0.061 0.009 1,273 1,046 1.288 0.142 0.044 0.078
Currently using male condoms 0.047 0.008 1,273 1,046 1.416 0.179 0.030 0.064
Currently using any traditional method 0.164 0.013 1,273 1,046 1.275 0.081 0.137 0.190
Unmet need for spacing 0.074 0.008 1,273 1,046 1.140 0.113 0.057 0.091
Unmet need for limiting 0.204 0.016 1,273 1,046 1.378 0.076 0.173 0.235
Unmet need total 0.278 0.017 1,273 1,046 1.339 0.061 0.244 0.312
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.443 0.027 1,025 830 1.725 0.061 0.389 0.497
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.941 0.008 1,273 1,046 1.229 0.009 0.925 0.957
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.253 0.017 1,682 1,401 1.583 0.066 0.219 0.286
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.459 3.487 955 762 0.831 0.412 1.485 15.433
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.289 3.251 952 758 0.904 0.316 3.786 16.792
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 18.748 5.505 956 763 0.939 0.294 7.739 29.758
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 4.567 2.679 988 784 1.267 0.587 0.000 9.925
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 23.230 5.892 956 763 0.929 0.254 11.447 35.014
Perinatal mortality rate 13.424 5.174 420 338 0.909 0.385 3.075 23.773
Stillbirth rate 13.424 5.174 420 338 0.909 0.385 3.075 23.773
Early neonatal death rate 0.000 0.000 414 334 na na 0.000 0.000
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.967 0.017 144 117 1.159 0.018 0.932 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.846 0.031 144 117 1.030 0.037 0.783 0.908
8+ ANC visits 0.099 0.026 144 117 1.049 0.265 0.047 0.152
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.975 0.013 144 117 0.991 0.013 0.949 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.925 0.022 144 117 0.992 0.024 0.881 0.968
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.877 0.031 144 117 1.118 0.035 0.815 0.938
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.892 0.030 144 117 1.163 0.034 0.832 0.952
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.203 0.039 144 117 1.156 0.191 0.125 0.280
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.764 0.042 144 117 1.189 0.055 0.679 0.848
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.791 0.040 144 117 1.183 0.051 0.710 0.871
Any problem accessing health care 0.616 0.031 1,682 1,401 2.640 0.051 0.553 0.678
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 69 51 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 1.000 0.000 69 51 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.990 0.010 69 51 0.774 0.010 0.971 1.000
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.935 0.024 69 51 0.774 0.026 0.887 0.983
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.976 0.017 69 51 0.868 0.017 0.942 1.000
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.792 0.047 69 51 0.921 0.060 0.697 0.886
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.487 0.111 33 26 1.191 0.228 0.264 0.709
Treated with ORS 0.231 0.097 33 26 1.128 0.422 0.036 0.426
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.069 0.020 222 182 1.209 0.292 0.029 0.109
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.197 0.042 222 182 1.481 0.212 0.114 0.281
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.040 0.016 222 182 1.190 0.392 0.009 0.071
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.008 0.005 222 182 0.772 0.583 0.000 0.017
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.181 0.033 222 182 1.278 0.184 0.114 0.247
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.637 0.076 42 35 1.017 0.120 0.484 0.790
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.565 0.061 102 81 1.225 0.107 0.444 0.686
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.307 0.038 205 168 1.197 0.123 0.232 0.382
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.045 0.008 669 556 0.942 0.167 0.030 0.061
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.469 0.025 669 556 1.301 0.054 0.418 0.519
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.032 0.017 134 112 1.110 0.527 0.000 0.066

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 553
 Table B.11—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.104 0.032 134 112 1.221 0.311 0.039 0.168
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.675 0.024 1,682 1,401 2.110 0.036 0.626 0.723
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.251 0.026 828 689 1.746 0.105 0.198 0.304
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.258 0.027 410 331 1.220 0.104 0.205 0.312
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.450 0.023 1,620 1,353 1.862 0.051 0.404 0.496
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.030 0.006 1,682 1,401 1.467 0.204 0.018 0.042
Mobile phone ownership 0.924 0.010 1,682 1,401 1.531 0.011 0.904 0.943
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.657 0.022 1,682 1,401 1.906 0.034 0.613 0.702
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.590 0.018 1,273 1,046 1.284 0.030 0.555 0.626
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.158 0.013 1,682 1,401 1.422 0.080 0.132 0.183
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive use, 0.743 0.015 1,273 1,046 1.229 0.020 0.713 0.774
and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any perpetrator 0.150 0.014 610 496 0.967 0.093 0.122 0.177
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.061 0.013 610 496 1.300 0.206 0.036 0.086
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.016 0.006 610 496 1.167 0.375 0.004 0.027
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.163 0.017 548 417 1.058 0.103 0.129 0.196
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.117 0.016 548 417 1.159 0.136 0.085 0.149
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.029 0.011 505 387 1.465 0.376 0.007 0.051
Secondary education or higher 0.618 0.032 505 387 1.488 0.052 0.554 0.683
Literacy 0.966 0.008 505 387 1.011 0.008 0.950 0.982
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.821 0.021 505 387 1.206 0.025 0.780 0.862
Current tobacco use 0.448 0.029 505 387 1.313 0.065 0.390 0.506
Want no more children 0.695 0.028 338 263 1.126 0.041 0.638 0.751
Ideal number of children 2.036 0.030 504 385 1.111 0.015 1.976 2.095
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.262 0.026 498 383 1.321 0.100 0.210 0.314
Condom use at last sex 0.732 0.064 59 44 1.090 0.087 0.605 0.859
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.047 0.011 505 387 1.157 0.233 0.025 0.068
Mobile phone ownership 0.961 0.009 505 387 1.081 0.010 0.942 0.979
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.606 0.030 505 387 1.360 0.049 0.547 0.665
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.159 0.018 505 387 1.104 0.113 0.123 0.195
in wife beating

na = not applicable

554 • Appendix B
Table B.12 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.771 0.020 751 880 1.155 0.026 0.731 0.812
At least basic drinking water service 0.949 0.019 8,028 9,462 3.325 0.020 0.911 0.987
Water available when needed 0.926 0.012 8,028 9,462 2.030 0.013 0.902 0.951
At least basic sanitation service 0.760 0.020 8,028 9,462 1.919 0.026 0.720 0.799
Using open defecation 0.062 0.016 8,028 9,462 2.556 0.260 0.030 0.095
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.770 0.039 2,285 2,861 1.894 0.051 0.692 0.849
WOMEN
No education 0.223 0.016 2,266 2,691 1.869 0.073 0.190 0.256
Secondary education or higher 0.411 0.023 2,266 2,691 2.217 0.056 0.365 0.457
Literacy 0.788 0.019 2,266 2,691 2.210 0.024 0.750 0.826
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.672 0.022 2,266 2,691 2.183 0.032 0.629 0.715
Current tobacco use 0.077 0.011 2,266 2,691 1.975 0.144 0.055 0.099
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.949 0.114 6,454 7,657 1.288 0.058 1.721 2.177
Currently pregnant 0.035 0.004 2,266 2,691 1.034 0.114 0.027 0.043
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.179 0.107 435 515 1.492 0.034 2.966 3.392
Median birth interval 44.306 2.576 418 494 1.332 0.058 39.155 49.457
Want no more children 0.708 0.011 1,709 2,020 1.043 0.016 0.685 0.731
Ideal number of children 1.993 0.032 2,264 2,688 2.221 0.016 1.929 2.058
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.546 0.086 6,454 7,657 1.156 0.056 1.374 1.718
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.565 0.020 1,709 2,020 1.668 0.035 0.525 0.606
Currently using any modern method 0.430 0.020 1,709 2,020 1.638 0.046 0.391 0.469
Currently using female sterilization 0.128 0.016 1,709 2,020 1.948 0.123 0.097 0.160
Currently using male sterilization 0.016 0.004 1,709 2,020 1.272 0.243 0.008 0.024
Currently using pill 0.055 0.006 1,709 2,020 1.097 0.110 0.043 0.067
Currently using injectables 0.082 0.009 1,709 2,020 1.343 0.109 0.064 0.100
Currently using implants 0.071 0.009 1,709 2,020 1.441 0.126 0.053 0.089
Currently using male condoms 0.058 0.007 1,709 2,020 1.156 0.112 0.045 0.072
Currently using any traditional method 0.136 0.013 1,709 2,020 1.627 0.099 0.109 0.163
Unmet need for spacing 0.068 0.007 1,709 2,020 1.174 0.105 0.054 0.082
Unmet need for limiting 0.164 0.014 1,709 2,020 1.539 0.084 0.136 0.192
Unmet need total 0.232 0.016 1,709 2,020 1.581 0.070 0.200 0.264
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.539 0.021 1,362 1,611 1.541 0.039 0.497 0.581
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.918 0.009 1,709 2,020 1.355 0.010 0.900 0.936
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.270 0.018 2,266 2,691 1.946 0.067 0.234 0.306
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 23.739 4.511 1,545 1,813 1.065 0.190 14.717 32.761
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.216 2.387 1,545 1,814 0.944 0.234 5.442 14.990
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 33.955 4.734 1,545 1,813 0.941 0.139 24.487 43.422
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 7.665 2.398 1,559 1,829 1.072 0.313 2.869 12.462
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 41.360 4.586 1,549 1,819 0.842 0.111 32.189 50.531
Perinatal mortality rate 31.970 6.166 772 904 0.983 0.193 19.638 44.302
Stillbirth rate 20.707 5.179 772 904 1.012 0.250 10.350 31.065
Early neonatal death rate 11.487 4.366 757 886 1.128 0.380 2.756 20.219
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.968 0.014 278 329 1.299 0.014 0.940 0.995
4+ ANC visits 0.869 0.022 278 329 1.072 0.025 0.826 0.913
8+ ANC visits 0.033 0.010 278 329 0.924 0.302 0.013 0.052
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.972 0.011 278 329 1.059 0.011 0.950 0.993
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.957 0.014 278 329 1.162 0.015 0.929 0.985
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.844 0.032 283 335 1.430 0.037 0.781 0.907
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.869 0.029 283 335 1.436 0.033 0.811 0.927
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.136 0.022 283 335 1.097 0.164 0.092 0.181
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.772 0.028 278 329 1.123 0.037 0.716 0.829
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.751 0.029 278 329 1.109 0.038 0.693 0.808
Any problem accessing health care 0.603 0.028 2,266 2,691 2.681 0.046 0.547 0.658
Ever had vaccination card 0.988 0.012 144 172 1.325 0.012 0.964 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.966 0.017 144 172 1.109 0.017 0.933 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.908 0.028 144 172 1.154 0.031 0.852 0.963
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.886 0.029 144 172 1.086 0.032 0.829 0.943
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.925 0.024 144 172 1.093 0.026 0.877 0.973
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.576 0.048 144 172 1.181 0.084 0.479 0.673
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.650 0.065 74 84 1.123 0.100 0.520 0.780
Treated with ORS 0.369 0.063 74 84 1.122 0.171 0.243 0.495
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.074 0.017 370 435 1.223 0.225 0.041 0.107
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.251 0.029 370 435 1.273 0.116 0.193 0.310
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.162 0.025 367 431 1.214 0.153 0.112 0.211
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.003 0.003 367 431 1.078 0.998 0.000 0.009
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.233 0.031 370 435 1.355 0.131 0.172 0.295
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.363 0.070 63 73 1.140 0.192 0.223 0.502
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.523 0.042 213 253 1.226 0.081 0.438 0.607
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.489 0.035 334 392 1.259 0.071 0.420 0.558
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.118 0.014 899 1,060 1.255 0.115 0.091 0.145
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.323 0.025 899 1,060 1.584 0.077 0.274 0.373
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.076 0.024 171 199 1.171 0.316 0.028 0.124

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 555
 Table B.12—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.067 0.024 171 199 1.243 0.358 0.019 0.115
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.519 0.025 2,266 2,691 2.417 0.049 0.468 0.570
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.444 0.027 1,120 1,318 1.845 0.062 0.389 0.499
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.230 0.020 737 862 1.276 0.089 0.189 0.271
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.506 0.020 1,935 2,295 1.788 0.040 0.465 0.547
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.030 0.004 2,266 2,691 1.019 0.122 0.022 0.037
Mobile phone ownership 0.799 0.021 2,266 2,691 2.491 0.026 0.757 0.841
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.524 0.025 2,266 2,691 2.339 0.047 0.475 0.573
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.459 0.019 1,709 2,020 1.609 0.042 0.420 0.498
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.212 0.016 2,266 2,691 1.806 0.073 0.181 0.243
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.659 0.021 1,709 2,020 1.825 0.032 0.617 0.701
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.234 0.021 777 947 1.410 0.092 0.191 0.277
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.063 0.010 777 947 1.091 0.151 0.044 0.082
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.012 0.004 777 947 0.960 0.315 0.004 0.019
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.254 0.022 670 753 1.329 0.088 0.209 0.299
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.159 0.022 670 753 1.530 0.136 0.116 0.202
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.069 0.016 718 812 1.700 0.234 0.037 0.101
Secondary education or higher 0.495 0.032 718 812 1.710 0.065 0.431 0.559
Literacy 0.905 0.018 718 812 1.635 0.020 0.870 0.941
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.746 0.025 718 812 1.517 0.033 0.697 0.795
Current tobacco use 0.541 0.027 718 812 1.464 0.050 0.487 0.596
Want no more children 0.640 0.025 487 551 1.139 0.039 0.590 0.690
Ideal number of children 2.198 0.041 718 812 1.397 0.019 2.115 2.280
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.429 0.033 697 789 1.738 0.076 0.364 0.495
Condom use at last sex 0.665 0.052 75 84 0.940 0.078 0.561 0.768
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.018 0.005 718 812 1.009 0.275 0.008 0.029
Mobile phone ownership 0.927 0.011 718 812 1.137 0.012 0.905 0.949
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.534 0.026 718 812 1.399 0.049 0.482 0.586
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.227 0.021 718 812 1.321 0.091 0.185 0.268
in wife beating

556 • Appendix B
Table B.13 Sampling errors: Karnali Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.887 0.018 856 387 1.467 0.020 0.851 0.922
At least basic drinking water service 0.949 0.012 7,301 3,334 2.062 0.013 0.925 0.973
Water available when needed 0.744 0.023 7,301 3,334 2.002 0.031 0.698 0.790
At least basic sanitation service 0.740 0.019 7,301 3,334 1.748 0.026 0.702 0.779
Using open defecation 0.039 0.007 7,301 3,334 1.433 0.187 0.024 0.053
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.384 0.070 1,694 856 2.614 0.183 0.244 0.525
WOMEN
No education 0.282 0.018 1,978 909 1.788 0.064 0.245 0.318
Secondary education or higher 0.408 0.023 1,978 909 2.106 0.057 0.361 0.455
Literacy 0.732 0.022 1,978 909 2.222 0.030 0.688 0.776
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.422 0.033 1,978 909 2.984 0.079 0.356 0.489
Current tobacco use 0.107 0.011 1,978 909 1.537 0.100 0.085 0.128
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.570 0.176 5,456 2,515 1.483 0.069 2.218 2.922
Currently pregnant 0.051 0.004 1,978 909 0.848 0.082 0.043 0.060
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 4.319 0.155 366 164 1.528 0.036 4.008 4.629
Median birth interval 39.821 1.706 539 237 1.310 0.043 36.408 43.233
Want no more children 0.730 0.013 1,506 691 1.123 0.018 0.705 0.756
Ideal number of children 2.139 0.031 1,972 907 1.750 0.015 2.076 2.201
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.767 0.114 5,456 2,515 1.254 0.064 1.540 1.994
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.553 0.015 1,506 691 1.184 0.027 0.522 0.583
Currently using any modern method 0.459 0.016 1,506 691 1.280 0.036 0.427 0.492
Currently using female sterilization 0.035 0.006 1,506 691 1.185 0.161 0.024 0.046
Currently using male sterilization 0.101 0.012 1,506 691 1.601 0.123 0.076 0.126
Currently using pill 0.041 0.007 1,506 691 1.274 0.158 0.028 0.054
Currently using injectables 0.154 0.014 1,506 691 1.460 0.088 0.126 0.181
Currently using implants 0.082 0.012 1,506 691 1.656 0.143 0.059 0.106
Currently using male condoms 0.033 0.007 1,506 691 1.450 0.202 0.020 0.046
Currently using any traditional method 0.093 0.012 1,506 691 1.614 0.130 0.069 0.117
Unmet need for spacing 0.084 0.009 1,506 691 1.227 0.104 0.067 0.102
Unmet need for limiting 0.148 0.011 1,506 691 1.233 0.076 0.125 0.170
Unmet need total 0.232 0.014 1,506 691 1.254 0.059 0.204 0.259
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.586 0.018 1,184 542 1.279 0.031 0.549 0.623
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.901 0.009 1,506 691 1.117 0.010 0.884 0.919
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.330 0.017 1,978 909 1.593 0.051 0.296 0.364
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 25.788 4.138 1,697 756 1.011 0.160 17.512 34.064
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.536 3.273 1,704 760 1.167 0.311 3.990 17.083
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 36.325 5.945 1,698 757 1.194 0.164 24.435 48.215
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 9.945 3.446 1,711 765 1.473 0.346 3.053 16.836
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 45.908 7.951 1,701 758 1.422 0.173 30.006 61.810
Perinatal mortality rate 24.139 4.919 867 385 0.812 0.204 14.302 33.976
Stillbirth rate 11.542 3.642 867 385 0.853 0.316 4.258 18.826
Early neonatal death rate 12.744 3.253 856 381 0.843 0.255 6.239 19.249
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.910 0.018 334 149 1.133 0.019 0.875 0.946
4+ ANC visits 0.791 0.025 334 149 1.141 0.032 0.740 0.842
8+ ANC visits 0.017 0.009 334 149 1.261 0.526 0.000 0.035
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.954 0.014 334 149 1.209 0.015 0.926 0.982
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.918 0.015 334 149 0.989 0.016 0.889 0.948
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.724 0.040 341 152 1.644 0.056 0.643 0.804
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.722 0.039 341 152 1.596 0.054 0.643 0.800
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.041 0.013 341 152 1.236 0.328 0.014 0.068
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.579 0.040 334 149 1.483 0.069 0.499 0.660
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.606 0.038 334 149 1.422 0.063 0.529 0.682
Any problem accessing health care 0.826 0.021 1,978 909 2.455 0.025 0.784 0.868
Ever had vaccination card 0.974 0.013 173 79 1.064 0.013 0.948 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.965 0.018 173 79 1.264 0.018 0.930 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.921 0.024 173 79 1.173 0.026 0.873 0.969
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.839 0.031 173 79 1.124 0.037 0.777 0.902
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.919 0.024 173 79 1.175 0.027 0.870 0.967
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.558 0.038 173 79 1.005 0.069 0.481 0.634
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.564 0.069 87 38 1.264 0.122 0.426 0.702
Treated with ORS 0.539 0.061 87 38 1.115 0.113 0.417 0.662
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.086 0.016 432 195 1.094 0.192 0.053 0.119
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.358 0.026 432 195 1.057 0.072 0.306 0.410
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.038 0.009 432 195 0.938 0.229 0.021 0.055
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.007 0.004 432 195 0.992 0.584 0.000 0.015
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.177 0.024 432 195 1.186 0.135 0.129 0.224
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.738 0.059 78 34 1.166 0.079 0.621 0.855
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.498 0.040 251 114 1.266 0.080 0.418 0.579
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.397 0.028 397 179 1.183 0.071 0.340 0.453
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.101 0.015 688 321 1.278 0.145 0.071 0.130
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.237 0.027 688 321 1.670 0.114 0.183 0.290
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.022 0.010 223 100 0.987 0.448 0.002 0.041

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 557
 Table B.13—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.034 0.014 223 100 1.133 0.408 0.006 0.062
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.433 0.027 1,978 909 2.427 0.062 0.379 0.488
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.212 0.017 973 450 1.303 0.081 0.178 0.246
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.280 0.015 831 371 0.923 0.054 0.250 0.311
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.628 0.024 1,659 768 2.052 0.039 0.580 0.677
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.025 0.005 1,978 909 1.486 0.209 0.015 0.035
Mobile phone ownership 0.815 0.013 1,978 909 1.521 0.016 0.789 0.842
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.378 0.027 1,978 909 2.429 0.070 0.324 0.431
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.515 0.023 1,506 691 1.770 0.044 0.469 0.561
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.254 0.013 1,978 909 1.300 0.050 0.229 0.280
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.642 0.018 1,506 691 1.433 0.028 0.606 0.677
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.167 0.016 701 324 1.129 0.095 0.136 0.199
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.095 0.014 701 324 1.252 0.146 0.067 0.123
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.009 0.004 701 324 1.196 0.479 0.000 0.017
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.197 0.018 615 272 1.118 0.091 0.161 0.232
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.165 0.019 615 272 1.285 0.117 0.126 0.203
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.051 0.013 604 266 1.403 0.246 0.026 0.076
Secondary education or higher 0.572 0.034 604 266 1.672 0.059 0.505 0.640
Literacy 0.932 0.013 604 266 1.315 0.014 0.905 0.959
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.655 0.034 604 266 1.758 0.052 0.587 0.724
Current tobacco use 0.438 0.026 604 266 1.296 0.060 0.386 0.491
Want no more children 0.690 0.027 425 185 1.189 0.039 0.637 0.744
Ideal number of children 2.267 0.033 604 266 1.122 0.015 2.201 2.334
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.464 0.033 587 259 1.609 0.071 0.398 0.531
Condom use at last sex 0.763 0.077 52 24 1.288 0.101 0.608 0.917
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.013 0.005 604 266 1.143 0.412 0.002 0.023
Mobile phone ownership 0.922 0.012 604 266 1.064 0.013 0.898 0.945
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.516 0.037 604 266 1.825 0.072 0.441 0.590
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.248 0.023 604 266 1.287 0.091 0.203 0.294
in wife beating

558 • Appendix B
Table B.14 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.815 0.026 757 460 1.622 0.031 0.764 0.866
At least basic drinking water service 0.971 0.011 7,465 4,611 2.629 0.011 0.949 0.993
Water available when needed 0.896 0.011 7,465 4,611 1.395 0.012 0.873 0.918
At least basic sanitation service 0.709 0.022 7,465 4,611 1.943 0.031 0.665 0.754
Using open defecation 0.033 0.007 7,465 4,611 1.585 0.213 0.019 0.047
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.482 0.071 1,058 633 2.094 0.147 0.341 0.624
WOMEN
No education 0.311 0.015 2,105 1,279 1.461 0.047 0.281 0.340
Secondary education or higher 0.410 0.022 2,105 1,279 2.008 0.053 0.367 0.453
Literacy 0.736 0.016 2,105 1,279 1.683 0.022 0.703 0.768
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.487 0.027 2,105 1,279 2.490 0.056 0.433 0.541
Current tobacco use 0.088 0.009 2,105 1,279 1.522 0.107 0.069 0.107
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.265 0.125 5,887 3,586 1.327 0.055 2.016 2.515
Currently pregnant 0.038 0.005 2,105 1,279 1.202 0.131 0.028 0.049
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.724 0.119 419 256 1.552 0.032 3.485 3.963
Median birth interval 38.468 2.122 458 267 1.667 0.055 34.224 42.712
Want no more children 0.742 0.012 1,583 960 1.077 0.016 0.718 0.766
Ideal number of children 1.977 0.020 2,096 1,273 1.475 0.010 1.938 2.017
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.778 0.094 5,887 3,586 1.160 0.053 1.591 1.966
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.586 0.018 1,583 960 1.489 0.031 0.549 0.623
Currently using any modern method 0.470 0.019 1,583 960 1.531 0.041 0.431 0.508
Currently using female sterilization 0.131 0.015 1,583 960 1.734 0.112 0.102 0.161
Currently using male sterilization 0.056 0.013 1,583 960 2.303 0.237 0.030 0.083
Currently using pill 0.036 0.006 1,583 960 1.276 0.165 0.024 0.048
Currently using injectables 0.097 0.009 1,583 960 1.272 0.097 0.078 0.116
Currently using implants 0.074 0.008 1,583 960 1.239 0.110 0.058 0.091
Currently using male condoms 0.060 0.008 1,583 960 1.275 0.127 0.045 0.075
Currently using any traditional method 0.116 0.012 1,583 960 1.533 0.106 0.091 0.141
Unmet need for spacing 0.072 0.007 1,583 960 1.023 0.092 0.059 0.086
Unmet need for limiting 0.148 0.014 1,583 960 1.534 0.093 0.120 0.175
Unmet need total 0.220 0.016 1,583 960 1.503 0.071 0.189 0.251
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.583 0.022 1,267 774 1.589 0.038 0.539 0.627
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.911 0.010 1,583 960 1.363 0.011 0.891 0.930
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.247 0.014 2,105 1,279 1.498 0.057 0.219 0.275
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 27.380 4.500 1,579 938 1.004 0.164 18.381 36.380
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 12.813 2.668 1,568 932 0.864 0.208 7.477 18.150
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 40.194 5.409 1,580 938 0.936 0.135 29.377 51.011
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.939 2.160 1,573 935 0.935 0.242 4.620 13.258
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 48.773 5.765 1,582 940 0.916 0.118 37.244 60.303
Perinatal mortality rate 17.607 4.902 792 470 1.046 0.278 7.804 27.411
Stillbirth rate 4.571 2.168 792 470 0.896 0.474 0.235 8.907
Early neonatal death rate 13.088 4.491 788 468 1.105 0.343 4.105 22.071
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.959 0.017 307 185 1.505 0.018 0.925 0.993
4+ ANC visits 0.900 0.020 307 185 1.181 0.023 0.859 0.940
8+ ANC visits 0.009 0.006 307 185 1.049 0.616 0.000 0.021
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.991 0.005 307 185 0.916 0.005 0.982 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.919 0.022 307 185 1.411 0.024 0.875 0.963
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.868 0.024 318 192 1.225 0.028 0.820 0.916
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.878 0.024 318 192 1.259 0.027 0.830 0.926
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.073 0.017 318 192 1.096 0.233 0.039 0.107
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.777 0.026 307 185 1.072 0.033 0.726 0.828
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.769 0.027 307 185 1.124 0.035 0.715 0.823
Any problem accessing health care 0.645 0.023 2,105 1,279 2.206 0.036 0.599 0.691
Ever had vaccination card 0.995 0.005 141 87 0.841 0.005 0.985 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.972 0.013 141 87 0.966 0.014 0.945 0.999
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.945 0.018 141 87 0.950 0.019 0.908 0.981
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.883 0.030 141 87 1.106 0.034 0.823 0.942
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.950 0.021 141 87 1.128 0.022 0.909 0.991
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.540 0.047 141 87 1.117 0.087 0.446 0.634
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.626 0.056 66 40 0.909 0.089 0.515 0.737
Treated with ORS 0.430 0.074 66 40 1.194 0.172 0.282 0.578
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.050 0.014 379 233 1.181 0.288 0.021 0.079
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.284 0.028 379 233 1.117 0.097 0.229 0.339
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.051 0.012 382 236 1.051 0.239 0.027 0.076
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.024 0.010 382 236 1.266 0.417 0.004 0.043
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.139 0.020 379 233 1.028 0.144 0.099 0.179
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.738 0.048 92 57 1.046 0.065 0.642 0.835
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.553 0.044 207 124 1.272 0.080 0.465 0.641
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.454 0.035 328 204 1.259 0.078 0.383 0.525
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.151 0.016 785 480 1.230 0.104 0.119 0.182
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.180 0.020 785 480 1.483 0.113 0.139 0.221
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.058 0.019 200 119 1.159 0.335 0.019 0.096

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 559
 Table B.14—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.018 0.010 200 119 1.060 0.558 0.000 0.038
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.438 0.027 2,105 1,279 2.516 0.062 0.383 0.492
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.273 0.027 1,045 634 1.932 0.098 0.220 0.326
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.241 0.018 759 451 1.123 0.075 0.205 0.278
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.575 0.022 1,953 1,185 1.988 0.039 0.530 0.619
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.036 0.006 2,105 1,279 1.548 0.174 0.024 0.049
Mobile phone ownership 0.748 0.013 2,105 1,279 1.323 0.017 0.723 0.773
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.428 0.023 2,105 1,279 2.156 0.054 0.381 0.474
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.435 0.019 1,583 960 1.522 0.044 0.397 0.473
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.186 0.012 2,105 1,279 1.461 0.067 0.162 0.211
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.679 0.017 1,583 960 1.465 0.025 0.644 0.713
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.161 0.021 700 455 1.506 0.130 0.119 0.203
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.044 0.009 700 455 1.181 0.207 0.026 0.063
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.007 0.004 700 455 1.178 0.535 0.000 0.014
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.186 0.025 594 367 1.568 0.135 0.136 0.236
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.146 0.021 594 367 1.475 0.147 0.103 0.189
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.075 0.015 578 355 1.406 0.205 0.044 0.106
Secondary education or higher 0.547 0.041 578 355 1.951 0.074 0.466 0.628
Literacy 0.919 0.015 578 355 1.362 0.017 0.889 0.950
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.702 0.026 578 355 1.343 0.036 0.651 0.754
Current tobacco use 0.457 0.026 578 355 1.264 0.057 0.405 0.510
Want no more children 0.670 0.026 376 226 1.067 0.039 0.618 0.722
Ideal number of children 2.070 0.032 578 355 1.182 0.015 2.006 2.134
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.408 0.034 557 344 1.653 0.085 0.339 0.477
Condom use at last sex 0.754 0.063 50 32 1.020 0.083 0.629 0.880
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.021 0.008 578 355 1.323 0.374 0.005 0.037
Mobile phone ownership 0.910 0.014 578 355 1.138 0.015 0.883 0.937
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.488 0.028 578 355 1.355 0.058 0.431 0.544
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.237 0.026 578 355 1.481 0.111 0.184 0.289
in wife beating

560 • Appendix B
Table B.15 Sampling errors: Koshi Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.669 0.029 373 542 1.122 0.044 0.611 0.727
At least basic drinking water service 0.995 0.002 4,195 6,081 1.028 0.002 0.992 0.999
Water available when needed 0.893 0.019 4,195 6,081 1.951 0.022 0.854 0.931
At least basic sanitation service 0.769 0.023 4,195 6,081 1.671 0.029 0.724 0.814
Using open defecation 0.053 0.016 4,195 6,081 2.157 0.296 0.022 0.084
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.793 0.041 1,210 1,819 1.721 0.052 0.710 0.875
WOMEN
No education 0.164 0.019 1,135 1,640 1.769 0.119 0.125 0.203
Secondary education or higher 0.512 0.027 1,135 1,640 1.814 0.053 0.459 0.566
Literacy 0.831 0.023 1,135 1,640 2.035 0.027 0.786 0.876
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.622 0.028 1,135 1,640 1.972 0.046 0.565 0.679
Current tobacco use 0.106 0.013 1,135 1,640 1.448 0.125 0.079 0.132
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.158 0.175 3,259 4,710 1.342 0.081 1.808 2.508
Currently pregnant 0.028 0.006 1,135 1,640 1.263 0.222 0.015 0.040
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.783 0.130 251 354 1.457 0.047 2.523 3.042
Median birth interval 52.168 3.864 221 317 1.459 0.074 44.440 59.897
Want no more children 0.662 0.018 857 1,242 1.094 0.027 0.627 0.698
Ideal number of children 2.001 0.038 1,132 1,635 1.519 0.019 1.925 2.077
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.665 0.159 3,259 4,710 1.390 0.096 1.347 1.984
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.623 0.015 857 1,242 0.922 0.025 0.592 0.654
Currently using any modern method 0.429 0.021 857 1,242 1.265 0.050 0.386 0.471
Currently using female sterilization 0.128 0.023 857 1,242 2.036 0.182 0.081 0.174
Currently using male sterilization 0.015 0.005 857 1,242 1.298 0.354 0.005 0.026
Currently using pill 0.055 0.008 857 1,242 1.056 0.150 0.038 0.071
Currently using injectables 0.106 0.011 857 1,242 1.038 0.103 0.085 0.128
Currently using implants 0.071 0.013 857 1,242 1.535 0.190 0.044 0.097
Currently using male condoms 0.042 0.006 857 1,242 0.872 0.143 0.030 0.054
Currently using any traditional method 0.194 0.019 857 1,242 1.395 0.097 0.157 0.232
Unmet need for spacing 0.078 0.010 857 1,242 1.140 0.134 0.057 0.099
Unmet need for limiting 0.088 0.010 857 1,242 1.037 0.114 0.068 0.109
Unmet need total 0.166 0.013 857 1,242 1.013 0.078 0.140 0.192
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.543 0.027 677 980 1.399 0.049 0.490 0.597
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.940 0.010 857 1,242 1.273 0.011 0.920 0.961
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.344 0.026 1,135 1,640 1.817 0.075 0.292 0.395
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 14.450 5.628 788 1,147 1.086 0.389 3.195 25.706
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 7.126 3.683 787 1,144 1.235 0.517 0.000 14.491
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 21.576 7.029 789 1,148 1.185 0.326 7.519 35.634
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 7.314 3.246 778 1,129 0.888 0.444 0.823 13.806
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 28.733 8.798 789 1,148 1.285 0.306 11.137 46.328
Perinatal mortality rate 25.308 10.661 398 576 1.099 0.421 3.986 46.630
Stillbirth rate 3.098 3.055 398 576 1.096 0.986 0.000 9.209
Early neonatal death rate 22.217 9.648 398 575 1.035 0.434 2.920 41.514
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.896 0.023 159 232 0.930 0.025 0.851 0.941
4+ ANC visits 0.772 0.035 159 232 1.042 0.045 0.702 0.841
8+ ANC visits 0.055 0.020 159 232 1.099 0.363 0.015 0.095
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.954 0.016 159 232 0.966 0.017 0.922 0.986
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.898 0.027 159 232 1.101 0.030 0.845 0.951
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.837 0.039 166 242 1.275 0.046 0.759 0.914
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.845 0.037 166 242 1.221 0.043 0.772 0.918
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.296 0.047 166 242 1.282 0.158 0.202 0.389
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.785 0.035 159 232 1.080 0.045 0.715 0.856
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.710 0.047 159 232 1.295 0.066 0.616 0.803
Any problem accessing health care 0.707 0.024 1,135 1,640 1.768 0.034 0.660 0.755
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 72 106 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.939 0.031 72 106 1.110 0.033 0.876 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.926 0.032 72 106 1.050 0.035 0.861 0.990
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.748 0.073 72 106 1.435 0.097 0.602 0.894
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.915 0.033 72 106 1.019 0.036 0.849 0.982
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.496 0.071 72 106 1.220 0.144 0.353 0.638
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.520 0.076 48 71 1.041 0.147 0.367 0.673
Treated with ORS 0.423 0.078 48 71 1.067 0.185 0.267 0.579
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.045 0.018 207 303 1.261 0.406 0.008 0.081
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.203 0.032 207 303 1.142 0.156 0.140 0.267
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.037 0.012 207 303 0.884 0.312 0.014 0.060
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.028 0.011 207 303 0.934 0.381 0.007 0.049
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.141 0.027 208 305 1.107 0.189 0.088 0.195
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.525 0.084 50 74 1.174 0.160 0.357 0.693
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.510 0.051 104 152 1.038 0.100 0.408 0.613
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.332 0.039 179 261 1.088 0.116 0.254 0.409
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.093 0.018 466 666 1.332 0.194 0.057 0.129
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.343 0.028 466 666 1.284 0.083 0.286 0.400
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.049 0.024 78 111 0.966 0.487 0.001 0.096

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 561
 Table B.15—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.033 0.022 78 111 1.059 0.652 0.000 0.077
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.611 0.022 1,135 1,640 1.553 0.037 0.566 0.656
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.285 0.029 563 807 1.495 0.100 0.228 0.342
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.271 0.027 382 553 1.138 0.098 0.218 0.324
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.512 0.033 991 1,435 2.085 0.065 0.445 0.578
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.027 0.005 1,135 1,640 1.028 0.182 0.017 0.037
Mobile phone ownership 0.804 0.020 1,135 1,640 1.683 0.025 0.765 0.844
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.486 0.025 1,135 1,640 1.713 0.052 0.435 0.537
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.485 0.024 857 1,242 1.426 0.050 0.436 0.534
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.247 0.012 1,135 1,640 0.970 0.050 0.222 0.272
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.686 0.027 857 1,242 1.698 0.039 0.632 0.740
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.208 0.030 422 581 1.527 0.146 0.147 0.268
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.075 0.018 422 581 1.387 0.238 0.039 0.111
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.010 0.005 422 581 0.971 0.465 0.001 0.020
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.209 0.029 368 486 1.384 0.141 0.150 0.267
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.145 0.024 368 486 1.300 0.165 0.097 0.193
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.072 0.017 431 604 1.396 0.242 0.037 0.107
Secondary education or higher 0.530 0.030 431 604 1.262 0.057 0.469 0.591
Literacy 0.898 0.021 431 604 1.456 0.024 0.855 0.940
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.725 0.032 431 604 1.475 0.044 0.661 0.789
Current tobacco use 0.549 0.020 431 604 0.814 0.036 0.510 0.588
Want no more children 0.715 0.033 275 390 1.211 0.046 0.649 0.781
Ideal number of children 2.110 0.033 431 604 1.151 0.016 2.043 2.176
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.360 0.037 417 584 1.586 0.104 0.286 0.435
Condom use at last sex 0.555 0.093 30 39 1.003 0.167 0.370 0.741
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.014 0.007 431 604 1.300 0.534 0.000 0.028
Mobile phone ownership 0.842 0.023 431 604 1.330 0.028 0.795 0.889
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.512 0.033 431 604 1.370 0.065 0.446 0.578
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.173 0.021 431 604 1.129 0.119 0.132 0.214
in wife beating

na = not applicable

562 • Appendix B
Table B.16 Sampling errors: Koshi Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.634 0.040 388 315 1.448 0.064 0.553 0.714
At least basic drinking water service 0.958 0.022 4,094 3,325 3.636 0.023 0.914 1.000
Water available when needed 0.864 0.023 4,094 3,325 1.936 0.026 0.819 0.909
At least basic sanitation service 0.767 0.023 4,094 3,325 1.622 0.030 0.721 0.812
Using open defecation 0.051 0.013 4,094 3,325 1.781 0.252 0.025 0.076
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.612 0.062 717 601 1.650 0.101 0.489 0.736
WOMEN
No education 0.223 0.025 1,074 853 1.984 0.113 0.172 0.273
Secondary education or higher 0.423 0.031 1,074 853 2.085 0.074 0.360 0.486
Literacy 0.779 0.027 1,074 853 2.117 0.034 0.726 0.833
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.520 0.027 1,074 853 1.788 0.052 0.466 0.575
Current tobacco use 0.100 0.015 1,074 853 1.590 0.146 0.071 0.129
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.264 0.155 3,051 2,419 1.183 0.068 1.954 2.574
Currently pregnant 0.035 0.005 1,074 853 0.934 0.149 0.025 0.046
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.266 0.155 211 164 1.394 0.047 2.956 3.576
Median birth interval 42.435 3.267 217 176 1.481 0.077 35.902 48.969
Want no more children 0.656 0.028 817 645 1.705 0.043 0.599 0.713
Ideal number of children 2.076 0.036 1,071 851 1.511 0.017 2.004 2.148
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.809 0.129 3,051 2,419 1.147 0.071 1.551 2.068
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.601 0.024 817 645 1.377 0.039 0.554 0.648
Currently using any modern method 0.449 0.028 817 645 1.611 0.063 0.392 0.505
Currently using female sterilization 0.105 0.036 817 645 3.301 0.339 0.034 0.177
Currently using male sterilization 0.009 0.003 817 645 0.965 0.357 0.003 0.015
Currently using pill 0.057 0.010 817 645 1.225 0.174 0.037 0.077
Currently using injectables 0.148 0.016 817 645 1.255 0.106 0.116 0.179
Currently using implants 0.090 0.016 817 645 1.631 0.182 0.057 0.123
Currently using male condoms 0.024 0.007 817 645 1.297 0.292 0.010 0.037
Currently using any traditional method 0.152 0.019 817 645 1.501 0.124 0.115 0.190
Unmet need for spacing 0.082 0.012 817 645 1.260 0.148 0.058 0.106
Unmet need for limiting 0.107 0.010 817 645 0.921 0.093 0.087 0.127
Unmet need total 0.189 0.017 817 645 1.211 0.088 0.156 0.222
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.568 0.031 648 509 1.605 0.055 0.505 0.630
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.907 0.014 817 645 1.396 0.016 0.878 0.935
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.336 0.026 1,074 853 1.771 0.076 0.285 0.387
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 29.561 6.764 774 608 1.069 0.229 16.033 43.089
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.512 3.828 773 607 0.884 0.364 2.857 18.168
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 40.073 7.851 775 609 1.048 0.196 24.371 55.776
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 3.043 1.578 769 604 0.925 0.519 0.000 6.200
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 42.995 8.190 775 609 1.059 0.190 26.614 59.376
Perinatal mortality rate 34.175 8.181 407 323 0.921 0.239 17.812 50.537
Stillbirth rate 8.400 4.691 407 323 1.037 0.558 0.000 17.781
Early neonatal death rate 26.140 7.987 402 318 1.015 0.306 10.166 42.114
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.918 0.028 155 126 1.252 0.030 0.862 0.973
4+ ANC visits 0.818 0.037 155 126 1.175 0.045 0.744 0.891
8+ ANC visits 0.079 0.024 155 126 1.123 0.309 0.030 0.128
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.991 0.006 155 126 0.850 0.007 0.978 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.917 0.026 155 126 1.170 0.028 0.865 0.969
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.773 0.044 156 126 1.331 0.057 0.686 0.861
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.766 0.045 156 126 1.345 0.058 0.677 0.856
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.230 0.035 156 126 1.064 0.154 0.160 0.301
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.751 0.046 155 126 1.303 0.061 0.660 0.842
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.735 0.044 155 126 1.232 0.060 0.648 0.823
Any problem accessing health care 0.809 0.023 1,074 853 1.893 0.028 0.764 0.855
Ever had vaccination card 0.971 0.019 75 61 0.988 0.019 0.934 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.952 0.023 75 61 0.946 0.024 0.905 0.998
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.908 0.027 75 61 0.820 0.030 0.854 0.961
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.774 0.046 75 61 0.962 0.059 0.683 0.865
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.923 0.026 75 61 0.862 0.028 0.871 0.975
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.372 0.051 75 61 0.939 0.138 0.269 0.475
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.387 0.086 33 23 0.928 0.223 0.214 0.560
Treated with ORS 0.250 0.105 33 23 1.225 0.421 0.040 0.459
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.039 0.014 219 178 1.011 0.361 0.011 0.067
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.194 0.032 219 178 1.141 0.163 0.131 0.257
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.041 0.013 218 177 0.904 0.309 0.016 0.066
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.009 0.007 218 177 1.022 0.710 0.000 0.022
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.111 0.027 223 182 1.241 0.245 0.057 0.165
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.531 0.092 43 35 1.195 0.174 0.347 0.716
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.531 0.049 104 85 1.002 0.093 0.433 0.630
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.351 0.031 198 161 0.918 0.088 0.289 0.413
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.073 0.016 411 327 1.229 0.216 0.041 0.104
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.301 0.024 411 327 1.079 0.081 0.252 0.349
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.048 0.021 99 79 0.964 0.430 0.007 0.090

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 563
 Table B.16—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.062 0.023 99 79 0.952 0.372 0.016 0.108
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.558 0.028 1,074 853 1.852 0.050 0.502 0.614
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.258 0.025 538 428 1.316 0.096 0.208 0.308
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.232 0.035 384 306 1.582 0.152 0.161 0.303
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.553 0.032 886 682 1.883 0.057 0.490 0.616
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.023 0.005 1,074 853 1.052 0.211 0.013 0.032
Mobile phone ownership 0.791 0.025 1,074 853 2.008 0.032 0.741 0.841
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.404 0.020 1,074 853 1.349 0.050 0.364 0.445
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.419 0.020 817 645 1.141 0.047 0.379 0.458
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.226 0.020 1,074 853 1.597 0.090 0.185 0.267
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.611 0.031 817 645 1.789 0.050 0.550 0.672
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.199 0.027 382 297 1.336 0.138 0.144 0.253
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.071 0.021 382 297 1.628 0.303 0.028 0.114
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.014 0.007 382 297 1.088 0.465 0.001 0.027
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.205 0.038 335 242 1.695 0.183 0.130 0.281
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.141 0.031 335 242 1.635 0.222 0.078 0.203
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.051 0.013 364 278 1.097 0.248 0.026 0.076
Secondary education or higher 0.518 0.035 364 278 1.318 0.067 0.449 0.587
Literacy 0.905 0.019 364 278 1.260 0.021 0.866 0.944
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.684 0.032 364 278 1.295 0.046 0.621 0.747
Current tobacco use 0.527 0.033 364 278 1.274 0.063 0.460 0.593
Want no more children 0.585 0.037 221 168 1.100 0.062 0.512 0.659
Ideal number of children 2.221 0.042 363 277 1.160 0.019 2.138 2.304
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.404 0.046 341 259 1.739 0.115 0.311 0.497
Condom use at last sex 0.644 0.101 28 20 1.092 0.157 0.442 0.846
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.009 0.005 364 278 0.973 0.530 0.000 0.019
Mobile phone ownership 0.891 0.018 364 278 1.090 0.020 0.855 0.927
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.475 0.028 364 278 1.052 0.058 0.420 0.530
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.151 0.019 364 278 1.026 0.128 0.112 0.189
in wife beating

564 • Appendix B
Table B.17 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.697 0.034 651 1,034 1.543 0.049 0.629 0.765
At least basic drinking water service 0.999 0.001 5,415 8,542 0.999 0.001 0.997 1.000
Water available when needed 0.950 0.008 5,415 8,542 1.206 0.009 0.934 0.966
At least basic sanitation service 0.648 0.022 5,415 8,542 1.438 0.034 0.603 0.692
Using open defecation 0.176 0.024 5,415 8,542 1.917 0.136 0.128 0.223
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.574 0.059 1,564 2,531 1.966 0.103 0.456 0.693
WOMEN
No education 0.464 0.029 1,422 2,226 2.222 0.063 0.405 0.523
Secondary education or higher 0.254 0.028 1,422 2,226 2.430 0.111 0.198 0.311
Literacy 0.463 0.030 1,422 2,226 2.280 0.065 0.403 0.523
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.635 0.029 1,422 2,226 2.283 0.046 0.576 0.693
Current tobacco use 0.015 0.003 1,422 2,226 0.991 0.212 0.009 0.022
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.637 0.144 4,005 6,266 1.212 0.055 2.349 2.924
Currently pregnant 0.070 0.007 1,422 2,226 1.029 0.099 0.056 0.084
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 4.110 0.140 259 401 1.385 0.034 3.830 4.391
Median birth interval 32.719 1.756 449 711 1.461 0.054 29.207 36.230
Want no more children 0.633 0.024 1,147 1,789 1.663 0.037 0.585 0.680
Ideal number of children 2.406 0.045 1,409 2,206 2.436 0.019 2.317 2.495
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.076 0.109 4,005 6,266 1.122 0.053 1.858 2.294
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.465 0.025 1,147 1,789 1.708 0.054 0.415 0.515
Currently using any modern method 0.381 0.024 1,147 1,789 1.669 0.063 0.333 0.429
Currently using female sterilization 0.275 0.024 1,147 1,789 1.795 0.086 0.228 0.323
Currently using male sterilization 0.006 0.003 1,147 1,789 1.306 0.502 0.000 0.012
Currently using pill 0.018 0.004 1,147 1,789 0.910 0.199 0.011 0.025
Currently using injectables 0.037 0.007 1,147 1,789 1.265 0.191 0.023 0.051
Currently using implants 0.015 0.004 1,147 1,789 1.190 0.288 0.006 0.023
Currently using male condoms 0.020 0.007 1,147 1,789 1.700 0.351 0.006 0.034
Currently using any traditional method 0.084 0.010 1,147 1,789 1.248 0.122 0.064 0.105
Unmet need for spacing 0.108 0.012 1,147 1,789 1.354 0.115 0.083 0.133
Unmet need for limiting 0.114 0.013 1,147 1,789 1.412 0.116 0.088 0.141
Unmet need total 0.222 0.019 1,147 1,789 1.524 0.084 0.185 0.260
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.554 0.028 791 1,230 1.573 0.050 0.499 0.610
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.860 0.015 1,147 1,789 1.452 0.017 0.830 0.889
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.583 0.030 1,422 2,226 2.279 0.051 0.523 0.642
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 22.176 4.527 1,297 2,032 1.011 0.204 13.123 31.229
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.619 3.293 1,305 2,048 1.165 0.310 4.032 17.206
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 32.795 6.398 1,297 2,032 1.198 0.195 19.998 45.592
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 5.764 2.368 1,344 2,109 1.110 0.411 1.029 10.500
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 38.370 6.564 1,300 2,036 1.160 0.171 25.242 51.498
Perinatal mortality rate 28.601 6.957 675 1,055 1.113 0.243 14.688 42.514
Stillbirth rate 5.678 2.714 675 1,055 0.941 0.478 0.249 11.107
Early neonatal death rate 23.029 6.017 672 1,050 1.063 0.261 10.996 35.063
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.953 0.015 236 367 1.100 0.016 0.923 0.984
4+ ANC visits 0.669 0.044 236 367 1.424 0.065 0.582 0.757
8+ ANC visits 0.044 0.019 236 367 1.459 0.447 0.005 0.082
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.936 0.024 236 367 1.527 0.026 0.887 0.985
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.952 0.015 236 367 1.036 0.015 0.923 0.981
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.666 0.036 242 377 1.187 0.054 0.594 0.738
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.676 0.035 242 377 1.163 0.052 0.606 0.746
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.142 0.025 242 377 1.077 0.175 0.092 0.192
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.551 0.037 236 367 1.141 0.067 0.476 0.625
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.613 0.039 236 367 1.231 0.064 0.534 0.691
Any problem accessing health care 0.745 0.020 1,422 2,226 1.742 0.027 0.705 0.785
Ever had vaccination card 0.993 0.007 133 206 0.983 0.007 0.978 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.951 0.017 133 206 0.901 0.018 0.917 0.985
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.843 0.037 133 206 1.176 0.044 0.768 0.917
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.724 0.045 133 206 1.176 0.063 0.633 0.815
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.834 0.037 133 206 1.131 0.044 0.761 0.907
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.424 0.044 133 206 1.028 0.104 0.336 0.511
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.593 0.067 64 99 1.060 0.113 0.459 0.728
Treated with ORS 0.404 0.086 64 99 1.357 0.214 0.231 0.577
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.066 0.013 328 515 0.909 0.192 0.041 0.091
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.272 0.029 328 515 1.176 0.107 0.214 0.331
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.105 0.018 328 515 0.981 0.174 0.068 0.141
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 328 515 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.241 0.029 330 518 1.133 0.121 0.183 0.299
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.722 0.068 67 105 1.226 0.094 0.586 0.858
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.391 0.042 163 253 1.104 0.108 0.306 0.476
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.505 0.033 295 463 1.092 0.066 0.438 0.572
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.173 0.017 505 794 1.028 0.100 0.138 0.207
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.238 0.027 505 794 1.419 0.113 0.184 0.292
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.070 0.024 133 207 1.065 0.337 0.023 0.117

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 565
 Table B.17—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.031 0.015 133 207 0.978 0.475 0.002 0.061
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.444 0.024 1,422 2,226 1.819 0.054 0.396 0.492
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.524 0.026 694 1,087 1.374 0.050 0.471 0.576
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.185 0.017 648 1,013 1.058 0.092 0.151 0.219
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.690 0.041 589 932 2.120 0.059 0.609 0.771
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.011 0.002 1,422 2,226 0.864 0.219 0.006 0.016
Mobile phone ownership 0.645 0.027 1,422 2,226 2.086 0.041 0.592 0.698
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.337 0.021 1,422 2,226 1.672 0.062 0.296 0.379
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.383 0.024 1,147 1,789 1.662 0.062 0.335 0.431
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.137 0.012 1,422 2,226 1.348 0.090 0.113 0.162
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.435 0.027 1,147 1,789 1.836 0.062 0.381 0.489
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.341 0.026 452 765 1.177 0.077 0.289 0.394
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.102 0.018 452 765 1.248 0.175 0.066 0.137
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.011 0.007 452 765 1.391 0.617 0.000 0.025
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.379 0.031 401 638 1.277 0.082 0.317 0.441
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.309 0.032 401 638 1.373 0.103 0.245 0.372
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.201 0.030 487 722 1.641 0.149 0.141 0.260
Secondary education or higher 0.437 0.036 487 722 1.590 0.082 0.365 0.509
Literacy 0.757 0.032 487 722 1.633 0.042 0.693 0.820
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.743 0.033 487 722 1.674 0.045 0.676 0.809
Current tobacco use 0.497 0.028 487 722 1.239 0.057 0.440 0.553
Want no more children 0.682 0.026 306 453 0.985 0.039 0.629 0.734
Ideal number of children 2.419 0.056 487 722 1.445 0.023 2.307 2.530
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.680 0.035 442 657 1.572 0.051 0.611 0.750
Condom use at last sex 0.725 0.111 22 36 1.129 0.153 0.504 0.947
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.013 0.006 487 722 1.174 0.461 0.001 0.025
Mobile phone ownership 0.882 0.021 487 722 1.454 0.024 0.839 0.924
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.429 0.030 487 722 1.328 0.070 0.369 0.488
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.145 0.023 487 722 1.426 0.157 0.099 0.191
in wife beating

na = not applicable

566 • Appendix B
Table B.18 Sampling errors: Madhesh Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.744 0.031 466 354 1.275 0.042 0.682 0.806
At least basic drinking water service 0.985 0.010 4,027 2,968 2.501 0.011 0.964 1.000
Water available when needed 0.913 0.021 4,027 2,968 2.051 0.023 0.871 0.956
At least basic sanitation service 0.595 0.034 4,027 2,968 1.905 0.057 0.527 0.663
Using open defecation 0.210 0.035 4,027 2,968 2.361 0.167 0.140 0.280
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.374 0.052 1,437 1,021 1.713 0.139 0.270 0.478
WOMEN
No education 0.443 0.022 1,077 783 1.454 0.050 0.398 0.487
Secondary education or higher 0.235 0.024 1,077 783 1.883 0.104 0.186 0.284
Literacy 0.471 0.025 1,077 783 1.665 0.054 0.420 0.522
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.574 0.028 1,077 783 1.827 0.048 0.519 0.630
Current tobacco use 0.033 0.009 1,077 783 1.563 0.256 0.016 0.051
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.744 0.189 3,010 2,191 1.486 0.069 2.366 3.123
Currently pregnant 0.056 0.010 1,077 783 1.455 0.181 0.036 0.077
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.643 0.156 225 160 1.407 0.043 3.330 3.956
Median birth interval 29.107 1.683 318 245 1.295 0.058 25.741 32.472
Want no more children 0.689 0.020 863 630 1.257 0.029 0.649 0.728
Ideal number of children 2.312 0.051 1,077 783 2.546 0.022 2.210 2.415
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.020 0.117 3,010 2,191 1.207 0.058 1.786 2.254
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.560 0.029 863 630 1.729 0.052 0.501 0.618
Currently using any modern method 0.474 0.028 863 630 1.664 0.060 0.417 0.531
Currently using female sterilization 0.305 0.027 863 630 1.747 0.090 0.251 0.360
Currently using male sterilization 0.002 0.001 863 630 0.955 0.704 0.000 0.005
Currently using pill 0.048 0.008 863 630 1.167 0.177 0.031 0.065
Currently using injectables 0.080 0.014 863 630 1.511 0.175 0.052 0.108
Currently using implants 0.027 0.006 863 630 1.118 0.228 0.015 0.039
Currently using male condoms 0.009 0.004 863 630 1.107 0.387 0.002 0.017
Currently using any traditional method 0.086 0.010 863 630 1.076 0.120 0.065 0.106
Unmet need for spacing 0.076 0.009 863 630 1.044 0.124 0.057 0.095
Unmet need for limiting 0.103 0.013 863 630 1.284 0.129 0.076 0.129
Unmet need total 0.178 0.016 863 630 1.237 0.090 0.146 0.211
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.642 0.025 644 465 1.320 0.039 0.592 0.692
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.863 0.017 863 630 1.426 0.019 0.830 0.897
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.562 0.028 1,077 783 1.858 0.050 0.505 0.618
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 40.996 6.340 974 736 0.999 0.155 28.316 53.676
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 12.403 3.540 979 741 1.037 0.285 5.323 19.483
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 53.398 7.643 974 736 1.074 0.143 38.111 68.685
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 3.429 1.600 993 748 0.977 0.466 0.230 6.629
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 56.645 7.787 974 736 1.013 0.137 41.070 72.219
Perinatal mortality rate 53.629 7.781 483 364 0.770 0.145 38.067 69.192
Stillbirth rate 23.503 6.286 483 364 0.937 0.267 10.932 36.074
Early neonatal death rate 30.851 6.786 471 356 0.885 0.220 17.279 44.424
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.979 0.011 178 132 1.027 0.011 0.956 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.723 0.039 178 132 1.165 0.054 0.645 0.802
8+ ANC visits 0.058 0.018 178 132 1.015 0.309 0.022 0.093
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.933 0.019 178 132 1.001 0.020 0.896 0.971
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.960 0.014 178 132 0.921 0.014 0.933 0.987
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.673 0.040 185 137 1.133 0.059 0.593 0.753
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.691 0.038 185 137 1.094 0.055 0.615 0.767
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.130 0.025 185 137 1.000 0.195 0.080 0.181
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.654 0.045 178 132 1.263 0.069 0.564 0.745
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.727 0.040 178 132 1.203 0.055 0.647 0.808
Any problem accessing health care 0.683 0.023 1,077 783 1.633 0.034 0.636 0.729
Ever had vaccination card 0.974 0.026 87 63 1.490 0.026 0.923 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.948 0.031 87 63 1.286 0.033 0.886 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.760 0.060 87 63 1.295 0.079 0.641 0.880
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.639 0.069 87 63 1.332 0.109 0.500 0.778
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.728 0.067 87 63 1.386 0.092 0.594 0.861
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.405 0.076 87 63 1.418 0.188 0.253 0.558
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.499 0.091 48 36 1.263 0.183 0.316 0.681
Treated with ORS 0.235 0.045 48 36 0.740 0.193 0.144 0.326
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.066 0.014 226 172 0.937 0.219 0.037 0.095
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.356 0.035 226 172 1.067 0.099 0.285 0.427
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.091 0.017 227 173 0.890 0.187 0.057 0.126
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 227 173 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.348 0.038 227 173 1.196 0.110 0.271 0.425
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.417 0.090 44 32 1.195 0.217 0.236 0.597
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.274 0.058 128 96 1.467 0.213 0.158 0.391
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.508 0.041 204 156 1.114 0.081 0.426 0.590
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.220 0.028 384 280 1.307 0.125 0.165 0.275
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.200 0.026 384 280 1.261 0.128 0.149 0.252
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.035 0.017 104 75 0.952 0.491 0.001 0.070

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 567
 Table B.18—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.021 0.014 104 75 0.988 0.666 0.000 0.049
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.383 0.020 1,077 783 1.347 0.052 0.343 0.423
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.526 0.029 509 371 1.320 0.056 0.468 0.585
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.233 0.028 449 338 1.323 0.118 0.178 0.288
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.714 0.032 534 382 1.617 0.044 0.650 0.777
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.009 0.003 1,077 783 1.023 0.321 0.003 0.015
Mobile phone ownership 0.625 0.018 1,077 783 1.197 0.028 0.590 0.660
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.332 0.024 1,077 783 1.676 0.072 0.284 0.381
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.401 0.028 863 630 1.659 0.069 0.345 0.456
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.131 0.018 1,077 783 1.734 0.136 0.096 0.167
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.415 0.033 863 630 1.971 0.080 0.349 0.481
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.429 0.039 367 277 1.493 0.090 0.351 0.506
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.117 0.019 367 277 1.110 0.159 0.080 0.155
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.035 0.013 367 277 1.323 0.361 0.010 0.061
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.440 0.041 326 233 1.493 0.094 0.358 0.522
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.345 0.045 326 233 1.694 0.130 0.255 0.434
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.167 0.023 395 275 1.219 0.137 0.121 0.213
Secondary education or higher 0.386 0.029 395 275 1.187 0.076 0.327 0.444
Literacy 0.760 0.036 395 275 1.682 0.048 0.688 0.833
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.664 0.028 395 275 1.173 0.042 0.608 0.720
Current tobacco use 0.565 0.036 395 275 1.422 0.063 0.494 0.636
Want no more children 0.678 0.037 254 178 1.250 0.054 0.604 0.751
Ideal number of children 2.438 0.054 395 275 1.434 0.022 2.330 2.546
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.695 0.031 351 245 1.272 0.045 0.632 0.758
Condom use at last sex 0.622 0.102 18 12 0.875 0.164 0.418 0.826
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.015 0.006 395 275 1.007 0.405 0.003 0.028
Mobile phone ownership 0.887 0.015 395 275 0.920 0.017 0.857 0.916
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.382 0.025 395 275 1.014 0.065 0.333 0.432
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.166 0.026 395 275 1.400 0.158 0.114 0.219
in wife beating

na = not applicable

568 • Appendix B
Table B.19 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.731 0.037 296 596 1.381 0.051 0.657 0.805
At least basic drinking water service 0.975 0.008 4,424 8,617 1.648 0.008 0.959 0.991
Water available when needed 0.806 0.024 4,424 8,617 1.917 0.029 0.759 0.854
At least basic sanitation service 0.726 0.022 4,424 8,617 1.656 0.030 0.682 0.769
Using open defecation 0.006 0.003 4,424 8,617 1.305 0.521 0.000 0.012
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.960 0.011 2,738 5,324 1.504 0.011 0.939 0.981
WOMEN
No education 0.134 0.018 1,274 2,464 1.900 0.136 0.097 0.170
Secondary education or higher 0.635 0.032 1,274 2,464 2.333 0.050 0.572 0.698
Literacy 0.902 0.014 1,274 2,464 1.736 0.016 0.873 0.931
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.833 0.027 1,274 2,464 2.577 0.032 0.779 0.887
Current tobacco use 0.073 0.012 1,274 2,464 1.633 0.163 0.050 0.097
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.459 0.129 3,678 7,112 1.276 0.088 1.201 1.717
Currently pregnant 0.025 0.004 1,274 2,464 0.874 0.153 0.017 0.033
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.454 0.133 267 510 1.654 0.054 2.188 2.720
Median birth interval 59.928 2.221 150 306 0.978 0.037 55.486 64.370
Want no more children 0.703 0.022 869 1,700 1.390 0.031 0.660 0.746
Ideal number of children 1.807 0.030 1,261 2,433 1.705 0.016 1.748 1.866
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.229 0.118 3,678 7,112 1.258 0.096 0.994 1.465
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.659 0.023 869 1,700 1.415 0.035 0.614 0.705
Currently using any modern method 0.423 0.023 869 1,700 1.365 0.054 0.377 0.468
Currently using female sterilization 0.063 0.009 869 1,700 1.033 0.135 0.046 0.080
Currently using male sterilization 0.059 0.013 869 1,700 1.592 0.216 0.033 0.084
Currently using pill 0.057 0.009 869 1,700 1.180 0.163 0.038 0.075
Currently using injectables 0.105 0.014 869 1,700 1.316 0.131 0.078 0.132
Currently using implants 0.045 0.009 869 1,700 1.332 0.207 0.027 0.064
Currently using male condoms 0.079 0.011 869 1,700 1.173 0.136 0.058 0.101
Currently using any traditional method 0.236 0.017 869 1,700 1.196 0.073 0.202 0.271
Unmet need for spacing 0.036 0.006 869 1,700 0.937 0.164 0.024 0.048
Unmet need for limiting 0.124 0.012 869 1,700 1.099 0.099 0.099 0.148
Unmet need total 0.160 0.013 869 1,700 1.014 0.079 0.135 0.185
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.516 0.022 723 1,393 1.198 0.044 0.471 0.561
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.914 0.011 869 1,700 1.135 0.012 0.893 0.936
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.215 0.016 1,274 2,464 1.392 0.075 0.183 0.247
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 16.856 5.633 617 1,217 1.016 0.334 5.589 28.122
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 0.000 0.000 621 1,226 na na 0.000 0.000
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 16.856 5.633 617 1,217 1.016 0.334 5.589 28.122
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 1.682 1.687 624 1,225 0.998 1.003 0.000 5.057
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 18.509 5.644 618 1,219 0.982 0.305 7.222 29.797
Perinatal mortality rate 13.241 6.443 306 604 0.997 0.487 0.356 26.126
Stillbirth rate 2.059 2.090 306 604 0.816 1.015 0.000 6.240
Early neonatal death rate 11.205 6.199 305 603 1.039 0.553 0.000 23.603
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.959 0.018 109 216 0.956 0.019 0.922 0.995
4+ ANC visits 0.925 0.029 109 216 1.152 0.032 0.866 0.983
8+ ANC visits 0.167 0.049 109 216 1.367 0.295 0.068 0.265
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.982 0.012 109 216 0.981 0.013 0.958 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.894 0.027 109 216 0.915 0.030 0.840 0.948
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.919 0.032 110 219 1.229 0.034 0.856 0.983
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.907 0.033 110 219 1.199 0.036 0.842 0.973
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.407 0.051 110 219 1.087 0.126 0.304 0.509
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.813 0.044 109 216 1.163 0.054 0.726 0.901
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.733 0.050 109 216 1.182 0.069 0.632 0.834
Any problem accessing health care 0.515 0.027 1,274 2,464 1.959 0.053 0.460 0.570
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 47 90 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.921 0.034 47 90 0.866 0.037 0.852 0.989
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.903 0.038 47 90 0.871 0.042 0.827 0.978
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.868 0.046 47 90 0.925 0.053 0.776 0.960
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.875 0.050 47 90 1.042 0.058 0.774 0.976
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.621 0.075 47 90 1.056 0.121 0.471 0.772
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.600 0.066 43 88 0.912 0.111 0.467 0.732
Treated with ORS 0.387 0.087 43 88 1.206 0.225 0.212 0.561
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.039 0.016 157 313 1.067 0.410 0.007 0.070
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.131 0.025 157 313 0.939 0.190 0.081 0.181
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.054 0.016 157 313 0.933 0.304 0.021 0.086
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.033 0.016 157 313 1.155 0.500 0.000 0.065
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.095 0.026 158 316 1.188 0.277 0.042 0.147
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.338 0.084 31 60 0.975 0.249 0.169 0.506
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.544 0.052 76 152 0.907 0.096 0.440 0.648
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.444 0.044 135 268 0.989 0.099 0.356 0.532
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.038 0.008 542 1,053 0.997 0.215 0.022 0.055
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.537 0.024 542 1,053 1.109 0.044 0.490 0.585
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.043 0.025 91 174 1.158 0.573 0.000 0.093

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 569
 Table B.19—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.113 0.043 91 174 1.283 0.379 0.027 0.198
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.772 0.020 1,274 2,464 1.715 0.026 0.732 0.812
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.226 0.022 653 1,266 1.319 0.096 0.183 0.270
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.230 0.023 302 596 0.961 0.101 0.184 0.276
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.336 0.021 1,234 2,379 1.533 0.061 0.295 0.377
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.046 0.006 1,274 2,464 1.013 0.129 0.034 0.058
Mobile phone ownership 0.927 0.013 1,274 2,464 1.760 0.014 0.901 0.952
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.719 0.026 1,274 2,464 2.089 0.037 0.666 0.771
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.586 0.027 869 1,700 1.609 0.046 0.533 0.640
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.152 0.014 1,274 2,464 1.349 0.089 0.125 0.179
in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.716 0.019 869 1,700 1.213 0.026 0.678 0.753
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.174 0.024 439 813 1.299 0.135 0.127 0.221
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.070 0.015 439 813 1.268 0.221 0.039 0.101
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.022 0.007 439 813 1.069 0.342 0.007 0.037
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.176 0.022 367 639 1.129 0.128 0.131 0.221
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.098 0.018 367 639 1.130 0.179 0.063 0.133
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.019 0.006 535 1,016 0.959 0.300 0.008 0.030
Secondary education or higher 0.660 0.034 535 1,016 1.672 0.052 0.591 0.728
Literacy 0.967 0.011 535 1,016 1.443 0.012 0.945 0.989
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.887 0.024 535 1,016 1.740 0.027 0.839 0.934
Current tobacco use 0.449 0.033 535 1,016 1.533 0.074 0.383 0.515
Want no more children 0.630 0.029 294 543 1.014 0.045 0.573 0.688
Ideal number of children 1.998 0.034 532 1,008 1.235 0.017 1.930 2.065
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.276 0.026 529 1,003 1.316 0.093 0.225 0.327
Condom use at last sex 0.763 0.047 69 134 0.918 0.062 0.668 0.857
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.035 0.010 535 1,016 1.284 0.292 0.015 0.055
Mobile phone ownership 0.974 0.007 535 1,016 0.998 0.007 0.960 0.987
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.728 0.034 535 1,016 1.740 0.046 0.661 0.795
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is justified 0.109 0.014 535 1,016 1.068 0.132 0.080 0.137
in wife beating

na = not applicable

570 • Appendix B
Table B.20 Sampling errors: Bagmati Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.645 0.059 314 230 1.957 0.091 0.527 0.762
At least basic drinking water service 0.976 0.011 3,496 2,514 1.889 0.011 0.955 0.997
Water available when needed 0.839 0.024 3,496 2,514 1.887 0.029 0.791 0.887
At least basic sanitation service 0.752 0.036 3,496 2,514 2.314 0.048 0.680 0.824
Using open defecation 0.095 0.035 3,496 2,514 3.171 0.369 0.025 0.166
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.460 0.094 492 371 2.048 0.204 0.272 0.648
WOMEN
No education 0.313 0.026 832 599 1.597 0.082 0.262 0.365
Secondary education or higher 0.319 0.031 832 599 1.920 0.098 0.257 0.381
Literacy 0.728 0.029 832 599 1.905 0.040 0.669 0.787
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.453 0.040 832 599 2.308 0.088 0.373 0.533
Current tobacco use 0.126 0.012 832 599 1.041 0.095 0.102 0.150
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.403 0.179 2,323 1,671 1.236 0.074 2.046 2.761
Currently pregnant 0.027 0.006 832 599 1.052 0.220 0.015 0.039
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.497 0.145 201 143 1.197 0.041 3.207 3.787
Median birth interval 42.018 3.489 183 132 1.420 0.083 35.041 48.996
Want no more children 0.757 0.020 634 456 1.159 0.026 0.718 0.797
Ideal number of children 2.003 0.039 831 598 1.559 0.019 1.925 2.080
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.786 0.150 2,323 1,671 1.122 0.084 1.487 2.085
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.671 0.020 634 456 1.088 0.030 0.630 0.712
Currently using any modern method 0.535 0.023 634 456 1.175 0.044 0.489 0.582
Currently using female sterilization 0.033 0.010 634 456 1.410 0.305 0.013 0.053
Currently using male sterilization 0.084 0.014 634 456 1.258 0.165 0.056 0.112
Currently using pill 0.023 0.008 634 456 1.256 0.324 0.008 0.038
Currently using injectables 0.193 0.024 634 456 1.501 0.122 0.145 0.240
Currently using implants 0.168 0.020 634 456 1.374 0.122 0.127 0.209
Currently using male condoms 0.020 0.005 634 456 0.897 0.248 0.010 0.030
Currently using any traditional method 0.136 0.016 634 456 1.209 0.121 0.103 0.169
Unmet need for spacing 0.065 0.010 634 456 0.984 0.148 0.046 0.085
Unmet need for limiting 0.093 0.014 634 456 1.194 0.148 0.066 0.121
Unmet need total 0.159 0.019 634 456 1.318 0.121 0.121 0.197
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.645 0.025 530 378 1.200 0.039 0.595 0.695
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.907 0.013 634 456 1.135 0.014 0.881 0.934
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.374 0.034 832 599 2.018 0.091 0.306 0.441
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 21.264 4.921 628 449 0.857 0.231 11.423 31.105
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 12.212 4.659 631 451 1.062 0.382 2.893 21.530
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 33.475 7.677 628 449 1.081 0.229 18.122 48.829
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 6.485 3.229 635 453 1.110 0.498 0.026 12.944
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 39.743 9.232 629 449 1.254 0.232 21.278 58.208
Perinatal mortality rate 27.648 9.221 315 226 0.858 0.334 9.205 46.091
Stillbirth rate 16.796 6.405 315 226 0.888 0.381 3.986 29.606
Early neonatal death rate 11.037 5.404 309 222 0.909 0.490 0.228 21.846
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.866 0.050 107 79 1.505 0.058 0.766 0.967
4+ ANC visits 0.788 0.068 107 79 1.709 0.087 0.652 0.925
8+ ANC visits 0.052 0.023 107 79 1.066 0.444 0.006 0.098
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.910 0.034 107 79 1.221 0.037 0.842 0.978
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.862 0.043 107 79 1.267 0.049 0.777 0.947
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.786 0.054 109 81 1.399 0.069 0.678 0.893
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.755 0.061 109 81 1.519 0.081 0.632 0.877
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.116 0.033 109 81 1.082 0.283 0.050 0.181
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.536 0.085 107 79 1.731 0.158 0.366 0.705
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.486 0.064 107 79 1.307 0.131 0.359 0.614
Any problem accessing health care 0.784 0.023 832 599 1.639 0.030 0.737 0.831
Ever had vaccination card 0.963 0.023 60 44 0.951 0.024 0.918 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.878 0.064 60 44 1.530 0.073 0.750 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.831 0.079 60 44 1.651 0.096 0.672 0.990
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.785 0.071 60 44 1.352 0.091 0.642 0.927
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.798 0.072 60 44 1.396 0.090 0.655 0.942
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.566 0.088 60 44 1.379 0.155 0.390 0.741
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.528 0.126 26 18 1.213 0.238 0.277 0.779
Treated with ORS 0.440 0.112 26 18 1.096 0.256 0.215 0.665
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.071 0.029 147 105 1.084 0.407 0.013 0.129
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.311 0.050 147 105 1.222 0.161 0.211 0.412
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.020 0.011 147 105 0.953 0.549 0.000 0.042
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.030 0.018 147 105 0.999 0.578 0.000 0.065
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.137 0.031 147 105 0.908 0.224 0.076 0.199
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.673 0.089 30 22 1.020 0.132 0.495 0.851
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.445 0.069 75 56 1.196 0.156 0.307 0.584
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.368 0.045 129 92 1.020 0.123 0.278 0.459
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.047 0.012 299 212 1.014 0.267 0.022 0.072
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.369 0.032 299 212 1.138 0.087 0.305 0.433
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.027 0.019 76 54 1.034 0.716 0.000 0.065

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 571
 Table B.20—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.088 0.031 76 54 0.949 0.351 0.026 0.150
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.520 0.032 832 599 1.845 0.062 0.455 0.584
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.251 0.024 394 280 1.084 0.094 0.204 0.299
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.170 0.026 303 218 1.172 0.152 0.118 0.222
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.629 0.030 715 516 1.681 0.048 0.569 0.690
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.013 0.003 832 599 0.854 0.255 0.006 0.020
Mobile phone ownership 0.797 0.022 832 599 1.541 0.027 0.754 0.840
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.407 0.036 832 599 2.104 0.088 0.335 0.478
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.477 0.029 634 456 1.453 0.061 0.419 0.534
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.187 0.019 832 599 1.372 0.099 0.150 0.225
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.645 0.028 634 456 1.467 0.043 0.589 0.701
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.174 0.022 328 224 1.067 0.129 0.129 0.219
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.068 0.013 328 224 0.932 0.191 0.042 0.094
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.019 0.011 328 224 1.426 0.564 0.000 0.041
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.148 0.022 299 198 1.079 0.150 0.104 0.193
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.101 0.016 299 198 0.927 0.160 0.068 0.133
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.092 0.020 296 198 1.201 0.219 0.052 0.133
Secondary education or higher 0.391 0.044 296 198 1.538 0.112 0.304 0.479
Literacy 0.889 0.023 296 198 1.234 0.025 0.844 0.934
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.645 0.044 296 198 1.558 0.067 0.558 0.732
Current tobacco use 0.486 0.040 296 198 1.367 0.082 0.406 0.566
Want no more children 0.780 0.026 211 143 0.918 0.034 0.727 0.832
Ideal number of children 2.238 0.072 296 198 1.655 0.032 2.094 2.382
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.389 0.040 286 191 1.393 0.104 0.308 0.470
Condom use at last sex 0.444 0.119 13 9 0.837 0.267 0.207 0.681
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.012 0.007 296 198 1.013 0.525 0.000 0.026
Mobile phone ownership 0.908 0.020 296 198 1.205 0.022 0.868 0.949
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.512 0.042 296 198 1.455 0.083 0.427 0.597
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.204 0.025 296 198 1.058 0.122 0.155 0.254
justified in wife beating

572 • Appendix B
Table B.21 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.682 0.044 179 207 1.250 0.064 0.594 0.769
At least basic drinking water service 0.985 0.007 2,981 3,272 1.749 0.008 0.970 1.000
Water available when needed 0.818 0.029 2,981 3,272 1.996 0.035 0.760 0.875
At least basic sanitation service 0.792 0.021 2,981 3,272 1.521 0.027 0.749 0.835
Using open defecation 0.003 0.002 2,981 3,272 0.937 0.754 0.000 0.006
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.949 0.023 998 1,258 1.735 0.024 0.903 0.996
WOMEN
No education 0.103 0.014 897 992 1.365 0.135 0.075 0.130
Secondary education or higher 0.584 0.029 897 992 1.746 0.049 0.527 0.642
Literacy 0.908 0.014 897 992 1.428 0.015 0.881 0.936
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.854 0.021 897 992 1.774 0.025 0.812 0.896
Current tobacco use 0.069 0.008 897 992 0.977 0.120 0.052 0.085
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.236 0.117 2,566 2,848 1.125 0.095 1.001 1.471
Currently pregnant 0.032 0.005 897 992 0.830 0.153 0.022 0.041
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.746 0.122 179 188 1.316 0.044 2.503 2.990
Median birth interval 57.233 2.905 92 104 0.986 0.051 51.423 63.043
Want no more children 0.715 0.019 663 729 1.067 0.026 0.677 0.752
Ideal number of children 1.838 0.025 894 988 1.063 0.014 1.788 1.888
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.068 0.101 2,566 2,848 1.050 0.094 0.866 1.269
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.499 0.024 663 729 1.247 0.049 0.450 0.547
Currently using any modern method 0.327 0.030 663 729 1.658 0.093 0.266 0.387
Currently using female sterilization 0.062 0.013 663 729 1.370 0.207 0.036 0.088
Currently using male sterilization 0.052 0.012 663 729 1.335 0.221 0.029 0.075
Currently using pill 0.042 0.008 663 729 1.019 0.189 0.026 0.058
Currently using injectables 0.048 0.009 663 729 1.030 0.178 0.031 0.065
Currently using implants 0.055 0.010 663 729 1.167 0.188 0.034 0.076
Currently using male condoms 0.055 0.012 663 729 1.319 0.213 0.032 0.078
Currently using any traditional method 0.172 0.018 663 729 1.207 0.103 0.136 0.207
Unmet need for spacing 0.076 0.011 663 729 1.092 0.148 0.053 0.098
Unmet need for limiting 0.204 0.021 663 729 1.348 0.104 0.162 0.246
Unmet need total 0.280 0.023 663 729 1.301 0.081 0.234 0.325
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.420 0.036 520 567 1.672 0.087 0.347 0.493
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.942 0.011 663 729 1.164 0.011 0.921 0.964
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.225 0.020 897 992 1.412 0.088 0.186 0.265
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 2.037 2.049 442 488 0.956 1.006 0.000 6.134
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 2.704 2.716 439 485 1.058 1.004 0.000 8.136
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 4.741 3.309 442 488 0.991 0.698 0.000 11.359
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 2.499 1.937 456 501 0.913 0.775 0.000 6.374
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 7.228 3.712 442 488 0.943 0.514 0.000 14.653
Perinatal mortality rate 11.974 6.770 196 218 0.876 0.565 0.000 25.515
Stillbirth rate 11.974 6.770 196 218 0.876 0.565 0.000 25.515
Early neonatal death rate 0.000 0.000 194 217 na na 0.000 0.000
Received ANC from a skilled provider 1.000 0.000 69 76 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.847 0.038 69 76 0.868 0.045 0.772 0.923
8+ ANC visits 0.124 0.038 69 76 0.954 0.308 0.047 0.200
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.987 0.013 69 76 0.967 0.013 0.961 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.945 0.028 69 76 1.009 0.030 0.889 1.000
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.949 0.025 69 76 0.936 0.026 0.900 0.998
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.966 0.022 69 76 0.994 0.022 0.922 1.000
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.238 0.055 69 76 1.071 0.229 0.129 0.348
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.816 0.050 69 76 1.056 0.061 0.717 0.915
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.832 0.043 69 76 0.957 0.052 0.746 0.919
Any problem accessing health care 0.602 0.041 897 992 2.512 0.068 0.519 0.684
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 26 27 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 1.000 0.000 26 27 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 1.000 0.000 26 27 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 1.000 0.000 26 27 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 1.000 0.000 26 27 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.820 0.072 26 27 0.927 0.087 0.677 0.963
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.398 0.179 14 15 1.233 0.450 0.040 0.756
Treated with ORS 0.213 0.149 14 15 1.082 0.701 0.000 0.511
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.040 0.020 97 113 1.041 0.490 0.001 0.079
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.150 0.047 97 113 1.274 0.312 0.056 0.243
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.035 0.021 97 113 1.190 0.616 0.000 0.078
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 97 113 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.152 0.036 97 113 1.005 0.236 0.080 0.224
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.624 0.096 24 26 0.956 0.155 0.431 0.817
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.629 0.076 45 51 1.045 0.121 0.476 0.781
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.259 0.049 89 104 1.116 0.188 0.162 0.356
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.046 0.010 350 389 0.892 0.218 0.026 0.065
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.480 0.033 350 389 1.225 0.068 0.414 0.545
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.032 0.022 73 81 1.068 0.693 0.000 0.075

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 573
 Table B.21—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.130 0.044 73 81 1.128 0.342 0.041 0.219
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.738 0.029 897 992 1.947 0.039 0.681 0.796
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.241 0.027 437 485 1.325 0.113 0.187 0.296
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.273 0.033 193 216 1.023 0.120 0.208 0.339
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.412 0.029 878 968 1.749 0.071 0.353 0.470
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.035 0.008 897 992 1.335 0.234 0.019 0.052
Mobile phone ownership 0.943 0.011 897 992 1.384 0.011 0.921 0.964
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.706 0.025 897 992 1.633 0.035 0.656 0.756
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.605 0.022 663 729 1.139 0.036 0.562 0.648
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.157 0.016 897 992 1.338 0.104 0.124 0.189
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.762 0.018 663 729 1.059 0.023 0.727 0.797
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.158 0.017 310 349 0.832 0.109 0.124 0.193
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.055 0.016 310 349 1.211 0.285 0.024 0.087
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.018 0.008 310 349 1.043 0.441 0.002 0.034
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.168 0.020 277 290 0.877 0.118 0.128 0.207
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.130 0.020 277 290 0.973 0.151 0.091 0.170
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.015 0.007 246 264 0.842 0.437 0.002 0.028
Secondary education or higher 0.661 0.042 246 264 1.371 0.063 0.578 0.744
Literacy 0.985 0.007 246 264 0.842 0.007 0.972 0.998
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.859 0.025 246 264 1.145 0.030 0.808 0.910
Current tobacco use 0.429 0.038 246 264 1.216 0.090 0.352 0.506
Want no more children 0.655 0.037 168 182 1.006 0.057 0.581 0.729
Ideal number of children 1.990 0.035 245 262 0.953 0.018 1.919 2.061
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.218 0.033 245 263 1.235 0.150 0.153 0.284
Condom use at last sex 0.680 0.083 26 29 0.893 0.122 0.514 0.846
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.053 0.015 246 264 1.063 0.286 0.023 0.084
Mobile phone ownership 0.965 0.012 246 264 1.020 0.012 0.942 0.989
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.649 0.038 246 264 1.253 0.059 0.572 0.725
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.161 0.022 246 264 0.940 0.137 0.117 0.206
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

574 • Appendix B
Table B.22 Sampling errors: Gandaki Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.697 0.033 214 117 0.990 0.047 0.631 0.763
At least basic drinking water service 0.976 0.009 3,030 1,593 1.814 0.010 0.957 0.995
Water available when needed 0.843 0.022 3,030 1,593 1.635 0.027 0.799 0.888
At least basic sanitation service 0.798 0.019 3,030 1,593 1.342 0.024 0.760 0.837
Using open defecation 0.035 0.019 3,030 1,593 3.214 0.539 0.000 0.074
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.576 0.086 586 323 2.104 0.149 0.404 0.747
WOMEN
No education 0.205 0.029 785 409 2.022 0.142 0.147 0.264
Secondary education or higher 0.408 0.036 785 409 2.051 0.088 0.335 0.480
Literacy 0.811 0.028 785 409 2.025 0.035 0.755 0.868
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.683 0.031 785 409 1.833 0.045 0.622 0.744
Current tobacco use 0.100 0.018 785 409 1.644 0.176 0.065 0.135
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.777 0.153 2,233 1,164 1.117 0.086 1.472 2.082
Currently pregnant 0.028 0.007 785 409 1.202 0.252 0.014 0.042
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.232 0.153 204 105 1.423 0.047 2.927 3.538
Median birth interval 48.533 4.369 127 69 1.201 0.090 39.795 57.272
Want no more children 0.787 0.016 610 317 0.963 0.020 0.755 0.819
Ideal number of children 1.969 0.030 783 408 1.359 0.015 1.909 2.028
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.441 0.129 2,233 1,164 1.076 0.089 1.183 1.698
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.553 0.029 610 317 1.427 0.052 0.496 0.611
Currently using any modern method 0.408 0.031 610 317 1.567 0.077 0.345 0.470
Currently using female sterilization 0.034 0.010 610 317 1.366 0.293 0.014 0.055
Currently using male sterilization 0.089 0.019 610 317 1.616 0.209 0.052 0.127
Currently using pill 0.068 0.014 610 317 1.372 0.205 0.040 0.096
Currently using injectables 0.096 0.018 610 317 1.470 0.183 0.061 0.131
Currently using implants 0.075 0.016 610 317 1.486 0.212 0.043 0.107
Currently using male condoms 0.029 0.006 610 317 0.841 0.198 0.017 0.040
Currently using any traditional method 0.146 0.016 610 317 1.093 0.107 0.115 0.177
Unmet need for spacing 0.070 0.010 610 317 0.950 0.140 0.050 0.090
Unmet need for limiting 0.204 0.017 610 317 1.030 0.082 0.170 0.238
Unmet need total 0.274 0.019 610 317 1.045 0.069 0.236 0.312
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.493 0.032 505 263 1.424 0.064 0.429 0.556
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.938 0.011 610 317 1.175 0.012 0.916 0.961
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.319 0.032 785 409 1.936 0.101 0.254 0.383
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 19.885 8.178 513 274 0.972 0.411 3.530 36.240
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 23.643 6.594 513 274 0.999 0.279 10.455 36.831
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 43.528 11.751 514 274 1.083 0.270 20.025 67.031
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.369 6.727 532 283 1.690 0.804 0.000 21.823
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 51.533 11.832 514 274 1.051 0.230 27.869 75.197
Perinatal mortality rate 16.076 7.776 224 119 0.944 0.484 0.524 31.627
Stillbirth rate 16.076 7.776 224 119 0.944 0.484 0.524 31.627
Early neonatal death rate 0.000 0.000 220 117 na na 0.000 0.000
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.905 0.050 75 40 1.466 0.056 0.804 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.842 0.055 75 40 1.286 0.065 0.733 0.952
8+ ANC visits 0.053 0.025 75 40 0.980 0.482 0.002 0.104
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.951 0.027 75 40 1.072 0.028 0.898 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.887 0.030 75 40 0.823 0.034 0.826 0.947
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.740 0.078 75 40 1.554 0.105 0.584 0.895
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.752 0.079 75 40 1.605 0.105 0.594 0.910
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.136 0.035 75 40 0.889 0.255 0.066 0.205
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.665 0.082 75 40 1.487 0.124 0.500 0.829
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.712 0.083 75 40 1.567 0.117 0.546 0.879
Any problem accessing health care 0.650 0.038 785 409 2.232 0.059 0.574 0.726
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 43 24 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 1.000 0.000 43 24 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.979 0.020 43 24 0.962 0.021 0.939 1.000
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.860 0.049 43 24 0.953 0.057 0.762 0.958
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.948 0.036 43 24 1.089 0.038 0.875 1.000
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.759 0.062 43 24 0.973 0.081 0.636 0.883
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.622 0.099 19 10 0.905 0.160 0.423 0.820
Treated with ORS 0.258 0.096 19 10 0.975 0.374 0.065 0.451
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.117 0.039 125 68 1.402 0.337 0.038 0.195
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.276 0.070 125 68 1.706 0.254 0.136 0.417
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.047 0.020 125 68 1.068 0.421 0.007 0.087
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.021 0.012 125 68 0.975 0.593 0.000 0.045
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.229 0.061 125 68 1.652 0.268 0.106 0.351
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.673 0.109 18 9 0.958 0.162 0.456 0.891
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.461 0.105 57 31 1.563 0.229 0.250 0.672
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.385 0.053 116 64 1.181 0.137 0.280 0.490
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.045 0.010 319 167 0.883 0.228 0.024 0.065
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.443 0.035 319 167 1.256 0.079 0.373 0.513
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.033 0.022 61 31 0.923 0.644 0.000 0.077

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 575
 Table B.22—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.034 0.023 61 31 0.975 0.678 0.000 0.079
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.520 0.032 785 409 1.779 0.061 0.457 0.584
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.274 0.061 391 203 2.680 0.223 0.152 0.396
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.230 0.045 217 116 1.565 0.197 0.139 0.321
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.545 0.030 742 385 1.612 0.054 0.486 0.604
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.017 0.006 785 409 1.221 0.329 0.006 0.029
Mobile phone ownership 0.878 0.020 785 409 1.677 0.022 0.838 0.917
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.539 0.034 785 409 1.918 0.063 0.471 0.607
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.557 0.029 610 317 1.444 0.052 0.498 0.615
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.160 0.018 785 409 1.371 0.112 0.124 0.196
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.702 0.029 610 317 1.571 0.042 0.643 0.760
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.129 0.023 300 147 1.207 0.182 0.082 0.176
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.075 0.021 300 147 1.371 0.278 0.033 0.117
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.010 0.007 300 147 1.126 0.633 0.000 0.024
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.151 0.031 271 127 1.425 0.206 0.089 0.213
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.088 0.027 271 127 1.573 0.308 0.034 0.143
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.060 0.031 259 123 2.090 0.517 0.000 0.123
Secondary education or higher 0.525 0.042 259 123 1.364 0.081 0.440 0.610
Literacy 0.925 0.020 259 123 1.239 0.022 0.885 0.966
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.739 0.034 259 123 1.232 0.046 0.672 0.807
Current tobacco use 0.488 0.036 259 123 1.169 0.075 0.415 0.560
Want no more children 0.784 0.030 170 81 0.940 0.038 0.725 0.844
Ideal number of children 2.133 0.047 259 123 1.183 0.022 2.039 2.227
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.358 0.039 253 120 1.303 0.110 0.279 0.437
Condom use at last sex 0.825 0.079 33 16 1.174 0.096 0.666 0.984
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.032 0.010 259 123 0.881 0.303 0.013 0.051
Mobile phone ownership 0.950 0.014 259 123 1.047 0.015 0.922 0.978
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.514 0.042 259 123 1.362 0.083 0.429 0.599
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.154 0.031 259 123 1.391 0.203 0.092 0.217
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

576 • Appendix B
Table B.23 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.806 0.023 364 452 1.024 0.029 0.759 0.853
At least basic drinking water service 0.963 0.020 4,078 5,156 2.849 0.020 0.924 1.000
Water available when needed 0.921 0.019 4,078 5,156 2.120 0.021 0.883 0.958
At least basic sanitation service 0.767 0.028 4,078 5,156 1.974 0.037 0.710 0.823
Using open defecation 0.051 0.024 4,078 5,156 2.817 0.457 0.004 0.098
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.839 0.044 1,480 1,953 2.012 0.052 0.751 0.927
WOMEN
No education 0.170 0.019 1,214 1,553 1.768 0.112 0.132 0.208
Secondary education or higher 0.470 0.034 1,214 1,553 2.373 0.072 0.402 0.538
Literacy 0.841 0.022 1,214 1,553 2.101 0.026 0.797 0.885
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.743 0.027 1,214 1,553 2.148 0.036 0.689 0.797
Current tobacco use 0.063 0.007 1,214 1,553 1.057 0.118 0.048 0.077
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.756 0.134 3,456 4,417 1.310 0.076 1.488 2.025
Currently pregnant 0.033 0.005 1,214 1,553 0.987 0.154 0.023 0.043
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 2.904 0.142 228 295 1.445 0.049 2.619 3.189
Median birth interval 48.037 4.172 204 253 1.385 0.087 39.692 56.381
Want no more children 0.689 0.016 876 1,119 1.052 0.024 0.656 0.722
Ideal number of children 1.950 0.043 1,213 1,551 2.213 0.022 1.865 2.035
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.405 0.112 3,456 4,417 1.230 0.080 1.181 1.629
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.574 0.028 876 1,119 1.653 0.048 0.518 0.629
Currently using any modern method 0.405 0.026 876 1,119 1.577 0.065 0.352 0.457
Currently using female sterilization 0.114 0.021 876 1,119 1.925 0.181 0.073 0.156
Currently using male sterilization 0.014 0.005 876 1,119 1.148 0.326 0.005 0.023
Currently using pill 0.059 0.009 876 1,119 1.120 0.151 0.041 0.077
Currently using injectables 0.076 0.011 876 1,119 1.209 0.143 0.054 0.098
Currently using implants 0.051 0.010 876 1,119 1.374 0.201 0.030 0.071
Currently using male condoms 0.067 0.010 876 1,119 1.160 0.146 0.047 0.087
Currently using any traditional method 0.169 0.022 876 1,119 1.757 0.132 0.124 0.213
Unmet need for spacing 0.072 0.011 876 1,119 1.262 0.153 0.050 0.094
Unmet need for limiting 0.158 0.020 876 1,119 1.597 0.125 0.118 0.197
Unmet need total 0.230 0.024 876 1,119 1.698 0.105 0.181 0.278
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.504 0.029 702 899 1.540 0.058 0.446 0.562
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.920 0.013 876 1,119 1.402 0.014 0.895 0.946
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.217 0.024 1,214 1,553 1.996 0.109 0.170 0.265
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 26.042 7.285 768 961 1.093 0.280 11.473 40.612
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.663 3.047 767 960 0.909 0.352 2.569 14.757
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 34.705 7.007 768 961 0.923 0.202 20.690 48.720
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 5.177 2.483 771 963 0.917 0.480 0.211 10.142
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 39.702 6.827 770 963 0.866 0.172 26.049 53.356
Perinatal mortality rate 26.839 9.038 382 474 1.091 0.337 8.763 44.915
Stillbirth rate 18.402 7.401 382 474 1.070 0.402 3.599 33.204
Early neonatal death rate 8.576 6.308 376 466 1.311 0.736 0.000 21.193
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.960 0.021 147 185 1.282 0.022 0.918 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.865 0.029 147 185 1.036 0.034 0.806 0.923
8+ ANC visits 0.029 0.013 147 185 0.930 0.444 0.003 0.055
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.968 0.016 147 185 1.065 0.016 0.936 0.999
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.964 0.021 147 185 1.330 0.021 0.923 1.000
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.837 0.045 149 187 1.473 0.054 0.746 0.927
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.850 0.045 149 187 1.510 0.053 0.760 0.939
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.165 0.035 149 187 1.130 0.210 0.096 0.235
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.775 0.041 147 185 1.184 0.053 0.693 0.857
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.731 0.043 147 185 1.162 0.058 0.646 0.817
Any problem accessing health care 0.543 0.041 1,214 1,553 2.847 0.075 0.462 0.625
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 76 96 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.962 0.021 76 96 0.931 0.021 0.920 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.879 0.044 76 96 1.159 0.050 0.792 0.966
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.906 0.028 76 96 0.845 0.031 0.849 0.963
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.928 0.025 76 96 0.852 0.027 0.877 0.979
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.568 0.054 76 96 0.948 0.095 0.460 0.676
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.522 0.094 38 45 1.088 0.180 0.335 0.710
Treated with ORS 0.339 0.092 38 45 1.182 0.271 0.155 0.523
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.029 0.019 181 224 1.514 0.655 0.000 0.068
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.189 0.038 181 224 1.339 0.202 0.113 0.265
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.178 0.039 179 221 1.276 0.221 0.099 0.257
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 179 221 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.200 0.044 181 224 1.426 0.221 0.112 0.289
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.356 0.098 33 41 1.155 0.276 0.159 0.552
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.533 0.063 113 142 1.322 0.117 0.408 0.658
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.498 0.053 161 198 1.271 0.106 0.392 0.604
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.108 0.018 467 599 1.268 0.169 0.072 0.144
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.377 0.037 467 599 1.659 0.099 0.302 0.451
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.105 0.038 93 115 1.173 0.361 0.029 0.181

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 577
 Table B.23—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.072 0.035 93 115 1.275 0.484 0.002 0.141
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.567 0.036 1,214 1,553 2.515 0.063 0.495 0.639
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.460 0.035 589 749 1.712 0.077 0.389 0.530
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.247 0.028 365 452 1.180 0.113 0.191 0.303
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.467 0.028 1,093 1,401 1.850 0.060 0.411 0.523
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.033 0.005 1,214 1,553 0.983 0.152 0.023 0.044
Mobile phone ownership 0.837 0.027 1,214 1,553 2.546 0.032 0.783 0.891
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.572 0.038 1,214 1,553 2.638 0.066 0.497 0.647
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.448 0.030 876 1,119 1.791 0.067 0.388 0.508
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.204 0.020 1,214 1,553 1.760 0.100 0.163 0.244
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.664 0.026 876 1,119 1.645 0.040 0.612 0.717
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.205 0.025 418 555 1.275 0.123 0.154 0.255
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.059 0.013 418 555 1.092 0.213 0.034 0.085
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.013 0.005 418 555 0.995 0.432 0.002 0.023
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.231 0.026 353 423 1.155 0.112 0.179 0.283
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.146 0.020 353 423 1.082 0.139 0.105 0.187
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.044 0.016 386 468 1.517 0.361 0.012 0.076
Secondary education or higher 0.555 0.046 386 468 1.822 0.083 0.462 0.647
Literacy 0.938 0.017 386 468 1.393 0.018 0.904 0.972
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.793 0.035 386 468 1.689 0.044 0.723 0.863
Current tobacco use 0.536 0.038 386 468 1.494 0.071 0.460 0.612
Want no more children 0.594 0.032 255 310 1.053 0.055 0.529 0.659
Ideal number of children 2.165 0.058 386 468 1.342 0.027 2.049 2.282
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.368 0.041 374 455 1.646 0.112 0.285 0.450
Condom use at last sex 0.663 0.083 34 42 1.004 0.124 0.498 0.828
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.023 0.008 386 468 1.022 0.336 0.008 0.039
Mobile phone ownership 0.934 0.014 386 468 1.099 0.015 0.906 0.962
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.568 0.039 386 468 1.554 0.069 0.490 0.647
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.217 0.030 386 468 1.412 0.137 0.158 0.277
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

578 • Appendix B
Table B.24 Sampling errors: Lumbini Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.735 0.031 387 428 1.197 0.042 0.673 0.797
At least basic drinking water service 0.932 0.034 3,950 4,306 3.697 0.037 0.864 1.000
Water available when needed 0.933 0.015 3,950 4,306 1.806 0.016 0.904 0.963
At least basic sanitation service 0.751 0.027 3,950 4,306 1.831 0.036 0.697 0.806
Using open defecation 0.075 0.022 3,950 4,306 2.275 0.293 0.031 0.120
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.623 0.057 805 907 1.412 0.092 0.508 0.737
WOMEN
No education 0.295 0.026 1,052 1,138 1.879 0.090 0.242 0.348
Secondary education or higher 0.330 0.026 1,052 1,138 1.780 0.078 0.278 0.382
Literacy 0.714 0.032 1,052 1,138 2.289 0.045 0.650 0.778
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.575 0.033 1,052 1,138 2.175 0.058 0.508 0.641
Current tobacco use 0.097 0.024 1,052 1,138 2.654 0.251 0.048 0.145
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.209 0.193 2,997 3,240 1.236 0.087 1.823 2.594
Currently pregnant 0.038 0.006 1,052 1,138 1.086 0.168 0.025 0.051
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.548 0.134 207 220 1.366 0.038 3.280 3.817
Median birth interval 41.615 2.693 214 241 1.261 0.065 36.230 47.000
Want no more children 0.731 0.016 833 900 1.053 0.022 0.699 0.763
Ideal number of children 2.052 0.050 1,051 1,136 2.235 0.024 1.953 2.151
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.739 0.130 2,997 3,240 1.024 0.075 1.480 1.999
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.555 0.029 833 900 1.673 0.052 0.498 0.613
Currently using any modern method 0.461 0.030 833 900 1.720 0.065 0.402 0.521
Currently using female sterilization 0.146 0.024 833 900 1.965 0.165 0.098 0.194
Currently using male sterilization 0.018 0.007 833 900 1.418 0.362 0.005 0.031
Currently using pill 0.049 0.008 833 900 1.021 0.155 0.034 0.065
Currently using injectables 0.090 0.015 833 900 1.491 0.165 0.060 0.119
Currently using implants 0.096 0.015 833 900 1.510 0.161 0.065 0.127
Currently using male condoms 0.048 0.008 833 900 1.085 0.168 0.032 0.064
Currently using any traditional method 0.094 0.012 833 900 1.209 0.130 0.070 0.119
Unmet need for spacing 0.062 0.008 833 900 0.995 0.134 0.046 0.079
Unmet need for limiting 0.172 0.019 833 900 1.456 0.111 0.134 0.210
Unmet need total 0.235 0.020 833 900 1.378 0.086 0.194 0.275
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.584 0.029 660 711 1.519 0.050 0.525 0.642
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.915 0.012 833 900 1.276 0.013 0.890 0.940
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.341 0.027 1,052 1,138 1.840 0.079 0.287 0.395
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 21.148 5.111 777 853 0.965 0.242 10.927 31.369
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 11.953 3.741 778 854 0.976 0.313 4.471 19.436
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 33.101 6.487 777 853 0.960 0.196 20.128 46.074
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 10.360 4.169 788 866 1.170 0.402 2.022 18.698
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 43.118 6.235 779 856 0.804 0.145 30.648 55.588
Perinatal mortality rate 37.627 8.182 390 430 0.873 0.217 21.263 53.991
Stillbirth rate 23.249 7.158 390 430 0.953 0.308 8.933 37.566
Early neonatal death rate 14.720 5.972 381 420 0.988 0.406 2.777 26.664
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.978 0.017 131 145 1.304 0.017 0.944 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.875 0.033 131 145 1.122 0.037 0.810 0.940
8+ ANC visits 0.037 0.015 131 145 0.909 0.407 0.007 0.067
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.976 0.013 131 145 1.010 0.014 0.950 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.948 0.019 131 145 0.972 0.020 0.911 0.986
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.854 0.043 134 148 1.343 0.050 0.768 0.939
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.893 0.032 134 148 1.199 0.035 0.830 0.957
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.100 0.025 134 148 0.972 0.250 0.050 0.149
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.770 0.038 131 145 1.019 0.049 0.694 0.845
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.776 0.035 131 145 0.969 0.046 0.705 0.847
Any problem accessing health care 0.684 0.034 1,052 1,138 2.378 0.050 0.615 0.752
Ever had vaccination card 0.972 0.027 68 76 1.374 0.028 0.918 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.972 0.027 68 76 1.374 0.028 0.918 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.944 0.031 68 76 1.117 0.033 0.882 1.000
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.861 0.053 68 76 1.284 0.062 0.755 0.967
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.921 0.044 68 76 1.352 0.047 0.834 1.000
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.586 0.086 68 76 1.462 0.147 0.414 0.758
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.797 0.068 36 39 1.027 0.086 0.660 0.934
Treated with ORS 0.404 0.086 36 39 1.063 0.214 0.231 0.576
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.121 0.024 189 211 1.043 0.194 0.074 0.169
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.318 0.040 189 211 1.185 0.127 0.237 0.399
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.145 0.030 188 210 1.121 0.207 0.085 0.204
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.006 0.006 188 210 1.125 0.998 0.000 0.019
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.269 0.040 189 211 1.255 0.150 0.188 0.349
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.372 0.098 30 32 1.084 0.262 0.177 0.567
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.509 0.053 100 111 1.064 0.105 0.402 0.616
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.480 0.044 173 194 1.223 0.092 0.391 0.569
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.131 0.020 432 462 1.235 0.154 0.091 0.172
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.255 0.028 432 462 1.314 0.109 0.199 0.310
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.036 0.019 78 84 0.900 0.531 0.000 0.074

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 579
 Table B.24—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.062 0.032 78 84 1.157 0.514 0.000 0.125
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.454 0.033 1,052 1,138 2.175 0.074 0.387 0.521
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.424 0.043 531 569 2.011 0.102 0.337 0.510
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.211 0.030 372 410 1.408 0.141 0.152 0.271
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.567 0.026 842 894 1.532 0.046 0.515 0.619
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.025 0.005 1,052 1,138 1.069 0.207 0.014 0.035
Mobile phone ownership 0.748 0.032 1,052 1,138 2.401 0.043 0.684 0.813
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.459 0.026 1,052 1,138 1.666 0.056 0.408 0.510
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.473 0.022 833 900 1.272 0.047 0.429 0.517
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.224 0.024 1,052 1,138 1.855 0.107 0.176 0.271
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.653 0.034 833 900 2.038 0.052 0.585 0.720
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.275 0.036 359 392 1.537 0.132 0.202 0.348
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.069 0.014 359 392 1.075 0.209 0.040 0.098
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.011 0.005 359 392 0.863 0.435 0.001 0.020
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.283 0.038 317 331 1.513 0.136 0.206 0.360
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.175 0.042 317 331 1.946 0.239 0.091 0.259
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.103 0.031 332 344 1.845 0.300 0.041 0.165
Secondary education or higher 0.414 0.037 332 344 1.360 0.089 0.340 0.488
Literacy 0.861 0.035 332 344 1.809 0.040 0.792 0.930
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.682 0.034 332 344 1.313 0.049 0.614 0.749
Current tobacco use 0.548 0.038 332 344 1.390 0.069 0.472 0.624
Want no more children 0.698 0.038 232 241 1.261 0.055 0.622 0.775
Ideal number of children 2.242 0.055 332 344 1.454 0.024 2.132 2.351
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.513 0.049 323 334 1.752 0.095 0.415 0.611
Condom use at last sex 0.666 0.062 41 42 0.831 0.093 0.542 0.789
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.012 0.005 332 344 0.910 0.460 0.001 0.022
Mobile phone ownership 0.918 0.018 332 344 1.164 0.019 0.883 0.953
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.487 0.028 332 344 1.016 0.057 0.431 0.543
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.239 0.027 332 344 1.137 0.111 0.186 0.293
justified in wife beating

580 • Appendix B
Table B.25 Sampling errors: Karnali Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.847 0.030 359 186 1.429 0.036 0.787 0.908
At least basic drinking water service 0.962 0.013 3,387 1,755 1.888 0.014 0.936 0.988
Water available when needed 0.750 0.035 3,387 1,755 2.180 0.047 0.680 0.820
At least basic sanitation service 0.725 0.031 3,387 1,755 1.911 0.042 0.664 0.786
Using open defecation 0.021 0.006 3,387 1,755 1.078 0.263 0.010 0.033
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.535 0.093 776 466 2.401 0.173 0.349 0.720
WOMEN
No education 0.226 0.022 968 507 1.654 0.098 0.182 0.271
Secondary education or higher 0.447 0.033 968 507 2.067 0.074 0.381 0.513
Literacy 0.785 0.029 968 507 2.157 0.036 0.728 0.842
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.498 0.047 968 507 2.934 0.095 0.403 0.593
Current tobacco use 0.082 0.012 968 507 1.410 0.152 0.057 0.107
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.064 0.201 2,689 1,413 1.445 0.098 1.661 2.466
Currently pregnant 0.051 0.006 968 507 0.880 0.122 0.039 0.063
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.870 0.210 177 90 1.527 0.054 3.451 4.290
Median birth interval 41.275 3.235 211 105 1.235 0.078 34.805 47.745
Want no more children 0.726 0.020 731 381 1.201 0.027 0.686 0.765
Ideal number of children 2.056 0.037 968 507 1.515 0.018 1.983 2.129
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.463 0.138 2,689 1,413 1.252 0.094 1.187 1.740
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.562 0.021 731 381 1.153 0.038 0.519 0.604
Currently using any modern method 0.450 0.020 731 381 1.083 0.044 0.410 0.490
Currently using female sterilization 0.040 0.008 731 381 1.117 0.203 0.024 0.056
Currently using male sterilization 0.118 0.020 731 381 1.663 0.169 0.078 0.158
Currently using pill 0.048 0.011 731 381 1.367 0.226 0.026 0.069
Currently using injectables 0.121 0.014 731 381 1.162 0.116 0.093 0.149
Currently using implants 0.077 0.016 731 381 1.632 0.209 0.045 0.110
Currently using male condoms 0.032 0.009 731 381 1.390 0.281 0.014 0.051
Currently using any traditional method 0.111 0.018 731 381 1.572 0.164 0.075 0.148
Unmet need for spacing 0.081 0.013 731 381 1.316 0.164 0.055 0.108
Unmet need for limiting 0.137 0.015 731 381 1.144 0.107 0.107 0.166
Unmet need total 0.218 0.018 731 381 1.152 0.081 0.183 0.253
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.577 0.020 573 297 0.978 0.035 0.537 0.618
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.900 0.012 731 381 1.054 0.013 0.877 0.923
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.297 0.024 968 507 1.606 0.080 0.250 0.344
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 20.499 6.413 730 367 1.105 0.313 7.673 33.324
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 4.500 2.146 731 368 0.848 0.477 0.208 8.791
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 24.998 7.622 731 368 1.161 0.305 9.753 40.243
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 7.629 3.919 734 371 1.269 0.514 0.000 15.467
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 32.436 8.360 731 368 1.191 0.258 15.716 49.157
Perinatal mortality rate 11.678 5.702 362 183 1.001 0.488 0.274 23.082
Stillbirth rate 4.549 3.234 362 183 0.898 0.711 0.000 11.017
Early neonatal death rate 7.162 4.045 360 182 0.901 0.565 0.000 15.253
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.880 0.030 146 73 1.099 0.034 0.821 0.939
4+ ANC visits 0.745 0.034 146 73 0.950 0.046 0.676 0.813
8+ ANC visits 0.024 0.017 146 73 1.285 0.675 0.000 0.058
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.933 0.025 146 73 1.197 0.027 0.883 0.983
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.921 0.025 146 73 1.105 0.027 0.871 0.970
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.758 0.040 149 75 1.133 0.053 0.677 0.838
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.761 0.040 149 75 1.128 0.053 0.681 0.841
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.058 0.025 149 75 1.278 0.432 0.008 0.108
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.633 0.059 146 73 1.458 0.093 0.516 0.750
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.684 0.058 146 73 1.489 0.084 0.569 0.800
Any problem accessing health care 0.787 0.030 968 507 2.299 0.039 0.726 0.848
Ever had vaccination card 0.946 0.025 76 39 0.968 0.027 0.896 0.997
Received BCG vaccination 0.929 0.034 76 39 1.129 0.036 0.862 0.996
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.896 0.042 76 39 1.187 0.047 0.812 0.980
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.838 0.046 76 39 1.073 0.055 0.746 0.929
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.929 0.034 76 39 1.129 0.036 0.862 0.996
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.600 0.062 76 39 1.096 0.104 0.476 0.725
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.543 0.102 41 22 1.296 0.188 0.338 0.747
Treated with ORS 0.470 0.093 41 22 1.171 0.198 0.284 0.656
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.056 0.022 189 96 1.133 0.400 0.011 0.100
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.266 0.036 189 96 1.035 0.135 0.194 0.337
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.029 0.011 189 96 0.892 0.379 0.007 0.051
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.010 0.007 189 96 0.951 0.718 0.000 0.024
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.148 0.033 189 96 1.187 0.226 0.081 0.214
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.745 0.080 42 20 1.170 0.107 0.585 0.905
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.642 0.055 104 53 1.158 0.085 0.533 0.752
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.380 0.039 169 86 1.092 0.103 0.301 0.458
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.092 0.021 343 182 1.367 0.231 0.049 0.134
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.322 0.038 343 182 1.498 0.117 0.247 0.398
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.029 0.016 99 51 0.975 0.573 0.000 0.062

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 581
 Table B.25—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.053 0.024 99 51 1.046 0.449 0.005 0.100
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.504 0.034 968 507 2.127 0.068 0.435 0.572
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.218 0.026 471 249 1.349 0.118 0.167 0.269
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.293 0.022 351 178 0.851 0.076 0.249 0.338
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.583 0.035 868 455 2.069 0.060 0.513 0.652
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.037 0.008 968 507 1.403 0.232 0.020 0.054
Mobile phone ownership 0.832 0.018 968 507 1.488 0.022 0.796 0.868
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.430 0.038 968 507 2.375 0.088 0.354 0.506
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.530 0.033 731 381 1.804 0.063 0.463 0.597
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.270 0.018 968 507 1.271 0.067 0.234 0.306
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.661 0.024 731 381 1.394 0.037 0.612 0.710
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.182 0.023 337 182 1.098 0.127 0.136 0.228
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.087 0.020 337 182 1.312 0.232 0.047 0.128
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.005 0.004 337 182 0.947 0.726 0.000 0.012
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.211 0.025 297 157 1.033 0.116 0.162 0.260
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.171 0.028 297 157 1.297 0.166 0.114 0.227
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.032 0.010 306 154 1.003 0.317 0.012 0.052
Secondary education or higher 0.637 0.044 306 154 1.605 0.070 0.548 0.726
Literacy 0.966 0.010 306 154 0.976 0.011 0.946 0.986
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.723 0.045 306 154 1.738 0.062 0.633 0.812
Current tobacco use 0.411 0.035 306 154 1.236 0.085 0.341 0.480
Want no more children 0.681 0.040 211 103 1.236 0.058 0.602 0.761
Ideal number of children 2.202 0.035 306 154 0.906 0.016 2.131 2.273
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.387 0.047 304 152 1.685 0.122 0.293 0.482
Condom use at last sex 0.699 0.113 28 15 1.271 0.162 0.472 0.926
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.011 0.006 306 154 1.026 0.556 0.000 0.023
Mobile phone ownership 0.926 0.016 306 154 1.048 0.017 0.895 0.958
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.575 0.055 306 154 1.921 0.095 0.466 0.685
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.238 0.029 306 154 1.184 0.121 0.180 0.296
justified in wife beating

582 • Appendix B
Table B.26 Sampling errors: Karnali Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.923 0.017 497 201 1.372 0.019 0.889 0.957
At least basic drinking water service 0.934 0.021 3,914 1,579 2.230 0.022 0.893 0.975
Water available when needed 0.737 0.029 3,914 1,579 1.779 0.039 0.679 0.795
At least basic sanitation service 0.757 0.022 3,914 1,579 1.449 0.029 0.714 0.801
Using open defecation 0.058 0.014 3,914 1,579 1.627 0.237 0.030 0.085
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.205 0.060 918 390 1.904 0.292 0.085 0.324
WOMEN
No education 0.351 0.026 1,010 402 1.754 0.075 0.299 0.404
Secondary education or higher 0.359 0.029 1,010 402 1.946 0.082 0.300 0.418
Literacy 0.666 0.031 1,010 402 2.098 0.047 0.604 0.728
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.327 0.038 1,010 402 2.536 0.115 0.252 0.402
Current tobacco use 0.138 0.018 1,010 402 1.621 0.128 0.103 0.173
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 3.233 0.233 2,767 1,102 1.414 0.072 2.768 3.698
Currently pregnant 0.052 0.005 1,010 402 0.771 0.104 0.041 0.062
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 4.866 0.205 189 74 1.444 0.042 4.456 5.276
Median birth interval 38.824 1.973 328 132 1.371 0.051 34.879 42.769
Want no more children 0.736 0.015 775 310 0.934 0.020 0.707 0.766
Ideal number of children 2.243 0.049 1,004 400 1.880 0.022 2.146 2.341
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.171 0.143 2,767 1,102 1.160 0.066 1.885 2.457
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.541 0.022 775 310 1.208 0.040 0.498 0.585
Currently using any modern method 0.471 0.027 775 310 1.498 0.057 0.417 0.525
Currently using female sterilization 0.029 0.008 775 310 1.251 0.262 0.014 0.044
Currently using male sterilization 0.081 0.013 775 310 1.360 0.165 0.054 0.108
Currently using pill 0.033 0.006 775 310 0.895 0.173 0.022 0.045
Currently using injectables 0.193 0.024 775 310 1.656 0.122 0.146 0.240
Currently using implants 0.088 0.017 775 310 1.657 0.192 0.054 0.122
Currently using male condoms 0.034 0.010 775 310 1.512 0.290 0.014 0.054
Currently using any traditional method 0.070 0.014 775 310 1.470 0.192 0.043 0.098
Unmet need for spacing 0.087 0.011 775 310 1.049 0.122 0.066 0.109
Unmet need for limiting 0.161 0.018 775 310 1.332 0.109 0.126 0.196
Unmet need total 0.248 0.021 775 310 1.360 0.085 0.206 0.291
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.596 0.032 611 245 1.616 0.054 0.532 0.660
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.903 0.013 775 310 1.188 0.014 0.878 0.928
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.372 0.022 1,010 402 1.440 0.059 0.328 0.416
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 30.767 5.214 967 389 0.926 0.169 20.338 41.195
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 16.165 5.708 973 392 1.260 0.353 4.748 27.581
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 46.931 8.392 967 389 1.200 0.179 30.148 63.714
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 12.234 5.706 977 394 1.637 0.466 0.821 23.646
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 58.591 12.716 970 390 1.556 0.217 33.158 84.024
Perinatal mortality rate 35.405 7.321 505 202 0.759 0.207 20.763 50.048
Stillbirth rate 17.865 6.054 505 202 0.870 0.339 5.756 29.974
Early neonatal death rate 17.859 4.891 496 199 0.835 0.274 8.078 27.641
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.940 0.019 188 76 1.097 0.020 0.902 0.978
4+ ANC visits 0.836 0.037 188 76 1.370 0.044 0.762 0.910
8+ ANC visits 0.010 0.007 188 76 0.963 0.709 0.000 0.024
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.974 0.012 188 76 1.023 0.012 0.950 0.998
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.916 0.017 188 76 0.824 0.018 0.882 0.949
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.691 0.067 192 78 2.020 0.097 0.557 0.826
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.684 0.065 192 78 1.935 0.095 0.554 0.813
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.025 0.011 192 78 1.014 0.458 0.002 0.047
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.527 0.052 188 76 1.431 0.099 0.422 0.632
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.530 0.047 188 76 1.283 0.088 0.436 0.624
Any problem accessing health care 0.875 0.025 1,010 402 2.397 0.029 0.825 0.925
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 97 40 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 1.000 0.000 97 40 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.945 0.023 97 40 1.029 0.025 0.898 0.992
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.841 0.043 97 40 1.180 0.051 0.755 0.926
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.909 0.035 97 40 1.227 0.039 0.838 0.979
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.517 0.045 97 40 0.887 0.086 0.427 0.606
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.592 0.087 46 17 1.148 0.147 0.419 0.766
Treated with ORS 0.628 0.068 46 17 0.920 0.109 0.491 0.764
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.115 0.024 243 98 1.092 0.206 0.068 0.163
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.449 0.036 243 98 1.113 0.080 0.377 0.520
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.047 0.013 243 98 1.004 0.288 0.020 0.074
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.004 0.004 243 98 1.019 1.008 0.000 0.012
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.205 0.034 243 98 1.229 0.168 0.136 0.274
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.727 0.084 36 14 1.117 0.116 0.559 0.896
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.371 0.048 147 60 1.198 0.129 0.275 0.467
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.412 0.040 228 93 1.276 0.098 0.332 0.493
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.112 0.019 345 139 1.128 0.170 0.074 0.150
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.124 0.026 345 139 1.496 0.213 0.072 0.177
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.015 0.010 124 49 0.946 0.704 0.000 0.035

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 583
 Table B.26—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.015 0.011 124 49 0.995 0.728 0.000 0.037
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.345 0.039 1,010 402 2.577 0.112 0.268 0.422
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.205 0.021 502 201 1.182 0.104 0.162 0.248
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.268 0.021 480 193 1.007 0.079 0.226 0.310
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.695 0.026 791 313 1.591 0.038 0.643 0.747
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.010 0.003 1,010 402 1.007 0.312 0.004 0.017
Mobile phone ownership 0.794 0.019 1,010 402 1.468 0.024 0.757 0.832
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.312 0.032 1,010 402 2.171 0.102 0.248 0.375
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.497 0.029 775 310 1.617 0.059 0.438 0.555
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.234 0.018 1,010 402 1.335 0.076 0.199 0.270
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.618 0.025 775 310 1.426 0.040 0.568 0.667
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.149 0.020 364 141 1.077 0.135 0.109 0.189
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.105 0.018 364 141 1.098 0.168 0.070 0.140
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.014 0.008 364 141 1.374 0.612 0.000 0.031
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.177 0.025 318 115 1.152 0.140 0.127 0.226
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.157 0.023 318 115 1.129 0.147 0.111 0.203
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.078 0.026 298 113 1.648 0.330 0.026 0.129
Secondary education or higher 0.483 0.042 298 113 1.461 0.088 0.398 0.568
Literacy 0.886 0.027 298 113 1.458 0.030 0.832 0.940
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.564 0.045 298 113 1.544 0.079 0.475 0.653
Current tobacco use 0.477 0.037 298 113 1.287 0.078 0.402 0.551
Want no more children 0.702 0.033 214 82 1.040 0.046 0.636 0.767
Ideal number of children 2.356 0.059 298 113 1.307 0.025 2.238 2.474
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.574 0.034 283 107 1.160 0.059 0.506 0.643
Condom use at last sex 0.860 0.097 24 10 1.315 0.112 0.667 1.000
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.015 0.009 298 113 1.284 0.610 0.000 0.033
Mobile phone ownership 0.915 0.017 298 113 1.061 0.019 0.881 0.949
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.434 0.039 298 113 1.341 0.089 0.356 0.511
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.263 0.036 298 113 1.390 0.135 0.192 0.334
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

584 • Appendix B
Table B.27 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province urban sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.810 0.035 367 269 1.567 0.043 0.739 0.880
At least basic drinking water service 0.972 0.017 3,820 2,794 2.993 0.017 0.938 1.000
Water available when needed 0.903 0.014 3,820 2,794 1.306 0.015 0.876 0.931
At least basic sanitation service 0.727 0.029 3,820 2,794 1.894 0.040 0.668 0.786
Using open defecation 0.020 0.008 3,820 2,794 1.654 0.391 0.004 0.035
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.646 0.089 543 383 1.983 0.138 0.467 0.825
WOMEN
No education 0.275 0.020 1,109 796 1.487 0.073 0.235 0.315
Secondary education or higher 0.452 0.031 1,109 796 2.067 0.068 0.390 0.514
Literacy 0.767 0.020 1,109 796 1.594 0.026 0.726 0.807
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.568 0.036 1,109 796 2.426 0.064 0.496 0.640
Current tobacco use 0.076 0.011 1,109 796 1.353 0.142 0.054 0.097
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.224 0.174 3,122 2,241 1.302 0.078 1.876 2.572
Currently pregnant 0.034 0.007 1,109 796 1.226 0.195 0.021 0.048
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 3.518 0.153 216 157 1.506 0.043 3.212 3.823
Median birth interval 39.077 3.431 203 146 1.559 0.088 32.215 45.939
Want no more children 0.748 0.017 826 591 1.096 0.022 0.715 0.781
Ideal number of children 1.936 0.025 1,103 791 1.332 0.013 1.887 1.986
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.783 0.133 3,122 2,241 1.139 0.075 1.517 2.050
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.590 0.022 826 591 1.286 0.037 0.546 0.634
Currently using any modern method 0.465 0.023 826 591 1.343 0.050 0.418 0.512
Currently using female sterilization 0.152 0.021 826 591 1.674 0.138 0.110 0.194
Currently using male sterilization 0.053 0.018 826 591 2.260 0.333 0.018 0.088
Currently using pill 0.032 0.007 826 591 1.100 0.211 0.018 0.045
Currently using injectables 0.099 0.013 826 591 1.285 0.135 0.073 0.126
Currently using implants 0.050 0.009 826 591 1.187 0.180 0.032 0.068
Currently using male condoms 0.060 0.009 826 591 1.115 0.153 0.042 0.079
Currently using any traditional method 0.125 0.016 826 591 1.418 0.131 0.092 0.157
Unmet need for spacing 0.079 0.009 826 591 0.998 0.119 0.060 0.098
Unmet need for limiting 0.146 0.017 826 591 1.343 0.113 0.113 0.179
Unmet need total 0.225 0.018 826 591 1.234 0.080 0.189 0.261
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.571 0.026 668 482 1.341 0.045 0.520 0.622
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.913 0.013 826 591 1.343 0.014 0.886 0.939
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.255 0.018 1,109 796 1.398 0.072 0.218 0.291
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 20.165 5.800 763 547 1.064 0.288 8.565 31.764
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 6.793 3.208 758 544 1.063 0.472 0.377 13.209
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 26.957 6.043 763 547 0.945 0.224 14.872 39.042
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 9.294 3.124 758 546 0.913 0.336 3.047 15.542
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 36.001 7.143 765 548 0.944 0.198 21.715 50.288
Perinatal mortality rate 8.490 4.653 381 273 0.993 0.548 0.000 17.796
Stillbirth rate 2.204 2.145 381 273 0.894 0.973 0.000 6.495
Early neonatal death rate 6.282 4.325 381 274 1.073 0.689 0.000 14.933
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.942 0.027 163 117 1.457 0.028 0.889 0.996
4+ ANC visits 0.878 0.030 163 117 1.171 0.034 0.818 0.939
8+ ANC visits 0.015 0.009 163 117 0.974 0.621 0.000 0.034
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.995 0.005 163 117 0.912 0.005 0.985 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.915 0.033 163 117 1.479 0.036 0.850 0.980
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.900 0.028 167 120 1.209 0.031 0.844 0.957
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.896 0.029 167 120 1.210 0.032 0.838 0.953
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.091 0.026 167 120 1.073 0.282 0.040 0.143
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.813 0.029 163 117 0.937 0.035 0.755 0.870
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.771 0.035 163 117 1.055 0.045 0.701 0.840
Any problem accessing health care 0.599 0.032 1,109 796 2.201 0.054 0.534 0.664
Ever had vaccination card 1.000 0.000 81 59 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 0.959 0.020 81 59 0.894 0.021 0.919 0.998
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.940 0.025 81 59 0.934 0.026 0.890 0.989
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.888 0.039 81 59 1.106 0.044 0.810 0.966
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.941 0.029 81 59 1.104 0.031 0.883 0.999
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.536 0.059 81 59 1.056 0.109 0.419 0.653
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.672 0.077 30 23 0.918 0.114 0.519 0.826
Treated with ORS 0.443 0.112 30 23 1.267 0.253 0.218 0.667
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.047 0.021 194 143 1.385 0.437 0.006 0.089
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.270 0.038 194 143 1.102 0.140 0.194 0.345
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.045 0.016 195 144 0.988 0.352 0.013 0.077
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.039 0.016 195 144 1.159 0.410 0.007 0.070
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.116 0.027 194 143 1.056 0.233 0.062 0.170
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.698 0.065 50 36 0.995 0.094 0.567 0.828
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.618 0.057 111 79 1.225 0.092 0.504 0.732
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.479 0.049 169 126 1.233 0.103 0.381 0.577
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.133 0.022 411 297 1.331 0.168 0.088 0.177
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.227 0.030 411 297 1.450 0.132 0.167 0.287
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.065 0.028 100 72 1.154 0.440 0.008 0.121

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 585
 Table B.27—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.030 0.017 100 72 0.976 0.555 0.000 0.063
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.488 0.038 1,109 796 2.500 0.077 0.413 0.564
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.259 0.032 539 387 1.704 0.125 0.194 0.323
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.250 0.023 373 267 1.004 0.093 0.203 0.296
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.535 0.030 1,044 748 1.961 0.057 0.474 0.595
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.032 0.007 1,109 796 1.364 0.224 0.018 0.047
Mobile phone ownership 0.752 0.018 1,109 796 1.395 0.024 0.715 0.788
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.451 0.033 1,109 796 2.210 0.073 0.384 0.517
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.433 0.026 826 591 1.502 0.060 0.381 0.485
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.196 0.016 1,109 796 1.312 0.080 0.164 0.227
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.670 0.021 826 591 1.285 0.031 0.628 0.712
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.169 0.029 367 286 1.461 0.170 0.111 0.226
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.044 0.013 367 286 1.189 0.289 0.019 0.070
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.008 0.005 367 286 1.078 0.636 0.000 0.018
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.193 0.034 308 229 1.509 0.176 0.125 0.262
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.154 0.029 308 229 1.391 0.186 0.097 0.212
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.072 0.021 326 233 1.432 0.286 0.031 0.113
Secondary education or higher 0.578 0.054 326 233 1.958 0.093 0.470 0.686
Literacy 0.929 0.021 326 233 1.502 0.023 0.886 0.972
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.748 0.035 326 233 1.469 0.047 0.677 0.819
Current tobacco use 0.432 0.037 326 233 1.344 0.086 0.358 0.506
Want no more children 0.660 0.039 194 138 1.130 0.058 0.583 0.738
Ideal number of children 2.056 0.040 326 233 1.135 0.019 1.976 2.136
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.386 0.045 318 228 1.654 0.118 0.295 0.476
Condom use at last sex 0.682 0.083 29 22 0.949 0.122 0.515 0.849
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.028 0.012 326 233 1.278 0.420 0.004 0.051
Mobile phone ownership 0.911 0.019 326 233 1.175 0.020 0.874 0.948
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.509 0.038 326 233 1.371 0.075 0.433 0.585
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.213 0.034 326 233 1.484 0.159 0.145 0.280
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

586 • Appendix B
Table B.28 Sampling errors: Sudurpashchim Province rural sample, Nepal DHS 2022
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
HOUSEHOLDS AND POPULATION

Births registered with civil authority 0.822 0.037 390 191 1.687 0.045 0.748 0.896
At least basic drinking water service 0.969 0.009 3,645 1,817 1.480 0.009 0.951 0.987
Water available when needed 0.883 0.018 3,645 1,817 1.510 0.021 0.847 0.920
At least basic sanitation service 0.681 0.033 3,645 1,817 1.935 0.048 0.615 0.747
Using open defecation 0.054 0.013 3,645 1,817 1.569 0.239 0.028 0.079
Using a handwashing facility with soap and water 0.231 0.051 515 250 1.252 0.222 0.128 0.334
WOMEN
No education 0.369 0.020 996 484 1.298 0.054 0.330 0.409
Secondary education or higher 0.340 0.024 996 484 1.585 0.070 0.293 0.388
Literacy 0.684 0.026 996 484 1.789 0.039 0.632 0.737
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.354 0.040 996 484 2.606 0.112 0.275 0.433
Current tobacco use 0.109 0.018 996 484 1.772 0.161 0.074 0.144
Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.339 0.157 2,765 1,345 1.290 0.067 2.025 2.653
Currently pregnant 0.045 0.007 996 484 1.086 0.159 0.031 0.059
Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 4.052 0.187 203 99 1.603 0.046 3.678 4.426
Median birth interval 36.868 2.515 255 121 1.769 0.068 31.838 41.898
Want no more children 0.731 0.015 757 369 0.959 0.021 0.701 0.762
Ideal number of children 2.045 0.032 993 482 1.657 0.016 1.981 2.109
Total wanted fertility rate (last 3 years) 1.770 0.115 2,765 1,345 1.138 0.065 1.540 2.001
Currently using any contraceptive method 0.580 0.033 757 369 1.813 0.056 0.514 0.645
Currently using any modern method 0.478 0.033 757 369 1.818 0.069 0.411 0.544
Currently using female sterilization 0.099 0.018 757 369 1.679 0.185 0.062 0.135
Currently using male sterilization 0.062 0.020 757 369 2.296 0.327 0.021 0.102
Currently using pill 0.044 0.011 757 369 1.492 0.254 0.022 0.066
Currently using injectables 0.095 0.012 757 369 1.143 0.129 0.070 0.119
Currently using implants 0.113 0.015 757 369 1.311 0.134 0.082 0.143
Currently using male condoms 0.059 0.013 757 369 1.534 0.224 0.032 0.085
Currently using any traditional method 0.102 0.018 757 369 1.672 0.181 0.065 0.139
Unmet need for spacing 0.062 0.009 757 369 0.981 0.139 0.045 0.079
Unmet need for limiting 0.151 0.024 757 369 1.837 0.159 0.103 0.198
Unmet need total 0.213 0.029 757 369 1.926 0.135 0.155 0.270
Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.603 0.039 599 292 1.966 0.065 0.524 0.681
Participation in decision making about family planning 0.908 0.014 757 369 1.334 0.015 0.880 0.936
Not exposed to any of the eight media sources 0.234 0.022 996 484 1.654 0.095 0.190 0.279
Neonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 37.491 6.581 816 391 0.941 0.176 24.329 50.654
Postneonatal mortality (last 0–9 years) 21.221 4.172 810 388 0.793 0.197 12.877 29.565
Infant mortality (last 0–9 years) 58.713 8.420 817 391 0.945 0.143 41.873 75.552
Child mortality (last 0–9 years) 8.431 2.880 815 389 0.926 0.342 2.670 14.192
Under-5 mortality (last 0–9 years) 66.649 8.276 817 391 0.904 0.124 50.098 83.200
Perinatal mortality rate 30.304 9.679 411 196 1.155 0.319 10.945 49.663
Stillbirth rate 7.867 4.213 411 196 0.964 0.536 0.000 16.293
Early neonatal death rate 22.670 8.905 407 194 1.210 0.393 4.861 40.480
Received ANC from a skilled provider 0.988 0.008 144 69 0.881 0.008 0.971 1.000
4+ ANC visits 0.936 0.019 144 69 0.919 0.020 0.899 0.974
8+ ANC visits 0.000 0.000 144 69 na na 0.000 0.000
Took any iron-containing supplements 0.985 0.009 144 69 0.942 0.010 0.966 1.000
Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.927 0.021 144 69 0.987 0.023 0.885 0.970
Delivered in a health facility (live births) 0.815 0.041 151 72 1.213 0.050 0.733 0.896
Delivered by a skilled provider (live births) 0.849 0.041 151 72 1.295 0.048 0.767 0.930
Delivered by C-section (live births) 0.042 0.015 151 72 0.922 0.362 0.012 0.073
Women with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.716 0.048 144 69 1.267 0.067 0.620 0.812
Newborns with postnatal check during first 2 days 0.767 0.043 144 69 1.212 0.056 0.681 0.853
Any problem accessing health care 0.721 0.028 996 484 1.996 0.039 0.664 0.778
Ever had vaccination card 0.984 0.015 60 28 0.898 0.015 0.954 1.000
Received BCG vaccination 1.000 0.000 60 28 na 0.000 1.000 1.000
Received DPT-HepB-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.955 0.023 60 28 0.834 0.024 0.909 1.000
Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.872 0.045 60 28 1.008 0.051 0.782 0.961
Received measles-rubella 1 vaccination 0.969 0.020 60 28 0.901 0.021 0.928 1.000
Fully vaccinated according to national schedule (12–23 0.548 0.077 60 28 1.165 0.141 0.393 0.703
months)
Sought treatment for diarrhea 0.563 0.078 36 17 0.891 0.138 0.408 0.718
Treated with ORS 0.413 0.085 36 17 0.997 0.206 0.243 0.583
Height-for-age (–3 SD) 0.054 0.018 185 91 0.890 0.335 0.018 0.091
Height-for-age (–2 SD) 0.307 0.039 185 91 1.095 0.126 0.230 0.385
Weight-for-height (–2 SD) 0.061 0.019 187 92 1.132 0.314 0.023 0.099
Weight-for-height (+2 SD) 0.000 0.000 187 92 na na 0.000 0.000
Weight-for-age (–2 SD) 0.176 0.026 185 91 0.882 0.150 0.123 0.228
Exclusive breastfeeding 0.811 0.060 42 20 0.976 0.074 0.691 0.930
Minimum dietary diversity (children 6–23 months) 0.441 0.065 96 46 1.280 0.148 0.310 0.572
Prevalence of anemia (children 6–59 months) (hemoglobin 0.414 0.044 159 78 1.145 0.107 0.325 0.502
<11.0 g/dl)
Body mass index (BMI) <18.5 0.180 0.019 374 183 0.963 0.106 0.142 0.218
Body mass index (BMI) ≥25.0 0.104 0.017 374 183 1.089 0.165 0.070 0.138
Body mass index-for-age (–2 SD) 0.047 0.022 100 48 1.009 0.460 0.004 0.090

(Continued…)

Appendix B • 587
 Table B.28—Continued
Number of cases Confidence limits
Standard Un- Design Relative
Value error weighted Weighted effect error
Variable (R) (SE) (N) (WN) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)
WOMEN
Body mass index-for-age (+1 SD) 0.000 0.000 100 48 na na 0.000 0.000
Minimum dietary diversity (women 15–49) 0.355 0.034 996 484 2.232 0.096 0.287 0.423
Prevalence of any anemia (women 15–49) 0.296 0.046 506 246 2.270 0.156 0.204 0.389
Child had fever in last 2 weeks 0.229 0.029 386 184 1.306 0.128 0.171 0.288
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.643 0.029 909 438 1.799 0.045 0.586 0.701
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.043 0.012 996 484 1.829 0.274 0.019 0.067
Mobile phone ownership 0.741 0.014 996 484 1.042 0.020 0.712 0.770
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.391 0.029 996 484 1.841 0.073 0.334 0.448
transactions
Participate in decision making (all three decisions) 0.439 0.027 757 369 1.483 0.061 0.385 0.493
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.171 0.020 996 484 1.681 0.117 0.131 0.212
justified in wife beating
Make own decisions about sexual relations, contraceptive 0.692 0.030 757 369 1.767 0.043 0.633 0.751
use, and reproductive care
Experienced physical violence since age 15 by any 0.149 0.029 333 170 1.486 0.195 0.091 0.207
perpetrator
Experienced sexual violence by any perpetrator ever 0.045 0.012 333 170 1.070 0.271 0.021 0.069
Experienced sexual violence by any non-intimate partner 0.005 0.005 333 170 1.330 0.994 0.000 0.016
Experienced physical/sexual violence by the current or most 0.174 0.035 286 138 1.572 0.203 0.103 0.245
recent husband/intimate partner ever
Experienced emotional/physical/sexual violence by any 0.133 0.031 286 138 1.532 0.232 0.071 0.195
husband or intimate partner in the past 12 months
MEN
No education 0.082 0.022 252 122 1.260 0.267 0.038 0.125
Secondary education or higher 0.489 0.054 252 122 1.708 0.111 0.380 0.597
Literacy 0.902 0.018 252 122 0.959 0.020 0.866 0.938
Use of the Internet in last 12 months 0.614 0.032 252 122 1.031 0.052 0.551 0.678
Current tobacco use 0.507 0.030 252 122 0.961 0.060 0.446 0.568
Want no more children 0.685 0.027 182 88 0.779 0.039 0.631 0.738
Ideal number of children 2.097 0.053 252 122 1.246 0.025 1.990 2.203
Discriminatory attitudes towards people with HIV 0.452 0.048 239 116 1.487 0.106 0.356 0.548
Condom use at last sex 0.901 0.071 21 11 1.059 0.079 0.759 1.000
Ever tested for HIV and received results of last test 0.009 0.006 252 122 1.052 0.708 0.000 0.021
Mobile phone ownership 0.908 0.017 252 122 0.949 0.019 0.873 0.942
Have and use a bank account or mobile phone for financial 0.447 0.036 252 122 1.137 0.080 0.376 0.518
transactions
Agree with at least one specified reason a husband is 0.282 0.038 252 122 1.332 0.134 0.206 0.358
justified in wife beating

na = not applicable

588 • Appendix B
DATA QUALITY TABLES Appendix C
Table C.1 Household age distribution
Single-year age distribution of the de facto household population by sex (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men Women Men
Age Number Percent Number Percent Age Number Percent Number Percent
0 454 1.5 541 2.2 42 350 1.2 316 1.3
1 476 1.6 515 2.1 43 261 0.9 211 0.8
2 564 1.9 552 2.2 44 294 1.0 230 0.9
3 520 1.8 599 2.4 45 377 1.3 341 1.4
4 496 1.7 548 2.2 46 246 0.8 217 0.9
5 511 1.7 551 2.2 47 228 0.8 184 0.7
6 523 1.8 580 2.3 48 314 1.1 220 0.9
7 517 1.8 601 2.4 49 212 0.7 175 0.7
8 547 1.9 569 2.3 50 323 1.1 303 1.2
9 490 1.7 524 2.1 51 308 1.1 253 1.0
10 587 2.0 634 2.5 52 365 1.2 263 1.0
11 478 1.6 485 1.9 53 301 1.0 255 1.0
12 603 2.1 633 2.5 54 290 1.0 254 1.0
13 638 2.2 535 2.1 55 361 1.2 320 1.3
14 558 1.9 530 2.1 56 288 1.0 221 0.9
15 539 1.8 471 1.9 57 146 0.5 188 0.7
16 543 1.9 520 2.1 58 252 0.9 203 0.8
17 501 1.7 430 1.7 59 185 0.6 182 0.7
18 657 2.2 522 2.1 60 352 1.2 285 1.1
19 497 1.7 390 1.6 61 140 0.5 184 0.7
20 706 2.4 458 1.8 62 169 0.6 172 0.7
21 471 1.6 370 1.5 63 183 0.6 157 0.6
22 580 2.0 396 1.6 64 127 0.4 131 0.5
23 472 1.6 333 1.3 65 225 0.8 206 0.8
24 540 1.8 345 1.4 66 155 0.5 129 0.5
25 589 2.0 354 1.4 67 113 0.4 131 0.5
26 539 1.8 358 1.4 68 162 0.6 171 0.7
27 469 1.6 294 1.2 69 127 0.4 113 0.5
28 534 1.8 399 1.6 70 217 0.7 178 0.7
29 388 1.3 292 1.2 71 127 0.4 88 0.3
30 633 2.2 362 1.4 72 159 0.5 115 0.5
31 358 1.2 230 0.9 73 91 0.3 100 0.4
32 467 1.6 333 1.3 74 90 0.3 72 0.3
33 393 1.3 297 1.2 75 129 0.4 113 0.5
34 345 1.2 242 1.0 76 64 0.2 60 0.2
35 582 2.0 369 1.5 77 59 0.2 54 0.2
36 417 1.4 289 1.2 78 68 0.2 78 0.3
37 332 1.1 215 0.9 79 30 0.1 43 0.2
38 475 1.6 339 1.4 80+ 328 1.1 332 1.3
39 337 1.1 237 0.9 Don’t know 0 0.0 2 0.0
40 475 1.6 407 1.6
41 262 0.9 205 0.8 Total 29,281 100.0 25,104 100.0

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the household the night before the interview.

Appendix C • 589
 Table C.2.1 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed women
De facto household population of women age 10–54, number and percent distribution of
interviewed women age 15–49, and percentage of eligible women who were interviewed
(weighted), by 5-year age groups, Nepal DHS 2022
Household
population of Interviewed women age 15–49 Percentage of
women age eligible women
Age group 10–54 Number Percentage interviewed
10–14 2,864 na na na
15–19 2,738 2,647 17.7 96.6
20–24 2,769 2,682 18.0 96.9
25–29 2,519 2,443 16.4 97.0
30–34 2,197 2,142 14.3 97.5
35–39 2,142 2,086 14.0 97.4
40–44 1,642 1,592 10.7 96.9
45–49 1,377 1,342 9.0 97.4
50–54 1,587 na na na
15–49 15,384 14,933 100.0 97.1
Ratios
10–14 to 15–19 105 na na na
50–54 to 45–49 115 na na na

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the
household the night before the interview. Weights for both the household population of
women and interviewed women are household weights. Age is based on the Household
Questionnaire.
na = Not applicable

Table C.2.2 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed men

De facto household population of men age 10–54, number and percent distribution of
interviewed men age 15–49, and percentage of eligible men who were interviewed
(weighted), by 5-year age groups, Nepal DHS 2022
Household
population of Percentage of
men age Interviewed men age 15–49 eligible men
Age group 10–54 Number Percentage interviewed
10–14 1,449 na na na
15–19 1,112 1,056 20.5 94.9
20–24 923 861 16.7 93.2
25–29 812 764 14.8 94.0
30–34 696 654 12.7 94.0
35–39 720 668 13.0 92.9
40–44 669 626 12.1 93.6
45–49 551 523 10.2 95.0
50–54 702 na na na
15–49 5,483 5,152 100.0 94.0
Ratios
10–14 to 15–19 130 na na na
50–54 to 45–49 127 na na na

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the
household the night before the interview. Weights for both the household population of
men and interviewed men are household weights. Age is based on the Household
Questionnaire.
na = Not applicable

590 • Appendix C
Table C.3 Age displacement at age 14/15
Number of women and men age 12–18 listed in the household schedule by single-year age and age ratio 15/14,
according to province (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Age Age ratio
Total age (age 15/
Province 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 12–18 age 14)
WOMEN

Koshi Province 101 94 102 86 87 99 95 664 84.4

Madhesh Province 154 156 142 136 110 110 174 982 95.6
Bagmati Province 108 131 86 91 110 101 138 765 106.6
Gandaki Province 42 50 41 48 57 38 64 340 115.6
Lumbini Province 117 121 96 98 112 83 113 740 102.5
Karnali Province 52 45 47 52 45 35 56 331 111.3
Sudurpashchim Province 55 60 65 60 51 56 58 405 93.1
Total 629 657 579 572 571 522 698 4,227 98.8
MEN

Koshi Province 104 99 106 92 106 68 102 677 86.9

Madhesh Province 182 103 112 91 117 97 142 843 81.8
Bagmati Province 100 82 68 88 98 101 112 650 129.2
Gandaki Province 37 51 49 45 36 38 43 299 93.0
Lumbini Province 105 105 105 89 90 80 82 656 84.5
Karnali Province 63 52 47 36 35 20 35 289 76.4
Sudurpashchim Province 65 60 69 52 52 45 42 384 74.8
Total 656 552 556 493 534 450 558 3,798 88.7

Table C.4 Age displacement at age 49/50

Number of women and men age 47–53 listed in the household schedule by single-year age and age ratio 50/49,
according to province (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Age Age ratio
Total age (age 50/
Province 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 47–53 age 49)
WOMEN

Koshi Province 39 62 51 60 46 71 67 397 117.0

Madhesh Province 33 55 27 49 62 76 57 360 179.1
Bagmati Province 53 73 44 89 72 92 52 475 199.6
Gandaki Province 30 41 26 26 36 32 35 225 103.0
Lumbini Province 43 51 39 65 65 65 60 389 168.0
Karnali Province 15 18 13 20 16 9 14 104 149.7
Sudurpashchim Province 25 27 19 27 26 30 26 180 141.9
Total 238 328 219 336 323 375 311 2,130 152.9
MEN

Koshi Province 39 51 36 66 47 44 48 332 182.2

Madhesh Province 30 29 18 60 58 51 39 286 332.0
Bagmati Province 56 61 54 87 60 73 67 458 162.4
Gandaki Province 17 29 17 20 31 32 34 180 113.4
Lumbini Province 35 35 37 51 28 33 49 268 138.5
Karnali Province 9 14 16 14 17 11 8 89 91.1
Sudurpashchim Province 11 15 16 18 21 27 18 126 109.5
Total 197 234 194 316 262 273 263 1,739 162.9

Appendix C • 591
 Table C.5 Pregnancy outcomes by years preceding the survey
Number of pregnancy outcomes, percentage with year and month of birth given or end of pregnancy given, sex ratio at birth of live births, and ratio by years preceding the survey, according to living children, dead children, stillbirths,
miscarriages/abortions, and total pregnancy outcomes (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage with year and month of birth
Number of pregnancy outcomes given or end of pregnancy given Sex ratio at birth of live births1 Ratio of years preceding survey2
Miscar- Miscar- Miscar-
Living Dead riages/ Living Dead riages/ Living Dead Living Dead riages/
Calendar year children children Stillbirths abortions Total children children Stillbirths abortions Total children children Total children children Stillbirths abortions Total
2079 967 25 8 257 1,257 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 119.1 113.1 118.9 na na na na na
2078 959 27 10 243 1,239 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.3 99.9 102.5 194.0 104.3 94.4 101.4 87.7 100.0 95.5
2077 1,066 28 16 228 1,337 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.5 99.4 101.6 59.6 100.2 106.2 96.4 184.1 94.8 104.4
2076 1,048 30 7 239 1,324 100.0 100.0 100.0 97.7 99.6 117.3 430.3 121.0 101.4 86.2 45.7 115.5 102.6
2075 1,000 43 14 185 1,242 99.9 97.8 100.0 98.0 99.6 110.7 120.1 111.0 97.4 124.7 111.6 82.9 95.8
2074 1,006 39 18 208 1,270 100.0 100.0 100.0 92.9 98.8 105.6 114.8 105.9 98.5 84.8 110.3 109.2 99.8
2073 1,042 48 19 195 1,304 99.8 93.6 100.0 93.2 98.6 118.9 183.6 121.1 104.2 113.6 108.6 96.1 103.3
2072 994 46 16 199 1,255 100.0 100.0 100.0 94.9 99.2 111.1 129.7 111.9 95.9 84.4 78.8 112.3 97.4
2071 1,029 61 23 158 1,272 99.9 100.0 100.0 95.7 99.3 100.8 75.9 99.2 104.9 160.7 154.0 91.3 105.3
2070 969 30 14 148 1,161 99.8 100.0 100.0 96.7 99.4 115.7 83.3 114.5 92.6 53.7 69.5 96.6 91.0
2075–2079 5,040 153 54 1,152 6,399 100.0 99.4 100.0 98.4 99.7 110.0 141.0 110.8 na na na na na
2070–2074 5,040 224 89 908 6,262 99.9 98.6 100.0 94.5 99.1 110.2 111.0 110.2 na na na na na
2065–2069 4,889 318 86 643 5,936 99.5 98.4 98.1 90.2 98.4 103.4 119.9 104.4 na na na na na
2060–2064 4,544 316 98 413 5,370 99.6 97.6 98.2 93.3 99.0 100.8 120.9 102.0 na na na na na
<2060 5,143 606 124 370 6,243 99.5 96.2 96.0 87.9 98.5 104.4 118.6 105.8 na na na na na
All 24,656 1,616 451 3,486 30,209 99.7 97.5 98.1 94.1 98.9 105.8 120.1 106.6 na na na na na

na = Not applicable
1
(Bm/Bf) × 100, where Bm and Bf are the numbers of male and female births, respectively
2
[2Px/(Px – 1 + Px + 1)] × 100, where Px is the number of pregnancy outcomes in year x preceding the survey

592 • Appendix C
Table C.6 Completeness of reporting
Percentage of observations missing information for selected demographic and health questions (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage
with
information Number of
Subject Reference group missing cases
Date of live birth or stillbirth Live births or stillbirths in the 15 years preceding the survey
Missing day only 5.10 15,892
Missing month but year reported 0.26 15,892
Missing year 0.00 15,892
Date of live birth or stillbirth Live births or stillbirths in the 5 years preceding the survey
Missing day only 1.59 5,247
Missing month but year reported 0.03 5,247
Missing year 0.00 5,247
Date of birth of women Women age 15–49
Missing month but year reported 1.27 14,845
Missing year 20.60 14,845
Date of birth of men Men age 15–49
Missing month but year reported 3.89 4,913
Missing year 5.60 4,913
Diarrhea in last 2 weeks Living children age 0–59 months 0.25 5,009
Anthropometry of children Living children age 0–59 months (from Biomarker Questionnaire)
Height 3.52 2,729
Weight 3.07 2,729
Height or weight 3.52 2,729
Anthropometry of women Women age 15–49 (from Biomarker Questionnaire)
Height 2.48 7,636
Weight 2.48 7,636
Height or weight 2.48 7,636
Anthropometry of men Men age 15–49 (from Biomarker Questionnaire)
Height 7.36 3,001
Weight 7.29 3,001
Height or weight 7.36 3,001
Anemia
Children Living children age 6–59 months (from Biomarker Questionnaire) 6.27 2,500
Women Women age 15–49 (from Biomarker Questionnaire) 9.53 7,636

Appendix C • 593
 Table C.7 Standardization exercise results from anthropometry training
Trainees’ precision and accuracy for height measurements taken during the standardization exercise for anthropometry, Nepal DHS
2022
Standardization exercise1 Restandardization exercise1
2 2
Measurer Trainees’ precision Trainees’ accuracy Trainees’ precision2 Trainees’ accuracy2
Measurer 1 2.32 1.16 0.34 0.31
Measurer 2 0.65 0.41 0.22 0.15
Measurer 3 1.38 0.87 0.44 0.34
Measurer 4 2.25 1.30 0.10 0.34
Measurer 5 2.29 0.99 0.37 0.33
Measurer 6 0.35 0.53 na na
Measurer 7 0.54 0.39 na na
Measurer 8 0.40 0.32 na na
Measurer 9 2.36 1.16 0.20 0.29
Measurer 10 0.38 0.36 na na
Measurer 11 0.24 0.31 na na
Measurer 12 0.37 0.32 na na
Measurer 13 0.31 0.29 na na
Measurer 14 0.53 0.30 na na
Measurer 15 0.29 0.34 na na
Measurer 16 0.41 0.50 na na
Measurer 17 0.51 0.35 na na
Measurer 18 0.43 0.27 na na
Measurer 19 0.79 0.57 0.20 0.33
Reserve measurer 1.00 0.55 0.34 0.25
Quality controller 0.20 0.54 na na
Quality controller 0.30 0.36 na na
Average 0.71 0.45 0.27 0.32

na = Not applicable
1
Ten children were measured twice for each standardization and restandardization exercise.
2
Trainees’ precision and accuracy are defined in terms of a technical error of measurement (TEM), which is calculated as
√∑(D2)/(2N), where D is the difference in height and N is the number of repeat measurements. An acceptable TEM according to
WHO-UNICEF is a TEM of <0.6 cm for precision and <0.8 cm for accuracy.

594 • Appendix C
Table C.8 Height and weight data completeness and quality for children
Among children under age 5 (age 0–59 months) who were eligible for anthropometry, percentage with incomplete or missing data for height, weight, or month or
year of birth; among children with complete data on height and age, percentage with implausible data for height-for-age; among children with complete data on
weight and height, percentage with implausible data for weight-for-height; among children with complete data on weight and age, percentage with implausible data
for weight-for-age; and among all children under age 5 who were eligible for anthropometry, percentage with valid data for height-for-age, weight-for-height, and
weight-for-age, according to background characteristics (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage with data incomplete
or missing for: Percentage with implausible data for: Percentage with valid data for8:
Number
Number of Number
of children of
children with children
with com- with
com- plete com-
Month or Number plete Weight- weight plete Weight- Number
Background year of of Height- height for- and Weight- weight Height- for- Weight- of
characteristic Height1 Weight2 birth 3 4 5
children for-age and age height 6
height for-age and age5 for-age
7
height for-age children
Age in months
<6 3.4 3.1 1.1 262 0.4 253 1.6 253 0.4 254 96.2 95.0 96.6 262
6–11 1.8 1.8 0.4 224 0.0 220 0.0 220 0.0 220 98.2 98.2 98.2 224
12–23 1.7 1.7 0.6 534 0.0 525 0.0 525 0.0 525 98.3 98.3 98.3 534
24–35 4.0 2.8 1.2 606 0.0 580 0.0 582 0.0 587 95.7 96.0 96.9 606
36–47 2.1 1.9 0.5 576 0.0 562 0.2 564 0.0 563 97.6 97.7 97.7 576
48–59 2.7 2.7 0.5 563 0.0 548 0.0 548 0.0 548 97.3 97.3 97.3 563
0–23 2.2 2.1 0.7 1,020 0.1 998 0.4 998 0.1 999 97.7 97.5 97.8 1,020
24–59 2.9 2.5 0.7 1,745 0.0 1,690 0.1 1,694 0.0 1,698 96.8 97.0 97.3 1,745
Sex
Male 2.5 2.3 0.7 1,447 0.1 1,410 0.3 1,411 0.1 1,412 97.4 97.2 97.5 1,447
Female 2.8 2.3 0.8 1,318 0.0 1,278 0.1 1,281 0.0 1,285 97.0 97.1 97.5 1,318
Mother’s interview
status
Interviewed 1.4 1.0 0.0 2,419 0.0 2,385 0.2 2,385 0.0 2,394 98.6 98.4 98.9 2,419
Not interviewed but
in the household 13.4 13.4 5.8 276 0.0 239 0.0 239 0.0 239 86.6 86.6 86.6 276
Not interviewed
and not in the
household9 2.9 2.9 5.7 70 0.0 64 0.0 68 0.0 64 91.4 97.1 91.4 70
Residence
Urban 3.2 2.9 0.7 1,399 0.0 1,353 0.1 1,354 0.0 1,357 96.7 96.6 97.0 1,399
Rural 2.0 1.7 0.7 1,366 0.1 1,335 0.2 1,338 0.1 1,340 97.7 97.7 98.0 1,366
Ecological zone
Mountain 2.2 1.8 0.4 271 0.0 265 0.0 265 0.0 266 97.8 97.8 98.2 271
Hill 1.8 1.5 0.6 1,137 0.0 1,115 0.1 1,117 0.0 1,118 98.1 98.2 98.3 1,137
Terai 3.5 3.1 0.9 1,357 0.1 1,308 0.3 1,310 0.1 1,313 96.3 96.2 96.7 1,357
Province
Koshi Province 2.3 1.1 0.0 436 0.0 426 0.2 426 0.0 431 97.7 97.5 98.9 436
Urban 1.9 1.4 0.0 211 0.0 207 0.0 207 0.0 208 98.1 98.1 98.6 211
Rural 2.7 0.9 0.0 225 0.0 219 0.5 219 0.0 223 97.3 96.9 99.1 225
Madhesh Province 4.1 3.6 0.3 579 0.2 555 0.0 555 0.2 558 95.7 95.9 96.2 579
Urban 4.1 3.5 0.3 342 0.0 328 0.0 328 0.0 330 95.9 95.9 96.5 342
Rural 4.2 3.8 0.4 237 0.4 227 0.0 227 0.4 228 95.4 95.8 95.8 237
Bagmati Province 4.1 3.8 2.5 317 0.0 304 0.0 304 0.0 305 95.9 95.9 96.2 317
Urban 6.5 6.0 4.2 168 0.0 157 0.0 157 0.0 158 93.5 93.5 94.0 168
Rural 1.3 1.3 0.7 149 0.0 147 0.0 147 0.0 147 98.7 98.7 98.7 149
Gandaki Province 2.2 2.2 0.0 227 0.0 222 0.0 222 0.0 222 97.8 97.8 97.8 227
Urban 4.0 4.0 0.0 101 0.0 97 0.0 97 0.0 97 96.0 96.0 96.0 101
Rural 0.8 0.8 0.0 126 0.0 125 0.0 125 0.0 125 99.2 99.2 99.2 126
Lumbini Province 3.1 3.1 1.0 382 0.0 370 0.8 370 0.0 370 96.9 96.1 96.9 382
Urban 4.2 4.2 0.5 189 0.0 181 1.1 181 0.0 181 95.8 94.7 95.8 189
Rural 2.1 2.1 1.6 193 0.0 189 0.5 189 0.0 189 97.9 97.4 97.9 193
Karnali Province 0.9 0.9 0.0 436 0.0 432 0.0 432 0.0 432 99.1 99.1 99.1 436
Urban 0.5 0.5 0.0 190 0.0 189 0.0 189 0.0 189 99.5 99.5 99.5 190
Rural 1.2 1.2 0.0 246 0.0 243 0.0 243 0.0 243 98.8 98.8 98.8 246
Sudurpashchim
Province 1.3 1.3 1.5 388 0.0 379 0.3 383 0.0 379 97.7 98.5 97.7 388
Urban 1.5 1.5 0.5 198 0.0 194 0.0 195 0.0 194 98.0 98.5 98.0 198
Rural 1.1 1.1 2.6 190 0.0 185 0.5 188 0.0 185 97.4 98.4 97.4 190

(Continued…)

Appendix C • 595
 Table C.8—Continued
Percentage with data incomplete
or missing for: Percentage with implausible data for: Percentage with valid data for8:
Number
Number of Number
of children of
children with children
with com- with
com- plete com-
Month or Number plete Weight- weight plete Weight- Number
Background year of of Height- height for- and Weight- weight Height- for- Weight- of
1 2 3 4 5 6
characteristic Height Weight birth children for-age and age height height for-age and age5 for-age
7
height for-age children
Mother’s
education10
No education 2.6 2.2 0.5 583 0.0 568 0.0 568 0.0 570 97.4 97.4 97.8 583
Basic education
(1–8) 2.2 2.0 0.7 963 0.0 942 0.2 942 0.0 944 97.8 97.6 98.0 963
Lower basic
education (1–5) 2.3 2.3 0.8 487 0.0 476 0.2 476 0.0 476 97.7 97.5 97.7 487
Upper basic
education (6–8) 2.1 1.7 0.6 476 0.0 466 0.2 466 0.0 468 97.9 97.7 98.3 476
Secondary (9–12) 3.0 2.6 0.5 1,057 0.1 1,025 0.2 1,025 0.1 1,030 96.9 96.8 97.4 1,057
Lower secondary
(9–10) 2.5 1.9 0.4 677 0.2 660 0.2 660 0.2 664 97.3 97.3 97.9 677
Higher secondary
(11–12) 3.9 3.7 0.5 380 0.0 365 0.3 365 0.0 366 96.1 95.8 96.3 380
More than
secondary (13
and above) 3.3 3.3 1.1 92 0.0 89 1.1 89 0.0 89 96.7 95.7 96.7 92
Wealth quintile
Lowest 1.0 0.8 0.4 928 0.0 917 0.1 919 0.0 919 98.8 98.9 99.0 928
Second 3.6 3.4 0.5 590 0.0 569 0.0 569 0.0 570 96.4 96.4 96.6 590
Middle 1.9 1.5 0.6 533 0.2 521 0.2 523 0.2 523 97.6 97.9 97.9 533
Fourth 4.3 4.1 1.7 419 0.0 401 0.0 401 0.0 402 95.7 95.7 95.9 419
Highest 5.1 4.1 1.0 295 0.0 280 1.1 280 0.0 283 94.9 93.9 95.9 295
Measurer
Measurer 1 5.3 3.5 0.9 113 0.0 107 0.0 107 0.0 109 94.7 94.7 96.5 113
Measurer 2 5.8 3.5 0.0 86 0.0 81 0.0 81 0.0 83 94.2 94.2 96.5 86
Measurer 3 2.8 1.9 1.9 106 0.0 103 0.0 103 0.0 104 97.2 97.2 98.1 106
Measurer 4 0.8 0.8 0.0 123 0.0 122 0.0 122 0.0 122 99.2 99.2 99.2 123
Measurer 5 1.4 1.4 0.7 139 0.0 137 0.0 137 0.0 137 98.6 98.6 98.6 139
Measurer 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 117 0.0 117 0.0 117 0.0 117 100.0 100.0 100.0 117
Measurer 7 2.6 1.0 0.0 194 0.0 189 0.0 189 0.0 192 97.4 97.4 99.0 194
Measurer 8 3.6 3.6 0.6 166 0.0 160 0.6 160 0.0 160 96.4 95.8 96.4 166
Measurer 9 3.9 3.9 1.3 153 0.0 147 0.0 147 0.0 147 96.1 96.1 96.1 153
Measurer 10 5.5 5.5 0.8 253 0.4 239 0.4 239 0.4 239 94.1 94.1 94.1 253
Measurer 11 1.6 1.6 0.0 129 0.0 127 0.0 127 0.0 127 98.4 98.4 98.4 129
Measurer 12 1.7 1.7 0.0 120 0.0 118 0.0 118 0.0 118 98.3 98.3 98.3 120
Measurer 13 0.0 0.0 0.0 132 0.0 132 0.0 132 0.0 132 100.0 100.0 100.0 132
Measurer 14 2.3 1.5 0.0 131 0.0 128 0.0 128 0.0 129 97.7 97.7 98.5 131
Measurer 15 2.9 2.9 0.0 69 0.0 67 1.5 67 0.0 67 97.1 95.7 97.1 69
Measurer 16 0.0 0.0 0.0 160 0.0 160 0.6 160 0.0 160 100.0 99.4 100.0 160
Measurer 17 2.7 2.7 0.7 148 0.0 144 0.7 144 0.0 144 97.3 96.6 97.3 148
Measurer 18 5.0 5.0 2.9 139 0.0 132 0.0 132 0.0 132 95.0 95.0 95.0 139
Measurer 19 3.5 3.5 5.3 114 0.0 106 0.0 110 0.0 106 93.0 96.5 93.0 114
Measurer 20 0.6 0.6 0.0 167 0.0 166 0.0 166 0.0 166 99.4 99.4 99.4 167
Total 2.6 2.3 0.7 2,765 0.0 2,688 0.2 2,692 0.0 2,697 97.2 97.2 97.5 2,765

1
Child’s height in centimeters is missing, child was not present, child refused, and “other” result codes
2
Child’s weight in kilograms is missing, child was not present, child refused, and “other” result codes
3
Incomplete date of birth; a complete date of birth is month/day/year or month/year.
4
Implausible cases for height-for-age are defined as more than 6 standard deviations (SD) above or below the standard population median (z scores) based on the
WHO Child Growth Standards among children with complete height and month/year of birth data.
5
Complete age is calculated from month and year of birth.
6
Implausible cases for weight-for-height are defined as more than 5 SD above or below the standard population median (z scores) based on the WHO Child Growth
Standards among children with complete weight and height data.
7
Implausible cases for weight-for-age are defined as more than 5 SD above or 6 SD below the standard population median (z scores) based on the WHO Child
Growth Standards among children with complete weight and month/year of birth data.
8
No missing data, incomplete data, or implausible data
9
Includes children whose mothers are deceased
10
For women who are not interviewed, information is taken from the Household Questionnaire. Excludes children whose mothers are not listed in the Household
Questionnaire.

596 • Appendix C
Table C.9 Height measurements from random subsample of measured children
Differences in first height measurement and second height measurement among children under age
5 (0–59 months) randomly selected and remeasured, according to province and measurer
(unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Median difference Percentage of height Number of children
in height measurements with a randomly selected
Province and measurer measurements1 difference >1 cm and remeasured
Province
Koshi Province 0.179 8.8 125
Urban 0.140 9.5 63
Rural 0.223 8.1 62
Madhesh Province 0.223 2.7 112
Urban 0.208 1.7 59
Rural 0.244 3.8 53
Bagmati Province 0.192 7.1 126
Urban 0.216 7.5 67
Rural 0.154 6.8 59
Gandaki Province 0.229 2.2 92
Urban 0.239 2.4 42
Rural 0.223 2.0 50
Lumbini Province 0.220 5.5 109
Urban 0.237 7.1 56
Rural 0.203 3.8 53
Karnali Province 0.258 2.9 105
Urban 0.235 4.3 47
Rural 0.277 1.7 58
Sudurpashchim Province 0.126 4.9 103
Urban 0.158 9.6 52
Rural 0.102 0.0 51
Measurer
Measurer 1 0.143 0.0 43
Measurer 2 0.080 4.0 25
Measurer 3 0.161 2.3 43
Measurer 4 0.135 4.3 46
Measurer 5 0.193 12.5 48
Measurer 6 0.550 17.5 40
Measurer 7 0.144 10.0 40
Measurer 8 0.229 3.2 31
Measurer 9 0.320 3.7 27
Measurer 10 0.289 2.0 49
Measurer 11 0.133 0.0 39
Measurer 12 0.250 0.0 32
Measurer 13 0.388 2.4 42
Measurer 14 0.362 4.9 41
Measurer 15 0.350 5.6 18
Measurer 16 0.190 2.0 49
Measurer 17 0.089 0.0 41
Measurer 18 0.113 17.9 39
Measurer 19 0.187 0.0 37
Measurer 20 0.321 7.5 40
Total 0.203 5.1 772

1
Median absolute difference between measurers’ first and second height measurements in
centimeters.

Appendix C • 597
 Table C.10 Interference in height and weight measurements of children
Among children under age 5 measured for height or weight, percentage for whom
hairstyle or ornamentation interfered with height measurement and percentage who
were not minimally dressed or who wore heavy permanent ornaments during weight
measurement, according to background characteristics (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of
children who were
Percentage of not minimally
children for whom dressed or who
hairstyle or wore heavy
ornamentation permanent
interfered with ornaments during
Background height weight Number of
characteristic measurement measurement children
Age in months
<6 0.8 11.8 262
6–11 0.4 9.4 224
12–23 0.7 6.0 534
24–35 0.5 7.1 606
36–47 1.0 5.2 576
48–59 0.9 4.4 563
0–23 0.7 8.2 1,020
24–59 0.8 5.6 1,745
Sex
Male 0.6 7.0 1,447
Female 1.0 6.1 1,318
Residence
Urban 0.6 7.5 1,398
Rural 0.9 5.6 1,367
Province
Koshi Province 0.7 2.5 436
Urban 0.5 2.8 211
Rural 0.9 2.2 225
Madhesh Province 0.9 0.7 579
Urban 1.2 0.9 342
Rural 0.4 0.4 237
Bagmati Province 0.9 3.2 317
Urban 0.6 5.4 168
Rural 1.3 0.7 149
Gandaki Province 0.9 0.4 227
Urban 1.0 0.0 101
Rural 0.8 0.8 126
Lumbini Province 1.3 4.7 382
Urban 0.5 2.1 189
Rural 2.1 7.3 193
Karnali Province 0.5 1.8 436
Urban 0.5 1.1 189
Rural 0.4 2.4 247
Sudurpashchim Province 0.3 33.5 388
Urban 0.0 40.9 198
Rural 0.5 25.8 190
Measurer
Measurer 1 0.9 0.0 113
Measurer 2 0.0 1.2 86
Measurer 3 1.9 1.9 106
Measurer 4 0.8 1.6 123
Measurer 5 1.4 1.4 139
Measurer 6 0.0 2.6 117
Measurer 7 0.0 0.0 194
Measurer 8 1.8 1.2 166
Measurer 9 1.3 7.8 153
Measurer 10 0.8 1.6 253
Measurer 11 0.0 0.8 129
Measurer 12 0.0 0.0 120
Measurer 13 1.5 0.0 132
Measurer 14 0.8 6.1 131
Measurer 15 2.9 0.0 69
Measurer 16 0.6 6.3 160
Measurer 17 0.7 34.5 148
Measurer 18 0.0 0.7 139
Measurer 19 0.0 44.7 114
Measurer 20 0.6 19.2 167
Total 0.8 6.6 2,765

598 • Appendix C
Table C.11 Interference in height and weight measurements of women and men
Among women and men age 15–49 measured for height or weight, percentage for whom hairstyle or ornamentation interfered with height
measurement and percentage who were not minimally dressed or who wore heavy permanent ornaments during weight measurement,
according to background characteristics (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Women Men
Percentage who Percentage who
were not wearing were not wearing
lightweight lightweight
Percentage for clothing or who Percentage for clothing or who
whom hairstyle or wore heavy whom hairstyle or wore heavy
ornamentation permanent ornamentation permanent
interfered with ornaments during interfered with ornaments during
Background height weight Number of height weight Number of
characteristic measurement measurement women measurement measurement men
Age
15–19 1.3 8.6 1,411 1.0 6.7 597
20–29 1.4 6.3 2,587 1.4 3.8 837
30–39 1.0 4.8 2,067 0.7 5.0 741
40–49 0.7 6.5 1,480 0.5 4.2 662
Residence
Urban 1.3 7.1 4,088 1.0 5.1 1,562
Rural 1.0 5.5 3,457 0.9 4.5 1,275
Province
Koshi Province 1.0 1.5 1,130 0.7 2.0 458
Urban 0.9 1.6 579 0.0 2.1 243
Rural 1.1 1.5 551 1.4 1.9 215
Madhesh Province 1.3 1.3 1,262 0.7 0.2 457
Urban 1.5 1.9 724 0.8 0.0 247
Rural 1.1 0.4 538 0.5 0.5 210
Bagmati Province 1.2 0.6 1,085 1.9 1.9 467
Urban 1.8 0.4 682 3.0 1.6 304
Rural 0.2 0.7 403 0.0 2.5 163
Gandaki Province 0.8 0.9 848 1.5 0.6 336
Urban 1.3 0.9 451 1.6 0.0 186
Rural 0.3 1.0 397 1.3 1.3 150
Lumbini Province 0.8 2.9 1,155 0.5 3.2 435
Urban 0.8 2.3 615 0.0 1.3 229
Rural 0.7 3.5 540 1.0 5.3 206
Karnali Province 2.0 3.0 1,000 0.9 2.1 329
Urban 1.9 2.1 482 0.6 2.5 160
Rural 2.1 3.9 518 1.2 1.8 169
Sudurpashchim Province 0.8 34.6 1,065 0.3 26.8 355
Urban 0.7 42.3 555 0.0 32.1 193
Rural 1.0 26.1 510 0.6 20.4 162
Measurer
Measurer 1 1.1 1.1 363 1.3 0.7 151
Measurer 2 0.0 1.4 213 0.0 2.3 87
Measurer 3 0.5 1.3 380 0.6 2.3 176
Measurer 4 0.5 1.3 373 0.0 0.0 152
Measurer 5 1.6 1.4 368 0.7 1.4 142
Measurer 6 0.0 0.3 360 0.9 0.0 117
Measurer 7 1.5 0.6 476 0.6 1.3 154
Measurer 8 2.0 0.3 342 0.9 0.0 114
Measurer 9 0.9 3.8 346 0.0 8.5 129
Measurer 10 1.4 0.9 562 0.4 0.0 226
Measurer 11 0.2 2.9 417 0.7 0.0 143
Measurer 12 1.5 0.3 331 0.9 1.8 114
Measurer 13 2.1 0.5 389 3.1 0.0 130
Measurer 14 2.5 5.8 396 1.9 6.3 158
Measurer 15 2.5 3.4 203 0.0 1.6 64
Measurer 16 0.7 1.3 455 1.5 0.0 197
Measurer 17 0.3 25.7 362 0.7 21.8 142
Measurer 18 0.5 0.8 392 1.4 0.7 141
Measurer 19 1.2 44.1 422 0.0 32.8 137
Measurer 20 1.6 26.3 380 1.9 15.8 158
Total 1.1 6.3 7,545 0.9 4.8 2,837

Appendix C • 599
 Table C.12 Heaping in anthropometric measurements for children
(digit preference)

Distribution of weight and height/length measurements by decimal digit

recorded (unweighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Weight Height or length
Digit Number Percent Number Percent
0 282 10.2 241 8.7
1 279 10.1 282 10.2
2 264 9.5 341 12.3
3 280 10.1 316 11.4
4 305 11.0 299 10.8
5 285 10.3 300 10.8
6 286 10.3 313 11.3
7 258 9.3 273 9.9
8 260 9.4 224 8.1
9 275 9.9 176 6.4
Total 2,774 100.0 2,765 100.0
Index of dissimilarity1 na 1.9 na 6.9

Note: Table includes all children with weight and height/length

measurements, regardless of the completeness of date of birth information
and cases with implausible data. Both weight and length/height
measurements were recorded with one decimal digit.
na = Not applicable
1
The index of dissimilarity is a measure of digit preference calculated as
one-half of the sum of absolute differences between the observed and
expected percentage. It can be interpreted as the percentage of values
that would need to be redistributed in order to achieve a uniform
distribution.

Table C.13 Food insecurity data completeness, infit and outfit model statistics, and Rasch reliability
Among households, percentage reporting yes for each item, percentage that refused to answer or responded don’t know, infit and infit
standard error, outfit statistics, and Rasch reliability (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Data Data Outfit
reporting completeness Infit statistics1 statistics1 Item severity
Percentage
that refused to
Percentage answer or
reporting yes responded
Item to item don’t know Infit2 SE infit Outfit3 Parameter SE
WORRIED 34.1 0.0 1.095 0.0209 2.258 (3.657) 0.0396
HEALTHY 23.0 0.1 0.905 0.0201 1.990 (2.220) 0.0360
FEWFOOD 21.2 0.1 0.894 0.0206 1.330 (1.954) 0.0363
SKIPPED 4.7 0.0 0.933 0.0420 1.026 1.763 0.0630
ATELESS 10.4 0.1 0.847 0.0274 0.829 (0.099) 0.0439
RANOUT 7.1 0.0 1.032 0.0336 1.440 0.819 0.0518
HUNGRY 5.2 0.1 0.759 0.0399 0.528 1.551 0.0602
WHLDAY 1.9 0.1 1.099 0.0813 7.950 3.797 0.1077
Number of households 13,735 13,786
Rasch reliability4 0.7343

1
Infit and outfit statistics assess the strength and consistency of the association of each item with the underlying latent trait.
2
Infit statistics are useful in identifying items that did not perform well. Item infit values in the range of 0.7–1.3 are considered to meet model
assumptions to an acceptable degree.
3
Outfit statistics identify items with an unusual occurrence of highly erratic responses. The statistics are very sensitive to a few highly
unexpected observations. Values >2 are considered high.
4
Rasch reliability is measure of overall model fit and measures the proportion of variability in the data that is explained by the Rasch model.
For an 8-item Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) scale, a Rasch reliability value above 0.7 is considered acceptable. For a 7-item
scale, a Rasch reliability value above 0.6 is considered acceptable.

600 • Appendix C
Table C.14 Observation of handwashing facility
Percent distribution of handwashing facilities in all households by whether or not they were observed by the interviewers, according to
background characteristics (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Handwashing facility
observed Handwashing facility not observed
Not in No
Background dwelling, permission Number of
characteristic Fixed place Mobile yard, or plot to see Other reason Total households
Residence
Urban 95.0 4.7 0.2 0.0 0.1 100.0 9,244
Rural 91.1 8.5 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 4,542
Province
Koshi Province 95.8 3.9 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,441
Urban 96.5 3.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,589
Rural 94.4 5.1 0.4 0.0 0.1 100.0 853
Madhesh Province 87.1 12.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,462
Urban 89.1 10.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,796
Rural 81.6 17.7 0.6 0.0 0.1 100.0 666
Bagmati Province 97.0 2.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 3,177
Urban 98.4 1.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 100.0 2,454
Rural 92.5 7.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 723
Gandaki Province 95.6 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,453
Urban 98.2 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 982
Rural 90.3 9.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 471
Lumbini Province 95.1 4.6 0.1 0.0 0.2 100.0 2,332
Urban 94.5 5.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,281
Rural 95.9 3.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,051
Karnali Province 85.8 14.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 100.0 819
Urban 88.1 11.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 463
Rural 82.8 16.9 0.2 0.0 0.1 100.0 355
Sudurpashchim Province 95.4 4.0 0.5 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,102
Urban 96.7 2.7 0.4 0.0 0.2 100.0 680
Rural 93.3 6.2 0.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 422
Wealth quintile
Lowest 85.3 14.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 100.0 2,868
Second 91.0 8.6 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,685
Middle 94.8 4.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 2,647
Fourth 98.1 1.6 0.2 0.0 0.1 100.0 2,843
Highest 99.7 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 100.0 2,743
Total 93.8 5.9 0.2 0.0 0.1 100.0 13,786

Appendix C • 601
 Table C.15 School attendance by single year of age
Percent distribution of the de jure population age 4–24 by educational level and grade attended in the current school year (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Early
child- Num-
Lower basic school Upper basic school Secondary school
hood ber of
Age in years Not edu- More per-
at beginning attend- cation than sons
of school ing pro- secon- Don’t age
year school gram 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 dary know Total 4–24
4 15.9 63.5 18.1 2.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 100.0 1,000
5 6.8 47.0 32.2 12.9 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,122
6 4.0 25.2 32.9 28.7 8.5 0.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,111
7 2.9 8.9 19.3 32.3 28.5 7.1 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,087
8 2.9 6.3 7.4 18.0 33.6 23.8 6.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,041
9 2.5 2.0 5.6 9.9 19.9 30.8 22.9 6.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,172
10 3.4 1.6 1.7 5.4 12.0 20.5 29.5 19.3 5.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,053
11 4.9 0.7 1.0 3.4 6.6 11.8 20.2 27.2 17.8 5.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,091
12 5.1 0.0 0.5 0.9 2.3 7.1 11.1 20.1 26.1 20.6 5.8 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,118
13 7.7 0.1 0.5 0.6 1.9 3.3 5.0 9.8 17.7 30.0 18.2 4.7 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,144
14 9.6 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.8 2.6 5.3 10.9 21.1 28.7 17.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,099
15 16.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.4 1.8 4.2 11.7 18.0 31.8 11.1 3.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,026
16 24.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.1 0.9 4.4 9.7 25.1 21.4 11.0 1.4 0.0 100.0 962
17 37.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 1.9 4.4 13.5 18.7 17.6 6.3 0.0 100.0 963
18 46.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.0 4.6 11.9 22.5 11.7 0.2 100.0 1,000
19 61.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7 2.1 3.9 10.6 20.6 0.0 100.0 988
20 69.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.9 6.2 22.2 0.0 100.0 966
21 77.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.0 2.3 18.6 0.0 100.0 906
22 77.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.4 1.7 1.2 19.2 0.0 100.0 862
23 84.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.9 0.3 14.5 0.0 100.0 788
24a 84.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.0 13.9 0.0 100.0 430

Note: Age at the beginning of the school year is calculated from dates of birth of household members or by rejuvenating household members based on the date of the
survey, the date after start of the school year, and completed age at the time of the survey. Levels and grades refer to the current school year or the most recent school
year if data collection was completed between school years.
a
Those age 25 at the time of the interview who were age 24 at the beginning of the school year are excluded from the table since data on current attendance were
collected only for those age 4–24 at the time of the interview.

602 • Appendix C
Table C.16 Vaccination cards photographed
Percentage of children under age 3 reported to have a vaccination card, percentage whose vaccination card was seen by the interviewer, percentage
whose vaccination card was photographed or was not photographed by reason, and among children with a vaccination card seen, percentage of cards
photographed, according to background characteristics (weighted), Nepal DHS 2022
Percentage of Among children with a
children whose vaccination card seen
Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of vaccination card
children children whose children whose was not Percentage of
reported to have vaccination card vaccination photographed vaccination
Background a vaccination was seen by card was for other Number of cards Number of
characteristic card interviewer photographed reasons children photographed children
Age in months
0–11 91.7 79.7 79.4 0.3 967 99.6 771
12–23 98.8 78.5 77.9 0.6 959 99.3 752
24–35 98.6 60.9 60.9 0.0 1,066 99.9 650
Residence
Urban 97.0 72.6 72.2 0.4 1,950 99.4 1,417
Rural 95.3 72.6 72.5 0.1 1,042 99.9 756
Province
Koshi Province 96.1 72.1 72.1 0.0 516 100.0 372
Urban 97.7 73.8 73.8 0.0 332 100.0 245
Rural 93.4 69.0 69.0 0.0 184 100.0 127
Madhesh Province 95.2 66.6 66.4 0.2 805 99.7 536
Urban 95.6 66.3 66.0 0.2 602 99.6 399
Rural 94.1 67.6 67.6 0.0 202 100.0 137
Bagmati Province 97.7 78.5 77.5 1.0 472 98.7 371
Urban 98.4 79.1 77.6 1.4 346 98.2 273
Rural 95.6 76.9 76.9 0.0 127 100.0 97
Gandaki Province 96.2 66.8 65.9 0.9 183 98.6 122
Urban 96.4 62.2 61.2 1.0 121 98.4 75
Rural 95.7 75.8 75.0 0.8 62 99.0 47
Lumbini Province 97.3 77.5 77.5 0.0 514 100.0 398
Urban 97.8 77.4 77.4 0.0 270 100.0 209
Rural 96.8 77.5 77.5 0.0 244 100.0 189
Karnali Province 95.9 72.2 72.0 0.2 228 99.7 164
Urban 95.7 73.7 73.7 0.0 107 100.0 79
Rural 96.2 71.0 70.6 0.4 120 99.5 85
Sudurpashchim Province 97.4 76.2 76.0 0.3 274 99.6 209
Urban 98.4 79.0 78.6 0.4 172 99.5 136
Rural 95.7 71.6 71.6 0.0 102 100.0 73
Wealth quintile
Lowest 95.0 66.9 66.8 0.1 694 99.9 464
Second 96.9 74.9 74.5 0.4 635 99.4 476
Middle 97.0 74.3 74.2 0.1 610 99.9 453
Fourth 96.8 72.8 72.6 0.2 588 99.7 428
Highest 96.6 75.7 74.8 0.9 465 98.8 352
Total 96.4 72.6 72.3 0.3 2,992 99.6 2,173

Note: Vaccination cards include cards, booklets, or other home-based records.

Appendix C • 603
PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE 2022 NEPAL
DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY Appendix D
NEW ERA TECHNICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
Project Director
Ms. Nira Joshi

Senior Technical Advisor

Mr. Yogendra Prasai

Senior Technical Staff

Ms. Sajani Manandhar, Senior Research Officer
Ms. Jyoti Manandhar, Senior Research Officer
Mr. Sachin Shrestha, Assistant Research Officer
Mr. Ramesh Dangi, Assistant Research Officer
Mr. Babu Raja Dangol, Anthropometrist

DATA PROCESSING STAFF

Ms. Sarita Vaidya, Data Processing Officer
Mr. Sanish Shrestha, IT/Data Processing Supervisor
Mr. Gehendra Pradhan, IT/Data Processing Supervisor
Mr. Sajit Shrestha, IT/Data Processing Supervisor

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
Mr. Sujan Bhakta Shrestha
Mr. Maheshwor Thapa
Mr. Rajendra Kumar Shrestha

WORD PROCESSING STAFF

Mr. Sanu Raja Shakya

Appendix D • 605
 HOUSEHOLD LISTING STAFF
Aashish Shrestha Gunaraj Gautam Raj Kumar Bhandari
Ambir Kulung Rai Hari Kumar Bista Raj Kumar Sharma
Ankit Prasad Dahal Harihar Joshi Ram Kumar Acharya
Anshuman Bakhariya Ultahuwa Harka Bahadur Karki Ramesh Kumar Sindali
Arjun Bahadur Khadka Hom Prasad Katel Roshan Tailor
Basant Raj Sanjyal Janak Chand Balan Kshetree Rudra Bahadur Shrestha
Bashu Sharma Kajiman Mahatara Rupesh Shrestha
Bhanu Bhakta Dhakal Kamal Parajuli Sandip Shrestha
Bhesh Raj Ghimire Kamal Bahadur Rana Kshetri Sanjay Pokharel
Bikash Koirala Keshab Datt Joshi Santosh Kumar Khadka
Biraj Chaudhary Khadga Raj Thapa Sarbagya Rayamajhi
Bishnu Bahadur Bhujel Lalit Singh Bohara Satya Narayan Sah
Bishnu Kanta Gautam Madhab Karki Shirjan Kumar Yadav
Buddha Raj Tamang Netra Narayan Ray Shiva Hari Ghimire
Chumban Shrestha Niraj Shrestha Shures Khadka
Dambar Bahadur Tamang Nirmal Chhetri Sudip Parajuli
Deepak Dhungel Nischal Neupane Sunil Shrestha
Devendra Raj Ghimire Pralad Prasad Mainali Tej Bahadur Khadka
Dhruba Prasad Subedi PushpaRaj Lama Umesh Prasad Mahato
Dilip Shrestha Rabischandra Bhatta Yam Bahadur Manandhar
Gopal Bahadur Hamal Radha Krishna Neupane

QUALITY CONTROL STAFF

Harka Bahadur Karki Karuna Shiwakoti Pramila Bista
Kamal Timsina Kripa Gautam Umesh Prasad Mahato
Kamala Sharma Manoj Bikram Kathet

FIELD SUPERVISORS
Ambir Raj Kulung Janak Chand Balan Kshetri Sandip Shrestha
Bhanu Bhakta Dhakal Kajiman Mahatara Sarbagya Rayamajhi
Biraj Chaudhary Kamal Parajuli Shiv Raj Paneru
Bishnu Bahadur Bhujel Khadga Raj Thapa Shiva Hari Ghimire
Dilip Joshi Prahlad Mainali Sudip Parajuli
Dilip Shrestha Rudra Bahadur Shrestha Sunil Shrestha

606 • Appendix D
 INTERVIEWERS
Aayesha Khatun Hari Kumar Bista Raj Kumar Sharma
Aditya Gautam Himali Hamal Rajani Basnet
Alisha Thapa Ishwora Dhakal Ram Kumar Acharya
Alka Adhikari Januka Devi Dahal Ranjit Kumar Yadav
Amrita Roka Jyoti Kumari Khapangi Rina Menyangbo Limbu
Amrita Kumari Sah Keshab Datt Joshi Ruma Lingthep
Anish Dhungel Krishna Adhikari Rupesh Shrestha
Anisha Poudel Kul Bahadur Shrestha Sabita Rai
Anita Karki Mamata Suwal Samjhana Kandangwa
Anita Kumari Kafle Mandakani Kumari Mahto Sangita Rai
Anjana Khatri Manju Chand Shashi Shrestha
Anju Neupane Manjula Giri Shreedhar Kumar Rajbhandari
Anuska Puri Mina Maya Pakhrin Shrijana Dhami
Apana Lama Tamang Narayan Singh Saud Sima Chaudhari
Asmita Waiba Netra Narayan Ray Soniya Begam
Babita Kandel Niraj Shrestha Sujata Maharjan
Barsha Aryal Nirmal Kumar chhetri Sukmit Kushmi
Basant Raj Sanjyal Nirmala Chaudhary Sunita Bhatta
Bashana Nyaupane Nischal Neupane Suraksha Bartaula
Bashu Sharma Nisha Shahi Chand Surakshya Poudel
Buddha Raj Tamang Parmila Tharu Tika Kumari Sen
Dejina Thapa Pranita Maharjan Tulsa Karki
Dilip Shrestha Pranita Upadhayaya Tulsi Gharti
Elina Poudel Pratigya Thakurathi Yubika Shrestha
Gopal Bahadur Hamal Prativa Karki
Grishma Basnet Radha Kumari Shah

BIOMARKER SPECIALISTS
Amod Kumar Yadav Gyanendra Kumar Prajapati Santosh Kumar Khadka
Anil Pudasaini Lalit Singh Bohara Sudin Awal
Ankit Prasad Dahal Rabischandra Bhatta Sukra Pun
Anshuman Bakhariya Ultahuwa Raj Kumar Tamang Sushil Shrestha
Bhesh Raj Ghimire Ramesh Khanal Yasub Ghimire
Bikash Koirala Ramesh Kumar Sindali Yubraj Thapa
Dev Raj Pandit

ICF STAFF
Anjushree Pradhan Joanna Lowell Chris Gramer
Ruilin Ren Kerry MacQuarrie Natalie Shattuck
Rajendra Lal Dangol Jeffrey Edmeades Greg Edmondson
Sarang Pradip Pedgaonkar Sorrel Namaste Bradley Jonacha
Fred Arnold Elizabeth Panahi Martha Medina
Trevor Croft Hamdy Moussa Sarah Balian
Sunita Kishor Cameron Taylor Gloria Twesigye
Gulnara Semenov Julia Fleuret Victoria Owusu Ansah
Joy Fishel Uttam Neupane
Livia Montana Peter Redvers-Lee

Appendix D • 607
QUESTIONNAIRES Appendix E

Appendix E • 609
 FORMATTING DATE: 28 Jan 2021
ENGLISH LANGUAGE: 3 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
NEPAL
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION

IDENTIFICATION

NAME AND CODE OF DISTRICT

NAME AND CODE OF GAUNPALIKA/MUNICIPALITY

WARD NUMBER .....................................................................

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER .....................................................................

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ..................................................................

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY? (1=YES, 2=NO) ...............................................

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR
2 0 7
INTERVIEWER'S
NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER
TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: TOTAL PERSONS

IN HOUSEHOLD
1 COMPLETED
2 NO HOUSEHOLD MEMBER AT HOME OR NO COMPETENT RESPONDENT
AT HOME AT TIME OF VISIT TOTAL ELIGIBLE
3 ENTIRE HOUSEHOLD ABSENT FOR EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME WOMEN
4 POSTPONED
5 REFUSED
6 DWELLING VACANT OR ADDRESS NOT A DWELLING TOTAL ELIGIBLE
7 DWELLING DESTROYED MEN
8 DWELLING NOT FOUND
9 OTHER LINE NO. OF
(SPECIFY) RESPONDENT
TO HOUSEHOLD
QUESTIONNAIRE

TRANSLATOR USED
LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** 0 1 LANGUAGE OF
INTERVIEW**
NATIVE LANGUAGE
OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** ENGLISH **LANGUAGE CODES:
01 ENGLISH 03 MAITHILI
02 NEPALI 04 BHOJPURI

TEAM TEAM SUPERVISOR

NUMBER NAME NUMBER

Appendix E • 611
 THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK

612 • Appendix E
 INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working for New ERA to collect data on 2022 Nepal
Demographic and Health Survey being conducted under the aegis of the Ministry of Health and Population. We are conducting a
survey about health and other topics all over Nepal. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services.
Your household was selected for the survey. I would like to ask you some questions about your household. The questions
usually take about 30 to 35 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than
members of our survey team. You don't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to answer the questions since your
views are important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next question or
you can stop the interview at any time. In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed
on this card.

GIVE CARD WITH CONTACT INFORMATION

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

100 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS .........................

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix E • 613
 HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

IF AGE 15
OR OLDER

LINE USUAL RESIDENTS RELATIONSHIP SEX RESIDENCE AGE MARITAL ELIGIBILITY

NO. AND VISITORS TO HEAD OF STATUS
HOUSEHOLD

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10A 11

Please give me the names of What is the Is (NAME) Does Did How old is What is (NAME)'s CIRCLE CIRCLE
IF
the persons who usually live relationship of male or (NAME) (NAME) (NAME)? current marital LINE IF HOUSE- LINE
HOUSE-
in your household and guests (NAME) to the female? usually stay status? NUMBER HOLD NUMBER
HOLD
of the household who stayed head of the live here OF ALL NOT OF ALL
SELEC-
here last night, starting with household? here? last WOMEN SELEC- CHILDREN
TED
the head of the household. night? AGE TED FOR AGE 0-5
FOR
15-49 MAN'S
MAN'S
SURVEY
SURVEY

AFTER LISTING THE 1 = MARRIED CIRCLE CIRCLE

NAMES AND RECORDING 2 = DIVORCED/ LINE LINE
THE RELATIONSHIP, SEX, SEPARATED NUMBER NUMBER
RESIDENCE, AND AGE 3 = WIDOWED OF ALL OF ALL
FOR EACH PERSON, ASK 4 = NEVER- MEN WOMEN
QUESTIONS 2A-2C TO BE MARRIED AGE AND MEN
SURE THAT THE LISTING IS 15-49 AGE 15
COMPLETE. AND
IF 95 ABOVE
THEN ASK APPROPRIATE OR MORE,
QUESTIONS IN COLUMNS SEE CODES RECORD
8-35 FOR EACH PERSON. BELOW. '95'.

M F Y N Y N IN YEARS

01 1 2 1 2 1 2 01 01 01 01

1 2 1 2 1 2
02 02 02 02 02

1 2 1 2 1 2
03 03 03 03 03

1 2 1 2 1 2
04 04 04 04 04

1 2 1 2 1 2
05 05 05 05 05

1 2 1 2 1 2
06 06 06 06 06

1 2 1 2 1 2
07 07 07 07 07

1 2 1 2 1 2
08 08 08 08 08

1 2 1 2 1 2
09 09 09 09 09

1 2 1 2 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

2A) Just to make sure that I have a complete listing: are there CODES FOR Q. 3: RELATIONSHIP TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD
any other people such as small children or infants that we ADD TO 01 = HEAD 08 = BROTHER OR SISTER
YES NO
have not listed? TABLE 02 = WIFE OR HUSBAND 09 = BROTHER-IN-LAW OR
2B) Are there any other people who may not be members of your 03 = SON OR DAUGHTER SISTER-IN-LAW
family, such as domestic servants, lodgers, or friends who ADD TO 04 = SON-IN-LAW OR 10= NIECE/NEPHEW
YES NO
usually live here? TABLE DAUGHTER-IN-LAW 11 = CO-WIFE
2C) Are there any guests or temporary visitors staying here, or 05 = GRANDCHILD 12 = OTHER RELATIVE
anyone else who stayed here last night, who have not been ADD TO 06 = PARENT 13 = ADOPTED/FOSTER/STEPCHILD
YES NO
listed? TABLE 07 = PARENT-IN-LAW 14 = NOT RELATED
98 = DON'T KNOW

614 • Appendix E
 HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

IF AGE 0-4
IF AGE 0-17 YEARS IF AGE 4 YEARS OR OLDER IF AGE 4-24 YEARS
YEARS

LINE SURVIVORSHIP AND RESIDENCE OF EVER ATTENDED CURRENT/RECENT BIRTH

NO. BIOLOGICAL PARENTS SCHOOL SCHOOL ATTENDANCE REGISTRATION

12 13 14 15 16 16A 17 18 19 20

Is Does Is Does Has Has What is the Did During [this/that] Does (NAME)
(NAME)'s (NAME)'s (NAME)'s (NAME)'s (NAME) (NAME) highest grade (NAME) school year, what have a birth
biological biological biological biological ever ever (NAME) has attend grade [is/was] certificate?
mother mother usually father alive? father usually attended participated completed? school or (NAME)
alive? live in this live in this school or in a literacy any early attending? IF NO, PROBE:
household or household or any early program or childhood Has (NAME)'s
was she a was he a guest childhood any other education birth ever been
guest last last night? education program program at registered with
night? program? that any time gaunpalika/municip
IF YES: What involves during the ality?
learning to 2078
RECORD RECORD read and school
MOTHER'S FATHER'S write (not year?
LINE LINE including
NUMBER. NUMBER. primary
school)?
1 = HAS
CERTIFICATE
2 = REGISTERED
IF NO, IF NO, 3 = NEITHER
RECORD RECORD SEE CODES SEE CODES 8 = DON'T
'00'. '00'. BELOW. BELOW. KNOW

Y N DK Y N DK Y N Y N GRADE Y N GRADE

01 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2

GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
02
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
03
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
04
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
05
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
06
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
07
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
08
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
09
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2 1 2
10
GO TO 14 GO TO 16 GO TO 17 GO TO 20 GO TO 20

CODES FOR Qs. 17 AND 19: EDUCATION

GRADE
00 = LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED
01-12=GRADE 1 - GRADE 12
13= ABOVE GRADE 12
94=SCHOOL BASED PRE-PRIMARY CENTERS
95= INFORMAL PRESCHOOL
98 = DON'T KNOW

Appendix E • 615
 HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY A01

LINE IF AGE 5 OR OLDER

NO.

26 27 28 29 30 31

Does I would like to know if I would like to know if Does I would like to know if I would like to know if
(NAME) (NAME) has difficulty seeing (NAME) has difficulty seeing. (NAME) (NAME) has difficulty (NAME) has difficulty
wear even when wearing glasses Would you say that (NAME) wear a hearing even when using a hearing. Would you say that
glasses or contact lenses. Would you has no difficulty seeing, hearing hearing aid. Would you say (NAME) has no difficulty
or say that (NAME) has no some difficulty, a lot of aid? that (NAME) has no difficulty hearing, some difficulty, a lot
contact difficulty seeing, some difficulty, or cannot see at hearing, some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot hear at
lenses difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or all? of difficulty, or cannot hear at all?
to help cannot see at all? all?
them
see?

1 = NO DIFFICULTY SEEING 1 = NO DIFFICULTY SEEING 1 = NO DIFFICULTY HEARING 1 = NO DIFFICULTY HEARING

2 = SOME DIFFICULTY 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY
3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY
4 = CANNOT SEE AT ALL 4 = CANNOT SEE AT ALL 4 = CANNOT HEAR AT ALL 4 = CANNOT HEAR AT ALL
8 = DON'T KNOW 8 = DON'T KNOW 8 = DON'T KNOW 8 = DON'T KNOW

Y N Y N

1 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

2 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

3 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

4 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

5 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

6 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

7 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

9 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

10 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

GO TO 28 (GO TO 29) GO TO 31 (GO TO 32)

616 • Appendix E
 HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

LINE IF AGE 5 OR OLDER

NO.

32 33 34 35

I would like to know if I would like to know if I would like to know if I would like to know if
(NAME) has difficulty (NAME) has difficulty (NAME) has difficulty (NAME) has difficulty
communicating when using remembering or walking or climbing steps. washing all over or dressing.
his/her usual language. concentrating. Would you Would you say that (NAME) Would you say that (NAME)
Would you say that (NAME) say that (NAME) has no has no difficulty walking or has no difficulty washing all
has no difficulty difficulty remembering or climbing steps, some over or dressing, some
understanding or being concentrating, some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or
understood, some difficulty, difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or cannot walk or climb steps at cannot wash all over or
a lot of difficulty, or cannot cannot remember or all? dress at all?
communicate at all? concentrate at all?

1 = NO DIFFICULTY 1 = NO DIFFICULTY 1 = NO DIFFICULTY WALKING 1 = NO DIFFICULTY WASHING

COMMUNICATING REMEMBERING/ OR CLIMBING OR DRESSING
2 = SOME DIFFICULTY CONCENTRATING 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY
3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 2 = SOME DIFFICULTY 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY
4 = CANNOT COMMUNICATE 3 = A LOT OF DIFFICULTY 4 = CANNOT WALK OR 4 = CANNOT WASH OR
AT ALL 4 = CANNOT REMEMBER/ CLIMB AT ALL DRESS AT ALL
8 = DON'T KNOW CONCENTRATE AT ALL 8 = DON'T KNOW 8 = DON'T KNOW
8 = DON'T KNOW

1 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

2 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

3 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

4 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

5 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

6 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

7 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

9 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

10 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 8

Appendix E • 617
 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

A01 Now I would like to ask you about road traffic accidents
that anyone in your household may have been involved
in.
YES ..................................... 1
During the past 12 months, was anyone in your
NO ..................................... 2 A17
household killed in a road traffic accident, or injured in a
road traffic accident with injuries severe enough that for
at least one day they could not carry out their normal
daily activities?

A02 What is the name of the first/next person killed or injured in a road traffic accident?

ENTER THE NAME OF EACH PERSON KILLED OR INJURED IN A03, STARTING WITH THE NAME THE RESPONDENT
MENTIONS FIRST.

A03 ENTER THE NAME OF THE PERSON KILLED OR

INJURED: NAME

A04 Was (NAME) in a car, truck, bus, motorcycle, bicycle, CAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

another kind of vehicle, or was (NAME) a pedestrian? TRUCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
BUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
MOTORCYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
BICYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
IF A PERSON HAD MORE THAN ONE ROAD PEDESTRIAN ............................ 06
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT, ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT THE THREE WHEEL TEMPO ................... 07
MOST RECENT ACCIDENT ONLY.
OTHER VEHICLE 96
(SPECIFY)

DON’T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

A05 Is (NAME) still alive? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 A10

NO ..................................... 2
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8 A10

A06 Was (NAME) male or female? MALE .................................. 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A07 What was (NAME)’s age when (NAME) died?

YEARS .........................
IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD '00'.
DON’T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

A08 Was (NAME)’s death related to the road traffic accident? YES ..................................... 1 A16
NO ..................................... 2

A09 What kind of injuries did (NAME) have as a result of the CUT/OPEN WOUND ...................... A
accident? BROKEN BONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
BURN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEAD INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
INTERNAL INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
A16
SUFFOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

618 • Appendix E
 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

NO. NAME OF PERSON KILLED OR INJURED.

NAME

A10 RECORD HOUSEHOLD LINE NUMBER FROM

A13
COLUMN 1. LINE NUMBER ...................
CIRCLE '00' IF PERSON NOT LISTED IN
HOUSEHOLD. NOT IN HOUSEHOLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

A11 Is (NAME) male or female? MALE .................................. 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A12 How old is (NAME)?

YEARS .........................

IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD '00'. DON’T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

A13 What kind of injuries did (NAME) have as a result of the CUT/OPEN WOUND ...................... A
accident? BROKEN BONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
BURN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEAD INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
INTERNAL INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
SUFFOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
SPINAL CORD INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

A14 Does (NAME) continue to have any health problems as YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

a result of the road traffic accident? NO ..................................... 2
A16
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

A15 In what ways does (NAME) continue to have health PARALYZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

problems as a result of the road traffic accident? BRAIN DAMAGE ......................... B
DISFIGUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. LOSS OF LIMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
LOSS OF LIMB FUNCTION ................ E
LOSS OF EYESIGHT ...................... F
LOSS OF HEARING ...................... G
CHRONIC PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
EMOTIONAL TRAUMA ................... I

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

A16 Was any other member of this household killed or YES

injured in a road traffic accident in the past 12 months? NO A17

(RETURN TO A02 FOR

NEXT HOUSEHOLD
MEMBER)

Appendix E • 619
 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

A17 In the last 12 months, was anyone in your household

killed or injured in an incident other than a road traffic
accident?

By injured, I mean that their injuries were severe enough YES ..................................... 1
that for at least one day they could not carry out their NO ..................................... 2 101
normal daily activities.

A18 What is the name of the first/next person killed or injured?

ENTER THE NAME OF EACH PERSON KILLED OR INJURED IN A19, STARTING WITH THE NAME THE RESPONDENT
MENTIONS FIRST.

A19 ENTER THE NAME OF THE PERSON KILLED OR

INJURED: NAME

A20 In what type of incident was (NAME) killed or injured? FIRE/BURNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

ANIMAL BITE ............................ 02
FALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
DROWNING/NEAR DROWNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
POISONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
IF A PERSON HAD MORE THAN ONE INCIDENT, ASK ELECTRICAL INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
QUESTIONS ABOUT THE MOST RECENT INCIDENT STRUCK BY PERSON/OBJECT ............. 07
ONLY. CUT OR STABBED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
GUNSHOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENT (FACTORY) ..... 10
OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENT (AGRICULTURE) . . 11

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON’T KNOW ............................ 98

A21 How did the death or injury happen? ACCIDENTAL ............................ 1

NATURAL DISASTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
VIOLENCE/ASSAULT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
SELF-HARM ............................ 4
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8

A22 Is (NAME) still alive? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 A27

NO ..................................... 2
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8 A27

A23 Was (NAME) male or female? MALE .................................. 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A24 What was (NAME)’s age when (NAME) died?

YEARS .........................
IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD '00'.
DON’T KNOW ............................ 98

A25 Was (NAME)’s death related to this incident? YES ..................................... 1 A33
NO ..................................... 2

A26 What kind of injuries did (NAME) have as a result of the CUT/BITE/OPEN WOUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
incident? BROKEN BONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
BURN .................................. C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEAD INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
INTERNAL INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
SUFFOCATION ......................... F A33
POISONING ............................ G

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

620 • Appendix E
 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

NO. NAME OF PERSON KILLED OR INJURED:

NAME

A27 RECORD HOUSEHOLD LINE NUMBER FROM

COLUMN 1. LINE NUMBER ................... A30
CIRCLE '00' IF PERSON NOT LISTED IN
HOUSEHOLD. NOT IN HOUSEHOLD ...................... 00

A28 Is (NAME) male or female? MALE .................................. 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A29 How old is (NAME)?

YEARS .........................

IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD '00'. DON’T KNOW ............................ 98

A30 What kind of injuries did (NAME) have as a result of the CUT/BITE/OPEN WOUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
incident? BROKEN BONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
BURN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEAD INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
INTERNAL INJURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
SUFFOCATION ......................... F
POISONING ............................ G

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

A31 Does (NAME) continue to have any health problems as YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

a result of the incident? NO ..................................... 2
A33
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

A32 In what ways does (NAME) continue to have health PARALYZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

problems as a result of the injury? BRAIN DAMAGE ......................... B
DISFIGUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. LOSS OF LIMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
LOSS OF LIMB FUNCTION ................ E
LOSS OF EYESIGHT ...................... F
LOSS OF HEARING ...................... G
CHRONIC PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
EMOTIONAL TRAUMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

A33 Was any other member of this household killed or YES

injured in an incident other than a road traffic accident in NO 101
the past 12 months?
(RETURN TO A18 FOR
NEXT HOUSEHOLD
MEMBER)

Appendix E • 621
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

101 What is the main source of drinking water for members PIPED WATER
of your household? PIPED INTO DWELLING ................ 11
PIPED TO YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 106
PIPED TO NEIGHBOR ................ 13
PUBLIC TAP/STANDPIPE ............. 14

TUBE WELL OR BOREHOLE ............. 21

DUG WELL
PROTECTED WELL ................... 31
UNPROTECTED WELL ................ 32
WATER FROM SPRING
PROTECTED SPRING ................ 41 103
UNPROTECTED SPRING ............. 42

RAINWATER ............................ 51
TANKER TRUCK ......................... 61
CART WITH SMALL TANK ................ 71
SURFACE WATER (RIVER/DAM/
LAKE/POND/STREAM/CANAL/
IRRIGATION CHANNEL) ................ 81
BOTTLED WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

OTHER 96 103
(SPECIFY)

102 What is the main source of water used by your PIPED WATER
household for other purposes such as cooking and PIPED INTO DWELLING ................ 11
handwashing? PIPED TO YARD/PLOT ................ 12 106
PIPED TO NEIGHBOR ................ 13
PUBLIC TAP/STANDPIPE ............. 14

TUBE WELL OR BOREHOLE ............. 21

DUG WELL
PROTECTED WELL ................... 31
UNPROTECTED WELL ................ 32
WATER FROM SPRING
PROTECTED SPRING ................ 41
UNPROTECTED SPRING ............. 42

RAINWATER ............................ 51
TANKER TRUCK ......................... 61
CART WITH SMALL TANK ................ 71
SURFACE WATER (RIVER/DAM/
LAKE/POND/STREAM/CANAL/
IRRIGATION CHANNEL) ................ 81

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

103 Where is that water source located? IN OWN DWELLING ...................... 1

106
IN OWN YARD/PLOT ...................... 2
ELSEWHERE ............................ 3

104 How long does it take to go there, get water, and come
back? MINUTES ................

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

105 Who usually goes to this source to collect the water for
your household? NAME

RECORD THE PERSON’S NAME AND LINE NUMBER

FROM THE HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE. IF THE
PERSON IS NOT LISTED IN THE HOUSEHOLD LINE NUMBER ...................
ROSTER, RECORD ‘00’.

622 • Appendix E
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

106 In the last month, has there been any time when your YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
household did not have sufficient quantities of drinking NO ..................................... 2
water when needed? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

107 Do you do anything to the water to make it safer to drink? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
109
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

108 What do you usually do to make the water safer to drink? BOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
ADD BLEACH/CHLORINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
Anything else? STRAIN THROUGH A CLOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
USE WATER FILTER (CERAMIC/
SAND/COMPOSITE/ETC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. SOLAR DISINFECTION ................... E
LET IT STAND AND SETTLE ............. F

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

109 What kind of toilet facility do members of your FLUSH OR POUR FLUSH TOILET
household usually use? FLUSH TO PIPED SEWER SYSTEM ..... 11
FLUSH TO SEPTIC TANK ............. 12
FLUSH TO PIT LATRINE ................ 13
FLUSH TO SOMEWHERE ELSE ........ 14
IF NOT POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE, ASK FLUSH, DON'T KNOW WHERE ........... 15
PERMISSION TO OBSERVE THE FACILITY. PIT LATRINE
VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT LATRINE .. 21
PIT LATRINE WITH SLAB ............. 22
PIT LATRINE WITHOUT SLAB/OPEN PIT .. 23

COMPOSTING TOILET (SLAB) ............. 31

COMPOSTING TOILET (WITHOUT SLAB) .. 32
BUCKET TOILET ......................... 41
BIOGAS ATTACHED TOILET ............. 51
NO FACILITY/BUSH/FIELD ................ 61 117

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

110 Do you share this toilet facility with other households? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 112

Including your own household, how many households

111
use this toilet facility?
NO. OF HOUSEHOLDS
IF LESS THAN 10 ............. 0
10 OR MORE HOUSEHOLDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
DON'T KNOW ............................ 98

112 Where is this toilet facility located? IN OWN DWELLING ...................... 1

IN OWN YARD/PLOT ...................... 2
ELSEWHERE ............................ 3

113 CHECK 109:

CODES 12, 13, 21, OTHER

117
22, 23, 31, OR 32 CIRCLED

114 Has your (septic tank/pit latrine/composting toilet) ever YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

been emptied? NO ..................................... 2
117
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

115 The last time the (septic tank/pit latrine/composting YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 116
toilet) was emptied, was it emptied by a service NO ..................................... 2
provider? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8 116

Appendix E • 623
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

115A The last time the (septic tank/pit latrine/composting HOUSEHOLD MEMBER ................... 1
toilet) was emptied, who emptied it? OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

116 Where were the contents emptied to? A TREATMENT PLANT ................... 1
BURIED IN A COVERED PIT ............. 2
UNCOVERED PIT/BUSH/FIELD/
OPEN GROUND ...................... 3
SURFACE WATER (RIVER/DAM/
LAKE/POND/STREAM/CANAL/
IRRIGATION CHANNEL) ................ 4

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

117 In your household, what type of cookstove is mainly ELECTRIC STOVE ...................... 01
used for cooking? SOLAR COOKER ......................... 02
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)/
121
COOKING GAS STOVE ................ 03
PIPED NATURAL GAS STOVE ............. 04
BIOGAS STOVE ......................... 05
LIQUID FUEL STOVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06 120
MANUFACTURED SOLID FUEL STOVE ..... 07
TRADITIONAL SOLID FUEL STOVE ........ 08
THREE STONE STOVE/OPEN FIRE ........ 09 120
SMOKELESS/IMPROVED STOVE ........... 10

NO FOOD COOKED IN HOUSEHOLD ........ 95 123

OTHER 96 120
(SPECIFY)

118 Does the stove have a chimney? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

119 Does the stove have a fan? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

120 What type of fuel or energy source is used in this ALCOHOL/ETHANOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

cookstove? GASOLINE/DIESEL ...................... 02
KEROSENE ................... 03
COAL/LIGNITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
CHARCOAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
WOOD .................................. 06
STRAW/SHRUBS/GRASS ................ 07
AGRICULTURAL CROP ................... 08
ANIMAL DUNG/WASTE ................... 09
PROCESSED BIOMASS (PELLETS) OR
WOODCHIPS ......................... 10
GARBAGE/PLASTIC ...................... 11
SAWDUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

121 Is the cooking usually done in the house, in a separate IN THE HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
building, or outdoors? IN A SEPARATE BUILDING ................ 2
OUTDOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
123
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

122 Do you have a separate room which is used as a YES ..................................... 1

kitchen? NO ..................................... 2

624 • Appendix E
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

123 What does this household use to heat the home when CENTRAL HEATING ...................... 01 125
needed?
MANUFACTURED SPACE HEATER ........ 02
TRADITIONAL SPACE HEATER ........... 03
MANUFACTURED COOKSTOVE ........... 04
TRADITIONAL COOKSTOVE ............. 05
THREE STONE STOVE/OPEN FIRE ........ 06 125

NO SPACE HEATING IN HOUSEHOLD ..... 95 126

OTHER 96 125
(SPECIFY)

124 Does it have a chimney? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

125 What type of fuel or energy source is used in this heater? ELECTRICITY ............................ 01
PIPED NATURAL GAS ................... 02
SOLAR AIR HEATER ...................... 03
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)/
COOKING GAS ...................... 04
BIOGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
ALCOHOL/ETHANOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
GASOLINE/DIESEL ...................... 07
KEROSENE ................... 08
COAL/LIGNITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
CHARCOAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
WOOD .................................. 11
STRAW/SHRUBS/GRASS ................ 12
AGRICULTURAL CROP ................... 13
ANIMAL DUNG/WASTE ................... 14
PROCESSED BIOMASS (PELLETS) OR
WOODCHIPS ......................... 15
GARBAGE/PLASTIC ...................... 16
SAWDUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

126 At night, what does your household mainly use to light ELECTRICITY ............................ 01
the home? SOLAR LANTERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
RECHARGEABLE FLASHLIGHT, TORCH OR
LANTERN ............................ 03
BATTERY POWERED FLASHLIGHT, TORCH OR
LANTERN ............................ 04
BIOGAS LAMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
GASOLINE LAMP ......................... 06
KEROSENE LAMP ........... 07
CHARCOAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
WOOD .................................. 09
STRAW/SHRUBS/GRASS ................ 10
AGRICULTURAL CROP ................... 11
ANIMAL DUNG/WASTE ................... 12
OIL LAMP ............................... 13
CANDLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

NO LIGHTING IN HOUSEHOLD ............. 95

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

127 How many rooms in this household are used for

sleeping? ROOMS .........................

128 Does this household own any livestock, herds, other YES ..................................... 1
farm animals, or poultry? NO ..................................... 2 130

Appendix E • 625
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

129 How many of the following animals does this household

own?
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.
IF 95 OR MORE, RECORD '95'.
IF UNKNOWN, RECORD '98'.

a) Milk cows or bulls? a) COWS/BULLS ................

b) Buffalo? b) BUFFALO .............

c) Horses, donkeys, or mules? c) HORSES/DONKEYS/MULES .....

d) Goats? d) GOATS ......................

e) Sheep? e) SHEEP ......................

f) Chickens or other poultry? f) CHICKENS/POULTRY ...........

g) Ducks? g) DUCKS ........... ...........

h) Pigs? h) PIGS ........... ...........

i) Yaks? i) YAKS ........... ...........

130 Does any member of this household own any YES ..................................... 1
agricultural land? NO ..................................... 2 132

131 How many bigha/ropani of agricultural land do members

of this household own? BIGHA ........... 1 .

ROPANI ........... 2 .

95 OR MORE BIGHA/ROPANI ........... 950

IF 95 OR MORE, CIRCLE '950'. DON'T KNOW ......................... 998

132 Does your household have: YES NO

a) Electricity? a) ELECTRICITY ............. 1 2

b) A radio? b) RADIO ................ 1 2
c) A television? c) TELEVISION ............. 1 2
d) A non-mobile telephone? d) NON-MOBILE TELEPHONE .. 1 2
e) A computer? e) COMPUTER ............. 1 2
f) A refrigerator? f) REFRIGERATOR ........... 1 2
g) A table? g) TABLE ........... 1 2
h) A chair? h) CHAIR ........... 1 2
i) A bed? i) BED ........... 1 2
j) A sofa? j) SOFA ........... 1 2
k) A cupboard? k) CUPBOARD ........... 1 2
l) A clock? l) CLOCK ........... 1 2
m) A fan? m) FAN ........... 1 2
n) An invertor? n) INVERTOR ........... 1 2
o) Dhiki/janto? o) DHIKI/JANTO ........... 1 2

133 Does any member of this household own: YES NO

a) A watch? a) WATCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
b) A mobile phone? b) MOBILE PHONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
c) A bicycle/rickshaw? c) BICYCLE/RICKSHAW . . . . . . . . 1 2
d) A motorcycle or motor scooter? d) MOTORCYCLE/SCOOTER . . . . . 1 2
e) An animal-drawn cart? e) ANIMAL-DRAWN CART ..... 1 2
f) A car/truck/tractor? f) CAR, TRUCK, OR TRACTOR . . 1 2
g) A three wheel tempo/e-rickshaw? g) THREE WHEEL TEMPO ..... 1 2

626 • Appendix E
 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

134 Does any member of this household have an account in YES ..................................... 1
a bank or other financial institution? NO ..................................... 2

135 Does any member of this household use a mobile phone

to make financial transactions such as sending or YES ..................................... 1
receiving money, paying bills, purchasing goods or NO ..................................... 2
services, or receiving wages?

136 How often does anyone smoke inside your house? DAILY .................................. 1
Would you say daily, weekly, monthly, less often than WEEKLY ............................... 2
once a month, or never? MONTHLY ............................... 3
LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A MONTH ........ 4
NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

137 Does your household have any mosquito nets? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 149

138 How many mosquito nets does your household have?

NUMBER OF NETS ...................
IF 7 OR MORE NETS, RECORD '7'.

138A How many of these mosquito nets are LLIN?

NONE ............................ 0 149

NUMBER OF LLIN ................

DON'T KNOW ............................ 8 149

138B Where did you get the LLIN/(s)? DISTRIBUTION CAMPAIGN ................ A
GOVERNMENT HEALTH FACILITY ........ B
Anywhere else? PRIVATE HEALTH FACILITY ............. C
PHARMACY ............................ D
SHOP/MARKET ......................... E
CHW ............................... F
SCHOOL ............................... G

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON’T KNOW ......................... Z

138C Did anyone sleep under an LLIN last night? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2

Appendix E • 627
 ADDITIONAL HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

149 We would like to learn about the places that households OBSERVED, FIXED PLACE IN DWELLING . . . . . 1
use to wash their hands. Can you please show me OBSERVED, FIXED PLACE IN YARD ........ 2
where members of your household most often wash OBSERVED, MOBILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
their hands? NOT OBSERVED,
NOT IN DWELLING/YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . 4
NOT OBSERVED, NO PERMISSION TO SEE .. 5 152
NOT OBSERVED, OTHER REASON . . . . . . . . . . . 6

150 OBSERVE PRESENCE OF WATER AT THE PLACE

FOR HANDWASHING. WATER IS AVAILABLE ................... 1
WATER IS NOT AVAILABLE ................ 2
RECORD OBSERVATION.

151 OBSERVE PRESENCE OF SOAP, DETERGENT, OR SOAP OR DETERGENT

OTHER CLEANSING AGENT AT THE PLACE FOR (BAR, LIQUID, POWDER, PASTE) ........ A
HANDWASHING. ASH, MUD, SAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

RECORD OBSERVATION. NONE .................................. Y

152 OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE FLOOR OF THE NATURAL FLOOR

DWELLING. EARTH/SAND ......................... 11
DUNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
RECORD OBSERVATION. RUDIMENTARY FLOOR
WOOD PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
PALM/BAMBOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
FINISHED FLOOR
PARQUET OR POLISHED WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . 31
VINYL OR ASPHALT STRIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
CERAMIC TILES ...................... 33
CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
CARPET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

153 OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE ROOF OF THE NATURAL ROOFING

DWELLING. NO ROOF ............................ 11
THATCH/PALM LEAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
RECORD OBSERVATION. RUDIMENTARY ROOFING
RUSTIC MAT ......................... 21
PALM/BAMBOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
WOOD PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CARDBOARD ......................... 24
FINISHED ROOFING
METAL/GALVANIZED SHEET ........... 31
WOOD ............................... 32
CALAMINE/CEMENT FIBER ............. 33
CERAMIC TILES ...................... 34
CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ROOFING SHINGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

628 • Appendix E
 ADDITIONAL HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

154 OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE EXTERIOR NATURAL WALLS

WALLS OF THE DWELLING. NO WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
CANE/PALM/TRUNKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
RECORD OBSERVATION. MUD/SAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
RUDIMENTARY WALLS
BAMBOO WITH MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
STONE WITH MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
METAL/GALVANIZED SHEET ........... 23
PLYWOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CARDBOARD ......................... 25
REUSED WOOD ...................... 26
FINISHED WALLS
CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
STONE WITH LIME/CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
BRICKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
CEMENT BLOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
WOOD PLANKS/SHINGLES ............. 36

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

155 I would like to check whether the salt used in your SALT TESTED
household is iodized. May I have a sample of the salt IODINE PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
used to cook meals in your household? NO IODINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SALT NOT TESTED
HOUSEHOLD USES SALT BUT THERE IS NO
SALT IN THE HOUSEHOLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
HOUSEHOLD DOES NOT USE SALT ..... 4

TEST SALT FOR IODINE. SALT NOT TESTED 6

(SPECIFY REASON)

Appendix E • 629
 FOOD INSECURITY MODULE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I would like to ask you some questions about food. During the last 12 months, was there a time when:

155A You or others in your household worried about not YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

having enough food to eat because of a lack of money NO ..................................... 2
or other resources? REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155B Still thinking about the last 12 months, was there a time YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
when you or others in your household were unable to NO ..................................... 2
eat healthy and nutritious food because of a lack of REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
money or other resources? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155C Was there a time when you or others in your household YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ate only a few kinds of foods because of a lack of NO ..................................... 2
money or other resources? REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155D Was there a time when you or others in your household YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
had to skip a meal because there was not enough NO ..................................... 2
money or other resources to get food? REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155E Still thinking about the last 12 months, was there a time YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
when you or others in your household ate less than you NO ..................................... 2
thought you should because of a lack of money or other REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
resources? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155F Was there a time when your household ran out of food YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
because of a lack of money or other resources? NO ..................................... 2
REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155G Was there a time when you or others in your household YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
were hungry but did not eat because there was not NO ..................................... 2
enough money or other resources for food? REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

155H Was there a time when you or others in your household YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
went without eating for a whole day because of a lack of NO ..................................... 2
money or other resources? REFUSED TO ANSWER ................ 7
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

156 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS .........................

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

630 • Appendix E
 INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

Appendix E • 631
632 • Appendix E
 FORMATTING DATE: 28 Jan 2021
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:03 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
WOMAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE
NEPAL
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION

IDENTIFICATION

NAME AND CODE OF DISTRICT

NAME AND CODE OF GAUNPALIKA/MUNICIPALITY

WARD NUMBER ......................................................................

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER ......................................................................

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ...................................................................

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF WOMAN

CHECK COVER PAGE OF HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY? (1=YES, 2=NO) ..

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR
2 0 7
INTERVIEWER'S
NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER
TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: 1 COMPLETED 4 REFUSED

2 NOT AT HOME 5 PARTLY COMPLETED 7 OTHER
3 POSTPONED 6 INCAPACITATED SPECIFY

TRANSLATOR USED
LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** 0 1 LANGUAGE OF
INTERVIEW**
NATIVE LANGUAGE
OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** ENGLISH **LANGUAGE CODES:
01 ENGLISH 03 MAITHILI
02 NEPALI 04 BHOJPURI

TEAM TEAM SUPERVISOR

NUMBER NAME NUMBER

Appendix E • 633
 INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working for New ERA to collect data on 2022 Nepal Demographic
and Health Survey being conducted under the aegis of the Ministry of Health and Population. We are conducting a survey about health and
other topics all over Nepal. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your household was selected for the
survey. The questions usually take about 60 to 90 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone
other than members of our survey team. You don't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to answer the questions since your
views are important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next question or you can stop
the interview at any time.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on the card that has already been given to your
household.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

101 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS ........................

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102 What province were you born in? PROVINCE NO 1 ........................ 01

MADHESH ........................ 02
BAGMATI .............................. 03
GANDAKI .............................. 04 104
LUMBINI ........................ 05
KARNALI ........................ 06
SUDURPASCHIM ........................ 07

OUTSIDE OF NEPAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

103 What country were you born in?

COUNTRY

104 How long have you been living continuously in (NAME

OF CURRENT CITY, TOWN OR VILLAGE OF YEARS ........................
RESIDENCE)?
ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
110
IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD ‘00’ YEARS. VISITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

105 CHECK 104:

00 - 04 YEARS 05 YEARS
107
OR MORE

106 In what month and year did you move here?

MONTH ........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

.

107 Just before you moved here, which province did you live PROVINCE NO 1 ........................ 01
in? MADHESH ........................ 02
BAGMATI .............................. 03
GANDAKI .............................. 04
LUMBINI ........................ 05
KARNALI ........................... 06
SUDURPASCHIM ........................ 07

OUTSIDE OF NEPAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

634 • Appendix E
 SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

108 Just before you moved here, did you live in a city CITY (METROPOLITAN OR SUB-
(metropolitan or sub-metropolitan or municipality), or in METROPOLITAN OR MUNICIPALITY) ..... 1
a rural area? RURAL AREA ................... 2

109 Why did you move to this place? EMPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

EDUCATION/TRAINING ................... 02
MARRIAGE FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
FAMILY REUNIFICATION/OTHER
FAMILY-RELATED REASON . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
FORCED DISPLACEMENT ................ 05
NATURAL DISASTER ................ 06
OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

110 In what month and year were you born?

MONTH ........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

.

111 How old were you at your last birthday?

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . .
COMPARE AND CORRECT 110 AND/OR 111
IF INCONSISTENT.

112 In general, would you say your health is very good, VERY GOOD ........................... 1
good, moderate, bad, or very bad? GOOD ................................. 2
MODERATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
BAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
VERY BAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

113 Have you ever attended school? YES .................................... 1 115

NO .................................... 2

113A Has (NAME) ever participated in a literacy program or YES .................................... 1

any other program that involves learning to read and 117
write (not including primary school)? NO .................................... 2

115 What is the highest grade you have completed?

GRADE .............
IF COMPLETED LESS THAN ONE YEAR AT THAT
LEVEL, RECORD '00'.

116 CHECK 115:

GRADE 12 OR ABOVE GRADE 12

119
LOWER

117 Now I would like you to read this sentence to me. CANNOT READ AT ALL ................... 1
ABLE TO READ ONLY PART OF
SHOW CARD TO RESPONDENT. THE SENTENCE ...................... 2
ABLE TO READ WHOLE SENTENCE ....... 3
IF RESPONDENT CANNOT READ WHOLE NO CARD WITH REQUIRED
SENTENCE, LANGUAGE 4
PROBE: Can you read any part of the sentence to me? (SPECIFY LANGUAGE)
BLIND/VISUALLY IMPAIRED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

118 CHECK 117:

CODE '2', '3' CODE '1' OR '5'

OR '4' CIRCLED 120
CIRCLED

Appendix E • 635
 SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

119 Do you read a newspaper or magazine at least once a AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
week, less than once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL ........................... 3

120 Do you listen to the radio at least once a week, less AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
than once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL ........................... 3

121 Do you watch television at least once a week, less than AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL ........................... 3

122 Do you own a mobile phone? YES .................................... 1

NO .................................... 2 124

123 Is your mobile phone a smart phone? YES .................................... 1

NO .................................... 2

124 In the last 12 months, have you used a mobile phone to

make financial transactions such as sending or YES .................................... 1
receiving money, paying bills, purchasing goods or NO .................................... 2
services, or receiving wages?

125 Do you have an account in a bank or other financial YES .................................... 1

institution that you yourself use? NO .................................... 2 127

126 Did you yourself put money in or take money out of this YES .................................... 1
account in the last 12 months? NO .................................... 2

127 Have you ever used the Internet from any location on YES .................................... 1
any device? NO .................................... 2 130

128 In the last 12 months, have you used the Internet?

YES .................................... 1
IF NECESSARY, PROBE FOR USE FROM ANY NO .................................... 2 130
LOCATION, WITH ANY DEVICE.

129 During the last one month, how often did you use the ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Internet: almost every day, at least once a week, less AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
than once a week, or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 3
NOT AT ALL ........................... 4

130 What is your religion? HINDU .............................. 01

BUDDHIST .............................. 02
MUSLIM .............................. 03
KIRAT .............................. 04
CHRISTIAN .............................. 05

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

131 What is your caste/ethnic group? HILL BRAHMIN ........................ 01

HILL CHHETRI ........................ 02
TERAI BRAHMIN/CHETTRI ................ 03
OTHER TERAI CASTE ................... 04
HILL DALIT ........................ 05
TERAI DALIT ........................ 06
NEWAR ................ 07
HILL JANAJATI ................ 08
TERAI JANAJATI ................ 09
MUSLIM ................... 10

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

636 • Appendix E
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

201 Now I would like to ask about all the births you have had YES .................................... 1
during your life. Have you ever given birth? NO .................................... 2 206

202 Do you have any sons or daughters to whom you have YES .................................... 1
given birth who are now living with you? NO .................................... 2 204

203 a) How many sons live with you?

a) SONS AT HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) And how many daughters live with you?
b) DAUGHTERS AT HOME .......
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

204 Do you have any sons or daughters to whom you have YES .................................... 1
given birth who are alive but do not live with you? NO .................................... 2 206

205 a) How many sons are alive but do not live with you?
a) SONS ELSEWHERE ..........
b) And how many daughters are alive but do not live
with you? b) DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE .....
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

206 Have you ever given birth to a boy or girl who was born
alive but later died?
YES .................................... 1
IF NO, PROBE: Any baby who cried, who made any NO .................................... 2 208
movement, sound, or effort to breathe, or who showed
any other signs of life even if for a very short time?

207 a) How many boys have died?

a) BOYS DEAD ................
b) And how many girls have died?
b) GIRLS DEAD ................
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

208 SUM ANSWERS TO 203, 205, AND 207, AND ENTER

TOTAL. IF NONE, RECORD '00'. TOTAL LIVE BIRTHS .............

209 CHECK 208:

Just to make sure that I have this right: you have had in TOTAL _____ births during your life. Is that correct?

YES NO

PROBE AND
CORRECT 201-208
AS NECESSARY.

210 Women sometimes have a pregnancy that does not

result in a live birth. For example, a pregnancy can end
in a miscarriage, an abortion, or the child can be born YES .................................... 1
dead. Have you ever had a pregnancy that did not end NO .................................... 2 212
in a live birth?

211 How many miscarriages, abortions, and stillbirths have

you had? PREGNANCY LOSSES ..........

212 SUM ANSWERS TO 208 AND 211 AND ENTER

TOTAL. IF NONE, RECORD '00'. TOTAL PREGNANCY OUTCOMES ..

213 CHECK 212:

ONE OR MORE PAST NO PAST 232

PREGNANCIES PREGNANCIES

Appendix E • 637
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

214 Now I would like to record all your pregnancies including live births, stillbirths, miscarriages, and abortions, starting with your first pregnancy.

RECORD ALL PREGNANCIES IN 215-228. RECORD TWINS AND TRIPLETS ON SEPARATE LINES. IF THERE ARE MORE THAN 3
PREGNANCIES, USE AN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE.

215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222

Think back IF 215=1, ASK: Did the What name Is (NAME) CHECK 216 AND How long did this FOR ROW 01, ASK:
to your Was the baby baby was given to a boy or a 217: TYPE OF pregnancy last in Were there any other
(first/next) born alive, born cry, the baby? girl? PREGNANCY weeks or months? pregnancies before
pregnancy. dead, or did you move, OUTCOME. this pregnancy?
Was that a have a or
single miscarriage or breathe NOTE: IF 217=1, AFTER ROW 01:
pregnancy, abortion? ? THEN
twins, or PREGNANCY IF 215=1 OR THIS IS
IF 215 > 1, ASK:
triplets? OUTCOME= THE FIRST BIRTH
Was the
BORN ALIVE. OF A MULTIPLE
(first/next) baby in RECORD IN PREGNANCY, ASK:
IF this pregnancy COMPLETED Were there any other
MULTIPLE born alive or born WEEKS OR
IF BORN ALIVE, pregnancies between
PREGN- dead? MONTHS.
RECORD ASK: On what day, the previous
ANCY COPY NAME. month, and year pregnancy and this
VALUE FOR was (NAME) born? pregnancy?
215 IN NEXT
ROW(S) IF BORN DEAD, A IF 215 > 1 AND THIS
MISCARRIAGE, IS NOT THE FIRST
OR AN BIRTH OF THE
ABORTION, ASK: PREGNANCY, SKIP
PREG- On what day, TO 216 IN NEXT
NANCY month, and year ROW.
HISTORY did this pregnancy
LINE end?
NUMBER

01 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1

DAY WEEKS 1
SING 1 (SKIP TO 218) YES 1 BOY 1
(ADD
TWINS 2 PREGNANCY)
MONTH MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2 NO 2 GIRL 2

TRIP 3 MISCARRIAGE 3 NAME NO 2

(SKIP TO 220) (SKIP (NEXT
NO. OF
ABORTION 4 TO 220) YEAR PREGNANCY)
OUT-
COMES

02 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1 YES 1

DAY WEEKS 1
SING 1 (SKIP TO 218) BOY 1
(ADD
TWINS 2 NO 2 PREGNANCY)
MONTH MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2 GIRL 2

TRIP 3 MISCARRIAGE 3 (SKIP NAME NO 2

(SKIP TO 220) TO 220)
(NEXT
NO. OF
ABORTION 4 YEAR PREGNANCY)
OUT-
COMES

03 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1 YES 1

DAY WEEKS 1
SING 1 (SKIP TO 218) BOY 1
(ADD
TWINS 2 NO 2 PREGNANCY)
MONTH MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2 GIRL 2

TRIP 3 MISCARRIAGE 3 (SKIP NAME NO 2

(SKIP TO 220) TO 220) (NEXT
NO. OF
ABORTION 4 YEAR PREGNANCY)
OUT-
COMES

222A Have you had any pregnancies YES ............ 1 ADD TO TABLE
that ended since the last
pregnancy mentioned? NO ............ 2

222B READ THE LIST OF PREGNANCY OUTCOMES IN ORDER TO THE RESPONDENT AND ASK IF THEY ARE ALL THAT SHE HAS EVER
HAD, AND IF THEY ARE LISTED IN ORDER STARTING FROM THE FIRST ONE.

DOES THE RESPONDENT AGREE?

IF NOT, PROBE FOR THE CORRECT INFORMATION AND REVISE THE PREGNANCY HISTORY ACCORDINGLY.
IF YES, PROCEED TO 223 ROW 1.

638 • Appendix E
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

223 224 225 226 227 228

IF BORN ALIVE AND STILL LIVING: IF BORN ALIVE AND
NOW DEAD:

CHECK 216, 217 Is How old Is RECORD How old was (NAME)
AND 221: (NAME) was (NAME) HOUSEHOLD when (he/she) died?
still (NAME) at living LINE
IF 216=1 OR 217=1, alive? (his/her) with NUMBER OF IF '12 MONTHS' OR
THEN PREGNANCY last you? CHILD. '1 YR', ASK: Did
OUTCOME = BORN birthday? RECORD '00' (NAME) have
ALIVE. IF CHILD NOT (his/her) first birthday?
LISTED IN
IF 216=2 OR 3, HOUSEHOLD. THEN ASK: Exactly
THEN CHECK 221. how many months old
IF 221 ≥ 7 MONTHS was (NAME) when
OR 28 WEEKS, (he/she) died?
THEN PREGNANCY
OUTCOME = BORN RECORD
DEAD. AGE IN
IF 221 < 7 MONTHS COMP- RECORD DAYS IF
OR 28 WEEKS, LETED LESS THAN 1
FINAL PREGNANCY YEARS. MONTH; MONTHS IF
OUTCOME = LESS THAN TWO
MISCARRIAGE. YEARS; OR YEARS.

IF 216=4, THEN
PREGNANCY
OUTCOME =
ABORTION.

01 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1 AGE IN YES 1 HOUSEHOLD

DAYS 1
YEARS LINE NUMBER

NO 2 NO 2
MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2

MISCARRIAGE 3 (SKIP
YEARS 3
TO 228)
(SKIP TO 223
ABORTION 4 (SKIP TO 223 IN
IN NEXT ROW)
NEXT ROW)

02 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1 AGE IN YES 1 HOUSEHOLD

DAYS 1
YEARS LINE NUMBER

NO 2 NO 2
MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2

MISCARRIAGE 3 (SKIP
YEARS 3
TO 228)
(SKIP TO 223
ABORTION 4 (SKIP TO 223 IN
IN NEXT ROW)
NEXT ROW)

03 BORN ALIVE 1 YES 1 AGE IN YES 1 HOUSEHOLD

DAYS 1
YEARS LINE NUMBER

NO 2 NO 2
MONTHS 2
BORN DEAD 2

MISCARRIAGE 3 (SKIP
YEARS 3
TO 228)
(SKIP TO 223
ABORTION 4 (SKIP TO 223 IN
IN NEXT ROW)
NEXT ROW)

Appendix E • 639
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

230 COMPARE 212 WITH NUMBER OF PREGNANCY OUTCOMES IN PREGNANCY HISTORY

NUMBER IN
NUMBER IN PREGNANCY PREGNANCY HISTORY IS
HISTORY IS GREATER THAN LESS THAN 212
OR EQUAL TO 212
(PROBE AND RECONCILE)

231 FOR EACH LIVE BIRTH IN 2073-2078, ENTER 'B' IN THE MONTH OF BIRTH IN THE CALENDAR.

C
WRITE THE NAME OF THE CHILD TO THE LEFT OF THE 'B' CODE. FOR EACH LIVE BIRTH,
RECORD 'P' IN EACH OF THE PRECEDING MONTHS ACCORDING TO THE DURATION OF
PREGNANCY. (NOTE: THE NUMBER OF 'P's MUST BE ONE LESS THAN THE NUMBER OF MONTHS
THAT THE PREGNANCY LASTED.)
FOR EACH PREGNANCY THAT DID NOT END IN A LIVE BIRTH IN 2073-2078, ENTER 'T' IN THE
CALENDAR IN THE MONTH THAT THE PREGNANCY TERMINATED AND 'P' FOR THE REMAINING
NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS OF PREGNANCY.
IF DURATION OF PREGNANCY WAS REPORTED IN WEEKS, MULTIPLY THE NUMBER OF WEEKS
BY 0.23 TO CONVERT TO THE NUMBER OF MONTHS. ROUND DOWN TO THE NEAREST WHOLE
NUMBER TO GET THE NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS.

232 Are you pregnant now? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
235A
UNSURE ............................... 8

233 How many weeks or months pregnant are you?

WEEKS ...................... 1
RECORD NUMBER OF COMPLETED WEEKS OR
MONTHS.
MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

C
ENTER 'P's IN THE CALENDAR,
BEGINNING WITH THE MONTH OF
INTERVIEW AND FOR THE TOTAL
NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS.
IF DURATION OF PREGNANCY WAS
REPORTED IN WEEKS, MULTIPLY THE
NUMBER OF WEEKS BY 0.23 TO
CONVERT TO THE NUMBER OF
MONTHS. ROUND DOWN TO THE
NEAREST WHOLE NUMBER TO GET THE
NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS.

234 When you got pregnant, did you want to get pregnant at YES ..................................... 1 236
that time? NO ..................................... 2

235 CHECK 208: TOTAL NUMBER OF LIVE BIRTHS

ONE OR MORE NONE

a) Did you want to have a b) Did you want to have a

baby later on or did you baby later on or did you LATER .................................. 1
not want any more not want any children? 236
NO MORE/NONE ......................... 2
children?

235A CHECK 111: AGE

AGE 15-19 AGE 20-49

YEARS YEARS 236

235B Have you received iron-folic acid supplementation in the YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

last 3 months? NO ..................................... 2
SHOW TABLETS. DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

640 • Appendix E
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

236 When did your last menstrual period start?

DAYS AGO ............. 1

WEEKS AGO ............. 2

MONTHS AGO ............. 3

(DATE, IF GIVEN) YEARS AGO ............. 4

IN MENOPAUSE/
HAS HAD HYSTERECTOMY ........... 994
240
BEFORE LAST PREGNANCY ........... 995

NEVER MENSTRUATED ................ 996 241

237 CHECK 236: WAS THE LAST MENSTRUAL PERIOD WITHIN THE LAST YEAR?

YES, NO,
WITHIN ONE YEAR 240
LAST YEAR OR MORE

238 During your last menstrual period, what did you use to REUSABLE SANITARY PADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
collect or absorb your menstrual blood? DISPOSABLE SANITARY PADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
TAMPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
Anything else? MENSTRUAL CUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
CLOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
TOILET PAPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
COTTON WOOL PAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
UNDERWEAR ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
NOTHING .. ............................ Y

239 During your last menstrual period, were you able to YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
wash and change in privacy while at home? NO ..................................... 2
AWAY FROM HOME DURING LAST MENSTRUAL
PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

239A During your menstrual period, which activities are you ENTERING THE TEMPLE ................ A
excluded from doing? GETTING INVOLVED IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES B
TOUCH OR COOKING FOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
EATING WITH FAMILY MEMBERS ........... D
STAYING IN THE MAIN HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
TOUCHING PLANTS ...................... F
TOUCHING OTHER PEOPLE ............. G
TOUCHING CATTLE ...................... H
FETCH WATER ...................... I
SLEEP WITH HUSBAND ................ J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
NOTHING .. ............................ Y

240 How old were you when you had your first menstrual
period? AGE ............................

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

241 From one menstrual period to the next, are there certain YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
days when a woman is more likely to become pregnant? NO ..................................... 2
243
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

242 Is this time just before her period begins, during her JUST BEFORE HER PERIOD BEGINS ........ 1
period, right after her period has ended, or halfway DURING HER PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
between two periods? RIGHT AFTER HER PERIOD HAS ENDED . . . . . 3
HALFWAY BETWEEN TWO PERIODS . . . . . . . . 4
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

243 After the birth of a child, can a woman become pregnant YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
before her menstrual period has returned? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Appendix E • 641
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

301 Now I would like to talk about family planning - the various ways or methods that a couple can use to delay or avoid a pregnancy.
Have you ever heard of (METHOD)?

01 Female Sterilization. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have an operation to avoid having any more NO ................................. 2
children.

02 Male Sterilization. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Men can have an operation to avoid having any more NO ................................. 2
children.

03 IUCD. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have a loop or coil placed inside them by a NO ................................. 2
doctor or a nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one or more years.

04 Injectables or Sayana Press. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have an injection by a health provider that stops NO ................................. 2
them from becoming pregnant for one or more months.

05 Implants. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have one or more small rods placed in their NO ................................. 2
upper arm by a doctor or nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one
or more years.

06 Pill. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Women can take a pill every day to avoid becoming pregnant. NO ................................. 2

07 Condom. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Men can put a rubber sheath on their penis before sexual NO ................................. 2
intercourse.

09 Emergency Contraception. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: As an emergency measure, within 3 days after they have NO ................................. 2
unprotected sexual intercourse, women can take special pills to
prevent pregnancy.

10 Standard Days Method. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: A woman uses a string of colored beads to know the days NO ................................. 2
she can get pregnant. On the days she can get pregnant, she uses a
condom or does not have sexual intercourse.

11 Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM). YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Up to 6 months after childbirth, before the menstrual period NO ................................. 2
has returned, women use a method requiring frequent breastfeeding
day and night.

12 Rhythm Method. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: To avoid pregnancy, women do not have sexual intercourse NO ................................. 2
on the days of the month they think they can get pregnant.

13 Withdrawal. YES ................................. 1

PROBE: Men can be careful and pull out before climax. NO ................................. 2

14 Have you heard of any other ways or methods that women or men can YES, MODERN METHOD
use to avoid pregnancy?
A
(SPECIFY)
YES, TRADITIONAL METHOD

B
(SPECIFY)
NO ................................. Y

642 • Appendix E
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

302 CHECK 232:

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

317
OR UNSURE

303 Are you or your partner currently doing something or YES .................................... 1 307
using any method to delay or avoid getting pregnant? NO .................................... 2

304 Are you or your partner sterilized? YES, RESPONDENT STERILIZED ONLY ..... 1
YES, PARTNER STERILIZED ONLY . . . . . . . . . . 2
IF YES: Who is sterilized, you or your partner? YES, BOTH STERILIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
NO, NEITHER STERILIZED ................ 4 306

305 CHECK 304:

RESPONDENT PARTNER BOTH

STERILIZED ONLY STERILIZED ONLY STERILIZED

PROCEED TO 307. CIRCLE PROCEED TO 307. CIRCLE PROCEED TO 307. CIRCLE CODE
CODE 'A' AND FOLLOW THE CODE 'B' AND FOLLOW THE 'A' AND CODE 'B' AND FOLLOW
SKIP INSTRUCTION. SKIP INSTRUCTION. THE SKIP INSTRUCTION.

306 Just to check, are you or your partner doing any of the YES .................................... 1
following to avoid pregnancy: deliberately avoiding sex NO .................................... 2 317
on certain days, using a condom, using withdrawal or
using emergency contraception?

307 Which method are you using? FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

312
MALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C 314
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E 314
IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD MENTIONED, PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F 310
FOLLOW SKIP INSTRUCTION FOR HIGHEST CONDOM .............................. G 311
METHOD IN LIST. EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION .......... I
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD ..... K
RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L 314
WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ X
OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

308 Now I'm going to show you two pictures. Please point to DMPA-SC/SAYANA PRESS ................ 1
the picture that best matches what was used the last NEEDLE AND SYRINGE ................... 2
time you received your injectable. 314
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

SHOW IMAGES OF SAYANA PRESS AND REGULAR

SYRINGE.

309 The last time you received your injectable, did you inject SELF-INJECTION ........................ 1
DMPA-SC/Sayana Press yourself or did a health care INJECTION GIVEN BY HEALTH CARE
provider do it for you? 314
PROVIDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

310 What is the brand name of the pills you are using? NILOCON WHITE ........................ 01
SUNAULO GULAPH ...................... 02
FEMINYL .............................. 03
FEMICON .............................. 04
OK PILLS .............................. 05
314
MOHP-NO BRAND ...................... 06
IF DON'T KNOW THE BRAND, ASK TO SEE THE
PACKAGE. OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

Appendix E • 643
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

311 What is the brand name of the condoms you are using? DHAAL .............................. 01
PANTHER .............................. 02
DZIRE .............................. 03
KAMASUTRA ........................... 04
IF DON'T KNOW THE BRAND, ASK TO SEE THE JODI .............................. 05
PACKAGE. NUMBER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
314
BLACK COBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
MOHP-NO BRAND ...................... 08

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

312 In what facility did the sterilization take place? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. INSTITUTIONALIZED FAMILY
PLANNING CLINICS ................ 13
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR MOBILE CAMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE.
OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 16
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
PRIVATE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

313 In what month and year was the sterilization performed?

MONTH ........................
315

YEAR .............

314 Since what month and year have you been using
(CURRENT METHOD) without stopping? MONTH ........................

PROBE: For how long have you been using (CURRENT YEAR .............
METHOD) now without stopping?

315 CHECK 313 AND 314, AND 220: ANY LIVE BIRTH, STILLBIRTH, MISCARRIAGE OR ABORTION AFTER MONTH
AND YEAR OF START OF USE OF CONTRACEPTION IN 313 OR 314?

NO YES

GO BACK TO 313 OR 314, PROBE AND RECORD MONTH AND

YEAR AT START OF CONTINUOUS USE OF CURRENT METHOD
(MUST BE AFTER LAST BIRTH OR PREGNANCY TERMINATION).

644 • Appendix E
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION (CAPI OPTION)

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

316 CHECK 313 AND 314:

YEAR IS 2073-2078 YEAR IS 2072 OR EARLIER

C C
ENTER CODE FOR METHOD USED IN MONTH ENTER CODE FOR METHOD USED IN
OF INTERVIEW IN THE CALENDAR AND IN MONTH OF INTERVIEW IN THE CALENDAR
EACH MONTH BACK TO THE DATE STARTED AND EACH MONTH BACK TO BAISAKH 2073 .
USING.

THEN CONTINUE THEN

(SKIP TO 329)

317 I would like to ask you some questions about the times you or your partner may have used a method to avoid getting pregnant
during the last few years.

C
USE CALENDAR TO PROBE FOR EARLIER PERIODS OF USE AND NONUSE, STARTING WITH MOST RECENT
USE, BACK TO BAISAKH 2073. USE NAMES OF CHILDREN, DATES OF BIRTH, AND PERIODS OF PREGNANCY AS
REFERENCE POINTS.

317A MONTH AND YEAR OF START OF INTERVAL OF

USE OR NON-USE. MONTH ........................

YEAR .............

317B Between (EVENT) in (MONTH/YEAR) and (EVENT) in

(MONTH/YEAR), did you or your partner use any YES .................................... 1
method of contraception? NO .................................... 2 317I

317C Which method was that?

METHOD CODE ......................

317D How many months after (EVENT) in (MONTH/YEAR) IMMEDIATELY ........................ 00

did you start to use (METHOD)?
317F
CIRCLE '95' IF RESPONDENT GIVES THE DATE OF MONTHS ......................
STARTING TO USE THE METHOD.
DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

317E RECORD MONTH AND YEAR RESPONDENT

STARTED USING METHOD. MONTH ........................

YEAR .............

317F For how many months did you use (METHOD)?

317H
MONTHS ......................
CIRCLE '95' IF RESPONDENT GIVES THE DATE OF
TERMINATION OF USE. DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

317G RECORD MONTH AND YEAR RESPONDENT

STOPPED USING METHOD. MONTH ........................

YEAR .............

317H Why did you stop using (METHOD)?

REASON STOPPED ...................

317I GO BACK TO 317A FOR NEXT GAP; OR, IF NO MORE GAPS, GO TO 318.

Appendix E • 645
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

318 Have you used emergency contraception in the last 12 YES .................................... 1
months? That is, have you taken special pills within 3 or NO .................................... 2
5 days after having unprotected sexual intercourse to
prevent pregnancy?

319 CHECK THE CALENDAR FOR USE OF ANY CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD IN ANY MONTH

NO METHOD USED ANY METHOD USED

321

320 Have you ever used anything or tried in any way to YES .................................... 1
331
delay or avoid getting pregnant? NO .................................... 2

321 CHECK 307: NO CODE CIRCLED ...................... 00 331

FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01 324
CIRCLE METHOD CODE: MALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02 332
IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
307, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST. IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
CONDOM .............................. 07
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD ..... 11
RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 332
WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ 95
OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 332

322 You first started using (CURRENT METHOD) in (DATE PUBLIC SECTOR
FROM 314). Where did you get it at that time? GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ....... 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ....... 12
HEALTH POST ...................... 13
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . 14
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 15
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
FCHV .............................. 18
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.
OTHER PUBLIC
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR FACILITIES 16
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
(SPECIFY)
OF THE PLACE.

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PHARMACY ........................ 23
SANGINI OUTLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

646 • Appendix E
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

323 At that time, were you told about side effects or YES .................................... 1
325
problems you might have with the method? NO .................................... 2

324 When you got sterilized, were you told about side YES .................................... 1
effects or problems you might have with the method? NO .................................... 2

325 Were you told what to do if you experienced side effects YES .................................... 1
or problems? NO .................................... 2

326 At that time, were you told about other methods of YES .................................... 1
family planning that you could use? NO .................................... 2

327 CHECK 307: FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01 332

IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
CIRCLE METHOD CODE: INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
307, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST. CONDOM .............................. 07
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ 95

328 At that time, were you told that you could switch to YES .................................... 1
330
another method if you wanted to or needed to? NO .................................... 2

329 CHECK 307: FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

332
MALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
CIRCLE METHOD CODE: IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
307, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST. PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
CONDOM .............................. 07
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION .......... 09
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD ..... 11
RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
332
WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ 95
OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 332

Appendix E • 647
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

330 Where did you obtain (CURRENT METHOD) the last PUBLIC SECTOR
time? GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ....... 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ....... 12
HEALTH POST ...................... 13
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER ....... 14
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 15
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR FCHV .............................. 18
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE.
OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 16
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PHARMACY ........................ 23
SANGINI OUTLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
332
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

331 Do you know of a place where you can obtain a method YES .................................... 1
of family planning? NO .................................... 2

332 In the last 12 months, were you visited by a fieldworker YES .................................... 1
(FCHV)? NO .................................... 2 334

333 Did the fieldworker (FCHV) talk to you about family YES .................................... 1
planning? NO .................................... 2

334 CHECK 202: CHILDREN LIVING WITH RESPONDENT

YES NO

a) In the last 12 months, b) In the last 12 months, YES .................................... 1

have you visited a have you visited a NO .................................... 2 401
health facility for care health facility for care
for yourself or your for yourself?
children?

335 Did any staff member at the health facility speak to you YES .................................... 1
about family planning methods? NO .................................... 2

648 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

401 CHECK 220 AND 225:

ONE OR MORE PREGNANCY NO PREGNANCY OUTCOMES
OUTCOMES 0-35 MONTHS 0-35 MONTHS BEFORE 601
BEFORE THE SURVEY THE SURVEY

402 CHECK 220. LIST THE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER IN 215 FOR EACH PREGNANCY OUTCOME 0-35
MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, STARTING FROM THE LAST ONE. CLASSIFY EACH PREGNANCY OUTCOME
BY TYPE USING 223 AND THE ORDER OF OUTCOMES IN THE PREGNANCY HISTORY.

PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT LIVE BIRTH 1
PRIOR LIVE BIRTH 2
MOST RECENT STILLBIRTH 3
PRIOR STILLBIRTH 4
ABORTION OR MISCARRIAGE 5

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER .. PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE ...........

403 Now I would like to ask some questions about your pregnancies in the last 3 years. (We will talk about each separately,
starting with the last one you had.)

404 PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER FROM 402. PREGNANCY HISTORY

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

405 PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE FROM 402. MOST RECENT LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
407
PRIOR LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
MOST RECENT STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PRIOR STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
MISCARRIAGE/ABORTION ................ 5

406 RECORD DATE PREGNANCY ENDED FROM 220.

DAY ............................

408
MONTH .........................

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

407 RECORD NAME FROM 218.

NAME

408 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE

1 OR 2 3, 4, OR 5

a) When you got pregnant b) When you got pregnant YES ..................................... 1 411
with (NAME), did you with the pregnancy that NO ..................................... 2
want to get pregnant at ended in (DATE FROM
that time? 406), did you want to
get pregnant at that
time?

Appendix E • 649
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

409 Did you want to have a baby later on, or not at all? LATER .................................. 1
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 411

410 How much longer did you want to wait?

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YEARS ...................... 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

411 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE MOST RECENT LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PRIOR LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 434
MOST RECENT STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PRIOR STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 434
ABORTION/MISCARRIAGE ................ 5 475

412 Did you see anyone for antenatal care for this YES ..................................... 1 414
pregnancy? NO ..................................... 2

412A Why did you not see anyone for antenatal care for this DID NOT FEEL THE NEED ................ A
pregnancy? FACILITY NOT OPEN ................... B
NO TRANSPORTATION ................... C
FEAR OF GETTING COVID-19 ............. D
COST TOO MUCH ................... E
DUE TO LOCKDOWN ................... F

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

413 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT
LIVE BIRTH MOST RECENT
426
(SKIP TO 420) STILLBIRTH

414 Whom did you see? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR ............................ A
Anyone else? NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
PROBE TO IDENTIFY EACH TYPE OF PERSON AND OTHER PERSON
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . D
FCHV ............................... E

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

650 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

415 Where did you receive antenatal care for this HOME
pregnancy? HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
Anywhere else?
PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. C
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. D
HEALTH POST ...................... E
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . F
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. G
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES I
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, (SPECIFY)
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE
NAME OF THE PLACE(S).
PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... J
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... K
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL

FACILITIES M
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES P
(SPECIFY)

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

416 How many weeks or months pregnant were you when

you first received antenatal care for this pregnancy? WEEKS ................... 1

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

417 How many times did you receive antenatal care during
this pregnancy? NUMBER OF TIMES .............

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 418

417A CHECK 417: NUMBER OF TIMES

1-3 TIMES 4 OR MORE

418
TIMES

417B Why did you not receive at least 4 antenatal care during DID NOT FEEL THE NEED ................ A
this pregnancy? FACILITY NOT OPEN ................... B
NO TRANSPORTATION ................... C
FEAR OF GETTING COVID-19 ............. D
COST TOO MUCH ................... E

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 651
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

418 As part of your antenatal care during this pregnancy, did

a healthcare provider do any of the following:
YES NO DK

a) Measure your blood pressure? a) BP ...................... 1 2 8

b) Take a urine sample? b) URINE ................... 1 2 8
c) Take a blood sample? c) BLOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
d) Listen to the baby's heartbeat? d) HEARTBEAT ............. 1 2 8
e) Talk with you about which foods you should eat? e) FOODS TO EAT ........ 1 2 8
f) Talk with you about breastfeeding? f) BREASFEEDING ........ 1 2 8
g) Ask you if you had vaginal bleeding? g) BLEEDING ............. 1 2 8
h) Told you pregnant women should eat healthy food? h) HEALTHY FOOD ........... 1 2 8
i) Told you pregnant women should eat one extra meal
per day? i) EXTRA MEAL ............. 1 2 8
j) Weight you? j) WEIGHT ............. 1 2 8
k) Counsel you about weight gain? k) WEIGHT GAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
l) Abdominal examination? l) ABDOMINAL EXAM ........ 1 2 8
m) Talk with you about staying active? m) STAYING ACTIVE ........ 1 2 8
n) Getting adequate rest during pregnancy? n) ADEQUATE REST ........ 1 2 8

419 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT MOST RECENT

426
LIVE BIRTH STILLBIRTH

420 During this pregnancy, were you given an injection YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(Tetanus Diphtheria) in the arm to prevent the baby NO ..................................... 2
423
from getting tetanus after birth? DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

421 During this pregnancy, how many times did you get a
tetanus injection? TIMES ...............................

DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

422 CHECK 421:

ONE TIME TWO OR MORE TIMES 426

OR DK

423 At any time before this pregnancy, did you receive any YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
tetanus injections? NO ..................................... 2
426
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

424 Before this pregnancy, how many times did you receive
a tetanus injection? TIMES ...............................

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'. DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

425 CHECK 424:

ONLY MORE
ONE THAN ONE
a) How many years ago b) How many years ago
did you receive that did you receive the last YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
tetanus injection? tetanus injection prior
to this pregnancy?

426 During this pregnancy, were you given or did you buy YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
any iron tablets or iron syrup? NO ..................................... 2
429
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
SHOW TABLETS.

652 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

427 Where did you get the iron tablets or syrup? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. A
Anywhere else? PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. B
HEALTH POST ...................... C
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . D
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. E
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
FCHV ............................... G

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. OTHER PUBLIC

FACILITIES H
(SPECIFY)

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE,

OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
NAME OF THE PLACE(S). PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... I
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... J
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES L
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES O
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP ............................... P
MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

428 During the whole pregnancy, for how many days did you
take the iron tablets or syrup? DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IF ANSWER IS NOT NUMERIC, PROBE FOR DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF DAYS.

428A CHECK 428:

LESS THAN OTHER

429
180 DAYS

428B What is the main reason for not taking the iron/folic acid DID NOT LIKE TASTE ................... 1
tablets for 180 days? DID NOT RECEIVE COMPLETE DOSE . . . . . . . . 2
NOT AVAILABLE ................... 3
NOT AWARE ................... 4
FORGOT TO TAKE ................... 5
DUE TO LOCKDOWN ................... 7

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

429 During this pregnancy, did you take any medicine for YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
intestinal worms? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

430 During this pregnancy, did you receive food or cash YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
assistance through the various programs? NO ..................................... 2
434
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Appendix E • 653
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

430A Did you receive cash only, food only, or both cash and CASH ONLY ............................ 1
food? FOOD ONLY ............................ 2
BOTH FOOD AND CASH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
DON'T REMEMBER ...................... 8

434 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE HEALTH PERSONNEL

1 OR 2 3 OR 4 DOCTOR ............................ A
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
a) Who assisted with the b) Who assisted with the HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
delivery of (NAME)? delivery of the stillbirth OTHER PERSON
you had in (DATE TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . D
Anyone else? FROM 406)? RELATIVE/FRIEND ................... E
FCHV ............................... F
Anyone else?
OTHER X
PROBE FOR THE TYPE(S) OF PERSON(S) AND (SPECIFY)
RECORD ALL MENTIONED.
NO ONE ASSISTED ...................... Y
IF RESPONDENT SAYS NO ONE ASSISTED, PROBE
TO DETERMINE WHETHER ANY ADULTS WERE
PRESENT AT THE DELIVERY.

435 CHECK 405: HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
436A
PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1 OR 2 3 OR 4
PUBLIC SECTOR
a) Where did you give b) Where did you deliver GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 21
birth to (NAME)? this stillbirth? PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 22
HEALTH POST ...................... 23
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 24
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 25
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

OTHER PUBLIC
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, FACILITIES 26
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE (SPECIFY)
NAME OF THE PLACE.

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 31
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 32
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 46
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96 436A
(SPECIFY)

435A Did you receive cash incentive for transportation from YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
the facility after the delivery of (NAME)? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

654 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

436 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE

1 OR 2 3 OR 4

a) Was (NAME) delivered b) Was this stillbirth YES ..................................... 1

437
by caesarean, that is, delivered by NO ..................................... 2
did they cut your belly caesarean, that is, did
open to take the baby they cut your belly open
out? to take the baby out?

436A Why did you not deliver in a health facility? COST TOO MUCH ...................... A
FACILITY NOT OPEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
TOO FAR/NO TRANSPORTATION ........... C
DID NOT TRUST FACILITY/POOR SERVICE .. D
NO FEMALE PROVIDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
HUSBAND/FAMILY NOT ALLOWED . . . . . . . . . . . F
DID NOT FEEL THE NEED ................ G
NOT CUSTOMARY ...................... H
FEAR OF COVID-19 ...................... I
CHILD BORN BEFORE REACHING FACILITY . . J
DUE TO LOCKDOWN .. K

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ......................... .. Z

437 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE MOST RECENT LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PRIOR LIVE BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 441
MOST RECENT STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 445
PRIOR STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 487

438 After the birth, was (NAME) put on your chest? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO ..................................... 2
NB1
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

439 Was (NAME)'s bare skin touching your bare skin? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO ..................................... 2
NB1
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

440 How long after birth was (NAME) put on the bare skin of IMMEDIATELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000
your chest?

IF LESS THAN 1 HOUR, RECORD ‘00' HOURS; HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN 24 HOURS, RECORD HOURS;
OTHERWISE, RECORD DAYS. DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NB1 How long after the birth was (NAME) bathed for the first IMMEDIATELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000
time?

IF LESS THAN 1 HOUR, RECORD ‘00' HOURS; HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN 24 HOURS, RECORD HOURS;
OTHERWISE, RECORD DAYS. DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW ................ 998

NB2 CHECK 435: PLACE OF DELIVERY

CODE CODE
NB6
11, 12, OR 96 21- 46
CIRCLED

NB3 What was used to cut the cord? RAZOR BLADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

KNIFE .................................. 2
SCISSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8 NB6

Appendix E • 655
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

NB4 Was it new or had it ever been used before? NEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

USED BEFORE ......................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

NB5 Was it boiled before it was used to cut the cord? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO ......................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

656 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

NB6 From the time the cord was cut till it fell off, was YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
anything applied to the cord? NO ......................... 2
440A
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

NB7 What was applied? CHLORHEXIDINE (NAVI MALAM) ........... A

OTHER ANTISEPTIC (ALCOHOL,
Anything else? SPIRIT, GENTIAN VIOLET) ........... B
MUSTARD OIL ......................... C
ASH .................................. D
ANIMAL DUNG ......................... E

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

CH1 CHECK NB7: SUBSTANCE APPLIED TO CORD

CODE 'A' CODE 'A'

CH3
NOT CIRCLED CIRCLED

CH2 Was chlorhexidine (Navi Malam) applied to the cord at YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

any time? NO ......................... 2
440A
SHOW SAMPLE OF CHLORHEXIDINE DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CH3 How long after the cord was cut was chlorhexidine (Navi
Malam) first applied? HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN 1 HOUR, RECORD ‘00' HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN 24 HOURS, RECORD HOURS;
OTHERWISE, RECORD DAYS. DON'T KNOW ................ 998

CH4 For how many days was chlorhexidine (Navi Malam)

applied to the cord? DAYS ......................

IF 7 OR MORE DAYS, RECORD `7'. DON'T KNOW ................ 8

440A Was (NAME) given vitamin K intramuscular injection YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

within 28 days of birth? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

441 When (NAME) was born, was (NAME) very large, larger VERY LARGE ............................ 1
than average, average, smaller than average, or very LARGER THAN AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
small? AVERAGE ............................... 3
SMALLER THAN AVERAGE ................ 4
VERY SMALL ............................ 5
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

442 Was (NAME) weighed at birth? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
444
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

443 How much did (NAME) weigh?

KG FROM CARD 1 .

RECORD WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS FROM HEALTH

CARD, IF AVAILABLE. KG FROM RECALL 2 .

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99998

444 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT PRIOR LIVE BIRTH

480
LIVE BIRTH

Appendix E • 657
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

445 CHECK 435: PLACE OF DELIVERY

CODE
FACILITY BIRTH: ANY CODE 11, 12, OR 96
464
21 THROUGH 46 CIRCLED CIRCLED

MH17 Please tell me if the doctors, nurses or other healthcare ALL SOM
providers in the health facility where you delivered, did NOT
OF E OF
the following happen all of the time, some of the time, or AT
THE THE
not at all: ALL
TIME TIME

a) Treat you with respect? a) RESPECT ................ 1 2 8

b) Explain to you why they were doing examinations or b) EXPLAIN ............. 1 2 8
c) Take the best care of you? c) BEST CARE ........ 1 2 8

MH18 At any time during your stay in the health facility, did you:
YES NO DK

a) Share a bed with another patient? a) SHARE BED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) Rest or sleep on the floor without any mattress? b) SLEEP ON FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

MH21 At any time during your stay in the health facility, did any
YES NO DK
staff member:

a) Slap you? a) SLAP ................ 1 2 8

b) Hit or punch you? b) HIT OR PUNCH ........... 1 2 8
c) Physically threaten you? c) PHYSICALLY THREATEN . . . . . 1 2 8
d) Physically mistreat or harm you in any other way? d) OTHER PHYSICAL HARM . . . . . 1 2 8

MH22 At any time during your stay in the health facility, did any
YES NO DK
staff member:

a) Shout at you? a) SHOUT ................ 1 2 8

b) Say or do something to humiliate you? b) HUMILATE ........... 1 2 8
c) Verbally threaten you? c) VERBALLY THREATEN ..... 1 2 8
d) Verbally mistreat you in any other way? d) OTHER VERBAL
MISTREATMENT ........ 1 2 8

447 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE

1 3

a) How long after (NAME) b) For the stillbirth you HOURS ...................... 1
was delivered did you had in (DATE FROM
stay in (FACILITY IN 406), how long after the DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
435)? baby was born did you
stay in (FACILITY IN WEEKS ...................... 3
435)?
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS;
IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.

448 I would like to talk to you about checks on your health

after delivery, for example, someone asking you
questions about your health or examining you. YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 451
Before you left the facility, did anyone check on your
health?

658 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

449 How long after delivery did the first check take place?
HOURS ...................... 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS;
IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS. WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

450 Who checked on your health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

451 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT MOST RECENT

455
LIVE BIRTH STILLBIRTH

452 Now I would like to talk to you about checks on

(NAME'S) health -- for example, someone examining
(NAME), checking the cord, or talking to you about how YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
to care for (NAME). NO ..................................... 2
455
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Before (NAME) left the facility, did anyone check on
(NAME'S) health?

453 How long after delivery was (NAME)’s health first

checked? HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.
WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

454 Who checked on (NAME)’s health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

455 Now I would like to talk to you about what happened YES ..................................... 1
after you left the facility. Did anyone check on your NO ..................................... 2 459
health after you left the facility?

Appendix E • 659
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

456 How long after delivery did that check take place?
HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.
WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

457 Who checked on your health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

458 Where did the check take place? HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 21
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 22
HEALTH POST ...................... 23
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 24
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 25
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE
NAME OF THE PLACE. OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 31
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 32
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MARIE STOPES ...................... 42
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 46
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

459 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT MOST RECENT

474
LIVE BIRTH STILLBIRTH

460 After (NAME) left (FACILITY IN 435) did any health care YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
provider or a traditional birth attendant check on NO ..................................... 2
473
(NAME)’s health? DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

660 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

461 How long after the birth of (NAME) did that check take
place? HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.
WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

462 Who checked on (NAME)’s health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

463 Where did this check of (NAME) take place? HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 21
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 22
HEALTH POST ...................... 23
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 24
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 25
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE
NAME OF THE PLACE. OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)
473
PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 31
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 32
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 46
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 661
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

464 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY TYPE PREGNANCY TYPE

1 3

a) I would like to talk to b) I would like to talk to YES ..................................... 1

you about checks on you about checks on NO ..................................... 2 468
your health after your health after
delivery, for example, delivery, for example,
someone asking you someone asking you
questions about your questions about your
health or examining health or examining
you. Did anyone check you. Did anyone check
on your health after you on your health after you
gave birth to (NAME)? delivered the stillbirth
you had in (DATE
FROM 406)?

465 How long after delivery did the first check take place?
HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.
WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

466 Who checked on your health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

467 Where did this first check take place? HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 21
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 22
HEALTH POST ...................... 23
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 24
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 25
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE
NAME OF THE PLACE. OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 31
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 32
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 46
(SPECIFY)
OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

662 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

468 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE

MOST RECENT MOST RECENT

474
LIVE BIRTH STILLBIRTH

469 I would like to talk to you about checks on (NAME's)

health -- for example, someone examining (NAME),
checking the cord, or talking to you about how to care YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
for (NAME). NO ..................................... 2
473
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
After (NAME) was born, did any health care provider or
a traditional birth attendant check on (NAME's) health?

470 How long after the birth of (NAME) did that check take
place? HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY, RECORD HOURS; DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK, RECORD DAYS.
WEEKS ...................... 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

471 Who checked on (NAME)'s health at that time? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH ASST./AHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED PERSON. OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . 21
FCHV ............................... 22

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

472 Where did this first check of (NAME) take place? HOME
HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 21
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 22
HEALTH POST ...................... 23
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER ........ 24
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 25
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
OR NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE
NAME OF THE PLACE. OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 31
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 32
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 46
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 663
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

473 During the first 2 days after (NAME)’s birth, did any
health care provider do the following: YES NO DK

a) Examine the cord? a) CORD ................... 1 2 8

b) Measure (NAME)’s temperature? b) TEMPERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
c) Tell you how to recognize if your baby needs
immediate medical attention? c) MEDICAL ATTENTION . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
d) Talk with you about breastfeeding? d) TALK ABOUT BREASTFEEDING 1 2 8
e) Observe (NAME) breastfeeding? e) OBSERVE BREASTFEEDING 1 2 8
f) Tell you where you could get help with breastfeeding
f) HELP WITH BREASTFEEDING 1 2 8
g) Tell you where to seek treatment if your baby needs
immediate medical attention? g) PLACE FOR HELP . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

474 During the first 2 days after the birth, did any healthcare
provider do the following to you: YES NO DK

a) Measure your blood pressure? a) BLOOD PRESSURE ........ 1 2 8

b) Discuss your vaginal bleeding with you? b) BLEEDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
c) Discuss family planning with you? c) FAMILY PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
d) Tell you how to recognize if you need immediate
medical attention? d) OWN MEDICAL ATTENTION . . 1 2 8
e) Talk with you about your mental health? e) MENTAL HEALTH . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
f) Talk with you about which foods you should eat? f) FOOD TO EAT ........... 1 2 8
g) Talk with you about having two additional meals f) ADDITIONAL MEALS . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

475 CHECK 215: IS THIS PREGNANCY THE WOMAN'S LAST PREGNANCY?

YES NO
479

476 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY PREGNANCY
TYPE 1 TYPE 3 OR 5

a) Has your menstrual b) Has your menstrual YES ..................................... 1

period returned since period returned since NO ..................................... 2
the birth of (NAME)? the pregnancy that
ended in (DATE FROM
406)?

477 CHECK 232: IS RESPONDENT PREGNANT?

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

479
OR UNSURE

478 CHECK 405:

PREGNANCY PREGNANCY
TYPE 1 TYPE 3 OR 5

a) Have you had sexual b) Have you had sexual YES ..................................... 1
intercourse since the intercourse since the NO ..................................... 2
birth of (NAME)? pregnancy that ended
in (DATE FROM 406)?

479 CHECK 405: PREGNANCY OUTCOME TYPE MOST RECENT LIVE BIRTH ................ 1
MOST RECENT STILLBIRTH ................ 3
487
MISCARRIAGE/ABORTION ................ 5

480 Did you ever breastfeed (NAME)? YES ..................................... 1 482

NO ..................................... 2

481 CHECK 224 FOR CHILD: LIVING 486

DEAD 487

664 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NO. NAME OR DATE PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

482 How long after birth did you first put (NAME) to the IMMEDIATELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000
breast?

IF LESS THAN 1 HOUR, RECORD ‘00' HOURS; HOURS ...................... 1

IF LESS THAN 24 HOURS, RECORD HOURS;
OTHERWISE, RECORD DAYS. DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

483 In the first 2 days after delivery, was (NAME) given YES ..................................... 1
anything other than breast milk to eat or drink – NO ..................................... 2
anything at all like water, gripe water, Lactogen, honey,
or glucose syrup?

484 CHECK 224 FOR CHILD:

LIVING DEAD
487

485 Are you still breastfeeding (NAME)? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2

486 Did (NAME) drink anything from a bottle with a nipple YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
yesterday during the day or at night? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

487
CHECK 402: ANY MORE PREGNANCY OUTCOMES 0-35 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY?

MORE PREGNANCY NO MORE PREGNANCY

OUTCOMES 0-35 MONTHS OUTCOMES 0-35 501
BEFORE THE SURVEY MONTHS BEFORE THE
SURVEY

(GO TO 404 FOR THE NEXT

PREGNANCY OUTCOME)

Appendix E • 665
 SECTION 5. CHILD IMMUNIZATION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

501 CHECK 220, 224 AND 225 IN THE PREGNANCY HISTORY: ANY SURVIVING CHILDREN BORN 0-35 MONTHS
BEFORE THE SURVEY?

ONE OR MORE NO SURVIVING

SURVIVING CHILDREN CHILDREN BORN
BORN 0-35 MONTHS 0-35 MONTHS 601
BEFORE THE SURVEY BEFORE THE SURVEY

502 Now I would like to ask some questions about vaccinations received by your children born in the last 3 years. (We will talk
about each separately, starting with the youngest.)

503 RECORD THE NAME AND PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER FROM 215 AND 218 OF THE SURVIVING CHILDREN
BORN 0-35 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, STARTING WITH THE LAST ONE.

NAME OF CHILD PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

504 Do you have a card or other document where (NAME)'s YES, HAS ONLY A CARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 507
vaccinations are written down? YES, HAS ONLY ANOTHER DOCUMENT ..... 2
YES, HAS CARD AND OTHER DOCUMENT . . . . . 3 507
NO, NO CARD AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT .. 4

505 Did you ever have a vaccination card for (NAME)? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2

506 CHECK 504:

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED

513

507 May I see the card or other document where (NAME)'s YES, ONLY CARD SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
vaccinations are written down? YES, ONLY OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . 2
YES, CARD AND OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN .. 3
NO CARD AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . 4 513

508 RECORD (NAME'S) DATE OF BIRTH FROM THE

VACCINATION CARD OR OTHER DOCUMENT. DAY ...........................

MONTH ........................

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DATE OF BIRTH NOT ON CARD ............. 95

666 • Appendix E
 SECTION 5. CHILD IMMUNIZATION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

509 COPY VACCINATION DATES FROM THE CARD FOR (NAME).

RECORD ‘44' IN ‘DAY' COLUMN IF CARD SHOWS THAT A DOSE WAS GIVEN, BUT NO DATE IS RECORDED.
RECORD '00' IN 'DAY' COLUMN IF CARD IS BLANK FOR THE DOSE.

DAY MONTH YEAR

BCG

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 1

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 2

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 3

FRACTIONAL INACTIVATED POLIO VACCINE (fIPV) 1

FRACTIONAL INACTIVATED POLIO VACCINE (fIPV) 2

DPT-HEP.B-HIB (PENTAVALENT) 1

DPT-HEP.B-HIB (PENTAVALENT) 2

DPT-HEP.B-HIB (PENTAVALENT) 3

PNEUMOCOCCAL 1

PNEUMOCOCCAL 2

PNEUMOCOCCAL 3

ROTAVIRUS 1

ROTAVIRUS 2

JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS

MEASLES RUBELLA 1

MEASLES RUBELLA 2

VITAMIN A (MOST RECENT)

510 ASK THE RESPONDENT FOR PERMISSION TO PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PHOTOGRAPH VACCINATION CARD OR OTHER PHOTOGRAPH NOT TAKEN,
DOCUMENT WHERE VACCINATIONS ARE WRITTEN. PERMISSION NOT RECEIVED .......... 2
IF PERMISSION IS GRANTED, PHOTOGRAPH CARD. PHOTOGRAPH NOT TAKEN,
OTHER REASON 6
(SPECIFY)

511 CHECK 509: 'BCG' TO 'MEASLES RUBELLA 2' ALL HAVE A DATE RECORDED OR '44' RECORDED IN THE 'DAY'
COLUMN?
NO YES
529

Appendix E • 667
 SECTION 5. CHILD IMMUNIZATION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

512 In addition to what is recorded on (this document/these YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

documents), did (NAME) receive any other vaccinations, (USE THE LIST SHOWN IN CAPI TO SELECT THE
including vaccinations received in campaigns or OTHER VACCINATIONS GIVEN.
immunization days or child health days? NOTE THAT CAPI WILL CHANGE THE ANSWER
IN 509 IN THE 'DAY' COLUMN FROM '00' TO '66'
FOR THE SELECTED VACCINATIONS.)

RECORD 'YES' ONLY IF THE RESPONDENT

(THEN SKIP TO 529)
MENTIONS AT LEAST ONE OF THE VACCINATIONS IN
509 THAT ARE NOT RECORDED AS HAVING BEEN
GIVEN. NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

512A CHECK 509: ANY VACCINATIONS RECORDED ON THE CARD?

YES NO
529A
SKIP TO 529

513 Did (NAME) ever receive any vaccinations to prevent YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(NAME) from getting diseases, including vaccinations NO .................................... 2
received in campaigns or immunization days or child 529A
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8
health days?

514 Has (NAME) ever received a BCG vaccination against YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

tuberculosis, that is, an injection in the right arm or NO .................................... 2
shoulder that usually causes a scar? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

517 Has (NAME) ever received oral polio vaccine, that is, YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
about two drops in the mouth to prevent polio? NO .................................... 2
521
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

519 How many times did (NAME) receive the oral polio
vaccine? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

520 When (NAME) received the polio drops, did (NAME) also YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
get an fIPV injection in the arm to protect against polio? NO .................................... 2
521
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

520A How many times did (NAME) receive the fIPV vaccine?
NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

521 Has (NAME) ever received a pentavalent vaccination, that YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

is, an injection given in the thigh sometimes at the same NO .................................... 2
time as polio drops? 523
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

522 How many times did (NAME) receive the pentavalent

vaccine? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

523 Has (NAME) ever received a pneumococcal vaccination, YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

that is, an injection in the thigh to prevent pneumonia? NO .................................... 2
525
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

524 How many times did (NAME) receive the pneumococcal

vaccine? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

525 Has (NAME) ever received a rotavirus vaccination, that is, YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
liquid in the mouth to prevent diarrhea? NO .................................... 2
526A
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

668 • Appendix E
 SECTION 5. CHILD IMMUNIZATION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

526 How many times did (NAME) receive the rotavirus

vaccine? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

526A Has (NAME) ever received Japanese Encephalitis YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

vaccination, that is given in the right thigh to prevent NO .................................... 2
encephalitis? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

527 Has (NAME) ever received a measles vaccination, that is, YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
an injection in the arm to prevent measles? NO .................................... 2
529
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

528 How many times did (NAME) receive the measles rubella
vaccine? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

529 Where did (NAME) receive most of his/her vaccinations? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ....... 12
HEALTH POST ...................... 13
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER ......... 14
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 15
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
IMMUNIZATION CLINIC ................ 18
OF THE PLACE.

OTHER PUBLIC FACILITIES 16

(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
PRIVATE DOCTOR ....................... 24

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL

FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

NGO HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
NGO CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
NID VACCINATION CAMPAIGN ....... 41

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

529A Did any of (NAME)'s vaccinations get delayed or missed YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

due to COVID-19 situation? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

530 CHECK 220 AND 224 IN PREGNANCY HISTORY: ANY MORE SURVIVING CHILDREN BORN 0-35 MONTHS BEFORE
THE SURVEY?

MORE SURVIVING CHILDREN NO MORE SURVIVING

BORN 0-35 MONTHS CHILDREN BORN 0-35 601
BEFORE THE SURVEY MONTHS BEFORE THE
SURVEY
(GO TO 503 FOR THE NEXT
SURVIVING CHILD)

Appendix E • 669
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

601 CHECK 220, 224, AND 225 IN THE PREGNANCY HISTORY: ANY SURVIVING CHILDREN BORN 0-59 MONTHS
BEFORE THE SURVEY?

ONE OR MORE SURVIVING NO SURVIVING CHILDREN

CHILDREN BORN 0-59 MONTHS BORN 0-59 MONTHS
BEFORE THE SURVEY BEFORE THE SURVEY 643

602 Now I would like to ask some questions about the health of your children born in the last 5 years. (We will talk about
each separately, starting with the youngest.)

603 RECORD THE NAME FROM 218 AND PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER FROM 215 OF THE SURVIVING
CHILDREN BORN 0-59 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, STARTING WITH THE LAST ONE.

NAME OF CHILD PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER ..

604 In the last 12 months, was (NAME) given the following:

YES NO DK

b) Baal vita? b) BAAL VITA ............. 1 2 8

SHOW BAAL VITA MULTIPLE MICRONUTRIENT

POWDER SACHET.

604C Have you receive counseling on Baal vita? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
NOTE: ONLY ASKED FOR THE LAST CHILD. DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

605 In the last 6 months, was (NAME) given a vitamin A

dose like [this/any of these]? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO .................................... 2
SHOW COMMON TYPES OF CAPSULES. DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

606 In the last 6 months, was (NAME) given any medicine YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
for intestinal worms? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

607 In the last 3 months, has any healthcare provider or

FCHV measured: YES NO DK

a) (NAME)'s weight? a) WEIGHT ............. 1 2 8

b) (NAME)'s length or height? b) LENGTH/HEIGHT .......... 1 2 8

c) Around (NAME)'s upper arm? c) UPPER ARM ............. 1 2 8

607D CHECK 607: CODE `2'

CIRCLED IN
A, B, AND C OTHER
607F

607E Why was (NAME) not measured? DID NOT KNOW CHILD HAS BE MEASURED .. A
NOT RECEIVED COUNSELING OR
INFORMATION ON GROWTH MONITORING B
DUE TO FEAR OF COVID-19 ............. C 607G
DUE TO LOCKDOWN ................... D

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

607F Did the health care provider or FCHV talk with you YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
about how (NAME) is growing? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

607G Have you ever received the child grant for (NAME)? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

608 Has (NAME) had diarrhea in the last 2 weeks? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
618
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

670 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

609 CHECK 485: CURRENTLY BREASTFEEDING?

YES NO/ NOT

ASKED

a) Now I would like to b) Now I would like to know MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

know how much how much (NAME) was SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(NAME) was given to given to drink during the ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
drink during the diarrhea. Was (NAME)
MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
diarrhea, including given less than usual to
NOTHING TO DRINK ...................... 5
breast milk. Was drink, about the same
(NAME) given less than amount, or more than DON'T KNOW ........................... 8
usual to drink, about usual to drink?
the same amount, or
more than usual to IF LESS, PROBE: Was
drink? (NAME) given much less
than usual to drink or
IF LESS, PROBE: Was somewhat less?
(NAME) given much
less than usual to drink
or somewhat less?

610 When (NAME) had diarrhea, was (NAME) given less MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
than usual to eat, about the same amount, more than SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
usual, or nothing to eat? ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
IF LESS, PROBE: Was (NAME) given much less than STOPPED FOOD ........................ 5
usual to eat or somewhat less? NEVER GAVE FOOD ...................... 6
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

611 Did you seek advice or treatment for the diarrhea from YES .................................... 1
any source? NO .................................... 2 615

Appendix E • 671
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

612 Where did you seek advice or treatment? PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. A
Anywhere else? PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. B
HEALTH POST ...................... C
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . D
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. E
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
FCHV .............................. G
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.
OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES H
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR (SPECIFY)
NGO SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE(S).
PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... I
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... J
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES L
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES O
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
TRADITIONAL PRACTITIONER .......... Q

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

613 CHECK 612: TWO OR

MORE
CODES ONLY ONE
CIRCLED CODE CIRCLED 615

614 Where did you first seek advice or treatment?

FIRST PLACE ........................
USE LETTER CODE FROM 612.

615 Was (NAME) given any of the following at any time

since (NAME) started having the diarrhea: YES NO DK

a) A fluid made from a special packet called Jeevan

Jal/ Navajeevan/Orestal/Electrobion? a) FLUID FROM ORS PACKET .. 1 2 8
b) Pre-packaged ORS liquid b) PRE-PACKAGED LIQUID . . . . . 1 2 8
c) Zinc tablets or syrup? c) ZINC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

615E CHECK 615: CODE `1'

CIRCLED
ZINC GIVEN? IN ( C ) OTHER
616

615F How many days was (NAME) given zinc?

DAYS ......................

DON'T KNOW ........................ 98

672 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

616 CHECK 615:

ANY 'YES' ALL 'NO'

OR 'DK'
a) Was anything else b) Was anything given to YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
given to treat the treat the diarrhea? NO .................................... 2
618
diarrhea? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

617 CHECK 615: PILL OR SYRUP

ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
ANY 'YES' ALL 'NO' ANTIMOTILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
OR 'DK' OTHER (NOT ANTIBIOTIC
a) What else was given to b) What was given to treat OR ANTIMOTILITY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
treat the diarrhea? the diarrhea? UNKNOWN PILL OR SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

INJECTION
ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
RECORD ALL TREATMENTS GIVEN. NON-ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
UNKNOWN INJECTION ................ G

(IV) INTRAVENOUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

HOME REMEDY/HERBAL MEDICINE ....... I

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

618 Has (NAME) been ill with a fever at any time in the last YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 weeks? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

621 Has (NAME) had an illness with a cough at any time in YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
the last 2 weeks? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

622 Has (NAME) had fast, short, rapid breaths or difficulty YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
breathing at any time in the last 2 weeks? NO .................................... 2
624
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

623 Was the fast or difficult breathing due to a problem in CHEST ONLY ........................... 1
the chest or to a blocked or runny nose? NOSE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
625
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............. 8

624 CHECK 618: HAD FEVER? NO OR

YES DON'T KNOW
634

625 Did you seek advice or treatment for the illness from YES .................................... 1
any source? NO .................................... 2 630

Appendix E • 673
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

626 Where did you seek advice or treatment? PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. A
Anywhere else? PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. B
HEALTH POST ...................... C
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . D
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. E
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
FCHV .............................. G
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.
OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES H
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR (SPECIFY)
NGO SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE(S).
PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... I
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... J
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES L
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES O
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
TRADITIONAL PRACTITIONER .......... Q

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

627 CHECK 626: TWO OR

MORE
CODES ONLY ONE
CIRCLED CODE CIRCLED 629

628 Where did you first seek advice or treatment?

FIRST PLACE ........................
USE LETTER CODE FROM 626.

629 How many days after the illness began did you first
seek advice or treatment for (NAME)?
DAYS ........................
IF THE SAME DAY RECORD ‘00’.

630 At any time during the illness, did (NAME) take any YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
medicine for the illness? NO .................................... 2
634
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

674 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. NAME OF LIVE BIRTH PREGNANCY HISTORY NUMBER . . . . .

631 What medicine did (NAME) take? ANTIMALARIAL MEDICINE

ARTEMISININ COMBINATION
Any other medicine? THERAPY (ACT) ................... A
SP/FANSIDAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
CHLOROQUINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. AMODIAQUINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
QUININE
IF MEDICINE NOT KNOWN, ASK TO SEE THE PILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
PACKAGE OR PRESCRIPTION. INJECTION/IV ...................... F
ARTESUNATE
RECTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
INJECTION/IV ...................... H

OTHER
ANTIMALARIAL I
(SPECIFY)

ANTIBIOTIC MEDICINE
ANTIBIOTIC PILL/SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
ANTIBIOTIC INJECTION ................ K
OTHER UNKNOWN PILL/SYRUP ....... L
OTHER UNKNOWN INJECTION/IV ....... M

OTHER MEDICINE
NON-ANTIBIOTIC PILLS/SYRUP .......... N
NON-ANTIBIOTIC INJECTIONS .......... O

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ............. Z

634 CHECK 220, 224, AND 225 IN PREGNANCY HISTORY: ANY MORE SURVIVING CHILDREN BORN 0-59 MONTHS
BEFORE THE SURVEY?

MORE SURVIVING CHILDREN NO MORE SURVIVING

BORN 0-59 MONTHS BEFORE CHILDREN BORN 635
THE SURVEY 0-59 MONTHS BEFORE
THE SURVEY
(GO TO 603 FOR THE NEXT
SURVIVING CHILD)

Appendix E • 675
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

635 CHECK 220, 225, AND 226, ALL ROWS: NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN 0-23 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY
LIVING WITH THE RESPONDENT

ONE OR MORE NONE

643

(NAME OF YOUNGEST CHILD LIVING WITH HER)

636 Now I would like to ask you about liquids that (NAME
FROM 635) had yesterday during the day or at night.
Please tell me about all drinks, whether (NAME) had
them at home, or somewhere else.

Yesterday during the day or at night, did (NAME) drink: YES NO DK

a) Plain water? a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) Infant formula such as Lactogen, Farex, or Nan? b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) drink infant NUMBER OF TIMES
8
formula? DRANK FORMULA
IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'.

c) Milk from animals, such as fresh, tinned milk or c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

powdered milk?

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) drink milk? NUMBER OF TIMES
8
IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'. DRANK MILK

IF YES: Was the milk a sweet or flavored type of SWEET/

milk? FLAVORED . . . . 1 2 8

d) Lassi? d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) drink lassi? NUMBER OF TIMES
8
IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'. DRANK LASSI

IF YES: Was the lassi a sweet or flavored type of SWEET/

lassi? FLAVORED . . . . 1 2 8

f) Horlicks, Bournvita, or Viva? f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

g) Fruit juice, fruit drinks such as Real or Frooti, or g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

sugar cane juice?

h) Sweet bottled drinks such as Coke, Fanta, Sprite, or h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

energy drinks such as Red Bull?

i) Chiya, coffee, or herbal drinks? i) ............. 1 2 8

IF YES: Was the drink sweetened? SWEETENED . . 1 2 8

j) Clear broth or clear soup? j) ............. 1 2 8

k) Any other liquids? k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: What was the drink? OTHER DRINK(S)

(SPECIFY)

IF YES: Was the drink sweetened? SWEETENED . . 1 2 8

676 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

637 Now I would like to ask you about foods that (NAME)
had yesterday during the day or at night. I am interested
in foods your child ate whether at home or somewhere
else. Please think about snacks and small meals as well
as main meals.

I will ask you about different foods, and I would like to

know whether your child ate the food even if it was
combined with other foods.

Please do not answer ‘yes’ for any food or ingredient

only used in a small amount to add flavor to a dish.

Yesterday during the day or at night, did (NAME) eat:

YES NO DK

a) Dahi? a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) eat dahi? NUMBER OF TIMES
8
IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'. ATE DAHI

b) Rice, paratha, naan, roti, pau roti, makai, or dhido? b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

c) Carrots or ripe yellow pumpkin? c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

d) Potato, yam, wild yam, or white sweet potato? d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

e) Saag, spinach, mustard greens, fennel greens, e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

pumpkin shoots, taro leaves, or amaranth greens?

v) Gundruk, braised greens, fenugreek greens, or v) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

broccoli?

f) Any other vegetables, such as tomato, cauliflower, f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

cabbage, gourd, eggplant or other vegetables?

g) Papaya, ripe mango, apricot, or persimmon? g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

h) Any other fruits, such as apple, banana, guava, h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

watermelon, mulberries or other fruits?

i) Liver or organ meat? i) ............. 1 2 8

j) Sausages, ham, bacon, or canned meat? j) ............. 1 2 8

k) Any other meat, such as goat, mountain goat, k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

lamb/sheep, pig, yak, or chicken?

l) Eggs? l) ............. 1 2 8

m) Fish or dried fish? m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

Appendix E • 677
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

n) Lito, jaulo, daal, chickpeas, beans, soybeans, or n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

quanti?

o) Almonds, peanuts, cashews, pistachios, or walnuts? o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

p) Paneer or cheese? p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

r) Any sweet foods such as cake, biscuits, cookies, r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

jeri/jalebi, mithai, toffees, or ice cream?

s) Chips, Kurekure, Chisbal, tayari chaw chaw such as s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

Wai Wai or Yum Yum, samosa, pakora, puri, or
tareko khaja?

u) Any other solid, semi-solid, or soft food? u) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: What was the food? OTHER FOOD(S)

(SPECIFY)
MARK THE APPROPRIATE FOOD GROUP FOR
EACH ADDITIONAL FOOD, IF THE GROUP IS
NOT YET CODED ‘YES’.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE WHICH GROUP THE

ADDITIONAL FOOD BELONGS TO, RECORD THE
NAME OF THE FOOD.

638 CHECK 637 (CATEGORIES 'a' THROUGH 'r'):

NOT A SINGLE 'YES' AT LEAST ONE 'YES' 640

639 Did (NAME) eat any solid, semi-solid, or soft foods YES .................................... 1
yesterday during the day or at night? (GO BACK TO 637 TO RECORD
FOOD EATEN YESTERDAY)
IF ‘YES’ PROBE: What kind of solid, semi-solid or soft
foods did (NAME) eat? (THEN CONTINUE TO 640)

NO .................................... 2 641

640 How many times did (NAME) eat solid, semi-solid, or

soft foods yesterday during the day or at night? NUMBER OF TIMES ...................

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD ‘7'. DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

641 In the last 6 months, did any healthcare provider or YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FCHV talk with you about how or what to feed (NAME)? NO .................................... 2
641D
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

641A Who gave you this advice/counseling on nutrition? HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
NURSE/MIDWIFE/ANM ................ B
HEALTH ASSISTANT/AHW ............. C
MCHW .............................. D
VHW .............................. E

OTHER PERSON
TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANT ....... F
FCHV .............................. G
MOTHER'S GROUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
SOCIAL MOBILIZER ................... I
TRADITIONAL HEALERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

678 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

641B When did you receive the advice or counseling? VISIT TO HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
DURING FCHV HOME VISIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
DURING HEALTH MOTHER'S GROUP MEETING C

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

641C What did they talk with you about?

BREASTFEEDING, NOT FEEDING WATER OR
OTHER LIQUIDS BEFORE SIX MONTHS .. A
INTRODUCING SOFT OR SOLID FOOD WHEN
THE BABY REACHES SIX MONTHS OF AGE B
GIVING A VARIETY OF FOODS ............. C
HOW OFTEN TO FEED FOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
GIVING ANIMAL SOURCE FOOD (EGGS,
MILK, MEAT, FISH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
GIVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ..... .. F
NOT FEEDING SUGAR-SWEETENED
BEVERAGES ................ G

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

641D Is there growth monitoring promotion in this ward (at

your closest health facility)? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2 642

641E Where did you attend the growth monitoring promotion PHC OUTREACH CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
sessions? HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DID NOT PARTICIPATE ................... 7 642
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

641F Was there individual nutrition and health counseling at YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

the growth monitoring session? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

641G Did the health worker explain how to interpret the growth YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
chart? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8
SHOW GROWTH CHART

641H Was (NAME)'s weight taken at the following health YES NO

contacts?

a) At birth? AT BIRTH ................... 1 2

b) At immunization? IMMUNIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
c) At sick child visit? SICK CHILD VISITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

642 The last time (NAME) passed stools, what was done to CHILD USED TOILET OR LATRINE .......... 01
dispose of the stools? PUT/RINSED
INTO TOILET OR LATRINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
PUT/RINSED
INTO DRAIN OR DITCH ................ 03
THROWN INTO GARBAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
BURIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
LEFT IN THE OPEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 679
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

643 Now I’d like to ask you about foods and drinks that you
consumed yesterday during the day or night, whether
you ate or drank it at home or somewhere else. Please
think about snacks and small meals as well as main
meals.

I will ask you about different foods and drinks, and I

would like to know whether you ate the food even if it
was combined with other foods.

Please do not answer ‘yes’ for any food or ingredient

only used in a small amount to add flavor to a dish.

Yesterday during the day or at night, did you eat or drink:

YES NO DK

a) Rice, paratha, naan, roti, pau roti, maize, or dhido? a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) Carrots or ripe yellow pumpkin? b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

c) Potato, yam, wild yam, or white sweet potato? c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

d) Saag, spinach, mustard greens, fennel greens, d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

pumpkin shoots, taro leaves, or amaranth greens?

y) Gundruk, braised greens, fenugreek greens, or y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

broccoli?

e) Any other vegetables, such as tomato, cauliflower, e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

cabbage, gourd, eggplant or other vegetables?

f) Papaya, ripe mango, apricot, or persimmon? f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

g) Any other fruits, such as apple, banana, guava, g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

watermelon, mulberries or other fruits?

h) Liver or organ meat? h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

i) Sausages, ham, bacon, or canned meat? i) ............. 1 2 8

j) Any other meat, such as goat, mountain goat, j) ............. 1 2 8

k) Eggs? k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

l) Fish or dried fish? l) ............. 1 2 8

m) Daal, chickpeas, beans, soybeans, or quanti? m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

n) Almonds, peanuts, cashews, pistachios, or walnuts? n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

680 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

o) Milk, tea with milk, lassi, dahi, paneer or cheese? o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

q) Any sweet foods such as cake, biscuits, cookies, q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

jeri/jalebi, mithai, toffees, or ice cream?

r) Chips, Kurekure, Chisbal, tayari chaw chaw such as r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

Wai Wai or Yum Yum, samosa, pakora, puri, or
tareko khaja?

s) Fruit juice, fruit drinks such as Real or Frooti, or s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

sugar cane juice?

t) Sweet bottled drinks such as Coke, Fanta, Sprite, or t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

energy drinks such as Red Bull?

u) Chiya with sugar, coffee with sugar, sweet lassi, milk u) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

with sugar, Horlicks, Bournvita, or Viva?

w) Any other liquids? w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: What was the drink? OTHER DRINK(S)

(SPECIFY)

IF YES: Was the drink sweetened? SWEETENED . . 1 2 8

x) Any other foods? x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF YES: What was the food? OTHER FOOD(S)

(SPECIFY)
MARK THE APPROPRIATE FOOD GROUP FOR
EACH ADDITIONAL FOOD, IF THE GROUP IS
NOT YET CODED ‘YES’.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE WHICH GROUP THE

ADDITIONAL FOOD BELONGS TO, RECORD THE
NAME OF THE FOOD.

Appendix E • 681
 SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

701 Are you currently married or living together with a man YES, CURRENTLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 706
as if married? YES, LIVING WITH A MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 709
NO, NOT IN UNION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

702 Have you ever been married or lived together with a YES, FORMERLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
man as if married? YES, LIVED WITH A MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NO .................................... 3 721

703 What is your marital status now: are you widowed, WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
divorced, or separated? DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SEPARATED ........................... 3

704 CHECK 702:

YES, YES,
FORMERLY MARRIED LIVED WITH A MAN 714

705 Did you have a marriage certificate for your last YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 714
marriage? NO .................................... 2
707
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

706 Do you have a marriage certificate for this marriage? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 709
NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

707 Was this marriage ever registered with the civil YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
authority? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

708 CHECK 701:

YES, NO,
714
CURRENTLY NOT IN A UNION
MARRIED

709 Is your (husband/partner) living with you now or is he LIVING WITH HER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
staying elsewhere? STAYING ELSEWHERE ................... 2

710 RECORD THE HUSBAND'S/PARTNER'S NAME AND NAME

LINE NUMBER FROM THE HOUSEHOLD
QUESTIONNAIRE. IF HE IS NOT LISTED IN THE
HOUSEHOLD, RECORD '00'.
LINE NO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

711 Does your (husband/partner) have other wives or does YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

he live with other women as if married? NO .................................... 2
714
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

712 Including yourself, in total, how many wives or live-in TOTAL NUMBER OF WIVES
partners does he have? AND LIVE-IN PARTNERS .......

DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

713 Are you the first, second, … wife?

RANK ........................

DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

714 Have you been married or lived with a man only once or ONLY ONCE ........................... 1
more than once? MORE THAN ONCE ...................... 2

682 • Appendix E
 SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

715 CHECK 714:

MARRIED/
MARRIED/ LIVED WITH A
LIVED WITH A MAN MAN MORE MONTH ........................
ONLY ONCE THAN ONCE

a) In what month and year b) Now I would like to ask DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98
did you start living with about your first
your (husband/partner)? (husband/partner). In
what month and year 717
YEAR .............
did you start living with
him?

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

716 How old were you when you first started living with him?
AGE ...........................

717 CHECK 714:

MARRIED/LIVED WITH MARRIED/LIVED WITH

A MAN MORE THAN ONCE A MAN ONLY ONCE 721

718 CHECK 701:

YES, YES, NO,

721
CURRENTLY LIVING NOT IN A UNION
MARRIED WITH A MAN

719 Now I’d like to ask you about your current

(husband/partner). In what month and year did you MONTH ........................
start living with him?

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

721
YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

720 How old were you when you first started living with your
current (husband/partner)? AGE ...........................

721 CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

722 Now I would like to ask some questions about sexual

activity in order to gain a better understanding of some
important life issues. Let me assure you again that your NEVER HAD SEXUAL
answers are completely confidential and will not be told INTERCOURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 738
to anyone. If we should come to any question that you
don't want to answer, just let me know and we will go to
the next question. How old were you when you had
AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sexual intercourse for the very first time?

723 I would like to ask you about your recent sexual activity.
When was the last time you had sexual intercourse? DAYS AGO ............. 1

WEEKS AGO ............. 2

IF LESS THAN 12 MONTHS, ANSWER MUST BE MONTHS AGO ............. 3

RECORDED IN DAYS, WEEKS OR MONTHS. IF 12
MONTHS (ONE YEAR) OR MORE, ANSWER MUST 737
YEARS AGO ............. 4
BE RECORDED IN YEARS.

Appendix E • 683
 SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

724 CHECK 232:

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

727
OR UNSURE

725 The last time you had sexual intercourse, did you or YES .................................... 1
your partner do something or use any method to delay NO .................................... 2 727
or avoid getting pregnant?

726 Which method did you use? FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

MALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
IF CODES 'G' OR 'H' ARE CIRCLED, SKIP TO 728 IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
EVEN IF ANOTHER METHOD WAS ALSO USED.
PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
CONDOM .............................. G 728
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD ..... K
RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ X
OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

727 The last time you had sexual intercourse, was a YES .................................... 1
condom used? NO .................................... 2 730

728 What is the brand name of the condom used? DHAAL .............................. 01
PANTHER .............................. 02
DZIRE .............................. 03
KAMASUTRA ........................... 04
JODI .............................. 05
NUMBER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
BLACK COBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
MOHP-NO BRAND ...................... 08

OTHER 96
IF BRAND NOT KNOWN, ASK TO SEE THE (SPECIFY)
PACKAGE. DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

684 • Appendix E
 SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

729 From where did you obtain the condom the last time? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
HEALTH POST ...................... 13
PROBE TO IDENTIFY TYPE OF SOURCE. BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . 14
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 15
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
FCHV .............................. 18
OF THE PLACE.

OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 16
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PHARMACY ........................ 23
SANGINI OUTLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP .............................. 41
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... 98

730 What was your relationship to this person with whom HUSBAND .............................. 1
you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BOYFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF BOYFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

731 Apart from this person, have you had sexual intercourse YES .................................... 1
with any other person in the last 12 months? NO .................................... 2 737

732 The last time you had sexual intercourse with this YES .................................... 1
second person, was a condom used? NO .................................... 2

Appendix E • 685
 SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

733 What was your relationship to this second person with HUSBAND .............................. 1
whom you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BOYFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF BOYFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

734 Apart from these two people, have you had sexual YES .................................... 1
intercourse with any other person in the last 12 months? NO .................................... 2 737

735 The last time you had sexual intercourse with this third YES .................................... 1
person, was a condom used? NO .................................... 2

736 What was your relationship to this third person with HUSBAND .............................. 1
whom you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
BOYFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF BOYFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

737 In total, with how many different people have you had
sexual intercourse in your lifetime? NUMBER OF PARTNERS
IN LIFETIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN
ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF PARTNERS IS 95 OR DON'T KNOW ........................... 98
MORE, RECORD '95'.

738 PRESENCE OF OTHERS DURING THIS SECTION. YES NO

CHILDREN <10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
MALE ADULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
FEMALE ADULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

686 • Appendix E
 SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

801 CHECK 307:

NOT ASKED NEITHER ARE HE OR SHE

813
STERILIZED STERILIZED

802 CHECK 232:

PREGNANT NOT PREGNANT

804
OR UNSURE

803 Now I have some questions about the future. After the HAVE ANOTHER CHILD ................... 1 805
child you are expecting now, would you like to have NO MORE .............................. 2
812
another child, or would you prefer not to have any more UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8
children?

804 Now I have some questions about the future. Would you HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD ................ 1
like to have (a/another) child, or would you prefer not to NO MORE/NONE ........................ 2 807
have any (more) children? SAYS SHE CAN'T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . 3 813
UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8 811

805 CHECK 232:

MONTHS ................ 1
NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT
OR UNSURE YEARS ................... 2

a) How long would you b) After the birth of the SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993 811
like to wait from now child you are expecting SAYS SHE CAN'T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . 994 813
before the birth of now, how long would AFTER MARRIAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
(a/another) child? you like to wait before
the birth of another OTHER 996 811
child? (SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

806 CHECK 232:

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

812
OR UNSURE

807 CHECK 307: USING A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD?

NOT CURRENTLY
ASKED USING 813

808 CHECK 805:

'24' OR MORE MONTHS NOT '00-23' MONTHS

OR '02' OR MORE YEARS ASKED OR '00-01' YEAR 812

809 CHECK 723:

YEARS
811
DAYS, WEEKS OR AGO
MONTHS AGO NOT
ASKED 811

Appendix E • 687
 SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

810 CHECK 804: NOT MARRIED ........................... A

WANTS TO HAVE WANTS NO MORE/ FERTILITY-RELATED REASONS

A/ANOTHER CHILD NONE NOT HAVING SEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
INFREQUENT SEX/HUSBAND AWAY ..... C
a) You have said that you b) You have said that you MENOPAUSAL/HYSTERECTOMY . . . . . . . . . . D
do not want (a/another) do not want any (more) CAN'T GET PREGNANT ................ E
child soon. Can you tell children. Can you tell NOT MENSTRUATED SINCE
me why you are not me why you are not LAST BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
using a method to using a method to BREASTFEEDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
prevent pregnancy? prevent pregnancy? UP TO GOD/FATALISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

Any other reason? Any other reason?

OPPOSITION TO USE
RESPONDENT OPPOSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
HUSBAND/PARTNER OPPOSED . . . . . . . . . . J
RECORD ALL REASONS MENTIONED. OTHERS OPPOSED ................... K
RELIGIOUS PROHIBITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

LACK OF KNOWLEDGE
KNOWS NO METHOD ................... M
KNOWS NO SOURCE ................... N

METHOD-RELATED REASONS
INCONVENIENT TO USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O
CHANGES IN MENSTRUAL BLEEDING . . . . . P
METHODS COULD CAUSE INFERTILITY .. Q
INTERFERES WITH BODY'S NORMAL
PROCESSES ...................... R
OTHER SIDE EFFECTS ................ S

COST/ACCESS/AVAILABILITY
LACK OF ACCESS/TOO FAR .......... T
COSTS TOO MUCH ................... U
PREFERRED METHOD
NOT AVAILABLE ................... V
NO METHOD AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W
NOT GETTING DUE TO
FEAR OF COVID-19 ............. .. Y

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... Z

811 CHECK 307: USING A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD?

NOT YES,
813
ASKED CURRENTLY USING

812 Do you think you will use a contraceptive method to YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

delay or avoid pregnancy at any time in the future? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

813 CHECK 224:

HAS LIVING NO LIVING

CHILDREN CHILDREN NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 815

a) If you could go back to b) If you could choose

the time you did not exactly the number of
have any children and children to have in your NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
could choose exactly whole life, how many
the number of children would that be?
to have in your whole OTHER 96 815
life, how many would (SPECIFY)
that be?
PROBE FOR A NUMERIC RESPONSE.

814 How many of these children would you like to be boys, BOYS GIRLS EITHER
how many would you like to be girls and for how many
would it not matter if it’s a boy or a girl? NUMBER . .

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

688 • Appendix E
 SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

815 In the last 12 months have you: YES NO

a) Heard about family planning on the radio? a) RADIO ........................ 1 2

b) Seen anything about family planning on the b) TELEVISION ................... 1 2

television?
c) Read about family planning in a newspaper or c) NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE . . . . . . . 1 2
magazine?
d) Received a voice or text message about family d) MOBILE PHONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
planning on a mobile phone?
e) Seen anything about family planning on social e) FACEBOOK/TWITTER/
media such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? INSTAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
f) Seen anything about family planning on a poster, f) POSTER/LEAFLET/BROCHURE . . . . . 1 2
leaflet or brochure?
g) Seen anything about family planning on an outdoor g) OUTDOOR SIGN/BILLBOARD . . . . . . . 1 2
sign or billboard?
h) Heard anything about family planning at community h) COMMUNITY MEETINGS/EVENTS .. 1 2
meetings or events?

817 CHECK 701:

YES, YES, NO,

901
CURRENTLY LIVING NOT IN A UNION
MARRIED WITH A MAN

818 Who usually makes the decision on whether or not you RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
820
should use contraception, you, your (husband/partner), HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
you and your (husband/partner) jointly, or someone RESPONDENT AND HUSBAND/PARTNER
else? JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
SOMEONE ELSE ........................ 4
820
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

819 When making this decision with your (husband/partner), MORE IMPORTANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
would you say that your opinion is more important, EQUALLY IMPORTANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
equally important, or less important than your LESS IMPORTANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
(husband’s/partner’s) opinion?

820 Has your (husband/partner) or any other family member YES .................................... 1
ever tried to pressure you to become pregnant when NO .................................... 2
you did not want to become pregnant?

821 CHECK 307:

NOT ASKED NEITHER ARE HE OR SHE ARE

901
STERILIZED STERILIZED

822 Does your (husband/partner) want the same number of SAME NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
children that you want, or does he want more or fewer MORE CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
than you want? FEWER CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

Appendix E • 689
 SECTION 9. HUSBAND'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

901 CHECK 701:

CURRENTLY MARRIED/ NOT IN

909
LIVING WITH A MAN UNION

902 How old was your (husband/partner) on his last birthday?

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . .

903 Did your (husband/partner) ever attend school? YES .................................... 1

NO .................................... 2 906

905 What was the highest grade he completed?

GRADE .............
IF COMPLETED LESS THAN ONE GRADE, RECORD
'00'. DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

906 Has your (husband/partner) done any work in the last 7 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 908
days? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

907 Has your (husband/partner) done any work in the last 12 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
months? NO .................................... 2
909
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

908 What is your (husband's/partner's) occupation? That is,

what kind of work does he mainly do?

909 Aside from your own housework, have you done any YES .................................... 1 913
work in the last 7 days? NO .................................... 2

910 As you know, some women take up jobs for which they
are paid in cash or kind. Others sell things, have a small YES .................................... 1 913
business or work on the family farm or in the family NO .................................... 2
business. In the last 7 days, have you done any of
these things or any other work?

911 Although you did not work in the last 7 days, do you
have any job or business from which you were absent YES .................................... 1 913
for leave, illness, vacation, maternity leave, or any other NO .................................... 2
such reason?

912 Have you done any work in the last 12 months? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2 917

913 What is your occupation? That is, what kind of work do

you mainly do?

914 Do you do this work for a member of your family, for FOR FAMILY MEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
someone else, or are you self-employed? FOR SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SELF-EMPLOYED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

690 • Appendix E
 SECTION 9. HUSBAND'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

915 Do you usually work throughout the year, or do you work THROUGHOUT THE YEAR ................ 1
seasonally, or only once in a while? SEASONALLY/PART OF THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . 2
ONCE IN A WHILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

916 Are you paid in cash or kind for this work or are you not CASH ONLY ........................... 1
paid at all? CASH AND KIND ........................ 2
IN KIND ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
NOT PAID .............................. 4

917 CHECK 701:

CURRENTLY
MARRIED/LIVING NOT IN UNION 925
WITH A MAN

918 CHECK 916:

CODE '1' OR '2' OTHER

921
CIRCLED

919 Who usually decides how the money you earn will be RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
used: you, your (husband/partner), or you and your HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(husband/partner) jointly? RESPONDENT AND
HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY .......... 3

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

920 Would you say that the money that you earn is more MORE THAN HIM ........................ 1
than what your (husband/partner) earns, less than what LESS THAN HIM ........................ 2
he earns, or about the same? ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
HUSBAND/PARTNER HAS
NO EARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 922
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

921 Who usually decides how your (husband's/partner's) RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

earnings will be used: you, your (husband/partner), or HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
you and your (husband/partner) jointly? RESPONDENT AND
HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY .......... 3
HUSBAND/PARTNER HAS
NO EARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

922 Who usually makes decisions about health care for RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
yourself: you, your (husband/partner), you and your HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(husband/partner) jointly, or someone else? RESPONDENT AND
HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY .......... 3
SOMEONE ELSE ........................ 4
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

923 Who usually makes decisions about making major RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

household purchases? HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
RESPONDENT AND
HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY .......... 3
SOMEONE ELSE ........................ 4
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

924 Who usually makes decisions about visits to your family RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
or relatives? HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
RESPONDENT AND
HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY .......... 3
SOMEONE ELSE ........................ 4
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Appendix E • 691
 SECTION 9. HUSBAND'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

925 Do you own this or any other house either alone or ALONE ONLY ........................... 01
jointly with someone else? JOINTLY WITH HUSBAND/PARTNER ONLY . . . . . 02
JOINTLY WITH SOMEONE ELSE ONLY ..... 03
JOINTLY WITH HUSBAND/PARTNER
AND SOMEONE ELSE ................ 04
BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
DOES NOT OWN ........................ 06 928

926 Do you have a title deed or other government YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

recognized document for any house you own? NO .................................... 2
928
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

927 Is your name on this document? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

928 Do you own any agricultural or non-agricultural land ALONE ONLY ........................... 01
either alone or jointly with someone else? JOINTLY WITH HUSBAND/PARTNER ONLY . . . . . 02
JOINTLY WITH SOMEONE ELSE ONLY ..... 03
JOINTLY WITH HUSBAND/PARTNER
AND SOMEONE ELSE ................ 04
BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
DOES NOT OWN ........................ 06 931

929 Do you have a title deed or other government YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

recognized document for any land you own? NO .................................... 2
931
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

930 Is your name on this document? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

931 PRESENCE OF OTHERS AT THIS POINT (PRESENT PRES./

AND LISTENING, PRESENT BUT NOT LISTENING, PRES./ NOT NOT
OR NOT PRESENT) LISTEN. LISTEN. PRES.

CHILDREN < 10 ....... 1 2 3

HUSBAND ............. 1 2 3
OTHER MALES ....... 1 2 3
OTHER FEMALES . . . . . . . 1 2 3

932 In your opinion, is a husband justified in hitting or

beating his wife in the following situations: YES NO DK

a) If she goes out without telling him? a) GOES OUT . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) If she neglects the children? b) NEGLECTS CHILDREN . . 1 2 8
c) If she argues with him? c) ARGUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
d) If she refuses to have sex with him? d) REFUSES SEX . . . . . . . 1 2 8
e) If she burns the food? e) BURNS FOOD . . . . . . . 1 2 8
f) If she brings less or brings no dowry? f) DOWRY ....... 1 2 8
g) If she doesn't follow everyday routine household g) ROUTINE ....... 1 2 8
h) If she talks to other men? h) OTHER MEN ....... 1 2 8

692 • Appendix E
 SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1000 Now I would like to talk about HIV and AIDS.

1001 Have you ever heard of HIV or AIDS? YES .................................... 1

NO .................................... 2 1040

1002 CHECK 111: AGE

15-24 YEARS 25 YEARS
OR OLDER 1008

1003 HIV is the virus that can lead to AIDS. Can people YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
reduce their chance of getting HIV by having just one NO .................................... 2
uninfected sex partner who has no other sex partners? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1004 Can people get HIV from mosquito bites? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1005 Can people reduce their chance of getting HIV by using YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
a condom every time they have sex? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1006 Can people get HIV by sharing food with a person who YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
has HIV? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1007 Is it possible for a healthy-looking person to have HIV? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1008 Have you heard of ARVs, that is, antiretroviral YES .................................... 1
medicines that treat HIV? NO .................................... 2

1008A Can HIV be transmitted from an infected mother to her

baby: YES NO DK

a) During pregnancy? a) DURING PREGNANCY . . 1 2 8

b) During delivery? b) DURING DELIVERY . . . . . 1 2 8
c) By breastfeeding? c) BREASTFEEDING . . . . . 1 2 8

1009 Are there any special medicines that a doctor or a nurse YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
can give to a woman infected with HIV to reduce the risk NO .................................... 2
of transmission to the baby? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1012 CHECK 220 AND 223:

NO LIVE BIRTHS 1024
LAST LIVE BIRTH
LAST LIVE BIRTH 0-23 24 MONTHS OR
MONTHS BEFORE MORE BEFORE
THE SURVEY THE SURVEY 1024

1013 CHECK 412 FOR LAST LIVE BIRTH ('TYPE 1'):

HAD NO
ANTENATAL ANTENATAL 1018
CARE CARE

1014
CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

1014A During any of the antenatal visits for your last birth were
you given any information about: YES NO DK

a) Babies getting HIV from their mother? a) HIV FROM MOTHER .. 1 2 8

b) Things that you can do to prevent getting HIV? b) THINGS TO DO . . . . . . . 1 2 8
c) Getting tested for HIV? c) TESTED FOR HIV . . . . . 1 2 8

1015 Were you tested for HIV as part of your antenatal care YES .................................... 1
while you were pregnant with (NAME)? NO .................................... 2 1018

Appendix E • 693
 SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1016 Where was the test done? PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. HTC CENTER ............. 13

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR OTHER PUBLIC FACILITIES

NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE.
16
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
STAND-ALONE HTC CENTER .......... 24
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL FACILITIES

26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN ........................ 31
MARIE STOPES ...................... 32
MOBILE HTC SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

OTHER NGO MEDICAL FACILITIES

36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
HOME .............................. 41
WORKPLACE ........................ 42
CORRECTIONAL FACILITY ............. 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

1017 Did you get the results of the test? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2

1018 CHECK 435 FOR LAST LIVE BIRTH ('TYPE 1'):

ANY CODE OTHER

1021
'21-46' CIRCLED

1019 Between the time you went for delivery but before the YES .................................... 1
baby was born, were you tested for HIV? NO .................................... 2 1021

1020 Did you get the results of the test? YES .................................... 1
1022
NO .................................... 2

1021 CHECK 1015:

YES NO OR
1024
NOT ASKED

1022 Have you been tested for HIV since that time you were YES .................................... 1 1025
tested during your pregnancy? NO .................................... 2

694 • Appendix E
 SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1023 In what month and year was your most recent HIV test?
MONTH ........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

1028

YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

1024 Have you ever been tested for HIV? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2 1032

1025 In what month and year was your most recent HIV test?
MONTH ........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

1026 Where was the test done? PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
HTC CENTER ........................ 13
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.
OTHER PUBLIC FACILITIES
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
16
OF THE PLACE.
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
STAND-ALONE HTC CENTER ....... 24
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL FACILITIES

26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN ........................ 31
MARIE STOPES ...................... 32
MOBILE HTC SERVICES .......... 33

OTHER NGO MEDICAL FACILITIES

36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
HOME .............................. 41
WORKPLACE ........................ 42
CORRECTIONAL FACILITY ............. 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

1027 Did you get the results of the test? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2 1031

Appendix E • 695
 SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1028 What was the result of the test? POSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NEGATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INDETERMINATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1031
DECLINED TO ANSWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
DID NOT RECEIVE TEST RESULT .......... 5

1029 In what month and year did you receive your first HIV-
positive test result? MONTH ........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

SAME DATE AS LAST HIV TEST ............. 95

1030 Are you currently taking ARVs, that is antiretroviral YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

medicines? NO .................................... 2
By currently, I mean that you may have missed some DON'T KNOW ........................... 8
doses but you are still taking ARVs.

1031 How many times have you been tested for HIV in your
lifetime?

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN

ESTIMATE, IF NUMBER OF TESTS IS 95 OR MORE, NUMBER OF HIV TESTS ..........
RECORD '95'.

1032 Have you heard of test kits people can use to test YES .................................... 1
themselves for HIV? NO .................................... 2 1034

1033 Have you ever tested yourself for HIV using a self-test YES .................................... 1
kit? NO .................................... 2

1034 Would you buy fresh vegetables from a shopkeeper or YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

vendor if you knew that this person had HIV? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/NOT SURE/DEPENDS ....... 8

1035 Do you think children living with HIV should be allowed YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
to attend school with children who do not have HIV? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/NOT SURE/DEPENDS ....... 8

1040 CHECK 1001:

HEARD ABOUT NOT HEARD ABOUT

HIV OR AIDS HIV OR AIDS

a) Apart from HIV, have b) Have you heard about

you heard about other infections that can be YES .................................... 1
infections that can be transmitted through NO .................................... 2
transmitted through sexual contact?
sexual contact?

1041 CHECK 722:

HAS HAD SEXUAL NEVER HAD SEXUAL

1046
INTERCOURSE INTERCOURSE

1042 CHECK 1040: HEARD ABOUT OTHER SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS?

YES NO
1044

696 • Appendix E
 SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1043 Now I would like to ask you some questions about your YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
health in the last 12 months. During the last 12 months, NO .................................... 2
have you had a disease which you got through sexual DON'T KNOW ........................... 8
contact?

1044 Sometimes women experience a bad-smelling abnormal YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

genital discharge. During the last 12 months, have you NO .................................... 2
had a bad-smelling abnormal genital discharge? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1045 Sometimes women have a genital sore or ulcer. During YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

the last 12 months, have you had a genital sore or NO .................................... 2
ulcer? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1046 If a wife knows her husband has a disease that she can YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
get during sexual intercourse, is she justified in asking NO .................................... 2
that they use a condom when they have sex? DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1047 Is a wife justified in refusing to have sex with her YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

husband when she knows he has sex with other women? NO .................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8

1048 CHECK 701:

CURRENTLY MARRIED/ NOT IN UNION

1101
LIVING WITH A MAN

1049 Can you say no to your (husband/partner) if you do not YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

want to have sexual intercourse? NO .................................... 2
DEPENDS/NOT SURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1050 Could you ask your (husband/partner) to use a condom YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

if you wanted him to? NO .................................... 2
DEPENDS/NOT SURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Appendix E • 697
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1101 How long does it take in minutes to go from your home

to the nearest healthcare facility, which could be a
hospital, a primary health care center, a medical doctor, MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
or a health post?

1102 How do you travel to this healthcare facility from your MOTORIZED
home? CAR/TRUCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
PUBLIC BUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
IF MORE THAN ONE WAY OF TRAVEL IS MOTORCYCLE/SCOOTER ............... 03
MENTIONED, CIRCLE THE ONE HIGHEST ON THE THREE-WHEELER ..................... 04
LIST.
NOT MOTORIZED
ANIMAL-DRAWN CART .................. 05
BICYCLE/RICKSHAW .................. 06
BOAT WITHOUT MOTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
WALKING .............................. 08

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

1102A What kind of facility is this nearest healthcare facility? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HEALTH POST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............... 15
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 16
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR (SPECIFY)
NGO SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME
OF THE PLACE.
PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR
PRIVATE HOSPITAL .......... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ........................ 22
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

DON’T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1102B Have you heard of breast cancer? YES ...................................... 1

NO ...................................... 2 1103C

1102C Do you know a woman can do breast self-examination YES ...................................... 1

to detect lumps? NO ...................................... 2

1103 Has a doctor or other healthcare provider examined YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

your breasts to check for breast cancer? NO ...................................... 2
1103C
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

698 • Appendix E
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1103A What was the result of the examination? NORMAL/NEGATIVE ........................ 1 1103C
ABNORMAL/POSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SUSPECTED CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
UNCLEAR/INCONCLUSIVE .................. 4
DID NOT RECEIVE RESULTS ............... 5 1103C
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1103B Did you receive any treatment? YES ...................................... 1

NO ...................................... 2

1103C Have you heard of cervical cancer? YES ...................................... 1

NO ...................................... 2 1104

1103D Have you heard of any test for cervical cancer? YES ...................................... 1
NO ...................................... 2

1104 Now I’m going to ask you about tests a healthcare worker can do to check for cervical cancer, which is cancer in the
cervix. The cervix connects the womb to the vagina. To be checked for cervical cancer, a woman is asked to lie on her
back with her legs apart. Then the healthcare worker will use a brush or swab to collect a sample from inside her. The
sample is sent to a laboratory for testing. This test is called a Pap smear or HPV test. Another method is called a VIA or
Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid. In this test, the healthcare worker puts vinegar on the cervix to see if there is a
reaction.

1105 Has a doctor or other healthcare worker ever tested you YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
for cervical cancer? NO ...................................... 2
1105D
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1105A When was your last test for cervical cancer?

YEARS ......................

IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR, RECORD '00'. DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1105B What was the result of your last test for cervical cancer? NORMAL/NEGATIVE ........................ 1 1105D
ABNORMAL/POSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
SUSPECTED CANCER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
UNCLEAR/INCONCLUSIVE .................. 4
DID NOT RECEIVE RESULTS ............... 5 1105D
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1105C Did you receive any treatment to your cervix? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
DON'T KNOW .............................. 8

1105D CHECK 212:

ONE OR MORE PAST NO PAST
PREGNANCIES PREGNANCIES 1106

1105E Have you ever experienced signs of uterine prolapse? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
1106
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1105F Did you seek treatment for this problem? YES ...................................... 1
NO ...................................... 2 1106

Appendix E • 699
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1105G What type of treatment did you receive? SURGERY .............................. 1

PESSARY RING PROVIDED ............... 2
USED HERBS IN VAGINA .................. 3
TRADITIONAL HEALER .......... 4
1106
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW .............................. 8

1105H Did the surgery fix the problem? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1106 Now I would like to ask you some questions on smoking EVERY DAY .............................. 1
and tobacco use. Do you currently smoke cigarettes SOME DAYS .............................. 2
every day, some days, or not at all? 1108
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1107 On average, how many cigarettes do you currently

smoke each day? NUMBER OF CIGARETTES .......

1108 Do you currently smoke or use any other type of EVERY DAY .............................. 1
tobacco every day, some days, or not at all? SOME DAYS .............................. 2
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1110

1109 What other type of tobacco do you currently smoke or PIPES FULL OF TOBACCO/SULPHA/
use? CHILUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
CIGARS/BIDI .............................. C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. WATER PIPE .............................. D
SNUFF BY MOUTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
SNUFF BY NOSE ........................... F
CHEWING TOBACCO (GUTKA/KHAINI) . . . . . . . . . . G
BETEL QUID WITH TOBACCO ............... H

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

1110 Now I would like to ask you some questions about YES ...................................... 1
drinking alcohol. Have you ever consumed any alcohol, NO ...................................... 2 1112A
such as beer, wine, spirits, or local jaand, chyang etc.?

1111 We count one drink of alcohol as one can or bottle of

beer, one glass of wine, one shot of spirits, or one cup DID NOT HAVE EVEN ONE DRINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 1112A
of jaand, chyang. During the last one month, on how
many days did you have at least one drink of alcohol?
NUMBER OF DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN

ESTIMATE. IF RESPONDENT ANSWERS 'EVERY EVERY DAY/ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
DAY' OR 'ALMOST EVERY DAY,' CODE'95'.

1112 In the last one month, on the days that you drank
alcohol, how many drinks did you usually have per day? NUMBER OF DRINKS .............

1112A Have you ever heard of an illness called tuberculosis or YES ...................................... 1
TB? NO ...................................... 2 1113

700 • Appendix E
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1112B What are the common symptoms of TB ? COUGH FOR MORE THAN 2 WEEKS .......... A
FEVER IN THE EVENINGS .................. B
CHEST PAIN .............................. C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. LOSS OF WEIGHT ........................ D
LOSS OF APPETITE ........................ E
BLOOD IN SPUTUM ........................ F
TIREDNESS/FATIGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
COUGH ........................ H
FEVER ........................ I
PERSON TURNS BLACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ........................... Z

1112C How does tuberculosis spread from one person to THROUGH THE AIR WHEN COUGHING
another? OR SNEEZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
THROUGH SHARING UTENSILS ............. B
THROUGH TOUCHING A PERSON WITH TB .... C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. THROUGH SHARING FOOD ............... D
THROUGH SEXUAL CONTACT ............... E
THROUGH MOSQUITO BITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
THROUGH SPIT/SALIVA .................. G
INHERITED ........................ H

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ........................... Z

1112D Can tuberculosis be cured? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
1112F
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1112E What is the duration of treatment of TB now a days?

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IF MORE THAN 7 MONTHS, RECORD 7. DON'T KNOW .............................. 8

1112F Have you ever been told by a health care provider that YES ...................................... 1
you have/had tuberculosis? NO ...................................... 2 1112I

1112G Did you seek treatment for TB? YES ...................................... 1

NO ...................................... 2 1112I

Appendix E • 701
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1112H Where did you go for treatment for TB? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
HEALTH POST ........................ C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
URBAN HEALTH CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER G
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/
NURSING HOME ..................... H
PRIVATE CLINIC ........................ I
PHARMACY ........................... J
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL FACILITIES

K
(SPECIFY)

NON-GOVT. (NGO) SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
MARIE STOPES ........................ M

OTHER NGO FACILITIES

N
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP ................................ O
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ........................... Z

1112I If a member of your family got tuberculosis, would you YES, REMAIN A SECRET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
want it to remain a secret or not? NO ...................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/UNSURE ..................... 8

1113 Many different factors can prevent women from getting

medical advice or treatment for themselves. When you
are sick and want to get medical advice or treatment, is
each of the following a big problem or not a big problem: BIG NOT A BIG
PROBLEM PROBLEM

a) Getting permission to go to the doctor? a) PERMISSION TO GO ..... 1 2

b) Getting money needed for advice or treatment? b) GETTING MONEY ....... 1 2

c) The distance to the health facility? c) DISTANCE ............. 1 2

d) Not wanting to go alone? d) GO ALONE ............. 1 2

702 • Appendix E
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1114 Are you covered by any health insurance? YES ...................................... 1

NO ...................................... 2 1115A

1115 What type of health insurance are you covered by?

GOVERNMENT HEALTH
INSURANCE ........................... A
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEALTH INSURANCE THROUGH
EMPLOYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
SOCIAL SECURITY ........................ C
OTHER PRIVATELY PURCHASED
COMMERCIAL HEALTH INSURANCE ....... D

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

1115A Have you heard of COVID-19? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
1115F
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1115B What are the common symptoms of COVID-19 infection FEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

? COUGH .............................. B
SHORTNESS OF BREATH AND
BREATHING DIFFICULTIES ............... C
MUSCLE PAIN ........................... D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEADACHE .............................. E
LOSS OF TASTE OR SMELL ............... F
DIAHHREA .............................. G
COMMON COLD AND RUNNING NOSE ....... H

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW .............................. Z

1115C Do you know if there are ways to prevent the spread of YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
COVID-19? NO ...................................... 2
1115E
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1115D What measures are you taking to reduce your risk of WEARING A MASK ........................ A
getting infected by COVID-19? WASHING HANDS PROPERLY ............. B
USING SANITIZER .................. C
MAINTAINING DISTANCE .................. D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. AVOID TOUCHING EYES/NOSE/MOUTH ....... E
PRACTICE RESPIRATORY HYGIENE ....... F
GET VACCINATED ........................ G
FOCUS ON CLEANLINESS .................. H
DRINK HOT WATER (WITH OR WITHOUT HERBS) I
OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DID NOTHING .............................. Z

1115E Where/from whom have you received information FCHVs ........................ A

around COVID-19? HEALTH MOTHER'S GROUP ............. B
COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKERS ............. C
OTHER FRONTLINE WORKERS FROM
I/NGO ................................ D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. RADIO PROGRAM ........................ E
SMS/TEXT MESSAGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
HEALTH FACILITY ........................ G
PHONE COUNSELING ..................... H
TELEVISION ........................ I
MOBILE RING TONE ........................ J
FAMILY/RELATIVES/FRIENDS/NEIGHBORS .... K
SOCIAL MEDIA ........................... L
OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ........................ Z

Appendix E • 703
 SECTION 11. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1115F In the last three months have you heard or seen the
following programs on the television and/or radio:
YES NO

a) Janaswasthya Bahas TV Karyakram? a) JANASWASTHA BAHAS .. 1 2

b) Jeevanchakra TV serial? b) JEEVAN CHAKRA ..... 1 2

c) Janaswasthya Radio Karyakram? c) JANASWASTHA RADIO .. 1 2

d) Swasthya Gatibidhi Radio Karyakram? d) SWASTHYA GATIBIDHI .. 1 2

e) Eek Dui Tin Sunau eekai chin Radio Karyakram? e) EEK DUI TIN ..... 1 2

f) Bhanchhin Aama Radio Karyakram? f) BHANCHIN AAMA ....... 1 2

g) Hello Bhanchhin Aama Radio Karyakram? g) HELLO BHANCHIN ..... 1 2

h) Jeevan Raksya Radio Karyakram (COVID-19) h) JEEVAN RAKSYA .. 1 2

1115G Is there a health mother’s group in this ward? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ...................................... 2
1200
DON’T KNOW .............................. 8

1115H In the past 6 months, how many health mother’s group NONE 00 1200
meetings have you participated in?

NUMBER OF MEETINGS .....

1115I What issues are discussed during the health mother’s RECEIVED INFORMATION OF CHILD FEEDING A
group meetings? RECEIVED INFORMATION ON FOOD/COOKING B
RECEIVED INFORMATION ON GARDENING .... C
RECEIVED INFORMATION ON POULTRY ....... D
RECEIVED INFORMATION ON PROCESSING. . . . . . . E
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. RECEIVED INFORMATION ON REPRODUCTIVE
HEALTH/WOMEN'S HEALTH CARE . . . . . . . . . . F
WATCH DEMONSTRATION ON COOKING . . . . . . . G
DISCUSS ABOUT MATERNAL/CHILD NUTRITION H
DISCUSS GENDER ISSUES .................. I
DISCUSS ABOUT HANDWASHING ............. J
DISCUSS ABOUT TOILET ............... K
DISCUSS ABOUT FAMILY PLANNING .......... L
DISCUSS ABOUT DIARRHEA ............... M
RECEIVED INFORMATION ON
ADOLESCENT NUTRITION ............... N
DISCUSS ABOUT COVID-19 ............... O

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW .............................. Z

704 • Appendix E
 MENTAL HEALTH MODULE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1200 CHECK FOR HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY:

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR HOUSEHOLD NOT

F1
MAN'S SURVEY SELECTED

Now I will ask you a few questions on how you have felt or behaved in the last 2 weeks. You may find some
of these questions very personal. Let me assure you that your answers are completely confidential and will
not be told to anyone. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to
the next question.

GAD (ANXIETY) CODES:

CODE '7' (RF) REFUSED TO ANSWER

CODE '8' (DK) DON'T KNOW

GAD The next questions are about how you have been
feeling during the last 2 weeks. Over the last 2
weeks, how often have you been bothered by the
following problems? Would you say never, rarely, NEVER RARELY OFTEN AL- RF DK
often, or always? WAYS

1) Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge? 1) 0 1 2 3 7 8

Would you say never, rarely, often, or always?

2) Not being able to stop or control worrying? 2) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

3) Worrying too much about different things? 3) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

4) Trouble relaxing? 4) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

5) Being so restless that it is hard to sit still? 5) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

6) Becoming easily annoyed or irritable? 6) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

7) Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen? 7) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

Appendix E • 705
 PHQ (DEPRESSION) CODES:

CODE '7' (RF) REFUSED TO ANSWER

CODE '8' (DK) DON'T KNOW

PHQ Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been
bothered by the following problems? Would you say NEVER RARELY OFTEN AL- RF DK
never, rarely, often, or always? WAYS

1) Little interest or pleasure in doing things? 1) 0 1 2 3 7 8

Would you say never, rarely, often, or always?

2) Feeling down, depressed or hopeless? 2) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

3) Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping 3) 0 1 2 3 7 8

too much?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

4) Feeling tired or having little energy? 4) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

5) Poor appetite or overeating? 5) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

6) Feeling bad about yourself - or that you are a 6) 0 1 2 3 7 8

failure or have let yourself or your family down?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

7) Trouble concentrating on things, such as reading 7) 0 1 2 3 7 8

the newspaper or watching television?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

8) Moving or speaking so slowly that other people 8) 0 1 2 3 7 8

could have noticed. Or, the opposite - being so
fidgety or restless that you have been moving
around a lot more than usual?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

9) Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of 9) 0 1 2 3 7 8

hurting yourself in some way?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

MTH1 CHECK THE REPORTED SYMPTOMS: ANY CODE '1', '2', OR '3' RECORDED IN GAD, AND/OR ANY CODE
'1', '2', OR '3' RECORDED IN PHQ

ANY SYMPTOMS REPORTED FOR NO

MTH4
GAD AND/OR PHQ SYMPTOMS

706 • Appendix E
MTH2 Thinking about what you yourself have experienced YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
among the different things we have been talking NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 MTH4
about, have you ever tried to seek help?

MTH3 From whom have you sought help? DOCTOR/MEDICAL PERSONNEL ....... A
SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . B
Anyone else? SOCIAL WORKER .................... C
COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER/
FIELDWORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. RELIGIOUS LEADER/DHAMI ............ E
CURRENT/FORMER SPOUSE/PARTNER .. F
OTHER FAMILY MEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
NEIGHBOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

MTH4 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other

healthcare worker that you have: YES NO

a) Depression? a) DEPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
b) Anxiety? b) ANXIETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

MTH5 During the last 2 weeks, did you take medicine YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
prescribed by a doctor or other healthcare worker NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
for depression or anxiety?

MTH6 During the last 2 weeks, did you take medicine YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
prescribed by a doctor or other healthcare worker NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
for any other mental health condition?

MTH6A During the last 2 weeks, did you ever receive YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
counseling for your mental health condition? NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MTH7 SCORE THE PHQ SCALE BY SUMMING THE

ANSWERS TO PHQ 1-9. PHQ SCORE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MTH8 CHECK MTH7 AND PHQ9: ASSESS NEED FOR REFERRAL

RESPONDENTS WITH A SCORE OF 10 OR HIGHER ON THE PHQ SCALE, AND/OR THOSE WHO
ANSWERED '1', '2', OR '3' ON PHQ9 SHOULD BE OFFERED A REFERRAL FOR MENTAL HEALTH
SERVICES.

SCORE OF 10 OR HIGHER OTHER

ON THE PHQ SCALE AND/OR F1
ANY CODE '1', '2', OR '3' IN PHQ9

MTH9 Thank you for answering this series of questions. Based on the information you shared with me about your recent
experiences, you may benefit from services provided by the agency in the referral card.

PROVIDE RESPONDENT WITH REFERRAL CARD. This card provides contact information of the agency.

Appendix E • 707
 FISTULA

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

F1 Sometimes a woman can have a problem of constant

leakage of urine or stool from her vagina during the day
and night. This problem usually occurs after a difficult
childbirth, but may also occur after a sexual assault or
after pelvic surgery or a severe injury. YES .................................... 1 F4
NO .................................... 2
Do you currently experience a constant leakage of urine
or stool from your vagina during the day and night?

F2 Have you ever experienced this problem? YES .................................... 1 F4

NO .................................... 2

F3 Have you ever heard of this problem? YES .................................... 1

DV00
NO .................................... 2

F4 Did this problem start after you delivered a baby or had AFTER DELIVERED BABY ................ 1
a stillbirth? AFTER HAD STILLBIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NEITHER .............................. 3 F6

F5 Did this problem start after a normal labor and delivery, NORMAL LABOR/DELIVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
F7
or after a very difficult labor and delivery? VERY DIFFICULT LABOR/DELIVERY . . . . . . . . . . 2

F6 What do you think caused this problem? PELVIC SURGERY ...................... 1

SEXUAL ASSAULT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
OTHER INJURY ........................ 3

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ........................... 8 F8

F7 How many days after (CAUSE OF PROBLEM FROM F4

OR F6) did the leakage start? NUMBER OF DAYS AFTER
DELIVERY/OTHER EVENT . . . . . . . . . .
ENTER '90' IF 90 DAYS OR MORE.

F7A Did you experience stigma or isolation as a result of this YES .................................... 1
problem? NO .................................... 2

F8 Have you sought treatment for this condition? YES .................................... 1 F10
NO .................................... 2

F9 Why have you not sought treatment? DO NOT KNOW CAN BE FIXED ............. A
DO NOT KNOW WHERE TO GO . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
PROBE AND RECORD ALL MENTIONED. TOO EXPENSIVE ........................ C
TOO FAR .............................. D F12A
POOR QUALITY OF CARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
COULD NOT GET PERMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
EMBARRASSMENT ...................... G
PROBLEM DISAPPEARED ................ H DV00

OTHER X F12A
(SPECIFY)

708 • Appendix E
F10 From whom did you last seek treatment? HEALTH PROFESSIONAL
DOCTOR ........................... 1
NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
OTHER PERSON
COMMUNITY/VILLAGE
HEALTH WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

F11 Did you have an operation to fix the problem? YES .................................... 1
NO .................................... 2

F12 Did the treatment stop the leakage completely? YES, STOPPED COMPLETELY ............. 1 DV00
NOT STOPPED BUT REDUCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
IF NO: Did the treatment reduce the leakage? NOT STOPPED AT ALL ................... 3
DID NOT RECEIVE TREATMENT .......... 4

F12A How long have you been suffering from this problem
without treatment or not improving even with treatment?
YEAR ........................
ENTER '00' IF LESS THAN A YEAR.

Appendix E • 709
710 • Appendix E
 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE MODULE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

DV00 CHECK FOR WOMAN SELECTED FOR DV MODULE:

WOMAN SELECTED WOMAN DV38

FOR THIS SECTION NOT SELECTED

DV01 CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS:

DO NOT CONTINUE UNTIL PRIVACY IS ENSURED.

PRIVACY PRIVACY
OBTAINED . . . . . . . . . . 1 NOT POSSIBLE . . . . . . . . . . 2 DV37

DV02 READ TO THE RESPONDENT:

Now I would like to ask you questions about some other important aspects of a woman's life. You may find some of
these questions very personal. However, your answers are crucial for helping to understand the condition of women in
Nepal. Let me assure you that your answers are completely confidential and will not be told to anyone and no one else
in your household will know that you were asked these questions. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer,
just let me know and I will go on to the next question.

DV03 CHECK 701 AND 702:

CURRENTLY
MARRIED/ DV06
NEVER MARRIED/ LIVING FORMERLY
NEVER LIVED WITH WITH A MAN MARRIED/
DV06
A MAN LIVED WITH A MAN
(READ IN PAST TENSE
AND USE 'LAST' WITH
'HUSBAND/ MALE PARTNER')

DV04 You have said that you are not married and are not living with a YES ........................... 1 DV06
man as if married. Are you currently in an intimate relationship with NO ........................... 2
a man even though you are not living with him?

DV05 Have you ever been in an intimate relationship with a man even YES ........................... 1
though you did not ever live with him? NO ........................... 2 DV19

DV06 Now, I am going to ask you about some situations that can happen
between some women and their (husband/male partner).

A. Please tell me if these descriptions apply to your relationship B. How often did this happen during the last
with your (last) (husband/male partner). 12 months: often, only sometimes, or not
at all?

SOME- NOT IN LAST

EVER OFTEN TIMES 12 MONTHS

a) He (is/was) jealous or angry if you YES 1 1 2 3

(talk/talked) to other men? NO 2

b) He wrongly (accuses/accused) you of YES 1 1 2 3

being unfaithful? NO 2

c) He (does/did) not permit you to meet your YES 1 1 2 3

female friends? NO 2

d) He (tries/tried) to limit your contact with YES 1 1 2 3

your family? NO 2

e) He (insists/insisted) on knowing where YES 1 1 2 3

you (are/were) at all times? NO 2

Appendix E • 711
 DV07 Now I need to ask some more questions about your relationship
with your (last) (husband/male partner).

A. Did your (last) (husband/male partner) ever: B. How often did this happen during the last
12 months: often, only sometimes, or not
at all?

SOME- NOT IN LAST

EVER OFTEN TIMES 12 MONTHS

a) say or do something to humiliate you in YES 1 1 2 3

front of others? NO 2

b) threaten to hurt or harm you or someone YES 1 1 2 3

you care about? NO 2

c) insult you or make you feel bad about YES 1 1 2 3

yourself? NO 2

DV08 A. Did your (last) (husband/male partner) ever do any of the B. How often did this happen during the last
following things to you: 12 months: often, only sometimes, or not
at all?

SOME- NOT IN LAST

EVER OFTEN TIMES 12 MONTHS

a) push you, shake you, or throw something YES 1 1 2 3

at you? NO 2

b) slap you? YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

c) twist your arm or pull your hair? YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

d) punch you with his fist or with something YES 1 1 2 3

that could hurt you? NO 2

e) kick you, drag you, or beat you up? YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

f) try to choke you or burn you on purpose? YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

g) attack you with a knife, gun, or other YES 1 1 2 3

weapon? NO 2

h) physically force you to have sexual YES 1 1 2 3

intercourse with him when you did not NO 2
want to?

i) physically force you to perform any other YES 1 1 2 3

sexual acts you did not want to? NO 2

j) force you with threats or in any other way YES 1 1 2 3

to perform sexual acts you did not want NO 2
to?

DV09 CHECK DV08A (a-j):

AT LEAST ONE NOT A SINGLE

DV11
'YES' 'YES'

712 • Appendix E
DV10 Did the following ever happen as a result of what your (last)
(husband/male partner) did to you:

a) You had cuts, bruises, or aches? YES ........................... 1

NO ........................... 2

b) You had eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, or burns? YES ........................... 1

NO ........................... 2

c) You had deep wounds, broken bones, broken teeth, or any YES ........................... 1
other serious injury? NO ........................... 2

DV11 Have you ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything else to YES ........................... 1
physically hurt your (last) (husband/male partner) at times when he NO ........................... 2 DV13
was not already beating or physically hurting you?

DV12 In the last 12 months, how often have you done this to your (last) OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
(husband/male partner): often, only sometimes, or not at all? SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NOT AT ALL ................... 3

DV13 Does (did) your (last) (husband/male partner) drink alcohol? YES ........................... 1
NO ........................... 2 DV15

DV14 How often does (did) he get drunk: often, only sometimes, or OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
never? SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DV15 Are (Were) you afraid of your (last) (husband/male partner): most MOST OF THE TIME AFRAID . . . . . . . 1
of the time, sometimes, or never? SOMETIMES AFRAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NEVER AFRAID ................ 3

DV16 A. So far we have been talking about the behavior of your B. How long ago did this last happen?
(current/last) (husband/male partner). Now I want to ask you
about the behavior of any previous husband or any other
current or previous male partner that you may have ever had.

0 - 11 12+
EVER MONTHS MONTHS DON'T
AGO AGO REMEMBER

HAS NEVER HAD ANOTHER HUSBAND/

a) Did any previous husband or any other MALE PARTNER .......... 6 DV17
current or previous male partner ever hit,
slap, kick, or do anything else to hurt you YES 1 1 2 3
physically? NO 2

b) Did any previous husband or any other

current or previous male partner
physically force you to have intercourse YES 1 1 2 3
or perform any other sexual acts that you NO 2
did not want to?

c) Did any previous husband or any other

current or previous male partner YES 1 1 2 3
humiliate you in front of others, threaten NO 2
to hurt you or someone you care about,
or insult you or make you feel bad about
yourself?

DV17 CHECK DV08A (h-j) AND DV16A (b):

AT LEAST ONE NOT A SINGLE

DV19
'YES' YES

Appendix E • 713
 DV18 How old were you the first time you were forced to have sexual AGE IN COMPLETED
intercourse or perform any other sexual acts that you did not want YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
to by any current or previous husband or male partner?
DON'T KNOW ................... 98

DV19 CHECK 212 AND 232:

CURRENTLY PREGNANT NOT PREGNANT

232=1 OR 232=2 AND
HAD ONE OR MORE PAST NO PAST DV22
PREGNANCIES PREGNANCIES
212>0 212=0

DV20 Has any one ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything else to YES ........................... 1
hurt you physically while you were pregnant? NO ........................... 2 DV22

DV21 Who has done any of these things to physically hurt you while you CURRENT HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . A
were pregnant? MOTHER/STEP-MOTHER . . . . . . . . . . B
FATHER/STEP-FATHER .......... C
Anyone else? SISTER/BROTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
DAUGHTER/SON ................ E
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
FORMER HUSBAND/PARTNER ..... G
CURRENT BOYFRIEND .......... H
FORMER BOYFRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
MOTHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
FATHER-IN-LAW ................ K
OTHER IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
TEACHER ...................... M
SCHOOLMATE/CLASSMATE . . . . . . . N
EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK .. O
POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DV22 CHECK 701 AND 702 AND DV04 AND DV05:

EVER MARRIED/EVER NEVER MARRIED/

LIVED WITH A MAN/ NEVER HAD
EVER HAD A A MALE PARTNER
MALE PARTNER

a) From the time you were 15 b) From the time you were 15 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
years old, has anyone years old has anyone hit you, NO ........................... 2
other than a husband or slapped you, kicked you, or REFUSED TO ANSWER/ DV25
male partner, hit you, done anything else to hurt you NO ANSWER ................ 3
slapped you, kicked you, or physically?
done anything else to hurt
you physically?
Remember, I do not want
you to include any
husband or any other male
partner.

714 • Appendix E
DV23 Who has hurt you in this way? MOTHER/STEP-MOTHER . . . . . . . . . . A
FATHER/STEP-FATHER .......... B
Anyone else? SISTER/BROTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
DAUGHTER/SON ................ D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
CURRENT BOYFRIEND .......... F
FORMER BOYFRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
MOTHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
FATHER-IN-LAW ................ I
OTHER IN-LAW ................ J
TEACHER ...................... K
SCHOOLMATE/CLASSMATE . . . . . . . L
EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK .. M
POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DV24 In the last 12 months, how often (has this person/have these OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
persons) physically hurt you: often, only sometimes, or not at all? SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NOT AT ALL ................... 3

DV25 CHECK 701 AND 702 AND DV04 AND DV05:

EVER MARRIED/ NEVER MARRIED/

EVER LIVED WITH A MAN/ NEVER HAD
DV27
EVER HAD A A MALE PARTNER
MALE PARTNER

DV26 At any time in your life, as a child or as an adult, has anyone other YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 DV28
than any previous husband or any other current or previous male NO ........................... 2
partner ever forced you in any way to have sexual intercourse or REFUSED TO ANSWER/ DV31
perform any other sexual acts when you did not want to? NO ANSWER ................ 3
Remember I do not want you to include any husband or male
partner.

DV27 At any time in your life, as a child or as an adult, has anyone ever YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
forced you in any way to have sexual intercourse or perform any NO ........................... 2
other sexual acts when you did not want to? REFUSED TO ANSWER/ DV31
NO ANSWER ................ 3

DV28 CHECK 701 AND 702 AND DV04 AND DV05:

EVER MARRIED/EVER NEVER MARRIED/

LIVED WITH A MAN/ NEVER HAD A
EVER HAD A MALE PARTNER
MALE PARTNER

a) How old were you the first time b) How old were you the first
you were forced to have time you were forced to AGE IN COMPLETED
sexual intercourse or perform have sexual intercourse or YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
any other sexual acts that you perform any other sexual
did not want to by anyone, not acts that you did not want
DON'T KNOW ................... 98
including any husband or any to?
other male partner?
`

Appendix E • 715
 DV29 Who has forced you to have sexual intercourse or perform any FATHER/STEP-FATHER .......... A
other sexual acts that you did not want to? BROTHER/STEP-BROTHER . . . . . . . B
OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
Anyone else? CURRENT BOYFRIEND .......... D
FORMER BOYFRIEND .......... E
IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
OWN FRIEND/ACQUAINTANCE . . . . . G
FAMILY FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
TEACHER ...................... I
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. SCHOOLMATE/CLASSMATE . . . . . . . J
EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK .. K
POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
PRIEST/RELIGIOUS LEADER . . . . . . . M
STRANGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DV30 CHECK 701 AND 702 AND DV04 AND DV05:

EVER MARRIED/EVER NEVER MARRIED/

LIVED WITH A MAN/ NEVER HAD A MALE
EVER HAD A MALE PARTNER
PARTNER

a) In the last 12 months, has b) In the last 12 months, has

anyone other than any anyone forced you to have
previous husband or any sexual intercourse or YES ........................... 1
other current or previous perform any other sexual NO ........................... 2
male partner forced you to acts that you did not want
have sexual intercourse or to?
perform any other sexual
acts that you did not want
to?

DV31 CHECK DV08A (a-j), DV16A (a,b), DV20, DV22, DV26, AND DV27:

AT LEAST ONE NOT A SINGLE

DV34A
'YES' 'YES'

DV32 Thinking about what you yourself have experienced among the YES ........................... 1
different things we have been talking about, have you ever tried to NO ........................... 2 DV34
seek help?

DV33 From whom have you sought help? OWN FAMILY ................... A
HUSBAND'S/PARTNER'S FAMILY .. B
Anyone else? CURRENT/FORMER
HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. CURRENT/FORMER BOYFRIEND .. D
FRIEND ...................... E
NEIGHBOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
RELIGIOUS LEADER . . . . . . . . . . . . . G
DOCTOR/MEDICAL PERSONNEL/
DV34A
HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
POLICE ...................... I
LAWYER ...................... J
SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION . . K
FCHV ...................... L
SAFE HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
LOCAL JUDICIAL COMMITTEE ..... N

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

716 • Appendix E
DV34 Have you ever told any one about this? YES ........................... 1
NO ........................... 2

DV34A Do you know where to go to seek help if you ever experience YES ........................... 1
violence? NO ........................... 2

DV35 As far as you know, did your father ever beat your mother? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
NO ........................... 2
DON'T KNOW ................... 8

DV35A CHECK 701 AND 702:

EVER MARRIED/EVER NEVER MARRIED/NEVER

DV36
LIVED WITH A MAN LIVED WITH A MAN

DV35B Have you ever experienced the following?

YES NO

a) Not given enough food to eat? a) NOT ENOUGH TO EAT ..... 1 2

b) Not cared for when you were too ill, during pregnancy, delivery, b) NOT CARED WHEN ILL . . . . . 1 2
or postpartum?

c) Asked to go for forced abortion? c) FORCED ABORTION ..... 1 2

d) Threatened with divorce by husband or in-laws? d) THREATENED DIVORCE. . . . . 1 2

e) Asked to go for forced divorce? e) FORCED DIVORCE ....... 1 2

f) Abused for not bearing a son? f) ABUSED FOR NO SON ..... 1 2

g) Abused for using a family planning method? g) USING FAMILY PLANNING . . 1 2

h) Forced to get married? h) FORCED MARRIAGE ..... 1 2

i) Forced to seclude during menstruation? i) FORCED TO SECLUDE .. 1 2

THANK THE RESPONDENT FOR HER COOPERATION AND REASSURE HER ABOUT THE CONFIDENTIALITY OF
HER ANSWERS. FILL OUT THE QUESTIONS BELOW WITH REFERENCE TO THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
MODULE ONLY.

DV36 DID YOU HAVE TO INTERRUPT THE YES, YES, MORE

INTERVIEW BECAUSE SOME ADULT WAS ONCE THAN ONCE NO
TRYING TO LISTEN, OR CAME INTO THE HUSBAND ........... 1 2 3
ROOM, OR INTERFERED IN ANY OTHER OTHER MALE ADULT .. 1 2 3
WAY?
FEMALE ADULT . . . . . . . 1 2 3

DV37 INTERVIEWER'S COMMENTS/EXPLANATION FOR NOT COMPLETING THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE MODULE.

1116 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS ......................

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix E • 717
 INSTRUCTIONS: COL. 1 COL. 2
ONLY ONE CODE SHOULD APPEAR IN ANY BOX. 12 CHAITRA 01
COLUMN 1 REQUIRES A CODE IN EVERY MONTH. 11 FALGUN 02
10 MAGH 03
CODES FOR EACH COLUMN: 09 POUSH 04
2 08 MANGSIR 05 2
COLUMN 1: BIRTHS, PREGNANCIES, CONTRACEPTIVE USE 0 07 KARTIK 06 0
7 06 ASWIN 07 7
B BIRTHS 05 BHADRA 08
8 8
P PREGNANCIES 04 SRAWAN 09
T TERMINATIONS 03 ASHAD 10
02 JESTHA 11
0 NO METHOD 01 BAISAKH 12

1 FEMALE STERILIZATION 12 CHAITRA 13

2 MALE STERILIZATION 11 FALGUN 14
3 IUCD 10 MAGH 15
4 INJECTABLES 09 POUSH 16
5 IMPLANTS 2 08 MANGSIR 17 2
6 PILL 0 07 KARTIK 18 0
7 CONDOM 7 06 ASWIN 19 7
9 EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION 05 BHADRA 20
7 7
J STANDARD DAYS METHOD 04 SRAWAN 21
K LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD 03 ASHAD 22
L RHYTHM METHOD 02 JESTHA 23
M WITHDRAWAL 01 BAISAKH 24

X OTHER MODERN METHOD 12 CHAITRA 25

Y OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD 11 FALGUN 26
10 MAGH 27
09 POUSH 28
COLUMN 2: DISCONTINUATION OF CONTRACEPTIVE USE 2 08 MANGSIR 29 2
0 07 KARTIK 30 0
0 INFREQUENT SEX/HUSBAND AWAY 7 06 ASWIN 31 7
1 BECAME PREGNANT WHILE USING 05 BHADRA 32
6 6
2 WANTED TO BECOME PREGNANT 04 SRAWAN 33
3 HUSBAND/PARTNER DISAPPROVED 03 ASHAD 34
4 WANTED MORE EFFECTIVE METHOD 02 JESTHA 35
5 CHANGES IN MENSTRUAL BLEEDING 01 BAISAKH 36

6 OTHER SIDE EFFECTS/HEALTH CONCERNS 12 CHAITRA 37

7 LACK OF ACCESS/TOO FAR 11 FALGUN 38
8 COSTS TOO MUCH 10 MAGH 39
N INCONVENIENT TO USE 09 POUSH 40
F UP TO GOD/FATALISTIC 2 08 MANGSIR 41 2
A DIFFICULT TO GET PREGNANT/MENOPAUSAL 0 07 KARTIK 42 0
D MARITAL DISSOLUTION/SEPARATION 7 06 ASWIN 43 7
V METHOD NOT AVAILABLE DUE TO LOCKDOWN 05 BHADRA 44
5 5
04 SRAWAN 45
X OTHER 03 ASHAD 46
02 JESTHA 47
(SPECIFY) 01 BAISAKH 48

Z DON'T KNOW 12 CHAITRA 49

11 FALGUN 50
10 MAGH 51
NOTE: 2
09 POUSH 52
08 MANGSIR 53 2
THIS CALENDAR IS INCLUDED 0 07 KARTIK 54 0
IN THE PRINTED QUESTIONNAIRE 7 06 ASWIN 55 7
FOR EASE OF UNDERSTANDING 4 05 BHADRA 56
4
WHAT INFORMATION RELATED TO 04 SRAWAN 57
THE MONTHLY CALENDAR WAS 03 ASHAD 58
INCLUDED IN THE SURVEY. 02 JESTHA 59
01 BAISAKH 60

THE CAPI PROGRAM COLLECTS ALL 12 CHAITRA 61

OF THIS CALENDAR INFORMATION, 11 FALGUN 62
ALTHOUGH THE INTERVIEWERS 10 MAGH 63
DO NOT EXPLICITLY USE THE 09 POUSH 64
CALENDAR FORMAT WHEN 2 08 MANGSIR 65 2
COLLECTING THE DATA. 0 07 KARTIK 66 0
7 06 ASWIN 67 7
05 BHADRA 68
3 3
04 SRAWAN 69
03 ASHAD 70
02 JESTHA 71
01 BAISAKH 72

718 • Appendix E
 INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

Appendix E • 719
720 • Appendix E
 FORMATTING DATE: 28 Jan 2021
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:03 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
MAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE
NEPAL
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION

IDENTIFICATION

NAME AND CODE OF DISTRICT

NAME AND CODE OF GAUNPALIKA/MUNICIPALITY

WARD NUMBER .......................................................................

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER .......................................................................

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ....................................................................

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF MAN

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR
2 0 7
INTERVIEWER'S
NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER
TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: 1 COMPLETED 4 REFUSED

2 NOT AT HOME 5 PARTLY COMPLETED 7 OTHER
3 POSTPONED 6 INCAPACITATED SPECIFY

TRANSLATOR USED
LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** 0 1 LANGUAGE OF
INTERVIEW**
NATIVE LANGUAGE
OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** ENGLISH **LANGUAGE CODES:
01 ENGLISH 03 MAITHILI
02 NEPALI 04 BHOJPURI

TEAM TEAM SUPERVISOR

NUMBER NAME NUMBER

Appendix E • 721
 INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working for New ERA to collect data on 2022 Nepal Demographic and
Health Survey being conducted under the aegis of the Ministry of Health and Population. We are conducting a survey about health and other
topics all over Nepal. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your household was selected for the survey.
The questions usually take about 30 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than
members of our survey team. You don't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to answer the questions since your views are
important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next question or you can stop the interview
at any time.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on the card that has already been given to your
household.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

101 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS .........................

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102 What province were you born in? PROVINCE NO 1 ......................... 01

MADHESH ......................... 02
BAGMATI ............................... 03
GANDAKI ............................... 04 104
LUMBINI ......................... 05
KARNALI ............................ 06
SUDURPASCHIM ......................... 07

OUTSIDE OF NEPAL ................... 96

103 What country were you born in?

COUNTRY

104 How long have you been living continuously in (NAME

OF CURRENT CITY, TOWN OR VILLAGE OF YEARS .........................
RESIDENCE)?
ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
110
IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD ‘00’ YEARS. VISITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

105 CHECK 104:

00 - 04 YEARS 05 YEARS 107

OR MORE

106 In what month and year did you move here?

MONTH .........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9998

107 Just before you moved here, which province did you live PROVINCE NO 1 ......................... 01
in? MADHESH ......................... 02
BAGMATI ............................... 03
GANDAKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
LUMBINI ......................... 05
KARNALI ............................ 06
SUDURPASCHIM ......................... 07

OUTSIDE OF NEPAL ................... 96

722 • Appendix E
 SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

108 Just before you moved here, did you live in a city CITY (METROPOLITAN OR SUB-
(metropolitan or sub-metropolitan or municipality), or in METROPOLITAN OR MUNICIPALITY) ..... 1
a rural area? RURAL AREA 2

109 Why did you move to this place? EMPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

EDUCATION/TRAINING ................... 02
MARRIAGE FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03
FAMILY REUNIFICATION/OTHER
FAMILY RELATED REASON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
FORCED DISPLACEMENT ................ 05
NATURAL DISASTER ................ 06
OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

110 In what month and year were you born?

MONTH .........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

111 How old were you at your last birthday?

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . .
COMPARE AND CORRECT 105 AND/OR 106 IF
INCONSISTENT.

112 In general, would you say your health is very good, VERY GOOD ............................ 1
good, moderate, bad, or very bad? GOOD .................................. 2
MODERATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
BAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
VERY BAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

113 Have you ever attended school? YES ..................................... 1 115

NO ..................................... 2

113A Has (NAME) ever participated in a literacy program or YES ..................................... 1

any other program that involves learning to read and 117
write (not including primary school)? NO ..................................... 2

115 What is the highest grade you have completed?

GRADE .............
IF COMPLETED LESS THAN ONE YEAR AT THAT
LEVEL, RECORD '00'.

116 CHECK 115:

GRADE 12 OR ABOVE GRADE 12

119
LOWER

117 Now I would like you to read this sentence to me. CANNOT READ AT ALL ................... 1
ABLE TO READ ONLY PART OF
SHOW CARD TO RESPONDENT. THE SENTENCE ...................... 2
ABLE TO READ WHOLE SENTENCE ........ 3
IF RESPONDENT CANNOT READ WHOLE NO CARD WITH REQUIRED
SENTENCE, LANGUAGE 4
PROBE: Can you read any part of the sentence to me? (SPECIFY LANGUAGE)
BLIND/VISUALLY IMPAIRED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

118 CHECK 117:

CODE '2', '3' CODE '1' OR '5'

OR '4' CIRCLED 120
CIRCLED

Appendix E • 723
 SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

119 Do you read a newspaper or magazine at least once a AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
week, less than once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

120 Do you listen to the radio at least once a week, less than AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

121 Do you watch television at least once a week, less than AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK ................ 1
once a week or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 2
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

122 Do you own a mobile phone? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2 124

123 Is your mobile phone a smart phone? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2

124 In the last 12 months, have you used a mobile phone to

make financial transactions such as sending or YES ..................................... 1
receiving money, paying bills, purchasing goods or NO ..................................... 2
services, or receiving wages?

125 Do you have an account in a bank or other financial YES ..................................... 1

institution that you yourself use? NO ..................................... 2 127

126 Did you yourself put money in or take money out of this YES ..................................... 1
account in the last 12 months? NO ..................................... 2

127 Have you ever used the Internet from any location on YES ..................................... 1
any device? NO ..................................... 2 130

128 In the last 12 months, have you used the Internet?

YES ..................................... 1
IF NECESSARY, PROBE FOR USE FROM ANY NO ..................................... 2 130
LOCATION, WITH ANY DEVICE.

129 During the last one month, how often did you use the ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Internet: almost every day, at least once a week, less AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
than once a week, or not at all? LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK ................ 3
NOT AT ALL ............................ 4

130 What is your religion? HINDU ............................... 01

BUDDHIST ............................... 02
MUSLIM ............................... 03
KIRAT ............................... 04
CHRISTIAN ............................... 05

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

131 What is your caste/ethnic group? HILL BRAHMIN ......................... 01

HILL CHHETRI ......................... 02
TERAI BRAHMIN/CHETTRI ................ 03
OTHER TERAI CASTE ................... 04
HILL DALIT ......................... 05
TERAI DALIT ......................... 06
NEWAR ................ 07
HILL JANAJATI ................ 08
TERAI JANAJATI ................ 09
MUSLIM ................... 10

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

724 • Appendix E
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

201 Now I would like to ask about any children you have had
during your life. I am interested in all of the children that
are biologically yours, even if they are not legally yours YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
or do not have your last name. Have you ever fathered NO ..................................... 2
any children with any woman? 206
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

202 Do you have any sons or daughters that you have YES ..................................... 1
fathered who are now living with you? NO ..................................... 2 204

203 a) How many sons live with you?

a) SONS AT HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) And how many daughters live with you?
b) DAUGHTERS AT HOME ........
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

204 Do you have any sons or daughters that you have YES ..................................... 1
fathered who are alive but do not live with you? NO ..................................... 2 206

205 a) How many sons are alive but do not live with you?
a) SONS ELSEWHERE ...........
b) And how many daughters are alive but do not live
with you? b) DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE .....
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

206 Have you ever fathered a son or a daughter who was

born alive but later died?
YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
IF NO, PROBE: Any baby who cried, who made any NO ..................................... 2
movement, sound, or effort to breathe, or who showed 208
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8
any other signs of life even if for a very short time?

207 a) How many boys have died?

a) BOYS DEAD ................
b) And how many girls have died?
b) GIRLS DEAD ................
IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

208 SUM ANSWERS TO 203, 205, AND 207, AND ENTER

TOTAL. IF NONE, RECORD '00'. TOTAL CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

209 CHECK 208:

HAS HAD
HAS HAD ONLY 211
MORE THAN ONE CHILD
ONE CHILD HAS NOT HAD
ANY CHILDREN 301

210 Did all of the children you have fathered have the same YES ..................................... 1
biological mother? NO ..................................... 2

211 CHECK 208:

HAS HAD HAS HAD

MORE THAN ONLY
ONE CHILD ONE CHILD

a) How old were you when b) How old were you when
your first child was your child was born? AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
born?

212 CHECK 203 AND 205:

AT LEAST ONE NO LIVING

301
LIVING CHILD CHILDREN

Appendix E • 725
 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

213 CHECK 203 AND 205:

MORE THAN ONE ONLY ONE

LIVING CHILD LIVING CHILD

a) How old is your b) How old is your child?

youngest child? AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

214 CHECK 213:

(YOUNGEST) CHILD IS (YOUNGEST) CHILD IS

301
AGE 0-2 YEARS AGE 3 YEARS OR OLDER

215 CHECK 203 AND 205:

MORE THAN ONE ONLY ONE

LIVING CHILD LIVING CHILD

a) What is the name of b) What is the name of

your youngest child? your child? (NAME OF (YOUNGEST) CHILD)

216 When (NAME)'s mother was pregnant with (NAME), did YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
she have any antenatal check-ups? NO ..................................... 2
218
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

217 Were you ever present during any of those antenatal PRESENT ............................... 1
check-ups? NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

218 Was (NAME) born in a hospital or health facility? HOSPITAL/HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 301

219 Did you go with (NAME's) mother to the health facility YES ..................................... 1
where she gave birth to (NAME)? NO ..................................... 2

726 • Appendix E
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

301 Now I would like to talk about family planning - the various ways or methods that a couple can use to delay or avoid a pregnancy.
Have you ever heard of (METHOD)?

01 Female Sterilization. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have an operation to avoid having any more NO .................................. 2
children.

02 Male Sterilization. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Men can have an operation to avoid having any more children. NO .................................. 2

03 IUCD. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have a loop or coil placed inside them by a doctor NO .................................. 2
or a nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one or more years.

04 Injectables or Sayana Press. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have an injection by a health provider that stops NO .................................. 2
them from becoming pregnant for one or more months.

05 Implants. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Women can have one or more small rods placed in their upper NO .................................. 2
arm by a doctor or nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one or more
years.

06 Pill. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Women can take a pill every day to avoid becoming pregnant. NO .................................. 2

07 Condom. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Men can put a rubber sheath on their penis before sexual NO .................................. 2
intercourse.

09 Emergency Contraception. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: As an emergency measure, within 3 days after they have NO .................................. 2
unprotected sexual intercourse, women can take special pills to prevent
pregnancy.

10 Standard Days Method. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: A woman uses a string of colored beads to know the days she NO .................................. 2
can get pregnant. On the days she can get pregnant, she uses a
condom or does not have sexual intercourse.

11 Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM).

PROBE: Up to 6 months after childbirth, before the menstrual period YES .................................. 1
has returned, women use a method requiring frequent breastfeeding NO .................................. 2
day and night.

12 Rhythm Method. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: To avoid pregnancy, women do not have sexual intercourse
on the days of the month they think they can get pregnant. NO .................................. 2

13 Withdrawal. YES .................................. 1

PROBE: Men can be careful and pull out before climax. NO .................................. 2

14 Have you heard of any other ways or methods that women or men can YES, MODERN METHOD
use to avoid pregnancy?
A
(SPECIFY)
YES, TRADITIONAL METHOD

B
(SPECIFY)
NO .................................. Y

Appendix E • 727
 SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

302 In the last 12 months have you: YES NO

a) Heard about family planning on the radio? a) RADIO ...................... 1 2

b) Seen anything about family planning on the b) TELEVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

television?
c) Read about family planning in a newspaper or c) NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE . . . . . 1 2
magazine?
d) Received a voice or text message about family d) MOBILE PHONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
planning on a mobile phone?
e) Seen anything about family planning on social media e) FACEBOOK/TWITTER/
such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? INSTAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
f) Seen anything about family planning on a poster, f) POSTER/LEAFLET/
leaflet or brochure? BROCHURE ............. 1 2
g) Seen anything about family planning on an outdoor g) OUTDOOR SIGN/BILLBOARD . . . . . 1 2
sign or billboard?
h) Heard anything about family planning at community h) COMMUNITY MEETINGS/
meetings or events? EVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

303 In the last few months, have you discussed family YES ..................................... 1
planning with a health worker or health professional? NO ..................................... 2

304 Now I would like to ask you about a woman's risk of

pregnancy. From one menstrual period to the next, are YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
there certain days when a woman is more likely to NO ..................................... 2
become pregnant when she has sexual relations? 306
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

305 Is this time just before her period begins, during her JUST BEFORE HER PERIOD BEGINS ........ 1
period, right after her period has ended, or halfway DURING HER PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
between two periods? RIGHT AFTER HER PERIOD HAS ENDED ..... 3
HALFWAY BETWEEN TWO PERIODS ........ 4

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

306 After the birth of a child, can a woman become pregnant YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
before her menstrual period has returned? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

307 I will now read you some statements about

contraception. Please tell me if you agree or disagree DIS-
with each one. AGREE AGREE DK

a) Contraception is a woman’s concern and a man a) CONTRACEPTION

should not have to worry about it. WOMAN'S CONCERN 1 2 8
b) Women who use contraception may become b) WOMEN MAY BECOME
promiscuous. PROMISCUOUS 1 2 8

728 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

401 Are you currently married or living together with a YES, CURRENTLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
404
woman as if married? YES, LIVING WITH A WOMAN ............. 2
NO, NOT IN UNION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

402 Have you ever been married or lived together with a YES, FORMERLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
woman as if married? YES, LIVED WITH A WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
NO ..................................... 3 413

403 What is your marital status now: are you widowed, WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
divorced, or separated? DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 410
SEPARATED ............................ 3

404 Is your (wife/partner) living with you now or is she LIVING WITH HIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
staying elsewhere? STAYING ELSEWHERE ................... 2

405 Do you have other wives or do you live with other YES (MORE THAN ONE WIFE) ............. 1
women as if married? NO (ONLY ONE WIFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 407

406 Altogether, how many wives or live-in partners do you TOTAL NUMBER OF WIVES
have? AND LIVE-IN PARTNERS . . . . . . . . . . .

407 CHECK 405: 408

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN How old was

PARTNER ONE WIFE/ (NAME) on
PARTNER her last
birthday?
a) Please tell me the b) Please tell me the
name of (your wife/the name of each of your
woman you are living wives or each woman LINE
with as if married). you are living with as if NAME NUMBER AGE
married.

RECORD THE NAME AND THE LINE NUMBER FROM

THE HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EACH
WIFE AND LIVE-IN PARTNER.

IF A WOMAN IS NOT LISTED IN THE HOUSEHOLD,

RECORD '00'.

408 ASK 408 FOR EACH PERSON.

409 CHECK 407:

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN

PARTNER ONE WIFE/ 411
PARTNER

410 Have you been married or lived with a woman only once MORE THAN ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
or more than once? ONLY ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Appendix E • 729
 SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

411 CHECK 405 AND 410:

BOTH ARE OTHER MONTH .........................

CODE '2'

a) In what month and year b) Now I would like to ask DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98
did you start living with about your first
your (wife/partner)? (wife/partner). In what
month and year did you 413
YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
start living with her?

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

412 How old were you when you first started living with her?
AGE ............................

413 CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

414 I would like to ask some questions about sexual activity

in order to gain a better understanding of some
important life issues. Let me assure you again that your NEVER HAD SEXUAL
answers are completely confidential and will not be told INTERCOURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 501
to anyone. If we should come to any question that you
don't want to answer, just let me know and we will go to
the next question. How old were you when you had
AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sexual intercourse for the very first time?

415 I would like to ask you about your recent sexual activity.
When was the last time you had sexual intercourse? DAYS AGO ............. 1

WEEKS AGO ............. 2

IF LESS THAN 12 MONTHS, ANSWER MUST BE MONTHS AGO ............. 3

RECORDED IN DAYS, WEEKS OR MONTHS. IF 12
MONTHS (ONE YEAR) OR MORE, ANSWER MUST 429
YEARS AGO ............. 4
BE RECORDED IN YEARS.

416 The last time you had sexual intercourse, did you or YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 418
your partner do something or use any method to delay NO ..................................... 2
or avoid a pregnancy? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

417 Do you know of a place where you can obtain a method YES ..................................... 1
419
of family planning? NO ..................................... 2

418 What method did you or your partner use? FEMALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
MALE STERILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
IUCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E
IF CODE 'G' IS CIRCLED, SKIP TO 420 EVEN IF PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
ANOTHER METHOD WAS ALSO USED. CONDOM ............................... G 420
EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION ........... I
STANDARD DAYS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
LACTATIONAL AMENORRHEA METHOD ..... K
RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L
WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M
OTHER MODERN METHOD ................ X
OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

419 The last time you had sexual intercourse, was a condom YES ..................................... 1
used? NO ..................................... 2 422

730 • Appendix E
 SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

420 What was the brand name of the condom used? DHAAL ............................... 01
PANTHER ............................... 02
DZIRE ............................... 03
KAMASUTRA ............................ 04
JODI ............................... 05
NUMBER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06
BLACK COBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
MOHP-NO BRAND ...................... 08

OTHER 96
IF BRAND NOT KNOWN, ASK TO SEE THE (SPECIFY)
PACKAGE. DON'T KNOW ............................ 98

421 From where did you obtain the condom the last time? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
PROBE TO IDENTIFY TYPE OF SOURCE. HEALTH POST ...................... 13
BASIC HEALTH CARE CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . 14
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. 15
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
OF THE PLACE.
FCHV ............................... 18

OTHER PUBLIC
FACILITIES 16
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PHARMACY ......................... 23
SANGINI OUTLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL
FACILITIES 26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
OTHER NGO MEDICAL
FACILITIES 36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP ............................... 41
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ 98

422 What was your relationship to this person with whom WIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
GIRLFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF GIRLFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

423 Apart from this person, have you had sexual intercourse YES ..................................... 1
with any other person in the last 12 months? NO ..................................... 2 429

424 The last time you had sexual intercourse with this YES ..................................... 1
second person, was a condom used? NO ..................................... 2

Appendix E • 731
 SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

425 What was your relationship to this second person with WIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
whom you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
GIRLFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF GIRLFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

426 Apart from these two people, have you had sexual YES ..................................... 1
intercourse with any other person in the last 12 months? NO ..................................... 2 429

427 The last time you had sexual intercourse with this third YES ..................................... 1
person, was a condom used? NO ..................................... 2

428 What was your relationship to this third person with WIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
whom you had sexual intercourse? LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
GIRLFRIEND NOT LIVING WITH
IF GIRLFRIEND: Were you living together as if married? RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CASUAL ACQUAINTANCE ................ 4
IF YES, RECORD '2'. CLIENT/SEX WORKER ................... 5
IF NO, RECORD '3'.
OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

429 In total, with how many different people have you had
sexual intercourse in your lifetime? NUMBER OF PARTNERS
IN LIFETIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN
ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF PARTNERS IS 95 OR DON'T KNOW ............................ 98
MORE, RECORD '95'.

732 • Appendix E
 SECTION 5. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

501 CHECK 401:

CURRENTLY MARRIED OR NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED

514
LIVING WITH A PARTNER AND NOT LIVING
WITH A PARTNER

502 CHECK 418:

MAN NOT STERILIZED MAN

514
OR QUESTION NOT ASKED STERILIZED

503 CHECK 407:

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN

509
PARTNER ONE WIFE/
PARTNER

504 Is your (wife/partner) currently pregnant? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
507
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

505 Now I have some questions about the future. After the HAVE ANOTHER CHILD ................... 1
child you and your (wife/partner) are expecting now, NO MORE ............................... 2
514
would you like to have another child, or would you prefer UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8
not to have any more children?

506 After the birth of the child you are expecting now, how
long would you like to wait before the birth of another MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
child?
YEARS ................... 2
514
SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

OTHER 996
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

507 CHECK 208:

HAS NOT
HAS FATHERED FATHERED
CHILDREN CHILDREN HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD ................ 1

a) Now I have some b) Now I have some NO MORE/NONE ......................... 2

questions about the questions about the SAYS COUPLE CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . 3
future. Would you like future. Would you like WIFE/PARTNER STERILIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 514
to have another child, to have a child, or RESPONDENT STERILIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
or would you prefer not would you prefer not to UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8
to have any more have any children?
children?

508 CHECK 208:

HAS NOT MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
HAS FATHERED FATHERED
CHILDREN CHILDREN YEARS ................... 2

a) How long would you b) How long would you SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
like to wait from now like to wait from now SAYS COUPLE 514
before the birth of before the birth of a CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
another child? child?
OTHER 996
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

509 Are any of your (wives/partners) currently pregnant? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
512
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

Appendix E • 733
 SECTION 5. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

510 Now I have some questions about the future. After the HAVE ANOTHER CHILD ................... 1
(child/children) you and your (wives/partners) are NO MORE ............................... 2
514
expecting now, would you like to have another child, or UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8
would you prefer not to have any more children?

511 After the birth of the child you are expecting now, how
long would you like to wait before the birth of another MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
child?
YEARS ................... 2
514
SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

OTHER 996
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

512 CHECK 208:

HAS NOT
HAS FATHERED FATHERED
CHILDREN CHILDREN HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD ................ 1

a) Now I have some b) Now I have some NO MORE/NONE ......................... 2

questions about the questions about the SAYS COUPLE CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . 3
future. Would you like future. Would you like (WIFE/WIVES/PARTNER(S)) STERILIZED ..... 4 514
to have another child, to have a child, or RESPONDENT STERILIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
or would you prefer not would you prefer not to UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW ................ 8
to have any more have any children?
children?

513 CHECK 208:

HAS NOT MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
HAS FATHERED FATHERED
CHILDREN CHILDREN YEARS ................... 2

a) How long would you b) How long would you SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
like to wait from now like to wait from now SAYS COUPLE
before the birth of before the birth of a CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
another child? child?
OTHER 996
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

514 CHECK 203 AND 205:

HAS LIVING NO LIVING NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 601

CHILDREN CHILDREN

a) If you could go back to b) If you could choose

the time you did not exactly the number of
have any children and children to have in your NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
could choose exactly whole life, how many
the number of children would that be?
to have in your whole OTHER 96 601
life, how many would (SPECIFY)
that be?
PROBE FOR A NUMERIC RESPONSE.

515 How many of these children would you like to be boys, BOYS GIRLS EITHER
how many would you like to be girls and for how many
would it not matter if it’s a boy or a girl? NUMBER . .

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

734 • Appendix E
 SECTION 6. EMPLOYMENT AND GENDER ROLES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

601 Have you done any work in the last 7 days? YES ..................................... 1 604
NO ..................................... 2

602 Although you did not work in the last 7 days, do you
have any job or business from which you were absent YES ..................................... 1 604
for leave, illness, vacation, or any other such reason? NO ..................................... 2

603 Have you done any work in the last 12 months? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 607

604 What is your occupation? That is, what kind of work do

you mainly do?

605 Do you usually work throughout the year, or do you work THROUGHOUT THE YEAR ................ 1
seasonally, or only once in a while? SEASONALLY/PART OF THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . 2
ONCE IN A WHILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

606 Are you paid in cash or kind for this work or are you not CASH ONLY ............................ 1
paid at all? CASH AND KIND ......................... 2
IN KIND ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
NOT PAID ............................... 4

607 CHECK 401:

CURRENTLY MARRIED OR NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED

LIVING WITH A PARTNER AND 612
NOT LIVING WITH A PARTNER

608 CHECK 606:

CODE '1' OR '2' OTHER

610
CIRCLED

609 Who usually decides how the money you earn will be RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
used: you, your (wife/partner), or you and your WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(wife/partner) jointly? RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3

OTHER 6
(SPECIFY)

610 Who usually makes decisions about health care for RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
yourself: you, your (wife/partner), you and your WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(wife/partner) jointly, or someone else? RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3
SOMEONE ELSE ......................... 4
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

611 Who usually makes decisions about making major RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

household purchases? WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3
SOMEONE ELSE ......................... 4
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Appendix E • 735
 SECTION 6. EMPLOYMENT AND GENDER ROLES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

612 Do you own this or any other house either alone or ALONE ONLY ............................ 01
jointly with someone else? JOINTLY WITH WIFE/PARTNER ONLY ..... 02
JOINTLY WITH SOMEONE ELSE ONLY ..... 03
JOINTLY WITH WIFE/PARTNER
AND SOMEONE ELSE ................ 04
BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
DOES NOT OWN ......................... 06 615

613 Do you have a title deed or other government YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

recognized document for any house you own? NO ..................................... 2
615
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

614 Is your name on this document? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

615 Do you own any agricultural or non-agricultural land ALONE ONLY ............................ 01
either alone or jointly with someone else? JOINTLY WITH WIFE/PARTNER ONLY ..... 02
JOINTLY WITH SOMEONE ELSE ONLY ..... 03
JOINTLY WITH WIFE/PARTNER
AND SOMEONE ELSE ................ 04
BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
DOES NOT OWN ......................... 06 618

616 Do you have a title deed or other government YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

recognized document for any land you own? NO ..................................... 2
618
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

617 Is your name on this document? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

618 In your opinion, is a husband justified in hitting or

beating his wife in the following situations: YES NO DK

a) If she goes out without telling him? a) GOES OUT . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) If she neglects the children? b) NEGLECTS CHILDREN . . 1 2 8
c) If she argues with him? c) ARGUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
d) If she refuses to have sex with him? d) REFUSES SEX . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
e) If she burns the food? e) BURNS FOOD . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
f) If she brings less or brings no dowry? f) DOWRY ........ 1 2 8
g) If she doesn't follow everyday routine household g) ROUTINE ........ 1 2 8
h) If she talks to other men? h) OTHER MEN ........ 1 2 8

619 As far as you know did your father ever beat your YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
mother? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

736 • Appendix E
 SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

700 Now I would like to talk about HIV and AIDS.

701 Have you ever heard of HIV or AIDS? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2 729

702 CHECK 111: AGE

15-24 YEARS 25 YEARS
OR OLDER 708

703 HIV is the virus that can lead to AIDS. Can people YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
reduce their chance of getting HIV by having just one NO ..................................... 2
uninfected sex partner who has no other sex partners? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

704 Can people get HIV from mosquito bites? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

705 Can people reduce their chance of getting HIV by using YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
a condom every time they have sex? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

706 Can people get HIV by sharing food with a person who YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
has HIV? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

707 Is it possible for a healthy-looking person to have HIV? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

708 Have you heard of ARVs, that is, antiretroviral YES ..................................... 1
medicines that treat HIV? NO ..................................... 2

708A Can HIV be transmitted from an infected mother to her

baby:
YES NO DK

a) During pregnancy? a) DURING PREGNANCY 1 2 8

b) During delivery? b) DURING DELIVERY 1 2 8
c) By breastfeeding? c) BREASTFEEDING 1 2 8

709 Are there any special medicines that a doctor or a nurse YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
can give to a woman infected with HIV to reduce the risk NO ..................................... 2
of transmission to the baby? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

712
CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

713 Have you ever been tested for HIV? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 721

714 In what month and year was your most recent HIV test?
MONTH .........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

Appendix E • 737
 SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

715 Where was the test done? PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. 11
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. 12
HTC CENTER ......................... 13
PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.
OTHER PUBLIC FACILITIES
IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC, PRIVATE, OR
NGO SECTOR, RECORD '96' AND WRITE THE NAME
16
OF THE PLACE.
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... 21
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... 22
PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
STAND-ALONE HTC CENTER ........ 24
PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL FACILITIES

26
(SPECIFY)

NGO MEDICAL SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
MARIE STOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
MOBILE HTC SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . 33

OTHER NGO MEDICAL FACILITIES

36
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
HOME ............................... 41
WORKPLACE ......................... 42
CORRECTIONAL FACILITY ............. 43

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

716 Did you get the results of the test? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2 720

717 What was the result of the test? POSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NEGATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INDETERMINATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 720
DECLINED TO ANSWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

718 In what month and year did you receive your first HIV-
positive test result? MONTH .........................

DON'T KNOW MONTH ................... 98

YEAR .............

DON'T KNOW YEAR ................... 9998

SAME DATE AS MOST RECENT HIV TEST ..... 95

719 Are you currently taking ARVs, that is antiretroviral YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

medicines? NO ..................................... 2
By currently, I mean that you may have missed some DON'T KNOW ............................ 8
doses but you are still taking ARVs.

738 • Appendix E
 SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

720 How many times have you been tested for HIV in your
lifetime?

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN

ESTIMATE, IF NUMBER OF TESTS IS 95 OR MORE,
RECORD '95'. NUMBER OF HIV TESTS ...........

721 Have you heard of test kits people can use to test YES ..................................... 1
themselves for HIV? NO ..................................... 2 723

722 Have you ever tested yourself for HIV using a self-test YES ..................................... 1
kit? NO ..................................... 2

723 Would you buy fresh vegetables from a shopkeeper or YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

vendor if you knew that this person had HIV? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/NOT SURE/DEPENDS . . . . . . . . . . . 8

724 Do you think children living with HIV should be allowed YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
to attend school with children who do not have HIV? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/NOT SURE/DEPENDS . . . . . . . . . . . 8

729 CHECK 701:

HEARD ABOUT NOT HEARD ABOUT

HIV OR AIDS HIV OR AIDS

a) Apart from HIV, have b) Have you heard about

you heard about other infections that can be YES ..................................... 1
infections that can be transmitted through NO ..................................... 2
transmitted through sexual contact?
sexual contact?

730 CHECK 414:

HAS HAD SEXUAL NEVER HAD SEXUAL

735
INTERCOURSE INTERCOURSE

731 CHECK 729: HEARD ABOUT OTHER SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS?

YES NO
733

732 Now I would like to ask you some questions about your YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
health in the last 12 months. During the last 12 months, NO ..................................... 2
have you had a disease which you got through sexual DON'T KNOW ............................ 8
contact?

733 Sometimes men experience an abnormal discharge YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

from their penis. During the last 12 months, have you NO ..................................... 2
had an abnormal discharge from your penis? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

734 Sometimes men have a sore or ulcer on or near their YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

penis. During the last 12 months, have you had a sore NO ..................................... 2
or ulcer on or near your penis? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

735 If a wife knows her husband has a disease that she can YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
get during sexual intercourse, is she justified in asking NO ..................................... 2
that they use a condom when they have sex? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

736 Is a wife justified in refusing to have sex with her YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

husband when she knows he has sex with other NO ..................................... 2
women? DON'T KNOW ............................ 8

Appendix E • 739
 SECTION 8. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

806 Do you currently smoke tobacco every day, some days, EVERY DAY ............................ 1 809
or not at all? SOME DAYS ............................ 2
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 808

807 In the past, have you smoked tobacco every day? YES ..................................... 1
810
NO ..................................... 2

808 In the past, have you ever smoked tobacco every day, EVERY DAY ............................ 1
some days, or not at all? SOME DAYS ............................ 2 811
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

809 On average, how many of the following products do you

currently smoke each day? Also, let me know if you use
the product, but not every day.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE
PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.
NUMBER DAILY

a) Manufactured cigarettes? a) MANUFACTURED

CIGARETTES ........

b) Hand-rolled cigarettes? b) HAND-ROLLED

CIGARETTES ........

d) Pipes full of tobacco/sulpha/chilum? d) PIPES FULL OF

TOBACCO . . . . . . . . . . .
811
e) Cigars?
e) CIGARS .....

f) Number of water pipe sessions? f) NUMBER OF WATER

PIPE SESSIONS .....

g) Any others?
g) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(SPECIFY)

810 On average, how many of the following products do you

currently smoke each week? Also, let me know if you
use the product, but not every week.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE
PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.
NUMBER WEEKLY

a) Manufactured cigarettes? a) MANUFACTURED

CIGARETTES ........

b) Hand-rolled cigarettes? b) HAND-ROLLED

CIGARETTES ........

d) Pipes full of tobacco/sulpha/chilum? d) PIPES FULL OF

TOBACCO . . . . . . . . . . .

e) Cigars?
e) CIGARS .....

f) Number of water pipe sessions? f) NUMBER OF WATER

PIPE SESSIONS .....

g) Any others?
g) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(SPECIFY)

740 • Appendix E
 SECTION 8. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

811 Do you currently use smokeless tobacco every day, EVERY DAY ............................ 1
some days, or not at all? SOME DAYS ............................ 2 813
NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 814

812 On average, how many times a day do you use the

following products? Also, let me know if you use the
product, but not every day.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE
PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'. TIMES DAILY

a) Snuff, by mouth?
a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH .....

b) Snuff, by nose?
b) SNUFF, BY NOSE ........

c) Chewing tobacco (gutka/khaini)?

814
c) CHEWING TOBACCO .....

d) Betel quid with tobacco? d) BETEL QUID

WITH TOBACCO .....

e) Any others?
e) ANY OTHERS ...........
(SPECIFY)

813 On average, how many times a week do you use the

following products? Also, let me know if you use the
product, but not every week.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE
PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.
TIMES WEEKLY

a) Snuff, by mouth?
a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH . . . . . . . .

b) Snuff, by nose?
b) SNUFF, BY NOSE ........

c) Chewing tobacco (gutka/khaini)?

c) CHEWING TOBACCO .....

d) Betel quid with tobacco? d) BETEL QUID

WITH TOBACCO .....

e) Any others?
e) ANY OTHERS ...........
(SPECIFY)

814 Now I would like to ask you some questions about YES ..................................... 1
drinking alcohol. Have you ever consumed any alcohol, NO ..................................... 2 816A
such as beer, wine, spirits, or jaand, chyang etc.?

815 We count one drink of alcohol as one can or bottle of DID NOT HAVE EVEN ONE DRINK . . . . . . . . . . . 00 816A
beer, one glass of wine, or one shot of spirits. During the
last one month, on how many days did you have at least
one drink of alcohol?
NUMBER OF DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN

ESTIMATE. IF RESPONDENT ANSWERS 'EVERY EVERY DAY/ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . 95
DAY' OR 'ALMOST EVERY DAY,' CODE '95'.

Appendix E • 741
 SECTION 8. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

816 In the last one month, on the days that you drank
alcohol, how many drinks did you usually have per day? NUMBER OF DRINKS .............

816A Have you ever heard of an illness called tuberculosis or YES ..................................... 1
TB? NO ..................................... 2 817

816B What are the common symptoms of TB ? COUGH FOR MORE THAN 2 WEEKS ........ A
FEVER IN THE EVENINGS ................ B
CHEST PAIN ............................ C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. LOSS OF WEIGHT ...................... D
LOSS OF APPETITE ...................... E
BLOOD IN SPUTUM ...................... F
TIREDNESS/FATIGUE ................... G
COUGH ...................... H
FEVER ...................... I
PERSON TURNS BLACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ......................... Z

816C How does tuberculosis spread from one person to THROUGH THE AIR WHEN COUGHING
another? OR SNEEZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A
THROUGH SHARING UTENSILS ........... B
THROUGH TOUCHING A PERSON WITH TB . . . . . C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. THROUGH SHARING FOOD ............. D
THROUGH SEXUAL CONTACT ............. E
THROUGH MOSQUITO BITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F
THROUGH SPIT/SALIVA ................ G
INHERITED ...................... H

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ......................... Z

816D Can tuberculosis be cured? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
816F
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8

816E What is the duration of treatment of TB now a days?

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IF MORE THAN 7 MONTHS, RECORD 7. DON’T KNOW ............................ 8

816F Have you ever been told by a health care provider that YES ..................................... 1
you have/had tuberculosis? NO ..................................... 2 816I

816G Did you seek treatment for TB? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2 816I

742 • Appendix E
 SECTION 8. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

816H Where did you go for treatment for TB? PUBLIC SECTOR
GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL ............. A
PHC/PRIMARY HOSPITAL ............. B
HEALTH POST ...................... C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. BA HEALTH POST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D
URBAN HEALTH CENTER ............. E
COMMUNITY HEALTH UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER G
(SPECIFY)

NON-GOVT. (NGO) SECTOR

FPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
MARIE STOPES ...................... I

OTHER NGO FACILITIES

J
(SPECIFY)

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL ................... K
PRIVATE CLINIC ...................... L
PHARMACY ......................... M
OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL FACILITIES

N
(SPECIFY)

OTHER SOURCE
SHOP ............................... O
FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P
TRADITIONAL HEALER ................ Q

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

DON'T KNOW ......................... Z

816I If a member of your family got tuberculosis, would you YES, REMAIN A SECRET ................ 1
want it to remain a secret or not? NO ..................................... 2
DON'T KNOW/UNSURE ................... 8

817 Are you covered by any health insurance? YES ..................................... 1

NO ..................................... 2 818A

818 What type of health insurance are you covered by?

GOVERNMENT HEALTH
INSURANCE ......................... A
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. HEALTH INSURANCE THROUGH
EMPLOYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
SOCIAL SECURITY ...................... C
OTHER PRIVATELY PURCHASED
COMMERCIAL HEALTH INSURANCE ..... D

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

818A Have you ever heard of COVID-19? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO ..................................... 2
818F
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8

Appendix E • 743
 SECTION 8. OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

818B What are the common symptoms of COVID-19 infection FEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

? COUGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
SHORTNESS OF BREATH AND
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. BREATHING DIFFICULTIES ............. C
MUSCLE PAIN ......................... D
HEADACHE ............................ E
LOSS OF TASTE OR SMELL ............. F
DIAHHREA ............................ G
COMMON COLD AND RUNNING NOSE ..... H

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ............................ Z

818C Do you know if there are ways to prevent the spread of YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
COVID-19? NO ..................................... 2
818E
DON’T KNOW ............................ 8

818D What measures are you taking to reduce your risk of WEARING A MASK ...................... A
getting infected by COVID-19? WASHING HANDS PROPERLY ........... B
USING SANITIZER ................ C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. MAINTAINING DISTANCE ................ D
AVOID TOUCHING EYES/NOSE/MOUTH ..... E
PRACTICE RESPIRATORY HYGIENE ..... F
GET VACCINATED ...................... G
FOCUS ON CLEANLINESS ................ H
DRINK HOT WATER (WITH OR WITHOUT HERBS) I

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DID NOTHING ............................ Z

818E Where/from whom have you received information FCHVs ...................... A

around COVID-19? HEALTH MOTHER'S GROUP ........... B
COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKERS ........... C
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. OTHER FRONTLINE WORKERS FROM
I/NGO ............................... D
RADIO PROGRAM ...................... E
SMS/TEXT MESSAGING ................... F
HEALTH FACILITY ...................... G
PHONE COUNSELING ................... H
TELEVISION ...................... I
MOBILE RING TONE ...................... J
FAMILY/RELATIVES/FRIENDS/NEIGHBORS .. K
SOCIAL MEDIA ......................... L

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)
DON'T KNOW ...................... Z

818F In the last three months have you heard or seen the
following programs on the television and/or radio: YES NO

a) Janaswasthya Bahas TV Karyakram? a) JANASWASTHA BAHAS ........ 1 2

b) Jeevanchakra TV serial? b) JEEVAN CHAKRA ............. 1 2
c) Janaswasthya Radio Karyakram? c) JANASWASTHA RADIO ........ 1 2
d) Swasthya Gatibidhi Radio Karyakram? d) SWASTHYA GATIBIDHI ........ 1 2
e) Eek Dui Tin Sunau eekai chin Radio Karyakram? e) EEK DUI TIN ........ 1 2

f) Bhanchhin Aama Radio Karyakram? f) BHANCHIN AAMA ............. 1 2

g) Hello Bhanchhin Aama Radio Karyakram? g) HELLO BHANCHIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

h) Jeevan Raksya Radio Karyakram (COVID-19) h) JEEVAN RAKSYA ..... 1 2

744 • Appendix E
 MENTAL HEALTH MODULE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I will ask you a few questions on how you have felt or behaved in the last 2 weeks. You may find some of
these questions very personal. Let me assure you that your answers are completely confidential and will not be
told to anyone. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next
question.

GAD (ANXIETY) CODES:

CODE '7' (RF) REFUSED TO ANSWER

CODE '8' (DK) DON'T KNOW

GAD The next questions are about how you have been
feeling during the last 2 weeks. Over the last 2
weeks, how often have you been bothered by the
following problems? Would you say never, rarely, NEVER RARELY OFTEN AL- RF DK
often, or always? WAYS

1) Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge? 1) 0 1 2 3 7 8

Would you say never, rarely, often, or always?

2) Not being able to stop or control worrying? 2) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

3) Worrying too much about different things? 3) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

4) Trouble relaxing? 4) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

5) Being so restless that it is hard to sit still? 5) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

6) Becoming easily annoyed or irritable? 6) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

7) Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen? 7) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

Appendix E • 745
 PHQ (DEPRESSION) CODES:

CODE '7' (RF) REFUSED TO ANSWER

CODE '8' (DK) DON'T KNOW

PHQ Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been
bothered by the following problems? Would you say NEVER RARELY OFTEN AL- RF DK
never, rarely, often, or always? WAYS

1) Little interest or pleasure in doing things? 1) 0 1 2 3 7 8

Would you say never, rarely, often, or always?

2) Feeling down, depressed or hopeless? 2) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

3) Trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping 3) 0 1 2 3 7 8

too much?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

4) Feeling tired or having little energy? 4) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

5) Poor appetite or overeating? 5) 0 1 2 3 7 8

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

6) Feeling bad about yourself - or that you are a 6) 0 1 2 3 7 8

failure or have let yourself or your family down?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

7) Trouble concentrating on things, such as reading 7) 0 1 2 3 7 8

the newspaper or watching television?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

8) Moving or speaking so slowly that other people 8) 0 1 2 3 7 8

could have noticed. Or, the opposite - being so
fidgety or restless that you have been moving
around a lot more than usual?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

9) Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of 9) 0 1 2 3 7 8

hurting yourself in some way?

IF NECESSARY ASK: Would you say never,

rarely, often, or always?

MTH1 CHECK THE REPORTED SYMPTOMS: ANY CODE '1', '2', OR '3' RECORDED IN GAD, AND/OR ANY CODE
'1', '2', OR '3' RECORDED IN PHQ

ANY SYMPTOMS REPORTED FOR NO

MTH4
GAD AND/OR PHQ SYMPTOMS

746 • Appendix E
MTH2 Thinking about what you yourself have experienced YES ................................... 1
among the different things we have been talking NO ................................... 2 MTH4
about, have you ever tried to seek help?

MTH3 From whom have you sought help? DOCTOR/MEDICAL PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . A

SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION ...... B
Anyone else? SOCIAL WORKER .................... C
COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER/
FIELDWORKER .................... D
RECORD ALL MENTIONED. RELIGIOUS LEADER/DHAMI ............ E
CURRENT/FORMER SPOUSE/PARTNER .. F
OTHER FAMILY MEMBER ............... G
FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H
NEIGHBOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
NON_GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS . . . . J

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

MTH4 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other

healthcare worker that you have: YES NO

a) Depression? a) DEPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
b) Anxiety? b) ANXIETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

MTH5 During the last 2 weeks, did you take medicine YES ................................... 1
prescribed by a doctor or other healthcare worker NO ................................... 2
for depression or anxiety?

MTH6 During the last 2 weeks, did you take medicine YES ................................... 1
prescribed by a doctor or other healthcare worker NO ................................... 2
for any other mental health condition?

MTH6A During the last 2 weeks, did you receive counseling YES ................................... 1
for your mental health condition? NO ................................... 2

MTH7 SCORE THE PHQ SCALE BY SUMMING THE

ANSWERS TO PHQ 1-9. PHQ SCORE ...................

MTH8 CHECK MTH7 AND PHQ9: ASSESS NEED FOR REFERRAL

RESPONDENTS WITH A SCORE OF 10 OR HIGHER ON THE PHQ SCALE, AND/OR THOSE WHO
ANSWERED '1', '2', OR '3' ON PHQ9 SHOULD BE OFFERED A REFERRAL FOR MENTAL HEALTH
SERVICES.

SCORE OF 10 OR HIGHER OTHER

ON THE PHQ SCALE AND/OR 819
ANY CODE '1', '2', OR '3' IN PHQ9

MTH9 Thank you for answering this series of questions. Based on the information you shared with me about your recent
experiences, you may benefit from services provided by [NAME OF AGENCY].

PROVIDE RESPONDENT WITH REFERRAL CARD. This card provides [NAME OF AGENCY]'s contact information.

819 RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MINUTES ......................

Appendix E • 747
 INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

748 • Appendix E
 FORMATTING DATE: 2 Jun 2020
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:03 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
BIOMARKER QUESTIONNAIRE
NEPAL
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION

IDENTIFICATION

NAME AND CODE OF DISTRICT

NAME AND CODE OF GAUNPALIKA/MUNICIPALITY

WARD NUMBER ..............................................................................

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER .....................................................................

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ..................................................................

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY? (1=YES, 2=NO) ...............................................

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT? (1=YES, 2=NO) ...........................

ALTITUDE (METERS) ..................................................................

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE DAY

BIOMARKER MONTH
SPECIALIST'S
NAME YEAR
2 0 7

NEXT VISIT: DATE TOTAL NUMBER

OF VISITS
TIME

NOTES:
TOTAL ELIGIBLE
WOMEN

TOTAL ELIGIBLE
MEN

TOTAL ELIGIBLE
CHILDREN

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF NATIVE LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR

QUESTIONNAIRE** 0 1 INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** ENGLISH **LANGUAGE CODES:
01 ENGLISH 03 MAITHILI
02 NEPALI 04 BHOJPURI

TEAM TEAM SUPERVISOR

NUMBER NAME

Appendix E • 749
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

101 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER AND NAME FOR ALL ELIGIBLE
CHILDREN AGE 0-5 YEARS IN QUESTION 102 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF
MORE THAN THREE CHILDREN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

CHILD 1 SKIP

102 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

103 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S DATE OF BIRTH (DAY, MONTH, AND
YEAR) FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY. DAY ................

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK: MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

What is (NAME)’s date of birth?
YEAR . . . . . . . . .

104 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S AGE FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY.

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK:

How old was (NAME) at (NAME)'s last birthday? AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

COMPARE AND CORRECT 103 AND/OR 104 IF INCONSISTENT.

105 CHECK 104: CHILD AGE 0-4 YEARS? YES NO

125

106 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 108
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

107 WAS THE CHILD MINIMALLY DRESSED? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

108 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. ....... .

IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS, MEASURE LYING DOWN. NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
IF CHILD IS AGE 2, 3, OR 4 YEARS, MEASURE STANDING UP. REFUSED ............ 9995 113
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

109 WAS THE CHILD MEASURED LYING DOWN OR STANDING UP? LYING DOWN ............ 1
STANDING UP ............ 2

110 CHECK 104 AND 109: BASED ON CHILD'S AGE, WAS CORRECT MEASUREMENT YES ...................... 1 112
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED? NO ...................... 2

111 IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED STANDING UP?
IF CHILD IS AGE 2-4 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED LYING DOWN?

112 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ...................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ...................... 2

113 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST'S NUMBER.

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST

114 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

INTERVIEWER NUMBER

115 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ................

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

YEAR . . . . . . . . .

750 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

CHILD 1 SKIP

116 RECORD HEIGHT/LENGTH AND WEIGHT IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA PAMPHLET.

117 CHECK 103: IS THE CHILD AGE 0-5 MONTHS OLDER AGE 0-5
OR IS THE CHILD OLDER? MONTHS 125

118 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR THE CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

119 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT:

As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually
results from poor nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and
treat anemia. We ask that all children under age 5 take part in anemia testing. The anemia test requires a few drops of blood from a
finger or heel. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been used before and will be thrown
away after each test.

The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential
and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.

Do you have any questions?

You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
Will you allow (NAME OF CHILD) to participate in the anemia test?

120 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED ................ 2
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ..... 3 122

121 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN

MEASURER. (SIGN)

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST
NUMBER

122 RECORD HEMOGLOBIN LEVEL HERE AND IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA
PAMPHLET. G/DL . . . . . . . . . . .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . .994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995 125
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996

123 CHECK 122: HEMOGLOBIN RESULT BELOW 7.0 G/DL,

SEVERE ANEMIA ....... 1
7.0 G/DL OR ABOVE ....... 2 125

124 The anemia test shows that (NAME OF CHILD) has severe anemia. Your child is very ill and must be taken to a health facility
immediately.

RECORD THE RESULT OF THE ANEMIA TEST ON THE SEVERE ANEMIA REFERRAL FORM.

125 IF ANOTHER CHILD, GO TO 102 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE CHILDREN, GO TO 201.

Appendix E • 751
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

101 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER AND NAME FOR ALL ELIGIBLE
CHILDREN AGE 0-5 YEARS IN QUESTION 102 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF
MORE THAN THREE CHILDREN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

CHILD 2 SKIP

102 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

103 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S DATE OF BIRTH (DAY, MONTH, AND
YEAR) FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY. DAY ................

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK: MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

What is (NAME)’s date of birth?
YEAR . . . . . . . . .

104 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S AGE FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY.

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK:

How old was (NAME) at (NAME)'s last birthday? AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

COMPARE AND CORRECT 103 AND/OR 104 IF INCONSISTENT.

105 CHECK 104: CHILD AGE 0-4 YEARS? YES NO

125

106 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 108
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

107 WAS THE CHILD MINIMALLY DRESSED? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

108 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. ....... .

IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS, MEASURE LYING DOWN. NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
IF CHILD IS AGE 2, 3, OR 4 YEARS, MEASURE STANDING UP. REFUSED ............ 9995 113
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

109 WAS THE CHILD MEASURED LYING DOWN OR STANDING UP? LYING DOWN ............ 1
STANDING UP ............ 2

110 CHECK 104 AND 109: BASED ON CHILD'S AGE, WAS CORRECT MEASUREMENT YES ...................... 1 112
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED? NO ...................... 2

111 IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED STANDING UP?
IF CHILD IS AGE 2-4 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED LYING DOWN?

112 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ...................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ...................... 2

113 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF MEASURER.

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST

114 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

INTERVIEWER NUMBER

115 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ................

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

YEAR . . . . . . . . .

752 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

CHILD 2 SKIP

116 RECORD HEIGHT/LENGTH AND WEIGHT IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA PAMPHLET.

117 CHECK 103: IS THE CHILD AGE 0-5 MONTHS OLDER AGE 0-5
OR IS THE CHILD OLDER? MONTHS 125

118 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR THE CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

119 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT:

As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually
results from poor nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and
treat anemia. We ask that all children under age 5 take part in anemia testing. The anemia test requires a few drops of blood from a
finger or heel. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been used before and will be thrown
away after each test.

The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential
and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.

Do you have any questions?

You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
Will you allow (NAME OF CHILD) to participate in the anemia test?

120 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED ................ 2
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ..... 3 122

121 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN

MEASURER. (SIGN)

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST
NUMBER

122 RECORD HEMOGLOBIN LEVEL HERE AND IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA
PAMPHLET. G/DL . . . . . . . . . . .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . .994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995 125
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996

123 CHECK 122: HEMOGLOBIN RESULT BELOW 7.0 G/DL,

SEVERE ANEMIA ....... 1
7.0 G/DL OR ABOVE ....... 2 125

124 The anemia test shows that (NAME OF CHILD) has severe anemia. Your child is very ill and must be taken to a health facility
immediately.

RECORD THE RESULT OF THE ANEMIA TEST ON THE SEVERE ANEMIA REFERRAL FORM.

125 IF ANOTHER CHILD, GO TO 102 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE CHILDREN, GO TO 201.

Appendix E • 753
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

101 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER AND NAME FOR ALL ELIGIBLE
CHILDREN AGE 0-5 YEARS IN QUESTION 102 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF
MORE THAN THREE CHILDREN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

CHILD 3 SKIP

102 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

103 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S DATE OF BIRTH (DAY, MONTH, AND
YEAR) FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY. DAY ................

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK: MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

What is (NAME)’s date of birth?
YEAR . . . . . . . . .

104 IF MOTHER INTERVIEWED: COPY CHILD’S AGE FROM PREGNANCY HISTORY.

IF MOTHER NOT INTERVIEWED ASK:

How old was (NAME) at (NAME)'s last birthday? AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

COMPARE AND CORRECT 103 AND/OR 104 IF INCONSISTENT.

105 CHECK 104: CHILD AGE 0-4 YEARS? YES NO

125

106 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 108
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

107 WAS THE CHILD MINIMALLY DRESSED? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

108 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. ....... .

IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS, MEASURE LYING DOWN. NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 9994
IF CHILD IS AGE 2, 3, OR 4 YEARS, MEASURE STANDING UP. REFUSED ............ 9995 113
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

109 WAS THE CHILD MEASURED LYING DOWN OR STANDING UP? LYING DOWN ............ 1
STANDING UP ............ 2

110 CHECK 104 AND 109: BASED ON CHILD'S AGE, WAS CORRECT MEASUREMENT YES ...................... 1 112
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED? NO ...................... 2

111 IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED STANDING UP?
IF CHILD IS AGE 2-4 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED LYING DOWN?

112 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ...................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ...................... 2

113 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF MEASURER.

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST

114 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

INTERVIEWER NUMBER

115 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ................

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

YEAR . . . . . . . . .

754 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-4

CHILD 3 SKIP

116 RECORD HEIGHT/LENGTH AND WEIGHT IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA PAMPHLET.

117 CHECK 103: IS THE CHILD AGE 0-5 MONTHS OLDER AGE 0-5
OR IS THE CHILD OLDER? MONTHS 125

118 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR THE CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER .......

119 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT:

As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually
results from poor nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and
treat anemia. We ask that all children under age 5 take part in anemia testing. The anemia test requires a few drops of blood from a
finger or heel. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been used before and will be thrown
away after each test.

The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential
and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.

Do you have any questions?

You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
Will you allow (NAME OF CHILD) to participate in the anemia test?

120 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED ................ 2
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ..... 3 122

121 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN

MEASURER. (SIGN)

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST
NUMBER

122 RECORD HEMOGLOBIN LEVEL HERE AND IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA
PAMPHLET. G/DL . . . . . . . . . . .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . .994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .995 125
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996

123 CHECK 122: HEMOGLOBIN RESULT BELOW 7.0 G/DL,

SEVERE ANEMIA ....... 1
7.0 G/DL OR ABOVE ....... 2 125

124 The anemia test shows that (NAME OF CHILD) has severe anemia. Your child is very ill and must be taken to a health facility
immediately.

RECORD THE RESULT OF THE ANEMIA TEST ON THE SEVERE ANEMIA REFERRAL FORM.

125 IF ANOTHER CHILD, GO TO 102 IN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE; IF NO MORE CHILDREN, GO TO 201.

Appendix E • 755
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

201 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS FOR ALL ELIGIBLE
WOMEN IN 202, 203, AND 204 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF MORE THAN TWO WOMEN, USE
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

WOMAN 1 SKIP

202 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF WOMAN. NAME

LINE NUMBER ..........

203 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR AGE:

15-17 YEARS ..................... 1
18-49 YEARS ..................... 2
50 YEARS AND ABOVE ................ 3 204A

204 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR MARITAL STATUS:

CODE 4 (NEVER IN UNION) ..... 1
205
OTHER ............................. 2

204A CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE 228

205 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .

NOT PRESENT ............. 99994

REFUSED ..................... 99995 207
OTHER ....................... 99996

206 WAS THE WOMAN WEARING ONLY LIGHTWEIGHT CLOTHING? YES ............................... 1
NO ............................... 2

207 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. . . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT ............. 9994

REFUSED ..................... 9995 209
OTHER ....................... 9996

208 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ............................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ............................... 2

209 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER (MEASURER).

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

210 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

IF NO ASSISTANT MEASURER, ENTER 9999. INTERVIEWER NUMBER

211 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ......................

MONTH ....................

YEAR ............

211A CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE BP254

212 CHECK 203: AGE 15-17 AGE 18-49

YEARS YEARS BP214

AGE 50 YEARS
AND ABOVE BP214

213 CHECK 204: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) BP217

756 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

A BP214 I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
D procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
U serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of
L blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot
T provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will
be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP215 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T REFUSED ........................... 2
BP254
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3
C
O
BP216 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
N MEASURER. (SIGN)
S
E BP225
N
T
BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP217 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P A R E N T / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE
P
A BP218 I would like to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between
R measurements. This is a harmless procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood
E pressure may eventually cause serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you and (NAME OF
N ADOLESCENT) after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If (NAME OF
T ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure is high, we will suggest that (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide any further
/ testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept strictly
R confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes to the test for (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
S Will you allow me to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure?
O
N
S
I
B
L
E

A
BP219 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3 BP254
T
BP220 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
C
MEASURER. (SIGN)
O
N
S
E
N BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER
T

BP221 CHECK 219: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP254

Appendix E • 757
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP222 ASK ASSENT FOR BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:

M I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
I procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
N serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of
O blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot
R provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will
be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP223 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T MINOR RESPONDENT
REFUSED ........................ 2
A NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 BP254
S
S
BP224 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
E
MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP224A CHECK BP223: ASSENT ASSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP254

BP225 Before measuring I would like to ask a few questions about things that may
affect blood pressure.

Have you done any of the following within the past 30 minutes:
YES NO DK

a) Eaten anything? a) EATEN ............... 1 2 8

b) Had coffee, tea, cola or other drink that has caffeine? b) CAFFEINE .......... 1 2 8
c) Smoked any tobacco product? c) SMOKED ............ 1 2 8
d) Conducted any physical activity or exercises that made you breathe harder d) EXCERCISED ....... 1 2 8
than usual?

BP226 May I begin the process of measuring your blood pressure? I will begin by measuring the
circumference of your arm to make sure that I use the right equipment.

BEFORE TAKING THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING, MEASURE THE

CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM MIDWAY BETWEEN THE
ELBOW AND THE SHOULDER.
ARM CIRCUMFERENCE
(IN CENTIMETERS) .......
RECORD THE MEASUREMENT IN CENTIMETERS.

BP227 USE THE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE MEASUREMENT TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE МODEL 767
BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR MODEL AND CUFF SIZE. SMALL: 16 CM – 23 CM ............. 1
MEDIUM: 24 CM – 35 CM ............. 2
LARGE: 36 CM – 41 CM ............. 3
MODEL 789
EXTRA LARGE: 42 CM – 60 CM ........ 4

BP228 RECORD TIME OF FIRST BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP229 TAKE THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP254
OTHER .......... 996

BP230 Before today, have you ever had your blood pressure measured by a doctor or other YES ............................. 1
ND01 health worker? NO ............................. 2
DON’T KNOW ..................... 8

BP231 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have high blood YES ............................. 1
ND02 pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2 BP235

758 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

BP232 In the past 12 months, have you been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have YES ............................. 1
ND03 high blood pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2

BP233 Has a doctor or other health worker prescribed medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND04 NO ............................. 2

BP234 Are you taking medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND05 NO ............................. 2

BP235 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP236 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP249

BP237 RECORD TIME OF SECOND BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP238 TAKE THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP249
OTHER .......... 996

BP239 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP240 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP248

BP241 RECORD TIME OF THIRD BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP242 TAKE THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP248
OTHER ........................ 996

BP243 RECORD AND CALCULATE THE AVERAGE OF THE SYSTOLIC

AND THE AVERAGE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE FROM BP238 AND BP242:

BP244 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP238:

BP245 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP242:

RECORD THE SUM OF SUM SUM

BP246 SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
MEASURES.

BP247 CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SYSTOLIC AND

AVERAGE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AVERAGE AVERAGE
BY DIVIDING EACH OF THE SUMS IN BP246 BY
SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
2.

BP251

Appendix E • 759
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

BP248 CHECK BP238:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
NOT RECORDED IN BP238 BOTH RECORDED IN BP238 BP250

BP249 CHECK BP229:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP229 BOTH NOT RECORDED BP254

BP250 RECORD SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC MEASURES. SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

BP251 USE THE TABLE TO DETERMINE THE CORRECT VALUE TO RECORD ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM:

CIRCLE THE ROW WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP247 OR BP250.

THEN CIRCLE THE COLUMN WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP247 OR BP250.

THE VALUE IN THE CELL WHERE THE ROW AND THE COLUMN MEET WILL BE USED IN COMPLETING BP252.

AVERAGE AVERAGE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

SYSTOLIC
PRESSURE < 84 85 - 89 90 - 99 100 - 109 110 - 119 > 120

< 129 1 2 3 4 5 6
130 - 139 2 2 3 4 5 6
140 - 159 3 3 3 4 5 6
160 - 179 4 4 4 4 5 6
180 - 209 5 5 5 5 5 6
> = 210 6 6 6 6 6 6

BP252 CIRCLE THE VALUE FROM BP251 IN THE TABLE BELOW. CIRCLE THE SAME VALUE IN THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM. READ ALOUD
TO THE RESPONDENT THE REPORTING FORM INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT NUMBER, THEN GIVE THE FORM TO THE RESPONDENT
AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS THE RESPONDENT MAY HAVE.

VALUE RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO CHECK BLOOD

FROM BP251: CATEGORY: PRESSURE WITHIN:

1 ACCEPTABLE RANGE 24 MONTHS

2 AT THE HIGH END OF THE ACCEPTABLE 12 MONTHS

RANGE

3 ABOVE ACCEPTABLE RANGE 2 MONTHS

4 MODERATELY HIGH 1 MONTH

5 HIGH 7 DAYS

6 VERY HIGH TODAY

BP253 CHECK IF THE RESPONDENT RECEIVED THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM REPORTING FORM RECEIVED . . . . . . . . . . 1
WITH WRITTEN RESULTS NOT RECEIVED ..................... 2

BP254 CHECK 203: AGE 15-17 AGE 18-49

YEARS YEARS
214

AGE 50 YEARS
AND ABOVE 228

BP255 CHECK 204: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) 217

760 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

ADULT RESPONDENT CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST

214 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST:

A
D As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
U nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
L
T For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
used before and will be thrown away after we take your blood. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you right away. The
R result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S
Do you have any questions?
P
You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
O
Will you take the anemia test?
N
D
E
N 215 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T
REFUSED ........................... 2
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225
C
O
N 216 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN
S MEASURER. (SIGN)
E 225
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

217 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST

A
218 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT:
R
E
N As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
T nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
/
R For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
E used before and will be thrown away after each test. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you and (NAME OF MINOR)
S right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
P
S Do you have any questions?
O You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
N Will you allow (NAME OF MINOR) to take the anemia test?
S
I
B
L
E

A 219 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1

D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U
ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L
T NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225

C 220 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN

O MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
S
E
N
T BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

221 CHECK 219: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED 225

Appendix E • 761
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 1 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R A N E M I A T E S T

222 ASK ASSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:

M As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
I nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
N
O For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
R used before and will be thrown away after we take your blood. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you and (NAME OF
PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT) right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey
R team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
O
Will you take the anemia test?
N
D
E
N 223 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T MINOR RESPONDENT
REFUSED ........................ 2
A NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225
S
S
224 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN
E
MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

225 RECORD HEMOGLOBIN LEVEL HERE AND IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA
PAMPHLET. G/DL .............. .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 228
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

226 CHECK 225: HEMOGLOBIN RESULT BELOW 7.0 G/DL,

SEVERE ANEMIA .......... 1
7.0 G/DL OR ABOVE .......... 2 228

227 The anemia test shows that you have severe anemia. You are very ill and must go to a health facility immediately.

RECORD THE RESULT OF THE ANEMIA TEST ON THE SEVERE ANEMIA REFERRAL FORM.

228 IF ANOTHER WOMAN, GO TO 202 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE WOMEN, GO TO 300.

762 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

201 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS FOR ALL ELIGIBLE
WOMEN IN 202, 203, AND 204 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF MORE THAN TWO WOMEN, USE
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

WOMAN 2 SKIP

202 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF WOMAN. NAME

LINE NUMBER ..........

203 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR AGE:

15-17 YEARS ..................... 1
18-49 YEARS ..................... 2
50 YEARS AND ABOVE ................ 3 204A

204 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR MARITAL STATUS:

CODE 4 (NEVER IN UNION) ..... 1
205
OTHER ............................. 2

204A CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE 228

205 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .

NOT PRESENT ............. 99994

REFUSED ..................... 99995 207
OTHER ....................... 99996

206 WAS THE WOMAN WEARING ONLY LIGHTWEIGHT CLOTHING? YES ............................... 1
NO ............................... 2

207 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. . . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT ............. 9994

REFUSED ..................... 9995 209
OTHER ....................... 9996

208 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ............................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ............................... 2

209 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER (MEASURER).

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

210 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

IF NO ASSISTANT MEASURER, ENTER 9999. INTERVIEWER NUMBER

211 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ......................

MONTH ....................

YEAR ............

211A CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE BP254

212 CHECK 203: AGE 15-17 AGE 18-49

YEARS YEARS BP214

AGE 50 YEARS
AND ABOVE BP214

213 CHECK 204: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) BP217

Appendix E • 763
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

A BP214 I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
D procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
U serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results
L of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we
T cannot provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The
result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP215 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T REFUSED ........................... 2
BP254
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3
C
O
BP216 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
N MEASURER. (SIGN)
S
E BP225
N
T
BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP217 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P A R E N T / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE
P
A BP218 I would like to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between
R measurements. This is a harmless procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood
E pressure may eventually cause serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you and (NAME OF
N ADOLESCENT) after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If (NAME OF
T ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure is high, we will suggest that (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide any
/ further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept
R strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes to the test for (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
S Will you allow me to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure?
O
N
S
I
B
L
E

A
BP219 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3 BP254
T
BP220 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
C
MEASURER. (SIGN)
O
N
S
E
N BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER
T

BP221 CHECK 219: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP254

764 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP222 ASK ASSENT FOR BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:
M
I I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
N procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
O serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results
R of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we
cannot provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The
R result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
O Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
N
D
E BP223 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
N MINOR RESPONDENT
T REFUSED ........................ 2
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 BP254
A
S
S BP224 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
E MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP224A CHECK BP223: ASSENT ASSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP254

BP225 Before measuring I would like to ask a few questions about things that may
affect blood pressure.

Have you done any of the following within the past 30 minutes:
YES NO DK

a) Eaten anything? a EATEN ............... 1 2 8

b) Had coffee, tea, cola or other drink that has caffeine? b CAFFEINE .......... 1 2 8
c) Smoked any tobacco product? c SMOKED ............ 1 2 8
d) Conducted any physical activity or exercises that made you breathe harder d EXCERCISED ....... 1 2 8
than usual?

BP226 May I begin the process of measuring your blood pressure? I will begin by measuring the
circumference of your arm to make sure that I use the right equipment.

BEFORE TAKING THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING, MEASURE THE

CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM MIDWAY BETWEEN THE
ELBOW AND THE SHOULDER.
ARM CIRCUMFERENCE
(IN CENTIMETERS) .......
RECORD THE MEASUREMENT IN CENTIMETERS.

BP227 USE THE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE MEASUREMENT TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE МODEL 767
BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR MODEL AND CUFF SIZE. SMALL: 16 CM – 23 CM ............. 1
MEDIUM: 24 CM – 35 CM ............. 2
LARGE: 36 CM – 41 CM ............. 3
MODEL 789
EXTRA LARGE: 42 CM – 60 CM ........ 4

BP228 RECORD TIME OF FIRST BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP229 TAKE THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP254
OTHER .......... 996

BP230 Before today, have you ever had your blood pressure measured by a doctor or other health YES ............................. 1
ND01 worker? NO ............................. 2
DON’T KNOW ..................... 8

BP231 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have high blood YES ............................. 1
ND02 pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2 BP235

BP232 In the past 12 months, have you been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have YES ............................. 1
ND03 high blood pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2

Appendix E • 765
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

BP233 Has a doctor or other health worker prescribed medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND04 NO ............................. 2

BP234 Are you taking medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND05 NO ............................. 2

BP235 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP236 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP249

BP237 RECORD TIME OF SECOND BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP238 TAKE THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP249
OTHER .......... 996

BP239 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP240 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP248

BP241 RECORD TIME OF THIRD BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP242 TAKE THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP248
OTHER ........................ 996

BP243 RECORD AND CALCULATE THE AVERAGE OF THE SYSTOLIC

AND THE AVERAGE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE FROM BP238 AND BP242:

BP244 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP238:

BP245 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP242:

RECORD THE SUM OF SUM SUM

BP246 SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
MEASURES.

BP247 CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SYSTOLIC AND

AVERAGE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AVERAGE AVERAGE
BY DIVIDING EACH OF THE SUMS IN BP246 BY
SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
2.

BP251

766 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

BP248 CHECK BP238:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
NOT RECORDED IN BP238 BOTH RECORDED IN BP238 BP250

BP249 CHECK BP229:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP229 BOTH NOT RECORDED BP254

BP250 RECORD SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC MEASURES. SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

BP251 USE THE TABLE TO DETERMINE THE CORRECT VALUE TO RECORD ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM:

CIRCLE THE ROW WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP247 OR BP250.

THEN CIRCLE THE COLUMN WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP247 OR BP250.

THE VALUE IN THE CELL WHERE THE ROW AND THE COLUMN MEET WILL BE USED IN COMPLETING BP252.

AVERAGE AVERAGE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

SYSTOLIC
PRESSURE < 84 85 - 89 90 - 99 100 - 109 110 - 119 > 120

< 129 1 2 3 5 6
130 - 139 2 2 3 5 6
140 - 159 3 3 3 5 6
160 - 179 4 4 4 5 6
180 - 209 5 5 5 5 6
> = 210 6 6 6 6 6

BP252 CIRCLE THE VALUE FROM BP251 IN THE TABLE BELOW. CIRCLE THE SAME VALUE IN THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM. READ
ALOUD TO THE RESPONDENT THE REPORTING FORM INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT NUMBER, THEN GIVE THE FORM TO THE
RESPONDENT AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS THE RESPONDENT MAY HAVE.

VALUE RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO CHECK

FROM BP251: CATEGORY: BLOOD PRESSURE WITHIN:

1 ACCEPTABLE RANGE 24 MONTHS

2 AT THE HIGH END OF THE ACCEPTABLE 12 MONTHS

RANGE

3 ABOVE ACCEPTABLE RANGE 2 MONTHS

4 MODERATELY HIGH 1 MONTH

5 HIGH 7 DAYS

6 VERY HIGH TODAY

BP253 CHECK IF THE RESPONDENT RECEIVED THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM REPORTING FORM RECEIVED . . . . . . . . . . 1
WITH WRITTEN RESULTS NOT RECEIVED ..................... 2

BP254 CHECK 203: AGE 15-17 AGE 18-49

YEARS YEARS 214

AGE 50 YEARS
AND ABOVE 228

BP255 CHECK 204: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) 217

Appendix E • 767
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

ADULT RESPONDENT CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST

214 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST:

A
As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
D
U nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
L
T For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
used before and will be thrown away after we take your blood. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you right away.
R The result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
O Will you take the anemia test?
N
D
E
N
T 215 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
REFUSED ........................... 2
C NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225
O
N
216 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN
S
MEASURER. (SIGN)
E
N 225
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

217 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST

A
218 ASK CONSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT:
R
E
N As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
T nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
/
R For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
E used before and will be thrown away after each test. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you and (NAME OF
S MINOR) right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
P
S Do you have any questions?
O You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
N Will you allow (NAME OF MINOR) to take the anemia test?
S
I
B
L
E

A 219 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1

D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U
ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L
T NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225

C 220 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN

O MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
S
E
N
T BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

221 CHECK 219: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED 225

768 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, BLOOD PRESSURE, AND HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR WOMEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

WOMAN 2 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R A N E M I A T E S T

222 ASK ASSENT FOR ANEMIA TEST FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:

M As part of this survey, we are asking people all over the country to take an anemia test. Anemia is a serious health problem that usually results from poor
I nutrition, infection, or chronic disease. This survey will assist the government to develop programs to prevent and treat anemia.
N
O For the anemia testing, we will need a few drops of blood from a finger. The equipment used to take the blood is clean and completely safe. It has never been
R used before and will be thrown away after we take your blood. The blood will be tested for anemia immediately, and the result will be told to you and (NAME
OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT) right away. The result will be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our
R survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes or no. It is up to you to decide.
O
Will you take the anemia test?
N
D
E
N 223 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T MINOR RESPONDENT
REFUSED ........................ 2
A NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 225
S
S
224 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF HEMOGLOBIN
E
MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

225 RECORD HEMOGLOBIN LEVEL HERE AND IN THE ANTHROPOMETRY AND ANEMIA
PAMPHLET. G/DL .............. .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 228
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

226 CHECK 225: HEMOGLOBIN RESULT BELOW 7.0 G/DL,

SEVERE ANEMIA .......... 1
7.0 G/DL OR ABOVE .......... 2 228

227 The anemia test shows that you have severe anemia. You are very ill and must go to a health facility immediately.

RECORD THE RESULT OF THE ANEMIA TEST ON THE SEVERE ANEMIA REFERRAL FORM.

228 IF ANOTHER WOMAN, GO TO 202 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE WOMEN, GO TO 300.

Appendix E • 769
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

300 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE END

301 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS FOR ALL
ELIGIBLE MEN IN 302, 303, AND 304 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF MORE THAN TWO MEN
USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

MAN 1 SKIP

302 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF MAN. NAME

LINE NUMBER ..........

303 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR AGE:

15-17 YEARS ..................... 1
18 YEARS AND ABOVE ................ 2

304 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR MARITAL STATUS:

CODE 4 (NEVER IN UNION) ..... 1
OTHER ............................. 2

305 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .

NOT PRESENT ............. 99994

REFUSED ..................... 99995 307
OTHER ....................... 99996

306 WAS THE MAN WEARING ONLY LIGHTWEIGHT CLOTHING? YES ............................... 1
NO ............................... 2

307 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. . . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT ............. 9994

REFUSED ..................... 9995 309
OTHER ....................... 9996

308 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR YES ............................... 1
ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO ............................... 2

309 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER (MEASURER).

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

310 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

IF NO ASSISTANT MEASURER, ENTER 9999. INTERVIEWER NUMBER

311 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ......................

MONTH ....................

YEAR ............

312 CHECK 303: AGE 15-17 AGE 18 YEARS

YEARS AND ABOVE BP314

313 CHECK 304: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) BP317

770 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 1 SKIP

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

A BP314 I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
D procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
U serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of
L blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot
T provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will
be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP315 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T REFUSED ........................... 2
BP354
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3
C
O
BP316 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
N MEASURER. (SIGN)
S
E BP325
N
T
BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP317 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P A R E N T / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE
P
A BP318 I would like to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between
R measurements. This is a harmless procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood
E pressure may eventually cause serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you and (NAME OF
N ADOLESCENT) after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If (NAME OF
T ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure is high, we will suggest that (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide any further
/ testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept strictly
R confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes to the test for (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
S Will you allow me to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure?
O
N
S
I
B
L
E

A
BP319 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3 BP354
T
BP320 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
C
MEASURER. (SIGN)
O
N
S
E
N BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER
T

BP321 CHECK 319: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP354

Appendix E • 771
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 1 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP322 ASK ASSENT FOR BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:

M I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
I procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause
N serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of
O blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot
R provide any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will
be kept strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP323 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T MINOR RESPONDENT
REFUSED ........................ 2
A NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 BP354
S
S
BP324 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
E
MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP324A CHECK BP323: ASSENT ASSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP354

BP325 Before measuring I would like to ask a few questions about things that may
affect blood pressure.

Have you done any of the following within the past 30 minutes:
YES NO DK

a) Eaten anything? a) EATEN ............... 1 2 8

b) Had coffee, tea, cola or other drink that has caffeine? b) CAFFEINE .......... 1 2 8
c) Smoked any tobacco product? c) SMOKED ............ 1 2 8
d) Conducted any physical activity or exercises that made you breathe harder d) EXCERCISED ....... 1 2 8
than usual?

BP326 May I begin the process of measuring your blood pressure? I will begin by measuring the
circumference of your arm to make sure that I use the right equipment.

BEFORE TAKING THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING, MEASURE THE

CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM MIDWAY BETWEEN THE
ELBOW AND THE SHOULDER.
ARM CIRCUMFERENCE
(IN CENTIMETERS) .......
RECORD THE MEASUREMENT IN CENTIMETERS.

BP327 USE THE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE MEASUREMENT TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE МODEL 767
BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR MODEL AND CUFF SIZE. SMALL: 16 CM – 23 CM ............. 1
MEDIUM: 24 CM – 35 CM ............. 2
LARGE: 36 CM – 41 CM ............. 3
MODEL 789
EXTRA LARGE: 42 CM – 60 CM ........ 4

BP328 RECORD TIME OF FIRST BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP329 TAKE THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP354
OTHER .......... 996

BP330 Before today, have you ever had your blood pressure measured by a doctor or other YES ............................. 1
ND01 health worker? NO ............................. 2
DON’T KNOW ..................... 8

BP331 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have high blood YES ............................. 1
ND02 pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2 BP335

772 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 1 SKIP

BP332 In the past 12 months, have you been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have YES ............................. 1
ND03 high blood pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2

BP333 Has a doctor or other health worker prescribed medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND04 NO ............................. 2

BP334 Are you taking medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND05 NO ............................. 2

BP335 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP336 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP349

BP337 RECORD TIME OF SECOND BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP338 TAKE THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP349
OTHER .......... 996

BP339 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP340 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP348

BP341 RECORD TIME OF THIRD BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP342 TAKE THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP348
OTHER ........................ 996

BP343 RECORD AND CALCULATE THE AVERAGE OF THE SYSTOLIC

AND THE AVERAGE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE FROM BP338 AND BP342:

BP344 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP338:

BP345 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP342:

RECORD THE SUM OF SUM SUM

BP346 SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
MEASURES.

BP347 CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SYSTOLIC AND

AVERAGE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AVERAGE AVERAGE
BY DIVIDING EACH OF THE SUMS IN BP346 BY
SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
2.

BP351

Appendix E • 773
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 1 SKIP

BP348 CHECK BP338:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
NOT RECORDED IN BP338 BOTH RECORDED IN BP338 BP350

BP349 CHECK BP329:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP329 BOTH NOT RECORDED BP354

BP350 RECORD SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC MEASURES. SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

BP351 USE THE TABLE TO DETERMINE THE CORRECT VALUE TO RECORD ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM:

CIRCLE THE ROW WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP347 OR BP350.

THEN CIRCLE THE COLUMN WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP347 OR BP350.

THE VALUE IN THE CELL WHERE THE ROW AND THE COLUMN MEET WILL BE USED IN COMPLETING BP352.

AVERAGE AVERAGE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

SYSTOLIC
PRESSURE < 84 85 - 89 90 - 99 100 - 109 110 - 119 > 120

< 129 1 2 3 4 5 6
130 - 139 2 2 3 4 5 6
140 - 159 3 3 3 4 5 6
160 - 179 4 4 4 4 5 6
180 - 209 5 5 5 5 5 6
> = 210 6 6 6 6 6 6

BP352 CIRCLE THE VALUE FROM BP351 IN THE TABLE BELOW. CIRCLE THE SAME VALUE IN THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM. READ ALOUD
TO THE RESPONDENT THE REPORTING FORM INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT NUMBER, THEN GIVE THE FORM TO THE RESPONDENT
AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS THE RESPONDENT MAY HAVE.

VALUE RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO CHECK BLOOD

FROM BP351: CATEGORY: PRESSURE WITHIN:

1 ACCEPTABLE RANGE 24 MONTHS

2 AT THE HIGH END OF THE ACCEPTABLE 12 MONTHS

RANGE

3 ABOVE ACCEPTABLE RANGE 2 MONTHS

4 MODERATELY HIGH 1 MONTH

5 HIGH 7 DAYS

6 VERY HIGH TODAY

BP353 CHECK IF THE RESPONDENT RECEIVED THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM REPORTING FORM RECEIVED . . . . . . . . . . 1
WITH WRITTEN RESULTS NOT RECEIVED ..................... 2

BP354 IF ANOTHER MAN, GO TO 302 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE MEN, END.

774 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

300 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED HOUSEHOLD NOT SELECTED

FOR BLOOD PRESSURE FOR BLOOD PRESSURE END

301 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR "LIST ELIGIBLE INDIVIDUALS/BIOMARKERS". RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS FOR ALL
ELIGIBLE MEN IN 302, 303, AND 304 ON THIS PAGE AND SUBSEQUENT PAGES STARTING WITH THE FIRST ONE LISTED. IF MORE THAN TWO MEN
USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

MAN 2 SKIP

302 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF MAN. NAME

LINE NUMBER ..........

303 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR AGE:

15-17 YEARS ..................... 1
18 YEARS AND ABOVE ................ 2

304 CHECK CAPI OUTPUT FOR MARITAL STATUS:

CODE 4 (NEVER IN UNION) ..... 1
OTHER ............................. 2

305 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. ....... .

NOT PRESENT ............. 99994

REFUSED ..................... 99995 307
OTHER ....................... 99996

306 WAS THE MAN WEARING ONLY LIGHTWEIGHT CLOTHING? YES ............................... 1
NO ............................... 2

307 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM. . . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT ............. 9994

REFUSED ..................... 9995 309
OTHER ....................... 9996

308 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED OR ORNAMENTED YES ............................... 1
HAIR? NO ............................... 2

309 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER (MEASURER).

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

310 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

IF NO ASSISTANT MEASURER, ENTER 9999. INTERVIEWER NUMBER

311 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY ......................

MONTH ....................

YEAR ............

312 CHECK 303: AGE 15-17 AGE 18 YEARS

YEARS AND ABOVE BP314

313 CHECK 304: OTHER CODE 4

(NEVER IN UNION) BP317

Appendix E • 775
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 2 SKIP

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP314 I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
A procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause serious
D damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood
U pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide
L any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept
T strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.

R Do you have any questions?

E You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
S
Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
P
O
N
D
E
N BP315 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T
REFUSED ........................... 2
BP354
NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3
C
O
N BP316 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
S MEASURER. (SIGN)
E BP325
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP317 RECORD NAME OF PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT FOR MINOR. NAME

LINE NUMBER OF PARENT/

RESPONSIBLE ADULT

P A R E N T / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE
P
A BP318 I would like to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between
R measurements. This is a harmless procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood
E pressure may eventually cause serious damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you and (NAME OF
N ADOLESCENT) after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood pressure measurement will be explained to you. If (NAME OF
T ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure is high, we will suggest that (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide any further
/ testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept strictly
R confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
E
S Do you have any questions?
P You can say yes to the test for (NAME OF ADOLESCENT) or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
S Will you allow me to measure (NAME OF ADOLESCENT)’s blood pressure?
O
N
S
I
B
L
E

A
BP319 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
D PARENT/RESPONSIBLE
U ADULT REFUSED ............. 2
L NOT PRESENT/OTHER ................ 3 BP354
T
BP320 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
C
MEASURER. (SIGN)
O
N
S
E
N BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER
T

BP321 CHECK 319: CONSENT CONSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP354

776 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 2 SKIP

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T ASS E N T F O R BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP322 ASK ASSENT FOR BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FROM MINOR RESPONDENT:

M I would like to measure your blood pressure. This will be done three times, with an interval of about five minutes between measurements. This is a harmless
I procedure. Blood pressure measurement is used to find out if a person has high blood pressure. If not treated, high blood pressure may eventually cause serious
N damage to the heart. The results of this blood pressure measurement will be given to you after the measurement process is completed. The results of blood
O pressure measurement will be explained to you. If your blood pressure is high, we will suggest that you consult a health facility or doctor since we cannot provide
R any further testing or treatment during the survey. You can also decide at any time not to participate in the blood pressure measurement. The result will be kept
strictly confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team.
R
E Do you have any questions?
S You can say yes to the test or you can say no. It is up to you to decide.
P Will you allow me to measure your blood pressure?
O
N
D
E
N BP323 CIRCLE THE CODE. GRANTED ........................... 1
T MINOR RESPONDENT
REFUSED ........................ 2
A NOT PRESENT/OTHER ........ 3 BP354
S
S
BP324 SIGN NAME AND ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER OF BLOOD PRESSURE
E
MEASURER. (SIGN)
N
T

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST NUMBER

BP324A CHECK BP323: ASSENT ASSENT

GRANTED REFUSED BP354

BP325 Before measuring I would like to ask a few questions about things that may affect
blood pressure.

Have you done any of the following within the past 30 minutes:
YES NO DK

a) Eaten anything? a) EATEN ............... 1 2 8

b) Had coffee, tea, cola or other drink that has caffeine? b) CAFFEINE .......... 1 2 8
c) Smoked any tobacco product? c) SMOKED ............ 1 2 8
d) Conducted any physical activity or exercises that made you breathe harder d) EXCERCISED ....... 1 2 8
than usual?

BP326 May I begin the process of measuring your blood pressure? I will begin by measuring the
circumference of your arm to make sure that I use the right equipment.

BEFORE TAKING THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING, MEASURE THE

CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM MIDWAY BETWEEN THE
ELBOW AND THE SHOULDER.
ARM CIRCUMFERENCE
(IN CENTIMETERS) .......
RECORD THE MEASUREMENT IN CENTIMETERS.

BP327 USE THE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE MEASUREMENT TO SELECT THE APPROPRIATE МODEL 767
BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR MODEL AND CUFF SIZE. SMALL: 16 CM – 23 CM ............. 1
MEDIUM: 24 CM – 35 CM ............. 2
LARGE: 36 CM – 41 CM ............. 3
MODEL 789
EXTRA LARGE: 42 CM – 60 CM ........ 4

BP328 RECORD TIME OF FIRST BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP329 TAKE THE FIRST BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP354
OTHER .......... 996

BP330 Before today, have you ever had your blood pressure measured by a doctor or other health YES ............................. 1
ND01 worker? NO ............................. 2
DON’T KNOW ..................... 8

BP331 Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have high blood YES ............................. 1
ND02 pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2 BP335

Appendix E • 777
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 2 SKIP

BP332 In the past 12 months, have you been told by a doctor or other health worker that you have YES ............................. 1
ND03 high blood pressure or hypertension? NO ............................. 2

BP333 Has a doctor or other health worker prescribed medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND04 NO ............................. 2

BP334 Are you taking medication to control your blood pressure? YES ............................. 1
ND05 NO ............................. 2

BP335 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP336 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP349

BP337 RECORD TIME OF SECOND BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP338 TAKE THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP349
OTHER .......... 996

BP339 CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 5 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

BP340 May I measure your blood pressure now? YES ............................. 1

NO ............................. 2 BP348

BP341 RECORD TIME OF THIRD BP READING .

TIME ...... .

BP342 TAKE THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE READING. BLOOD PRESSURE READINGS

RECORD THE SYSTOLIC AND THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC .......

PRESSURE.

IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MEASURE THE RESPONDENT'S DIASTOLIC .......

BLOOD PRESSURE, RECORD THE REASON.
REFUSED .......... 994
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS .......... 995 BP348
OTHER ........................ 996

BP343 RECORD AND CALCULATE THE AVERAGE OF THE SYSTOLIC

AND THE AVERAGE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE FROM BP338 AND BP342:

BP344 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP338:

BP345 BLOOD PRESSURE SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

FROM BP342:

RECORD THE SUM OF SUM SUM

BP346 SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
MEASURES.

BP347 CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SYSTOLIC AND

AVERAGE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AVERAGE AVERAGE
BY DIVIDING EACH OF THE SUMS IN BP346 BY 2.
SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

BP351

778 • Appendix E
 WEIGHT, HEIGHT, AND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT FOR MEN AGE 15 AND ABOVE

MAN 2 SKIP

BP348 CHECK BP338:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
NOT RECORDED IN BP338 BOTH RECORDED IN BP338 BP350

BP349 CHECK BP329:

SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP329 BOTH NOT RECORDED BP354

BP350 RECORD SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC MEASURES. SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC

BP351 USE THE TABLE TO DETERMINE THE CORRECT VALUE TO RECORD ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM:

CIRCLE THE ROW WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP347 OR BP350.

THEN CIRCLE THE COLUMN WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUE OF THE DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE
RECORDED IN BP347 OR BP350.

THE VALUE IN THE CELL WHERE THE ROW AND THE COLUMN MEET WILL BE USED IN COMPLETING BP352.

AVERAGE AVERAGE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

SYSTOLIC
PRESSURE < 84 85 - 89 90 - 99 100 - 109 110 - 119 > 120

< 129 1 2 3 4 5 6
130 - 139 2 2 3 4 5 6
140 - 159 3 3 3 4 5 6
160 - 179 4 4 4 4 5 6
180 - 209 5 5 5 5 5 6
> = 210 6 6 6 6 6 6

BP352 CIRCLE THE VALUE FROM BP351 IN THE TABLE BELOW. CIRCLE THE SAME VALUE IN THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM. READ ALOUD
TO THE RESPONDENT THE REPORTING FORM INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT NUMBER, THEN GIVE THE FORM TO THE RESPONDENT
AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS THE RESPONDENT MAY HAVE.

VALUE RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO CHECK BLOOD

FROM BP351: CATEGORY: PRESSURE WITHIN:

1 ACCEPTABLE RANGE 24 MONTHS

2 AT THE HIGH END OF THE ACCEPTABLE 12 MONTHS

RANGE

3 ABOVE ACCEPTABLE RANGE 2 MONTHS

4 MODERATELY HIGH 1 MONTH

5 HIGH 7 DAYS

6 VERY HIGH TODAY

BP353 CHECK IF THE RESPONDENT RECEIVED THE BLOOD PRESSURE REPORTING FORM REPORTING FORM RECEIVED . . . . . . . . . . 1
WITH WRITTEN RESULTS NOT RECEIVED ..................... 2

BP354 IF ANOTHER MAN, GO TO 302 ON THE NEXT PAGE; IF NO MORE MEN, END.

Appendix E • 779
 BIOMARKER SPECIALIST'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING BIOMARKERS

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

780 • Appendix E
 FORMATTING DATE: 02 Jun 2020
ENGLISH LANGUAGE:3 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
REMEASUREMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
NEPAL
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION

IDENTIFICATION

NAME AND CODE OF DISTRICT

NAME AND CODE OF GAUNPALIKA/MUNICIPALIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

WARD NUMBER ..........................................................................

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER ..................................................................

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MAN'S SURVEY? (1=YES, 2=NO) ............................................

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE DAY

BIOMARKER MONTH
SPECIALIST'S
NAME YEAR 2 0 7
NEXT VISIT:DATE TOTAL NUMBER
OF VISITS
TIME

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST OBSERVATIONS

TOTAL CHILDREN
TO REMEASURE

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** 0 1 LANGUAGE OF
INTERVIEW**
NATIVE LANGUAGE
OF RESPONDENT**
TRANSLATOR
(YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF
QUESTIONNAIRE** ENGLISH **LANGUAGE CODES:
01 ENGLISH 03 MAITHILI
02 NEPALI 04 BHOJPURI

TEAM TEAM SUPERVISOR

NUMBER NAME

Appendix E • 781
 REMEASUREMENT OF WEIGHT AND HEIGHT FOR SELECTED CHILDREN AGE 0-4

101 CHECK CAPI REPORT FOR CHILDREN SELECTED FOR REMEASUREMENT. RECORD THE LINE NUMBER AND NAME FOR
THE FIRST CHILD SELECTED FOR REMEASUREMENT IN QUESTION 102 ON THIS PAGE. IF MORE THAN ONE CHILD IS
SELECTED IN A HOUSEHOLD, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

CHILD TO REMEASURE SKIP

102 CHECK CAPI REPORT AND RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD. NAME

LINE NUMBER . . . . . .

103 CHECK CAPI REPORT AND RECORD DATE OF BIRTH OF CHILD.

DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MONTH ...........

YEAR ......

104 CHECK CAPI REPORT AND RECORD CHILD'S AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS.
AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS
COMPARE AND CORRECT 103 AND/OR 104 IF INCONSISTENT.

105 CHECK 104: CHILD AGE 0-4 YEARS? YES NO

116

106 WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

KG. . . . . . . . . .
NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . 9994
REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . .9995 108
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

107 WAS THE CHILD MINIMALLY DRESSED? YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

108 HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS.

CM.. . . . . . . . .

IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS, MEASURE LYING DOWN. NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . 9994
IF CHILD IS AGE 2, 3, OR 4 YEARS, MEASURE STANDING UP. REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . .9995 113
OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

109 WAS THE CHILD MEASURED LYING DOWN OR STANDING UP? LYING DOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
STANDING UP . . . . . . . . . . . 2

110 CHECK 104 AND 109: BASED ON CHILD'S AGE, WAS CORRECT YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 112
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE FOLLOWED? NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

111 IF CHILD IS AGE 0-1 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED STANDING UP?
IF CHILD IS AGE 2-4 YEARS: WHY WAS (NAME) MEASURED LYING DOWN?

112 WAS THE RECORDED MEASUREMENT INTERFERED WITH BY BRAIDED YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

OR ORNAMENTED HAIR? NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

113 ENTER BIOMARKER SPECIALIST'S NUMBER.

BIOMARKER SPECIALIST
NUMBER

114 ENTER INTERVIEWER NUMBER OF ASSISTANT MEASURER.

INTERVIEWER NUMBER

115 TODAY'S DATE:

DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MONTH ...........

YEAR ......

116 IF ANOTHER CHILD, GO TO 102 IN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE; IF NO MORE CHILDREN, END INTERVIEW.

782 • Appendix E
 03 October 2021
2022 NEPAL DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY
FIELDWORKER QUESTIONNAIRE

NEPAL LANGUAGE OF
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND POPULATION QUESTIONNAIRE
ENGLISH
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

100 What is your name?

NAME

101 RECORD FIELDWORKER NUMBER

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INSTRUCTIONS

Information on all NDHS field workers is collected as part of the NDHS survey. Please fill out the questions below. The information you provide
will be part of the survey data file; however, your name will be removed and will not be part of the data file. Thank you for providing the
information needed.

102 In which province do you live? PROVINCE NO 1 ......................... 01

MADHESH ......................... 02
BAGMATI ......................... 03
GANDAKI ......................... 04
LUMBINI ......................... 05
KARNALI ......................... 06
SUDURPASCHIM ......................... 07

103 Do you live in a city (metropolitan or sub-metropolitan), CITY (METROPOLITAN OR SUB-

town (municipality), or rural area (gaunpalika)? METROPOLITAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
TOWN (MUNICIPALITY) ................... 2
RURAL AREA (GAUNPALIKA) ............. 3

104 How old are you?

RECORD AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS. AGE ............................

105 Are you male or female? MALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

106 What is your current marital status? CURRENTLY MARRIED ................... 1

LIVING WITH A MAN/WOMAN ............. 2
WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SEPARATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
NEVER MARRIED OR LIVED
WITH A MAN/WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

107 How many living children do you have?

INCLUDE ONLY CHILDREN WHO ARE YOUR LIVING
BIOLOGICAL CHILDREN. CHILDREN ...................

108 Have you ever had a child who died? YES ..................................... 1
NO ..................................... 2

110 What is the highest grade you have completed?

IF COMPLETED LESS THAN ONE GRADE, RECORD GRADE .............

'00'.

Appendix E • 783
 NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

111 What is your religion? HINDU ............................... 01

BUDDHIST ............................... 02
MUSLIM ............................... 03
KIRAT ............................... 04
CHRISTIAN ............................... 05

NO RELIGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

112 What is your ethnicity? HILL BRAHMIN ......................... 01

HILL CHHETRI ......................... 02
TERAI BRAHMIN/CHETTRI ................ 03
OTHER TERAI CASTE ................... 04
HILL DALIT ......................... 05
TERAI DALIT ......................... 06
NEWAR ................ 07
HILL JANAJATI ................ 08
TERAI JANAJATI ................ 09
MUSLIM ................... 10

OTHER
(SPECIFY) 96

113 What languages can you speak? NEPALI ............................... A

MAITHILI ............................... B
BHOJPURI ............................... C
THARU ............................... D
RECORD ALL LANGUAGES YOU CAN SPEAK. NEWARI ............................... E
TAMANG ............................... F

OTHER X
(SPECIFY)

114 What is your mother tongue/native language (language NEPALI ............................... 01

spoken at home growing up)? MAITHILI ............................... 02
BHOJPURI ............................... 03
THARU ............................... 04
NEWARI ............................... 05
TAMANG ............................... 06

OTHER 96
(SPECIFY)

115 Have you ever worked on: YES NO

a) NDHS prior to this survey? a) NDHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) any other survey prior to this survey? c) OTHER SURVEY ........... 1 2

116 Were you already working for New ERA at the time you YES ........... 1
were employed to work on this DHS?
NO ..................................... 3 118

117 Are you a permanent or temporary employee of New

ERA? PERMANENT ............................ 1
TEMPORARY ............................ 2

118 If you have comments, please write them here.

784 • Appendix E