Chapter 10

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Class 12 Computer Science Notes

Chapter 10: Computer Network
What is Computer Network?
A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices so
that they can exchange information or share resources.
Advantages of Networks:
1) Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
2) Files can easily be shared between users.
3) Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
4) Security is good-users cannot see other user’s files unlike on stand-alone machines.
5) Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
Disadvantages of Networks:
1) Purchasing the cabling and the file servers can be expensive.
2) Managing a large network is complicated, requires a training and a network manager
(needs to be employed)
3) If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible.
4) Viruses can spread to the other computers throughout a computer network.
5) The danger of hacking, particularly with the wide area networks. We need firewall to
prevent such abuse.
Components of Computer Network:

The major components in the computer network are listed below:
1. Host/Nodes. (Such as PC, laptops,)
2. Servers.
3. Client.
4. Network Hardware. (Such as NIC, router, switch, hub, etc.)
5. Communication Channel. (Cables, etc.)
6. Software.
7. Network Services. (File sharing)
1. Hosts/Nodes:
• Node refers to the computers that are attached to network or seeking to share the
resources with network.
Workstation: - A computer when connected to network is known as Workstation.
2. Servers:
It is the most important computer in a network.
Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

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It is responsible for making the networking task happen.
A network can also have more than one server.
In case of bigger networks, servers are used for specialized tasks like for printer and
file sharing.
3. Client: It is a host computer that request for some services from server.
4. Network Hardware: The hardware which is required to carry various tasks such as
establishing connection and, controlling network traffic, etc.
Some Examples:
a) NIC (Network Interface Unit):

It is network card attached to host so as to establish network connections.
Every NIC has a unique physical address called MAC address, which is of 6 bytes assigned
by NIC manufacturer.
Also known as Terminal Access Point (TAP)
Hub, switch, router: These are connectivity devices.
5. Communication Channel: Host in a network interact with other host and servers by
communication channel or communication medium.
They can be of two types:
a. Wired Medium:
b. Wireless Medium:
a. Wired Medium: Host and servers are connected through guided media like network
cables, it is called a wired communication.
E.g., Twisted pair Cables, co-axial cables, optical fiber cable, etc.
b. Wireless Medium: Host and servers are connected through unguided media like radio
waves, satellite etc., it is called a wireless communication.
E.g. Microwaves, radio waves, satellite, infrared waves, laser etc.
6. Software: The software layers of a network make networking possible.

It comprises of Network protocols, network operating system etc.
Protocol: Set of rules and using which all parties of a network connect and interact with
each other.
Network operating system is a specialized operating system that can handle networking
task.
7. Network Services: Applications that provide different functionalities over a network,

such as DNS (Domain Name System), File Sharing, VoIP (Voice over IP) and many
more.

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Types of Networks:
• Based on different parameters networks are of two types:
• 1) Based on geographical Spread.
2) Based on Component Roles.
1) Based on geographical Spread:

There are four types of networks:
a) LAN (Local Area Network)
b) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
c) WAN (Wide Area Network)
d) PAN (Personal Area Network)
A) LAN (Local Area Network):
The networks which are confined to local area like office, factory, school etc, are known as
Local Area Network.
• Key purpose of LAN is to share resources.
• Cables are used to connect the NIC in each computer.
• LANs have area coverage of up to 1km.
b) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that connects computers
within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city, multiple cities and towns,
or any given large area with multiple buildings.
• A MAN is larger than a local area network (LAN) but smaller than a wide area
network (WAN).
c) WAN (Wide Area Network) :

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographical area
comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the whole world.
• Eg: The Internet, 4G Mobile Broadband Systems.
d) PAN (Personal Area Network):

A personal area network (PAN) connects electronic devices within a user's immediate
area.
The size of a PAN ranges from a few centimetres to a few meters.
• Eg: connection between a Bluetooth earpiece and a smartphone. PANs can also
connect laptops, tablets, printers, keyboards, and other computerized devices.

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Difference between LAN & MAN:
Difference between LAN & WAN:

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2) Based on Component Roles:

We classify on the basis of role played by the network.
• There can be two types of computer networks:
1) Peer – to – Peer Networks
2) Client/Server Networks.
1) Peer-to-Peer Networks:
A peer-to-peer network is a simple network of computers.
Each computer acts as a node for file sharing within the formed network.
Here each node acts as a server and thus there is no central server in the network.
Features of P2P network:

i) These networks do not involve a large number of nodes, usually less than 12. All
the computer sin the network store their own data but this data is accessible by the
group.
ii) Unlike client-server networks, P2P uses resources and also provides them.
iii) Since the nodes act as clients and servers, there is a constant threat of attack.
iv) Almost all OS today support P2P networks.
2) Client/Server Networks (Master slave network):

A server is simply a computer that provides the network resources and provides service to
other computers when they request it.
• A client is the computer running a program that requests the service from a server.
Local area network (LAN) is based on client server network relationship.
• A client-server network is one on which all available network resources such as files,
directories, applications and shared devices, are centrally managed and hosted and
then are accessed by the client.

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Advantages of client server:
1) It is very secure.
2) Gives better performance.
3) It has centralized backup.
4) It is very reliable.
Disadvantages of Client Server:
1) It requires professional administration.
2) It is more hardware and software intensive.
3) It requires expensive dedicated software.
Diff. between P2P & Client-Server:
Evolution of Internet:
1. ARPANET: ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
• The goal of this project was to connect computers at different universities.
• The National Science Foundation created a new, high-capacity network known as
NSFnet, which has more capabilities than ARPANET.
• But NSFnet allows only the academic research on its network and not any kind of
private business on it.

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• Later various companies created their own network.
• The linking of these two and some other networks (i.e., ARPANET, NSFnet and some
private networks) that was named as Internet.
• The original ARPANET was shut down in 1990.
• Funding for NSFnet was stopped in 1995.
• Since commercial internet services came into picture, which are still running.
The Internet:
The Internet is a world-wide network of computer network.
• Internet is super-network. It connects many smaller networks together and allows all
the computers to exchange information with each other.
• The common set of rules for communication are called Protocols.
• Internet uses a set of protocols called TCP/IP.
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
• IP stands for Internet Protocol.
How Does Internet Work?

• Gateway: It is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
• Backbone: It is a central interconnecting structure that connects one or more
networks just like the trunk of a tree or the spine of a human being.
• In Internet, most computers are not connected directly to the Internet.
How Internet Functions:

• At the source computer, the message or the file/document to be sent to another
computer is firstly divided into very small parts called Packets. A packet contains
some information.
• Each packet is given a number serial wise.
• All the packets are sent to the address of destination computer.
• The destination computer receives the packets in random manner.
• If a packet is lost its demanded again.
• The packets are arranged in order and
message is obtained.
• The communication protocol used by Internet is TCP/IP.
• The TCP is responsible for dividing the file/message into packets on the source
computer. Also, responsible for reassembling the packets on destination computer.

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• The IP is responsible for handling the address of destination computer so that each
packet is routed (sent) to its proper destination.
The Interspace:
• The interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D
environments.
SWITCHING TECNIQUES:
What is Switching Technique?
• It is used for transmitting data across networks.
• There are three switching techniques:
• 1) Circuit Switching.
• 2) Message Switching.
• 3) Packet Switching.
1) Circuit Switching:
• It is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
• In this once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain to exist
until the connection is terminated.
• It operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• It is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
2) Message Switching:
• It is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit
and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In these techniques, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the
sender and receiver.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

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3) Packet Switching:
• It is a technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into
smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached than the acknowledgement message
will be sent.
Data Communication Terminologies:

1. Data Channel: Channel simply means a path to carry or flow.
• Data channel means the flow of data or to carry the data from one device to another.
In other words, we can say the data channel is a computer path or medium used to
transfer the data from sender to receiver.
2. Baud:
• It’s actually a common measurement unit of data transfer.
• Baud rate measures the rate at which the data is transferred from the sender to the
receiver in the data channel. It can be expressed in terms of bps (bits per second). It
simply determines the speed of data transfer.

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3. Bits per Second (bps):
• Its symbol is “bit/s”.
• It can be present in two forms i.e., bps (bits per second) and Bps (Bytes per second).
• It’s also a measurement unit of speed at which the data is transferred.
4. Bandwidth:
• It’s the range of frequencies over which a communication system works.
• It generally measures the amount of data that can be transferred in a given amount of
time over a data channel.
• It’s the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of a data channel.
• The measurement unit of frequency is cycles per second i.e. hertz.
6. Data Transfer Rates:

• It determines the rate of speed at which the data is transferred from one point to
another.
• Its measurement unit is bits per second (bps), Bytes per second (Bps), or baud.
• In computer, data transfer is mainly measured in Bytes per second.
• Data transfer between devices such as Hard disk and CD-ROM is usually measured in
milliseconds.
Types of Transmission Media:

What is Transmission Media?
• A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e.
it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Types of Transmission Media:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals
being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

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• Features:
A) High Speed
B) Secure
C) Used for comparatively shorter distances
Types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted Pair Cable.
2. Co-axial Cable.
3. Optical Fibre Cable.
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
• It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
• Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.
• Twisted Pair is of two types:
• a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
• b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
• UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
• It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

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• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
• This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)
to block external interference.
• It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky
2. Coaxial Cable –
• It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
• Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
3.Optical Fibre Cable:
• It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
• The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It
is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight

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• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile (easily damage)
2. Unguided Media:
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
• Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
Types of Unguided Media:
• Radio Waves.
• Microwaves.
• Satellite.
1. Radio waves:
• These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
• The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz –
1GHz.
• AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Advantages:
• It offers mobility.
• It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
• It offers freedom from land acquisition rights that are required for laying, repairing
the cables.
Disadvantages:
• Radio wave communication is an insecure communication.
• It is susceptible to weather effects like rain, weather, etc

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2. Microwaves:
• It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e., the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other.
• The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the
antenna.
• Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
Advantages:
• It has the ability to communicate over oceans.
• It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:
• It is an insecure connection.
• It is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms,
3. Satellite (Satellite Microwave):
• Satellite communication is special case of microwave relay system.
• It uses the synchronous satellite to relay the radio signal transmitted from ground
station.
• Satellites have multiple, independent reception and transmission devices known as
transponders.
• A single transponder is usually capable of handling a full-colour, commercial
television with audio.
Advantages:
• The area coverage through satellite transmission is quite large.
• The laying and maintenance of intercontinental cable is difficult
Disadvantages:
• Technological limitations preventing the deployment of large, high gain antennas on
satellite platform.
• The high investment cost and insurance cost associated with significant probability of
failure.
Other guided Media:
• 1. Infrared.
This type of transmission uses infrared light to send data. You can see the use of this
type of transmission in everyday life-TV remote, automotive garage doors,etc.

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• 2. Laser.
It requires direct line-of-sight. It is unidirectional like microwave, but has much
higher speed than microwaves.
• It has a disadvantage, they can be affected by weather conditions
Network Topologies
What is Topology?
• The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the Topology.
Factors considered while making any topology:

1. Cost
2. Flexibility
3. Reliability.
Different types of Topologies:
1. Start Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Tree Topology.
5. Mesh Topology
6. Fully Connected.
Point to Point Link:
• The main characteristic of P-P network is that each station receives from exactly one
receiver.
• The transmit and receive operations can occur on diff. wires for better performance.
1. Star Topology:
• Each device within the network is connected to a central device called a hub.
• It consists of a central node to which all other nodes are connected by a single path.
• It is used for data processing or voice communications.
• E.g., IBM 370

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Advantages:
1) Ease of service.
2) One device per connection.
3) Centralized control/problem diagnosis.
4) Simple access protocols.
Disadvantages:
1. Longer Cable Length.
2. Difficult to expand.
3. Central node dependency.
2. Bus Topology:
• In this topology single length transmission is used for conversation (mainly co-axial
cable) onto which the various nodes are attached.
• Data is transmitted in small blocks, known as Packets. Each packet has some data
bits, also a header containing its destination address.
Advantages:
1. Short cable length and simple wiring layout.
2. Very cost effective.
3. Easy to connect other devices.
Disadvantages:
1. Not suitable for large networks.
2. Additional devices will reduce the speed of the network.
3. Packet loss is high.

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4. Fault diagnosis is difficult.
3. Ring Topology:
• In this topology every node is connected two only two nodes.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes to
send data and to prevent data loss repeaters are used in this network
Advantages:
• Short Cable length.
• Suitable for optical fiber.- for high speed data transmission
• Equal access to the resources
• Easy to manage.
Disadvantages:
• Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all
the nodes.
• If any code gets failed, it will cause to node failure.
• Total dependence in on one cable.
• It is Expensive.
4. Tree Topology:
• Also known as star bus topology.
• Tree Topology is a topology which is having a tree structure in which all the
computers are connected like the branches which are connected with the tree.
Advantages:
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments

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• It is used in WAN.
• Tree Topology is reliable.
Disadvantages:
• Due to the presence of a large number of nodes, the network performance of tree
topology becomes a bit slow.
• Requires a large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.
• The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire segment of the network.
5. Mesh Topology.
• In mesh, all the computers are interconnected to every other during a network.
• Each computer not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other
computers.
• Every node features a point-to-point connection to the opposite node.
Advantages:
• Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
• It provides high privacy and security.
• Adding new devices won’t disrupt data transmissions.
• A mesh doesn’t have a centralized authority.
Disadvantages:
• Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
• Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.
• It’s costly
6. Fully Connected:
• When in a network each host connected to other directly then the network is said to be
fully connected.

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Factors to consider for topology Selection:
i. Cruciality of work (importance)
ii. Cost
iii. Length of cable needed
iv. Future Growth.
v. Communication Media (so that the weather conditions should not affect.
Network Device
1. Modem:
• A modem is a computer peripheral device that allows you to connect and
communicate with other computers via telephone lines.
• Modulator/Demodulator.
• Modem is a device that converts digital signal to analog signal (modulator) at the
sender’s site and converts back analog signal to digital signal (demodulator) at the
receiver’s end, in order to make communication possible via telephone lines.
Types of Modems:
• Internal Modem: It refers to the modem that is fixed within a computer, e.g., dial-up
and wireless.
• External Modem: A modem that resides in a self-contained box outside the computer
system, e.g., USB modem, Cable modem.
2. RJ-45:
• It is short for Registered Jack-45.
• It is an eight-wire connector, which commonly used to connect computers on LAN
(Local Area Network).
3. NIC (Network Interface Card):
• Also known as TAP (terminal access point) & NIU (network interface unit).
• It is a device that is attached to each of the workstation and the server, and helps the
workstation establish all – important connection with the network.
• Every NIC has a unique number identifying it, which is known as Node Address.
• MAC Address: The physical address assigned by the NIC manufacturer.
• It is a 6-byte address.
• It is separated by colon.
• First digit is manufacturer id and last 6 digit is the card number.
• Eg: 10 : B5 : 03 : 63 : 2E : FC

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4. Ethernet Card:
• Ethernet cards are network adapters designed to support wired Ethernet connections
5. Hub:
• Hub is a device used to connect several computers together. It provides a centralised
connection to several computers with the central node or server.
• Active Hub: It amplifies the signals and passes from one connected device to another.
These hubs are working as repeaters to boost up the signals.
• Passive Hub: It simply passes signals from one connected device to another without
making any changes.
6. Switch:
• The switch is a hardware device used to divide or segment the network into smaller
subnets or LAN segments.
• Functions of a Switch:
The switch is responsible for forwarding a data packet to a specific route or segment.
For this purpose, the switch establishes a temporary connection between the source
and the destination, when the data packet is transported, the connection is terminated.
7. Repeater:
• The repeater is a hardware device used in a network to amplify the weak signals,
when they are transported over long distances.
• Functions of a Repeater
It receives an incoming signal from one device and retransmits it, forwarding it on to
other.
• There are of two types:
1. Amplifier Repeaters
2.. Signal Repeaters
• Amplifier Repeaters: It amplifies or boosts the incoming signals. So, it amplifies
both the signal and any concurrent noise.
• Signal Repeaters: These repeaters remove or filter the noise from incoming signals
and retransmit the same, in the same way as it was starting from the source.
8. Bridge:
• A bridge is a device that helps you to link two networks.
9. Router:
• A router is a device that forward data from one network to another.
• A router works like a bridge but can handle different protocols.

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10. Gateway:
• The gateway is a network device which is used to connect dissimilar networks. The
gateway establishes an intelligent connection between a local network and external
networks, which are completely different in structure.
11. Wi-fi Card:
• a Wi-Fi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with a built-
in wireless radio and antenna.
Network Protocols
What is a Protocol?
• In networking, a protocol is a standardized set of rules for formatting and processing
data. Protocols enable computers to communicate with one another.
1. HTTP:
• HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
• HTTP is an application-level protocol and it is widely used for viewing information of
a web page over Internet. It is a generic, stateless and object-oriented protocol.
• HTTP consists of a set of requests from the browser of a local computer to the web
server and a set of responses going back to the other way.
• Though HTTP is designed for the use in the web application but it has scope to be
used in future object-oriented applications.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

• FTP is designed to transfer files from one system to another.
• Using FTP, different people locating in different geographical locations can cooperate
and work on a common project.
• FTP is designed to promote sharing of files and to encourage the indirect use of
remote computers. Using FTP, any type of file can be transferred from one computer
to another
3. TCP/IP:
• TCP/IP is a set of two protocols, i.e., TCP and IP. The Internet Protocol (IP) tells how
packets of information are sent out over networks.
• IP has a packet addressing method that lets any computer on the Internet forward a
packet to another computer that is a step closer to the packet’s recipient.
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures the reliability of data transmission
across Internet connected networks.

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• TCP checks packets for errors and submits requests for retransmission if errors are
found.
4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):
• The PPP is used with dial up-up Internet connections including ISDN. It is a layered
protocol, which is used for transmitting the data over usual telephone lines. It can
provide connection authentication, transmission, encryption and compression.
• SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol)
Protocols used in emails:

• Protocols are the standard set of rules used at each end of a communication channel.
• There are various protocols:
IMAP, POP3, SMTP and HTTP.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
• It is standard protocol for accessing e-mail from local server.
• It requires only a small data transfer; it works well with slow connection like modem.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3):
• Post Office Protocol is used to retrieve email for a single client.
• It allows to access mail offline and thus, needs less internet time.
• To access the message, it has to be downloaded.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send mails over the internet.
• It handles the sending and receiving of messages between email servers over a TCP/IP
network.
• This protocol along with sending emails also provides the feature of notification for
incoming mails.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):
• HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
• It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
• The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
Internetworking Terms and Concepts:
1. WWW:
- It stands for World Wide network.
- It is a set of protocols that allows you to access any document on the Net through a naming
system based on URLs.

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- URL: stands for Uniform Resource Locator.
- It also specify the way HTTP (Hyper Text transfer Protocol) to request and send a document over
the internet.
Attributes of WWW:
a. User Friendly
b. Multimedia documents.
c. Hypertext and hyperlinks.
d. Interactive (it supports activity between users and servers)
e. Frame: It is the display of more than one independently controllable section on single web page.
2. Telnet: It is an online service through which you can easily connect to remote computer by the help
of internet.
3. Web Browser and Web Server:
-The WWW is based upon clients and servers.
- A WWW client is called Web Browser.
- A WWW server is called Web Server or just a Sever.
4. Web Site: A location on a web server is called a website.
- Each website has a unique address called URL.
5. URL: Page description language is called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
- HTTP uses Internet address in a special format called a Uniform resource locator.
Syntax: type://address/path
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol IP; Internet Protocol

POP3: Post Office Protocol version 3 SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Mail Protocol
NNTP: Network News Transfer Protocol
.in -> India .nz -> New Zealand .au -> Australia .dk -> Denmark

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.fr -> France .jp -> Japan .uk -> United Kingdom
• Web page: The documents residing on website are called web pages.
- The web pages use HTTP.
- Home Page: The home of any website is known as Web Page.
- Web Portal: It is a web site which hosts other websites.
- A web portal has hyperlinks to many other websites.
• Web Hosting: It can be defined as hosting web-server application on a computer system
through which electronic content on the internet is readily available to any web browser
client.
- The computer that provides web-hosting service is known as web server or the web host.
- There are various types of hosting:
1. Free Hosting: There are few websites which offers free hosting services.
2. Virtual or Shared Hosting: This type of hosting is provided under one’s own domain name.
It also provides a unique identity to the audience.
3. Dedicated Hosting: In this company rents a web-server from a hosting company.
4. Co-location Hosting: In this type of hosting the company actually owns the server on
which its site is hosted.
• Web 2.0:
- It provide s a much independent solution to interact or communicate thoughts with each
other through the various online social media.
- Some tools of Web 2.0 are Facebook, WordPress, YouTuber, Twitter, etc.
• Html (Hyper Text Markup Language):
- It is a document-layout and hyperlink language.
- It is used to design the layout of a document and to specify the hyperlinks.
- It tells the browser how to display the contents of a hyper Text document. (a document
including text, images, and other support media.)
• XML (eXtensible Markup Language):
- It is a markup language for documents containing structured information.
- Structured information contains both content (words, pictures, etc.).
- It is not like as HTML.
Difference between HTML and XML:

25
• Web Scripting: The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is
known as web-scripting.
- It can be of two types:
1. Client- Side Scripts
2. Server-side scripts
• Client-Side Scripts:
• Client-side scripting is responsible for interaction within a web page. The client-side
scripts are firstly downloaded at the client-end and then interpreted and executed by
the browser (default browser of the system).
• The client-side scripting is browser-dependent. i.e., the client-side browser must be
scripting enables in order to run scripts
• Client-side scripting is used when the client-side interaction is used. Some example
uses of client-side scripting may be:
• To get the data from user’s screen or browser.
• For playing online games.
• Customizing the display of page in browser without reloading or reopening the page
• Server-Side Scripting:
1. Server-side scripting is responsible for the completion or carrying out a task at the
server-end and then sending the result to the client-end.
2. In server-side script, it doesn’t matter which browser is being used at client-end,
because the server does all the work.
3. Server-side scripting is mainly used when the information is sent to a server and to be
processed at the server-end. Some sample uses of server-scripting can be:
a) Password Protection.
b) Browser Customization (sending information as per the requirements of client-
end browser)
c) Form Processing
d) Building/Creating and displaying pages created from a database.
e) Dynamically editing changing or adding content to a web-page.

26
Note: that the upcoming topics are not in official syllabus of CBSE 2023-24 but still question
can be asked so I’m including them in this module.
Wireless/Mobile Computing:
What is Wireless Computing?
• It is simply data communication without the use of landlines.
What is Mobile Computing?
• Mobile computing means that the computing device is not continuously connected to
the base of central network.
Wireless/Mobile Computing Technologies:

1. GSM:
-It is short for Global System for Mobile communications.
- It is one of the leading digital cellular systems.
- To connect to the specific service providers ii these different countries, GSM users simply
switch Subscriber Identification Module (SIM).
- Sim cards are small removable disks that slip in and out of GSM cell phones.
- GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous cells on the same radio
frequency.
- TDMA is short for Time Division Multiple Access.
- GSM systems use encryption to make phone calls more secure.
- IDEN for Integrated Digital Enhanced Network, a system introduced by Motorola and
used by Nextel.
What is Sim Card?
- SIM is short for Subscriber Identification Module.
- A sim is actually a tiny computer chip that gives a cellular device its unique phone number.
- Currently sim have 16 to 64kb of memory.
2. CDMA:
- CDMA is short for Code-Division Multiple Access.
- It uses spread-spectrum techniques where data is sent in small pieces over a no. of discrete
frequencies.
3. WLL
- WLL is short for Wireless in Local Loop (WLL or WiLL).

27
- In this telephone provided is expected to be as good as wired phone. - - Its voice quality
must be high – a subscriber carrying out long conservations must not be irritated with quality;
one must be able to use speakerphones, cordless phones and parallel phones.
Advantages of WLL:
i) WLL system offers better bandwidth than traditional telephone systems.
ii) It has better customer service features and quality can be provided.
iii) WLL systems support high quality data transmission, signaling services, and all the
most advanced customer service features.
4. GPRS:
- It is the abbreviation for General Packet Radio Service.
- It is used for wireless communication using a mobile device.
- It is a technology for radio transmission of small packets of data esp. between mobile
devices and internet.
How does GPRS work?
- GPRS provides a high-speed data transfer, typically between 56 Kbits per second to 110 k
bits per second.
- A user of the GRPS network is charged only on the amount of data is sent or received as
opposed to the duration of the connection.
1G,2G,3G,4G,and 5G Networks:
G in wireless networks refer to the generation of the underlaying wireless network
technology.
1G Networks:
- It is considered to be the first analog cellular systems, which started early 1980s.
- It is purely designed purely for voice calls with almost no consideration of data services.
2G Network (GSM, CSMAOne, D-AMPS):
- It are the first digital cellular systems launched early 1980s, offering improved sound
quality, better security and higher total capacity.
2.5G Network (GRPS, CDMA2000 1x):
- It are he enhanced versions of 2G networks with theoretical data rates up to about 104
kbit/s.
3G Network (UMTS FDD and TDD, CDMA2000 1x EVDO,)
- They are newer cellular networks that have data rates of 384 kbit/s and more.
4G Networks: - It is a Mobile multimedia, network system width anytime anywhere global
mobility support, integrated wireless solution, and customized personal service.

28
5G Networks:
- It is the fifth generation of wireless communication technologies supporting cellular data
network.
- It promise to provide speeds of up to 100GB per second.
5G is set to be 40 to 100 times faster than 4G network.
Some more mobile Communication Technologies:
1. EV-DO:
-Shorthand for CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (also known as IS-856), a CDMA based
technology developed by Qualcomm.
2. HSPA:
- It stand for High-Speed Packet Access; it supports increased peak data rates of up to
10 Mbit/s in the downlink.
3. IMS:
- IP multimedia subsystem is an architectural framework for delivering Internet
Protocol (IP) multimedia services.
4. LTE (Long Term Evolution)
- It uses an all-IP flat network architecture and is capable of peak downlink speeds
100 Mbit/s and uplink speeds of 50 Mbit/s when deployed in a 20 MHz channel.
5. X LTE Advanced:
- It offers great flexibility and peak data rates of more than 1 Gbit/s.
6. WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for Microwave Access)
-It requires an all IP, network architecture and makes uses of OFDMA, and generally
uses unpaired.
7. WiMax 2:
- It is truly 4G WiMax technology capable of mobile data speeds up to 120 Mnits/sec
in a single 20MHz channel.
8. Mobile processors:
- The element that is responsible for speed, efficiency and battery life of your
smartphone is known as Processor.
There are various parts of a processor that works together:
a) CPU or Central Processing Unit: It receives commands, makes instant calculations,

and sends signals throughout your device.
b) GPU or Graphics Process Unit: It assists the CPU by handling the visuals, even for
games and other graphically- rich applications.
c) Camera ISP (Image Signal Processor): It provides instant image
capture, high-resolution support, image stabilization, and other image enhancements.

29
d) Audio and Video: It is a dedicated processing unit for handling audio and video.
e) Radio(RF Transceiver & 3G/4G Modem: The Rf transceiver receives and

transmits voice connections and the modem enables your phone to send and receive
digital signals over high sped cellular wireless network or Wi-Fi connection.
Some mobile processors are:
Snapdragon 835, Samsung EXYNOS 8890, Apple A12 , etc.
8. SMS (Short Message Service):
It is the transmission of short text messages to and from a mobile phone, fax machine
and/or IP address.
9. Chat:
In this you can talk to a person in same environment and can send and receive any
type of media in form of messages.
10. Video Conferencing:
You can communicate with person in real-time environment. You can exchange real
time audio and video.
11. Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing:
- Most common chat protocol is IRC (Internet Ready Chat ).
- Most common video protocol is H.323 and SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
12. Voice over Protocol (VoIP):
- It is a technology that enables voice communication over the Internet through the
compression of voice into packets that can be efficiently transmitted over data
networks and then converted back into voice at the other end.
- The most common protocol used for communicating on these packet-switched
networks is Internet protocol.
13. Connecting Wirelessly to Internet:
two most common ways to connect to Internet wirelessly are:
1. Wi-Fi: It refers to wireless Fidelity, which lets you connect to the Internet without a
direct line from your PC to ISP.
ISP: Internet Service Provider.
Make sure that your wi-fi is security enabled so that hackers couldn’t steal your data.
Wi-fi Hotspots:
A Hostpot is a venue that offers Wi-Fi access.
2. WiMax:
It is a wireless digital communications system. It can provide broadband wireless
access (BWA) up to 30 miles (50km) for fixed stations. Usually, it is limited to only
100-300 feet (30-100m).
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Class 12 Computer Science Notes

Components of Computer Network:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

a) NIC (Network Interface Unit):

6. Software: The software layers of a network make networking possible.

7. Network Services: Applications that provide different functionalities over a network,

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

1) Based on geographical Spread:

b) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

c) WAN (Wide Area Network) :

d) PAN (Personal Area Network):

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Difference between LAN & MAN:

Difference between LAN & WAN:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

2) Based on Component Roles:

Features of P2P network:

2) Client/Server Networks (Master slave network):

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Diff. between P2P & Client-Server:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

How Does Internet Work?

How Internet Functions:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Data Communication Terminologies:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

6. Data Transfer Rates:

Types of Transmission Media:

Types of Transmission Media:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Types of Guided Media:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Factors considered while making any topology:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Protocols used in emails:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol IP; Internet Protocol

NNTP: Network News Transfer Protocol

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Difference between HTML and XML:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Wireless/Mobile Computing Technologies:

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing

a) CPU or Central Processing Unit: It receives commands, makes instant calculations,

Keep Hustling, Keep Growing