Chapter

INSTRUMENTATION
9
Objectives
Introduction to Transducers

Classilication of Transdugers

Thermocouple
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Strain Gauge

Load Cell
9.2 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERIM

9.1 Introduction to Transducers

Most of the instruments present in our day-to-day life deals with physical quantities uhii
nich
are non-electrical quantity. These quantities can not be recorded and measured with an.
any
electric or clectronic measurement devices. It is required to convert non-clectrical
1antity into electrical quantity so that it can be measurcd, recordcd and analysed by the
e
instruments.Transducers are the devices which convert one form of energy into another
form of energy. The device which is used for converting the non-electrical quantity into
clcctrical quantity is called electrical transducer
When the transducer converts one form of mechanical quantity into another form of
mechanical quantity,it is called as mechanical transducer. For example, Bourdon tube
converts pressure into displacement In electrical transducers, the input quantity can he
force.displacement, pressure, level, fow, stress, temperature etc. and the output electrical
quantity may be current, voltage or frequency

9.2 Classification of Transducers B

The electrical transducers are classified according to their
application area, output signal
nature, structures, method of energy conservation etc. The various classification of
transducers are described in this section.

9.2.1 On the Basis of Transduction Form Used

According to the principle used in transduction, transducers are classified as
following
(a) Capacitive Transducers: The transducer is called
output of transducer is obtained as change
capacitive transducer, if the
into the capacitance. In a capacitor, two
conductors are separated by an insulator called
dielectric. So, to bring the change in
the capacitor either the distancé
between two plates or the dielectric is
(b) Resistive Transducers: The transducer is changed
called resistive transducer, if the
of a transducer
changes with the resistance of transducer. outpu
transducers are potentiometer, Examples of resisuv
thermometer etc. photoconductive cell, strain gauge, resistance

(c) Inductive Transducers: The

transducer is called inductive
of a transducer
changes with the inductance of transducer, if the ouptput
transducers are differential transformer, transducer. Examples of inducutive
etc magnet restriction gauge, reluctanco ick-up
p
(d) Voltage and Current
their output in voltage orGenerating
current
Transducers: The transducers which pro ce
are called voltage or current
generating traisu
 INSTRUMENTATION 9.3
e Examples for voltage and current generating transducers are
piezoclectric, clectron-
tube, photocmissive cell, ionization chamber etc.
9.2.2 U
9.2.2 Primary and Secondary Transducers
Primary transducers are used to convert non-electrical input quantity into intermediate
quantity. This intermediate quantity is then converted into the final electricat quantity by
the secondary transducers.) To understand both the transducers, let us take an example
ofthe combination of the Bourdon tube and LVDT. Figure 9.1 shows the arrangement
where bourdon tube acts as a primary transducer and LVDT acts as a secondary
transducer.

Pulley
Bourdon
Output tube
0 voltage

n m T Fixed
LVDT end
Supts Pressure

Figure 9.1 Example of primary and secondary transducer

Bourdon tube senses the pressure and converts the pressure into the displacement of its
free end. Now, linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) acting as a secondary
transducer has its core moved by the displacement of the free end which produces an
output voltage. This output voltage is proportional to the movement of the core which is
proportional to the displacement of the free end, which in turn is proportional to the
v n e s pressure.

Hence, there are two stages of transduction, firstly the pressure is converted into
displacement by Bourdon tube which acts as primary transducer then the displacement
is converted into voltage which acts as secondary transduce

9.2.3 Passive and Active Transducers

These type of transducers are classificd according to whether they are passive or active.
stab (a) Passive Transducers: Passive transducers are those transducers which do not

generate any clectrical signal by themselves and derive the power required for
transduction from an auxiliary power source. They are also termed as "extremely
 ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEEP
RING
BASIC
9.4
powered transducers". Examples of passive transducers are potentiometers, RVDT
hout
s
transducers ctc. as they cannot transduce witho
LVDTs, variable capacitive
source.
presence of the auxiliary power
t r a n s d u c e r s which do not require
are those
Active Transducers: Active transducers
(b) are sclt generating tyDe of
source to produce their output and
the auxiliary power source power for thei.
transducers do not require any external
transducers. These
or current output. Examples of active
operation since they develop their own voltage
cells, Tachogenerators, accelerometere
transducers are thermocouple, photovoltaic
piezoelectric crystals etc.

9.2.4 On the Basis of Nature of Output

the transducers which
Transducers can be classified on the basis of the output of can be
continuous function of time or in discrete steps
(a) Analog Transducers: These type of transducers convert the input physical quantity

into an analog output_which is a continuous

function of time. Examples of analog
transducers are LVDT, thermistor, strain gauge, thermocouple etc. which produce
continuous output.
fb) Digital Transducers: These type of transducers convert the input physical quantity
into digital output which is in the form of pulses. For the cach value sensed, a unique
code is generated at the output.

9.2.5 On the Basis of Type of Output

Transducers can be classificd on the basis of type of the output produced which can be
electrical or non-electrical quantity
(a) Transducers: As discussed earlier, transducers are the devices which convert a non-
electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
(b) Inverse Transducers: Inverse transducers are those transducers which convert
electrical quantity into
non-electrical quantity. It is used at the output side and hence
called output transducers A piezoelectric crystal is an inverse
when a voltage is applied across transducer becaus
its surface, it produces mechanical displacement du
tochange in its dimensions. Similarly, PMMC (Permanent
Magnet Moving Coll)
inversetransducer as the current carried by its coil is converted into a force WIu
ch
causes translational or rotational motion
inverse transducer which converts (displacement). Loudspeaker 1s
aiso
an

electrical signal into sound data

indicating and recording instruments such as ammeter and signal. Many verse
transducers which convert current or voltmeter are
voltage into mechanical displacement.
following section, some commonly used
transducers are briefly discussed.
 INSTRUMENTATION 9.5

9.3 Thermocouple
Thermocouple is a temperature transducer which converts thermal energy into electrical
energy, Generally, it is used as a primary transducer and for the measurement of high
temperatures

9.3.1 Working Principle of Thermocouple

was first observed
Thermocouple works on the principle of thermoelectric effect. This
if two
by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 and is known as seebeck effect. It says that
a closed
dissimilar metals having different work functions are joined together to form
If one of these junction
circuit, there will be two junctions where they meet each other.
is heated and other junction is kept at lower temperature,then an emf is generated
across the two junctions. The emf generated is dependent upon the difference of
temperature of the two junctions.

Voltmeter

Measuring
junction (hot)
Reference
Junction (cold)

o Heat source

Two dissimilar
metal wires

Figure 9.2 Thermocouple

in thermocouple can be approximately expressed as

u The emf generated a

E = a(A0) + b(AG9 9.1)

the measuring
where A0 difference in the temperature between
°C
(hot) junction and reference (cold) junction,
a, b =
constants

tatese Generally, compared to b and it is usually neglected and hence equation

Generally, a is1s Vo
a very large as

becomes
ionue
E =a(A6)
wwwwii
9.6 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

40 cE 9.2)
Hence, the equation (9.2) shows that generated voltage is proportional to the difference
in temperatures of two
junctions.
932 Construction of Thermocouple
Thermocouple is made up of two wires of dissimilar metals joined together to form two
junctions as shown in figure 9.3(a).

Metal A(+) Hot

Junction
Voltmeter
Metal B(-)
Cold junction
(a) (b)

Figure 9.3 (a) Basic thermocouple circuit and (b) Practical

Out of the two junctions Jj and J, J is thermocouple circuit
hence called cold junction.
kept at constant reference temperature and
Junction Jj is subjected to the temperature
measured which is called as hot changes to be
junction. The two wires of the
thermocouple are
generally twisted and welded together. To measure
should be heavier. But if the size of the higher temperature, the wire used
wire increases, the response time of the
thermocouple increases.So, the size of the wire is
conditions. The thermocouples can be increased considering above two
combinations like made from a
number of different metal
constantan etc
Platinum-rhodium, copper-constantan, iron-constantan, chromel-
Thecombination of metals used to form
range required to measure thermocouple depends upon the
which is shown in table 9.1. Platinum temperatur
thermocouples having high sensitivity. is used to form
output with maximum sensitivity. Copper-constantan thermocouple gives highest
Iron-constantan is most widely usd in industrial
applications which proved to be inexpensive.
higher temperature measurements Tungsten and Molybdenum are used to

AadyuwwM- Phaw
Totm-tonstehka -)0-160
M

Cotc te
JNSTRUMENTATION
9.7
Table 9.1 Thermocouples and temperatur ranges

Material used Tem perature range

Copper-constantan 270°C to 400°C
Iron-constantan -210°C to 1200°C
Chromel-Alumel 270°Cto 1370°C
Chromelconstantan -270°C to 1000°C
Platinum-rhodium 0°C to 1400°C
Tungsten-Molybdenum 0°C to 2700°C
Tungsten-Rhenium 0°C to 2600°C

The two metals or wires of thermocouples must be insulated from each other at cold
suitable materials are used like
insulating
unction. According to temperature ranges,
cotton, glass, ceramics etc. Millivoltmeter is used to read the difference between hot and
cold junctions voltages which is calibrated with temperature reading

9.3.3 S Applications of Thermocouple

be used for various purposes which are listed below:
Thermocouple can

(a) They can be applied for temperature measurements at various points.

For such purposes,
(b) They are particularly used for measuring the surface temperature.
flat flexible metal strips with
a special junction is developed consisting of two parallel test surface
a welded junction at their centre. They can be held pressed against the
by strips across a carrier.

in temperatures and used for

(c) Thermocouples are used for indicating rapid change small
because of their small heat capacity and very
localized and accessible positions
bulk local
of a device or machine to measure

(d) They can be embedded into various parts

different part of the machines. For example, winding
temperature (heating) of
temperature of machine

Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouple

34
of thermocouple are following
The advantages
construction.
a Thermocouple is rugged in
to use than resistance thermometer
t0) It is cheaper and simpler
from 250C to 2700°C.
(C) It be used for wide temperature range
can
they follow
rapid changes in temperature
as

aThey are suitable for recording time

temperature changes with a
small lag.
9.8 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(e) Its calibration can be casily checked.

thermometers.
)They have high response speed compared to filled system

(g They have good measurement accuracy and reproducibility,

(h) Long transmission distance for temperature measurement are possible using

extension leads and compensating cables.

The disadvantages of thermocouple are following:
used in temperature spans of less than about
33°C as there is
a)They cannot be
relatively small change in junction voltages with temperature
t 5 ) Stray voltage pickups is possible.
(c) The temperature voltage relationship is non-linear.
( d In many applications, amplifiers are required.
e)
For any deviation, it is required to hold cold junction temperature constant or

compensate it.
( F o r control applications, they require expensive accessories.
Example 9.1 A thermocouple is made of iron and constantan. Find the emf developed
C difference of temperature between the junctions. Given that the thermoelectric emf
of iron and constantan against platinum are +18 and 42 uvPC difference of temperature.
Solution: Emf of iron w.r.t. platinum
EF18 x 10 VPC

Emf of constantan w.rt. platinum

EC 42 x
10 VPC

Emf of platinum w.r.t. constantan

Ep"-EC42 x 106 VPC

Emf of iron-constantan junction per C difference of temperatures

EpeEfe+EP (by law of intermediate metal)

18 x 10 +42 x 10
60 VC Ans.
Example 9.2 A copper constantan thermocouple has a = 39.5 V C and = 0.005

VPC. Determine the emf developed by the thermocouple when its hot junction isat
200°C and cold junction is kept in ice.
Solution: Given a -39.5 uVPC = 39.5 x 10 VPC

B 0.005 VPC =0.005x 10 uVrC

INSTRUMENTATION 9.9

Temperature of hot junction,

T=
200 + 273= 473 K
Temperature of cold junction,
To-0+ 273 273 K
emf developed by the thermocouple
E =a (AT) +B (AT)
39.5 x 10 (473 273) +0.005x 10 (473 273)
0.0081 V Ans.

9.4 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

transducer which is also called as
Resistance temperature detector is a primary electrical
It can
resistance thermometer and used to measure the change in the temperature.
the
difference as well as for wide ranges of
be used for measurement of small temperature
temperature.

9.4.1 Working Principle of RTDD

resistance of the
the when the temperature changes the
principle that
RTD works on
increases
resistance of the certain metals
conductor changes. The electrical
utilises this property for the
to the rise of the temperature and RTD
proportionally T(°K)
variation of resistance R with the temperature
measurement of temperature. The
for most of the metals as
can given by the following relationship 9.3)
+ aT + aT + ... +alT" +
R =
Ro(1
resistance at temperature T
=
0°K
where Ro =

am constants
a1, a2, ,

be neglected
an are small. Therefore,higher order terms can
Generally, a2, a3, approximately as
Equation (9.3) can also be expressed
without much loss of accuracy.
R=Ro(1+ayA0)

temperature at 6,°C
where Ro =

temperature at 0°C
R
coefficient at 0°C
aoreSistancetemperature wire
known material, the temperature of the
the resistance of the
Hence by measuring of the metals used for
nickel and copper are the examples
can be obtained.
Platinum,
measuring temperature. so that
have a positive temperature cocfficient
metallic conductors
Generally, all the
9.10 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

their resistance increases with the increase in In a

temperature. temperature sensing
element, it is desired to have large value of a so that small change in temperature brings
a substantial change in the resistance of element. It helps in measuring small changes in

Temperature The change in resistance (AR) can be measured with the help of
whcatstone bridge. The temperature sensing clement (X) is placed in the medium whose
temperature is to be measured and connected to the leads of Wheatstone bridge as
shown in figure 9.4. The Wheatstone bridge consists four arms in which A, B and C are
constant known resistances whose values do not change with temperature and fourth arm
1s element X having high temperature coefficient of resistance. Now in balanced
Sensing
condition, no current flows through galvanometer and the ratio of resistance is given by

X (9.4)
B
When the temperature of the medium changes the resistance of X changes and bridge
becomes unbalanced which is shown by galvanometer and will give deflection which can
be calibrated with the suitable
temperature scale.

A
B
w Galvanometer

ww oe
w C gt

Power

Figure 9.4 RTD bridge circuit

94.2 Construction of RTD

Resistance elements used for sensing the temperature are
generally long, spring like wires
enclosed in a metal sheath. Porcelain insulator is used to surround
resistance element to
prevent short circuit between wire and sheath. Connecting leads are
attached to each
side of wire. Sheath is used to detect the temperature of the medium
in which it is placed
The wire inside the sheath change its resistance
according to the temperature of the
sheath. This change in resistance can be directly calibrated to indicate
the temperature
of the medium. The construction of the RTD is shown in
figure
9.5.
 INSTRUMENTATION
9.11

IZIAT}ITZITIZ IZIZ ZI ZTIZL L

Connecting
leads

ebni boot bes d lesiole

Mounting
threads
Lead support
bolls
-Sheathet
-Element dsle pl bs ie laoe cus l (
Figure 9.5 Resistance temperature detector
The sensing element should have the following properties to measure the temperature
effectively:
(a) It should exhibit relatively large change in resistance for a given change in
temperature.
on(b) It should not undergo permanent change with time.
(c) It should have lincar change in resistance with the change in temperature.
(d) It should be small in size so that less heat is required to raise its temperature and this
makes it suitable for measurement of rapid variations in temperature.
The relationship of resistance of most of the metals with temperature is linear initially and
then increases exponentially. Copper, nickel and platinum exhibit good sensitivity and
reproducibility for temperature measurement purposes Copper has the highest
temperature cocficient among these metais with the most linear dependence. It has low
resistivity and requires large size of the resistance element for reasonable sensitivity and
hence it is not used generally. Nickel and nickel alloy wires can be uscd in the
temperature range of 100 to 450 K as it is less expensive and has higher temperature
coctficient. Platinum wire is mostly used in laboratories and industries for the
measurements of high accuracy. It has inherent property of accuracy and reproducibility
which makes it best choice for many applications. It is recommended as an international
9.12 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

standard for temperature measurement because of its stable and reproducible resistance
to temperature variation.

9.4.3 Applications of RTD B

RTD is used for the following applications
(a) For temperature control in the textile industry, chemical industry and food industry.
(b) For automatic temperature control in ovens, solder pots and testing chambers.

9.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of RTD

The advantages of RTD are following

(a) RTD measures the temperature with high accuracy.
(b) They can be easily installed and replaced.
(c) They have good reproducibility and fast in response.
are

(d) RTDs can be used for wide temperature range from 200°C to 650c
(e) They are smaller in size and have stability over long periods of timne.
(f) It does not require temperature compensation.
Although, it also has following disadvantages:
(a) They are costly in comparison to others.
(b) They have large bulb size as compared to thermocouple.
(c) External power source is required for the operation of bridge circuit.
(d) It gives inaccurate results due to current flowing through the bridge circuit and hence
heats the resistance element.

9.4.5 Comparison between RTD and Thermocouple

Table 9.2
S.No. Parameters RTD
1. Measurement It measures the Thermocouple
temperature lt measures the
temperature
directly. difference between hot andd
cold junction.
AccuracCy Its accuracy is not affected Its accuracy changes with
byambient temperature. ambienttemperature.
Sensitivity Higher Lower
Range Lower Higher
Response Slower
Faster
Installation Easier Not easier
INSTRUMENTATION
9.13
Example 9.3 A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 1402 at 25°C.
Determine its resistance at 75°C. The temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum
at 25° C is 0.004 UPC. In case the resistance of the thermometer is found to be 1502,
determine the temperature.

Solution: Resistance at 25°C,

Ri = 100 Q

Temperature cocfficient of resistance at 25° C.

a 0.004 Q/QPC.
Resistance at 75° C, R2 =R\ [1 +a (-0)
R 100 [l +0.004 (75
23)1speoo d
-

= 120 2
aob
Let the temperature corresponding to the resistance of 150S2 be 0,° C.
then R3 R [1 + a (3 - 6 , )

150 = 100 [1 +0.004 (03 - 25)]

(150 1
100
or +25 150° C Ans.
0.004

Example 9,4 A copper resistor having resistance of 182 at 20° C is used to indicate the
resistance if the
temperature of bearings of a machine. Determine the limiting value of
maximum temperature of the bearing does not to exceed 175°C. The temperature
coefficient of resistance of copper at 20°C is 0.0045 /PC.

Solution: Resistance at 20° C,

R = 182

Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20° C, a =0.0045

Initial temperature 6 = 20°C.

Limiting temperature 6
=
175°C

Limiting resistance R2 =R1 [l+a (2

-

01)1
=
18 [1 +0,0045 (175 20)]
30.33 2 Ans.
0.05 over a
Example 9.5 A thermistor has temperature cocfficient of resistance of
a

resistance of thermistor at 40°C, if the

temperature range of 25°C to 50°C. Determine the
resistance of the thermistor at 25°C is 1002.
9.14 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Solution: Resistance at 25°C,

R2s 1002
Temperature coefficient of resistance over a temperature range of 25°C to 50°C is

a =0.05
Resistance at 40°C, R4o=R2s (1 +a(2 61)
R4o100 [1 0.05 (40 25)]= 1752 Ans.
Example 9.6 A thermistor has a resistance of 4,000 2 at 0°C and 8002 at 40°C. The
resistance temperature relationship is given by an expression,
R = RoaeAT

determine the constants and 8. Determine the

a
range of resistance to be measured in
case the temperature rises from 50°C to 100°C.
Solution: At temperature of 0°C:
Absolute temperature, To
273 K
Resistance, Ro= 4,0002
4000 a x 4000 e273
)
At temperature of 40°C:
Absolute temperature, T1 273 + 40 313° K
en Resistance, Ri = 8002
800= a x 4000 e313 slogior@
)
By dividing the equation () by (1i), we get
4000 -
ax4000x eB/273 nereitso
800 ax4000x eB313

or
eB/273
=

B/313
or e 273 313 = 5

or
s13= 5
take antilog

B=3,438
uSTRUMENTATION 8 9.15

Putting in cquation (), we get

3438
4000 a x 4000x e 73
3438
1=ae 273

a =3.39 x 10
Absolute temperature at 50°C = 273 + 50 323°K
e438/323
Resistance at 50°C 3.39 x 10x 4000x e

E568.72 Ans.

Res1stance at 100°C =3.39 x 10 x 4000x e35 513

Ans.
136.52
Resistance range is from 136.52 to 568.72

9.5 Strain Gauge N

resistive transducer which converts mechanical displacement
Strain gauge is a passive
used for the measurement of
into change of resistance. This type of transducer is
displacement, stress and strain etc.

9.5.1 Working Principle of Strain Gauge

conductor is strained (stretched
Strain gauges work principle that when a metal
on the
conductor is stretched or
or compressed) it
resistance changes. When a metal
as a result there is change
in resistance.
compressed its diameter and length change
of
effect. The piezo-resistive effect is change
Some metals also exhibit piezo-resistive
to strain. The strain gauges also exhibit piezo-resistive effect.
resistivity (p) due

L+AL
L

D -F F D-AD D
F
Tensile
force

(b) After being strained

(a) Before being strained

strain gauge element when subjected

9.6 Change in the dimensions of a
Figure
to a tensile-force
 9.16 BASIC ELECIRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

The deformation of the strain

gauge causes a change in resistance of the strain gauge
which is usually converted into
voltage signal. One, two or four similar strain gauges
are connected as arms of Wheatstone bridge to measure the change in resistance.
Ihe output of the strain
gauge bridge is a measure of the strain senscd by cach strain
gauge 010
Now, let us consider a strain gauge made up of a wire of length L, area A, diameter
D and the
resistivity p.
Let the tensile stress S be
applied to the wire which causes increase in
length of the
wire and decrease in area of
the wire and change in resistivity.
Let AL change in length
=
stere
AA change in arca
AD change
=
in diameter
and AR= change in resistance
The
nisie
resistance of conductor
3narnoosigetb lsoinGiosrn 2ooo is given as
p 3rtdaien gvieasq s 21 9gMBg nisie
to momo0aso od 1ot bozu
og alt onieieT 1o 9gnsrdo olm
A 310 BDe bas 229112
nomOoslgail***.
differentiate cquation (9.5) with respect to S, we get anbhoW
bodotota) bunite 2r o30bao to dR p dL plL L.e.e
10 boroaue 1ooubsoo Ion dAL dp1o how 20gusg
301
ds A dS A2 ds A dS (bo2esiqmo9 e
9gEdo iignol bru 1913/mctb 21 10g9.6)
to oe Dividing equation (9.6) by R. we get
vibeveo-osoig boe21qtt09
1osfto oviaizo-oorg dR tididro oals aletorm omo2
1 dR =
P dl pl. dA L do ub (o) irieies
RdS AR dS AR dS AR dS ..(9.7)
pL
Putting R =

A
in cquation (9.7), we get

slenol
1 dR
P d pl dA L
Rds dp
icsie gnisd votl A(d)
le gnbd 1olsf (s)
boliojdiz node nonuoly sgusg9
1 dR
R ds
RdS
1d1 dAd
Lds Ads
-+
9gngl d.e swgi....(9.8)
dS pS
ds
03
 INSTRUMENTATION
9.17

From the cquation (9.8). it is clear that per unit change in resistance dR IS due to
R
following
nesof ro
) per unit change in length d
L loo1.
SIST
(i) per unit change in area =

(1)
(1) per unit change in resistivity= dp
P

Now, Area is given by A= S

(L) where r radius of wire

diameter
.
ey obupo tnoit
2

A= mD/2),

(.0
or (9.9)
gusg eTe to sostere 9g to 9ulsr oifh 2orig oitnopo svods ol
Differentiate equation (9.9) with respect to S, we getnotog 3uehog sal

dA (2D) ondde bro trecel cgn...(9.10)

Dividing cquation (9.10) by A, we get

1 dA T D dD

(01 9 A dS 2 A dS

TD dD
2 D ds

1 dA 2 dD
(9.11)
A dS D ds
dA
from cquation (9.11) into (9.8), we get
PuttingA dS
Putting
 9.18 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERN

1 dR 1 dL 2 dD dp t
R dS L dS D dS p ds
9.
Now, Poisson's ratio

Lateral strain dD/D

Longitudin al strain dlLIL

dD
F

D .9.13)
Multiply equation (9.12) by dS, we get
dR d dD dp
R L D P 9.14)
dD
Putting from equation (9.13) into (9.14), we get
D

dR
d 2a d
RL (9.15)
The above equation
gives the value of per unit
change in resistance of
The important a strain gauge.
performance parameter a stran
of
gauge is gauge factor.
Gauge Factor: This is defined as the ratio of
OE2 change in per unit change in resistance to per unit
length and it is abbreviated
by G
dRIR
G dLI L
dR G = G e
R
....(9.16)

where
& strain=

Dividing cquation (9.15) by dl

We get

dR/R
dLIT +20+p/p
dL/L spe mot
INSTRUMENTATION 9.19

G = 1 +2 a + p l p
...(9.17)

G 20 dplp
Resistance Resistance
change due to change due Resistance
change of length to change in area change due
to piezores1stive
effect

Equation (9.17) is valid when piezo-resistive effect exists. However, if a strain gauge do
not have piezo-resistive property, the third term of the equation reduces to zero.

Example 9.7 A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor of 4 is fastened to a steel
member which is subjected to a strain of 2 x 100. If the original value of the resistance
is 1502, calculate the value of change in resistance.
Solution: Given R=1502

AL
strain= =2 x106
L
gauge factor = 4

We know that

AR/R
gauge factor =

AL/L

ARIR
4 AL/L

AR4
R

AL
AR =4xRx
L

AR =4x 150x 2 x 100

AR= 1200 Q Ans.
Example 9.8 Calculate the gauge factor if a 1.5 mm diameter conductor and 24 mm long
changes length by 1 mm and diameter by 0.02 mm under a compressive foree of 10
Amicrostrain. Find the new resistance of the wire if the nominal resistance is 100 Q
 9.20 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERIM

Solution: Given D= 1.5 mm

AD=-0.02 mm
L 24 mm
AL = 1 mm
sulers R= 100 2
ab go
Now, we know that rtoof gtol lo ogrrie

Gauge G= 1+2a +P
factor, G
Gauge factor,
ae ALIL nof bilsy ai (i9) noiaup
Ifwe neglect the Ap then to rol biidd on ogoiq odereg-osoiq ovsrd 1on
oote s o1 bonstest ato 10t 9 G-1+2 l e somsteeot A T.e sfqmez8
9ons7ez1 or to sis ipuigno odi l a o botoojdue 2i doirly 1odmom
Now, eAD/Dseo 1o oulsu seb otsluoleo 2021 2i
ALIL orid oihulo

0.02
5
101961 gusg
24

O= +0.32
So, the gauge factor G-1 +20
G=1 +2 x 0.32

G-1.64
Now, finally know that
ARIR
we

GyLIL
AR GTAL
R

AR RxG, x
24 303 A
AR 100x1.64 x g olh otsiole) 8.2 slqgmex
24 brs itnvd digrel
AR=6.84 Q gnsteiA
Ans.
 lusTRUMENTATION RAR EEn 9.21
Example 9.9 A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter with
the gauge factor is 2. Neglecting the piczoclectric resistive effect. Calculate the Poisson
ratio. O000
Solution: Given G 2
We know the equation of gauge factor

91A 4plpo
= 1+2o+
O E

If piezoelectric effect is neglected then 93101,

sol bobnod 2 to 1o10st 9gus8 G-142 eoi sonpteieo A 11.e sigmez
eiloote to ioieslo to 2uluborm onfT M 081 to 22311e s ot brajdualou e lost2
Qb 9ortsieies d to oulsr ort m
m G r 2-19 orf ohaliole) mVo 00
Poisson ratio0, 2e011e boiiqqs ordt o
2 2

O 0.5 Ans.
Example 9.10 A single strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.5 m long and has a cross
section arca 6 cm,. Young modulus for steel is 200 GN/m*. The strain gauge has
unstrained resistance of 2502 and gauge factor of 4. When a load is applied, the
resistance of gauge changes by 0.0132. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam
and the amount of force applied to the beam.
Solution: Given AR 0.013 2
R 250 2gos
L= 0.5 m

G= 4
d tovig 2t 9011stete1 9gUsg tn 9gnsi0

Young's modulus =
200

ARIR
We know that G LIL
AL ARIR
LT G

AL =
0.013/250
0.5
4
AL6.5 x 10m Ans.
9.22 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEEPI
EERING
Strain
Now Stress Young's modulus

200x 10 x6.5 x 10
0.5

= 2.6 x 10 N/m o otepe pdt rool o

Area
Force =Stress
2.6x 10° x 6 x 10

Force= 1560 N Ans.

Example 9.11 A resistance wire strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is bonded to0a
steel structure subjected to a stress of 180 MN/m. The modulus of elasticity of steel is
200 GNm*. Calculate the percentage change in the value of the gauge resistance due
to the applied stress.
Solution: Given S=180x 10
E= 200 x 10

G-2dt 2afborr geo so13 noilo

By Hook's law, we have

180x10 900 x 10-6 gor oiskoe

200x10

Change in gauge resistance is given by

2.0
AR/R
G NLIL
AR
R -G,
2 x 900x 10
R

AR
= 1,8 x 10-3

AR
R
0.18%%