MTH 101 (Elementary Mathematics I)

2022/2023 Session

Module 3.1- Operations with Real Numbers

Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3

Olawanle LAYENI Link

Enoch Adejare Adeboye Professorial Chair

Department of Mathematics,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
220005 ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

November 23-24, 2023

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Table of Contents

2 L ECTURE 2

1 Lecture 1 Useful Polynomial Identities

Introduction Two Partial Fractions Identities

Notable Subsets of R More Polynomial Identities

Operations on R The Absolute Value

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Hello Dictionary!

Real number noun

Kid’s Definition
: a number that is rational or
irrational.

Merriam-Webster Link

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I NTRODUCTION I

The set of real numbers, denoted by R, is the union of the disjoint sets of rational
numbers and irrational numbers.

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Introduction II

A shape of the constitution of the set of real numbers, like that of any set, can
be garnered from those of its subsets.

In order to have an insight into this shape, we shall consider the following
subsets of the set of real numbers R: The set of natural numbers, the set of
integers, the set of rational numbers, and the set of irrational numbers.

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The Set of Natural Numbers

This is the set of numbers often called, “the counting numbers,” that is denoted by
N:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} . (1)

The ellipsis in Eq.(1) is meant to imply that the cardinality of the set of natural
numbers is infinite.

The set of natural numbers N is countably infinite.

The set of natural numbers is the archetype of countable sets.

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The Set of Integers I
The set of integers, denoted by Z, is the union

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ N (2)

otherwise written as

{. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} ∪ {0} ∪ {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} , (3)

which is
n o
. . . , −6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . . (4)

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The Set of Integers II

The set {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1} deployed in the definition above is often
referred to as the set of negative integers and denoted by Z− .

N is also often referred to as Z+ .

Z is countably infinite.

Z = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ N = Z− ∪ { 0 } ∪ Z+ .

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The Set of Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers, denoted by Q, is the set of real numbers that admit
the form
a
(5)
b
where both a and b are integers, b nonzero.

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The Set of Rational Numbers, Illustration

Example 1:

2
is a rational number.
3

1
0.25 is a rational number: It is the terminating decimal form of .
4

2
0.6666 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
3

23
0.6969 . . . is a rational number: It is the recurring decimal of .
33

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The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued

Every recurring or terminating decimal

is a rational number.

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The Set of Rational Numbers: Continued
The decimal forms of rational numbers either present as terminating decimals (for
example 0.12568) or as recurring decimals (for example 0.725972597259 . . . or
0.69696969 . . .).

Example 2:

a
0.12568 expressible in the form , b ̸= 0, a, b ∈ Z, by writing
b
12568 1571
0.12568 = = .
100000 12500

a
0.72597259 . . . is likewise expressible in the form . Let y = 0.72597259 . . ..
b
Since the length of the recurring digits is 4, multiply y by 104 to have

10000y = 7259.72597259 . . . = 7259 + 0.72597259 . . .

7259
= 7259 + y ; 9999y = 7259 ; y = .
9999

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Set of Irrational Numbers, 1

Irrational numbers are real numbers which are not rational

and therefore CANNOT be expressed in the form
a
b
where a, b ∈ Z, b nonzero.

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Set of Irrational Numbers, 2

The set of irrational numbers Q′ is the complement of the set Q of rational

numbers in the set R of real numbers:

Q′ : = R − Q

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Set of Irrational Numbers- Examples

Example 3 (Examples of irrational numbers)

π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

√ √ √
p, p a prime number, examples of which are 2 and 11.

e, Napier’s constant: The base of natural logarithms, defined by

n
e = lim 1 + n1 .
n→ ∞

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Inclusion of Subsets of the Set of Real Numbers

The infinite subsets of the set of real numbers Q, Z, N are related through the
proper inclusion

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R (6)

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Operations on R, Commutativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(1a) Commutativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + y = y + x;

and

(1b) Commutativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × y = y × x.

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Operations on R, Associativity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers. Then

(2a) Associativity with respect to the + operation holds: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z;

and

(2b) Associativity with respect to the × operation holds: x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z.

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Operations on R, Distributivity

Let x, y, z be any real numbers . Then

(3) Distributivity of multiplication over addition holds:

x × (y + z)
=⇒
= x×y+x×z
| {z }
Left distributivity of × over +

= y×x+z×x =
| {z }
Right distributivity of × over +

(y + z) × x
⇐=

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Operations on R : An Example

Example 4
!
1 1 1 1
(4 × 6 × 10 × 14) + + + = 60 × 14 + 40 × 14 + 24 × 14 + 24 × 10 =
4 6 10 14
(60 + 40)14 + 24(14 + 10) = 100 × 14 + 242 =
| {z } | {z }
due to right distributivity due to left distributivity
of × operation on R over + of × operation on R over +

1400 + 576 = 1976 .

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A Fine Perspective of (R, +, ×)
The set of real numbers is a field on which the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication (×) are defined such that for a, b ∈ R, there exists unique a × b and
a + b in R for which the following operations holds for elements a, b, c of R:

Commutativity: +: a + b = b + a ; ×: a × b = b × a ,

Associativity: +: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c ; ×: a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c ,

Unique Identity: +: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 0 ∈ R: 0 + a = a ; ×: ∀ a ∈ R , ∃ 1 ∈ R:
1×a = a,

1
Unique Inverse: +: ∀ a ∈ R, ∃ − a s.t. a + (−a) = 0 ; ×: ∀ 0 ̸= a ∈ R, ∃ s.t.
  a
1
× a = 1 , A ND
a

Distributivity of multiplication × over addition +.

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Table of Contents

2 L ECTURE 2

1 Lecture 1 Useful Polynomial Identities

Introduction Two Partial Fractions Identities

Notable Subsets of R More Polynomial Identities

Operations on R The Absolute Value

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Operations on R- Useful Identities Ia

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

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Operations on R- Useful Identities Ib
Example 5:
2911729342
Question: Simplify .
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2

Answer:
2911729342
2911729332 + 2911729352 − 2
2911729342
=
(2911729332 − 1) + (2911729352 − 1)
| {z } | {z }
Difference of two squares Difference of two squares

2911729342
=
(291172934)(291172932) + (291172934)(291172936)
2911729342 1
= )= .
(291172934)(291172932
|
+ 291172936}
{z
2
2×291172934
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Operations on R- Useful Identities Ic
Example 6:
Question: Let a, b be real numbers such that a ̸= −b. Simplify
a6 − b6
.
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )

Answer:

a6 − b6
(a3 + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 )2 − (b3 )2
= 3 a6 − b6 is a difference of two squares
(a + b3 )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a3 − b3 ) 3+
(a 3)
b
= 3 3
b )(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a+ 

(a3 − b3 )
= = a−b .
(a2 + ab + b2 )
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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIa

For nonzero real numbers x and m, x not taking values −1 or −m, the following
partial fraction identities hold respectively.

1 1 1
= −
x(x + 1) x (x + 1)
 
1 1 1 1
= −
x(x + m) m x x+m

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIb
Example 7
Question: Let k be a nonzero real number which does not take values −1 or −2.
1
Express as partial fractions.
k(k + 1)(k + 2)

Answer:
1
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
   
1 1 1 1 1
= = −
k (k + 1)(k + 2) k k+1 k+2
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − − −
k (k + 1) k (k + 2) k k+1 2 k k+2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
= − + = − + .
2 k k + 1 2(k + 2) 2 k k+1 k+2

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIa

Some generalizations of the aforegiven identities are the following. Let a, b be real
numbers.

(a − b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b2 ) = a4 − b4

(a − b)(a4 + a3 b + a2 b2 + ab3 + b4 ) = a5 − b5
..
.
 
(a − b) an−1 + an−2 b + . . . + abn−2 + bn−1 = an − bn , for all n ∈ N

 
(a + b) an−1 − an−2 b + . . . − abn−2 + bn−1 = an + bn , for odd n ∈ N

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb
Example 8
1 1
Question: Let x + = 5, x a nonzero real number. Find the value of x3 + 3 .
x x

Answer (i):
 3
3 1 3 1
x + 3 = x +
x x
| {z }
1
Form a3 + b3 a:=x , b:=
x
   2 !
1 1 1
= x+ x2 − x × +
x x x
| {z }
(a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIb Continued

 
 
   2 
1  2
 1 
= x+ x + −1
x 
 x 

 | {z } 
2 2
Form a + b
  
  
    
1 2
 
1   1  
= x+  x + −2×x×  − 1
  
x  x x  
 | {z }  
  
2 2 2
a + b = (a + b) − 2ab

= 5([52 − 2] − 1) = 5(23 − 1) = 5(22) = 110 .

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc

Example 8
Question: Suppose that the real numbers x and y satisfy the system of equations
(
x+y = 6
x2 + y2 = 29 .

Calculate (i) xy , (ii) x3 + y3 .

Answer (i): From the identity (x + y)2 − 2xy = x2 + y2 , one observes that
1  1 2  1
xy = (x + y)2 − (x2 + y2 ) = 6 − 29 = 3 .
2 | {z } | {z } 2 2
6 29

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Operations on R- Useful Identities IIIc Continued

Answer (ii): The value of the sum of cubes x3 + y3 can be calculated through the
identity
x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y2 )

7
Since x3 + y3 = (x + y)((x2 + y2 ) − xy); xy = ; x + y = 6; and x2 + y2 = 29, then
    2
3 3 7 51
x + y = (6) (29) − =6 = 153 .
2 2

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Absolute Value of a Real Number

The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is defined as


x
 x>0
|x| = 0 x=0

−x x < 0.


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Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ia

Let x, y, and λ be real numbers, m ∈ N. Then,

|λx| = |λ||x| ,

|x| = |y| if and only if x = y or x = −y ,

| xm | = | x | m ,

x |x|
= , y ̸= 0.
y |y|

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Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ib-
Examples
Example 9
|x + |x||
Question: Let x be a nonzero real number. Simplify g(x) := .
x

Answer: We shall two cases for x: (i) x > 0, and (ii) x < 0).

Case (i): x > 0: In this instance, |x| = x, and as such x + |x| = x + x = 2x; and
x + |x| 2x
x + |x| = |2x| = 2x . Therefore g(x) = = = 2
x x

Case (ii): x < 0: In this case, |x| = −x and therefore x + |x| = x − x = 0.

x + |x| 0
Therefore g(x) = = = 0.
x x
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Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Ic-
Examples
Example 10
|x| − 3x
Question: If x < 0, find the value of .
7

Answer: Since x < 0, |x| = −x by definition. This means that

−x −3x
|x| − 3x
| {z }
Note that |x|=−x if x<0
=
7 7
4
= − x .
7

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Some Properties of the Absolute Value of Real Numbers Id-
Examples
Example 11
Question: Let x, y, z be distinct real numbers such that
1
(2x − 4)2 + (y − 9) + z − 3 = 0 .
4
Find the value x10 + yz .

Answer:

1
Since each of (2x − 4)2 , 4 (y − 9) , or z − 3 is positive and their sum is zero,
they each must be zero.

Then 2x − 4 = 0, y − 9 = 0, z − 3 = 0. That is, x = 2, y = 9, and z = 3.

x10 + yz = 210 + 9 × 3 = 1024 + 27 = 1051 .

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End of Lectures 1 and 2, Module 3

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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