CHAPTER 14 :

URINARY SYSTEM
Functions of the Urinary System
• Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine
– Nitrogenous wastes
– Toxins
– Drugs
– Excess ions
• Kidneys’ regulatory functions include:
– Production of renin to maintain blood pressure
– Production of erythropoietin to stimulate red
blood cell production
– Conversion of vitamin D to its active form
Organs of the Urinary System

• Kidneys

• Ureters

• Urinary bladder

• Urethra
Figure 15.1a Organs of the Urinary System (1
of 2)
Kidneys (1 of 7)
• Location and structure
– Retroperitoneal position (behind the
parietal peritoneum)
–Level of the T12 – L3 Vertebrae
–The right kidney is slightly lower
than the left (because of position of
the liver)
Figure 15.1b Organs of the Urinary
System
Kidneys (2 of 7)
• Kidney structure
– An adult kidney is about 12 c m (5 in ) long
enti eters ches

and 6 c m (2.5 in ) wide

enti eters ches

– Renal hilum
• A medial indentation where several
structures enter or exit the kidney
(ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
– An adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
Kidneys (3 of 7)
• Kidney structure

– Three protective layers enclose the kidney

• Fibrous capsule encloses each kidney
• Perirenal fat capsule surrounds the kidney
and cushions against blows
• Renal fascia is the most superficial layer that
anchors the kidney and adrenal gland to
surrounding structures
Kidneys (4 of 7)
• Kidney structure
– Three regions revealed in a longitudinal
section
1. Renal cortex—outer region
2. Renal medulla—deeper region
–Renal (medullary) pyramids—triangular
regions of tissue in the medulla

–Renal columns—extensions of cortexlike

material that separate the pyramids
Kidneys (5 of 7)
• Kidney structure
– Three regions
3.Renal pelvis—medial region that is a
flat, funnel-shaped tube
–Calyces form cup-shaped ―drains‖ that
enclose the renal pyramids
–Calyces collect urine and send it to the
renal pelvis, on to the ureter, and to the
urinary bladder for storage
Figure 15.2a Internal Anatomy of the Kidney
Figure 15.2b Internal Anatomy of the Kidney (1 of
2)
Kidneys (6 of 7)
• Blood supply

– One-quarter of the total blood supply of the

body passes through the kidneys each minute

– Renal
– artery provides each kidney with arterial
blood supply
Renal artery divides into segmental arteries 
interlobar arteries  arcuate arteries  cortical
radiate arteries
Kidneys (7 of 7)
• Venous blood flow
Cortical radiate veins  arcuate veins  interlobar veins
–
 renal vein

– There are no segmental veins

– Renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena
cava
Figure 15.2b Internal Anatomy of the Kidney
(2 of 2)
Figure 15.2c Internal Anatomy of the Kidney
Nephrons (1 of 7)
• Structural and functional units of the kidneys

• Each kidney contains over a million nephrons

• Each nephron consists of two main structures

1. Renal corpuscle

2. Renal tubule
Figure 15.3a Structure of the Nephron (1 of 3)
Nephrons (2 of 7)
• Renal corpuscle consists of:
1. Glomerulus, a knot of capillaries made of podocytes
• Podocytes make up the inner (visceral) layer of the
glomerular capsule
– Foot processes cling to the glomerulus
– Filtration slits create a porous membrane—ideal
for filtration
2. Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule is a cup-
shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus
• First part of the renal tubule
Figure 15.3c Structure of the Nephron (1 of 2)
Figure 15.3d Structure of the Nephron
Nephrons (3 of 7)
• Renal tubule
– Extends from glomerular capsule and ends when
it empties into the collecting duct
– From the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule, the
subdivisions of the renal tubule are:

1. Proximal convoluted tubule (P C T)

2. Nephron loop (loop of Henle)

3. Distal convoluted tubule (D CT)

Figure 15.3a Structure of the Nephron (2 of 3)
Figure 15.3b Structure of the Nephron (1 of 2)
Nephrons (4 of 7)
• Cortical nephrons
– Located entirely in the cortex
– Include most nephrons

• Juxtamedullary nephrons
– Found at the cortex-medulla junction
– Nephron loop dips deep into the medulla
• Collecting ducts collect urine from both types of nephrons,
through the renal pyramids, to the calyces, and then to the
renal pelvis
Figure 15.3a Structure of the Nephron (3 of 3)
Nephrons (5 of 7)
• Two capillary beds associated with each
nephron

1. Glomerulus

2. Peritubular capillary bed

Nephrons (6 of 7)
• Glomerulus
– Fed and drained by arterioles
• Afferent arteriole—arises from a cortical radiate artery
and feeds the glomerulus
• Efferent arteriole—receives blood that has passed
through the glomerulus

– Specialized for filtration

– High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and

into the glomerular capsule
Figure 15.3c Structure of the Nephron (2 of
2)
Nephrons (7 of 7)
• Peritubular capillary beds
– Arise from the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
– Low-pressure, porous capillaries
– Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
– Cling close to the renal tubule to receive solutes
and water from tubule cells

Drain into the cortical radiate veins  arcuate veins 

interlobar veins
Figure 15.3b Structure of the Nephron (2 of
2)
 Urine Formation and Characteristics (1 of 11)
• Urine formation is the result of three processes

1. Glomerular filtration

2. Tubular reabsorption

3. Tubular secretion
Figure 15.4 The Kidney Depicted Schematically as a
Single Large, Uncoiled Nephron
Concept Link 1
Recall that filtration, as a passive process,
requires a pressure gradient (Chapter 3, p. 98).
The capillaries of the glomerulus are under
higher pressure compared to the glomerular
capsule; as a result, fluids move down the
pressure gradient, from the blood into the
glomerular capsule.
Urine Formation and Characteristics (2 of 11)
• Glomerular filtration
– The glomerulus is a filter
– Filtration is a nonselective passive process
• Water and solutes smaller than proteins are
forced through glomerular capillary walls
• Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to
pass through the filtration membrane

• Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate

• Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule
Urine Formation and Characteristics (3 of 11)
• Glomerular filtration
– Filtrate will be formed as long as systemic blood
pressure is normal

• If arterial blood pressure is too low, filtrate

formation stops because glomerular pressure
will be too low to form filtrate
Urine Formation and Characteristics (4 of 11)
• Tubular reabsorption
– The peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful
substances from the renal tubule cells, such as:
• Water
• Glucose
• Amino acids
• Ions
– Some reabsorption is passive; most is active (AT
P)
– Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule
Figure 15.5 Sites of Filtration, Reabsorption, and
Secretion in a Nephron (1 of 2)
 Urine Formation and Characteristics (5 of 11)

• Tubular secretion
– Reabsorption in reverse
– Some materials move from the blood of
the peritubular capillaries into the renal
tubules to be eliminated in filtrate
• Hydrogen and potassium ions
• Creatinine
Urine Formation and Characteristics (6 of 11)
• Tubular secretion
– Secretion is important for:
• Getting rid of substances not already in the
filtrate
• Removing drugs and excess ions
• Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
– Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the
ureter
Concept Link 2
Recall that pH is a measure of free hydrogen ion

concentration (see Chapter 2, p. 62). When the body

has a high level of free hydrogen ions, which can
lower p H, the kidneys help by eliminating excess
hydrogen ions from the body via the urine.
Urine Formation and Characteristics (7 of 11)
• Nitrogenous wastes
– Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed,
if at all
– Tend to remain in the filtrate and are excreted from
the body in the urine
• Urea—end product of protein breakdown
• Uric acid—results from nucleic acid metabolism
• Creatinine—associated with creatine metabolism
in muscles
Figure 15.5 Sites of Filtration, Reabsorption, and
Secretion in a Nephron (2 of 2)
Urine Formation and Characteristics (8 of 11)
• In 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
• Urine and filtrate are different
– Filtrate contains everything that blood plasma does

(except proteins)
– Urine is what remains after the filtrate has lost most of its
water, nutrients, and necessary ions through
reabsorption
– Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances that
are not needed
Urine Formation and Characteristics (9 of 11)
• Urine characteristics
– Clear and pale to deep yellow in color
– Yellow color is normal and due to the pigment
urochrome (from the destruction of
hemoglobin) and solutes
• Dilute urine is a pale, straw color
– Sterile at the time of formation
– Slightly aromatic, but smells like ammonia with
time
– Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
– Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
Urine Formation and Characteristics (10 of 11)
• Solutes normally found in urine

– Sodium and potassium ions

– Urea, uric acid, creatinine

– Ammonia

– Bicarbonate ions
Urine Formation and Characteristics (11 of 11)
• Solutes not normally found in urine
– Glucose
– Blood proteins
– Red blood cells
– Hemoglobin
– W B Cs (pus)
– Bile
Table 15.1 Abnormal Urinary Constituents
Substance Name of condition Possible causes
Glucose Glycosuria (gli‖ko-su’re-ah) Nonpathological: Excessive intake
sugary foods
of

Pathological: Diabetes mellitus

Proteins Proteinuria (pro‖te-˘ı-nu’re-ah) Nonpathological:

pregnancy
Physical exertion,

(also called albuminuria) Pathological: Glomerulonephritis,

hypertension

Pus (W B Cs and Pyuria (pi-u’re-ah) Urinary tract infection

bacteria)
R B Cs Hematuria (he‖mah-tu’re-ah) Bleeding in the urinary tract (due to
trauma, kidney stones, infection)

Hemoglobin Hemoglobinuria Various: Transfusion reaction, hemolytic

(he‖mo-glo-b˘ı-nu’re-ah) anemia

Bile pigment Bilirubinuria (bil″˘ı-roo-b˘ı-nu′re- Liver disease (hepatitis)

ah)
Ureters
• Slender tubes 25–30 c m enti eters (10–12 inches)
attaching the kidney to the urinary bladder
– Continuous with the renal pelvis
– Enter the posterior aspect of the urinary
bladder
– Run behind the peritoneum
• Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
Figure 15.1a Organs of the Urinary System (2
of 2)
Figure 15.6 Basic Structure of the Female Urinary
Bladder and Urethra (1 of 4)
Urinary Bladder (1 of 3)
• Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac situated posterior to the
pubic symphysis

• Stores urine temporarily

• Trigone—triangular region of the urinary bladder base
based on three openings
– Two openings from the ureters (ureteral orifices)
– One opening to the urethra (internal urethral orifice)
• In males, the prostate surrounds the neck of the urinary
bladder
Figure 15.6 Basic Structure of the Female
Urinary Bladder and Urethra (2 of 4)
Urinary Bladder (2 of 3)
• Wall of the urinary bladder
– Three layers of smooth muscle collectively
called the detrusor muscle
– Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
– Walls are thick and folded in an empty urinary
bladder
– Urinary bladder can expand significantly
without increasing internal pressure
Urinary Bladder (3 of 3)
• Capacity of the urinary bladder

– A moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long

and holds about 500 m l of urine
illi iters

– Capable of holding twice that amount of urine

Figure 15.7 Position and Shape of a Distended and
an Empty Urinary Bladder in an Adult Male
Urethra (1 of 3)
• Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the
urinary bladder to the outside of the body by
peristalsis

• Function

– Females—carries only urine

– Males—carries urine and sperm

Urethra (2 of 3)
• Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters

1. Internal urethral sphincter

• Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
• Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle
Figure 15.6 Basic Structure of the Female
Urinary Bladder and Urethra (3 of 4)
Urethra (3 of 3)
• Length

– In females: 3 to 4 c m (1.5 inches long)

enti eters

– In males: 20 c m (8 inches long)

enti eters

• Location

– Females—anterior to the vaginal opening

– Males—travels through the prostate and penis

• Prostatic urethra

• Membranous urethra

• Spongy urethra
Figure 15.6 Basic Structure of the Female
Urinary Bladder and Urethra (4 of 4)
Micturition (1 of 2)
• Micturition
– Voiding, or emptying of the urinary bladder
– Two sphincters control the release of urine, the internal
urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter

• Bladder collects urine to 200 m l illi iters

• Stretch receptors transmit impulses to the sacral region of the

spinal cord
• Impulses travel back to the bladder via the pelvic splanchnic
nerves to cause bladder contractions
Micturition (2 of 2)
• When contractions become stronger, urine is
forced past the involuntary internal sphincter
into the upper urethra

• Urge to void is felt

• The external sphincter is voluntarily

controlled, so micturition can usually be
delayed
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance (1 of 2)
• Blood composition depends on three factors

1. Diet

2. Cellular metabolism

3. Urine output
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance (2 of 2)
• Kidneys have four roles in maintaining blood
composition

1. Excreting nitrogen-containing wastes

(previously discussed)

2. Maintaining water balance of the blood

3. Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood

4. Ensuring proper blood pH

Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (1 of 7)
• Normal amount of water in the human body
– Young adult females = 50%
– Young adult males = 60%
– Babies = 75%
– The elderly = 45%
• Water is necessary for many body functions,
and levels must be maintained
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (2 of
7)

• Water occupies three main fluid compartments

1. Intracellular fluid (I C F)
• Fluid inside cells
• Accounts for two-thirds of body fluid
2. Extracellular fluid (E CF)
• Fluids outside cells; includes blood plasma,
interstitial fluid (IF), lymph, and transcellular fluid
3. Plasma (blood) is ECF, but accounts for 3L of total
iters

body water.
• Links external and internal environments
(Figure 15.9)
Figure 15.8 The Major Fluid Compartments of
the Body
Figure 15.9 The Continuous Mixing of Body
Fluids
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (3 of 7)

• The link between water and electrolytes

– Electrolytes are charged particles (ions)

that conduct electrical current in an
aqueous solution

– Sodium, potassium, and calcium ions are

electrolytes
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (4 of 7)
• Regulation of water intake and output
– Water intake must equal water output if the body
is to remain properly hydrated
– Sources for water intake
• Ingested foods and fluids
• Water produced from metabolic processes
(10%)
– Thirst mechanism is the driving force for water
intake
Figure 15.10 Water Intake and Output
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (5 of 7)
• Thirst mechanism

– Osmoreceptors are sensitive cells in the

hypothalamus that become more active in reaction to
small changes in plasma solute concentration

– When activated, the thirst center in the hypothalamus

is notified

– A dry mouth due to decreased saliva also promotes the

thirst mechanism

– Both reinforce the drive to drink

Figure 15.11 The Thirst Mechanism for
Regulating Water Intake
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (6 of 7)

• Sources of water output

–Lungs (insensible since we cannot

sense the water leaving)

–Perspiration

–Feces

–Urine
Maintaining Water Balance of the Blood (7 of
7)

• Hormones are primarily responsible for

reabsorption of water and electrolytes by the
kidneys

– Antidiuretic hormone (A D H) prevents

excessive water loss in the urine and
increases water reabsorption

– A D H targets the kidney’s collecting ducts

Maintaining Electrolyte Balance
• Small changes in electrolyte concentrations cause
water to move from one fluid compartment to
another
• A second hormone, aldosterone, helps regulate
blood composition and blood volume by acting on
the kidney
– For each sodium ion reabsorbed, a chloride ion
follows, and a potassium ion is secreted into the
filtrate
– Water follows salt: when sodium is reabsorbed,
water follows it passively back into the blood
Electrolyte Balance (1 of 2)
• Renin-angiotensin mechanism
– Most important trigger for aldosterone release

– Mediated by the juxtaglomerular (J G)

apparatus of the renal tubules

– When cells of the JG apparatus are stimulated

by low blood pressure, the enzyme renin is

released into blood
Electrolyte Balance (2 of 2)
• Renin-angiotensin mechanism
– Renin catalyzes reactions that produce angiotensin II
– Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and

aldosterone release
– Result is increase in blood volume and
blood pressure
Figure 15.12 Flowchart of Mechanisms Regulating Sodium Ion
and Water Balance to Help Maintain Blood Pressure
Homeostasis
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance of Blood (1 of
8)

• Blood p H must remain between 7.35 and

7.45 to maintain homeostasis

–Alkalosis—p H above 7.45

–Acidosis—p H below 7.35

–Physiological acidosis—p H between 7.0

and 7.35
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance of Blood (2
of 8)

• Kidneys play greatest role in maintaining

acid-base balance

• Other acid-base controlling systems

– Blood buffers

– Respiration
Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System (1
of 4)

• The kidneys begin to develop in the first few weeks of

embryonic life and are excreting urine by the third
month of fetal life
• Common congenital abnormalities include polycystic
kidney and hypospadias
• Common urinary system problems in children and
young to middle-aged adults include infections caused
by fecal microorganisms, microorganisms causing
sexually transmitted infections, and Streptococcus
Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System
(2 of 4)

• Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not

start until age 18 months
• Complete nighttime control may not occur until the
child is 4 years old
• Urinary tract infections (U T Is) are the only common
problems before old age

– Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium, accounts

for 80 percent of U T Is
Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System (3
of 4)

• Renal failure is an uncommon but serious problem in

which the kidneys are unable to concentrate urine,
and dialysis must be done to maintain chemical
homeostasis of blood

• With age, filtration rate decreases and tubule cells

become less efficient at concentrating urine, leading
to urgency, frequency, and incontinence

• In men, urinary retention is another common problem

Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System (4
of 4)

• Problems associated with aging

– Urgency—feeling that it is necessary to void
– Frequency—frequent voiding of small amounts of urine
– Nocturia—need to get up during the night to urinate
– Incontinence—loss of control
– Urinary retention—common in males, often the result of
hypertrophy of the prostate gland
END