CEE 522: Bridge Design 2023/2024 SESSION TYPES OF BRIDGES 1

3.0 BRIDGE DESIGN FACTORS

3.1 Bridges form an integral part of the transportation network of any society and
thus their design should and must consider several factors that may have a short or
long-term effect on them. These factors to be considered in the design of bridges
are presented in the subsequent section of this note.

3.1 General bridge design consideration

Design of bridge structures should be in accordance with requirements established by
the owner, adapted to the geometric conditions of the site and in accordance with
the structural provisions of the applicable codes and specifications. The geometry of
the superstructure is dictated by the specified route alignment and the required
clearances above and below the roadway. These requirements are in turn directly
related to the type of traffic to be carried on the bridge deck, as well as that passing
under the bridge and, when the site is near an airport, low flying aircraft. Thus,
geometric requirements, in general, will be dependent on whether the bridge is to
carry pedestrian, highway, railway, transit, or airplane traffic and whether it is to cross
over a navigable body of water, a highway, a railway, or a transit route.

Drainage, lighting, and snow removal requirements should also be considered in the
geometric design of the superstructure. Once the overall geometry of the
superstructure has been established, it should be designed to meet structural
requirements. These should always include considerations of strength, serviceability,
stability, fatigue, and durability.

3.2 Functional considerations

The following functional considerations based on highway bridges must be taken into
account:
a) Width

The roadway width (curb-to-curb, rail-to-rail, or parapet-to-parapet distance) is

dependent on the number of traffic lanes, the median width, and the shoulder width.
The preferred roadway width should be at least that distance between approach
guardrails, where guardrails are provided, or the out-to-out approach roadway, and
shoulder width.

Reduced widths are sometimes permitted where structure costs are unusually high or

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traffic volumes unusually low. Where curbed roadway sections approach a structure,
the same section should be carried across the structure.

b) Clearances

The horizontal vehicular clearance should be the clear width measured between
curbs or sidewalks, and the vertical clearance should be the clear height for the
passage of vehicular traffic measured above the roadway at the crown or high point
of super-elevation. Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the structure should
be constructed to secure the following limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic:

i. The minimum horizontal clearance for low traffic speed and low traffic volume
bridges should be 2.4 m greater than the approach travelled way. The clearance
should be increased as speed, type, and volume of traffic dictate.

ii. Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and interstate systems in rural and urban
areas should be at least 5 m over the entire roadway width, to which an allowance
should be added for resurfacing. Vertical clearance on all other highways should be
at least 4.25 m over the entire roadway width to which an allowance should be
added for resurfacing.

c) Sidewalks

Sidewalks, when used on bridges, should be as wide as required by the controlling

and concerned public agencies, and preferably should be 1.5 m but not less than
1.25 m.

d) Curbs

There are two general classes of curbs. These are “parapet” (non-mountable) and
“vehicular mountable” curbs. Both may be designed with a gutter to form a
combination curb and gutter section. The minimum width of curbs should be 225 mm.
Parapet curbs are relatively high and steep faced. They should be designed to
prevent the vehicle from leaving the roadway. Their height varies, but it should be at
least 700 mm. When used with a combination of curb and handrail, the height of the
curb may be reduced. Mountable curbs, normally lower than 150 mm, should not be
used on bridges except in special circumstances when they are used in combination
with sidewalks or median strips. Curbs and sidewalks may have vertical slits or other

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provisions for discontinuity, to prevent them from participating in deck bending

moments, to reduce cracking of these elements.

e) Medians

On major highways, the opposing traffic flows should be separated by median strips.
Wherever possible, the lanes carrying opposing flows should be separated completely
into two distinct structures. However, where width limitations force the utilization traffic
separators (less than 1.2 m wide) the following median sections should be used:

i. Parapet sections 300 to 700 mm either in height, integral or with a rail section are
recommended. The bridge and approach parapets should have the same section.

ii. Low rolled curb sections or double curb units with some form of paved surface in
between are recommended for low-speed roads.

f) Railing

Railing should be provided at the edge of the deck for the protection of traffic or
pedestrians, or both. Where pedestrian walkways are provided adjacent to
roadways, a traffic railing may be provided between the two, with a pedestrian railing
outside. Alternatively, a combination traffic-pedestrian railing may be used at the
outside of the pedestrian walkway. Railings may be made of concrete, metal, timber
or a combination of these materials. While the primary purpose of traffic railing is to
contain the average vehicle using the structure, consideration should also be given
to protection of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing, to protection
of other vehicles near the collision, to vehicles or pedestrians on roadways being over-
crossed, and to appearance and freedom of view from passing vehicles. Traffic
railings should be designed to provide a smooth, continuous face of rail. Structural
continuity in the rail members (including anchorage of ends) is essential. The height of
traffic railing should be no less than 700 mm from the top of the roadway, or curb, to
the top of the upper rail members. Careful attention should be given to the treatment
of railing at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends and sharp changes in the geometry of
the railing should be avoided. The approach end of all guardrail installations should
be given special consideration to minimize the hazard to the

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motorist. One method is to taper the guardrail end off vertically away from the
roadway so that the end is buried. Railing components should be proportioned
commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated pedestrian traffic, taking
account of appearance, safety, and freedom of view from passing vehicles. The
minimum design for pedestrian railing should be simultaneous loads of 730 N/m acting
horizontally and vertically on each longitudinal member. Posts should be designed for
a horizontal load of 225 N times the distance between posts, acting at the centre of
gravity of the upper rail.

The minimum height of pedestrian railing should be 1.1 m, measured from the top of
the walkway to the top of the upper rail member. Railings for walkways that are also
used as bicycle paths should have a height of 1.4 m.

g) Super-elevation

Super-elevation of the surface of a bridge on a horizontal curve should be provided

in accordance with the applicable standard for the highway. The super-elevation
should preferably not exceed 6 percent, and never exceed 8 percent.

h) Expansion joints

To provide for expansion and contraction, joints should be provided at the expansion
ends of spans and at other points where they may be desirable. In humid climates
and areas where freezing occurs, joints should be sealed to prevent erosion and filling
with debris, or else open joints should be properly designed for the disposal of water.

3.3 Aesthetic considerations

A bridge should be designed to harmonize with its natural surroundings and

neighbouring structures. The attractiveness of a bridge is generally achieved by its
shape and by the proper proportioning of the superstructure and piers in relation to
the span of the bridge and its surroundings. Colour and texture may be added for
emphasis. Consideration should be given to the appearance of the bridge from the
driver’s or passenger’s point of view, as well as someone viewing it from off the
structure.

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3.4 Economic considerations

a) Criteria for least cost

Least-cost criteria require consideration of all the factors contributing to the cost of
the project. These include length and width of superstructure, type of superstructure
including deck, railings, walks, medians; type of substructure including cofferdams,
sheeting, and bracing, approach roadways including embankment, retaining walls
and slope protection. Other factors such as special treatment for the road or stream
being spanned, and pier protection, can also influence the least cost.

Each type of superstructure being considered has an optimum span range where its
use is very competitive. It may, however, be used in spans outside that range and still
meet the least-cost criteria, because of the compensating costs of other factors. One
of the compensating factors often is the substructure because its contribution to the
cost of the project is inversely proportional to the span length, while the superstructure
cost increases with the span length. Wherever possible, consideration should be given
to comparing bridge layouts having different span arrangements. Elimination of a
costly river pier can usually justify a longer span.

b) Alternative designs
The general statement that a competent engineer can establish the most
economical structure by studies ignores factors that influence costs over which the
engineer has no control. The economics of any given industry cannot be exactly
forecast. The time of advertising most structures is not established at the time of design.

The reasons for preparing alternative designs are:

i. Increase competition by permitting several industries to participate.

ii. Make provisions to take advantage of the variations in the economy of the
construction industry.

iii. To provide a yardstick whereby the various industries can measure the advantage
and disadvantage of their competitive position. This results in industry improving their
procedures to reduce costs and eventually gives additional savings to the owner.

iv. To eliminate the intangible arguments by various segments of industry that their
material would have resulted in a more economical structure.

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v. Most important reason for alternative designs is that the owner saves in the cost of
the structure.

c) Value engineering

In addition to economic pressures, sociological pressures have focused more

attention on the impact that a project has on both natural and cultural environments.
Consequently, the bridge engineer is faced with the necessity of identifying a
continually growing list of design parameters, along with the accompanying possibility
of trade-offs in the process of planning and designing. Value Engineering is an
organized way of defining a problem and creatively solving it. The Value Engineering
Job Plan has five steps: 1) information phase, 2) analysis phase, 3) speculative phase,
4) evaluation phase, and 5) implementation phase.

3.5 Construction and erection considerations

In the design of a bridge, construction and erection considerations may be of

paramount importance in the selection of the type of bridge to be built. Also, the
experience of the available contractors, the ability of local material suppliers to furnish
the specified materials, the skilled labour required for a particular structure type, and
the capacity of equipment necessary for erection should be considered. The most
economical bridge design is one in which the total cost of materials, labour,
equipment, and maintenance is minimized.

Detailed discussions on construction and erection considerations are presented

based on the available construction materials.

a. Cast-in-place and precast concrete

The decision to use or not to use precast concrete could be influenced by the
availability of existing precast plants within transport distance. Precast concrete may
be competitive in areas without existing pre-casting plants when a large number of
similar components are required. In large projects, a pre-casting plant located at the
site should be considered to see if it would prove more economical.

In general, precast concrete members, because of better control of casting and

curing processes, and because of the ease of inspection and rejection of an
improperly fabricated member, are a better, more durable product.

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For grade separation structures, if traffic problems are not a controlling factor, cast-in-
place structures are generally more economical when the height of false work is less
than 9 to 12 m high.

b. Reinforced, partially pre-stressed, and pre-stressed concrete

The possible use of pre-tensioning or post-tensioning should be considered during the

planning stage of a bridge project. In many cases the greatest economy can be
realized by allowing the contractor the option of using pre-tensioned, post-tensioned,
or a combination of both. In these cases, the specifications should require submittal
by the contractor of proper design data.

c. Composite construction

Floor systems consisting of stringers, floor beams, or combinations can be used.

Modular precast concrete planks (pre-stressed or regular reinforced) may be used as
the bottom form for the deck slab between stringers. Properly designed, these planks
can be made composite with the cast-in-place deck slab and the deck slab
composite with the stringers.

Consideration should be given in the design to construction loads supported prior to

the cast-in-place concrete attaining its design strength. For short spans within the
capacity of available handling equipment, the entire deck span may be precast in
one piece and made composite with the cast-in-place slab.

d. Post-tensioned segmental construction

It is normal practice to build concrete bridges in segments such as precast I-beams

with composite slabs, precast voided slabs, or box beams that are attached together.
In the post-tensioned segmental type, the individual member, box girder, I-beam, or
arch is installed in several longitudinal segments and then post-tensioned together to
form one member.

e. Box girders

In general, the longer spans, because of the need for greater and variable depths,
have been cast-in-place, while the shorter spans lend themselves to constant depth
precast units. It is customary to erect these bridges by the cantilever method, avoiding
the use of false work, but some have been erected using a limited amount of false

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work and placing the bridge by “pushing” the completed segments into place from
one end.

f. I-beams

Due to shipping limitations, the length of precast pre-stressed I-beam stringer bridges
is less than 30 m. By pre-casting the I-beam in two or more pieces and post-tensioning
the pieces after erection, the feasible span can be greatly increased.

g. Arches

Arches of all types may be constructed of cast-in-place or precast segments. This

method of construction is most adaptable to long spans and spans where centring
for formwork is difficult to install. After constructing the arch ribs by the segmental
method, the spandrel columns or suspenders and the roadway deck may be
constructed in a more conventional manner.

3.6 Legal considerations

Permits over navigable Waterways-Preliminary plans of a proposed bridge crossing

any navigable waterway should be filed with the appropriate governmental
authority. A written permit with reference to horizontal and vertical clearances under
the spans, and to the location of all river piers, should be obtained

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DATA NEEDED FOR DESIGNING A BRIDGE:

1. A plan of the site showing all obstacles to be bridged such as rivers, streets, roads
or railroads, the contour lines of valleys and the desired alignment of the new traffic
route.

2. Longitudinal section of the ground along the axis of the planned bridge with the
conditions for clearances or required flood widths. Desired vertical alignment of the
new route.

3. Required width of the bridge, width of lanes, median, walkways, safety rails etc.

4. Soil conditions for foundations, results of borings with a report on the geological
situation and soil mechanics data. The degree of difficulty of foundation work has a
considerable influence on the choice of the structural system and on the economical
span length.

5. Local conditions like accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials, and
structural elements. Which materials are available and economical in that part of the
country? Is water or electric power at hand? Can a high standard of technology be
used or must the bridge be built with primitive methods and a small number of skilled
labourers?

6. Weather and environmental conditions, floods, high and low tide levels, periods of
drought, range of temperatures, and length of frost periods.

7. Topography of the environment - open land, flat or mountainous land, scenic

country. Town with small old houses or city with high-rise buildings. The scale of the
environment has an influence on the design.

8. Environmental requirements regarding aesthetic quality. Bridges in towns that affect

the urban environment and that are frequently seen at close range especially
pedestrian bridges - need more delicate shaping and treatment than bridges in open
country. Is protection of pedestrians against spray and noise needed? Is noise
protection necessary for houses close to the bridge?

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