UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Positive Psychology 1 – Aims and Scope (Martin Seligman)
1.4 Positive Psychology 2 – Aims and Scope (Paul T. Wong)
1.5 The Concept of Well-being
1.6 Historical Perspectives on Positive Psychology
1.6.1 Positive Psychology and Other Social Sciences

1.6.2 GDP to GNHI - Towards “Holistic Approach to Human Development”

1.6.3 Value Crisis

1.7 Positive Psychology and Other Areas of Psychology

1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.11 Unit End Questions
1.12 References and Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the meaning, and scope of positive psychology;
• Differentiate between PP 1 and PP 2 waves of positive psychology;
• Define the concept of well-being; and
• Describe the relationship of positive psychology with other areas of
psychology.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Positive psychology is a new field of inquiry within modern psychology that
emerged two decades ago, with an exclusive emphasis on understanding the
nature of happiness and well-being and the conditions which promote them
across cultures and societies. The aim was to help people to lead a good
life. Hence, we can say that the field of positive psychology had an applied
orientation from the very inception.
Martin E. P. Seligman, Professor of Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania
and a Clinical Psychologist launched this new field of inquiry in the new 13
Dr. Kiran Kumar Salagame, K., Former Professor of Psychology, Department of Studies in Psychology,
*

University of Mysore, Mysuru

Positive Psychology: millennium. As President of the American Psychological Association in 1998,
An Introduction he chose Positive Psychology as the presidential theme for his tenure. He had
a strong feeling that psychology has too long focused on studying negative
emotions like anger, anxiety and depression and treated mental illness from a
‘disease model.’ He recognized that the discipline has not paid much attention
to study what makes people to experience joy, satisfaction and contentment;
to be healthy, resilient and grow; and to lead a meaningful, successful and
worthy life. Therefore, he chose to usher in a new era of research in psychology
discipline in the new Millenium.
Though Seligman presented his initial ideas on this new field in his presidential
address at APA in 1998, they got crystalized in two meetings, one in January
1999 and another in January 2000 at Akumal, Mexico. The meetings were
attended by a select group of psychologists who shared his vision. They drafted
the first manifesto which has come to be known as “Akumal Manifesto”/
“Positive Psychology Manifesto.” It was authored by Kenneth Sheldon, Barbara
Fredrickson, Kevin Rathunde, Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi and Jonathan Haidt
(https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/opportunities/conference-archives). The vision and
mission of this new field was formally made public to the academic community
in the special issue of American Psychologist (January 2000) with the focal
theme “Positive Psychology” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). That issue
included articles on pleasure and happiness, quality of life, subjective and
psychological well-being, actualization of potentials and optimal functioning,
creativity, optimism, hope, altruism, forgiveness, gratitude and spirituality.
Another publication, with the title “On happiness and human potentials: a review
of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being” (Ryan and Deci, 2001) in
the Annual Review of Psychology catalyzed the interest among psychologists
in this new field of inquiry. For the first time these two important publications
brought together under one broad heading a wide range of previous researches
that were conducted independently and separated in time and space by several
investigators for many decades. Since then, ‘Positive Psychology’ has become
a rallying point for many researchers already working on related themes.
Ed Diener’s previous work on “subjective well-being” (SWB) (Diener, 1984)
and Carol Ryff’s publications on “psychological well-being” (PWB) (Ryff,
1989) became the primary or central foci of research, debate and discussion
in the initial years because they had already worked for nearly two decades
on them. They had also developed tools to measure those constructs (Diener,
Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). In addition, Martin
Seligman (optimism), Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (flow), Charles Snyder and
Shane Lopez (hope), Jeff Clifton (strengths), Cristopher Peterson (character
and virtue), Barbara Frederickson (positive emotions), Sonja Lyubomirsky
(subjective happiness), Todd Kashdan (well-being) and Michael Steger
(meaning and purpose) were some of the first few psychologists who published
important books and research articles in quick succession in the initial year
on their work and of others. All of them contributed for the development by
providing the initial research inputs to define this new field. Their work served
as the primary reference to outline its aims, objectives and scope. In addition,
many products and practical techniques that are useful for practice have also
14
been developed (see for example, (https://positivepsychology.com/positive- Introduction to
psychology-interventions/). Positive Psychology

As more researchers took interest in this field over the past two decades, the
vision and scope of positive psychology has expanded further. Now positive
psychology has passed its teenage age in its developmental phase, and has entered
adulthood in 2021! In these two decades, the field has grown enormously with
hundreds of books and thousands of articles published. They include both well
researched scientific publications and also self-help books on how to be happy
and achieve well-being. Thus, it has become hugely popular all over the globe,
perhaps more than any other branch of modern psychology among researchers,
mental health professionals, life coaches, educationists, management experts,
and also among lay people because of its direct relevance to our day-to-day
living.
Seligman and his associates in their initial thrust on positive aspects of human
existence appear to have not paid much attention to the value of human
adversities and suffering for human growth and defining well-being. This came
under criticism from quite a few psychologists. Most vocal of them is Paul T
Wong, a Canadian Professor of Psychology and also a Clinical Psychologist.
He actively promoted his vision of positive psychology, known as Existential
Positive Psychology. Wong emphasizes on the importance of pain, suffering and
sorrow in human existence and their relevance in defining what is happiness,
well-being and meaningful living (Wong, 2011). It cannot be said that Seligman
neglected them totally. On the other hand, Seligman preferred to emphasize
more on the positive side of human experiences. However, Wong, who is an
Existential-humanistic psychologist, chose to highlight the relations between
suffering and meaningfulness to well-being. Further researches resulted in new
insights and shifts in the emphasis.
Thus, at present, there are two visions of positive psychology which are referred
to as “two waves”- PP1 (Positive Psychology 1 - Seligman’s version) and PP2
(Positive Psychology 2 - Wong’s version). Hence, the definition, aim and scope
of this field have to be understood in the context of these two major trends. It
should be noted here that PP 2 is nearer to Indian perspectives on life and well-
being. In this Unit you will be introduced to the meaning and scope of positive
psychology; the context or background in which this new field emerged; and its
relation to other social sciences and to other branches of psychology.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. __________ chose Positive Psychology as the presidential theme for
his tenure as President in the American Psychological Association.
2. What is ‘Akumal Manifesto’?
3. The concept of Psychological well-being (PWB) was proposed by
__________.
4. Wong’s vision of positive psychology is known as
___________________.

15
Positive Psychology:
An Introduction 1.3 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1 – AIMS AND
SCOPE (MARTIN SELIGMAN)
According to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) the agenda of Positive
Psychology are as follows.
• To articulate a vision of good life that is empirically sound while being
understandable and attractive.
• To show what actions can lead to well-being, to positive individuals, and to
thriving communities.
• To help document - (i) what kinds of families result in children who flourish,
(ii) what work settings support the greatest satisfaction among workers,
(iii) what policies result in the strongest civic engagement, (iv) and how
people’s lives can be most worth living.
The PP manifesto says (Sheldon, et al., 2000) if one has to meet the objectives
and achieve the aim of positive psychology “one must consider optimal
functioning at multiple levels, including biological, experiential, personal,
relational, institutional, cultural and global.” What does it mean? How can that
be done? As per the manifesto we have to study:
a) “The dynamic relations between processes at these levels.”
b) “The human capacity to create order and meaning in response to inevitable
adversity.”
c) “ The means by which ‘the good life,’ in its many manifestations, may
emerge from these processes.”
As per the Positive Psychology Manifesto, “Positive Psychology is the scientific
study of optimal human functioning.” It aims to “discover and promote the
factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive.” The manifesto further
states that positive psychology “represents a new commitment on the part of
research psychologists to focus attention upon the sources of psychological
health, thereby going beyond prior emphasis upon disease and disorder.”
(Sheldon, et al., 2000, p.1). Another early pioneer of this field, late Christopher
Peterson (1950-2012) says positive psychology is “the scientific study of what
goes right in life” and what makes “life most worth living” (2006, p.4). To
achieve these objectives, Seligman established a Positive Psychology Center
in the University of Pennsylvania, in the United States. At present the vision
and mission statements related to the definition, aims and scope of positive
psychology are on the websites of the Department of Psychology and of the
Positive Psychology Center (PPC). They are reproduced below because they
provide a clear idea of this new field.
“Positive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths that enable
individuals and communities to thrive. The field is founded on the belief that
people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best
within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play.”
(https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/).
16
“Positive Psychology aims to understand and build the emotions, and the Introduction to
strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Positive Positive Psychology
Psychology has three central concerns: positive experiences, positive individual
traits, and positive institutions.” - Angela Duckworth, Paul Rozin, and Martin
Seligman. (https://psychology.sas.upenn.edu/positive-psychology).
According to Duckworth, Rozin, and Seligman, the three central concerns of
positive psychology involve,
• “Understanding positive experiences or positive emotions consists in the
study of ‘contentment’ with the ‘past’; ‘pleasure’ in the ‘present’; and
‘hope’ for the ‘future’;”
• “Understanding positive individual traits means the study of strengths and
virtues viz., the capacity to love, valour, altruism, grit, creativity, curiosity,
integrity, moderation, self-control, spirituality and humor;” and
• “Understanding positive institutions involves the study of the strong
families, communities, corporations and the virtues that nourish them such
as justice, responsibility, civility, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose
and tolerance.” (https://psychology.sas.upenn.edu/positive-psychology).

1.4 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2 – AIMS AND

SCOPE (PAUL T. WONG)
Dr. Wong is the Founding President of the Meaning-Centered Counselling
Institute, Inc. (MCCI) and the originator of ‘meaning-centered counselling
and therapy’ (MCCT), an ‘integrative existential positive psychotherapy.’ In
Wong’s view, suffering is as much required for flourishing and growth as the
experience of positive emotions. Therefore, he terms his vision as “Existential
Positive Psychology (2.0) of Flourishing Through Suffering.” He also terms it as
second wave of PP (see http://www.drpaulwong.com/recommended-readings-
for-the-existential-positive-psychology-2-0-of-flourishing-through-suffering/-
posted Nov 16, 2020). As he states:
“PP is intrinsically existential because it is concerned with such fundamental
questions about human existence as: What is the good life? What makes life
worth living? How can one find happiness? However, these existential questions
cannot be fully addressed through PP research alone without recognizing
people’s existential anxieties. A maturing PP needs to return to its existential-
humanistic roots to rediscover the richness of the lived experience and the many
pathways to meaning in life.” (Wong, 2016, p. 1).
Though Seligman’s vision and approach to PP has become very popular, it has
been criticized for the overemphasis on positive emotions and undermining the
significance of negative emotions experienced in our life. Existential-Humanistic
psychologists are of the view that both pleasure and pain contribute to our
well-being. Viktor Frankl, a German psychiatrist who survived the Holocaust
during Hitler’s regime and later developed his therapeutic approach known as
‘Logotherapy’ argued that there is a strong relationship between depression,
anxiety, and meaninglessness. Based on his personal experiences and of his
fellow prisoners in the ‘concentration camp’ he realized that when a person
loses all hope and a sense of purpose in life, he tends to become depressed 17
Positive Psychology: and gives up. On the other hand, if he can take a perspective on his pain and
An Introduction suffering and searches for a meaning even in that negative circumstance, he
can grow over that and feel a sense of well-being. Based on this he wrote the
famous book Man’s Search for Meaning. In his view in the absence of meaning
people try to fill the void in two ways: (i) by indulging in hedonistic pleasures
and in the pursuit of power and materialism; (ii) and also by experiencing
hatred, boredom, or neurotic obsessions and compulsions (Frankl, 1992, p.
143). Therefore, Paul Wong has focused on ‘suffering’ and ‘meaning’ as other
important aspects in addition to the concepts discussed by Seligman as key
themes of Positive Psychology.
Further, Wong notes that,
“Existential positive psychology (EPP) or positive existential psychology
represents a natural amalgamation between PP and existential psychology.
Basically, EPP addresses a few fundamental questions about self-identity and
the human condition of striving for happiness within the constraints of reality.”
(2016, p.1).
Some of the fundamental questions of the Existential PP include (1) “ Who
am I? What defines me?”(2) “How can I be happy? Why am I so dissatisfied
with life?” (3) “What is the good life? “Is this all there is to life?” (4) “What
should I do with my life? What is my calling?’ (5) “How do I make the right
choices? How do I know that I am making the right decision regarding career
and relationships?” (6) “Where do I belong? Why do I feel so alone in this
world? How can I develop deep and meaningful relationships? (7) “What is the
point of striving when life is so short?” (Wong, 2016, p.1).
Thus, eight sources of a meaningful life have been repeatedly found through
research: (1) Happiness and fulfilment, (2) Achieving something worthwhile, (3)
Intimacy: marriage and family, (4) Good relationship with friends and people,
(5) Self-acceptance, (6) Self-transcendence or altruism, (7) Religion and (8)
Fairness or justice, (Wong 2011). Majority of human beings face such questions
sometime or other irrespective of gender, race, color, socio-economic-status,
caste, nationality, and others. Finding satisfactory answers to such questions
give us a direction and meaning for our life and also satisfaction. On the other
hand, failure to resolve such questions can cause anxiety and depression and
may lead to suicide.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Positive Psychology is the scientific study of optimal human
functioning. True/False
2. Name the three central concerns of positive psychology.
3. Who has talked about ‘flourishing through suffering’?
4. Logotherapy has been proposed by whom?
5. What is the second wave of PP?

18
 Introduction to
1.5 THE CONCEPT OF WELL-BEING Positive Psychology
Well-being is a central concept in positive psychology. Shah and Marks (2004,
p. 2) state that, “Well-being is more than just happiness. In addition to feeling
satisfied and happy, well-being means developing as a person, being fulfilled,
and making a contribution to the community.”
Prior to Seligman, other researchers, mainly Bradburn, Ed Diener and Carol Ryff
have already discussed about happiness and well-being and made significant
contributions. Bradburn (1969) noted that high psychological well-being
indicates more of positive affect than negative affect and low psychological
well-being indicates the vice-versa. Ed Diener’s (1984) concept of Subjective
Well-Being (SWB) is associated with two elements (1) positive and negative
affect (2) and life satisfaction. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) with
five items only is developed by Diener (Diener, et al., 1985) and is the most
widely used measure for research on well-being. The two kinds of affect are not
opposite ends of a dimension, rather they are two distinct dimensions and each
person can have both the affects. It is the predominance of one over the other
that is indicative of high or low well-being. In positive psychology literature,
SWB is associated with the ancient Greek notion of hedonia which implies
seeking pleasure. Throughout his career Ed Diener worked on understanding
and measuring SWB and published more than 200 articles and also a few books
(Eid & Larsen, 2008).
Another important contribution came from Carol Ryff (1989) who questioned
the idea of limiting the notion of well-being to pleasure seeking or happiness
as is usually called. Ryff’s concept of Psychological Well-being (PWB) goes
beyond one’s affective experiences. It focuses on knowing to what extent a
person has been able to develop one’s self in terms of six different psychological
dimensions viz., autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive
relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. PWB is equated with
the Greek notion of eudaimonia which means seeking meaning life. Ryff’s
concept of PWB is informed by the Humanistic psychologists’ thrust on human
potential and self-actualization. “Psychological Well-Being Scale” (Ryff &
Keyes, 1995) is another most employed instrument in research on well-being
next only to SWLS. It has many versions with differing number of items.
Seligman’s PERMA is the newer addition to this. Dodge, et al., (2012, p.226)
note that Seligman’s “new theory of well-being concentrates…on elements of
well-being,” which he believes are “a set of building blocks for a flourishing
life” They are: Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and
Accomplishment (PERMA).” (Italic added for emphasis). Seligman himself
seems to have changed the goal post of positive psychology from his first book
(Authentic Happiness -Seligman, 2002) to his second book written after a
decade (Flourishing – Seligman, 2011). He states,
“I used to think that the topic of positive psychology was happiness. I now think
that the topic of positive psychology is well-being, that the gold standard for
measuring well-being is flourishing, and that the goal of positive psychology is to
increase flourishing.” (Italic added for emphasis. Not in the original). (Seligman,
2011, p. 13-15, cited in - Dodge, Daly, Huyton and Sanders, 2012).
19
Positive Psychology: Seligman asserts,
An Introduction
“Well-being theory denies that the topic of positive psychology is a real thing;
rather the topic is a construct – well-being – which in turn has several measurable
elements, each a real thing, each contributing to well-being, but none defining
well-being.” (Seligman, 2011, p. 13-15, cited in - Dodge, Daly, Huyton and
Sanders, 2012). (Italics added for emphasis).
Well-being is thus related more to Aristotle’s idea of eudaimonia and is
considered a multi-dimensional construct.
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Name the two elements associated with the concept of Subjective
Well-Being (SWB).
2. How many dimensions are there in Ryff’s concept of Psychological
Well-being (PWB)?
3. What does PERMA consist of?
4. Well-being is more related to Aristotle’s idea of eudaimonia.
True/ False

1.6 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY
There are two ways of writing the history of a discipline viz., internal history
and external history (Leahey, 2004). Internal history refers to the emergence
of a field and the developments within it from its inception up to a particular
period at which time the historian wishes to write. External history goes outside
the disciplinary boundaries and looks at the social and cultural events and the
context in which a particular discipline emerged and what are the influencing
events. Here an external historical approach is followed in which not only you
will learn how and when positive psychology emerged but you will also learn in
what context it emerged and how it is relevant locally and globally.
Happiness, well-being, flourishing, good life, meaningful life and others are
not new concepts and topics in themselves. Perhaps these topics have been the
subject of human inquiry ever since man acquired the ability for self-reflexivity
and began to contemplate on the meaning and purpose of one’s existence.
Globally humans have developed some notion of happiness over several
millennia (Lomas, Case, Cratty and Vander Weele, 2021). Therefore, it is best
to say positive psychology has a long past but a short history, as it is said about
many other topics in our discipline. In psychology,
Humanistic psychologists had already dwelt on the issues related to human
potential and quality of human life in many ways and most importantly in
terms of self-actualization and growth. Abraham Maslow (1954) had already
used ‘positive psychology’ in his discussions on motivation and personality.
Carl Rogers’s concepts of acceptance, unconditional positive regard and
genuineness; James Bugental’s emphasis on authenticity, Sidney Jourard’s
research on self-disclosure and many others were discussed under the notion
20 of “healthy personality” (Jourard & Landsman, 1980). In other words, there
already existed a background to think about positive aspects of human
existence. What differentiates Seligman’s vision is his insistence on empirical Introduction to
and quantitative methodology that is characterized by “nomothetic approach”, Positive Psychology
as against humanistic thinkers who laid stress on “idiographic approach”
that emphasizes on uniqueness of individual persons. Humanistic thinkers’
emphasis on phenomenological approach to study of subjective experiences
in understanding an individual led to marginalization, because the quantitative
and experimental approach of mainstream scientific psychology seem to be
much easier to carry out.
The immediate antecedent factors that provoked Seligman to think about
positive psychology is his interaction with his five year old daughter Nikki. The
incident is as follows: One day he and his daughter were doing some garden
work and he got irritated by her playful and jovial behavior in carrying out the
task. That interaction is reproduced here as described by him.
“Daddy, I want to talk to you.”
“Yes, Nikki?”
“Daddy, do you remember before my fifth birthday? From the time I was three
to the time I was five, I was a whiner. I whined every day. When I turned
five, I decided not to whine anymore. That was the hardest thing I’ve ever done.
And if I can stop whining, you can stop being such a grouch.” (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 6). (Italic added for emphasis).
He says, it led to a shift, in himself as well as in his thinking about the discipline,
from negative emotions to positive emotions eventually to the emergence of
positive psychology.
Another important incidence that led to the launch of a new field was
Seligman’s chance meeting with Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi in a beach resort.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) had been working on the concept of “flow” which is
related to “optimal human experience” and functioning. Both of these persons
had not met earlier though they knew about each other and their works. In
this chance meeting they spent days together discussing about the status of
psychology as a discipline, the direction it has taken and finally agreed that
there is a need to focus on the positive aspects of human nature.
Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) note that psychology concentrated more on
“repairing damage within a disease model of human functioning” and “neglects
the fulfilled individual and the thriving community.” Further, they observe that
“Psychologists have scant knowledge of what makes life worth living” and
they know “very little about how normal people flourish under more benign
conditions”. The focus of psychology, David Myers (2000) says, is “on illness
more than health;” “on aggression more than love;” and “on fear more than
courage.” Myers noted that from the year 1887 to 2000, Psychological Abstracts
of APA published nearly 80,000 articles on depression, more than 50,000
articles on anxiety, about 10,000 articles on anger. On the other hand, articles
on joy, happiness, and life satisfaction ranged between 800 to a few thousands.
It was this anomaly, which made Seligman to say that we as specialists have
focused too much on negativity. To set this right, to “begin to catalyze a change
in the focus of psychology from preoccupation only with repairing the worst
things in life to also building positive qualities”, they launched this field. 21
Positive Psychology: 1.6.1 Positive Psychology and Other Social Sciences
An Introduction
Since the main theme of positive psychology is happiness, well-being and
flourishing, this field of inquiry is related to other disciplines in social sciences
such as economics, political sciences, and sociology on the one hand, and to
medicine, psychiatry and public health on the other. In general, we can say
that positive psychology has relation to any discipline or a branch within it that
has something to do with human welfare. Much of the earlier studies that were
conducted by social scientists on ‘quality of life’ focused on certain ‘social
indicators’ that ensures a better life. Such indicators include socio-economic
conditions of a society such as GDP, infrastructure development, civic amenities,
health and hygiene, crime rate, absence of religious conflicts, governance and
others that distinguish developed nations from developing and underdeveloped
nations. Those studies were conducted in the past and are still being conducted
with primary focus on what are called ‘objective factors.’ However, in the past
few decades, research on social indicators have shown that objective factors
alone will not suffice to ensure happiness and well-being. When we examine
the social climate as the context for the emergence of this new branch, it is
obvious that many of the indicators of developed nations are not leading to
the sense of satisfaction. The USA is one of the super-rich countries and also
known as super power in the world. Yet, how is that Seligman and others felt
the need to usher in this new field of inquiry?
Paul Wachtel (1989) also a Clinical Psychologist brought out this very well
in his book titled The Poverty of Affluence: A Psychological Portrait of the
American Way of Life. The author provides a diagnostic insight to the American
situation and the quality of life lived there. This work highlights the shadow
side and the sad state of American life. Another piece of evidence is the many
cross-national studies on the relationship between economy and the index of
life satisfaction. It is found that many economically poor countries are at par
with economically rich countries on the index of life satisfaction (Diener &
Oishi, 2000). For example, one study (cited in Seligman, 2002) shows that
USA with Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) of 100 on a scale of 1-100, has a life
satisfaction score of 7.75 on a scale of 1-10. The same study shows that India
has a life satisfaction score of 6.70 even though PPP of India is only 5. Just a
difference of one point on life satisfaction index for a difference of 95 points on
PPP! We are more satisfied than Americans though our country is considered
as one of the poor and developing nations! More commonly economic wealth
and political power are valued as important contributors for a better quality
of life. GDP of a country is regarded as one of the important indicators of a
nation’s development. FORBES magazine keeps listing out the richest persons
in the world and in a particular country periodically. Surprisingly, however,
the clinical observations and empirical evidences show that this is not true.
Money and power need not necessarily assure a better quality of living and
well-being beyond a certain point. It follows the ‘law of diminishing returns.’
Therefore, now it is increasingly realized that happiness and well-being are
not contingent upon the economic conditions and material affluence alone.
Therefore, a geographically small neighbouring country like Bhutan, came up
with the idea of GNHI (Gross National Happiness Index) as an alternative to
GDP to understand the overall development of a nation and the extent of well-
22 being experienced by its people.
1.6.2 GDP to GNHI - Towards “Holistic Approach to Human Introduction to
Positive Psychology
Development”
The term ‘gross national happiness’ was first coined by the 4th King of Bhutan,
King Jigme Singye Wangchuk, in 1972 when he declared, “Gross National
Happiness (GNH) is more important than Gross Domestic Product (GDP).” The
concept implies that sustainable development should take a holistic approach
towards notions of progress and give equal importance to non-economic
aspects of well-being.” The GNH Index (GNHI) includes nine domains (1)
Psychological well-being, (2) Health, (3) Education, (4) Time use, (5) Cultural
diversity and resilience, (6) Good governance, (7) Community vitality, (8)
Ecological diversity and resilience, and (9) Living standards. This idea was
further developed by the Government of Bhutan in their Center for Bhutan
Studies. A revised version of GNHI was released with 33 indicators in the 9
domains. These indicators and domains aim to emphasize different aspects
of well-being, and different ways of meeting underlying human needs. GNHI
was adopted through a resolution in the United Nations in the year 2011 by
the support of 68 member states. The resolution calls for a “holistic approach
to development” aimed at promoting sustainable happiness and well-being
(https://ophi.org.uk/policy/gross-national-happiness-index/). Now Venezuela,
UAE and India have established separate ministries/departments of happiness.
Madhya Pradesh government first established such a department in India in
2017. Their motto is to enhance ānanda.

1.6.3 Value Crisis

Positive psychology also emerged in partial response to the value crisis
experienced on the moral and ethical front in the American society and hence it
is admittedly a cultural phenomenon (see Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;
Seligman, 2002). It has resulted in a renewed focus on the study of virtues and
character strengths. Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) developed
by Peterson and Seligman (2004) has become very popular among researchers.
It is a systematic and comprehensive approach to the study of character strengths
informed by all the major and lesser-known spiritual traditions of the world
which include Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Judaism, Islam, Sufism,
Upanishads, Yoga, and many others. It is the best example of the response
by psychologists for the value crisis experienced in American society. It has
been translated in many languages and also cross-culturally validated in many
countries (see https://www.viacharacter.org/researchers/assessments/via-is). A
Hindi translated version of this inventory (Singh & Choubisia, 2009) is also
available.
Thus, we have to understand the emergence and subsequent development
of positive psychology in this background of American context. To certain
extent the American context exemplifies the general Western situation where
materialism has dominated the cultural ethos as compared to cultures in East
and Asia. However, it has global implications because all over the world
national governments are striving hard to better the quality of living and search
for happiness in the material world.

23
Positive Psychology:
An Introduction
Self Assessment Questions 4
1. What does the external history of a discipline refer to?
2. Phenomenological approach focuses on studying the subjective
experiences in understanding an individual. True /False
3. The concept of ‘Flow’ is attributed to whom?
4. Which country has used the term Gross National Happiness (GNH)
first?

1.7 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER

AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Within the discipline of psychology there are many branches which have
contributed insights for the development of positive psychology. Baumgardner
and Crothers (2014) identify the following as most important: health psychology,
clinical psychology, developmental psychology, personality psychology,
social psychology and the psychology of religion. Let us briefly review their
significant influences.
• Health Psychology and Positive Psychology
Research findings from various studies affirm that stress, anger, resentment,
anxiety and worry have the potential health threatening effects. A variety of
related research show that those who undergo long periods of extreme stress
are more vulnerable to illness. It is found that negative emotional states, the
brain and rest of the nervous system, the endocrine system and the immune
system interact in a complex way leading to negative impact on our health.
“Psychoneuroimmunology”, a new field of research came into existence in the
1980s to understand these complex pathways and mechanisms. Investigations
in this new field have documented that the mind and attitude play a significant
role in the functioning of the immune system, leading to illness.
In another direction Barbara Fredrickson investigated the relation between
positive emotions and our sense of well-being. She proposed what she calls
“broaden and build theory.” According to her theory emotions like joy,
contentment, interest, love, and pride “all share the ability to broaden people’s
thought-action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources, ranging
from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources”
(2001, p. 219). It is also observed that expressions of positive emotions in early
life have a significant relation to our longevity. Danner, Snowdon and Friesen,
(2001) found from their longitudinal research on 180 nuns that the relation
between probability of survival to an advanced age and the early-life expression
of positive emotions appeared very strong. They found that the most cheerful
of the nuns in the study live a full decade longer than the least cheerful. It is
now known as “Nun Study.” In this background the role of positive emotions
in maintaining and enhancing our health has gained significance. Baumgardner
& Crothers (2014, p. 7) state as follows: “According to the results of the Nun
Study, the phrase, “don’t worry, be happy” is excellent advice. You may live
longer!”. Therefore, studying positive emotions is one of the three important
24 foci of positive psychology.
• Clinical Psychology and Positive Psychology Introduction to
Positive Psychology
The relation of clinical psychology to positive psychology can be traced back
to how the concepts of mental health changed over the years from an exclusive
focus on removal of symptoms of an illness to building positive health.
First, the clinical psychologists, followed the early ‘medical model.’ They were
preoccupied in removing symptoms in treating a mental disorder to restore
normalcy and health because the absence of illness was considered as the
primary criterion of health. However, a famous psychiatrist, Thomas Szasz,
vehemently opposed this idea. In his classic paper Myth of Mental Illness,
Szasz argued that any disease, disorder and illness must have a definite location
and relation with the pathology of our anatomy, physiology and biochemistry.
It must be definitely related to any one of the organ systems in our body. That
is, to consider something as an illness there must be an organic/physical basis.
Since, in many so called mental disorders and illnesses one cannot demonstrate
any such physical basis or relationship he argued that we cannot consider
them as diseases. We have to treat them as “problems of living.” Second, with
the emergence of Behavior Therapy and Behavior Modification many of the
abnormal behavior considered as mental illness were viewed as either ‘learning
deficits or ‘excess’ in learning due to faulty conditioning – classical and
instrumental. Third, in Cognitive Therapy symptoms of many mental disorders
are viewed as manifestation of ‘irrational beliefs and thinking’ leading to
negative emotions. Fourth, Humanistic psychologists saw them as ‘failure in
a person’s growth’ and ‘inability to actualize one’s potentials.’ Fifth, Systems
therapists viewed many mental illnesses as manifestations of a ‘dysfunctional
family constellation.’ Many such insights shifted the perspective from looking
only at causal relation between symptoms and underlying pathology to what is
healthy in a person. Thus, reduction of symptoms was not the only concern of
a counsellor or therapist. Even helping the person to develop what is healthy
and strength in a person was also considered important leading to the concept
of ‘positive mental health.’
Marie Jahoda (1958) in her classic work Current Concepts of Positive Mental
Health, identified the following six approaches to the definition of positive
mental health: (1) attitude toward own self; (2) growth, development, and self-
actualization; (3) integration; (4) autonomy; (5) perception of reality; and (6)
environmental mastery. As we discussed already Carol Ryff incorporated some
of the above into the construct of psychological well-being (PWB). But we
do not have well developed models of positive health and what characterizes
positive mental health, just as we have models of psychopathology and diagnostic
categories like DSM and ICD. In other words, “what personal characteristics
and what type of life define the extreme opposite of mental illness— a state
Keyes and Haidt (2003) call “flourishing?”. We have yet to find out what they
are. Therefore, another goal of positive psychology is to establish criteria and
a language defining the presence of positive mental health that parallels our
current criteria and language for describing and diagnosing mental illness.”
(Baumgardner & Crothers, 2014, p. 7).
• Developmental Psychology and Positive Psychology
What conditions in life facilitate healthy development is a long-standing issue 25
Positive Psychology: in developmental psychology? The debate about ‘heredity vs. environment’
An Introduction and ‘nature vs. nurture’ is well known. Developmental psychologists have
studied for long the role of environments – physical, psychological and social,
on the development of humans at various age period. The role of deprivation
and disadvantage (cultural, social, economic and educational); of family
environment (parental conflicts, abuse and alcoholism); and of the incidences of
mental illness in the family with a genetic history have been studied. in relation
to the physical, emotional, cognitive, moral and ethical and social development.
It is found that any kind of such adverse circumstances can affect one or more
aspects mentioned leading to certain deficits. However, as Baumgardner &
Crothers ( 2014, p.7) note all such studies were carried out from the assumption
of a “deficit model” and these “assumptions began to change in the 1970s when
many psychiatrists and psychologists drew attention to the amazing resilience
of certain children and adults subjected to potentially debilitating life challenges
(Masten, 2001).” It is now found that cases of resilience i.e., “good outcomes
in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development (Masten, p. 228)” are
more common than previously supposed.
Another concept which has demonstrated the relation of development psychology
to positive psychology is “posttraumatic growth” (PTG). It is the opposite
of “post-traumatic stress disorder” (PTSD). Earlier it was mentioned that all
persons who face adversities in life and stressful situation will not react to them
in the same way. While some who are vulnerable to stress may develop various
kinds of illness, there are good number of people who come clean and stronger
from such adversities. Research evidence is accumulating as the shift in focus
from PTSD to PTG has occurred. It is found that “positive growth can occur
as a result of traumatic experiences like serious illness, loss of a loved one, or
a major accident or disability (Ryff & Singer, 2003a). In the aftermath of such
events, many people report a greater appreciation for life and their loved ones,
an increased sense of personal strength, and more clarity about what is most
important in life.” (Baumgardner & Crothers, 2014, p.7). Research documenting
the amazing resilience of ordinary people facing difficult life circumstances”
and exhibit personal growth have increased and that highlights a major theme
of positive psychology, viz., studying human strengths.
• Personality Psychology and Positive Psychology
The reading of the history of psychology of personality shows that several
decades ago the terms ‘virtue’ and ‘character’ were considered as not scientific
because they are value loaded terms. Hence, the term ‘personality’ was introduced
by Gordon Allport as a neutral and scientific term in their place. Today we
have come a full circle reclaiming those terms as valid concepts of scientific
investigation! (See Section 1.7.3 on Value Crisis). Not only them, topics like
altruism, forgiveness, gratitude, love, courage, creativity, meaning, wisdom,
spirituality, transcendence and many others which Humanistic Psychology
associated with Self-Actualization have also been studied with a new vigor.
There are many critics of Positive Psychology who point out that this field
of inquiry has its foundation in Humanistic Psychology but has not been
acknowledged sufficiently (Froh, 2004). Ever since Humanistic psychologists
like Kurt Goldstein, Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Clark Moustakas, Sydney
26 Jourard and many others emphasized on self-actualization and growth there
has been a thrust on understanding what characterizes ‘healthy personality’ Introduction to
(Coan, 1974; Jourard & Landsman,1980). A healthy person is regarded as one Positive Psychology
who is free from neurotic conflicts and is able to function optimally actualizing
his/her innate potentials. Maslow (1971) distinguished between ‘Deficiency-
needs’ and ‘Being-needs.’ Unlike persons who are engaged only in fulfilling
their deficiency needs to maintain some kind of homeostasis, those persons who
function to fulfill their Being- needs manifest healthy personality characteristics.
Many of those characteristics are now termed as positive traits and positive
strengths, which is another important focus of positive psychology. They
include both temperament and personality traits which are related to individual
well-being. Important ones among them are hope and optimism, self-esteem,
extraversion, a positive outlook on life, and pursuit of meaningful goals.
• Social Psychology and Positive Psychology
By now perhaps you have understood how our happiness and sense of well-
being is dependent on many factors. We as humans do not live in isolation and
we are always acting and interacting with others. Therefore, it is a matter of
common sense that our health, happiness, and well-being depend as much on
our relationships with others as on our own innate nature and material aspects
of our life. Our interpersonal and social relations contribute quite a lot for our
experience of well-being as we keep growing old.
Importance of satisfying interpersonal and social relationships and social
support from significant others is amply demonstrated in many studies. Such
satisfying relationships are found in happy marriage and having intimate
friends. Corey M. Keyes (1998) postulated the concept of “social well-being”
with five dimensions validated by empirical investigations. They are: social
integration, social contribution, social coherence, social actualization and social
acceptance.
Further, social psychologists have also sensitized to the fact that there are cultural
differences in the understanding of what constitutes happiness and well-being.
Concepts of happiness in America and Japan, for example, are quite different.
In addition, social psychologists have also found that affluence and materialism
among many so called developed societies with a consumer culture as in the
United States, for example, has a dark side to it. It is also found that people who
are after material wealth and fame only and sacrifice fulfillment of important
psychological needs may also sacrifice their own happiness and life satisfaction.
Studies show that increase in income like the sudden wealth of lottery winners,
has only shot term effects (Diener & Oishi, 2005b). In the Indian context our
joint family system can provide satisfying relationship provided it does not
become too restrictive of personal growth leading to a feeling of emotional
suffocation.
• The Psychology of Religion and Positive Psychology
Religion, irrespective of which denomination it is, has two primary aspects (1)
faith in a God or Divinity and associated beliefs and practices; and (2) moral and
ethical code of conduct prescribed to be adhered to. In recent years, a distinction
is made between religion and spirituality as well. Religion is often employed
when one refers to the following of organized and institutionalized faith system
27
Positive Psychology: by practicing the customs and rituals prescribed. Spirituality is employed
An Introduction when one refers to an individual’s desire and efforts to connect with a superior
universal principle through expansion of one’s awareness, which transcends the
limited perspective of different religions. The role of religious practices such as
prayer and worship are examined in researches on healing of various physical
and mental disorders. On the other hand, moral and ethical aspects have been
studied as virtuous living. The study of virtue has a prominent place because
the meaning of a good life or life well lived is strongly connected to traits
like honesty, forgiveness, compassion, gratitude and wisdom. It is found that
expressing human virtues contributes to individual well-being and well-being
of others. Peterson and Seligman’s work on character strengths and virtues
already discussed in an earlier section is relevant in this context as well. In this
sense religion has become an important topic within positive psychology.
Self Assessment Questions 5
1. What is psychoneuroimmunology?
2. Define posttraumatic growth.
3. Which therapy views symptoms of many mental disorders as
manifestation of irrational beliefs and thinking?
4. What are the five dimensions of social well-being?

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Positive psychology emerged within our discipline in the New Millenium to
study scientifically the nature of happiness, well-being and flourishing and
what conditions facilitate and ensure them. Martin Seligman ushered in this new
field inquiry along with likeminded psychologists. The aim is to help people
improve the quality of their life by providing scientifically valid information
regarding what constitutes well-being and how to achieve that. In the past two
decades (year 2000 to 2021) as the field has developed and matured into its
adulthood, more researches have been undertaken on its three main focus viz.,
understanding of positive emotions, positive traits and positive institutions.
Several books have hit the stands in book stores and hundreds of research
articles in academic journals and popular articles also in print, electronic and
social media have been published.
In addition, the very understanding of what should define the field has also
changed. Seligman gave importance to certain elements which he termed
as PERMA (positive emotions, engagement, relationship, meaning and
achievement) as the building blocks of flourishing. Paul Wong, another
psychologist with humanistic-existential orientation, emphasized on the
importance of including struggles of human existence and consequent pain and
suffering in deriving meaning for life and defining well-being and flourishing.
This extended the scope of positive psychology. He also termed his vision as
the ‘second wave’ or PP 2 and Seligman’s vision as PP 1.
Positive psychology is related to other disciplines of social sciences and also
with different branches within psychology itself. The research outcomes of the
last two decades demonstrate that human beings within and across societies and
28
cultures have different notions of what happiness and well-being mean. It is Introduction to
also found that pursuit of money and acquisition of wealth affect our happiness Positive Psychology
and sense of well-being only up to a point. In other words, the external and
objective sources do not play a greater role in our feeling of happiness and well-
being. Inputs from other branches of psychology support this view. In brief, it
is now realized by many that sustainable happiness and well-being is intrinsic
rather than dependent on extrinsic factors.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Positive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals
and communities to thrive, and results in optimal functioning.
Existential Positive Psychology emphasizes on the importance of pain,
suffering and sorrow in human existence and their relevance in defining what is
happiness, well-being and meaningful living
Second Wave of PP views that suffering is as much required for flourishing
and growth as the experience of positive emotions.
Well-being is more than just happiness. In addition to feeling satisfied and
happy, well-being means developing as a person, being fulfilled, and making a
contribution to the community.
Broaden and build theory postulates that positive emotions like joy,
contentment, interest, love, and pride broaden people’s thought-action
repertoires and build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical
and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources.
Posttraumatic growth refers to positive growth that can occur as a result
of traumatic experiences like serious illness, loss of a loved one, or a major
accident or disability.

1.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Martin Seligman
2. ‘Akumal Manifesto’ is also known as the ‘Positive Psychology Manifesto’
which was drafted at Akumal, Mexico in two meetings held in January
1999 and in January 2000. Authored by Kenneth Sheldon, Barbara
Fredrickson, Kevin Rathunde, Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi and Jonathan
Haidt, it highlighted the focus on positive psychology.
3. Carol Ryff
4. Existential Positive Psychology
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. True
2. positive experiences, positive individual traits, and positive institutions.
29
Positive Psychology: 3. Paul T. Wong
An Introduction
4. Viktor Frankl
5. The second wave of PP emphasizes that suffering is as much required for
flourishing and growth as the experience of positive emotions.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. positive and negative affect; and life satisfaction
2. six
3. Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and
Accomplishment
4. True
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 4
1. External history of a discipline refers to the social and cultural events and
the context in which a particular discipline emerged.
2. True
3. Csikszentmihalyi
4. Bhutan
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 5
1. Psychoneuroimmunology refers to the study of complex interaction between
our negative emotional states, and our brain, nervous system, endocrine
system and the immune system, leading to negative impact on our health.
2. Posttraumatic growth refers to positive growth that can occur as a result of
traumatic experiences like serious illness, loss of a loved one, or a major
accident or disability.
3. Cognitive therapy
4. social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social actualization
and social acceptance.

1.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast the aims, objectives and scope of PP 1 and PP 2.
2. Throw light on the historical context of the development of the field of
positive psychology.
3. Explain the interrelation between clinical psychology and positive
psychology.
4. How positive psychology is related to the field of developmental
psychology?

30
 Introduction to
1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Positive Psychology
Baumgardner, S. R. & Crothers, M. K. (2014). Positive Psychology. Pearson
Education
Coan, R. W. (1974). The Optimal personality: An empirical and theoretical
analysis. Routledge.
Csikszentmihalyi, M, (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.
New York: Harper & Row.
Danner, D., Snowdon, D., & Friesen, W. (2001). Positive emotions in early life
and longevity: Findings from the nun study. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology. 80, 804-813.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
Diener, E. & Oishi, S. (2000). Money and happiness: Income and subjective
well-being across nations. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.,) Culture and
subjective well-being (pp. 185-218). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Diener, E., & Oishi, S (2005). Target article: The nonobvious social psychology
of happiness. Psychological Inquiry, 16, 162-167.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction
with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
Eid, M. & Larsen, R. J. (2008) The science of subjective well-being. New York,
Guilford Press.
Frederikson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology.
American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
Froh (2004). The history of positive psychology: Truth Be Told. NYS
Psychologist, May/June. p. 18-20.
Jahoda, M. (1958) Current concepts of positive mental health. New York: Basic
Books
Jourard, S. M., and T. Landsman (1980) Healthy personality: An ppproach
from the viewpoint of humanistic psychology, 4th ed. New York: Macmillan.
Keyes, C. L. M (1998). Social well-Being. Social Psychology Quarterly. 61(2),
121-140.
Leahey. H. (2004). A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological
thought. Pearson Education.
Lomas, T., Case, B. W., Cratty, F., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2021). A global
history of happiness. International Journal of Well-being, 11(4), 68-87. https://
doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v11i4.1457
Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row
Maslow, A. H. (1971). Farther reaches of human nature. Penguin Books.
Myers, D. G. (2000). The funds, friends, and faith of happy people. American
31
Psychologist, 55, 56-67.
Positive Psychology: Paul Wachtel (1989) The poverty of affluence: A psychological portrait of the
An Introduction american way of life. New York, NW: Ig Publishing.
Peterson, C. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues:
A handbook of classification. Washington DC: American Psychological
Association/New York: Oxford University Press.
Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A
review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of
Psychology, 52, 141-166.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning
of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Ryff, C.D., & Keyes, C.L.M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being
revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: The Free Press – A
Division of Simon & Schuster.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of
happiness and well-being.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An
Introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14.
Sheldon, K., Fredrickson, B., Rathunde, K., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Haidt, J.
(2000). Positive Psychology Manifesto (Akumal Manifesto). Available from:
https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/opportunities/conference-archives
Singh, K. & Choubisa (2009). Psychometric properties of Hindi translated
version of values in action inventory of strengths (via-is). Journal of Indian
Health Psychology, 4(1), p. 65-76.
Souders, B. (2021). What is applied positive psychology? https://
positivepsychology.com /applied-positive-psychology/ ( Published - 19-10-
2021 - Downloaded – 10/11/2021)
Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive
model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69–81.
Web Links
www.positivepsychology.com
https://positivepsychology.com/positive-psychology-interventions/.

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