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The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES)

|| Volume || 4 || Issue || 3 || Pages || PP.76-84|| 2015 ||
ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805

Structural, Economic and Environmental Study of Concrete and

Timber as Structural Members for Residential Buildings in
Nigeria
Anthony Nkem Ede1 (PhD), Samuel Olusegun Adebayo1,
Gideon Olukunle Bamigboye1, Jadesola Ogundeji1
1
Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering
Covenant University, Cannan Land, Ota, Nigeria.

--------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------
The construction Industry in Nigeria is relatively monotonous in terms of the building material used, as
evidenced by the vast number of residential buildings in Nigeria made of heavy weight materials such as
concrete blocks. Since concrete is in high demand in the society, the cost of getting concrete constituent
materials is becoming high thereby leading to high cost of living. This is largely due to the fact that alternatives
to concrete for residential buildings in Nigeria are not readily available or explored. It is therefore of necessity
to motivate stakeholders to alternative building materials that will not only rival concrete in cost, but also serve
as a viable competitor in terms of sustainability, maintenance, constructability and client satisfaction in all
necessary ramifications. With this in mind, timber has been selected in this research as “the” alternative
material to rival concrete in the Nigerian building sector. This research studies both concrete and timber
materials under structural, economic environmental and energy perspectives as to help designers with a choice
of considering one over the other. This will give the Nigerian client, architect, engineer and builder the
justification to choose one material over the other in order to meet the needs of the society. Various Autodesk
software are adopted for Modelling and Structural Design of a duplex building of concrete and then timber
materials. Cost Analysis of the two models are compared. Environmental Impact Assessment is conducted on
the two building models with Athena Impact Estimator software. Results obtained are very promising for timber
material.
Keywords: Affordable Homes, Concrete, Design, Energy, Environmental Impact, Sustainability, Timber
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Date of Submission: 28-February-2015 Date of Accepted: 20.March.2015
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I. INTRODUCTION
The challenges of choosing one building material over another, has been a subject of much concern and
arguments in the construction industry as clients, architects as well as design engineers have their own preferable
choice probably based on the availability of materials, ease of erection, cost of material, aesthetics and technical
knowledge to name a few. In the more recent times, environmental and sustainability factors are becoming very
important for building material selection [1]. In Nigeria, there are two basic construction materials adopted for
construction of residential apartments. One of the materials is concrete which is used for concrete block walls
and timber used more often for less important structural elements and constructions. The adoption of concrete is
more common in Nigeria [2] while timber is rarely utilized except for temporary structures, structures of low
value and in the riverine areas. As abundant timber material is readily available, it is important to explore its
potential and see if it worth being considered by designers as a cost effective alternative to concrete. More so,
concrete structures have experienced frequent collapse in Nigeria in the recent years [3]. From this point of view
comes the much needed comparison between concrete and timber under structural, economic, environmental and
energy perspectives as to help designers with a choice of considering one over the other. This is needed because
adequate knowledge of engineering materials is vital for viable structural design. Timber is a natural and
traditional building material and over the years, considerable knowledge and information has been gained on its
important material properties and their effects on structural design and service behavior in the advanced nations,
yet it is not a valued option for major structural elements in Nigeria. A proper understanding of the physical
characteristics of wood aids the building of safe timber structure [4] and for that is the need for this research.

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II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Concrete is one of the greatest inventions in the field of construction engineering. Nevertheless,
concrete is known for its low tensile strength and as such has been limited in its utilization in its earlier years of
invention. Today, the versatility of concrete have greatly increased [5]. The addition of steel reinforcement to
concrete mix compensates for the tensile weakness of concrete. The combined mix of both concrete and steel
reinforcement is called reinforced concrete and is the second generation of concrete after the unreinforced mass
concrete. Today, reinforced concrete is one of the most important materials used in the design of structural
members worldwide. It is a composite material per excellence [6] and it is widely used because of its
constituents. The two materials, concrete and reinforcing steel have complementary properties. Concrete is very
good in compression, and thus possess a high compressive strength, but very weak in tension. This is
compensated with the introduction of steel reinforcements in the concrete mix, since steel has a comparatively
high tensile strength. Steel notably will give way to buckling when subjected to lower compressive stresses, and
as such both concrete and steel provide complementary support to each other, compensating for the weaknesses
in the properties of each material [7]. But the reinforcing steel material used in Nigeria is of low quality and is
likely one of the factors contributing to frequent building collapses [8]. Also, every components of concrete
including the aggregate size has an enormous effect on the quality such that the general compressive strength is
very easily compromised [9].
Around the world, there are possibly more buildings constructed with wood than any other structural
material. Many of these buildings are single-family residences, mostly bungalows or single storied buildings, but
many larger apartment dwellings as well as business and industrial buildings also use wood framing. The use of
timber in the construction industry has both economic and aesthetic appeal to the designer and the clients. The
ability to construct timber structures with a minimal amount of specialized tools and equipment has put the
timber structures in great advantage over other building materials [10], [1]. Moreover steel and reinforced-
concrete design have received undue attention with respect to timber design as not sufficient attention is given to
it in most Colleges and Universities, and as such timber design in Nigeria is unknown and very scarce in relation
to steel and reinforced concrete designs. Timber is natural occurring and is largely utilized as non-major load
bearing components in the construction and building industry in Nigeria since it can be found in large quantities
in the tropical rain forest parts of Nigeria without having adequate knowledge of the properties. Timber is the
most abundant natural occurring and renewable construction material available and has been used since pre
historic times. Building elements formed from timber can be dated back to as far as 400,000 years ago making
timber the oldest, most common and widely known building material globally, as it can be used for any form of
structural element such as beams, columns, walls, roof trusses, floors etc. [11]. Timber is characterized with
tremendous insulating properties, light weight and aesthetic appeal. The extent of its usage by professionals in
the Nigerian building industry is determined by the availability and perception of the material rather than the
understanding of the material. With its known structural property, timber is still not used anywhere near its full
potential in the building sector. This is due to the fact that many clients, architects, designers and engineers do
not see wood as a building material that can rival concrete and steel. Because much technological attention have
not been paid to timber in Nigeria, durability, high structural reliability and serviceability are not generally
associated with timber and as such adequate expertise, sufficient skill and knowledge are needed to fully value
and realize the potential of timber as a building material in Nigeria[12], [13].
Concrete has been a prevalent construction material for most residential buildings in Nigeria and due to its
escalating cost, provision of affordable residential apartments for the low income earner has been a difficult
challenge in a developing countries like Nigeria [14]. It is therefore of necessity to motivate stakeholders to
alternative building materials that will not only rival concrete in cost, but also serve as a viable competitor in
terms of sustainability, maintenance, constructability and client satisfaction in all necessary ramifications. With
this in mind [15], timber has been selected as “the” alternative material to rival concrete in the Nigerian building
sector and this research studies both concrete and timber materials from different points of view to give the
Nigerian client, architect, engineer and builder the justification to choose one of these materials over the other in
order to meet the needs of the society.

III. METHODOLOGY
The detailed order of carrying out this research includes producing an architectural design to be used for both
models with the aid of AutoCAD drafting software, developing of a structural model for the major structural
members, which include: slabs, beams and columns of the building using Revit 2014, analyzing the structure
with Autodesk Robot software and then a comprehensive BOQ would be generated to evaluate the costs of
construction of both models and a Life Cycle Analysis of both models would be done using Athena Impact
Estimator for buildings. Fig. 1 below shows the developed architectural plan on the AutoCAD work-plane.

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Figure1: Plan of the building model

AutoCAD is an application for 3D computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting, which is widely used by
architects and engineers for their designs. The software was used in the development of the floor plan of a
building. Autodesk Revit is a Building Information Modeling (BIM) application software made for architectural,
structural and systematic modeling of buildings and its components for the 3D structural model was applied to
the plan to model the structural elements. Properties of the members such as grade/class, material type, and
physical properties were selected. Load types and cases are also selected here, and the appropriate loadings are
assigned to their respective locations. The structural analysis and design was then done on Autodesk Robot
2014. The characteristic loads are estimated according to BS 648 (1964) and BS 6399 (1996), and the design
load combination for a slab is given as N = 1.4 + 1.6 [16].

COSTING
The costing of both concrete and timber models were done with a comprehensive bill of quantities
produced for both models. Cost comparison is based on the variables of both models, which include
Substructure, Frame, Slabs and staircase, Walls, Finishes, Paintings and Decorations.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS AND ENERGY EVALUATION

The Environmental Impact assessment was carried out using the Athena Impact Estimator, which is capable of
modeling 1,200 structural and envelope assembly combinations and providing a cradle-to-grave life cycle
inventory profile for a whole building. The inventory results comprise the flows from and to nature: energy and
raw material flows plus emissions to air, water and land.
Building assemblies are designed and described through dialogue boxes that request simple data like bay sizes,
loadings, concrete type etc. Bill of materials can also be imported directly from any CAD program. After
modeling, the software calculates the associated environmental impacts. TABLE 1 shows the material properties
for the two models while Fig.2 show the building assembly of the timber model.

Table 1: Concrete model and timber model design information

CONCRETE TIMBER
Parameter Value Parameter Value
Characteristic strength 25.00 Type Hardwood
of concrete, N/ Bending Strength 60 N/
Reinforcement cover c 25mm Compression Parallel to 40 N/
Characteristic strength 460 N/ grain
of steel Compression 3.6 N/
perpendicular to grain
Unit weight of concrete 25 KN/ Shear Parallel to Grain 6.2 N/

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Unit weight of blocks 4.5 KN/ Tension Parallel to Grain 80 N/

Behaviour Isotropic Tension Perpendicular to 1.7 N/
Young’s modulus 23,250 Grain
N/ Average Modulus 12,000
Poisson’s ratio 0.17 N/
Shear Modulus 9,964 Shear Modulus 1,200
N/ N/
Density 2,407.31 Construction Natural
Kg/ Poisson’s ratio 0.38
Shear Strength 1.00 Density 559.04 kg/m³
Modification
Yield Strength 2.4 N/
Tensile Strength 2.4 N/

Figure 2: Building assemblies of the timber model

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Here the results of the structural, economic, environmental and energy analysis carried out on both models are
presented.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN RESULTS

Concrete Model: The structural model was analysed using the finite element method, and the results of
the forces and deformations were obtained. After running the concrete model analysis, the structural analysis
showed that there was no failed members. The required reinforcements for each member in the model were
gotten from the designed model.
Timber Model: After running the timber model analysis, there was no failed structural elements.

COST ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON RESULTS

Summaries of the costings of the variable/elements expressed in Nigerian Naira for the concrete model
and the timber model are shown in the TABLES 2 and 3 below. The cost margin between the concrete model
and the timber model is of N 3,850,425.00. Comparison of the principle elements represented in the tables is
shown in Fig.3.
For the maintenance of the two models over a period of 30 years, the difference in operational costs between the
timber and concrete frame was N 1,828,425.00.

Table 1: Summary of costs for the concrete model

SUMMARY AMOUNT
1 SUBSTRUCTURE 3,169,460
2 FRAME AND SUSPENDED SLAB 2,012,900
3 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL WALLS 1,612,410
4 FLOOR WALL AND CEILING FINISHES 2,334,200
5 PAINTING AND DECORATION 357,375
6 ROOF 2,304,240

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7 WINDOWS 954,000
8 DOORS AND IRONMONGERY 1,040,000
9 PLUMBING INSTALLATIONS 669,600
10 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 800,000
11 EXTERNAL WORKS 600,000
ESTIMATED TOTAL COSTS 15,655,735

Table 2: Summary of costs for the timber model

SUMMARY AMOUNT
1 SUBSTRUCTURE 1,470,300
2 FRAME AND SUSPENDED SLAB 1,369,710
3 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL WALLS 901,800
4 FLOOR WALL AND CEILING FINISHES 1,825,100
5 PAINTING AND DECORATION 69,000
6 ROOF 2,304,240
7 WINDOWS 954,000
8 DOORS AND IRONMONGERY 1,040,000
9 PLUMBING INSTALLATIONS 669,600
10 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 800,000
11 EXTERNAL WORKS 600,000
ESTIMATED TOTAL COSTS 12,003,750

3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
Figure 3: Cost Comparison of the principle elements used for the two models.

500000 IMPACT AND ENERGY ANALYSIS RESULTS

ENVIRONMENTAL
Smog Potential: the concrete duplex has approximately 235% more smog potential than that of the timber
0
duplex throughout their respective life cycles.
Fossil Fuel Consumption: The results obtained indicated a 315% increase in fossil fuel consumption in the
substructure frames walls finishes
concrete model with respect to the timber’s. This indicates that more energy and fuel is consumed as regards
concrete buildings in relation to timber buildings.
Ozone Depletion Potential: the Ozone depletion potential in both models is highest during the materials
production stage. The concrete model has approximately 290% more ozone depletion potential than that of the
timber.
HH Particulate: the HH Particulate of the concrete model is 228% more than that of timber model. The results
obtained are shown in Figs.4 and 5.
Global Warming Potential: this results indicated a higher global warming potential in the concrete models of
up to 6,970% that of the timber model.

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Figure 4: Life cycle stages of HH particulate potential of the concrete and timber model.

Figure 5: HH particulate potential of the concrete and timber model during construction process.

Eutrophication Potential: the eutrophication potential of the concrete model is 509% more than the timber
model.
Acidification Potential: this result indicates a 324% increase in the concrete model with respect to the timber
model.
Absolute Value of Resource Use: the various resources used and their quantities are shown in Figs. 6 to 12.

Figure 6:life cycle absolute value of resource use for the concrete model

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Figure 7: Life Cycle Water and energy consumption for the concrete model

Figure 8: Water and Energy consumption for the concrete model during construction process.

Figure 9: life cycle absolute value of Resource Use for the timber model

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Figure10: Life Cycle Water and energy consumption for the timber model

Figure11: Life cycle waste emissions for the concrete model

Figure12: Life cycle waste emissions for the wood model

V. DISCUSSION
For the concrete and timber models, structural, economic and environmental and energy analyses have been
carried out and results obtained. Discussions on these analyses now follow.
Structural Analysis and Design: from the analysis carried out on both models, the response of the residential
building models to the loadings are observed, and it can be seen that concrete structures is stronger and heavier
than timber model. Also, due to the low density, this timber building do not require as much solid foundation as
the concrete model. This is of a particular advantage where sub-soil conditions are poor. It was also confirmed
that timber components withstand movement compared to its concrete counterpart as seen by the deformations
obtained. Uneven settlement may easily cause serious cracking in concrete buildings. On the other hand a timber

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house can accept differential settlement of several centimeters without visible damage. Therefore foundations of
timber buildings can be of a light design not only because the timber is light, but because of its ability to
accommodate movement.
Cost Analysis: from the result gotten from the cost analysis of both models, the timber model has a better
advantage to the concrete’s largely because of the way these types of buildings are constructed, the ease with
which its constituent materials can be gotten and the mode and ease of construction. Fast erection represents a
significant monetary gain.
Constructability and Aesthetics: during the modeling of the timber frame building, there were various methods
of designing the frame giving the designer a wide variety of options, and as such modifications can easily be
made as regards designs and during the construction process. This is a contrast with respect to concrete
structures, as designs and detailing must rigorously follow a lay down rule since adjustments to works on site can
be very costly.
Environmental Impact assessment and energy efficiency: also, from the various studies and the results gotten
from the analysis, timber made buildings are environmentally friendly compared to concrete structures this is
largely due to the fact that wood has a negative impact on carbon emissions, and actively helps in storing
atmospheric CO2 thereby reducing global warming. Also, the energy saving is very visible.

V. CONCLUSION
The results obtained show that concrete is stronger and heavier than timber. The lighter weight of
timber structure entails a smaller foundation and therefore economic advantage. The lighter weight of timber is
of a particular advantage where sub-soil conditions are poor and prone to differential movements. From the cost
point of view, the timber model has a better advantage to the concrete as it appears more economical. From
design and constructability point of view, the modeling of the timber frame building has a wide variety of
options which makes it easier than concrete design and construction. On environmental impact and energy
efficiency analysis, timber made buildings are more environmentally friendly compared to concrete structures.
The results of this research prove beyond reasonable doubt that timber is an excellent material for residential
buildings and moderate size buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank the Chancellor and the Management of Covenant University for the platform made
available for this research.
REFERENCE
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Timber to Construct a Duplex Residential Building, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 11(2), 2014, P 62-72
[2] A.N. Ede, A. J. Salami, D. O. Olukanni, A. S. Ogbiye, D. O. Omole, and I. I. Akinwumi, Life Cycle Cost Evaluation of Using
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