POULTRY SCIENCE Kavitha Zoology

SBEC IV: POULTRY SCIENCE
B.Sc. ZOOLOGY
SKILL BASED ELECTIVE COURSE (SBEC) IV
POULTRY SCIENCE
UNIT I
Introduction to poultry keeping – Poultry Industry in India – Important breeds of Poultry – Desi,
– Chittagong and Leghorn.
UNIT II
Construction of poultry house – Types - Layer house and Broiler house
UNIT III
Poultry feeds – Essential nutrients – Ration for Chick and Broiler.
UNIT IV
Hatchery, Nutritional value of egg, marketing of egg and By-products of poultry.
UNIT V
Common diseases of poultry – Raniket, Coccidiosis and Coryza, Vaccination programme.
REFERENCES:
1. Modern aspects of commercial Poultry keeping. Gnanamani A.R. Giri Publication, Madurai.
2. A text book of Animal Husbandry – Banerjee G.C. Oxford & IBH publishing Co Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi. 8th Edition
3. Poultry keeping in India. Naidu P.M.N. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
4. Poultry production. Singh R.A. New Delhi
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Unit Topics Page

No. No.
I Introduction to poultry keeping 3
Poultry Industry in India 5
Important breeds of Poultry – Desi – Chittagong and Leghorn. 8-9
II Construction of poultry house 10
Types - Layer house and Broiler house 17
III Poultry feeds 19
Essential nutrients 19
Ration for Chick and Broiler. 24
IV Hatchery 26
Nutritional value of egg, 33
Marketing of egg and 35
By products of poultry. 38
V Common diseases of poultry 43
Raniket, Coccidiosis and Coryza 43
Vaccination programme. 48-49
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UNIT-I
Introduction to poultry keeping – Poultry Industry in India – Important breeds of Poultry –
Desi, – Chittagong and Leghorn.
Introduction to poultry keeping
Poultry is the domestication and rearing of birds like chicken, turkeys, geese, swans, and emu etc
for providing food.
In poultry sector there exists a large scope to enhance food production through both layer and
broiler farming.
It has been observed that agriculture hardly provides employment ranging from 120 to 150 days
in a year. It has been calculated that a backyard poultry unit of 25 to 50 can generate employment
for 40 to 50 man days.
In a similar manner a dairy unit consisting of 2 crossbred cows can help in creating employment
for 120 to 150 man days and a small ruminant (Goats & Sheep) of 20 head size generate 100 to
120 man days in a year, mostly in the woman work force. In addition to this, commercial
activities under this sector will also encourage unemployed educated youths in a great manner to
set up their own units. These activities will create sustainable means of livelihood in the rural
areas along with bridging the gap in demand and production in egg, meat and milk.
 Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce, their meat, their
feathers, or sometimes as pet.
 The word "poultry" comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin
word pullus, which means small animal.
 Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat in the world, accounting for about 30%
of total meat production worldwide compared to pork at 38%..
 Global broiler meat production rise to 84.6 million tonnes in 2013.The largest producer
country is USA, followed by China and India has 5th rank.
 Poultry is available fresh or frozen, as whole birds or as joints (cuts), bone-in or deboned,
seasoned in various ways, raw or ready to cooked.
 Sixteen billion birds are raised annually for consumption, more than half of these in
industrialized, factory- like production units.
Layer:
Large, medium and small scale layer farming can be taken up by the prospective
entrepreneurs/farmers with either own finance or by bank credit. New-a-Jays competent technical
and professional guidance are available to the farmers through Govt. and private institutions. The
poultry management practices have improved many folds, diseases and mortality incidences have
reduced greatly. Now, layer farming has been given considerable importance in State policy and
has a better scope in future.
Broiler:
In broiler segment the State is now self-sufficient in chicken meat production in respect to
demand. Still there is enormous scope within this sector if marketing side is taken care of.
Many reputed entrepreneurs have started interest in broiler sector which further encourage our
farmers to take up broiler farming.
Backyard Poultry:
Besides, the above two segments, another segment of poultry is opened for our rural poor. They
can take up this segment as their subsidiary occupation. Now days newly developed low input
technology birds are available in poultry which thrive well under semi intensive system of
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management. These birds are phenotypically similar to desi birds instead produce more of eggs
and also grow in a much faster rate than desi birds.
These types of breeds and their availability are as follows:
Investment Opportunities:
As poultry has been classified as agriculture now, it has been treated as priority sector of lending
from financing institutions. So entrepreneurs/farmers should approach the Commercial
Banks/Co-operative Banks/RRB of their areas to avail credit to establish poultry units.
Government is also seriously trying to bring outside investors to invest in State poultry sector to
make easy availability of required poultry inputs at a reasonable rate. So that farmers can be
encouraged to take up layer and broiler farming.
Government Schemes:
(a) An ambitious programme has been taken up by Govt. to produce 100 lakh eggs/day within 5
years of time.
(b) Strengthening of farms with low input technology birds for backyard farming in the State
(c) Self Help Groups are given opportunity to start poultry farming.
(d) Promotion of large and medium scale poultry farming through Agricultural entrepreneurs
schemes.
(e) Promotion of cluster farming.
Govt’s support for poultry development:
1. Poultry has been declared as agriculture.
2. Poultry farming has been treated as priority sector of lending by the financing institutions.
3. A clear cut guideline formulated by Pollution Control Board to ease poultry farming.
4. Exemption of VAT on egg, meat & poultry feed and feed supplements.
5. Lease for Govt. land for poultry farming.
6. Poultry insurance premium has been reduced.
7. 20% capital investment subsidy to a maximum of 20 lakhs is provided for promotion of poultry
farming.
8. Action Plan to increase the maize production has been prepared for feed supply.
9. Apex Committee has been constituted to look into various impediments of poultry sector.
Future Issues:
1. Reduction of electricity tariff rate for poultry farming.
2. Exemption of poultry industry from labour act.
3. Exemption of VAT on maize and broken rice.
4. Exemption of entry tax on egg and poultry meat.
5. Planning to increase the storage capacity of maize crop in the State.
Production performance of different breeds:
Layer breeds: BV 300: 320 eggs / bird
Broiler breeds:
(1) Cobb 100: 1.4 kg in 35 days (2) Cobb 400: 1.8 kg in 40 days (3) Ross: 2.0 kg in 42 days
Dual purpose breeds: (1) Vanaraj: 150 eggs / bird (2) Carigold: 220 eggs / bird
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Poultry Industry in India
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector in India today.
While the production of agricultural crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5 to 2 percent per annum
that of eggs and broilers has been rising at a rate of 8 to 10 percent per annum. As a result, India
is now the world's fifth largest egg producer and the eighteenth largest producer of broilers.
Driving this expansion are a combination of factors - growth in per capita income, a growing
urban population and falling real poultry prices.
In the context of this emerging scenario, questions are being raised about the impact of the
scaling up of production-through structural factors, externalities and policies-on small-scale
producers. Do the transaction costs, policy distortion and environment externalities place the
small-scale producer at a disadvantage? Why do some poultry farms have higher income than
others? Do large farms earn more profit per unit of output than small ones? What explains the
differentials in profitability? This report *, which forms part of an ongoing international
comparison study on poultry, seeks to address these questions. It attempts to assess the impact of
policy and environmental factors on the scale of poultry operations in India as well as the
implications of that impact for small-scale production. The study aims to collect and analyze
consistent data.
Transformation from a Backyard Activity to a Major Commercial Activity
The poultry sector in India has undergone a paradigm shift in structure and operation. A
significant feature of India's poultry industry has been its transformation from a mere backyard
activity into a major commercial activity in just about four decades. This transformation has
involved sizeable investments in breeding, hatching, rearing and processing. Farmers in India
have moved from rearing non-descript birds to today rearing hybrids such as is Hyaline, lt is
Shaver, II and in Babcock, It which ensure faster growth, good liveability, excellent feed
conversion and high profits to the rearers. The industry has grown largely due to the initiative of
private enterprise, minimal government intervention, and considerable indigenous poultry
genetics capabilities, and considerable support from the complementary veterinary health, poultry
feed, poultry equipment, and poultry processing sectors. India is one of the few countries in the
world that has put into place a sustained Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) egg production project.
Regional Variation in Poultry Development
Another important aspect of poultry development in India is the significant variation in the
industry across regions. Figure 1.1 illustrates egg production in India by state during 1998-99.
The four southern states - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu - account for about
45 percent of the country's egg production, with a per capita consumption of 57 eggs and 0.5 kg.
of broiler meat. The eastern and central regions of India account for about 20 percent of egg
production, with a per capita consumption of 18 eggs and 0.13 kg. of broiler meat. The northern
and western regions of the country record much higher figures than the eastern and central
regions with respect to per capita availability of eggs and broiler meat. Figure 1.2 shows egg
production in India by region during 1992-93.
Growing Production of Eggs and Broilers
Table eggs and broiler meat are the major end products of the poultry sector in India. Presently
production of eggs is estimated to number about 37 billion, that of broilers 895 million, and that
of poultry meat 735,000 tonnes. The value of egg and poultry production in India during 1980-
2000 is illustrated in Figure 1.3. In addition, organized facilities have been set up over the years
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for the manufacture of egg powder and frozen, processed broiler meat essentially to cater to
export markets and markets in the metropolitan areas of India.
Increasing Scale of Operation
The growth of the poultry sector in India is also marked by an increase in the size of the poultry
farm. In earlier years broiler farms had produced on average a few hundred birds (200-500
chicks) per cycle. Today units with fewer than 5,000 birds are becoming rare, and units with
5,000 to 50,000 birds per week cycle are common. Similarly, in layer farms, units with a flock
size of 10,000 to 50,000 birds have become common. Small units are probably finding
themselves at a disadvantage because of high feed and transport costs, expensive vaccines, and
veterinary care services and the non-availability of credit. Some small units are reported to be
shifting from layer to broiler production because output in broiler units can be realized in six
weeks.
Structure of the Poultry Industry
The structure of India's poultry industry varies from region to region. While independent and
relatively small-scale producers account for the bulk of production, integrated large-scale
producers do account for a growing share of output in some regions. Integrators include large
regional firms that incorporate all aspects of production, including the raising of grandparent and
parent flocks, rearing DOCs, contracting production, compounding feed, providing veterinary
services, and wholesaling.
Concentration of Poultry Units around Cities and Urban Centres
There has also been a growing tendency for poultry units to be concentrated around urban areas
because of the existence of ready markets for the end products of poultry production.
Low Per Capita Consumption
Even though India is the world's fifth largest egg producer and the eighteenth largest producer of
broilers, its per capita consumption of these products is poor - 37 eggs and 1 kg. of poultry meat
per capita per annum. Here, again, there is considerable variation in per capita consumption
between rural and urban areas and also across the region. Per capita consumption of eggs is only
7.7 per annum in rural areas compared with 17.8 per annum in urban areas. In seven states, per
capita consumption is less than 3.5 per annum. Similarly, per capita consumption of poultry meat
is 0.24 kg. in rural areas and 1.08 kg. in urban areas.
Slow Changes in Consumption Habits
An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) rounds reveals
many interesting facts. First, 42 percent of households are vegetarian in that they do not eat fish,
meat or eggs. The remaining 68 percent of households are non-vegetarians. Over time there has
been a gradual shift from vegetarianism to non-vegetarianism. The change is more visible in rural
areas than in urban areas. For instance, between 1987-88 and 1999-2000, the proportion of
households consuming only one of the three items - fish, meat or eggs - increased by only one
percent in urban areas, while in rural areas this proportion increased by four percent. Second,
calculation of income elasticity of demand for different commodity groups shows that the
commodity group that includes meat, fish or eggs ranks second in the quantity of commodities
consumed in rural areas (milk and milk products rank first), while in urban areas consumption of
the meat, fish, or egg commodity group ranks third. The estimated income elasticity is 1.01 in
rural areas and 0.66 in urban areas. Third, the price elasticity also follows the same order. Meat,
fish or eggs have the high price elasticity of 0.75 in rural areas and 0.68 in urban areas. Fourth,
estimates of income and price elasticities calculated for each of the four expenditure groups show
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that those elasticities tend to decline as one moves from the poor to the non-poor and the wealthy.
The income elasticity is low for the wealthy - 0.5 in rural areas and 0.6 in urban areas. The other
two income groups in rural areas have high-income elasticity - greater than unity. Price
elasticities are greater than unity for the very poor and the poor in rural areas, and for the very
poor in urban areas. A significant policy implication of these consumption habits is that there is
lot of scope in raising the demand for poultry products in rural areas.
Exports
Exports of poultry products from India comprise table eggs, meat, live birds and value-added
products such as egg powder and frozen yolk. The value of aggregated exports was Rs. 1,683
million in 1996-97. Exports were expected to reach the level of Rs. 5 billion by the year 2000.
Employment
Three decades ago, when egg and broiler production was 10 billion and 30 million, respectively,
the total employment numbers in the poultry sector were not so encouraging. As income and
employment in the crop sector started diminishing, the non-crop sector, which includes dairy and
poultry, underwent a significant shift. With the demand for poultry increasing and production
reaching 37 billion eggs and 1 billion broilers, this sector now employs around 1.6 million
people. At least 80 percent of employment in the poultry sector is generated directly by these
farmers, while 20 percent is engaged in feed, pharmaceuticals, equipment and other services
required by the poultry sector. Additionally, there may be a similar number of people roughly 1.6
million who are engaged in marketing and other channels servicing the poultry sector.
Issues Relating to Animal Welfare and Environmental Pollution
Issues relating to animal welfare and environmental pollution by poultry units have been of
increasing concern in developed countries such as the U.S. and the European Union (E.U.). But in
India these issues have not yet emerged as critical although they are discussed at length in various
seminars and forums on poultry production. Considering globalization and the international trade
in poultry products, however, these issues may assume significance in a few years because of
pressures from importing countries such as those in the E.U.
Constraints on the Growth of the Poultry Industry
A major constraint affecting the growth of the poultry industry in India is the lack of basic
infrastructure such as storage and transportation, including cold chain. As a result, there are wild
price fluctuations in the prices of poultry products, i.e., eggs and broilers. Another constraint to
growth is an inefficient marketing system. The presence of so many market intermediaries harms
both the producer and the consumer. A third problem relates to the price availability of feed
resources. Maize or corn plays a major role in broiler production, as it constitutes 50 to 55 percent
of broiler feed. As the broiler industry is growing at the rate of 15 percent per annum, the demand
for maize is thus likely to increase. Presently India grows only 11 million tonnes of maize and
only 5 million tonnes are available for poultry, which is not sufficient if the current growth rate of
the industry is to be maintained.
Policy Measures
The policy measures that are required to improve the poultry industry must involve: (a)
improving infrastructure facilities, which will help not only to stabilize the price of poultry
products in the domestic market, but will also make them available in remote areas; (b) creating
an efficient marketing channel that will help provide remunerative prices to producers (in other
words, India's marketing set-up should also grow along professional lines); and (c) increasing
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maize production, which will involve using GM (genetically modified) seed varieties or,
alternatively, will necessitate finding other sources of feed ingredients that can replace maize.
Breeds of Chicken
Incubation period, Chromosome numbers and age at sexual maturity of different species of
poultry
Class American Asiatic English Mediterranean
Shank Clean Feathered Clean Clean
Skin colour Yellow Yellow White Yellow or white
Earlobe colour Red Red Red White
Purpose Dual Meat Dual Egg
Size Medium Massive Medium Small
Shell colour Brown Brown Brown White
1) Cornish
1) Rhode Island Red 1) Leghorn
1) Brahma 2) Australorp
2) Plymouth rock 2) Minorca
Examples 2) Cochin 3) Dorking
3)New Hampshire 3) Ancona
3) Langshan 4) Orpington
4)Wyandotte 4) Andalusian
5) Sussex
Chicken may also classified based on their utility as,
1) Egg type - Eg. White Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona
2) Meat type - Eg. Cornish, Plymouth rock, Brahma
3) Dual purpose - Eg. Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire
4) Game bird - Eg. Aseel
5) Fancy variety - Eg. Silky, frizzled, bantams
6) Desi type - Eg. Kadaknath, Naked neck, chittagong.
Chittagong:
This large breed make excellent pets as they are docile in
addition to being good to look at. Because they are slow to mature
they are not usually seen as a commercial fowl, though their egg
laying is about 140 per annum. They may be light, buff or dark in
colour, the latter two of which are lighter in weight. The head and
skull have a pea comb and brow. They also small wattles and well-
feathered shanks and toes, as are evident in this picture. It is named
after the Brahmaputra River area. Here the Malay and Cochin were
crossed and exported to Shanghai, China in the 1840s. They went to
New York in 1846 and then to New England in 1853. The first book
on poultry standards, issued in 1856, mentions the Brahmas chicken.
After a gift was made to Queen Victoria the name was changed to
Brahma chicken. The breed was minaly developed in the United States
between 1850 and 1890, when most were light or dark, with buff birds emerging more recently.
It is also known as Malay.
Dual-purpose bird.
The popular varieties are buff, white, black, dark brown and grey.
Pea comb, red ear lobes, over-hanging prominent eyebrows, feather-less shank
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Leghorn
Origin: The Leghorn originate from a region in Northern Italy near the port for its namesake,
Leghorn. The ancestors of this fowl are not known. The Leghorn arrive in America in the mid-
1800’s by Captain Gates. The APA recognizes many varieties of the Leghorn, but they all came
at different times.
Characteristics: A small, spritely, noisy bird with great style, Leghorns like to move about. They
are good foragers and can often glean much of their diet from ranging over fields and barnyards.
Leghorns are capable of considerable flight and often roost in trees if given the opportunity.
Leghorns and their descendants are the most numerous breed we have in America today. The
Leghorn has red wattle, white earlobes, and either a single or rose comb. Leghorns rarely go
broody.
Standard Weights: Cock: 6 lbs; Hen: 4 ½ lbs; Cockerel 5 lbs; Pullet: 4 lbs.
Varieties:
 Single Comb Dark Brown
 Single Comb Light Brown
 Rose Comb Dark Brown
 Rose Comb Light Brown
 Single Comb White
 Rose Comb White
 Single Comb Buff
 Rose Comb Buff
 Single Comb Black
 Single Comb Silver
 Single Comb Red
 Single Comb Black Tailed Red
 Single Comb Columbian
Skin Color: Yellow
Egg Shell Color: White
Use: The Leghorn is primarily a layer. The hen lays around
200 or more eggs per year.
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UNIT-II
Construction of poultry house – Types - Layer house and Broiler house
Need for poultry house

 To protect birds from adverse climatic conditions
 To ensure easy and economic operation
 To ensure scientific feeding in a controlled manner
 To facilitate proper micro-climatic conditions in a near vicinity of bird
 For effective disease control measures
 To ensure proper supervision
Selection of location
 Poultry house should be located away from residential and industrial area.
 It should have proper road facilities.
 It should have the basic amenities like water and electricity.
 Availability of farm labourers at relatively cheaper wages.
 Poultry house should be located in an elevated area and there should not be any water-
logging.
 It should have proper ventilation.
Layout of poultry farm
A small size poultry farm doesn’t require any special layout as it involves construction of only
one house. The medium and large size farms require special considerations for placement of
building in the farm premises. The basic principles to be observed for layout are
Layout should not allow visitors or outside vehicles near the birds.
The sheds should be so located that the fresh air first passes through the brooder shed, followed
by grower and layer sheds. This prevents the spread of diseases from layer houses to brooder
house.
There should be a minimum distance of 50-100 feet between chick and grower shed and the
distance between grower and layer sheds should be of minimum 100 metre.
The egg store room, office room and the feed store room should be located near entrance to
minimize the movement of people around the poultry sheds.
The disposal pit and sick room should be constructed only at the extreme end of the site.
Different types of poultry houses

 Brooder / chick house - It is used to brood and rear egg-type chicks from 0 to 8 weeks of age.
 Grower house - It is used to grow egg-type birds from 9 to 18 weeks of age.
 Brooders cum grower house - Here, the birds are reared from 0 to 18 weeks of age (entire
brooding and growing period of egg-type chicken).
 Layer house-In which birds over 18 weeks of age are reared, usually up to 72 weeks of age.
 Broiler house -In which broilers (meat-type birds) are reared up to 5/6 weeks of age.
 Breeder house-In which both male and female breeders are maintained at appropriate sex
ratio.
Environmentally controlled (EC) house-In which, entire environment is manipulated in such a
way that is optimum for the birds’ growth.
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Optimal environmental conditions for rearing broilers
Temperature - 22-300C (70-850F)
Relative Humidity - 30-60 %
Ammonia level - Less than 25 ppm
Litter moisture - 15-25%
Air flow - 10-30 metres/minute
House Orientation (Direction)
The poultry house should be located in such a way that long axis is in east-west
direction. This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds.
Size
Each broiler require one square foot of floor space while a layer requires two square feet of
floor space under deep-litter system of rearing. So the size of the house depends on the number
of birds to be reared.
Length
The length of the house can be of any extent. The number of birds reared and availability
of the land determines the length of poultry house.
Width
The open sided poultry houses in tropical countries should have a width not more than 22
to 25 feet in order to allow ample ventilation and aeration at the mid-portion. Sheds wider than
this will not provide adequate ventilation during the hot weather. If the width of the shed is more
than 25 feet, ridge ventilation at the middle line of the roof top with proper overhang is a
must. Hot air and obnoxious gases which are lighter than air move upward and escape through
ridge ventilation. In environmentally controlled poultry houses, the width of the house may be
even 40 feet or more since the ventilation is controlled with the help of exhaust fans.
Height
The height of the sides from foundation to the roof line should be 6 to 7 feet (eaves height)
and at the centre 10 to 12 feet. In case of cage houses, the height is decided by the type of cage
arrangements (3 tier or 4 tier).
Foundation
Good foundation is essential to prevent seepage of water into the poultry sheds. The
foundation of the house should of concrete with 1 to 1.5 feet below the surface and 1 to 1.5 feet
above the ground level.
Floor
The floor should be made of concrete with rat proof device and free from dampness. The
floor of the house should be extended 1.5 feet outside the wall on all sides to prevent rat and
snake problems.
Doors
The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry houses. The size of door is
preferably 6 x 2.5 feet. At the entry, a foot bath should be constructed to fill with a disinfectant.
Side walls
The side wall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and generally at the level of bird’s back
height. This side wall protects the bird during rainy days or chill climate and also provides
sufficient ventilation. In case of cage houses, no side wall is needed.
Roof
The roof of the poultry house may be thatched, tiled, asbestos or concrete one depending
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upon the cost involvement. Different types of roofs are Shed, Gable, half-monitor, full-monitor
(Monitor), Flat concrete, Gambrel, Gothic etc. Gable type is mostly preferred in tropical
countries like India.
Overhang
The overhang of the roof should not be less than 3.5 feet in order to prevent the entry of
rain water into the shed.
Lighting
Light should be provided at 7-8 feet above the ground level and must be hanged from
ceiling. If incandescent bulbs are used, the interval between two bulbs is 10 feet. In case of
fluorescent lights (tube lights) the interval is 15 feet.
Systems of Poultry Housing
Poultry can be housed under different systems based on following factors,
1. Availability of land
2. Cost of land
3. Type of farming activity
4. Climatic condition
5. Labour availability
Broadly, poultry housing systems are classified into three systems:
1. Free range or extensive system
2. Semi-intensive system
3. Intensive system
a. Deep-litter system
b. Slatted floor system
c. Slat cum litter system
d. Cage system
1) Free range system
This system is adopted only when adequate land is available to ensure desired stocking
density by avoiding overcrowding. We can rear about 250 adult birds per hectare. A range
provides shelter, greens, feed, water and shade. Foraging is the major source of feeding for
birds. Shelter is usually provided by temporary roofing supported by ordinary poles. The fields
are generally used on rotational basis after harvesting of crops by moving of birds from one field
to another depending on cropping programme. All categories of birds can be reared in this
system. This system is most preferred for organic egg production.
Advantages
 Less capital investment
 Cost of housing is least.
 Feed requirements are less since birds can consume fairly good amount of feed from grass
land.
 Fertility of soil can be maintained.
Disadvantages
 The scientific management practices cannot be adopted.
 Eggs are lost when laid inside the dense grasses unless special nests are provided.
 Losses due to predatory animals are more.
 Wild birds may bring diseases unless proper care is taken.
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2) Semi-intensive system
As the name indicates birds are half-way reared in houses and half-way on ground or range,
i.e. birds are confined to houses in night or as per need and they are also given access to
runs. The houses are with solid floors while runs are fields only. The success of rearing depends
on maintenance of condition of runs to reduce the contamination. Runs can also be used on turn
basis. The stocking density rate on an average for adult birds is 750 per hectare. This system is
usually adopted for duck rearing. The feeding and watering facilities are provided in the pen.
Advantages
 More economical use of land compared to free range system
 Protection of birds from extreme climatic conditions
 Control over scientific operation is some extent possible
Disadvantages
 High cost for fencing.
 Need for routine cleaning and removal of litter material from the pen.
3) Intensive system
Birds are totally confined to houses either on ground / floor or on wire-netting floor in
cages or on slats. It is the most efficient, convenient and economical system for modern poultry
production with huge numbers.
Advantages
 Minimum land is required for farming.
 Farms can be located near market area.
 Day-to-day management is easier.
 The production performance is higher as more energy is saved due to restricted movements.
 Scientific management practices like breeding, feeding, medication, culling etc. can be
applied easily and accurately.
 The sick birds can be detected, isolated and treated easily.
Disadvantages
 Birds’ welfare is affected. They cannot perform the natural behaviour like roosting, spreading
wings, scratching the floor with legs etc.
 Since they are not exposed to outside sunlight and feed sources, all the nutrients should be
provided in balanced manner to avoid nutritionally deficient diseases.
 Chances for spreading of diseases are more.
Deep Litter System
In this system the birds are kept inside the house all the time. Arrangement for feed, water and
nest are made inside the house. The birds are kept on suitable litter material of about 3” to 5”
depth. The word litter is used for fresh litter material spread on the floor. Usually paddy husk,
saw dust, ground nut hulls, chopped paddy straw or wood shavings are used as litter
materials. This arrangement saves labour involved in frequent cleaning of faecal matter
(droppings), however it needs periodical stirring. The litter is spread on the floor in layers of 2”
height every fortnightly till the required is achieved.
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Advantages
 Vit B2 and Vit B12 are made available to birds from the litter material by the bacterial
action.
 The welfare of birds is maintained to some extend
 The deep litter manure is a useful fertilizer.
 Lesser nuisance from flies when compared to cage system.
Disadvantages
 Because of the direct contact between bird and litter, bacterial and parasitic disease may be
a problem.
 Respiratory problems may emerge due to dust from the litter.
 The cost of litter is an additional expenditure on production cost.
 Faults in ventilation can have more serious consequences than in the cage system
The built up litter
Deep litter or built up litter is accumulation and decomposition of litter material and
excreta until it reaches a depth of 8” to 12”, after an original start of 3” to 5” depth. Bacterial
action decomposes litter and excreta into crumble form and heat is produced during
decomposition which keeps litter dry and warm. If the amount of droppings exceeds the litter,
fresh litter will be added to lower the amount of droppings. Periodical stirring of the litter should
be carried out for an effective functioning of built-up litter. After one year, the litter is changed
and the decomposed litter is used as good quality manure. The best built-up litter should be dry,
friable and free from obnoxious odour.
Slatted (Slotted) Floor System
In a slatted floor, iron rods or wood reapers are used as floor, usually 2-3 feet above the ground
level to facilitate fall of droppings through slats. Wooden reapers or iron rods of 2” diameter can
be used on lengthwise of the house with interspaces of 1” between rods.
Advantages
 Less floor space per bird is needed when compared to solid floor system.
 Bedding is eliminated
 Manure handling is avoided
 Increased sanitation
 Saving in labour
 Soil borne infection is controlled
Disadvantages
 Higher initial cost than conventional solid floors
 Less flexibility in the use of the building
 Any spilled feed is lost through the slots
 More fly problem.
14 | 4 9
Slat (Slot) Cum Litter System
This system is commonly practiced for rearing birds for hatching eggs production, particularly
meat-type breeders. Here, a part of the floor area is covered with slats. Usually, 60% of the floor
area is covered with slats and rest with litter. Feeders and waterers are arranged in both slat and
litter area. In case of breeder flock, nest boxes are usually kept on litter area.
Advantages
 More eggs can be produced per unit of floor space than all solid floors.
 Fertility is better with the slat cum litter house than with the all-slat house.
Disadvantages
 Housing investment is higher with the slat cum litter house than with the all-litter house.
 The separation of birds from the manure beneath the slats commonly results in fly
problems.
Cage System
This system involves rearing of poultry on raised wire netting floor in smaller
compartments, called cages, either fitted with stands on floor of house or hanged from the roof. It
has been proved very efficient for laying operations, right from day-old to till disposal. At
present, 75% of commercial layers in the world are kept in cages. Feeders and waterers are
attached to cages from outside except nipple waterers, for which pipeline is installed through or
above cages. Auto-operated feeding trolleys and egg collection belts can also be used in this
rearing system. The droppings are either collected in trays underneath cages or on belts or on the
floor or deep pit under cages, depending on type of cages.
Advantages
 Minimum floor space is needed
 More number of eggs per hen can be received
 Less feed wastage
 Better feed efficiency
 Protection from internal parasites and soil borne illnesses
 Sick and unproductive birds can be easily identified and eliminated.
 Clean eggs production
 Vices like egg eating, pecking is minimal.
 Broodiness is minimal
 No need of litter material
 Artificial Insemination (AI) can be adopted.
15 | 4 9
Disadvantages
 High initial investment cost.
 Handling of manure may be problem. Generally, flies
become a greater nuisance.
 The incidence of blood spots in egg is more
 Problem of cage layer fatigue. (It is a condition, in
which laying birds in cages develop lameness. It may
be due to Ca and P deficiency but the exact reason is
not known)
 In case of broilers, incidence of breast blisters is
more, especially when the broilers weight is more
than 1.5 kg.
Types of cages
Based on the number of birds in a cage, it is classified as
 Single or individual bird cage (Only one bird in a cage)
 Multiple bird cage (From 2 to 10 birds, usually 3 or 4
birds per cage)
 Colony cages (Holding birds more than 11 per cage)
Based on the number of rows
 Single-deck
 Double-deck
 Triple-deck
 Four-deck
 Flat-deck
Based on arrangement of cages
1) Stair-step cages
a) M-type cages
b) L-type cages
2) Battery cages (Vertical cages)
16 | 4 9
Based on the type of bird reared
1. Brooder / chick cages
2. Grower cages
3. Layer cages
4. Breeder cages
5. Broiler cages
1) Brooder cage / chick cage
Specifications:
Front feeding length : 60 inch
Front & Back height : 12 inch
Depth : 36 inch
No. of chicks (0-8 weeks) accommodated per box : 60
Chick cages are arranged either as single deck or double deck system. The feeders and waterers
are arranged on outside. Now-a-days nipple drinker system is followed from day-old itself.
Newspaper may be spread over the cage floor for first 7 or 10 days. Feed is usually provided
inside the cage during the first week of age.
2) Grower cage
Grower cage Grower cage

Specifications:
Front & Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18 inch
No. of growers (9 to 18 weeks) accommodated per box : 10
3) Layer cage
Two types of stair-step layer cages are commonly used
in open-sided poultry houses
Conventional cages, Reverse cages (Californian cages)
a) Conventional cages
Specifications for each box:
Front height : 18 inch
Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18 inch
17 | 4 9
b) Reverse cages
Specifications for each box:
Front height : 18 inch
Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 15 inch
These cages can hold 3 to 4 birds. They are arranged either in 2-tier or 3-tier. A slope of 1/6 is
provided in conventional cages, where as in reverse cages the slope is 1/5.
Advantages of reverse cages over conventional cages
 More feeding space is available in reverse cages. So, all 4 birds can take feed at a time, where
as in conventional cages, 3 birds can take feed and the other one is waiting at the back.
 Number of cracked eggs is less due to lesser rolling distance.
 Better ventilation in reverse cages than conventional cages.
Elevated cage layer house
The height of the shed is raised by 6-7 feet using concrete pillars. The distance between two
pillars is 10 feet. Two feet wide concrete platforms are made over the pillars. When 3 ‘M’ type
cages are arranged 4 platforms are needed. In case of 2 ‘M’ and 2 ‘L’ type cages are arranged 3
platforms are needed. When constructing platforms projecting angles or iron rods to be provided
to fix the cages. The inter-platform distance is 6-7 feet depending upon the type of the cages
used. The total height of the house is 20-25 feet and the width is 30-33 feet. This type of houses
provides sufficient ventilation in tropical countries.
Floor space requirements

Type Age (in weeks) Deep-litter (ft2) Cages (ft2)
0-8 0.60 0.20
Egg-type chicken 9-18 1.25 0.30
>18 1.50 0.50
0-4 0.30 -
Meat-type chicken
4-8 0.75 -
18 | 4 9
UNIT-III
Poultry feeds – Essential nutrients – Ration for Chick and Broiler.
Cereal grains
1. Maize or corn
 Maize is the principal energy source used in poultry diets in most of the countries because
of its high-energy value, palatability, presence of pigments and essential fatty acids.
 It contains highest amount of energy (ME 3350 kcal/kg) among cereal grains.
 It has 8-13% of crude protein.
 It has high TDN of 85-90%.
 Maize has low fibre content and is highly palatable.
 Extremely low in calcium and deficient in vitamin B12 but fair in phosphorus content.
 Yellow maize provides carotene and xanthophylls pigments for colouration of egg yolk,
poultry fat and skin when it is used at 30% and above in the diet.
 Maize is an excellent source of linoleic acid which contributes for egg size, and maize
protein is mainly deficient in tryptophan and lysine.
 Damaged, immature and improperly stored maize having higher moisture content is prone
to aspergillus flavus infestation and produces aflatoxin.
 Supplementation of toxin binders in diet containing damaged maize grain is essential to
minimize the risk of mycotoxins problem.
 Organic acids should be added to the maize while storing, if the moisture content in the
grain is higher than 16%.
 When the maize is used at >30% in pellet diet, supplementation of pellet binders,
molasses, rice bran or oil is required for better quality of pellet.
 Maize can be included upto 70% in poultry ration.
2. Sorghum / Jowar
 Sorghum contains slightly lower energy but more protein than maize (ME 3200 kcal/kg;
Protein 10%).
 Sorghum protein is deficit in lysine, methionine and arginine.
 Light coloured sorghum varieties can be used as the principal energy source.
 Darker varieties, that are bird resistant, can contain tannins in the seed coat and should be
used less.
 Higher levels of tannin in sorghum may reduce the palatability and thereby feed intake.
While tannin free sorghum can be used as a sole source of energy in layer diet without
affecting egg production, egg weight and energy efficiencies.
 It can be included upto 30% in chicks ration and upto 60% in the grower and layer rations.
3. Wheat
 Wheat is rich in protein and calcium and but low in fat and energy compared to maize.
 Wheat is a good source next to maize and sorghum (ME 3100 kcal/kg).
 Its protein content is highly variable (11-14%).
 Wheat protein is deficient in methionine and threonine.
 Wheat contains indigestible non-starch polysaccharides (arabinoxylans) that reduces the
performance of poultry.
 The enzyme, xylanase, may be used when wheat is incorporated in feed at high level.
 It can be included upto 20% in chick ration and upto 30% in grower and layer rations.
19 | 4 9
4. Rice / Rice broken
 The ME content of broken rice ranges from 2400- 3250 kcal/kg.
 Rice is low in protein (7-8%).
 Rice which is unsuitable for human consumption can be used for poultry at low level.
 Rice broken is a byproduct of milling. Its quality is much variable and good quality rice
broken can be used in poultry feeds.
 Replacement of maize with rice broken may increase fat deposition in abdominal area.
5. Bajra / pearl millet
 They have 8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.
 It can be included upto 30% in chick ration and upto 60% in grower and layer ration.
6. Ragi / finger millet
 Ragi contains slightly less protein, fat and more crude fibre.
 The amount of Ca and P are higher in ragi as compared to Maize.
 High crude fibre and tannin content and possibly lower protein quality are the limiting
factors in ragi for its utilization in poultry diets.
Vegetable proteins
1. Soya bean meal
 Soya bean meal contains 47-49% protein and is an excellent source of lysine, tryptophan
and threonine but it is deficient in methionine.
 The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oil cake.
 Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans have number of toxic and inhibitory substances.
 These toxic, inhibitory substances and other factors in soya bean like saponins can be
inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.
 It can be included up to 35% in chick ration and upto 25% in grower and layer ration.
2. Groundnut oil cake / pea nut meal
 Groundnut oilcake has about 40-47% protein which is very rich in arginine and deficient
in cystein, tryptophan, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12 and
calcium.
 Groundnut oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I & grade II)
are available in the market.
 Groundnut oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two varieties (Grade I & grade II) are
available in the market.
 The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oil cake.
 Addition of toxin binders and liver tonics is essential in diets containing higher levels of
groundnut oil cake.
 Proper processing of the nuts is essential to deactivate the protease inhibitors present in the
nuts.
 Groundnut cake can be used upto 35% in chick rations and upto 25% in the grower and
layer rations.
 Aflatoxin affection
 In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxins, a secondary
metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.
20 | 4 9
 Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage from growing crop to the
formulated feed or stored raw material.
 Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolities
produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A.parasiticus on food and feed
materials.
 Presence of oxygen, conductive temperature (10 – 40ºC) and high humidity favors the
mould growth.
 High moisture in the crop, which harvested around wet period and also inadequately dried
products, favors the fungal growth and toxin production.
 There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2 and G2 out of which B1 is most toxic.
3. Sunflower oil cake
 The protein quality of sunflower cake is better than groundnut cake may be due to its
higher available lysine and methionine content.
 Sunflower oilcake contains 40% of protein.
 It has very short self-life.
 The expeller variety of Sunflower seed meal or cake has high content of polyunsaturated
fatty acids.
4. Coconut meal
 It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-6.5% oil
content.
 The higher oil meals tend to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence low oil content
meal should be preferred.
 It should be restricted to poultry as it contains low protein and high fibre.
5. Linseed meal
 Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also rich in
phosphorus part of which is present as phytate but has only moderate calcium content.
 It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline.
 It also has protective action against selenium poisoning.
 Linseed oil meal refers to solvent extracted residue and two grades (Grade I; grade II) are
available in the market.
 Among the oilseed residues linseed is unique because it readily dispersible in water,
forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-10% of mucilage.
 Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associated enzyme, linase in immature linseed
hydrolyses it with the evolution of hydrocyanic acid.
 HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and hence, depending on the species the minimum
lethal dose taken orally has been estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight.
 Proper water washing, drying and storage can reduce glycosides in the feedstuffs.
 Linseed oilcake refers to expeller pressed and two varities (Grade I; grade II) are available
in the market.
6. Mustard cake/ Rape seed meal
 Mustard cake is a fairly good source of crude protein (31-36%), lysine and methionine.
 Its T.D.N value is 74 % and ME is 2,200 kcal/kg.
21 | 4 9
 It has rich calcium and phosphorus content of about 0.6% and 0.1% respectively.
 Utilization of mustard cake in poultry diet is not common due to presence of
glucosinolates, erucic acid, tannin and higher crude fibre.
7. Sesame seed meal / Gingelly oil cake / Til oil cake
 It contains 40% protein, rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low lysine.
 It was produced from the residues of sesame meal after removal of oil from sesame seed.
 There are three varities – red, black, white.
 White is of high nutritive value than red.
 The ME content in black til cake is higher than that of red variety (1,700 and 1,500 kcal/kg
respectively).
 It has high phytic acid and oxalates.
 It can be included upto 10% in chick ration and 15% in grower and layer ration.
 Supplementation of lysine, phytase and Zn will enhance the nutritive value of til cake for
poultry.
Animal protein
1. Fish meal
Fish is an excellent source of protein, containing adequate concentrations of limiting amino acids
like lysine, methionine and threonine.
It is also rich in available P, Ca, Se, iodine and vitamin B12.
Fish meal is the one of the best poultry feed stuffs and a good source of animal protein.
Its composition varies widely depending upon whether it is made from whole bony fish or fish
canary scraps.
The protein content of fish meal is usually around 60% with a digestibility of 93-95%.
The presence of fish scales reduces its feeding value.
It can be included upto 10% in the ration.
2. Meat meal
It is rich in crude protein (50- 55%) and ash (21%) with high calcium about 8% and 4%
phosphorus.
It is low in methionine and tryptophan.
Good sources of vitamins of B complex, especially riboflavin, choline, nicotinamide and B12.
3. Meat and bone meal
Besides a good source of high quality protein, it is a good source of calcium and phosphorus.
The carcasses of unproductive and dead animals and offals from slaughter house waste are
sterilized and made into meal.
The quality of meal is variable depending upon the processing methods and the proportion of
gelatin it contains.
The variable quality, contamination and content of phosphorus limit the use of these meals.
The sterilized meat and bone meal can be included upto 5% in the poultry ration.
Milling by products
1. Rice bran
 It is the outer coarse coat of the rice grain separated during processing.
 Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein, 13% fibre and 11-18% fat mostly
with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.
22 | 4 9
 The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran.
 It is a good source of energy (ME 2900 kcal/kg) and B- complex group of vitamins.
 It is high in phytate (1.28%).
 Antioxidants are recommended while storing rice bran.
 Rice bran has a good amino acid profile compared to cereal grains and is slightly deficient
in lysine.
 It can be included upto 20% in the chick ration and 30% in the grower and layer ration.
2. Wheat bran
 Wheat bran is an excellent food with more fiber content.
 It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counter act scouring when it was
given dry.
3. Polishing
 During rice polishing this by products accumulates which contains 10-15% protein, 12%
fat and 3-4% crude fiber.
 It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.
 Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.
4. Molasses
 It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared from selected plant material.
 It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicelluloses and minerals.
 Four varities of molasses are commonly available viz. cane molasses, beet molasses, citrus
molasses and wood molasses.
 It is palatable, reduces dustiness and improves pelleting.
 Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10% ash.
 Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher protein (6%).
 Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when oranges or
grapes are processed for juice.
 Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein.
 Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.
 It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.
E. Animal and vegetable fat
 Fat (Vegetable/Animal) provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate or protein.
 Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and lessens the wear on feed mixing equipments.
 Vegetable oil like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow are
extensively used in livestock feeding.
 Animal fat contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, and C24.
 Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of linoleic acid.
 Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids leads to rancidity and therefore antioxidants
like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin should be included in high fat diet.
23 | 4 9
Nutritional requirement of layers and broilers
Characteristic Broiler Broiler Chick Growing Laying Breeder
starter finisher feed chicken chicken layer
feed feed feed feed feed
Moisture (maximum %) 11 11 11 11 11 11
Crude protein (N x 23 20 20 16 18 18
6.25) (maximum %)
Crude fibre 6 6 7 8 8 8
(maximum %)
Acid-insoluble ash (maximum 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

%)
Salt (as NaCl) (maximum %) 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Calcium (Ca) 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0

(maximum %)
Available phosphorus 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

(minimum %)
Lysine (maximum %) 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.65 0.65
Methionine 0.50 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.30 0.30

(maximum %)
Metabolizable energy 2 800 2 900 2 600 2 500 2 600 2 600

(minimum cal/kg)
Manganese(mg/kg) 90 90 90 50 55 90
Iodine (mg/kg) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Iron (mg/kg) 120 120 120 90 75 90
Zinc (mg/kg) 60 60 60 50 75 100
Copper (mg/kg) 12 12 12 9 9 12
Vitamin A (IU/kg) 6 000 6 000 6 000 6 000 8 000 8 000
Vitamin D3(IU/kg) 600 600 600 600 1 200 1 200
Thiamine(mg/kg) 5 5 5 3 3 3
Riboflavin(mg/kg) 6 6 6 5 5 8
24 | 4 9
Pantothenic acid(mg/kg) 15 15 15 15 15 15
Nicotinic acid(mg/kg) 40 40 40 15 15 15
Biotin (mg/kg) 0.2 0.2 0.02 0.15 0.15 0.20
Vitamin B12(mg/kg) 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.01 0.010 0.01
Folic acid(mg/kg) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
Choline (mg/kg) 1 400 1 000 1 300 900 800 800
Vitamin E(mg/kg) 15 15 15 10 10 15
Vitamin K(mg/kg) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Pyridoxine(mg/kg) 5 5 5 5 5 8
Linoleic acid(g/100 g) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Methionine + cystine (g/100 g) 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.55 0.55
Source: BIS. Poultry feeds - specifications, fourth revision.
25 | 4 9
UNIT-IV
Hatchery, Nutritional value of egg, marketing of egg and by products of poultry.
Incubation and Hatching
Incubation is the act Forced draft incubators
I. Based on heating source: Hot air incubator, Hot water incubator
II. Based on fuel used: Gas operated incubator, Oil operated incubator
Location
The chick hatcheries are modern buildings that provide separate rooms for each hatchery
operations, but each room has its individual requirements. The hatchery area should be a separate
unit with its own entrance and exit, unassociated with those of the poultry farm. The hatchery
should be situated at least 1000 ft from poultry houses to prevent horizontal transmission of
disease-producing organisms from the chicken houses to the hatchery.
Size of the hatchery
The size of the hatchery is based on the egg capacity of the setters and hatchers, number of
eggs that can be set each week and number of chicks hatched each week. Also, necessary space
to be allotted for future expansion.
Hatchery design
Hatchery should be constructed in such a manner that the hatching eggs may be taken in
one end and the chicks removed at the other. In other words, eggs and chicks should flow
through the hatchery from one room to the one next needed in the hatching process. There should
not be no backtracking. Such a flow affords better isolation of the rooms and there is less human
traffic throughout the building.
Hatchery construction
Hatchery buildings should be intricately designed, properly constructed, and adequately
ventilated. Brief general points to be considered are,
Width of the hatchery: The width of the setter and hatcher rooms is to be determined by the type
of the incubator used. Find the depth of the incubators; then allow space for the working aisles,
behind the machines and the walls.
Height of the ceiling: The height of the ceiling should be at least 10 ft.
Walls: Fireproof material should be used in constructing the walls of the hatchery also prevents
the growth of molds common to walls that are porous and absorbent.
Ceiling material: Most hatchery rooms have a high humidity, and during cold weather
condensation of moisture on the ceilings is common. Hence, the ceiling material is to be
waterproof.
Doors: The hatchery doors are wide enough for easy movement of trolleys, chick boxes etc. The
door openings should be 8 ft high and at least 4 ft wide, and doors double-swinging.
Floor: All floors must be concrete, preferably with imbedded steel to prevent cracking. The
concrete must be given a glazed finish. Slope of the floor should never be greater than 0.5 inch in
10 feet.
26 | 4 9
Hatchery rooms / structures
Hatchery rooms must be adequate in size. Usually,
hatcheries of medium size will hatch chicks twice a week, but large
hatcheries will hatch more than two hatches per
week. Consequently, hatching schedules will affect the size of
some rooms in the hatchery.
Shower room
To maintain bio-security it is essential that all persons
entering the premises shower and change into clean clothing in an
adjoining room. It is the only entrance and exit, and the hatchery becomes an isolated unit as far
as human beings are concerned.
Hatching eggs receiving counter
Employees delivering hatching eggs to the hatchery must not enter the hatchery in the
course of their duties. Eggs should be delivered to the hatchery through a specialized door.
Fumigation room
The fumigation room should be as small as possible in order to reduce the amount of
fumigant used. A fan should be used to circulate the air and exhaust the fumigant.
Egg holding (egg-cooler) room
Egg holding room should be about 8 ft high, insulated, slowly
ventilated, with complete air movement, cooled, and
humidified. The room must be refrigerated to maintain a
temperature of 650c A forced-air type of refrigeration unit is
required in order to keep a uniform temperature throughout the
room.
Pre incubation warming room
Here eggs are kept for the purpose of drying the ‘sweat’ over eggs. It can be achieved by
providing sufficient number of ceiling fans in this room.
Setter room
Setters (incubators) are kept in this room. The size of the setter
room will depend on the make of the equipment used. The
incubating equipment takes relatively little floor space. The exact
room size involves the aisle and working area necessary to move
the eggs and chicks in and out of the machines. A minimum
space of 3 ft should be allotted between the sides of adjacent
setters and from wall to sides or back of the setters. Similarly,
minimum of 10 ft should be allotted in front of two setters when kept face-to-face arrangements.
Egg candling (dark) room
This room is usually constructed in between setter and hatcher
room for candling eggs. Candling is usually practiced when eggs
are transferred from setter to hatcher. Provisions should be made
to dark the room to facilitate easy candling.
Hatcher room
Hatchers are kept in this room. Here sufficient spaces are to be
allowed around hatcher similar to that of setter room. Since it is
27 | 4 9
prone for contamination with fluffs and debris at the time of hatching, the door towards setter
room is to be tightly closed unless the necessity arises (at the time of egg transfer).
Chick holding room
Next to hatcher room, chick-holding room is present. A relative humidity of 65% is maintained
to prevent excessive chick dehydration. Here, the chicks are sex-separated, graded, vaccinated
and placed in chick boxes.
Wash room
After chicks are boxed, the trays are washed in a tray washer in the washroom. Necessary
pipelines with high-pressure pumps are kept in this room.
Clean room
After the trays are washed, they are placed in their trolleys and moved to the adjacent clean room.
Principles of Incubation
Five major functions are involved in the incubation and hatching of poultry eggs. They are:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Ventilation (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide level and air velocity)
 Position of eggs
 Turning of eggs
1. Temperature
Temperature is the most critical environmental concern during incubation because the
developing embryo can only withstand small fluctuations during the period. Embryo starts
developing when the temperature exceeds the Physiological Zero. Physiological zero is the
temperature below which embryonic growth is arrested and above which it is reinitiated. The
physiological zero for chicken eggs is about 75oF (24oC).
The optimum temperature for chicken egg in the setter (for first 18 days) ranges from 99.50 to
99.75 o F and in the hatcher (last 3 days) is 98.50 F.
2. Humidity
Incubation humidity determines the rate of moisture loss from eggs during incubation. In
general, the humidity is recorded as relative humidity by comparing the temperatures recorded by
wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers.
Recommended incubation relative humidity for the first 18 days ranging between 55 and 60% (in
setter) and for the last 3 days ranging between 65 and 75%. Higher humidity during hatching
period is given to avoid dehydration of chicks.
3. Ventilation
Ventilation is important in incubators and hatchers because fresh oxygenated air is needed
for the respiration (oxygen intake and carbon dioxide given off) of developing embryos from egg
setting until chick removal from the incubator.
The oxygen needs are small during the first few days compared to the latter stages of
development. Oxygen content of the air at sea level is about 21%. Generally the oxygen content
of the air in the setter remains at about 21%. For every 1% drop in oxygen there is 5% reduction
in hatchability.
Carbon dioxide is a natural by-product of metabolic processes during embryonic
development and is released through the shell. The tolerance level of CO2 for the first 4 days in
the setter is 0.3%. CO2 levels above 0.5% in the setter reduce hatchability and completely lethal
at 5.0%.
28 | 4 9
Since the normal oxygen and CO2 concentrations present in air seem to represent an optimum
gaseous environment for incubating eggs, no special provision to control these gases is necessary
other than to maintain adequate circulation of fresh air at the proper temperature and humidity.
4. Position of eggs
Artificially incubating eggs should be held with their large ends up. It is natural for the
head of the chick to develop in the large end of the egg near the air cell, and for the developing
embryo to orient itself so that the head is uppermost. When the eggs are incubated with the small
end up, about 60% of the embryos will develop with the head near the small end. Thus, when the
chick is ready to hatch, its beak cannot break into the air cell to initiate pulmonary
respiration. Eggs positioned horizontally will incubate and hatch normally as long as they are
turned frequently. Under normal circumstances eggs are set with large end up for the first 18 days
(in setter) and in horizontal position for the last 3 days (in hatcher).
5. Turning of eggs
Birds, including chickens and quail, turn their eggs during nest incubation. Nature
provides nesting birds with the instinct of turning eggs during incubation. Similarly eggs to be
turned at least 8 times a day. Turning of eggs during incubation prevents the developing embryo
adhering to the extra-embryonic membranes and reduces the possibility of embryo mortality. In
large commercial incubators the eggs are turned automatically each hour i.e. 24 times a day. Most
eggs are turned to a position of 45o from vertical, and then reversed in the opposite direction to
45o from vertical. Rotation less than 45o are not adequate to achieve high hatchability. Turning
is not required in Hatcher.
Factors Setter Hatcher
Temperature 99.50 to 99.75 o F 98.5 o F
Relative Humidity 55-60 % 65-70 %
Position Large end up Horizontal
Turning Manual - 8 times No turning
Automatic - 24 times
Handling of Hatching Eggs and Storage
The quality of hatching egg cannot be improved after lay but one can reduce the loss in hatching
egg quality by adopting some standard procedures.
Maintaining egg quality in the breeder house
The hen will lay her eggs over nesting material. Use of enough clean, dry and mold-free
nesting material can avoid cracked and dirty eggs. Similarly hens to be trained to use nests to lay
eggs instead of laying on floors by providing sufficient number of nest boxes well in advance
before the laying starts.
The frequency of hatching egg collection is very important to maintain quality. Hatching
eggs should be collected at least 4 times a day. Hatching eggs are susceptible to contamination
and every effort must be made to reduce the microbial load. Therefore, it is imperative that
people wash and sanitize their hands before collecting eggs from the nests or egg belts. The flats
that eggs are placed on must also be sanitized and free of organic material.
Selection of hatching eggs
Not all eggs laid by a breeding flock are set. Eggs that are cracked, dirty or misshapen are
usually not used for hatching. Very small or very large eggs do not hatch as well as eggs in the
middle size range. Eggs with thin or very porous shells are not likely to hatch well because of
excessive losses of water during incubation.
29 | 4 9
Reducing contamination of hatching eggs
Poor hatching egg sanitation can be a major cause of lower hatchability and poor chick
quality. There is no such thing as a sterile eggshell. More bacteria are picked up on the shell
when the egg passes through the cloaca where urine and intestinal contents also pass. The
bacterial load found on an eggshell at the time of lay ranges from 300 to 500 organisms. After
oviposition, every surface the egg comes in contact with can further inoculate the shell
surface. After an egg is laid it begins to cool. During the cooling process the egg contents begin
to shrink and producing negative pressure. This is one of the more opportune times for bacteria
on the shell surface to penetrate the eggshell.
Egg has many natural defense mechanisms to reduce bacterial penetration. The shell itself
provides some protection. The cuticle on the surface of the eggshell is the best natural barrier to
penetration. The inner and outer shell membranes provide additional barriers. The albumen
provides a somewhat effective control over contamination. The albumen has a high pH in which
most bacteria cannot survive. The chalazae contain an enzyme, lysozyme, which has
antibacterial properties.
Many breeder people choose some methods to reduce the microbial load over the
eggshell. Sanding, buffing, and wiping the hatching eggs are not good methods of
sanitation. Sanding and buffing will remove at least part of the cuticle resulting in eggs that are
more susceptible to penetration. Fumigation with formaldehyde gas is an effective method of
sanitizing hatching eggs. Solutions containing quaternary ammonium compounds, formalin,
hydrogen peroxide or phenols may be moderately effective in reducing the microbial load over
hatching eggs. DO NOT wash eggs unless necessary. If it is necessary to wash eggs always use a
damp cloth with water warmer than the egg. This causes the egg to sweat the dirt out of the pores.
Never use water cooler than the egg. Also, do not soak the eggs in water.
Storage of hatching eggs
In normal hatchery operations, eggs cannot be set immediately after they are laid. Many
hatcheries set eggs once or twice in a week. If hatching eggs are stored up to 1 week, hatching
eggs should be kept in an egg holding room with the temperature of 65oF and the relative
humidity of 75%. When storing eggs less than 10 days, store them with the large end up. If eggs
are held for 10 days or more, hatchability will be improved if stored with small end up.
Hatchery Operations
The operation of a chick hatchery involves the production of the largest number of quality chicks
possible from the hatching eggs received at the hatchery. In addition, chicks must be produced
economically. The sequences of hatchery operations followed in commercial hatcheries are
Advantages
 Securing hatching eggs
 Traying hatching eggs
 Fumigation
 Cold Storage
 Warm eggs prior to setting
 Loading of eggs
 Candling
 Transfer of eggs
 Pulling the hatch
 Hardening
30 | 4 9
 Grading
 Sexing
 Vaccination
 Chick delivery
 Washing and cleaning
 Disposal of waste
1) Securing hatching eggs
Hatcheries can get the hatching eggs from any one of the following ways:
 From own breeder flock
 From other breeder flocks
 From other hatcheries
2) Traying hatch eggs
Traying hatch eggs

The eggs from the breeder flocks should be transferred to the egg setter trays in the
hatchery immediately after receiving.
3) Fumigation of hatching eggs
After traying, eggs are to be kept in the fumigation chamber for fumigation. Fumigating
with 3x concentration of formaldehyde for 20 minutes will kill about 97.5 to 99.5% of the
organisms on the shells. One ‘x’ concentration means 20 g of KMnO4 with 40 ml of formalin for
100 cubic feet (3x means 60 g of KmnO4 + 120 ml of formalin for 100 cubic feet).
4) Cold Storage
When the eggs are not set immediately after receiving, they should be kept in cold rook at
the temperature of 65 oF and 75% relative humidity.
5) Warm eggs prior to setting
Approximately 6 hours prior to placing eggs in the setter they should be moved from the
egg-cooler room to normal room temperature. Here, atmospheric air condenses over eggshell and
form water droplets over eggshell, which is called as ‘Sweating’. It is advantageous to warm eggs
before placing them in the incubator by avoiding creation of low temperature in the machine by
placing cool eggs directly.
6) Loading of eggs
Placing of eggs in the setter is called ‘Loading of eggs’. Eggs can be set in the setter either
all-in all-out basis or batch basis. Most of the commercial hatcheries are practicing batch system
of loading eggs in the setter that will minimize the initial time taken to reach normal incubation
temperature in the setter. In this case, each setter is having hatching eggs with different stages of
embryonic developments.
31 | 4 9
7) Candling
Candling is a process in which eggs are kept in
front of a light source to find out the defects in eggshell,
embryonic development etc. Candling can be done as
early as five days of incubation, but errors in candling
often occur at this time. Under commercial operations,
candling is done when the eggs are transferred from setter
to hatcher (at 19th day for chicken eggs). There are two
methods of candling that can be used. The fastest method
involves the use of a table or mass candler. An entire tray
of hatching eggs may be placed on the mass candler and examined with one observation.
Candling with a spot candler or individual candler is a little slower, but it is more accurate.
8) Transfer of eggs
In modern incubators, eggs are transferred from setter to hatcher at 19th day of incubation
(for chicken egg) or when approximately 1% of the eggs are slightly pipped. In general, one-
seventh of total incubation period is needed to keep eggs in the hatcher.
9) Pulling the hatch
The process of removing the chicks from the hatcher is often called pulling the
hatch. Chicks should be removed from the hatcher as soon as all are hatched and about 95% are
dry. Excessive drying in the hatcher should be avoided.
10) Hardening the chicks
When the chicks are first placed in the chick boxes they are soft in the abdomen, are not
completely fluffed out, and do not stand well. They must be “hardened” by leaving them in the
boxes for 4 or 5 hours. Such hardening makes it easier to grade the chicks for quality, and the
chicks are more easily vent-sexed.
11) Grading the chicks
No chick below the minimum standard must be allowed to go to a customer. Some
standards for quality are, 1) No chick deformities 2) No unhealed navels 3) Above a minimum
weight 4) Not dehydrated and 5) Stand up well.
12) Sexing the chicks
Layer type day-old chicks are need to be sex
separated either by vent sexing or auto-sexing (feather
sexing). In case of meat-type day-old chicks sexing is not
practiced.
13) Vaccination
Most chicks are vaccinated against Marek’s disease
in hatchery before delivery. Most common method of
vaccination of day-old chicks is by subcutaneous method
in the nape of the neck.
14) Chick delivery
Baby chicks should reach the customer’s farm early
in the morning. Not only the weather is cooler during this
part of the day but the early arrival allows a full day for
close observation of the chicks by the caretaker.
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15) Washing and cleaning
Cleaning the hatchery between hatches is of primary
importance. The process must be complete. Except for the
setters and setter room, every piece of equipment must be
thoroughly vacuumed, scrubbed, disinfected and fumigated.
16) Disposal of waste
Hatchery wastes include infertile and non-hatched eggs,
and dead and cull chicks that should be disposed in such a
manner not to create problem to the neighbors and also not to
contaminate the hatchery premises.
Steps Involved In Commercial Hatchery

Operations
Physical composition of egg of various species

Bird
Chicken J. quail Turkey Duck
Egg weight (g) 57 12 85 80
Yolk (%) 30 32 32 35
Albumen (%) 60 48 56 53
Shell (%) 10 20 12 12
33 | 4 9
Chemical composition of chicken egg
Whole egg White Yolk Shell and shell membrane
Components
100% 56-61% 27-32% 8-11%
Water 65.0 87.0 48.0 2.0
Protein 12.0 11.0 17.5 4.5
Fat 11.0 0.2 32.5 -
Carbohydrate 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Ash 11.0 0.8 1.0 93.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Egg Proteins
Albumen Proteins
Protein % Functions / Characteristics
1. Ovalbumin 54.00 Protease inhibitor
2. Ovotransferrin (Conalbumin) 12.00 Binds metals (iron)
3. Ovomucoid 11.00 Inhibits trypsin
4. Ovoglobulins 8.00 Foaming agent
5. Ovomucin 3.50 Viscosity builder
6. Lysozyme 3.40 Destroys bacteria
7. Ovoinhibitor 1.50 Serine proteases inhibitor
8. Ovoflavoprotein 0.80 Binds riboflavin
9. Ovomacroglobulin 0.50 Strongly antigenic
10. Avidin 0.05 Binds biotin
11. Cystatin 0.05 Protease inhibitor
Yolk Proteins
Protein % Functions / Characteristics
1. Ovovitelline 75.00 Phosphorus containing protein
2. Ovolivetin 25.00 Sulphur containing protein
Egg Lipids
Lipids %
1. Triglycerides 72.00
2. Phospholipids 23.00
3. Cholesterol and other sterols 5.00
Egg Carbohydrates
The carbohydrate content of egg is very low (1%). Of which, 75% is found in albumen and 25%
in yolk. The half of the carbohydrates present in albumen is as free glucose and half as
glycoproteins. In dried egg products, glucose interacts with other egg components to produce
off-colours and off-flavours during storage. In order to avoid this problem, the glucose is
eliminated by enzymatic digestion just before the drying process
34 | 4 9
Vitamin Content of Chicken Egg
Chicken egg without the shell (Shell egg weight-60.9g)
Vitamin Units Whole liquid White Yolk
1. A IU 260.00 0 260.00
2. D IU 27.00 0 27.00
3. E mg 0.88 0 0.88
4. B12 mg 0.48 0 0.48
5. Biotin mg 11.00 2.62 8.38
6. Choline mg 237.00 0.50 236.50
7. Folic acid mg 0.03 0.01 0.03
8. Inositol mg 5.90 1.54 4.36
9. Niacin mg 0.05 0.04 0.01
10. Pantothenic acid mg 0.81 0.09 0.72
11. Pyridoxine mg 0.07 0.01 0.06
12. Riboflavin mg 0.18 0.11 0.07
13. Thiamine mg 0.05 0.01 0.05
* Vitamin C is absent in egg
Mineral Content of Chicken egg
Chicken egg without the shell (Shell egg weight-60.9g)
Mineral (in mg) Whole liquid White Yolk
1. Calcium 29.00 3.80 25.20
2. Chlorine 96.00 66.10 29.90
3. Copper 0.03 0.01 0.02
4. Iodine 0.03 0.01 0.03
5. Iron 1.08 0.01 1.05
6. Magnesium 6.30 4.15 2.15
7. Manganese 0.021 0.01 0.02
8. Phosphorus 110.00 8.00 102.00
9. Potassium 74.00 57.00 17.00
10. Sodium 72.00 63.00 9.00
11. Sulphur 90.00 62.00 28.00
12. Zinc 0.71 0.05 0.66
35 | 4 9
Marketing organization for eggs
The greater the distance between producer and consumer, the more complex is the
marketing organization required to ensure that eggs reach consumers in the form, place and time
desired. Producers may decide to market their produce directly to consumers - direct marketing -
or may choose from a variety of marketing organizations that make up a marketing channel.
Direct marketing includes the following methods of selling:
 sales from the farm (farm gate);
 door-to-door sales;
 producers’ markets; and
 sales to local retail shops.
A typical marketing channel is made up of:
 collectors;
 assembly merchants;
 wholesalers; and
 retailers.
Direct marketing
Organized marketing channel
Direct Marketing
Egg producers who are situated a short distance from consumers may be able to practise
direct marketing. Before choosing to sell their products directly to consumers, however, they
must evaluate two main factors:
 Time. Producers who choose direct marketing have less time for production activities.
 Cost. The costs involved in direct marketing.
There are four main ways to carry out direct marketing.
Sales from the farm
Producers may be able to sell eggs directly from the farm (farm gate). This, however, will
depend on whether consumers are able and willing to go to the producer’s facilities. The main
advantage of farm-gate selling is that the producer may be able to obtain a market price for eggs
without incurring marketing costs. The main advantage for the consumers is that eggs will be
fresh with little or no quality loss.
Door-to-door sales/street hawking
Some consumers prefer that eggs be brought directly to their door. This means that the
producer must spend time on marketing; however, consumers may appreciate the service and be
willing to pay a good price. Furthermore, the producer can take orders directly from consumers
and carry only what he/she is assured will be bought. Eggs may also be sold on the street as can
be seen in Photograph 30.
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Producers’ markets
Usually the producer simply occupies a stall in a public marketplace and offers his/her
produce for sale. Eggs are commonly displayed in baskets and often differentiated by weight/size
and colour (see Photograph 31). Sales in producers’ markets permit a farmer to make direct
contact with consumers who are not able to go to the production facilities. The main disadvantage
of using such markets is that, towards the end of the day, the producer may have to either reduce
his prices sharply to dispose of remaining stock or carry it back to the farm.
Sales to local retail shops
Producers can also sell directly to local retail shops. This requires some sort of agreement
between the two parties regarding constant supply, quality and payment methods.
In some cases it may be possible for producers to sell directly to institutional consumers such as
hotels, restaurants, schools and hospitals. This type of direct marketing, however, requires
negotiation, which may result in a written contract of the duties and obligations of both parties. It
also requires continual interaction over time between producer and buyer, a standard egg quality
agreement and a constant supply. The producer must carefully evaluate the issues involved
including the regular production and transport of large quantities of eggs.
Marketing Channels
A marketing channel is composed of a set of separate but interdependent organizations
involved in the process of making a product available to consumers. The use of a marketing
channel is convenient particularly when the producer does not have the time or financial means to
carry out direct marketing. Intermediaries are usually able to make the product widely available
and accessible because they are specialized and have experience and contacts. They also have a
better understanding of the egg market. Intermediaries take the risks involved in marketing and
also pay for the produce immediately.
Marketing Intermediaries
Collectors
Collectors undertake the initial work of assembling eggs from various producers or local
country markets. They operate either on a commission basis or by purchasing on their own
account. Where the quantity of eggs collected at each stop is small and frequent, this system is
often the most economic. Collectors may be itinerant merchants, producers themselves, assembly
merchants, wholesalers or their agents, or retailers.
Assembly merchants
Assembly merchants may be divided into the following categories: local assembly market;
independent processor-packer; and, cooperative processor-packer.
Local assembly market. In a typical local assembly market, a private firm, a producers’
cooperative or a municipality provides an enclosed space for the use of sellers. Sales may take
place by public auction or by private negotiation, subject to rules such as those on quality and
payment arrangements. Auctioning requires the eggs to be graded and possibly presented in
standardized containers, marked with identifying names or symbols. The local assembly market
may provide cold storage facilities for the convenience of market users.
Independent processor-packer. This type of enterprise usually purchases eggs either through
collectors or directly from producers. The processor-packer may pass by the farm and pick up the
eggs or the producer may deliver the eggs to the processing facilities where they are graded and
packed. Usually eggs are sold to wholesalers; however, they are also sold directly to retailers and
institutional consumers such as hotels, restaurants and hospitals.
37 | 4 9
Cooperative processor-packer. The same type of enterprise may be set up and run by a
cooperative association of producers. The main advantage is that the business is run by and for
those who use it, rather than by those who own it. Cooperatives can obtain financing, provide
extra competition to independent processor-packers and provide an alternative to established
intermediaries.
Before forming a cooperative, producers should carefully evaluate:
 the market for eggs;
 problems in existing marketing channels and how to remedy them;
 the degree of know-how that producers have in marketing;
 rules and regulations;
 legal status;
 availability of finances;
 staffing requirements; and
 appropriate geographic location.
Wholesale distributor
Wholesaling includes all the activities involved in selling goods to those who buy for resale or for
business use. The main function of the wholesale distributor is to balance supplies against retail
requirements and to take the initiative of bringing produce from areas where it is plentiful and
cheap to those where it is relatively scare and expensive. Wholesalers usually have a good
knowledge of the market, access to the best information on trends and prospects and working
capital to carry business risks as required.
Wholesalers usually obtain eggs from central wholesale markets, assembly merchants, collectors
and local country markets; however, in some instances they go directly to the producers. Eggs
may be purchased directly or accepted for sale on a commission basis. Many wholesalers have
their own storage facilities. Wholesale distributors may engage specialized transport agencies to
transport eggs or operate such services on their own account.
Central wholesale markets
Central wholesale markets receive shipments from large farms and from country markets, and
constitute a supply source where wholesalers and retailers can obtain the various types of produce
they need. General wholesale markets sell many different products, including eggs. Because it is
the focus point of many smaller markets and also the point of contact for suppliers to important
groups of consumers, a central market is usually the primary price-making mechanism for the
production areas it serves. In this way it balances demand and supply.
Retailer
In urban areas, egg sales are made through retailers. Four types of retailers usually carry eggs in
their shops:
 poultry shops where only eggs and poultry are sold;
 food shops specializing in eggs, poultry, cheese, butter, meat and fish;
 general food shops and supermarkets selling all kinds of foods and household goods; and
 meat markets where all types of meat are sold and eggs are also offered for sale.
In some instances retailers buy eggs directly from the producer and may have their own process-
packing facilities.
As we have seen, marketing channels have different organizations that carry out different
functions, or it may be possible that an organization carries out more than one function. Vertical
integration occurs when more than one of the stages of the marketing channel is carried out by a
38 | 4 9
single organization. For example, a wholesaler may have processing-packing facilities, retail
outlets and employ collectors as well.
Evaluation of the Marketing Channel
Before choosing a marketing channel or channels to market eggs, producers should carefully
evaluate the following factors:
 market requirements and their ability to meet these;
 the type of intermediaries available;
 the number of intermediaries necessary to reach the market;
 alternative intermediaries different from the established marketing channel;
 the responsibilities of intermediaries and terms of possible agreements;
 costs involved;
 possible sales by the marketing channel; and
 the possibility of selling through a number of marketing channels.
Poultry By-products
Poultry by-product meal (PBM) is a high-protein commodity used as a major component
in some pet foods. It is made from grinding clean, rendered parts of poultry carcasses and can
contain bones, offal and undeveloped eggs, but only contains feathers that are unavoidable in the
processing of the poultry parts. Poultry by-product meal quality and composition can change
from one batch to another.
A. Poultry dressing plant waste (on live weight)
1) Feathers-6%
2) Blood-3.5%
3) Offal (i) Heads-3% (ii) Feed-4% (iii) Inedible viscera-9%
B. Hatchery Waste-infertile eggs, dead in germs, dead embryos, egg shells, unhatched chicks etc.
C. Egg processing unit waste-unsound eggs & egg shells
D. Poultry manure-Used up deep litter & wet droppings from cage houses
E. Dead Birds
A. As Livestock Feed
Poultry feathers are hydrolyzed to yield feather meal in by-product processing plant at a
steam pressure of 30psi for 2 hours with continuous stirring. Since feather meal has a poor amino
acid profile, feathers are generally processed with blood.
B. As Bedding
Soft and fluffy down feathers are used to make comfort pillows & mattresses. These
bedding articles have good resilience & warmth besides being easy to handle and store
C. As Fertilizers
Feathers are crushed under pressure to yield a good quality fertilizer. In places where
cooking is not cost effective but irrigation is not a problem feathers are ploughed
1. Feathers-6%
Feather meal is a by-product of processing poultry; it is
made from poultry feathers by partially grinding them under
elevated heat and pressure, and then grinding and drying.
Although total nitrogen levels are fairly high (up to 12%), the
bioavailability of this nitrogen may be low. Feather meal is
used in formulated animal feed and in organic fertilizer.
39 | 4 9
Containing up to 12% nitrogen, it is
a source of slow-release, organic, high-
nitrogen fertilizer for organic gardens. It is
not water-soluble and does not make a
good liquid fertilizer. It can be used to:
 Increase green leaf growth
 Activate compost decomposition
 Improve soil structure
2. Blood
a. As Livestock Feed - Blood collected in the poultry dressing
plant can be processed in a simple cooker to yield dry blood meal
with only 9% moisture. Blood and feather meal has a rich amino
acid profile & very good digestibility.
b. As Fertilizers - Decomposed blood can be simply cooked for
some time to reduce moisture & used as a fertilizers in the fields.
c. As Fish Bait - Blood can also be used as a bait during fishing
operations.
3. Poultry Manure
a) As Fertilizers- poultry manure has
been traditionally used as a fertilizer, its
nutrient value depends on litter to manure
ratio. In general dried poultry manure
contains-
● 15-18% Moisture
● 25-30% total protein
● 6-8% Uric Acid
● 15-25% Ash
● 3-6% calcium and
● 1.5-2% Phosphorous
It has good fertilizing value for Crops, Lawn & Gardens
It also improves the soil structure because of high organic content.
b) As Livestock Feed-
● Caged poultry manure can be used as feed for pigs & poultry
whereas deep litter manure has been used as feed for ruminants.
● For This purpose, the manure is spread in the sun for drying to
moisture content of 10% or less.
● If facilities are available, it can be autoclaved at 15 psi
pressure for 30 minutes and taken to hot air drier for drying
● Dehydrated Poultry manure has been successfully Incorporated
upto a level of 15% in layer poultry ration
40 | 4 9
Reuses of Eggshells
Use in compost & organic gardening-
Eggshells can be composted, so there’s no excuse to ever throw your discarded shells into the
rubbish bin! They can also be used alone, crushed, in organic gardening as a slug and snail
repellent. Whilst keeping pests at bay, the broken shell will also be adding nutrients to your soil,
unlike nasty, unnatural chemical slug pellets.
Use as seedling pots
Being biodegradable, small, and free, eggshells make excellent
seedling pots. Just be careful when you are potting your seeds, as
eggshells are delicate! Make a small drainage hole in the bottom
of each egg, and store them in an egg box to keep them upright.
When the seedlings are ready to transplant, simply plant the
whole egg shell into a larger pot or the ground.
Create mosaic crafts
Eggshell is the perfect material for creating mosaic as it breaks into really interesting shapes. You
can dye your shell various colours, and this can then be used for all manner of projects – from
photo fram to pictures on paper, and more.
Make ‘chalk’
You can make chalk using just ground eggshells, hot water, flour,
and food colouring. This is great fun for kids to use on the
pavement or driveway during the warm summer months, and it’s
fun to make too
Create a candle holder
This may sound like a crazy idea, but these are such fun to make
and to look at. You simply colour your egg shells with food colouring (if you want to – you can
also leave them plain), then fill them with a wick and candle wax. Display them in egg cups, to
keep them upright and looking quirky.
41 | 4 9
UNIT-V
Common diseases of poultry – Raniket, Coccidiosis and Coryza, Vaccination programme.
Several Viral (Ranikhet disease, Marck’s disease, Bird flu, Fowl pox etc)., Bacterial (Fowl
cholera, Salmonellosis, Typhoid, paratyphoid etc.) Fungal (Mycosis Aspergillosis etc.), Parasitic
(external-lice, mites, fleas, etc. Internal – Rickets, Perosis, Avitaminosis etc.) should be dealt
effectively.
So in poultry management, emphasis must be given for selection of disease free and
suitable breeds, proper, safe and hygienic farm condition, and use of modern scientific methods
for transportation and storage, to make it more productive.
Newcastle Disease (ND) / Ranikhet Disease (RD)
Nature of disease
Depression Diarrhoea Mortality

This is an acute viral disease of poultry characterized by involvement of respiratory system, drop
in egg production and mortality as high as 100% in severe cases.
This virus has zoonotic effect and can causes human deaths.
Causes
Contamination of water Infected chicken Paramyxovirus

 Paramyxovirus type1 (PMV-1 belongs to the genus Avulavirus, family Paramyxoviridae).
 Based on the disease produced in chickens, NDVs have been classified into five
pathotypes, namely Viscerotropic velogenic (most pathogenic), Neurotropic velogenic,
Mesogenic (moderate pathogenic), Lentogenic9 low pathogenic) and Asymptamatic.
 Various physical (heat, irradiation and pH effects) and chemical compounds (potassium
permanganate, formalin, ethanol, etc.) could destroy the virus.
 Fumigation of buildings and incubators can be used to kill the virus.
 Infected chickens are the primary source of virus.
 Virus is shed during incubation, during the clinical stage, and for a varying but limited
period during convalescence.
 Virus may also be present in eggs laid during clinical disease and in all parts of the carcass
during acute virulent infections.
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 Infected birds shed virus in exhaled air, respiratory discharges, and feces, etc. which
contaminate feed and water.
 Infection in birds occurs through inhalation and ingestion of contaminated materials.
 Wild and pet birds, movement of people and poultry equipment and even poultry products
could aid in spread of infection.
 The virus has been found to survive for several days on the mucous membrane of the
human respiratory tract and has been isolated from sputum.
Clinical symptoms
Cyanosis of comb
 Twisting of neck and paralysis of wings and legs
 Cyanosis of comb
 Facial edema
 Diarrhoea
 Drop in egg production
 Sudden death
 Gross lesions
 Haemorrhage in intestine
 Petechial haemorrhage in proventiculus
 Congestion and mucoid exudates seen in the respiratory tract, especially in trachea.
Prevention and control
 Disease can be prevented effectively by an integrated approach of vaccination, proper

management and strict biosecurity.
 Live virus vaccines both from lentogenic (La Sota, F, B1) and mesogenic (H, R2B,
Mukteshwar) strains are used for induction of good immune response.
 Healthy chicks are vaccinated as early as day 1-4 of life.
 Lentogenic strains are administered through ocular (eye) or nasal (nostril) route for
primary vaccination of birds.
 Mesogenic strains are administered through subcutaneous or intramuscular route at 6-8
weeks of age as secondary vaccine for better protection of longer duration.
43 | 4 9
 Killed vaccine with oil adjuvant are used in endemic areas and administered
intramuscularly/ subcutaneously to maintain high and prolonged antibody titre in layers
and breeders and better maternal antibodies in chicks.
Recommended vaccination schedule for layers:
Age in days Name of the vaccine Route
5 F/B I/o (or) I/n
27 LaSota water
52 LaSota Water
64 R2B I/m
112 LaSota water
280 LaSota water
Regular disinfection of farm premises and equipment with potassium permanganate (1: 1000),
sodium hydroxide (2%) or Lysol (1: 5,000) are useful in preventing this disease.
Coccidiosis
Nature of disease
Heavy mortality in
broilers
 Coccidiosis is one of the most important protozoan diseases of poultry.
 Outbreaks are common between 3- 6 weeks of age.
 Inflict heavy mortality in broilers and also in growers raised on deep litter.
 One of the biggest causes of economic losses to poultry.
Causes
rodent Seven species of genus Eimeria

 It is caused by seven species of genus Eimeria.
 There is no cross immunity (cross-protection) among the seven species of Eimeria.
 Of the seven disease-producing species, E.tenella, E.necatrixand E.brunettiare the most
harmful and cause high morbidity and high mortality.
44 | 4 9
 E. tenellaaffects caeca and E. necatrixmiddle portion and E. brunettilower portion of the small
intestine.
 E. maximaand E. acervulinaare moderately harmful. E. maximaaffects middle portion of the
small intestine, and E.acervulinamainly upper portion, that is, duodenum.
 Ingestion of the infective form of oocysts (sporulated oocysts) is the only natural method of
spread.
 Ingestion of feed and water contaminated with sporulated oocysts causes the infection.
 Infected chickens may shed oocysts in the faeces for several days or weeks.
 Oocysts can be spread mechanically by movement of people, equipment and foot wear
between farms.
 It can also spread through cockroaches, rodents, pets and wild birds.
Clinical symptoms
Bloody diarrhoea Dehydration Drooping wings

 Affected birds appear dehydrated with drooping wings and ruffled feathers.
 They may huddle together and severe watery or bloody diarrhoea.
 Droppings of affected birds usually contain blood, fluid, and mucus.
 Emaciated and anaemic appearance.
 High mortality and most occurs between 5 and 6 days following infection.
 Causes poor weight gain and
 Egg production may be reduced in laying birds.
 Gross lesions
Distended small intestine filled Distended small intestine filled Distended small intestine filled
with fluids & clotted blood with fluids & clotted blood with fluids & clotted blood
 Caeca enlarged with clotted blood.
 Middle portion of the small intestine is distended to twice its normal size.
 Intestinal lumen filled with blood.
 Lining of the small intestine covered with tiny hemorrhages.
 Intestinal mucosa swollen and thickened.
45 | 4 9
Coccidiosis Vaccine Use lime powder to dry the litters Use slphonamide as feed additive
 Coccidiosis is far more easily prevented than treated.
 Control depends mainly on drugs, although an effective vaccine is now available for breeder
or layer replacements.
 Two types of vaccines have been used to obtain immunity (protection) against coccidiosis.
 Birds are vaccinated through drinking water between the age of 5 and 9 days.
 The use of one anticoccidial in the starter and another in the grower feed is called a 'shuttle
programme'.
 The use of shuttle programme has been found to reduce drug resistance.
 Hygiene and biosecurity along with measures to prevent contamination of feed and water with
droppings can prevent the occurrence of infection.
 Dry litter and raking of litter at regular intervals prevent sporulation of oocysts, thereby
minimizes chances of infection.
 During rainy season lime powder can be used to dry the litter and to render the oocysts
ineffective.
 Use of anticoccidial in feed as feed additives (e.g.; lonophores, sulphonamides, and
quinolones) can avoid acute outbreak.
 Rotation of anticoccidial every 4-6 months are helpful in maintaining their efficacy and
restricting the development of resistance.
 In disease condition, medication must be given in consultation with qualified veterinarian to
avoid complications.
Infectious Coryza
Nature of disease
Discharge from the eyes Discharge from the nostrils Swelling of the face
 Infectious coryza is an acute, highly contagious, bacterial disease of the upper respiratory tract
of chickens.
 A chronic respiratory disease can develop when complicated by other pathogens.
46 | 4 9
 Characterized by swelling of the face (facial oedema), and discharge from the eyes and
nostrils
Causes
Drinking water contaminated by Homophiles

Older bird suffers more
discharge paragallinarum
 This disease is caused by a bacteria, Homophiles paragallinarum
 Older bird suffers more severely.
 Clinically affected and carrier birds act as a main source for disease.
 It can be transmitted by drinking water contaminated by nasal discharge as well as by airborne
means over a short distance.
 Lateral transmission occurs readily by direct contact.
 Factors that predispose to more severe and prolonged disease (chronic respiratory disease)
include intercurrent infections with microorganisms such as infectious bronchitis virus,
Laryngotracheitis virus, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Escherichia coli or Pasteurella spp. and
unfavorable environmental conditions.
 Economic losses are due to marked reduction in egg production (10-40%) in layer.
Clinical symptoms
01 Swelling and cyanosis of 02 Swelling and cyanosis of 03 Swelling and cyanosis of

eyelids and face eyelids and face eyelids and face
 The disease in flocks on deep litter management is characterized by rapid spread, high
morbidity and low mortality.
 First typical symptoms include sneezing, mucus –like discharge from the opening of the nose,
eyes, and swelling on the face(facial oedema)
 In severe case conjunctivitis with closed eyes, swollen wattles, and difficulty in breathing can
be seen.
 Feed and water consumption is usually decreased resulting in a drop in egg production.
Gross lesions
47 | 4 9
Infraorbital sinus showing consolidated caseous exudate

 Catarrhal to fibrino-purulent inflammation of the nasal passages and infraorbital sinus and
conjunctivae.
 As the disease becomes chronic or other pathogens become involved, the sinus exudates may
become consolidated and turn yellowish.
 Subcutaneous edema of the face and wattles is prominent.
 The upper trachea may be involved, but the lungs and air sacs are only affected in chronic
complicated cases
 Prevention of infection into the farm is the best control, which could be achieved by hygiene,
sanitation, strict bio security and procurement of birds from disease free sources.
 Since recovered birds are reservoir of infection, such birds should be removed and culled from
the flock.
 All – in – all- out rearing system is required for eradication of disease.
 Vaccination using inactivated whole culture of organisms containing an adjuvant can protect
chickens against the disease.
 In endemic areas, two doses of vaccine, each of which must consist of at least 108 colony-
forming units are advocated, given subcutaneously, the first at about 16 weeks of age. Another
one is given at 20 weeks of age.
 After cleaning, disinfection and resting of the building for at least 1 week, new birds may be
introduced.
 Only day-old chickens or older birds which are known to be free from H. Paragallinarum
should be used for the restocking.
Vaccination schedule for Broilers
Days Vaccine Route

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT) 0.2ml S/C
5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N
10th day Infectious Bronchitis vaccine O/N
12-14 days Infectious Bursal Disease O/N
Vaccine- Intermediate Georgia
28th day Booster RD La Sota Water
48 | 4 9
Vaccination Schedule for layers
Days Vaccine Route

0 day Mareks Disease Vaccine (HVT) S/C 0.2 ml
5-7 days Ranikhet Disease Vaccine- RDVF O/N
10th day Leechi Disease Vaccine (Optional) Water
12-14 days Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccine- Pruning O/N or water
Intermediate Georgia
18-22 days Infectious Bronchitis O/N or water
24-27 days IB Vaccine Booster Water
28-30 days RD vaccine Booster- La Sota Water
6th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine or Infectious Coryza S/C
Vaccine (if prevalent in the area)
8th Week RD vaccine- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m
9th Week Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing web
12th-13th Week IB Booster Water
18th week RD Booster- RDVK or R2B S/C or I/m
45th-50th Week RD La Sota repeated every once in 2 Months Water
49 | 4 9

POULTRY SCIENCE Kavitha Zoology

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SBEC IV: POULTRY SCIENCE

Unit Topics Page

Need for poultry house

Different types of poultry houses

Grower cage Grower cage

Floor space requirements

Acid-insoluble ash (maximum 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Calcium (Ca) 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0

Available phosphorus 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Lysine (maximum %) 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.65 0.65

Methionine 0.50 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.30 0.30

Metabolizable energy 2 800 2 900 2 600 2 500 2 600 2 600

Iron (mg/kg) 120 120 120 90 75 90

Zinc (mg/kg) 60 60 60 50 75 100

Vitamin A (IU/kg) 6 000 6 000 6 000 6 000 8 000 8 000

Vitamin D3(IU/kg) 600 600 600 600 1 200 1 200

Biotin (mg/kg) 0.2 0.2 0.02 0.15 0.15 0.20

Vitamin B12(mg/kg) 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.01 0.010 0.01

Folic acid(mg/kg) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5

Choline (mg/kg) 1 400 1 000 1 300 900 800 800

Vitamin K(mg/kg) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Methionine + cystine (g/100 g) 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.55 0.55

Source: BIS. Poultry feeds - specifications, fourth revision.

Traying hatch eggs

Steps Involved In Commercial Hatchery

Physical composition of egg of various species

Chicken J. quail Turkey Duck

Egg weight (g) 57 12 85 80

Organized marketing channel

Depression Diarrhoea Mortality

Contamination of water Infected chicken Paramyxovirus

 Disease can be prevented effectively by an integrated approach of vaccination, proper

rodent Seven species of genus Eimeria

Bloody diarrhoea Dehydration Drooping wings

Drinking water contaminated by Homophiles

01 Swelling and cyanosis of 02 Swelling and cyanosis of 03 Swelling and cyanosis of

Infraorbital sinus showing consolidated caseous exudate

Vaccination schedule for Broilers

Days Vaccine Route

Vaccination Schedule for layers

Days Vaccine Route

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