18/5/1433

What is groundwater? (1)

• Many people visualize underground rivers.
• underground rivers occur only rarely in
cavernous limestone.
• Most groundwater stored in pores, fractures,
and small cavities below the ground surface.
• Groundwater accumulates over impervious
material.

What is groundwater? (2)

• Groundwater flows through pores in non-
lithified materials and through fractures in
lithified material (rock).
• Water flow through porous medium is slow
(range from few centimeters to meters per
day).

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Importance of groundwater
• Groundwater is water found in sediment,
plus narrow fractures in bedrock
• Groundwater is the largest reservoir of fresh
water available to humans

Fresh water of the Hydrosphere

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Groundwater Recourses
• Meteoric Water
• Water Surface Bodies
• Connate Water.
• Juvenile Water ; Magmatic ; Volcanic ;
Cosmic

Vertical distribution of
subsurface groundwater
• Zone of aeration (vadose zone)(unsaturated
zone): not all the pores are filled with water .
• Capillary fringe
• Water Table: boundary between zones of
aeration and saturation. all the pores are filled
with water
• Saturation zone (phreatic zone):all the pores
are filled with water

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Distribution of
Groundwater

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How does the water get into the

ground?

Infiltration
• From soil --- is low
Infiltration occurs through the base of the
valleys.
• From outcrop rocks – direct infiltration.

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Water Table (1)

• Water table is the upper limit of saturation
• WT will be at a shallower depth during wet
seasons than during dry seasons
• WT coincides with the top of a permanent lake or
stream.
• The slope of the WT is the hydraulic gradient

Water Table

unsaturated

water table
saturated

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Water Table (2)

• The depth to the water table depends on climate.
In an arid region, the WT may be tens of meters
below the ground surface. In a humid region, the
WT may lie at the ground surface (creating a
swamp), or tens of centimeters below the
ground surface
• Shape is usually similar to surface topography

Kind of Forces
• Gravitational Forces.(down)
• Capillary Forces.(up)
- Clay and fine silt is high
- Gravel- no capillary force.
- Kind of liquid;

water mercury

• Hygroscopic Forces (Surface Tension)

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Physical Properties
• The following are required to quantify
groundwater flow velocity and reserves.
• Porosity (n).
• Permeability, Hydraulic Conductivity (K).
• Transmissivity (T).
• Specific Yield (Sy).
• Specific Retention (Sr).
• Specific Storage (Ss).

How much water can the

ground hold (what is its
porosity)?
• Pore: An open space in an otherwise solid
material. Pores in rocks include gaps between
grains and cracks or fractures.
• Porosity: Is a parameter which describe the
amount of open space.

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Porosity

VV VW
n   saturated
VT V W
 V S
VW VG
 unsaturated
VW VG V S

Vv: volume of pore space, VT: total volume, Vs: volume of solid.
Vw: volume of water, VG: volume of gas (air).

How to measure porosity?

• Oven dry a saturated soil core at t = 105C,
during 24h.Convert weight loss to porosity.
• If soil is initially dry, could measure volume
of water needed to saturate the soil.

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Aluminum Pipe for Soil Coring

Porosity: Determining Factors

• Packing.
• Grain shape- sphericity /roundness.
• Sorting.
• Grain orientation.
• Grain size???

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Packing Effects on Porosity

Cubic Packing
n = 0.48
Exercise

Rhombohedral
Packing
n = 0.26

Grain Shape Effects on Porosity

Clay Mineral
Structure

Sand Structure
Sand grain

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Grain Size Sorting Effects on

Porosity
Well Sorted

Poorly Sorted

Grain Size Effects on Porosity

Which size has

highest porosity?

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Types of Porosity
• Primary -water in pores between grains.
(measured in lab)
• Secondary -groundwater in fractures, voids due
to chemical weathering (e.g., karst).
(measured by pumping test)
• Effective porosity: porosity available for fluid
flow, ―connected pores‖.
• Disconnected or ―dead-end‖ pores.

Porosity Values
Well sorted sand 0.25-0.50
Poorly sorted sand 0.20-0.35
Silt 0.35-0.50
Clay 0.35-0.60
Till 0.10-0.30
Rock 0-0.02
Weathered Rock 0.0-0.60

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Permeability (1)
• Rock may have a high porosity but if the space
are not connected, water cannot flow through
rock.
• Permeability: capability of a substance to allow
the passage of water
function of porosity and connectivity of pores
can also occur through fractures

Permeability (2)
• Permeability: measure of the degree to
which the pore spaces are connected, so that
water can flow through the material.
*high permeability materials: water flows
through easily
* low permeability materials: water flows
through with difficulty (i.e., very slowly)
* Note: a material can have high porosity,
but have low permeability (e.g.styrofoam).

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Factors affecting permeability

• Size of pores
• Density of pores in the rock
• The degree of connectivity among pores.

Permeability
K : absolute
Ks : solid phase
K : include both solid and liquid phases.
• Permeability is determined by pore size, and
connectivity.

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Range of K
• Well-sorted gravel 10-4 - 10-2 m/s.
• Well-sorted sand 10-5 - 10-3 m/s.
• Silt 10-8 - 10-6 m/s.
• Clay 10-11 - 10-8 m/s.
• Rock 10-13 - 10-10 m/s.
• Fractured and/or 10-8 - 10-2 m/s.
Weathered Rock

Permeability Range
Impermeable Permeable
10-12 10-7 10-5 10-1

clay silt sand

gravel

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Average K for Layered

Materials

K1
K2
K3

Average K Parallel to Layers

1
2
3
1 n
Kx   Ki 
i
Arithmetic
L i 1
Mean

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Isotropic and Anisotropic

Anisotropic
Isotropic Vx ≠ Vy≠ Vz

Four Possible Combinations of

Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Homogeneous, Isotropic Homogeneous, Anisotropic

Kz Kz

Kx Kx

Heterogeneous, Isotropic Heterogeneous, Anisotropic

Kz Kz

Kx Kx

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Transmissivity (T)
The coefficient of transmissivity as defined
by Theis, is the rate of flow in gallons per
day through a vertical section of an aquifer
whose height is the thickness of an aquifer
and whose width is one foot under a
gradient of 100%.
T = K B ; B: is the saturation thickness,
(m3 /day/m)

Specific Yield (Sy)

The ratio of volume of water that a
saturated rock or soil will yield by
gravity to the total volume of the rock
or soil.

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Specific Retention (Sr)

The ratio of volume of water that a
saturated rock or soil will retain after
complete gravity drainage to the total
volume of the rock or soil.

Specific Storage, Ss

Volume of water released from storage

per unit decline in hydraulic head per
unit volume of saturated formation.

Storativity = Ss x b

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Specific capacity
specific capacity of a well is its yield per
unit of drawdown, usually expressed as
m3/h/m. dividing the yield by the
drawdown, gives the value of specific
capacity.

Well yield
• Yield is the volume of water per unit of
time discharged from a well, either by
pumping or by free flow. It is a measured
commonly as the pumping rate in cubic
meter per second.

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Safe Yield
• Maximum pumping volume without
lowering long-term reserves, causing land
subsidence, lowering surface water levels,
sea water intrusion.
• Requires an interdisciplinary approach:
economists, engineers, hydrogeologists,
lawyers, plant and wildilfe ecologists

Hydrogeological
classification of rocks

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Groundwater Reservoir(1)
• Aquifer
The word aquifer comes from the Latin words,
"Aqua" (water), and "fer" (to carry). An aquifer is
often described as a sub-surface geologic
formation(s) (solid rock and/or unconsolidated
sediments) that contains ground water in sufficient
quantities to be used, or have the potential to be
used, for drinking water supply or for commercial,
industrial or agricultural purposes.

• Aquifer: Geologic material that can transmit large

quantities of water are highly permeable to groundwater;
flow in useable amounts.
Ex. Alluvial deposits
- unconfined aquifer: water is not confined
- confined aquifer: water is confined above and below
• Aquitard:A geologic formation of rather impervious
nature, which transmits water at a slow rate compared to an
aquifer ( insufficient for pumping water from wells.
Ex. Sandy Clay

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Groundwater Reservoir(1)
• Aquiclude: Geologic material that cannot
transmit significant quantities of water are
impermeable to groundwater; flow in
useable amounts.
EX. Clay
• Aquifuge: A geologic formation with no
interconnected pores and hence can neither
absorb nor transmit water.
Ex. Solid Granit

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS(1)
• are covered by permeable geologic formations
(either solid rock or unconsolidated sediments)
and the upper surface where the rock formations
are fully saturated is called the water table.
• These aquifers are also known as water table
aquifers. They receive recharge directly from the
infiltration of rainfall and surface water.

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Unconfined Aquifer(2)
• Water accumulates over an impermeable or
impervious surface.
• Water table can freely rise to land surface.

CONFINED AQUIFERS(1)
• are those that are covered (confined) by an
impermeable or semi-permeable layer of rock.
Confined aquifers are not directly recharged by
vertical infiltration. Confined aquifers need to be
connected to an unconfined area through which
recharge can occur.
• The confining impermeable layers rarely form a
complete barrier to ground water. There is
generally some transfer or flow of ground water
between the confined aquifer and the confining
layers.

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Confined Aquifer(2)
• Aquifer is sandwiched between 2 layers of
impermeable or impervious material.
• Water flows into aquifer from an area at
surface where upper impermeable layer
(confined layer) is absent.
• Groundwater in confined aquifers is under
pressure.

Confined Aquifer(2)
• Wells can be drilled through the upper confined layer
-Pressurized water will rise within well.
-Water levels called piezometric water level
-Wells are called artesian wells
-Where water levels rise above the ground surface,
water freely flows out of the well (flowing artesian
well)

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Aquifer Model for the Front Range

PERCHED AQUIFERS
• occur where ground water is perched above
unsaturated rock formations as a result of a
discontinuous impermeable layer. Perched
aquifers are fairly common in glacial sediments.
• They also occur in other sedimentary formations
where weathered layers, ancient soils or caliche
(acalcareous layer common in semi-arid areas)
have created impermeable zones.

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Recharge and Discharge Areas(1)

• Surface water and groundwater are generally
connected with flows in and out of the subsurface.
• Surface areas where water flows from surface into
groundwater are called recharge areas.
• Surface areas where water flows from
groundwater out onto ground surface are called
discharge areas.

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Recharge and Discharge Areas(2)

• Normal Recharge
unconfined aquifer
confined aquifer
• Artificial Recharge
ponds ; injection wells ; planting on slope areas ;
• Urbanization
examples

Excessive Pumping
• May convert a discharge area into a
recharge area.
Q

before
pumping
after pumping

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Groundwater Budgets
• Need to estimate the groundwater budget
before proceeding with a new pumping
program.

Estimating Recharge
1 Use a flow net.
2 Water budgets.

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Streams
• Gaining stream = Effluent stream
Water table at elevation of the stream
• Losing stream = Influent stream
Water table below the ground surface

Water Table

unsaturated

water table
saturated

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SPRINGS
• -Water flows freely from ground surface
• -Occur where water table intersects ground surface
• -Springs seen along cliff faces generally occur when
downward percolating water collects on an
impermeable rock layer  this perched water table will
flow out of cliff face above the impermeable layer
• -Springs occur when fractures in impermeable rocks
bring water to surface.
• -Springs occur when solution channels in limestone
bring water to surface

Springs may result from

a perched water table

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Features associated with groundwater

• Hot springs
• Water is 6-9oC warmer than the mean
annual air temperature of the locality
• The water for most hot springs is heated
by cooling of igneous rock

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Features associated with groundwater

• Geysers
• Intermittent hot springs
• Water erupts with great force
• Occur where extensive underground
chambers exist within hot igneous rock
• Groundwater heats, expands, changes to
steam, and erupts

Evolution of a
geyser eruption

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Old Faithful
geyser in
Yellowstone
National Park

Yellowstone Geyser erupting

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Yellowstone Geyser Pool prior to eruption

Qs = Q° e-α t
t
1
Qs = ∫ Qt e-α t
t
°
t
1
Qs = Q t ∫ e-α t
t
°
Qs = Q° stored amount of GW in the aquifer.
-α
α; discharge factor related to the geometrical
factors of the aquifer.

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Features associated with

groundwater(1)
• Wells
• To ensure a continuous supply of water, a
well must penetrate below the water table
• Pumping of wells can cause
– Drawdown (lowering) of the water table
– Cone of depression in the water table

Water Movement in Subsurface (1)

• Unsaturated Zone
- Water moves primarily downward due to gravity
- Water infiltrates from surface and move to water
table.
• Saturated Zone
- Water seeks its own level.
- Water will flow from high water levels to low
water levels.

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Hydraulic head.
• Hydraulic head has units of length (m).
• Pressure head - length of fluid column
above measurement point.
• Gravity or elevation head, arbitrary distance
above a reference level (often sea level).
Zero Pressure (atmospheric).
h = hp + z Fluid Pressure here?

Hydraulic Head Gradient

410 m asl
400 m asl

380 m asl

dh/dl = -0.5
20 m

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Water Movement in Subsurface

(2)
• Water level can measure by wells.
• Contour map of water level can provide
information on GW flow direction.
• Equipotentail lines Flow net lines using
Fermi principal.

Would you drink the water?

Leaking Gasoline Tank
92 m
104 m

Drinking
Water 87 m
Well
1000 m
Monitoring Wells with values of hydraulic head.

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Leaking Gasoline Tank

92 m 95 98 101 104 m

91 101
90 9
Drinking 89 95
8
Water 88
Well 87 m

1000 m
Monitoring Wells with values of hydraulic head.

Leaking Gasoline Tank

92 m 95 98 101 104 m

91 101
90 9
Drinking 89 95
8
Water 88
Well 87 m

1000 m
Monitoring Wells with values of hydraulic head.

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Leaking Gasoline Tank

92 m 95 98 101 104 m

91 101
90 9
Drinking 89 95
8
Water 88
Well 87 m

1000 m
Monitoring Wells with values of hydraulic head.

Hydraulic Head Data

110.15 m 100.22 m

89.41 m
100.63 m

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Hydraulic Head Data

110.15 m 100.22 m

110
105
100

95 89.41 m
100.63 m
90

Darcy’s Law (1)

Rate of movement directly proportional to GW
potential difference and permeability:

V = K (dh /L)
q=vA
q = K dh/L A
V: velocity, A: cross-section area.
K: permeability coefficient.
dh /L: hydraulic gradient.
q:volume of water/time.Q: volume of water

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Darcy’s Law (2)

q (volume of water/time)

dh = hB - hA
A
L
B

Darcy’s Law (3)

q/A Slope of line = K

(hB - hA) / L

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Darcy’s Law (4)

V = K (dh /L):
Vx = Kx (dh /x)
Vy = Ky (dh /y)
Vz = Kz (dh /z)

Three kinds of Velocity -

Darcy’s Law
• Distance velocity (Vd).
• Path distance velocity (Vp).
• Filter velocity (Vf).
Vf = q
A*porosity
A*porosity= the area of the pores of the sample and not the area of the
sample itself.

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Measurement of K
Use constant or falling head permeameters
to calculate K.
Length of soil core
= 10cm. Soil
Diameter = 5 cm.
Depth of pounded
water = 1 cm.
Q = 10cc/min.
K=?

Falling Head Permeameter

• More practical technique for low hydraulic
conductivity materials such as clay soils.
• Give more real number (K) to natural water.

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Conditions - Darcy’s Law

• Laminar flow
• All space are filled with waters
• The flow of GW is continuous.
• The flow of GW is constant with time.

Upper and Lower Limits of

Darcy’s Law
1. Reynolds number, Re.
f vx d inertial forces
Re  
µ viscous forces
µ: viscosity of the liquid. ρ: density of the liquid. d: diameter of the tube.

Re < 10 for laminar flow and Darcy’s Law OK.

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What is the highest groundwater

velocity for which Darcy’s Law is
still valid in sand of d = 0.5 mm?
f vx d
Re 
µ
vx = 10 x 0.011404
0.99909 x 0.05
= 197m/day

Pumping Tests

• Determine if material is an aquifer by

measuring:
Transmissivity (T),
Storativity (S),
Permeability coefficient(K).
• Measure drawdown of hydraulic head in
observation wells near the pumping well.

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Measurements during pumping

· Time
· Water level change
- before pumping
- after pumping.
Discharge rate (Yield measured in accuracy ±
· 0.1 L/s).

Q = pumping rate

t=0
t>0
Confined Aquifer

Impermeable above and below aquifer

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What is drawdown?

• drawdown in a well means the extent of

lowering of the water level when the
pumping is in progress or when water is
discharging from a flowing well. drawdown
is the difference, between the static water
level and the pumping level.

Residual drawdown
After pumping is stopped, water levels rise
and approach the static water level observed
before pumping started . During such a
recovery period, the distance that, the water
level is found to be below the initial static
water level is called residual drawdown.

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Radius of Influence (R)

The distance from the center of the well to
the limit of the cone of depression, it is
larger for depression surrounding artesian
wells for those around water table wells.

Requirements
• Pumping wells (discharge wells).
• Observation wells.
Measure drawdown of hydraulic head in
observation wells near the pumping well

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Types of pumping test

• Constant rate test.
• Step draw-dawn test.

Data Needed Prior to Pumping

Test (1)
• Subsurface geological of hydro geological conditions.
• Thickness of Aquifer.
• Lithologic Character.
• Aquifer boundaries ( thickness of beds overlying and
underlying the aquifer), and kind of boundary
impervious material or recharge boundary .
• Assumption: The tested aquifer is of infinite lateral
extent.

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Data Needed Prior to Pumping

Test (2)
• Position to nature of the hydrologic
boundaries:
• Direction of G.W flow.
• W.T Gradient.
• Regional W.T trend.
• Kind of pumping equipments head and No.
and location of the tests.

r2
r1

h2 h1

hº

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Calculation of K
a. Unconfined
q=K*I*A
q = k * dh * 2 π r h
dr
K = q * In ( r2 / r1 )
π ( h 22 – h12 )

2r

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b. Confined aquifer
• q = K * dh * 2 π r b
dr
• K = q In ( r2 / r1 )
2 π b ( h2 – h1 )

Relationship // K and come of depression

2r

K1 K2 K3

h0

K1 < K2 < K3

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Radius of cone of depression K

material
300 – 400 m gravel
200 – 300 m sand
100 – 200 m silt
50 m clay

Specific Yield, Sy
• Storage term for an unconfined aquifer.
• Water table is lowered and a dewatering or
drainage of pores occurs.
• Sy > Ss
• Total storativity for an unconfined aquifer =
Sy + L Ss

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Sketching groundwater flow to a river.

Impermeable

Sketch equipotential lines.

Impermeable

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Sketch flow lines.

Impermeable

Calculate Flow Beneath a Dam

150 m asl

125 m asl Dam

K = 10-4 ms-1

Impermeable

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150 m asl

125 m asl Dam

Impermeable

Hydraulic head and urban water supplies

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Flow Across A Layer Boundary

K1
q’1

dl1 a
1
b
2
c
q’2 K2

dl2

Flow Across a Boundary

K1/K2 = tan 1/tan 2

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Features associated with

groundwater(2)
• Wells: Places where people drill a hole to obtain
groundwater.
(a) standard (pumping) well: a hole is drilled
below the water table, water is pumped up.
(b) artesian well: a hole is drilled into a confined
aquifer in which water is under pressure. Water
rises in well without pumping.

Formation of a cone of
depression in the water table

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Geologic work of groundwater

• Caverns
• Most caverns are created by acidic
groundwater dissolving soluble rock at or
just below the surface in the zone of
saturation

Geologic work of groundwater

• Groundwater dissolves rock

• Groundwater is often mildly acidic
– Contains weak carbonic acid
– Forms when rainwater dissolves carbon
dioxide from the air and from decaying plants
• Carbonic acid reacts with calcite in
limestone to form calcium bicarbonate, a
soluble material

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Geologic work of groundwater

• Caverns
• Features found within caverns
– Composed of dripstone (travertine)
» Calcite deposited as dripping water
evaporates
» Includes stalactites (hanging from the
ceiling) and stalagmites (form on the floor
of a cavern)

re-precipitation
of calcite occurs
in caverns as
stalactites and
stalagmites

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Speleothems in Carlsbad
Caverns National Park

“Soda straws” in Carlsbad

Caverns National Park

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Geologic work of groundwater

• Karst topography
• Landscapes that have been shaped by the
dissolving power of groundwater
• Some common features include
– Irregular terrain
– Sinkhole or sinks (formed by groundwater slowly
dissolving the bedrock often accompanied by collapse)
– Striking lack of surface drainage (streams)

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Sinkholes in
Florida

Stream incision, cave

development and karst
topography

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Chemistry of groundwater
• Chemical Composition of GW.
• Factors Affecting the chemical composition.
• Primary processes that influencing the
chemistry of GW.
• GW Analyses
• Evaluation of GW According to WHO,
Jordanian,… Standard.
WHO: World Health Organization.

Chemical Composition of GW
• Major, Minor and Trace Ions
- Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, CO3 and
NO3
- Fe, Al, Mn, PO4,
- Cr, V, Ti, F, Li, Pb, Ba, I, Mo, Sr,B,
• EC, TDS, COD, BOD, TH, NH4, SAR,
MBAS, TCC, TTCC .

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Factors Affecting the chemical

composition of GW
• Structure of H2O:
Dipole of H2O, anomalies of water,
Isotropic properties of water
• pH = - log aH+
• Eh (Redox Potential).
• Mobility of Elements in the Hydrosphere.
• Origin of GW.

Primary processes that

influencing the chemistry of
GW(1)
• Dissolution and Leaching
NaCl Cl + Na
CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 Ca + HCO3
• Mixing.
• Salt Precipitation.
Ca(HCO3) CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
• Increasing Concentration
Calcite– gypsum—halite-- ….

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Primary processes that

influencing the chemistry of
GW(2)
• Ion Exchange , Absorption, Adsorption
• Microbial Processes:
Sulfur Microbe, Iron Microbe, Nitrogen
Microbe (Nitrification, Denitrification).

Problems associated with

groundwater withdrawal (1)
• Treating groundwater as a nonrenewable
resource
• In many places water available to recharge
aquifer is less than amount being withdrawn
• Subsidence
• Ground sinks when water is pumped from
wells faster than natural recharge replaces it

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Problems associated with

groundwater withdrawal (2)
• Cone of Depression: If you pump out the
water too fast, the water table drops
immediately around a well, creating a cone-
shaped depression of the water table surface.
Any well in the cone of depression may run
dry.
• Saltwater contamination
• Groundwater withdrawal causes saltwater to
be drawn into wells, contaminating supply
• Primarily a problem in coastal areas

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Saltwater contamination due

to excessive well pumping

Groundwater contamination

• Common source is sewage

• Extremely permeable aquifers, such as gravel,
have such large pores that groundwater may
travel long distances without being cleaned
• Sewage often becomes purified as it passes
through a few dozen meters of an aquifer
composed of sand or permeable sandstone

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Contamination
of water well by
Septic System

Fast flow contaminates well

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Various chemicals can get into

the groundwater:
• a. Pesticides and herbicides
• b. Fertilizers
• c. Gasoline from underground tanks
• 2. Solid waste disposal
• 3. Liquid waste disposal
• 4. Radioactive waste

Is Remediation Possible?
(sometimes)
(a) Inject fresh water in injection wells, and
flush the contaminated water into removal
wells.
(b) Utilize bacteria to digest the
contamination.

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