European Studies

Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
European Physical Geography and ● While geographers can discuss
Boundaries Europe’s absolute location and the
● Traditionally, the continent of specific features of its physical
“Europe” referred to the western environment, we can also consider
extremity of the landmass known as Europe’s relative location. That is, its
Eurasia. location relative to other parts of the
● Europe’s eastern boundary is typically world. Europe lies at the heart of
given as the Ural Mountains, which what’s known as the land hemisphere.
run north to south from the Arctic
Ocean down through Russia to Cooperation and Control in Europe
Kazakhstan. The western portion of ● Europe’s physical landforms, climate,
Russia, containing the cities of St. and underlying resources have shaped
Petersburg and Moscow, is thus the distribution of people across the
considered part of Europe while the region.
eastern portion is considered part of ● When early humans began settling this
Asia. region, they likely migrated through
● In addition to the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains of Southwest
Europe has several other mountain Asia and across the Bosporus Strait
ranges, most of which are in the from what is now Turkey into Greece.
southern portion of the continent. The Greeks provided much of the
The Pyrenees, the Alps, and the cultural and political foundations for
Carpathians divide Europe’s southern modern European society. Greek
Alpine region from the hilly central ideals of democracy, humanism, and
uplands. Northern Europe is rationalism reemerged in Europe
characterized by lowlands and is during the Age of Enlightenment.
relatively flat. Europe’s western ● The Roman Empire followed the
highlands include the Scandinavian Greek Empire, pushing further into
Mountains of Norway and Sweden as Europe and leaving its own marks on
well as the Scottish Highlands. European society. Modern European
● Europe has a large number of navigable architecture, governance, and even
waterways, and most places in Europe language can be traced back to the
are relatively short distances from the Roman Empire’s influence.
sea. This has contributed to numerous ● The Roman’s vast European and
historical trading links across the region Southwest Asian empire united the
and allowed for Europe to dominate region under Christianity and
maritime travel. created new networks of roads and
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
trading ports. With the fall of the economic cooperation continued to
Roman Empire, however, tribal and expand.
ethnic allegiances reemerged and a ● The European Union (EU) itself was
number of invasions and migrations created in 1993 and today, the
occurred. England, for example, was organization has 27 member countries.
settled by the Germanic Anglo-Saxons, ● Not all members of the EU use the
from which the name “England” or euro, its official currency; the 19
“Angeln” is derived, then by the member states who do are known as
Normans from present-day France. the eurozone.
● The political map of Europe ● The United Kingdom is the only state
continues to change, with shifting to have left the EU. Its withdrawal is
alliances, competing goals, and new known as “Brexit” and was finalized in
pushes for independence. Many of the January 2020.
countries and political boundaries of ● Today, it is relatively easy to travel
Europe we know today were not across Europe, in part because of
formed until after World War II. In economic and monetary
general, Western Europe has moved cooperation, but also because internal
toward cooperation. border checks have largely been
● Europe’s largest city is London, with abolished.
a population of around 8.5 million ● The Schengen Agreement, signed in
within its city limits. Although the the 1990s allows member states to
United Kingdom was the dominant essentially function as a single
force in Europe during territory in terms of entry. These
industrialization, Germany now states share a common visa system and
dominates the region in terms of residents and vehicles can travel freely
population, gross domestic product, throughout states participating in the
and size. agreement.
● Although the European Union has
European Union provided member states with a number
● The European Union developed out of of advantages, the system has had
the Benelux Economic Union signed in some structural concerns. Greece, for
1944 between Belgium, the example, admitted to the EU in 1981,
Netherlands, and Luxembourg. France, adopted the euro in 2001. It has had
Italy, and West Germany signed an continued issues with debt, however,
economic agreement with the Benelux and has required massive bailouts
states in 1957, and from there, the from other member states.
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
● The United Kingdom held a the devolutionary forces found in this
referendum in June 2016 and region led to the creation of the term
decided to leave the EU, the first time Balkanization, referring to the
a country has made the decision to tendency of territories to break up
leave the organization. into smaller, often hostile units.
● To join an organization like the EU, a ● While some countries in the region
country gives up some of its have decidedly benefitted from
sovereignty, its independence in globalization, others remain fairly
making economic, political, or legal limited in terms of global trade and
decisions. Ideally, a country would global economic integration.
gain more than it loses. Countries ●
united economically can more easily Industrial Revolution in Europe
facilitate trade, for example, or could ● The differences in levels of
share a common military rather than development across Europe today
each supporting their own. have largely been shaped by the
● Devolution, which occurs when Industrial Revolution. The
regions within a state seek greater Industrial Revolution refers to the
autonomy, has continued in Europe, changes in manufacturing that
representing a tension between occurred in the late 18th and early 19th
nationalistic ideals and ethnic ties. In centuries. These changes had profound
the United Kingdom, a 2014 Scottish effects on society, economics, and
independence referendum was agriculture, not just in Europe, but
narrowly defeated but led to greater globally.
autonomy for Scotland. In general, ● Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
Policies offering increased most goods in Europe were produced
autonomy have kept the map of in the home. These so-called
Western Europe fairly intact. Ethnic “cottage” industries consisted of
groups seeking sovereignty often want individual workers making unique
political autonomy but economic goods in their homes, usually on a
integration, and thus devolution part-time basis. These products could
generally allows them more be sold by a farming family to
decision-making power. supplement their income.
● In the Balkan region, however, strong ● The Industrial Revolution began in
ethnic identities has contributed to the United Kingdom, and while it’s
continued political instability and difficult to pinpoint the exact point at
the formation of new states. In fact, which the revolution began, a key
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
invention was James Watt’s steam engines and improved iron also
engine, which entered production transformed the shipping industry.
in 1775. This steam-driven engine was ● The Agrarian Revolution coupled
adopted by industries to allow for with the Industrial Revolution
factory production. Machines could profoundly changed European
now be used instead of human or geography. With the improvements of
animal labor. Interestingly, a side effect the Agrarian Revolution, farmers could
of the steam engine was that it enabled produce more with less work. This
better iron production, since iron provided an agricultural surplus,
required an even and steady stream of enabling a sustained population
heat. This improved iron was then increase. Port cities and capital cities
used to build more efficient steam became centers of trade and expanded.
engines, which in turn produced ● Critically, the Agrarian Revolution
increasingly better iron. freed workers from having to farm,
● During this time, there were also since fewer farmers were needed to
significant changes in agricultural produce the same amount of crops,
production. The Agrarian enabling people to find work in the
Revolution began in the mid-1750s factories. These factories were
and was based upon a number of primarily located in cities, and thus it
agricultural innovations. This was the was the combination of these two
Age of Enlightenment, and the revolutions that dramatically
scientific reasoning championed increased urbanization in Europe.
during this era was applied to the ● Overall, the Industrial Revolution
growing of crops. Farmers began to considerably improved European
use mechanized equipments rather power by boosting their economies,
than relying solely on animal labor, improving their military technology,
Fertilizaera improved soil conditions and increasing their transportation
and crop rotation and complimentary efficiency. Even before the Industrial
planting further increased crop yields. Revolution, Europe exerted a
● Around the same time considerable amount of control over
improvements in rail the rest of the world. European
transportation changed both the colonialism began in the 1400s, led by
way goods were distributed across Portugal and Spain. In the 1500s,
Europe and the movement of people England, France, and the Dutch began
across the region. The use of steam their own colonial campaigns. By the
start of WorldWar I, the British
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
Empire, boosted by the look at both intraregional migration,
improvements of the Industrial movement within a particular
Revolution, had the largest empire region, and interregional migration,
in history, covering 20% of the such as migration from Europe to
world’s population at the time. North America. Historically, most
● Coinciding with the Industrial and intraregional migration in Europe
Agrarian Revolutions were a number was rural to urban, as people moved
of political revolutions in Europe. from farms to cities to find work.
The most influential political change Cities grew rapidly in the region as
came as the result of the French centers of trade and industry.
Revolution, which ended France’s ● Before the industrial revolution,
Monarchy , establishing a republic and migration to the region was usually in
provided the foundation for numerous the form of invasions, such as with the
political revolutions that followed. It Roman Empire, the Islamic Empire,
also weakened the power of the and the Ottoman Empire.
Roman Catholic Church in France, ● A diaspora refers to a group of
inspiring the modern-day separation people living outside of their
between church and state that is typical ancestral homeland and many Jewish
of many Western countries. people moved to Europe to escape
● The shift in labor that occurred during violence and persecution, particularly
the Industrial Revolution, as people after the Roman destruction of the
left rural farms to find work in Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE.
factories, led to the specialization of ● Jews migrating to Europe were
labor that is found in Europe today. often met with anti-Semitism,
As regions focused on the however. During the Middle Ages,
manufacture of particular goods, European Jews were routinely attacked
they benefited from economies of and were expelled from several
scale, the savings in cost per unit that countries including England and
results from increasing production. France. Jewish communities were
destroyed during the 14th century as
European Migration the black death swept across Europe
● The Industrial and Agricultural and thousand of jews were mudered,
Revolutions shaped both migration accused of orchestrating the epidemic.
patterns within Europe and ● European Jews were often forced to
immigration to the region. When live in distinct neighborhoods, also
considering migration, geographers known as ghettos. In fact, this
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
requirement to live in specific areas was of different ethnic and linguistic
required in Italy under areas ruled by groups.
the Pope until 1870. These distinctive ● Before the creation of states as we
communities were often met with understand them today, Europe, as
suspicion by European Christians. with the rest of the world, was divided
● This anti-Semitic fervor and largely by ethnicity or tribe.
persecution of Jews reached its Empires often took control of multiple
height at the time of the Nazi ethnic areas. Familial allegiances
Party’s rule in Germany. Prior to were of fundamental importance.
World War II, close to 9 million Jews That’s not to say that geography or
lived in Europe; 6 million of them territory didn’t matter, but simply that
were killed in the Holocaust. who you were mattered more than
● There was another shift in where you were.
population after the signing of the ● The creation of sovereign political
Schengen Agreement in 1995, with states changed this notion. Multiple
large numbers of immigrants from ethnicities were often lumped
Eastern Europe migrating to the together under single political
western European countries. entities, sometimes due to peaceful
● European and political inequalities alliances and sometimes due to armed
have driven much to the interregional conquest.
migration to Europe in the 1980s. ● In cases where a state was dominated
Immigrants from North Africa and by a single, homogeneous ethnic
Southwest Asia driven by limited and linguistic cultural identity, we
employment opportunities and would refer to it as a nation-state,
political conflict have migrated to from the term state, meaning a
Europe in Large numbers and now sovereign political area, and nation,
represent approximately 12% of all meaning a group with a distinct
European Migrants. ethnic and cultural identity. Several
European countries today are
Shifting National Identities considered nation-states. Historically,
● What does it mean to be European? Germany and France were also
Perhaps simply it means someone considered nation-states, though
who’s from Europe. But what does it immigration has changed their cultural
mean to be French or German or landscape.
Spanish or British? These countries ● The concept of nation-state is
have long been comprised of a number distinct from the idea of nationalism,
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
which refers the feeling of political These might include differing religious
unity within a territory. In cases beliefs, linguistic differences, or even
where a particular ethnic group physical barriers within a state.
represents the majority, nationalist ● Centripetal forces, on the other hand,
ideals might be representative of tend to unify people within a country.
that group’s language or religion. A charismatic leader, a common
● Migration has continually changed religion or language, and a strong
the cultural landscape of Europe national infrastructure can all work as
and as immigrant groups have centripetal forces.
challenged or been challenged by ideas ● Countries of Europe always had a
of nationalism. In 1290 CE, King significant amount of ethnic and
Edward I expelled all Jews from linguistic variety, they typically
England, essentially establishing maintained a strong sense of national
Christianity as being at the core of identity. Religion in particular often
English national identity. In worked as a centripetal force, uniting
Germany, what it meant to be varying cultural groups under a
“German” under the Nazi Party common theological banner.
excluded those who were considered to ● Religious adherence in Europe is
be “undesirable” and “enemies of the shifting, however. In Sweden, for
state,” such as Jews, Roma and others. example, over 80% of the population
● Nationalism, taken to this extreme, is belonged to the Church of Sweden, a
known as fascism. Fascists believe that Lutheran denomination, in 2000.
national unity, to include a strong, 64.6% claimed membership in the
authoritarian leader and a church and just 18 percent of the
one-party state, provides a state with population stated that they believed in
the most effective military and a personal God.
economy. Fascist governments might ● This is indicative of a broad shift in
thus blame economic difficulty or Europe from traditional, organized
military losses on groups that religion toward humanism or
threaten national unity, even if those secularism. Humanism is a
groups include their own citizens. philosophy emphasizing the value
● Within every country, ideas of of human beings and the use of
nationalism grow, weaken, and reason in solving problems. Modern
change over time. Centrifugal humanism was founded during the
forces are those that threaten French Revolution, though early forms
national unity by dividing a state.
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
of humanism were integrated with time, immigrants to the region are
religious beliefs. generally more religious. Increasing
● Secular humanism, a form of numbers of Muslim immigrants from
humanism that rejects religious North Africa and Southwest Asia have
beliefs, developed later. Secularism settled in Europe, lured by the hope of
refers broadly to the exclusion of economic prosperity and political
religious ideologies from freedom.
government or public activities. ● Europeans are divided about how open
● Geographers can examine how the region should be to immigrants,
secularization has occurred in and how asylum seekers, refugees
Europe; that is, how Europe has been seeking sanctuary from oppression,
transformed from countries with should be treated.
strong religious values to a more ● Even before the 2015 wave of Syrian
nonreligious society. In general, areas migrants to Europe, a 2012-2014
within the core of Europe tend to be survey showed that most Europeans
more secular and thus some (52%) wanted immigration levels to
researchers link secularization with decrease. Opinions vary within the
rising economic prosperity. region, however. In the United
● Most Western European countries Kingdom, 69% of people support
have strong social welfare programs, decreased immigration. In Greece, a
where citizens pay a higher percentage gateway country for migrants
of taxes to support universal attempting to enter Europe, 84% of
healthcare, higher education, child people desire decreased
care, and retirement programs. These immigration. A majority of adults in
social welfare programs often serve Northern European countries,
as centripetal forces, unifying a however, want immigration to stay the
country by providing government same or increase.
support and preventing citizens from ● In 2014 and 2015, migration to
falling into extreme poverty. Europe intensified as a result of an
ongoing civil war in Syria. There
Current Migration Patterns and Debates were more refugees in 2014 than in any
● The increasing secularization of other year since World War II. 2015
Western Europe has magnified the shattered that record, however, as 65.3
conflict over immigration to the million people were displaced.
region. Whereas Western Europeans Germany has received the most
have become less religious over
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
applications for people seeking “no.” In 1938, on the brink of World
refugee status. War II, representatives from
● Many small towns in Europe have Western European countries voted
experienced shifting demographics not to accept Jewish refugees from
as people move away to work in cities Germany and Austria. Numerous
and immigrants move in to work in the countries in Europe have similarly
available jobs. As Western Europe voted not to accept Syrian migrants.
moved through industrialization, it has ● Sweden has specifically argued that if
increasingly shifted away from heavy every country in Europe accepted a
manufacturing and increased proportional amount of refugees,
employment in service and they would easily be able to
high-tech industries, a process accommodate the influx. Refugee
known as deindustrialization. populations typically have lower
● The higher-skilled and unemployment rates than
higher-educated workers from small native-born populations and though
towns moved to the cities to find they require social services like housing
work, while lower-skilled and employment, can provide a
immigrants worked the often long-term economic boost by
dangerous or labor intensive jobs that increasing the labor force, especially
remained. In the United Kingdom in in countries with otherwise declining
particular, many of the people who populations.
oppose immigration and supported ● Europe’s population will continue to
Britain leaving the EU are located in shift in terms of demographics and
these small towns where cultural identity. Recent economic
immigration has quite visibly changes and migration patterns have
changed the cultural landscape that highlighted deep divides about ideas
had already shifted as a result of of national identity and the role of
deindustrialization. the region in global affairs. Europe
● For some, the debate over continues to be an influential and
immigration and asylum are less economically important region and
questions of national identity and will likely continue to attract migrants
more issues of social justice. Do from surrounding areas.
countries that have political freedom
and economic prosperity have a moral
obligation to assist those in need?
Historically, the answer has often been
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
European Studies: An Odd fit close at hand make Europe a little
● European Studies is perhaps the most under-represented by comparison
basic model behind all area studies to the US, this is hardly true by
programs. comparison to the rest of the world.
● And yet at the same time an odd fit Self-Regarding VS. Other Regarding
with the others. It is the model because ● European Studies is self-regarding
the idea of Europe as a multiplicity of rather than other-regarding. Europe
nations and states united by is used by other area studies scholars as
‘civilization’, history, geography, a mirror to compare the West
religion, and politics informed the very vis-à-vis the East.
idea that regions should be units of ● In European history, the
academic and indeed public conceptualization of Europe was
interest. shaped by the use of others — both
● It is an odd fit because the others are the ‘‘high’’ cultures of Orientalism
all joined by a consistent issue of and the ‘primitives’ of Africa,
cultural distance, figuring more as America, and the Pacific — as mirrors
America’s others than as its ancestors, for reflecting on Europe as the
and because it is very differently West.
integrated into the organization of ● In America this continued, but was
academic work. overlaid also with the image of the Old
European Studies: The Standards in Social World compared to the new, a view of
Science heritage and (sometimes discarded)
● Europe has shaped what is normal history constitutive for both the
in social sciences and humanities project of national identity and claims
disciplines, and other area studies are to high culture by elites within it.
challenging this conception of ● In Cold War terms, Comparative
“normal” and “universal.” European Politics, European Studies
European Studies: Representation was part of the construction of the
● Europe is underrepresented in West rather than the communist
American social sciences compared East.
to the rest of the world. ● In terms of modernization it was as
● some Europeanists complain of the basic to the ‘developed’ world and
‘shocking neglect’ of Europe in the idea of modernity itself as America
American social science. However, and not part of the underdeveloped
while American ethnocentrism and the other.
convenience of studying what is
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
European Identity ● When European studies was
● European identity is ancient, but it established, it studies established
took a more coherent form during the tradition rather than producing new
Middle Ages, under Western knowledge.
Christendom, from Charlemagne and ● In 20th Century, American thinkers
the Holy Roman Empire, through the started producing new knowledge
Crusades. drawing from European Disciplines.
● Challenges to a “European Identity” Europe also became the ground for
emerged as nation states that sought to comparative studies of America and the
differentiate themselves emerged in rest of the world.
Europe.
● The Early European states formed, European Studies as Area Studies
however they started to adapt similar ● Interest in Europe- The study of
systems of administration, ministries modern Europe was of great interest
and even military systems. after the 1960s during the Cold War.
● The Development of print and media Eastern Europe became of great
allowed exploits and news about other particular interest during this time,
european states to spread across the while Western Europe was left out of
region, leading to the production and the primary focus of European area
reproduction of European identity. studies.
● Lacking Funding- During this time,
European Studies in America many other area studies also received
● America played a distinct role in the greater funding, because of their
production of Europe and European importance to American security and
Studies. The higher education system defense interests. European Studies was
that was created in America produced a not a recipient of support from
preliminary education on European funding organizations.
culture. ● After 1989 Insergence- The events
● “Western Civilizations”- A mix of after 1989 had made Europe
Classical antiquity, European history, interesting again (European
great works of European thought, art integration, etc.), but despite the
and literature. occurrence of important events,
● When they constructed “European Europe still held an uncertain position
Studies” after the structure pf PhD in the realm.
studies, they maintained western ● Support- Despite the trend, European
civilization as a prerequisite. national governments continued to
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
support American scholars or
collaborations between European
scholars and their American
counterparts to maintain connections
to the largest and strongest academic
establishment in the world.

Issues in European Studies

● Europe as “Modern” VS “Provincial
Europe
● “Eurocentrism VS Not Doing Justice
to Europe
● Modern Europe as Internally
Developed VS. Modern Europe as
Remade Externally

Importance of European Studies

● Distinguised in Social Sciences and
Humanities- While there are
challenges to the universality of
Western and European thought,
European social sciences remain
important in understanding social,
political, and economic developments.
● The Question of European
Integration- The experiment of
European integration is one that has
never been embarked by other regions
before, and it requires analysis on a
great many questions that it engenders.
● Diversity of European Intellectual
and Cultural Life- European Studies
is important, because Europe is a
region that is diverse and constantly
changing.
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
European Integration: An Introduction ● Alteiro Spinelli’s Ventotene Manifestp
● EU was founded in 1993 (1941)- The Manifesto called for
● Despite the formation of the EU being Socialist Federation of Europe and the
fairly recent, the history of European World. The manifesto called for a break
Integration spanned about four with Europe's past to form a new
decades. political system through a restructuring
● There were many perspectives of politics and extensive social reform.
regarding the matter f integration It was presented not as an ideal, but as
WITHIN Europe itself: the best option for Europe's postwar
1.) Integrationalists/ condition.
Supranationalists ● Benelux (1945)- Offered barrier-free
2.) Intergovernmentalists- trade to belgium, Netherlands and
Government to Government Luxembourg.
interaction (selective areas of ● Treaty of Dunkirk (1947)- Treaty of
interaction) Alliance and Mutual Assistance signed
by UK and France against a possible
Timeline of European Integration german Attack
1940s-1950 ● Organization of European Economic
- Beginning of Integration Council (OEEC, 1948)- organization
1957 set up by a convention signed in Paris
- Formation of European Communities in April 1948 to coordinate efforts to
- Turning points of EU integration due restore Europe's economy under the
to the establishment of European European Recovery Program (Marshall
Communities Plan)
1960s-1970s ● NATO (1949)- NATO was created in
- Further Integration and slowdown 1949 to secure peace in Europe with
- Some were pessmists about the belgium, Canada, Denmark, france,
trajectory of the integration. Iceland, italy, Luxemborg, The
1980s-1990s Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the
- The PUSH towards the creation of EU United Kingdom and USA as its
- Due to the Pessimists, the founding members.
Integrationalist Heads of States pushed ● Council of Europe (1949)- Set up to
for the creation of EU. promote democracy, human rights and
the rule of law. Home to the European
1940s to 1950s: The Beginnings Convention on Human Rights and the
European Court of Human Rights
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
● Treaty of Parus and ESC (1951)- The Treaties of Rome in 1958 to form a
decision to pool the coal and steel common market for the development
industries of Belgium, Germany, of the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the The original members were Belgium,
Netherlands brought into force by the France, West Germany, Italy,
Treaty of Paris in 1951, marked the first Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
step towards European integration. New Institutions required:
This established the European Coal 1.) European Commision
and Steel Community 2.) European parliament
● Treaty of Brussels (1948-1954)- The 3.) European Court of Justice
Treaty of Brussels, also referred to as 4.) European Council
the Brussels Pact, was the founding
treaty of the Western Union (WU) Challenges to fulfilling Commitments
between 1948 and 1954, when it was ● Greece & Turkey’s Underdevelopment
amended as the Modified Brussels ● Loss of Sovereignty- Some countries
Treaty (MTB) and served as the were suspicious of the possible loss of
founding treaty of the Western Soverignty due to the heavy
European Union (WEU). Interference.
● Scandinavia’s “Nordic” Cooperative
Challenges to Early Integration framework- strengthen the
● Different Countries = Different Scandinavian Countries’ national
Stances of Integration defence, explore common synergies and
● Changes in Leadership = Changes in facilitate efficient common solution.
Stances on Integration This is sometimes in contradictory in
● Not all efforts were successful the commitment towards Integration
● Austira, Switzerland and Swede’s
1957: The Communities Neutrality
1.) European Economic Community- The ● UK’s Reservations
EEC was designed to create a common ● Spain and Portugal’s Dictatorship
market among its members through
the elimination of most trade barriers 1960s: Breakthroughs
and the establishment of a common 1963: EEC started to develop basic regulations
external trade policy. for common agricultural policy.
2.) European Atomic Energy Soon, more countries wanted in and applied:
Community- International Ireland, UK, Denmark and Norway
organization established by one of the
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
Neofunctionalism- a theory of regional ● “Empty chair Crisis”- de Gaulle
integration which downplays globalisation boycotted European institutions due to
and reintroduces territory into its issues he had regarding new political
governance. Neofunctionalism is often proposals by the European
regarded as the first European integration Commission.
theory developed by Ernst B. Haas in 1958 as
part of his Ph. D. research on the European 1960s to Early 1970s: A slight reprieve
Coal and Steel Community. ● Once De Gaulle stepped down from
power, the “Six” proceeded wth plans
for further integration in the 1960s.
● Enlargement was considered and
implemented.
● Structural funds: European Regional
Development Fund and European
Socia; Fund
● Plans for Institutions: European
Monetary Union and European Policy
Center

1960s: The challenge of Charles de Gaulle 1970’s Slowdown and Revival

● Opposition to UK Membership ● However, International Events and
● Intergovernmentalism > conditions slowed down efforts for
Supranationalism integration
(intergovernmentalism refers to ● Nevertheless, consistent efforts moved
arrangements “whereby nation states, the countries closer towards a
in situations and conditions they can European Union.
control, cooperate with one another on ○ 1975- European Council and
matters of common interest". Under Proposal for EU
such circumstances states are free to ○ 1979- European Monetary
cooperate (or not) and are able to the System (an adjustable exchange
set the level or cooperation. Whereas, rate arrangement set up in
Supranationalism involves countries 1979 to foster closer monetary
working together by ceding a degree of policy cooperation between
sovereignty to be a member of an members of the European
international organization) Community)
● Against Qualified Majority Voting
European Studies
Physical geography of Europe, Development of European Studies and History of European Integration
1980s: Towards EU agreed to cooperate on security and
● Political will of likeminded Heads of legal affairs.
States 2.) Amsterdam Treaty- Addressed
● Germany’s Financial Support shortcomings of Maastricht treaty
● Single Market Project and Single 3.) Treaty of Nice- Further preparations
European Act (1986)- agreement for Enlargement of EU ( reformed the
enacted by the European Economic institutional structure of the European
Community (EEC; precursor to the Union to withstand eastward
European Community and, later, the expansion, a task which was originally
European Union) that committed its intended to have been done by the
member countries to a timetable for Amsterdam Treaty, but failed to be
their economic merger and the addressed at the time.)
establishment of a single European 4.) Treaty of Lisbon- gives the EU full legal
currency and common foreign and personality. Therefore, the Union
domestic policies. The Single Market obtains the ability to sign international
allows the unrestricted movement of treaties in the areas of its attributed
goods, services, capital, and people powers or to join an international
throughout the territory (also called a organisation.
bloc).

1990s: Establishing the EU

● Fall of Soviet Union- Catapulted the
Establishment of EU
● Calls for the formation of EU
● Spillover of the Single Market Project-

EU Treaties
1.) Maastricht treaty- Laid down the
foundations of European Union. The
goal of the treaty was to increase
cooperation by establishing common
European citizenship to allow residents
to move, live, and work freely between
member states. It also created a shared
economic, foreign policy, and security
policy system. Member nations also