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POLITICAL SCIENCE
Colonialism and Nationalism

in India
B.A. (Hons.) Pol. Sci. Semester 1st
Important Questions
with Answer
NOTES
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Colonialism and Nationalism in India
Table of Contents
Unit-I Colonialism and Nationalism
Lesson-1 Main perspectives on Colonialism: Liberalism, Marxism, Post-colonialism
Lesson-2 Approaches to the Study of Nationalism in India: Nationalist, Imperialist,

Marxist, and Subaltern
Unit-II Colonial Rule in India and its Impact
Lesson-3 Constitutional Developments and the Colonial State
Lesson-4 Colonial Ideology of Civilizing Mission: Utilitarians and Missionaries
Unit-III Reform and Resistance
Lesson-6 The 1857 war of Independence
Lesson-7 Major Social and Religious Movements
Lesson-8 Education and the Rise of the New Middle Class
Unit-IV Nationalist Politics and Expansion of its Social Base
Lesson-9 Nationalist Politics and Expansion of its Social Base Phases of the Nationalist
Movement: Liberal constitutionalist, Swadeshi and the Radicals, Formation of the Muslim
League
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2
Lesson-10 Gandhi and mass mobilization: Noncooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit
India Movements
Lesson-11 Revolutionaries, Socialists and Communists
Lesson-12 Communalism in Indian Politics
Lesson-13 The Two-Nation Theory, Negotiations Over Partition
Unit-V Social Movements
Lesson-14 Social Movements: Peasants, Tribals,
Lesson-15 Workers and Women’s Movement
Lesson-16 Anti Caste Movement
3
Question 1. Evaluate Lenin's theory of imperialism. Discuss its relevance in modern
times.
Answer - Introduction
Lenin argued that imperialist expansion allowed capitalism to postpone its
inevitable crisis and metamorphose into socialism. It also created new, serious
problems for the world. Lenin viewed World War I as an imperialist war, caused by
tensions that arose from the simultaneous expansion of several European empires.
The theory of imperialism refers to a range of theoretical approaches to understanding
the expansion of capitalism into new areas, the unequal development of different
countries, and economic systems that may lead to the dominance of some countries
over others.
Imperialism: Imperialism is formal or informal economic and political domination of

one country over the other. imperialism as an idea behind the practice.
Lenin's theory of imperialism
The essence of Lenin's theory of imperialism as a particular stage of capitalism was

precisely that it was distinguished by the growing domination of exchange and
exchange relations (and of the bank capital money earned through exchange) over
production and relations of production.
Features of Lenin's Theory
1. The concentration & merger of industrial & banking capital to create financial
capital, dominated by a small financial oligarchy.
2. The export of capital gains prominence over the export of commodities.

3. The formation of transnational corporations that compete to control global
resources, labor & markets.
4
4. The division of the world between the largest capitalist powers becomes complete,
this intensifies national rivalries & the danger of
Lenin's theory relevance in modern times
Lenin’s theory of imperialism revolves primarily around the systematic exploitation
of the poor economies by monopoly capital based principally in the rich economies.
Within Lenin’s framework, inter-imperialist wars are secondary to exploitation of the
poor economies, as these wars are ultimately about redrawing the terms and conditions
of that exploitation.
For Lenin, the key to understanding imperialism is monopoly. He argued: “If it were
necessary to give the briefest possible definition of imperialism, we should have to say
that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism. Such a definition would include
what is most important”.
Lenin outlined five principal features characterising imperialism at the beginning of
the twentieth century. Monopoly is at the core of all five. They were:
(1) the transition from free competition to monopoly production;
(2) the formation on this basis of monopolist trusts, cartels and banks and their merger
into a new, higher form of monopoly – “finance capital”;
(3) the exceptional importance of export of capital as opposed to export of
commodities
(4) beginning of division of the world between international monopolist businesses;
(5) completion of division of the world between the great powers. However, since Lenin
wrote, some forms of monopoly have changed.
5
Monopoly
Lenin had a nuanced understanding of monopoly. He never argued that specific
forms of monopoly (that is, specific technical stages) represented the highest “stage”
that monopoly could take. Bukharin mistakenly elevated direct state intervention in
forms common to his era as the highest and inevitable outcome of capitalist monopoly.
Bukharin’s “state capitalist trusts” have mostly been supplanted in the modern era by
private multinational corporations (MNCs). These are state-supported private capitalist
monopolies and oligopolies.
Lenin’s theory has proven to be a highly flexible instrument for understanding
imperialism today. Using it does not mean memorising the lines of his book, but
studying the book and the specific forms of contemporary monopoly. This is necessary
to uncover the modern ways in which value is sucked from the poor countries by
imperialist capital.
Conclusion
For Lenin, the key to understanding imperialism is monopoly. He argued: “If it were
necessary to give the briefest possible definition of imperialism we should have to say
that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism.
6
Question 2. Explain the Marxist approach to the study of colonialism and
nationalism in India.
Marx viewed colonialism as part of the global capitalist system, which has led to
exploitation, social change, and uneven development. He argued that it was destructive
and produced dependency.
Marx declared that the societies were divided not on nationalities but on class basis.
The purpose of the state is the protection of vested interests of the dominant class and
as such the state does not represent the nationality but the class interest
Marxist approach to the study of colonialism and nationalism in India
The Marxist historians have been critical of both the colonialist and nationalist
views on Indian nationalism. They criticise the colonialist perspective for holding a
discriminatory view on India and its people, while they criticise the nationalist
commentators for seeking the roots of nationalism in ancient past. They criticise both
for not paying attention to economic factors and class differentiation in their analysis of
the phenomenon of nationalism.
The Marxist paradigm is based on the analysis of the modes of production and
classes. The Marxist historians perceive that there was a basic contradiction between
imperialism and the Indian society. But they also do not ignore the class-contradiction
within the Indian society. They try to explain these processes with reference to the
economic changes under colonialism. And finally, they believe that India was not always
a nation but rather a nation which was being created in modern times in which the
nationalist movement had an important role to play.
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It is by the application of these analytical categories of class and mode of
production that M.N. Roy, a great figure in the national and international communist
movement during the 1920s, placed the Indian nationalist movement within a
universalistic framework. In his book, India in Transition (1922), he argued that this
movement had developed at a certain juncture in the development of international
capitalism. He was of the opinion that India was moving towards capitalism and had
already come within the ambit of global capitalism. Thus, the dominant classes in India
were not feudal lords but the bourgeoisie. In the context of feudal dominance, the
emerging national bourgeoisie is often revolutionary. However, in India, since feudalism
was approaching its end, the bourgeoisie had turned conservative in nature and wanted
to preserve the existing order. In this situation, only the workers would be revolutionary.
Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and
social change. Marx thought that working within the global capitalist system,
colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of
wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted
economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neo-colonial
dependency." Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw
materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result of inter-
capitalist rivalry for capital accumulation.
Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was

distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as Lyal S. Sunga explains:
"Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in
his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination"
as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin

who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the
right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from
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the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete
freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding
nation." Non-Russian Marxists within the RSFSR and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev
and Vasyl Shakhrai, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered
the Soviet Regime a renewed version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism.
Conclusion
Colonialism is now normally used in a pejorative sense and is associated with
crude exploitation. Few would deny the reality at times of oppression, economic
exploitation and an unconcern for human and civil rights. The colonial powers' primary
interests were usually selfish and largely economic.
9
Question 3. Explain the causes and consequences of the 1857 rebellion. Do you
agree that it was India's first war of independence in view of the participation of
different social classes?
OR
Discuss the main causes and consequences of the Revolt of 1857.
It was the first revolt of independence because all different classes participated in this
revolt. The revolt of 1857 left a deep mark on the history of Modern India. British policy
changed after the revolt of 1857. The revolt of 1857 played a key role in shaping the
Indian Empire during the early nineteenth century.
The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. It was initiated by
sepoys in the Bengal Presidency against the British officers. This war of Independence
marked the end of rule by the British East India company.
Causes of Revolt of 1857
1. Social and Religious Causes: The British had abandoned its policy of non-
interference in the socio-religious life of the Indians. Abolition of Sati (1829), Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Christian missionaries were allowed to enter India and
carry on with their mission of proselytizing. The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850
modified the traditional Hindu law. According to it, the change in religion would not
debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father.
2. Economic Causes: British rule led to the breakdown of the village self-sufficiency,
commercialization of agriculture which burdened the peasantry, adoption of free trade
imperialism from 1800, de-industrialization, and drain of wealth all of which led to the
overall decline of the economy.
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3. Military Grievances: The extension of British dominion in India had adversely
affected the service condition of the Sepoys. They were required to serve in an area
away from their homes without the payment of extra Bhatta. An important cause of
Military discontent was the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856, which made it
compulsory for the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required. The Post Office Act of
1854 withdrew the free postage facility for them.
4. Political Causes: The last major extension of the British Indian territory took place
during the time of Dalhousie. Dalhousie announced in 1849, that the successor of
Bahadur Shah II would have to leave the Red Fort. The annexation of Baghat and
Udaipur was, however, canceled and they were restored to their ruling houses. When
Dalhousie wanted to apply the Doctrine of Lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was

overruled by the court of Directors.
The main five consequences of the revolt of 1857
1. The British crown took over as the rule of East India company ended
The revolt of 1857 caused the transfer of powers from the hands of the East India
Company to the crown of England. This was achieved under the better government
of India act of 1858. Under this act, India came into direct control under the crown,
which started acting through a state secretary. The secretary was directly responsible
to the British crown. An Indian council consisting of 15 members was created, out of
which at least nine should have served India for at least ten years. The state secretary
presided over this council. However, the central administration continued to remain
in the hands of the governor-general. The governor-general also became the viceroy
to the queen of England.
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2. New structure for the Indian government
Under the better government act, the home government in India has to exercise the
crown’s power. The Indian council was formed by 15 members, of which nine should
have been serving India for at least ten years. This consisted of the state secretary,
assisted by the Indian council. The court of directors elected the other six members
of the Indian council. In 1907, two Indians were also selected as part of the Indian
council. With this, the framing of a new government with different rules began in
India.
3. Indian army reconstruction
The 1857 revolt instilled fear in the minds of the British government. They no longer
assumed that Indian people would stand by the British government when the need
arose. The British elements in the Indian army were improvised to ensure loyalty and
support from the military. Hence, the number of Indian soldiers in the Indian army
was drastically reduced from a total of 2,38,000 in 1857 to a total of 1,40,000 in 1863.
Simultaneously, the number of England soldiers increased from 45,000 to 65,000.

4. The policy of annexation ended
The revolt of 1857 made the British government realize the importance of the
princely states and hence wanted to gain their support. Also, the British were
suspicious of the Russian invasion of India under the ongoing circumstances. They
felt the need to unite the princely states and use them during times of need. Hence,
the policy of annexation of the princely states was given up.
5. Beginning of the divide and rule policy
After the revolt of 1857, the British realized that the unity amongst the Indians could
be dangerous for their existence and hence started the policy of divide and rule
between different castes and classes. The Muslims were made to fight against the
Hindus, and the upper caste Hindus were made to fight with the lower caste Hindus.
This led to a division of the country’s people and deteriorated unity.
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Conclusion
The revolt of 1857 was a turning point in the history of India. Although it was
suppressed, it gave the national leaders of our country a way to push Britishers away
from us. Many leaders like Mangal Pandey and Bahadur Shah Zafar lost their lives to
the revolt.
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Question 4. Analyse the contribution of non-cooperation movement in the
freedom struggle.
OR
Evaluate the role of Gandhi in the non-cooperation and civil disobedience

movements.
Mahatma Gandhi, the president of the British tyranny, started the non-cooperation
movement on August 1, 1920. There was a nationwide non-violent movement to
protest against the unjust laws and actions proposed by the British. During this
movement, students stopped attending government schools and colleges.
Mahatma Gandhi used the civil disobedience movement as a weapon against the
British rule. The beginning of this movement was due to the famous Dandi March of
Mahatma Gandhi. In fact, on March 12, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi along with other
members of the ashram organized the Dandi March from the Sabarmati Ashram.
 Contribution to the non-cooperation movement in the freedom
struggle
Gandhi played an active role in propagating the policies and programs of the Non-
Cooperation Movement throughout the country. He along with other loyalists toured
around the country in a bid to gather public support and mobilize the masses in favor of
the movement. Gandhi played an active role in propagating the policies and programs
of the Non-Cooperation Movement throughout the country. He along with other
loyalists toured around the country in a bid to gather public support and mobilize the
masses in favor of the movement.
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The Non-cooperation Movement was launched on 5th September 1920 by the Indian
National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In September 1920,
in Congress session in Calcutta, the party introduced the Non-Cooperation programme.

The period of the non-cooperation movement is taken as September 1920 to February
1922. It signified a new chapter in the history of the Indian freedom struggle.
The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in the wake of a series of events
including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and was called off because of Chauri Chaura
incident of 1922.
Non-Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation movement. In March
1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the non-violent non-cooperation

movement. Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to:
 Adopt swadeshi principles

 Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving
 Work for the eradication of untouchability from society
Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining the tenets of the movement.
Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement
1. The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British
government in India.
2. Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the
local bodies as a mark of protest.
3. People were asked to resign from their government jobs.

4. People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or aided
schools and colleges.
15
5. People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods.
6. People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils.
7. People were asked not to serve in the British army.

8. It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people would refuse
to pay their taxes.
9. Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled.
10. Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was
continued to completion.
Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement
1. Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the
extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during
the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But
the Government of India Act 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also
passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who
felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support.
2. Home Rule Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal
Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists
and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity
between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists
gave the INC a militant character.

3. Economic hardships due to World War I: India’s participation in the war caused a
lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods began to soar which
affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural
products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.
4. The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: The repressive Rowlatt Act
and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the
16
Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken
and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more
aggressive and firmer stance against the government.
 Gandhi's role in the Civil Disobedience Movement
MK Gandhi was urged by the Congress to render his much-needed leadership to the
Civil Disobedience Movement. Mahatma Gandhi used the Civil Disobedience Movement
as a weapon against the British rule. The beginning of this movement was due to the
famous Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi. In fact, on March 12, 1930, Dandi March
was organized from Sabarmati Ashram along with other members of Gambhir.
Civil Disobedience Movement was a landmark movement in the Indian Nationalist
Movement. It is credited for paving the way for freedom in India as it spread to urban
areas and witnessed the participation of women and people from the lower castes. The
movement was initiated under the stewardship of Mahatma Gandhi. Upon reaching
Dandi, Gandhi broke the salt law. This led to the Salt Satyagraha Movement across the
country.
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi led a march from his Sabarmati Ashram with his 78 rounds
and reached the sea at Dandi on 5 April 1930. His distance was fixed at 241 miles.
Gandhi broke the salt law on 6 April 1930 at Dandi.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930 -1931)
 The Lahore Congress (1929) left the choice of the precise methods of non-violent
struggle for Purna Swaraj to Gandhi
 It was resolved that a Manifesto or pledge of Independence would be taken all over
India by as many people as possible on 26 January 1930.
 On this day Civil disobedience was supposed to commence and It was declared
Independence Day.
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Gandhi’s Efforts
1. Gandhi was still not sure of his action. Before launching the movement, he once
again tried for compromise Government. He placed ‘eleven points ‘of administrative
reform and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for
agitation
2. The important demands were:
 The rupee-Sterling ratio should be reduced
 Land revenue should be reduced by half and made a subject of legislative control
 Salt tax should be abolished and also the government salt monopoly
 Salaries of the highest-grade services should be reduced by half
 Military expenditure should be reduced by 50% to begin with
 Protection for Indian textiles and coastal shipping

 All Political prisoners should be discharged
Beginning of the Movement: Dandi March
1. Gandhi took the decision to start the movement. On 12 March 1930 Gandhi started
the Historic Salt March from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi beach accompanied by
his 78 selected followers.
2. There Gandhi and his followers broke the law by manufacturing salt from the sea.
The Programme of the movement was as follows:

a) Salt law should be violated everywhere.
b) Students should leave colleges and government servants should resign from service.
c) Foreign clothes should be burnt.
d) No taxes should be paid to the government.

e) Women should stage a Dharna at liquor shops, etc.
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3. Thus, the historic march, marking the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement,
began on March 12, and Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a lump of salt at
Dandi on April 6.
Conclusion
Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi led a noncooperation movement to persuade the British
government of India to grant India self-government or swaraj. It was one of Gandhi's
first organized acts of large-scale civil disobedience (satyagraha). The Gandhi-Irwin
agreement effectively ended the civil disobedience movement. It was signed on March
5, 1931, by Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then-Viceroy of India.
19
Question 5. Write an essay on the participation of women and its impact on the
freedom struggle.
Women shouldered critical responsibilities in India's struggle for freedom. They

held public meetings, organized picketing of shops selling foreign alcohol and articles,
sold Khadi and actively participated in National Movements. They bravely faced the
baton of the police and went to jails.
The struggle of 1857 was a major and important event against the British rule. This
revolution started from Meerut on May 10, 1857, which gradually spread to places
like Kanpur, Bareilly, Jhansi, Delhi, Awadh etc.
Participation of women in freedom struggle
 The queen of the princely state of Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai is known for her role
in the First War of India's Independence in 1857.
 The role played by women in the War of Independence (the Great Revolt) of 1857
was creditable and invited the admiration even leaders of the Revolt. Rani of
Ramgarh, Rani Jindan Kaur, Rani Tace Bai, Baiza Bai, Chauhan Rani, Tapasvini
Maharani, daringly led their troops into the battlefield. Among others women,
embody the spirit of India's 'nari Shakti'.
 In this rebellion of 1857, brave warriors put their lives at stake, while our heroines
also fought strongly against the British. In the Gandhi era, the national movement
turned into a mass movement. In this era, followers of all religions and sects and
every section of the public participated in large numbers. Women also did not lag
behind in this work.
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1. Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi
 In 1858, Rani Lakshmibai, also known as the Rani of Jhansi, died fighting British
colonial rulers near Gwalior in a place known as Kotah-ki-Serai. She was one of the
first women freedom fighters of India who revolted against the British in 1857.
 Rani Lakshmi Bai is known as a brave freedom fighter. She is known for her
courage and bravery during the 1857 revolt against Britishers. Rani Lakshmi Bai was
the first woman freedom fighter who stood for her rights and fought for India's
freedom. She is an icon known for her bravery.
2. Rani Jindan Kaur
 As the only surviving widow of Ranjit Singh, Jindan Kaur (1817-1863) led a spirited
resistance to the encroachment of the British into the Punjab, but was
eventually forced to surrender.
 She was considered as “a serious obstacle” to British rule in India. To combat her
rebellion, the Britishers launched a campaign to discredit her and portrayed her as
the “Messalina of the Punjab”. Fearing that her influence on her son could lead to an
uprising in the province, the Britishers was imprisoned Jind.
3. Rani Tace Bai
Rani Tace Bai was the Queen-regent of Jalaun in Uttar Pradesh during the revolt of 1857.
She was one of the rulers who chose to ally with freedom fighters against the
English East India Company. Tace Bai was the daughter of Gopal Rao, a direct
descendent of Gangadhar Govind, former Governor of Jalaun.
4. Ajijan Begum
Ajijan begum, who was unfortunate, came to Kanpur and started singing and dancing
with the famous Tawaif Umrao Jaan Ada. It was here that he came into contact with the
revolutionaries. On the call of Nana Saheb, Ajijan formed an armed force of women to
compete with the British and took charge of it himself.
21
He also took an active part in the freedom struggle and forced the British to chew iron
gram in the 1857 freedom struggle.
Revolutionary Activities and Women
The women were not merely passive workers following in the footsteps of celebrated
men they were active revolutionaries, taking up arms, launching underground

organisations, publishing anti-British literature, being subjected for years to
torture and imprisonment.
The women were not merely passive workers following in the footsteps of celebrated
men; they were active revolutionaries, taking up arms, launching underground
organisations, publishing anti-British literature, being subjected for years to torture and
imprisonment.
Conclusion
Freedom fighters there were many, many men women gathered for freedom. They
inspired people, they educated people for understanding British policies, they improved
people's life from the British. For freedom fighters India became a democratic
country, a proper Constitution was set up for improving country.
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Question 6. Analyse the factors contributing to the growth of communal politics
and its culmination in the partition of India.
OR
Examine the factors responsible for the rise of communalism during the Indian
national movement.
The term ‘communalism’ is derived from the word ‘commune’. simple terms,
communalism can be defined as a system of ideas and beliefs that promotes the
interests of a particular community. It becomes dangerous when it is used for political
gains, especially when religion is used as a tool to achieve certain political goals. Then it
becomes a complex phenomenon in the form of a socio-political ideology. As a political

ideology communalism includes the elements of religious prejudices and stereotypes
and belief in the superiority of one’s religion over the other religions. It breeds
intolerance and disrespect towards the members of other religious communities.
Factors responsible for the rise of communalism during the Indian national
movement/ Factors contributing to the growth of communal politics and its

culmination in the partition of India.
1. Hindu Tinge in Nationalist Propaganda
During the national movement, a strong religious element was introduced in

nationalist thought and propaganda. They tended to emphasis ancient Indian culture to
the exclusion of medieval Indian culture. Hindu idiom was introduced to its day- to
day political agitation. For instance, Bal Gangadha Tilak used the Ganesh pooja and
Shivaji Mahotsav to propagate nationalism. Incidentally, association with God Ganesh

and Shivaji was used as a tool by the communal Muslims to alert Muslims.
23
This was also a reason behind non-participation of Muslims in large numbers in Indian
National Congress till 1919.
In fact, in the early decades, only about 8-9% of the members of the Indian
National Congress were Muslims. Similarly, the agitation against partition of Bengal
began with people taking dips in the Ganges. Also, prominent personalities like Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee often cited Muslims as foreigners in their writings. All these
incidents played with the emotions of the Muslims and alienated them from the Hindus.
This proved to be particularly harmful as clever British and pro- British propagandists
took advantage of the Hindu colouring to poison the minds of the Muslims. The result
was that a large number of educated Muslims either remained aloof from the rising
nationalist movement or became hostile to it, thus falling an easy prey to a separatist
outlook.
2. Communal Appeal of Political Parties and Organizations
At the time of elections, the political parties and organizations make an appeal to the
people on communal lines to garner their support and keep their communal feelings
alive. They find the appeal in terms of communal lines more paying in terms of votes. In
many instances, the communal riots are often politically motivated. These are pre-
planned and most of the times are preceded by almost identical incidents which rouse
religious sentiments among the people.
3. Political Reasons
It has to be remembered that the politics was the main reason behind the painful
partition of India in 1947. In Independent India also, for the sake of vote bank, the
political parties indulge in the policy of appeasement, selection of candidates on the
basis of community, caste and hence flaring up religious sentiments of the people. This
practice has resulted in many adverse results.
24
For example, when the Supreme Court delivered its judgment in the Shah Bano case,
many Muslims reacted aggressively as the court permitted a Muslim divorcee, Shah
Bano to have maintenance in excess, whereas the Shari’ah laws provides maintenance
only for a period of three months post-divorce. The union government of the time
under Rajiv Gandhi passed the Muslim Women’s Act in 1986 to counter the judgment
pronounced in the Shah Bano case.
4. Economic and Educational Backwardness of Indian Muslims
As a by-product of colonialism, colonial India was characterised by the lack of modern

institutions of education and health. This resulted in competition and nepotism. For the
Muslims, the competition was primarily with the Hindus. From the beginning, Hindus
dominated the colonial services as they easily adapted to the colonial structure. On the
other hand, the British colonial government viewed the Muslims with suspicion because
of the 1857 revolt and hence generously patronised the Hindus. These benefits fuelled
communalism and began to give validity to communal politics. In fact, it resulted in
resentment in Muslims in late 19th century. Later, the Muslims under Sir Sayed Ahmed
Khan formed a pressure group to pressurize the colonial government to give

concessions to Muslims as a separate community.
Historian Bipan Chandra argues that until 1937 communal politics in India was
revolving around government jobs, seats in legislative councils, municipal bodies, etc.
5. Divide and Rule Policy of British
The British government used communalism to counter and weaken the growing
national movement and the welding of the Indian people into a nation. It was presented
by the colonial rulers as the problem of the defence of the minorities. Hindu- Muslim
disunity was sighted as the reason for the continuation of the British rule. They favoured
one community against the other in services and promotions. Communal demands like
25
separate electorates were accepted and thus, they helped in politically strengthening
communal organizations. The colonial rulers showed extreme tolerance towards

communal organizations and leaders and did not care to crush the communal riots.
6. Psychological Factors
The lack of inter-personal trust and mutual understanding between two communities
often result in perception of threat, harassment, fear and danger in one community
against the members of the other community, which in turn leads to fight, hatred and
anger phobia.
7. Religious Fundamentalism
In a country like India with the presence of different religious communities, religious
fundamentalism causes confrontation and riots. Fundamentalists do not have necessary

tolerance to accept the beliefs and practices of different faiths.
Conclusion
Due to communalism, the internal peace of the country is threatened. Communal
forces often indulge in promoting their religion and denouncing other religions. They
tend to increase the feelings of communalism among their co-religionists.
Communalism is a hindrance to the progress of society, state, and nation.
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Question 7. Turbulent 1940s paved the way for the partition of India. Elucidate.
OR
Explain the two-nation theory which became the reason for the partition of India.
Answer – Introduction
The partition caused large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration between
the two dominions. Among refugees that survived, it solidified the belief that safety lay
among co-religionists. In the instance of Pakistan, it made palpable a hitherto only
imagined refuge for the Muslims of British India.
Turbulent 1940s
During the 1940s, India crossed the bridge from colonialism to independence. The
period has generally been rendered as a historic movement culminating in a climacteric,

with its closing years as the aftermath. While the global context of the Second World
War and the Cold War have not been neglected in historical writing about the 1940s,
their significance for Imperial policy and the freedom movements has only lately
attracted attention.
In the historiography of the 1940s, contention persists over responsibility for the
duality of identity through which India achieved freedom. From Imperial and
international viewpoints, Britain's main unfinished business in August 1947 was to settle
relations with the new nations. The Great Game in Asia was being revived.
Two-nation theory
 The two-nation theory is an ideology of religious nationalism which significantly
influenced the Indian subcontinent following its independence from the British
Empire.
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 The plan to partition British India into two states was announced on 3rd June 1947.
These two states would be India and Pakistan.
 According to this theory, Indian Muslims and Indian Hindus are two separate
nations, with their own customs, religion, and traditions; therefore, from social and
moral points of view, Muslims should be able to have their own separate homeland
outside of Hindu-majority India.
 The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of
Indian Muslims was undertaken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Partition of India: Historical Background
The partition of India was the most notable event that had occurred in Indian history. Its
main reason was the thinking of the Muslims and their communalism. But the
circumstances under which it happened made it one of the saddest events in the Indian
history.
The three causes that lead to the partition of India are:
1. Activities of the Muslim League: In the formation of the Muslim League, the English
Govt played a significant role. The Britishers wanted to create opinion differences
among the people of India in order to strengthen their own position.
 The main objective of the Muslim League was to spread communalism and the
Muslim leaders had their own axe to grind through the medium of this organisation.
 In the beginning, the Muslim League failed to be an influential organisation due to

its narrow and negative approach. Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s two-nation theory was
actually a slogan for the formation of a separate nation for the Indian Muslims.
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2. Communal Reaction: Hindu communalism also came into existence as a result of
Muslim communalism. The staunch Hindus formed several organisations like the Hindu
Maha Sabha.
 The Arya Samaj adopted the system of Shuddic which created doubt in the minds of
the Muslims. Hindu Maha Sabha not only blamed the congress for being an anti-
Hindu organisation but also raised a slogan for the establishment of this nation. As a
result of the Hindu communalism, the Muslim communalism grew all the more
powerful and raised the slogan for the creation of a separate nation.
3. Congress policy of strengthening India: According to the Congress, the only way to
get rid of this problem was the partition of India and it accepted the partition formula
laid in the 3rd June Plan of Lord Mountbatten.
Mountbatten Plan (The 3rd June 1947 Plan)
Lord Mountbatten was the last viceroy of India. He released a plan known as the
Indian Independence Act 1947 on June 3, 1947. He was selected as the final viceroy of
India to set a pace to the procedure of the handing of the power by the British prime
minister of that time, Clement Atlee.
According to this act, the parliament of the United Kingdom divided British India into
India and Pakistan. On July 18, 1947, the act was given the royal agreement and Pakistan
(consisting of today’s Bangladesh) and India (consisting of today’s India) came into
action on 15th August of the year 1947. The leaders of the Indian national congress, the
Sikh community, and the Muslim League agreed with lord Mountbatten on his plan
named 3 June plan.
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Mountbatten plan is the second name of the 3 June plan. It was announced on June
3 of the year 1947. The principles of the 3 June plan were-
 Opinion of the partition of India was recognized by the government of Britain.
 The governments that were to be formed would be provided dominion status.
 Both countries would get sovereignty and autonomy.

 Both the countries had the right to make their constitutions.
 The princely states were provided with the choice of joining either India or Pakistan
on the pretext of geographical status and the people’s choice.
Conclusion
The Partition of India split British India into the countries of India and Pakistan in 1947.
This partition was part of the end of British rule over the Indian subcontinent, called
British Raj. The partition was caused in part by the Two-nation theory presented by Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan, due to religion issues. Pakistan became a Muslim country, and India
became a mainly Hindu country.
30
Question 8. Examine the reasons for the growth of the major peasant and tribal
movements in colonial India, and explain the strategies they adopted.
Peasant Movements are a part of social movements against British atrocities in the
18th and 19th centuries of the British Colonial Period. These movements had the sole
purpose of restoring the earlier forms of rule and social relations.
The origin of Tribal movement dates back to the pre-independence days. The British
government had deprived tribal people of their rights to livelihood on forest resources
and as a result of that, a tribal uprising took place in various parts of the country.
Reasons for the growth of the major peasant and tribal movements in colonial
India, and explain the strategies they adopted.
Peasant movement
1. Champaran Satyagraha, 1917
Champaran, is a district in the state of Bihar. Under Colonial era laws, many tenant
farmers were forced to grow some indigo on a portion of their land as a condition of
their tenancy. This indigo was used to make a dye. The Germans had invented a cheaper
artificial dye so the demand for indigo fell. Some tenants paid more rent in return for
being let off having to grow indigo. However, during the First World War the German
dye ceased to be available and so indigo became profitable again. Thus, many tenants
were once again forced to grow it on a portion of their land- as was required by their
lease. Naturally, this created much anger and resentment.
Many tenants alleged that Landlords had used strong-arm tactics to exact illegal cases
and to extort them in other ways. This issue had been highlighted by a number of
lawyer/politicians and there had also been a Commission of Inquiry.
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Raj Kumar Shukla, a money lender who also owned some land, persuaded Gandhi to
go to Champaran and thus, the Champaran Satyagraha began. Gandhi arrived in
Champaran 10 April 1917 with a team of eminent lawyers: Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra
Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha Ramanavami Prasad, and others including Acharya
Kripalani.
Significance and Strategies
 Oppression: It ended the long oppression of the peasant by the hands of planters in
terms of forced cultivation and poor returns.

 Assessment: A through assessment of the conditions was presented to the British.
 Champaran Agrarian Act,1918: Based on the assessment, the legislation was made
to protect the interests of the peasants.
 Gandhi Proved: Gandhi hitherto, had not involved actively in grassroot activity in
India, saw him gaining all attention due to success of the Champaran attempt to
restore justice.
 Team developed: It saw Gandhi adding to his team, powerful leaders like Kripalani,
and Rajendra Prasad who later were his powerful itinerants.

 Fact based fight: Gandhi here relied on collecting documentary evidence, from the
exploited peasants, which helped him build a case for them, this proved that data-
based disproval of British policies has greater chance of winning
 Denying Authority: Gandhi, when he landed in Champaran was asked to leave but
he said he would court an arrest than leave, and went on with his task. This is a major
initial example of civil disobedience and satyagraha practiced first hand.
 Satyagraha: Convinced people of the power of Satyagraha to counter injustice.
 Future Struggles: Set the stage for future struggles that ultimately culminated into
India’s independence.
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2. Bardoli Satyagraha (1926)
 The Bardoli taluqa in the Surat area saw considerable politicization after Gandhi
entered the national political scene. The government’s decision to increase land
revenue by 30% in January 1926 marked the beginning of the movement. As soon as
the Congress leaders objected, a Bardoli Inquiry Committee was established to

investigate the situation. The committee concluded that the revenue increase wasn’t
warranted.
 In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel was chosen to head the campaign. He
received the title “Sardar” from the Bardoli ladies. Under Patel, the peasants of
Bardoli made the decision to withhold payment of the revised assessment until the
government either established an impartial tribunal or accepted the current sum as
full payment.
Tribal movements
Santhal movement
The 19th century witnessed innumerable movements, but the ones like the Santhal
revolt hold a significant position, in India’s struggle for freedom. The Santhal rebellion
was a rebellion in present day Jharkhand, Eastern India against both the British East
India Company (BEIC) and zamindari system by the Santhal.
Background to the Rebellion
 In order to control the vast territory of India, East India Company began to
implement revenue policies, law and order rules to be followed by the countrymen,
from the time they began consolidating, after Battle of Plassey in 1757.
 In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in some parts of the
country like Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
33
 Under the permanent revenue system, landlords had perpetual and hereditary rights
over the land as long as they paid a fixed revenue to the British government. If the
peasants were not able to pay their rent, the British auctioned away large tracts of
land belonging to the Santhals, to anyone who would pay them fixed revenue and so
in this process, several tribal lands were sold.
 In this process, the Santhal lost control over the land, and their old tribal systems and
political structures that had continued for generations came to an end.

 The Santhals were the tribal people inhabiting the forest of Rajmahal hills. In
1832, East India Company demarcated the Damin-i-Koh from the region of
Jharkhand and gave it to Santhals, to settle with a promise of non-interference in
their land.
 But with changing times and the rising demand of the Britishers, the rent to the
Santhals raised to an exorbitant rate.
 Ultimately, the Santhals were trapped in a situation where they had the only option
to revolt against the Britishers and the Zamindars.

 Another reason cited for the Santhal rebellion was that the Santhals followed the
barter system and they faced trouble paying the zamindars in cash, and as a result,
they had to borrow money from the moneylenders at an exorbitant rate, which
ultimately trapped them into a vicious cycle.

 To come out of this cycle and save the identity of the Santhals, the only solution was
to revolt against the British policies.
Strategies
1. Organized movement
 The Santhal uprising was an organized movement with good leadership qualities. In
a short period of time, it was successful in uniting about 60,000 people.
34
 If we look at the other spontaneous movement of that time, we find that none of the
movements was that well-arranged as the Santhal revolt. The unity of the Santhals
shook the nerve of the Britishers.
2. Use of weapons & Tactics
Despite the Santhal using bows and arrows against the weapons and artillery used by
the Britishers, the guerrilla tactics, which was a new occurrence for Bihar to fight against
the Britishers, gave Santhals an upper hand.
3. Trained leadership
The prominent leaders of the war, Sidhu, and Kanhu in a short span of time, were
successful in mobilizing a huge number of people to fight against the cause.
4. Blow on British powers
The Santhal rebellion was a blow on the British powers. It was such a fierce movement
that Britishers had to implement martial law to quell the powers of Santhals
5. Growth of Revolutionary Nationalism
 The Santhal revolt fostered a sense of unity among the Santhal tribes.
 It was seen as the beginning of larger wars to free the people from the oppressive
British rule.
 This movement resulted in a feeling of nationalism which helped to mobilize people
for further wars, like the Revolt of 1857.

 Identity of the tribal people
 The Santhal rebellion gave birth to the modern Santhal identity.
 It also promoted the tribal people to protect their culture and tradition from any
kind of destruction and interference.
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6. Successful movement
 It was seen that the Britishers did acknowledge their follies, despite the Santhals
being defeated
 Further, after the end of the war, the Santhal Paraganas Tenancy Act was enacted
which provided the tribes some protection against the oppressive British Rule.
 This was successful in inculcating nationalist feelings among the people.
Conclusion
The peasant movements in the 19th century paved the pathway to future revolts in the
20th century, which ultimately led to India's independence in 1947. Though the peasant
movement wasn't specifically targeted towards the end of British colonial rule in India, it
is of significant importance.
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Question 9. Analyse the impact made by Jyotiba Phule and Bhimrao Ambedkar with
regard to the caste question.
In the caste system the lower castes were suppressed and repressed by the higher
castes. The Sudras were very ill-treated and they were not allowed to come to the
public places. Even their shadows were considered profane by the higher caste people.
Inter-dining and inter-mixing with the lower castes was not allowed.
 Jyotiba Phule's influence on the question of caste
Contributions
Jyotiba Phule was one of the prominent social reformers of the nineteenth century India.
He led the movement against the prevailing caste-restrictions in India. He revolted
against the domination of the Brahmins and for the rights of peasants and other low-
caste fellow. Jyotiba Phule was believed to be the first Hindu to start an orphanage for
the unfortunate children. Attack on the sanctity of Vedas Jyotirao Phule’s critique of the
caste system began with his attack on the Vedas, the most fundamental texts of
Hinduism. He considered Vedas as ‘idle fantasies’ as ‘palpably absurd legends. He

considered Vedas a ‘form of false consciousness’
Satya Shodhak Samaj
After tracing the history of the Brahmin domination in India, Jyotirao blamed the
Brahmins for framing the weird and inhuman laws. He concluded that the laws were
made to suppress the “shudras” and rule over them. In 1873, Jyotiba Phule formed the
Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth). The purpose of the organization was
to liberate the people of lower-castes from the suppression of the Brahmins. The
membership was open to all and the available evidence proves that some Jews were
37
admitted as members. In 1876 there were 316 members of the ‘Satya Shodhak Samaj’. In
1868, in order to give the lower-caste people more powers Jyotirao decided to construct
a common bathing tank outside his house. He also wished to dine with all, regardless of
their caste.
 Bhim Rao Ambedkar's influence on the question of caste

 Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar also known as Babasaheb. Ambedkar spent his whole
life fighting against social discrimination, the system of Chaturvarna the
categorization of Hindu society into four varnas and the Hindu caste system. He
converted to Buddhism and is also credited with providing a spark for the conversion
of hundreds of thousands of untouchables to Theravada Buddhism.
 Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar spent his whole life in this challenging task relentlessly. Dalits
as other part of Indian society were themselves divided in too many castes and sub
castes because of ignorance, backwardness and given social structure.
 Movement against Caste-System

 According to Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar the caste system in India has been a divisive
instrument from the very beginning. He had a firm view that till this caste system
continues, the outcaste’s liberation is not possible. This was the reason that he
started a strong movement against caste system.
 To fight against the disparities in society and discrimination against Dalits, he felt a
need of cultural revolution and called the out-caste people to come forward, get
education, get united and fight against injustice. He also motivated them not to wait
for someone to come for their rescue but to fight against this slavery themselves.
38
 Conclusion
Caste system in India is still prevalent; however, today the impact of caste has
diminished subsequently due to education and modernization of the society.
People of different castes live side-by-side and inter-caste marriages are encouraged
and have become a norm.
39
Question 10. Describe the introduction of English education in India by the British
and its impact.
The English Education Act 1835 was a legislative Act of the Council of India, gave
effect to a decision in 1835 by Lord William Bentinck, then Governor-General of the
British East India Company, to reallocate funds it was required by the British Parliament
to spend on education and literature in India.
British wanted to introduce modern western education to serve their economic interests
as English education would convince Indians about the superiority of British goods
which were machine made, it would make Indians recognize the advantages of trade
and commerce.
English education in India by the British
The English Education Act was introduced in the year 1835. English was to be made
the medium of instruction for higher education.
Thomas Babington, better known as Lord Macaulay, is the man who brought the
English language and British education to India.
Impact of English Education in India
The impact of the English language on India has been both beneficial and harmful:
1. Indians could develop modernity, secularism, democratic attitudes and rationality

along with Nationalistic ideals.
2. The impetus was received for the local literature and languages. This facilitated unity
in thinking process among the educated class.
40
3. Periodicals started emerging. These scrutinized the policies and. working of the
government which in turn enabled the Indians to have critical opinions on various
issues.
4. New social and religious reformation movements emerged.
5. The thoughts of thinkers like J.S. Mill, Rousseau and Montesquieu brought fresh
thinking in the mind of educated youth of India.
6. The freedom struggles that were taking place across the globe influenced the
Indians also.
7. Indians could understand and appreciate their rich tradition. Like this, the new
thinking and cultural perception that emerged due to the British Education System
created a new generation of Indians with progressive attitudes.
Advantages of English Education in India
 The first benefit of Macaulay’s Minutes for Indians was that it helped the English
language spread throughout India. There is no denying that later on, English had a
big impact on India’s freedom efforts.
 The second benefit that Macaulay’s Minutes gave to Indians was that it contributed
to laying the foundation for contemporary education in that nation. It marked a
change from the indigenous traditional educational system to a formalized modern
educational system.
 Another advantage of Macaulay’s Minutes was that it provided access to world

literature. As a result, new literary genres and writing techniques emerged.
Additionally, it served as a template for Indians to investigate the present
educational system in their nation and compose reports to raise the bar of education
there.
41
Disadvantages of English Education in India
 Macaulay’s Minutes was stoking the fires of “The Oriental-Occidental Controversy,”
not putting an end to it. Any argument put forth by the orientalists was ignored by
Macaulay. He not only ignored their pleadings, but also insulted them angrily. It was
the beginning of modern education in India, therefore even while his assertion that
English was the key to modern knowledge was accurate, it was impractical to
educate Indians at all levels in the language at the time.
 It is unjustified for Macaulay to assert that the only language of instruction is
English. Additionally, some Indian languages have gone unstudied. His remark that
“a single shelf of a great European library was worth the whole native literature of
India and Arabia” further offended the native population. The illiterate and educated
segments of society were created as a result of the contentious “Downward Filtration
Theory” that Macaulay’s Minutes advanced. His downward filtration idea was a
failure for Indians.
 The wealthy class never helped the lower class raise their level of living or receive a
better education. It merely served to foster the growth of people like Mohan Lal, who
humiliated even their spouses owing to their ignorance. The idea that Macaulay was
in charge of bringing about a new educational strategy in India is likewise untrue.
Conclusion
British Education System in India introduced the concept of practical learning and
modern education in India. Initially, the British established educational institutions for
learning about the local customs, traditions, and laws to understand the country better.
The British Rule came with a goal to modernize the Indian economy. The rise of the
British in India brought new liberal notions from the Renaissance, Reformation, and
different revolutions in Europe, such as equality, freedom, and human rights.
42
Question 11. Write short notes on any two of the following:
(i) Socio-religious movements and the Indian Renaissance
(ii) The Quit India Movement.
(iii) Congress Socialist Party
(iv) labour and women's movement
Answer -
(i) Socio-religious movements and the Indian Renaissance
Introduction
In the early 19th century, the urgent need for social and religious reform movements
began to exhibit. It arose in response to the contact with the Western culture, education,
and other aspects. At that time, Indians were not that educated and aware of
understanding the need for independence and social responsibilities.
Socio-Religious Reform Movement: Raja Rammohan Roy
 The central figure of the cultural awakening in Indian society was Raja Ram
Mohan Roy who is the “father of the Indian Renaissance”. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was
one of the greatest patriots, scholars, and active humanists. Ram Mohan Roy was
dedicated to the country and worked throughout his life for the regeneration of
Indians through social, religious, political, and intellectual aspects.

 Ram Mohan Roy was born in the year 1772 in a small village named Radha Nagar
in the state of West Bengal. He studied Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy in
Varanasi, and Arabic and Koran in Patna. He also mastered various languages like
Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and English.
43
 Ram Mohan Roy had started struggling against all the social evils at an early
age. He argued that all the Hindu texts upheld the doctrine of monotheism. To prove
his thoughts, he translated some Hindu texts like the Vedas and the Upanishads.
 He defended the Hindu religion and thoughts of Hindu philosophy from the
attack of the missionaries. He was always desperate for new age requirements of
social thoughts that would awake Hinduism into a new cast. In the year 1829, he
grounded in the Atmiya Sabha, which later represented them as the Brahmo Samaj.
 Ram Mohan Roy represented the rise of consciousness in Indian society. He was
the first one who opposed the caste system as it destroyed the unity within the
country.
Debendranath Tagore: Socio-Religious Reform Movement
 Debendranath Tagore was one of the co-founders of the Brahmo Samaj. He

took the first step to convert the Brahmo Samaj into an independent religious and
social community. He tried to find the best way to represent the traditional Indian
culture in a western method.
 In the year 1839, he grounded in the Tattvabodhini Sabha to pass on Raja Ram
Mohan Roy’s ideology and thoughts. He also started to promote a systematic study
structure in Bengali about Indian history.
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar: Socio-Religious Reform Movement
 In the middle of the nineteenth century, the person who took the baton of the
reform movement in India is none other than Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. He was a
Sanskrit scholar, and he took the position of the principal in the Sanskrit College. He
was a human and social activist and resolved his whole life to change the social
condition of India.
44
 Vidyasagar was an enthusiastic and staunch supporter of women’s education,
and that’s the reason he helped Lord Bethune to build the Bethune School. He also
started working for widows and he openly advocated widow marriage in Bengal.
With his support, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
Dayanand Saraswati- Founder of The Arya Samaj
 In the northern region of India, Arya Samaj took the flag of reform movements.
Dayanand Saraswati was the founder of Arya Samaj, which aimed to strengthen and
reinforce Hinduism in north India. He took up arms against the practice of idol
worship.
 He started questioning the meaningless rituals, and decried polytheism and the
caste system. He wanted to decontaminate Hinduism. After his death, his devotees
established the Dayanand Anglo School in Lahore.
Jyotirao Govinda Rao Phule
In Maharashtra, Jyotirao Govinda Rao Phule started the reform movement. He
started fighting for the improvement of women, poor and untouchable’s social
conditions. He started his movement by founding the Satyasodhak Samaj.
People from all caste and religions were allowed to join the foundation.
Annie Besant- The Theosophical Society
 Annie Besant was an Irish woman who started the Theosophical movement in
India. She urged Indians to feel proud of their culture. This society followed the
universal brotherhood rule to create unity among all.
 Annie Besant had founded the Central Hindu College in Banaras, though in modern
days, it is known as Banaras Hindu University.
45
Contribution Of Literature and Press in the 19th And 20th Century
 Literature and newspaper played an important role in spreading social and
religious awareness among people. These were also a medium for spreading social
reforms. The social reformers dedicated their life to enriching Indian culture, and
literature.
 Poets like Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Iqbal, and
Subramania Bharati inspired the masses by spreading their ideas through their pens.
Some reformers started their own journals and newspapers to spread awareness in
society.
Characteristics Of the Social and Religious Reform Movements in the 19th And
20th Century
The reform movement based on Social and religious characteristics had some common
features. They are as follows:
 All the reformers had tried to propagate the idea of one God. They want to tie up all
the religions in one thread.
 All of the social activists in the era of reform movements in India attacked
meaningless rituals, idolatry, and polytheism.
 All of the reformers tried hard to improve the social condition of women
 They all were against the caste system and the rude ritual of untouchability
 All of the social activists bear the flag of unity in Indian society in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
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Father of Indian Renaissance and Contribution
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of Brahma Samaj is called the father of the Indian
Renaissance. This man tirelessly fought against the social evils that are prevailing in
Indian society. He was the person who broke many traditions for the sake of society.
Child marriage and sati pratha are the social barriers that are removed by the man. The
effort of this person in these matters helps him to be introduced as the father of Indian
Renaissance. Reformist religious associations are conceived by this person as
instruments of political and social transformations. Brahma Samaj was also
established by this famous person and it played a crucial role in establishing a modern
Indian Society. It also helps in suppressing the dowry system, caste system, and
improving the educational system.
Conclusion
Indian philosophy and culture were upheld by reformers like Dayanand Saraswati and
Vivekananda. As a result, Indians became proud of their culture and had a deep sense of
pride in it. Women were encouraged to attend school. A female school was established.
A women’s medical college was also founded. Socio-religious movements developed
national consciousness through cultural and ideological struggle.
47
(ii) The Quit India Movement
Introduction
The Quit India Movement started on August 8, 1942, also known as the August
Kranti Movement, calling for the end of British rule in India at the All-India Congress
Committee’s session in Bombay.
At the meeting of the All-India Congress Committee in Mumbai, Mahatma Gandhi

demanded the end of British rule and launched the Quit India Movement. In his address
at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, now referred to as August Kranti Maidan, Mahatma Gandhi
urged listeners to “Do or Die”.
The Indian flag was raised at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai during the Quit
India Movement by Aruna Asaf Ali, also referred to as the “Grand Old Lady” of the
Independence Movement. Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist who served as
Mayor of Mumbai, is the author of the phrase “Quit India.”
Quit India Movement Phases
Phases Description
Strikes, boycotts, and picketing (protesting) were all part of the
urban uprising’s first phase, which was promptly put an end to.
First Phase
Workers supported the protests by staying away from the factories
during the nationwide strikes and demonstrations.
48
The focus shifted to the countryside, where there was a significant
peasant uprising that was characterized by the destruction of

Second Phase
communication infrastructure, including railroad tracks and
stations.
In the final stage, national governments or parallel governments in

Third Phase
discrete areas came into being (Ballia, Tamluk, Satara, etc.)
Quit India Movement Causes
 There were many suppressed causes of Quit India Movement. Japan, one of the
Axis Powers that fought alongside the British against them in the Second World War,
was advancing on the northern and eastern borders of India by 1939. The South-East
Asian populations that the British had abandoned were left in a precarious situation.
The Indian populace had misgivings about the British government’s ability to protect
India against Axis attack, hence this action did not inspire much faith in them.
 Gandhi also held the opinion that if the British departed India, Japan would lack
sufficient justification for an invasion. Apart from learning about British military
losses, the war’s hardships, such as skyrocketing costs for necessities, fueled
animosity toward the British administration.
 The Cripps Mission’s failure to guarantee any sort of constitutional solution for
India’s issues also prompted the INC to call for a large-scale Civil Disobedience
Movement. The fall of the Cripps Mission was the movement’s prime reason. The
mission was established to settle the Indian dispute over a new constitution and self-
government under Stafford Cripps. It failed because, in addition to the split, it

granted India, not complete freedom but rather Dominion Status.
49
Quit India Movement Importance
The government used harsh repression tactics, but the populace was unmoved and kept
up their fight. Even though the government claimed that independence could only be
granted when the war ended, the movement emphasized that Indians must be involved
in governance for it to work. The movement prioritized calling for total independence as
the main goal of freedom movement. Public spirit and anti-British feelings were raised.
Quit India Movement Outcomes
The Violence that wasn’t planned happened in certain places during the Quit India
movement. The British forcefully put an end to the movement; people were shot, lathi-
charged, villages were set on fire, and huge fines were imposed. To suppress the unrest,
the authorities used brutality and detained more than 100,000 individuals.
This movement was opposed by many parties and collaborations like the Hindu
Mahasabha, the Communist Party of India, and the Muslim League. The movement was
also not supported by the Indian bureaucracy. The League opposed the British leaving
India without first dividing the nation.
50
(iii) Congress Socialist Party
Introduction
CSP was a socialist group within the Indian National Congress (INC). It was founded
in 1934 by socialists such as Jayaprakash Narayan and Acharya Narendra Dev. After
the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934, some Congress members
decided to enter into legislatures and work for the Congress’ cause within the govt. They
were known as Constitutionalists.
Some socialists thought this would erode the revolutionary character of the Congress.
So, they had decided to form a socialist party within the Congress named Congress
Socialist Party (CSP).
Congress Socialist Party - Birth of A Party
 The first All-India congress socialists’ conference was convened at Patna by Jaya
Prakash Narayan in May 1934 under the presidentship of Acharya Narendra Dev to
deliberate on the formation of Party.
 The first All India Congress Socialist Party was formed in Bombay in October
1934 under the presidentship of Sampurnananda and Jayaprakash Narayan as the
General Secretary. It was attended by delegates from thirteen provinces.
 Eventually, JP was also arrested in Madras in September, 1932 and was sent to Nasik
Central Jail and was reported as “Congress brain arrested.” In Nasik central jail he
luckily met a number of young congress leaders, M. R. Masani, Achyut
Patwardhan, N.C. Goray, Ashok Mehta, M. H. Dantwala, Charles Mascarenhas,
C. K. Narayanswami.
 JP’s first jail term in Nasik was to prove as much of a landmark in his life as his stay at
the university of Wisconsin where he became a Marxist and a sympathizer of the
communist party. All of them had little to do except discuss politics and get to know
51
one another. They agreed in the discussion that all history was a process of class-
struggle and that proletarian revolutions were inevitable.
 The collapse of capitalism with all its brutalities was inescapable and would give
birth to socialism as a matter of course. This was not an article of hope or faith but a
scientifically demonstrable truth about society. The result of all these fervent
discussions was the emergence of a new revolutionary party-the Congress Socialist
Party (CSP) which pledged to infuse the freedom movement with socialist ideals. This
party decided to work both within and outside the INC.
Objectives of CSP
 Independence (freedom from British rule) and socialism were the twin objectives of
the Congress Socialist Party.
 For the attainment of Independence, the congress socialists joined hands with Anti-
imperialists and non-socialists forces within in the Congress. Jaya Prakash Narayan
said: “Our work within congress is governed by the policy of developing it into a
true anti-imperialist body”. He also warned his co-workers in 1935: “Nothing should
be done which may antagonise the genuinely nationalist elements and drive them
to joined hands with the compromise-seeking right wing.”
 But the ultimate objective of the congress socialists was to establish a socialist
society in India and they worked to secure the acceptance of their programme by
the Indian National Congress.
Conclusion
The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was a socialist caucus within the Indian National
Congress. It was founded in 1934 by Congress members who rejected what they saw as
the anti-rational mysticism of Gandhi as well as the sectarian attitude of the Communist
Party of India towards the Congress.
52
(iv) labour and women's movement
Introduction
The women’s movement in India began as a social reform movement in the 19th
century. During the colonial period, women’s movements in India were born out of the
same historical circumstances and social milieu as the earlier 19th century social reform
movements, which provoked a new thinking about various social institutions, practices
and social reform legislations.
Labour Movement
A trade union can be defined as an organised association of workers in a trade or
profession, formed to further their rights and interests. In India, Trade Unions in India
are registered under the Trade Union Act (1926). Trade unions are interested in the
economic and social welfare of the workers. Labour unions may also have political
interests in the larger society.
Pre-1918: The genesis of the labour movement in India
 After the setting up of textile and jute mills coupled with the laying of railways in the
1850s, worker atrocities started to come to light.
 Though the origin of labour movements was traced to the 1860s, first labour
agitation in the history of India occurred in Bombay, 1875. It was organised under
the leadership of S.S Bengalee. It concentrated on the plight of workers, especially
women and children. This led to the appointment of the first Factory commission,
1875. Consequently, the first factories act was passed in 1881.

 In 1890, M.N Lokhande established Bombay Mill Hands Association. This was the
first organised labour union in India.
53
Features of the labour movements in this era:
 Leadership was provided by social reformers and not by the workers themselves.
 The movements in this era mainly concentrated on the welfare of workers rather
than asserting their rights.
 They were organised, but there was no pan India presence.

 A strong intellectual foundation or agenda was missing.
 Their demands revolved around issues like that of women and children’s workers.
Factors that influenced the growth of the movement:
 Spiralling prices during War and the mass entrenchment of workers that followed it
led to low living standards. Also, the wretched working conditions added to their
woes. Hence, they sought collective bargaining power through unionisation.
 Development of Home Rule, the emergence of Gandhian leadership and the socio-
political conditions led to the nationalist leadership taking interest in the worker’s
plight. Workers, in turn, was looking for professional leadership and guidance.
 Russian revolution and other international developments (like setting up of
International Labour Organisation in 1919) boosted their morale.
Women's movement
Efforts Towards Women Education
 Jyotiba’s quest for providing women and girls with right to education was
supported by his wife Savitribai Phule. One of the few literate women of the time,
Savitribai was taught to read and write by her husband Jyotirao.
 In 1851, Jyotiba established a girls’ school and asked his wife to teach the girls in
the school. Later, he opened two more schools for the girls and an indigenous school
for the lower castes, especially for the Mahars and Mangs.
54
 Jyotiba realised the pathetic conditions of widows and established an ashram for
young widows and eventually became advocate of the idea of Widow Remarriage.
 Around his time, society was a patriarchal and the position of women was
especially abysmal. Female infanticide was a common occurrence and so was child
marriage, with children sometimes being married to men much older. These women
often became widows before they even hit puberty and were left without any family
support. Jyotiba was pained by their plight and established an orphanage in 1854 to
shelter these unfortunate souls from perishing at the society’s cruel hands.
Conclusion
Organized labor unions fought for better wages, reasonable hours and safer working
conditions. The labor movement led efforts to stop child labor, give health benefits and
provide aid to workers who were injured or retired.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE

Colonialism and Nationalism

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Colonialism and Nationalism in India

Unit-I Colonialism and Nationalism

Lesson-1 Main perspectives on Colonialism: Liberalism, Marxism, Post-colonialism

Lesson-2 Approaches to the Study of Nationalism in India: Nationalist, Imperialist,

Unit-II Colonial Rule in India and its Impact

Lesson-3 Constitutional Developments and the Colonial State

Lesson-4 Colonial Ideology of Civilizing Mission: Utilitarians and Missionaries

Unit-III Reform and Resistance

Lesson-6 The 1857 war of Independence

Lesson-7 Major Social and Religious Movements

Lesson-8 Education and the Rise of the New Middle Class

Unit-IV Nationalist Politics and Expansion of its Social Base

Lesson-11 Revolutionaries, Socialists and Communists

Lesson-12 Communalism in Indian Politics

Lesson-13 The Two-Nation Theory, Negotiations Over Partition

Unit-V Social Movements

Lesson-14 Social Movements: Peasants, Tribals,

Lesson-15 Workers and Women’s Movement

Lesson-16 Anti Caste Movement

Question 1. Evaluate Lenin's theory of imperialism. Discuss its relevance in modern

Lenin argued that imperialist expansion allowed capitalism to postpone its

The theory of imperialism refers to a range of theoretical approaches to understanding

Imperialism: Imperialism is formal or informal economic and political domination of

Lenin's theory of imperialism

The essence of Lenin's theory of imperialism as a particular stage of capitalism was

production and relations of production.

Features of Lenin's Theory

capital, dominated by a small financial oligarchy.

2. The export of capital gains prominence over the export of commodities.

resources, labor & markets.

this intensifies national rivalries & the danger of

Lenin's theory relevance in modern times

Lenin’s theory of imperialism revolves primarily around the systematic exploitation

Lenin outlined five principal features characterising imperialism at the beginning of

(1) the transition from free competition to monopoly production;

into a new, higher form of monopoly – “finance capital”;

(3) the exceptional importance of export of capital as opposed to export of

(4) beginning of division of the world between international monopolist businesses;

wrote, some forms of monopoly have changed.

Lenin had a nuanced understanding of monopoly. He never argued that specific

private multinational corporations (MNCs). These are state-supported private capitalist

monopolies and oligopolies.

Lenin’s theory has proven to be a highly flexible instrument for understanding

that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism.

Question 2. Explain the Marxist approach to the study of colonialism and

Marxist approach to the study of colonialism and nationalism in India

It is by the application of these analytical categories of class and mode of

movement had developed at a certain juncture in the development of international

emerging national bourgeoisie is often revolutionary. However, in India, since feudalism

Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and

wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted

economies, socio-psycho- logical disorientation, massive poverty and neo-colonial

Lenin regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was

"Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of self-determination of peoples in

as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin

Colonialism is now normally used in a pejorative sense and is associated with

Discuss the main causes and consequences of the Revolt of 1857.