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Modern India (1857 – 1969)

Subject: MODERN INDIA (1857 – 1969) Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

Historical background – British rule and its legacies, National movement, Partition and Independence

Origins and goals of the Indian National Congress, Formation of the Muslim League
Roles played by Gandhi, Nehru, Jinnah and the British in the development of the Movement for independence

Challenges faced by the Government of India, Making the Constitution, Political, Economic and Social
developments from 1950-1990, The Nehru Years – challenges of modernization and diversity, Brief on Indira
Gandhi

Developments post-1990, Economic liberalization, Rise of sectarianism and caste based politics, Challenges to
internal security

Foreign Policy: post – Nehru years, Pakistan and Kashmir, Nuclear policy, China and the U. S.

Suggested Readings:

1. Ramachandra Guha, Makers of Modern India, Belknap Press

2. Akash Kapur, India Becoming: A Portrait of Life in Modern India, Riverhead Hardcover
3. Bipin Chandra, History Of Modern India, Orient Blackswan
4. Barbara D. Metcalf, Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press
 CHAPTER 1
IMPERIALISM, COLONIALISM AND NATIONALISM

STRUCTURE

Learning objectives
Imperialism and colonialism: A theoretical perspective
Imperialism: Its effects
The rise of national consciousness
The revolt of 1857
Colonialism: The new administrative system - pre and post 1857
Consolidation of the Raj: Frontier and foreign policy
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit you will be able to learn:
What is colonialism, its nature and its several stages,
The links flanked by colonialism and the world capitalist system,
How under colonialism the Indian economy and society were totally
subordinated to British economy and political control,
The several theories of colonialism, both European as well as those
formulated through Indian nationalists,
The impact of colonialism on Indian economy in conditions of de-
industrialization and commercialization of agriculture,
How modem industry appeared in India and the role of capitalist class,
Some of the political characteristics of the colonial procedure,
How the colonial rule affected the dissimilar classes of Indian people,
Explain the way Indian masses and middle class responded to the
challenge of colonial rule and assess how the national consciousness
took an organized form.
Trace the causes of the uprising of 1857,
Identify the regions where the English authority was mainly severely
challenged throughout 1857,
The transformation of the east India company from a commercial to a
territorial power,
The growth of British parliamentary control over Indian affairs without
assuming direct responsibility for the governance of India,
 Administrative system of the east India company,
The rise of national consciousness and demand for self government
leading to freedom,
The British recognized their supremacy in the sub-continent,
How they tried to overcome the Russian danger in central Asia,
Come to know about Indian policy concerning Persia and Persian Gulf
as well as north-east boundary agency.

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM: A THEORETICAL

PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION

Imperialism refers to the procedure of capitalist development which leads

the capitalist countries to conquer and control pre-capitalist countries of the
world. Under this head, we deal with the development of capitalism in
advanced capitalist countries, the mutual relations in the middle of advanced
capitalist countries, and the subjugation of pre-capitalist countries through a
capitalist country. More narrowly, the term imperialism is used to denote or
describe the relations of political and economic domination flanked by
metropolis and the country it subjugates or dominates.

The country which is so subjugated through a metropolitan capitalist

country is described as a colony, and what happens in a colony is colonialism.
The total system of imperialist domination of a pre-capitalist country is
colonialism. The revise of imperialism and colonialism is closely correlated
and, in a way, we shall be discussing both. But here we shall concentrate more
on the revise of colonialism while leaving major characteristics of imperialism
to be taken up in the revise of development of capitalism.

COLONIALISM: SEVERAL VIEW POINTS

What does colonialism mean? Is it merely the political control through one
country on another, or does it indicate a procedure of economic subordination
of one country to another? The understanding of colonialism has varied from
one scholar to another. In this section we will introduce you to several view
points on colonialism as well as other related characteristics:
One view represented through a large number of sociologists, political
scientists, and economists is that colonial society was basically a
 traditional society or, in other words colonialism retained vital socio-
economic elements and structures of pre-colonial society. Post-colonial
societies then begin the task of modernization from a traditional socio-
economic structure. Several others see colonialism as representing a
transitional society, that is, a society which was being transformed
economically, socially and politically from a traditional, pre-colonial
society into a modern capitalist society. They consider that, given
enough time, colonialism would have succeeded in the task if it had
not been overthrown.
Still other writers hold that colonialism produces a dualistic society in
which one sector is modern and capitalist while another sector is
traditional and pre-capitalist. The two sectors exist side-through-side
without either being strong enough to overwhelm or overthrow the
other. Some writers have followed a more radical version of the
dualistic model. According to them colonialism begins the task of
modernization but fails to complete it giving up the effort half-way.
This leads to ‗arrested growth‘ of the colonial economy and society.
Therefore the semi-feudal characteristics of agriculture are seen as
remnants of the pre-colonial period. Colonialism is accused of
preserving these semi-feudal characteristics or, at least, of failing to
uproot them.
Several writers see colonialism as nothing more than political
domination or foreign political rule. The weaknesses of colonialism are
seen as weaknesses of policies followed through individual colonial
administrators.

Nature of Colonialism
Colonialism did not produce a society which was neither capitalist as in
Britain nor was it pre-colonial or pre-capitalist. Therefore, for instance, India
under British rule neither resembled capitalist Britain nor was it basically
similar to Mughal India. The development of agrarian relations in the
colonies—in India, or Egypt, or Indonesia— creates this characteristic quite
clear. For instance, landlordism in both zamindari and ryotwari areas of
British India was something new; it did not exist in Mughal India. It was the
creation of British rule. It was the result of the colonial rulers‘ efforts to
transform Indian agriculture. Indian agriculture was not capitalist but it had
several capitalist elements; for instance, property relations were capitalist; land
was now a private property which was freely bought and sold on a large scale.

Infact, we can say that the colonial societies under went a fundamental
transformation under colonialism. They were made an integral part of the
world capitalist system. For instance, colonialism in India was as modem a
phenomenon as industrial capitalism in Britain — the two had developed
together since the middle of the 18th century. Capitalism was, through its very
nature, a world-system — that is, it necessity covers the whole world; but it
does not cover the whole world in the same way:
It has one face in the metropolis and another in the colonies. It
develops the metropolis as a modem industrially developed country, it
under develops the colony.
The same capitalist procedure which produces economic development
in the metropolis and creates it an advanced capitalist country produces
and maintains underdevelopment in the colonies and transforms them
into colonial societies.
Colonialism uproots old society and economy, but the new colonial
society and economy is as much a barrier to modern economic
development as are the old, pre-capitalist economy and society.

A colony is integrated into—or made a part of—world capitalist system,

but without taking part in industrial revolution or the development of capitalist
production. Colonialism in fact blocks the development of modem capitalism
in the colonies.

Impact on Colony
You would like to know the essential characteristics of Colonialism. Vital
to colonialism are two characteristics:
One is the complete subordination of the colony to the needs of the
metropolis or the imperialist power and,
Second is economic use of the colony or the appropriation of the
colony‘s economic surplus through the metropolis.

The economic surplus in the colony is produced in several dissimilar ways,

from traditional agriculture to plantations to modern mining and factory
production. But the essence of colonialism is appropriation of this surplus
through several classes of the imperialist country. Subordination means that
the vital issues of the colony's economy and social and political development
are not determined through the colony's own needs but through the needs and
interests of the metropolitan economy and of the metropolitan capitalist class.
Colonialism is therefore much more than political control or colonial policies.
It is best seen as a structure. Colonial interests and policies, colonial state and
administrative institutions, colonial culture and society, colonial ideas and
ideologies, all function within the framework of colonial structure.
STAGES OF COLONIALISM

Colonialism is not one continuous phenomenon or unified structure.

Colonialism goes through many stages. The subordination of the colonial
country and its use remain constant but the forms of subordination and use
undergo changes over time from one stage to another. These changes are
connected to many factors. For instance:
The historical development of capitalism as a world system,
The changing patterns of the individual metropolitan (or imperialist)
country‘s economic, social and political development,
The changing position it occupies in the world system, and the
colony‘s own historical development.

Colonialism may be divided into three separate stages which were related
to separate forms of use or surplus appropriation. Consequently, each stage
represented a dissimilar pattern of subordination of colonial economy, society
and polity and so, dissimilar colonial policies, political and administrative
institutions, ideologies and impact as also dissimilar responses through the
colonial people. Stages of colonialism for dissimilar colonies are not bound
through the same time horizons. Dissimilar stages occur in dissimilar colonies
at dissimilar times, that is, dissimilar stages occupy dissimilar periods in
dissimilar countries. But the content of a stage remains broadly the same
whenever and wherever it may occur. We should also note that a stage of
colonialism does not occur in a pure form, nor is there a sharp and complete
break flanked by one stage and another. Forms of surplus appropriation or use
and other characteristics of colonialism from earlier stages continue into the
later stages. Dissimilar stages are, though, marked through separate dominant
characteristics — there is a qualitative change from one stage to another.

Vital characteristics of colonialism and its dissimilar stages can be

illustrated from the history of colonialism in modern India. This is especially
so because historians agree on treating India as a classic colony. The vital
character of British rule did not remain the same through its long history of
almost 200 years. The changing pattern of Britain‘s position in the developing
world capitalist economy led to changes in the nature of British colonialism in
India, that is changes in forms of use and consequently in colonial policies,
impact and Indian response.

First Stage
This is described as the Period of Monopoly Trade and Direct
Appropriation (or the Period of East India Company‘s Domination, 1757-
1813). Throughout the last half of the 18th century, India was conquered
through a monopoly trading corporation — the East India Company. The
Company had two vital objectives at this stage.
The first was to acquire a monopoly of trade with India. This meant
that other English or European merchants or trading companies should
not compete with it in purchase and sale of Indian products. Nor
should the Indian merchants do so. This would enable the East India
Company to buy Indian products as cheaply as possible and * sell them
in world markets at as high a price as possible. Therefore Indian
economic surplus was to be appropriated through monopoly trade. The
English competitors were kept out through persuading the British
Government to grant the East India Company through a Royal Charter
a monopoly of the right to trade with India and the East. Against the
European rivals the Company had to wage long and fierce wars on land
and the sea. To acquire monopoly against Indian traders and to prevent
Indian rulers from interfering with its trade, the Company took
advantage of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire to acquire rising
political domination and control over dissimilar parts of the country.
After political conquest, Indian weavers were also employed directly
through the Company. In that case, they were forced to produce cloth
at below market prices.
The second major objective of colonialism at this stage was to directly
appropriate or take over governmental revenues through control over
state power. The East India Company required large financial
possessions to wage wars in India and on the seas against European
rivals and Indian rulers and to maintain naval forces, forts, and armies
around their trading posts, etc. East India Company did not possess
such possessions and the British Government neither possessed nor
was it willing to use them to promote the Company‘s interests. The
much needed financial possessions had, so, to be raised in India from
the Indian people. This provided another incentive to create territorial
conquests in India.

Financial possessions had to be raised in India for another cause. Indian

money was needed to purchase Indian goods. This could be acquired either
through sale of British goods in India or through export of gold and silver to
India. The first method was barred because the British produced hardly any
goods which could be sold in India in competition with Indian products.
British industrial products could not compete with Indian handicraft products
till the beginning of the 19th century. British Government, heavily influenced
through mercantilist theories, was also unhappy with the export of gold and
silver from Britain. Appropriation of government revenue would also, of
course, augment the profits of the East India Company and dividends of its
shareholders. Both the objectives —the monopoly of trade and appropriation
of government revenues — were rapidly fulfilled with the conquest first of
Bengal and parts of South India and then over the years of the rest of India.
The East India Company now used its political power to acquire monopolistic
control over Indian trade and handicraft products. Indian traders were slowly
replaced and ruined, while the weavers and other craftsmen were compelled
either to sell their products at uneconomic rates or to work for the Company at
low wages. It is significant to note that at this stage there was no large scale
import of British manufactures into India; rather the reverse occurred, that is,
there was augment in export of Indian textiles, etc. The weavers were, for
instance, not ruined at this stage through British imports but because of the
Company‘s monopoly and their use through being forced to produce for the
Company under uneconomic circumstances.

With political conquest, the East India Company acquired direct control
over the revenues of the Indian states. Moreover, both Company and its
servants extorted illegally immense wealth from Indian merchants, officials,
nobles, rulers and zamindars. In fact, this element of plunder and direct seizure
of surplus was very strong in the first stage of colonialism. Slowly, large
number of highly paid British officials was appointed in India and their
salaries and pensions became a form of surplus appropriation. There was
intense thrash about within Britain, especially in the middle of the aristocracy
and the landed gentry, for British appointments in India.

An significant characteristic of colonialism throughout this period was that

no vital changes were introduced in the colony in administration, judicial
system, transport and communication, methods of agricultural or industrial
production, forms of business management or economic organisation (except
for the Permanent Settlement in Bengal which really belonged to the second
stage of colonialism). Nor were any changes made in education or intellectual
field, culture or social organisation. Only two new educational institutions
were started — one at Banaras for Sanskritic learning and other at Calcutta for
Persian and Arabic learning. Even the Christian Missionaries and British
capitalists, who might have acted as a channel for the import of modern
Western ideas, were kept out of British possessions in India. The only changes
made were:
In military organisation and technology which modern independent
Indian rulers were also introducing in their armed forces, and
In administration at the top of the structure of revenue collection so
that it could be made more efficient and diverted to the Company.

At this stage, British rule was not very dissimilar from traditional Indian
empires which too relied on land revenue collection. Why was this so? Why
were so few changes introduced? Because the two vital objectives of
colonialism at this stage did not require vital socio-economic- administrative
changes in India. Colonialism of the first stage could be superimposed over its
existing economic, cultural, social, and political structure. Also the British
rulers did not feel the need to penetrate the villages deeper than their
indigenous Indian precursors had done so long as land revenue was
successfully sucked out through the traditional machinery of revenue
collection. There was so no need to disturb India‘s existing economic or
political structure, or administrative and social organisation, or cultural and
ideological framework.

This lack of change was also reflected in the ideology of the rulers. No
need was felt to criticize traditional Indian civilization, religions, laws, caste
system, family structure, etc. for they were not seen as obstacles at that stage
of colonial use. The need was to understand them sympathetically so that
political control and economic use could proceed smoothly without arousing
opposition from Indians on religious, social, or cultural grounds.
This period witnessed large scale drain of wealth from India. This wealth
played a significant role in financing Britain‘s industrial revolution. Drain of
Wealth from India constituted 2 to 3 per cent of Britain‘s national income at
the time.

Second Stage
This was a period of use through trade and is also termed as Colonialism
of Free Trade throughout the 19th century. Immediately after the East India
Company became the ruler over mainly parts of India, an intense thrash about
broke out in Britain to determine whose interests the newly acquired colony
would serve. Britain was after 1750 undergoing the Industrial Revolution. The
newly developing industrial capitalists began to attack the East India Company
and the forms of its use of India. They demanded that colonial administration
and policy in India should now serve their interests which were very dissimilar
from those of the East India Company. They did not gain much from a
monopoly trade in Indian products or from the Company‘s control over Indian
revenues. They wanted India to serve as a market for their ever-rising output
of manufactured goods, especially textiles. They also needed from India
exports of raw materials, especially cotton, and food granules. Moreover, India
could buy more British goods only if it earned foreign exchange through rising
its exports. Rising exports were also needed to enable dividends of the East
India Company and profits of British merchants and earnings and pensions of
British-officials to be transferred to Britain.

But what was India to export? Since the British were for years not willing
to let India‘s textiles be imported into Britain and later their export was no
longer economic, these exports from India could consist only of agricultural
raw materials and other non manufactured goods. In other words, to suit the
convenience of British industrial capitalists, British colonialism in India
necessity enter its second stage. India necessity becomes a subordinate trading
partner of Britain, as a market to be exploited and as a dependent colony to
produce and supply the raw materials and food stuffs Britain needed. India‘s
economic surplus was to be appropriated through trade based on unequal
exchange. As a result, Britain increasingly produced and exported goods
which were produced in factories using advanced technology and less labour,
and in which stage of productivity and wages was high. On the other hand,
India produced agricultural raw materials through backward methods of
production using great deal of labour leading to low productivity and low
wages. This international division of labour was, moreover, not only highly
unfavorable to India but was unnatural and artificial and was introduced and
maintained forcibly through colonial domination.

The beginnings of the change occurred with the passing of the Regulating
Act of 1773 and Pitt‘s India Act of 1784 which were primarily the result of
intense thrash about within the British ruling classes. The East India Company
was saved and given a reprieve through the French Revolutionary Wars after
1789. But the Company slowly lost ground. Through 1813, when another
Charter Act was passed, the Company had lost mainly of its political and
economic power in India; the real power being wielded through the British
Government which ruled India in the interests of the British capitalist class as
a whole.

India could not be exploited in the new way within its existing economic,
political, administrative, and sociocultural setting. This setting, so, had to be
shattered and transformed all beside the line. The British Indian Government
set out to do so after 1813. In the economic field this meant integrating India‘s
colonial economy with the British and world capitalist economy. The chief
instrument of this was the introduction of free trade. All import duties in India
were either totally removed or drastically reduced to nominal rates. Therefore
India was thrown open to British manufactures. Free entry was also now given
to British capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo plantations, trade,
transport, mining, and modern industries in India. The British Indian
Government gave active state help to these capitalists.

The agrarian structure of India was sought to be transformed in a capitalist

direction through the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari systems. The
large-scale imports and their sale in land and even more the large-scale export
of the bulky raw materials and their gathering at the ports from long distances
inside the country required a cheap and easy system of transport and
communications. Without such a system India could not be opened to large-
scale foreign trade. The Government, so, improved rivers and canals,
encouraged the introduction of steamships on the rivers and improved the
roads. Above all, throughout latter half of the 19th century, it encouraged and
financed a large network of railways linking India‘s major cities and markets
to its ports. Through 1905 almost 45,000 kms. of railways had been built.
Likewise, a modern postal and telegraph system was introduced to facilitate
economic transactions.

Several changes were now brought about in the administrative field.

Administration was made more elaborate and comprehensive and it reached
down to the villages and- outlying areas of the country so that British goods
could reach, and agricultural products drawn from, its interior villages and
remotest parts. Legal and judicial structure of India was overhauled to promote
capitalist commercial relations and maintain law and order. The changes,
though, related to criminal law, law of contract and legal procedures. Personal
law, including that relating to marriage and inheritance, was largely left
untouched since it did not in any way affect colonial transformation of the
economy. Further more it was in the 1830s and 1840s, that English replaced
Persian as the official language in India. Lord William Bentinck‘s resolution
dated March 7, 1835 stated that ‗the funds appropriated to education would be
best employed in English education alone‘.

Modern education was now introduced basically with the objective to man
the new, vastly expanded administration. But it was also expected to help
transform India‘s society and culture. This transformation was needed for two
reasons; it was expected to,
Make an overall climate of change and development and,
Generate a culture of loyalty to the rulers.

It is to be noted that it was around this period that several Indian

intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy began to work for social and cultural
modernization for dissimilar reasons, mainly as part of national regeneration.
The second stage of colonialism generated a liberal imperialist ideology in the
middle of several British statesmen and administrators. They talked of training
the Indian people in the arts of democracy and self Government. Britain was at
this time, the workshop of the world — it was the only rapidly industrializing
country. Consequently, several in Britain whispered that the pattern of trade
with India could be maintained even if Britain was to withdraw its direct
political and administrative control over India, so long as law and order, free
trade and sanctity of business contract were maintained there. But even the
liberal imperialists whispered that it would take Indians a hundred years or
more to acquire these virtues, and so, British rule should be maintained and
strengthened for centuries to come.

If India‘s socio-economic structure was to be radically transformed, its

existing culture and social organisation had to be declared unsuitable and
decadent. Indian culture and society were now subjected to sharp criticism. No
racialism was, though involved in this criticism for it was simultaneously
maintained that Indians could slowly be raised to the stage of Europeans. The
earlier forms of surplus extraction sustained throughout this stage. This, plus
the costly administration, plus the efforts at economic transformation led to a
steep rise in taxation and in the burden on the peasant. Because of the constant
needs of colonial administration for funds to maintain military and civil
administration and for construction of railways, and its large reliance on
taxation of land, which had its own limits, colonial administration suffered
from constant financial constraint.

Consequently, the procedure of modernization in other fields was reduced

to paltry proportions. India played a crucial role in the development of British
capitalism throughout this stage. British industries, especially textiles, were
heavily dependent on exports. India absorbed 10 to 12 per cent of British
exports and almost 20 per cent of Britain‘s textile exports throughout 1860 to
1880. After 1850, India was also a major importer of engine coaches, rail lines
and other railway stores. Moreover, Indian army played a significant role in
extending British colonialism in Asia and Africa. Throughout this stage Indian
wealth and capital sustained to be drained to Britain.

Third Stage
This is described as the Era of Foreign Investments and International
Competition for Colonies. A new stage of colonialism was ushered in India
from about 1860s. This was the result of many major changes in the world
economy:
Spread of industrialization to many countries of Europe, the United
States, and Japan with the result that Britain‘s industrial supremacy in
the world came to an end.
There was intensification of industrialization as a result of the
application of scientific knowledge to industry. Modern chemical
industries, the use of petroleum as fuel for the internal combustion
engine, and the use of electricity for industrial purposes developed
throughout this period.
There was further unification of the world market because of
revolution in the means of international transport.

The new industries in several industrialized countries consumed immense

quantities of raw materials. Rapid industrial development also led to
continuous expansion of urban population which needed more and more food.
There now occurred an intense thrash about for new, secure, and exclusive
markets and sources of agricultural and mineral raw materials and foodstuffs.
Moreover, the development of trade and industry at home and extended use of
colonies and semi-colonies produced large accumulations of capital in the
capitalist countries. Simultaneously there occurred concentration of capital in
fewer and fewer corporations, trusts and cartels and merger of banking capital
with industrial capital. Outlets had to be found for this capital. This led to
large scale export of capital. Once again the developed capitalist countries
began a search and compete for areas where they could acquire the exclusive
right to invest their surplus capital.

Therefore in their search for markets, raw materials, and fields for capital
investment the capitalistic countries began to divide and re-divide the world in
the middle of themselves. Colonialism at this stage also served significant
political and ideological purpose in the metropolitan, that is, imperialist
countries. Chauvinism or aggressive nationalism based on the glorification of
empire could be used to tone down social divisions at home through stressing
the common interests in empire. The British, for instance, raised the slogan
that ―The Sun never sets on the British Empire‖ to spread pride and a sense of
contentment in the middle of workers on whose slum-houses the Sun seldom
shone in real life. The French talked of their ―
Civilizing Mission‖, while Japan
talked of Pan-Asianism and claimed to be the champion of the Asian people.

Throughout this stage, Britain‘s position in the world was constantly

challenged and weakened through the rival capitalistic countries. It now made
vigorous efforts to consolidate its control over India. Reactionary imperialist
policies now replaced liberal imperialist policies. This was reflected in the
viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne, and Curzon. The strengthening
of colonial rule over India was essential to keep out the rivals, to attract British
capital to India and to give it security. After 1850, a very large amount of
British capital was invested in railways, loans to the Government of India,
trade and to a lesser extent in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping,
and banking in India. India also performed another significant role for Britain.
Its army—men and financial possessions — could be used to fight Britain‘s
rivals in the thrash about for the division and re-division of the world. In fact,
the Indian army was the chief instrument for the defense, expansion, and
consolidation of British empire in Africa and Asia. The result was a costly
standing army that absorbed almost 52 per cent of the Indian revenues in 1904.

Politically and administratively the third stage of colonialism meant

renewed and more rigorous control over India. Moreover, it was now even
more significant than ever before that colonial administration should reach out
to every nook and corner of India. The administration now became more
bureaucratically tight, efficient, and extensive than earlier. Railways were built
at even a faster rate. A major change now occurred in the ideology of
colonialism. All talk of training the Indian people for self-government died
out. (It was revived in the 20th century after 1918 as a result of pressure from
the Indian national movement). Instead, the aim of British rule was declared to
be permanent ‗trusteeship‘ over the Indian people. Indian people were
declared to be a permanently immature, a ‗child‘ people, needing British
control, and trusteeship. Geography, ‗race‘, climate, history, religion, culture,
and social organisation were cited as factors which made Indians permanently
unfit for self-government or democracy. Britain had, so, to exercise
benevolent despotism over them for centuries to come. Efforts at the
transformation of India sustained throughout this stage, though once again
with meager results. This was partly because of the financial constraints
discussed earlier and also because of the rise of the national movement. Even
the limited changes produced an intelligentsia which began to oppose
colonialism and analyze the mechanism of colonial use. The British
administrators increasingly assumed a neutral stand on social and cultural
questions, and then began to support social and cultural reactionaries in the
name of preserving indigenous institutions.

IMPERIALISM: ITS EFFECTS

In order to understand the nature of colonialism and its economic, social,
and political impact on India, it is necessary to comprehend colonialism in a
world perspective. If we look at India alone we shall fail to understand the
structural logic of imperialism and a good deal of what happened might appear
to be due to the ― bad policies‖ or from another point of view ― good policies‖
of sure individual figures in the middle of the British rulers and policy framers
in India. A great deal of historical criticism in the past has been done in these
conditions; how a misguided Governor General or a bad administrator or a
negligent public opinion in England allowed or brought about bad things to
happen to Indian People. The apologists for the empire have invariably
repeated the same discourse on good/bad policies. Even the nationalist leaders
of the early days were not entirely free from this kind of superficial thinking
about the empire. They were able to build a convincing case against the
exploitative and oppressive characteristics of British rule; but lacked the
broader perspective which enabled the later-day critics including those
influenced through Marxism to locate colonialism within the context of
capitalist imperialism or the capitalist world system, and therefore enhanced
our understanding of the historical growths within its component part, the
Indian Empire. The latter approach to the phenomenon of colonial expansion
can be traced back to some early twentieth century critics of imperialism;
Hobson, Hilferding, Rosa Luxemburg and Lenin. In India this approach was
developed through, in the middle of others, M.N. Roy, Jawaharlal Nehru, and
R.P. Dutt etc.

THEORIES OF COLONIALISM

Let us look at the several theories propounded through Europeans as well

as Indian nationalists in relation to colonialism.
European Views
Hobson, far from being a Marxist, was a conventional British Labour Party
intellectual who propounded a theory of colonial empire structure (his major
work Imperialism was published in 1902). He thought that capitalism was
bound to engender such expansionism or imperialism. Capitalist system, he
pointed out, means a very uneven sharing of income. Large profits accumulate
in the hands of the capitalist and the wages of the worker are low. Therefore
the low stage of income of the large mass of workers under capitalism keeps
the stage of consumption low. What is the result? On account of ― under-
consumption‖ all the industrial products that are produced cannot be sold
within the country, for there are no buyers. What can the capitalist do under
these circumstances? He can try to sell the excess produce that cannot be
marketed within the country to foreign markets. If all capitalist countries
follow this policy there will be a thrash about to capture markets and to secure
captive markets in the form of colonies. Therefore colonial expansion and
disagreement flanked by capitalists of dissimilar countries, according to
Hobson, were inevitable outcomes of the capitalist system. Further, due to the
above constraint of ― under-consumption‖, the opportunities for investment for
the capitalist become limited in the long run. At the same time profit keeps on
accumulating and there are savings waiting to be invested. This is what
Hobson described ― over-saving‖ which again tended to push the capitalists
towards colonial expansion: acquisition of colonies would create investment
of surplus capital possible. To sum it up Hobson‘s theories of under-
consumption and over-saving suggested that colonial expansion or
imperialism was a logical corollary of the capitalist system.

Eight years after the publication of Hobson‘s work, Rudolf Hilferding

published (1910) another significant analysis, focusing attention on Finance
Capitalism. A social Democrat, a brilliant economist, and for a while the
Finance Minister of Germany, Hilferding had to seek refuge in Paris after the
rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany; when Paris was occupied through the
German invading army Hilferding was captured and killed through them. This
heroic leader of the Central European socialist movement is recognized for his
penetrating analysis of the ultimate stage of capitalism. Throughout this stage,
capitalism as Hilferding pointed out, is dominated through vast banks and
financial interests who act in secure association with monopolist industrial
business houses. This analysis of finance capitalism was further extended
through V.I. Lenin in his tract on Imperialism, The Last Stage of Capitalism
(1916). In 1913 Rosa Luxemburg also published her work on accumulation of
capital and the stages of imperialist expansionism. She was a socialist leader
who migrated from Poland to Germany. Intellectually and politically she left a
mark on the European socialist movement and sustained to play a significant
part until she fell a victim to the Nazi onslaught. As for Lenin, all that perhaps
needs to be said here is that this tract on Imperialism was written to expose the
capitalist machinations leading to World War. His ultimate aim was to
dissuade the Russian people from engaging in a war that was caused through
disagreement of interests flanked by the financial monopolists of Western
Europe. It was a very successful piece of polemical writing which deeply
influenced Marxist Historiography.

Indian Nationalists’ Views

Independent of this critique of Imperialism developed through Hobson,
Hilferding and Lenin, the nationalists in India in their scholarly and polemical
writings offered a sharp and telling criticism of the colonial economic impact
on India. Through the works of Dadabhai Naoroji, Mahadev Gobind Ranade,
Romesh Chandra Dutt and several others who developed a school of
Economic Nationalist analysis which highlighted some significant
characteristics of India‘s experience under British Rule. The main components
of this analysis were as follows:
The concept of Drain of Wealth evolved in the writings of Naoroji and
Dutt. To them it meant the transfer of wealth from the late 18th century
in the form of plunder and loot and illicit gains through servants of the
East India Company and in the form of Home charges, i.e. the
expenses incurred through the Government of India in England
out of its income derived mainly from the taxation of the Indian
people and finally, in the form of interests and profits and capital
transfer from India to England on private account. Nationalist critics
pointed out how drain in these dissimilar forms impoverished this
country and increased the economic gap flanked by India and England
which was the destination of the drain of wealth.
They also pointed out how British regime brought about the
destruction of the small-scale industries of India, a procedure that in
more recent times has been described de-industrialization.
The thought of Free Trade and laissez faire, nationalists contended, led
to a tariff and industrial policy which stifled the possibilities of growth
of industries in British India. Consequently, India became ― the
agricultural farm‖ of industrial England, i.e. a source of raw materials
and food granules, dependent totally on industrial supplies from
England.
The rate of taxation of agriculture was also criticized through R.C.
Dutt who felt that the burden of land revenue was excessive in areas
which were subjected to periodical temporary settlements. This, in his
opinion, was the cause of frequent recurrence of famines in British
India. Wealth of the countryside was drained absent through the
revenue collection machinery, creation the economic viability of
farming so precarious that the farmer could not withstand failure of
rain and other natural disasters.
 Finally, a significant part of the nationalist analysis of British
economic policy in India was their criticism of government
expenditure on the army, the police, and other tools of government.
The expenditure was so excessive that developmental investments
were neglected. For instance, the low expenditure on irrigation works
contrasted sharply with the generous expenditure on the British Indian
army, the railways, etc.

We shall discuss the above issue later in detail. For the present, it may,
though, be noted that mainly of the criticisms voiced through these two
schools, the European Socialists as well as the Indian Nationalists, relate to the
stages of colonialism that correspond to the stage of Industrial Capitalism and
Finance Capitalism in Europe. Further, one may note that the Indian
Nationalists‘ critique is naturally directed towards characteristics
characterizing ‗Formal imperialism‘, i.e. imperialism as witnessed in India
under formal political subjugation of the colony under British Imperial power.
The European Socialists like Hobson, Hilferding, etc. addressed themselves on
the other hand, to a revise of imperialism in a more general way, also taking
into account ‗informal imperialism‘ where political subjugation of the colony
might not have occurred but economic colonialism characterized metropolitan
colonial relations (e.g. in the case of China or the Latin American countries).
Finally, we may also note that unlike the Indian Nationalists‘ approach
developed through Naoroji,

Ranade, R.C. Dutt etc., the Hobsonian, or Leninist approach connected

colonialism to the world system of capitalism. Colonial use, to Hobson and
others, was a natural systemic product of capitalism as it evolved in Europe,
not merely an aberration caused through ‗wrong policies‘ in Europe. On the
whole the critique of imperialism offered through the Indian Nationalists was
one of the mainly powerful instruments of structure national consciousness in
the middle of a subject people. The latter day nationalist spokesmen, like
Jawaharlal Nehru developed and strengthened this critique through
incorporating into it some elements derived from the Marxian, Hobsonian, and
Leninist approach to imperialism.

EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM

But how did these stages affect the Indian economy? The artisan, peasant,
worker and merchant — practically all sections of the Indian society were
affected through colonial policies. In this section we shall deal with the
economic impact of colonialism.
De-industrialisation
The destruction of traditional Indian industries was one of the earliest
consequences of colonialism to be noticed and documented in this country.
While it was evidently linked with the growth of modem factory industry in
England, the beginning of the procedure of destruction of Indian cottage
industries lay further back, in the 18th century, when the products of Indian
industries were still prized as valuable items of commerce. In that early stage
of mercantile capitalism the source of profit of the East Indian Company was
the variation flanked by the cost prices in India and the sale prices in England
of the Indian Industrial products like cotton and silk textiles. This price
variation, i.e. the profit rates of the English East India Company, could be
increased if the Indian cost price, at which East Indian Company purchased
goods from the Indian artisans, could be lowered. So long as there was a
competitive market in India, that is, so long as the English East Indian
Company was competing in the Indian market, with other East India
Companies of the French or the Dutch and with other merchants of Indian and
Asian origin, the Indian artisans were in a good bargaining position. But in the
last decades of the eighteenth century the British slowly eliminated mainly of
their competitors, in scrupulous the French and the Dutch. Moreover, through
virtue of their military power and, in some regions (e.g. Bengal from 1765),
their political and administrative position, the British recognized a hegemony
which allowed them to become monopolists in the market.

The English Company‘s purchase together with the purchases of the

servants of that company in their private capability accounted for a very large
portion of the marketed textiles of superior quality in Bengal. As we all know,
a monopolist can influence the market to his own advantage. In the last three
decades of the eighteenth century this was the advantage which enabled the
English traders to reduce the prices paid to the native artisans in this country
and therefore to reap high profits from sale in the European market. This
excessive use of Indian artisans weakened the very basis of our handicraft
industries through reducing the artisan to a low stage of income. It also
destroyed the possibility of accumulation of possessions to invest in the
industry and to improve its technology. As we know, accumulation of capital
and a technological revolution occurred in England in the last decades of the
eighteenth and early decades of the nineteenth century. This Industrial
Revolution first of all wiped out the market for India‘s artisans in Europe,
because the economies of large scale production in the new English factories
made it impossible for artisan products to compete with factory products.
Through the beginning of the 19th century the staple industrial exports, cotton
textiles, began to decline and soon they ceased to be exported. Some other
items, e.g. indigo and raw silk, sustained to be exported—though from 1813 it
was no longer the East India Company but private trade which became the
agency for exports. Not only was the export market of the Indian artisans
taken absent through the foreign factories, but the home market began to be
invaded through imported factory products.

This Is the procedure which has been described de-industrialisation since it

is the reverse of the procedure of industrialisation. Here we may pay attention
to the debate that has taken place on the question of de- industrialisation in
India in course of the 19th century. Romesh C. Dutt and Madan Mohan
Malviya (in his note of dissent to the Indian Industrial Commission) used the
statistics of import to prove their point. They showed, for instance, that import
of Manchester cloth increased in value from 96 lakh sterling in 1860 to 27
crore sterling in 1900. Some recent authors, particularly Morris David Morris,
argue that this proof is not decisive; they argue that under Pax Britanica the
population increased; the per capita income increased, the sale of cloth
increased due to change in consumption habits, and therefore it was possible
for Indians to buy more foreign cloth, leaving the market for indigenous
artisans unaffected. In short, Morris‘s argument is that the market expanded so
that it was possible to accommodate both Manchester and Indian Weaver‘s
produce. Manchester cloth, Morris maintained, did not displace indigenous
weaver‘s cloth. This view of Morris is unacceptable because he does not
produce any proof to prove augment in population and per capita income
throughout the 19th century. There is plenty of proof put forward through
recent economic historians like Sarda Raju for Madras, N.K. Sinha for Bengal,
A. V. Raman Rao for Andhra, R.D. Choksey for Maharashtra and A.K. Bagchi
for Bihar, etc. which lends support to the de- industrialisation thesis. The early
nationalist economists did not have access to the sources and methods used
through these recent economic historians but their conclusion concerning de-
industrialisation is confirmed through the findings of later researches. In the
middle Gangetic region, according to Bagchi‘s estimate, the industrial decline
can be measured with some accuracy: the weight of industry in the livelihood
pattern of the people was reduced through half from 1809-13 to the census
year 1901.

That the procedure of de-industrialisation sustained upto the last decade of

the 19th century is recognized beyond question. Did the growth of new
industrial activities in the last decade of the 19th century restore the balance?
Deniel Thorner has put forward the controversial thesis that the census
statistics accessible from 1881 do not suggest that de-industrialisation was in
progress from 1881 to 1931. At first sight, the census figures indicate that the
male work force in agriculture increased from 65% in 1881 on 72% in 1931,
while the proportion in industry declined from 16% in 1881 to 9% in 1931.
But Thorner believes that this categorization was erroneous and one should
lump together agricultural work force with another category, general Labour‘s
and likewise aggregate industrial work force with ‗Trade‘. If that is done, the
picture looks dissimilar. The augment in the compounded categories appears
to be far less in the primary sector (only about 2% growth flanked by 1881 and
1931). Likewise the decline in industry and trade put together is also much
less (only about 3% decline in 1881-1931). Further, Thorner dismisses the
data on female labour force on the ground that the data composed were
inaccurate in the opinion of census officials. In this way Thorner arrives at the
conclusion that the 1881-1931 censuses does not show any proof of substantial
de-industrialisation.

In criticism of Thorner, one obvious point is that the procedure of de-

industrialisation had already done the damage well before the census
operations began. The first reliable all India census was that of 1881. This
much Thorner is himself willing to concede. Secondly, he is perhaps wrong in
dismissing the figures concerning employment of women. These figures for
1881-1931 show an augment in employment in Agriculture through 13% and a
decline in Industrial employment through 9%. In the Indian social context the
employment of women is quite important, and it is likely that in case of
decline in artisan‘s business the women of the household gave up industrial
work (to take up household chores or agricultural labour) earlier than men folk
in the artisan families. Above all, there is the question: how reliable is the
sectoral sharing of work force as an index of industrialisation or its reverse?
The crucial index is the per capita productivity and the value of what is
produced as a proportion of national produce, i.e. ratio to national income. J.
Krishnamurthy has, on this ground cast doubts upon the use of demographic
data, as in Thorner‘s argument, to answer the question, was there de-
industrialisation?

Lastly, we may note that there was also a significant trend of imperialist
apologists which frankly admitted the de-industrialisation of India as a fact but
argued that it was good for both India and Britain that the colony specialized
in the production of agricultural goods. As late as 1911 Lord John Meynard
Keynes wrote that industrialising India was neither possible nor desirable.
India could, infact, attain greater prosperity through exchanging agricultural
products for all the industrial goods that may be needed through imports from
the West. This view goes back to the classical theory of comparative
advantage and international division of labour, assigning to colonies like India
the role of the agricultural farm of the industrialized imperial country. One of
the real achievements of the nationalist economists was to defeat this view and
to establish in the political agenda of the freedom thrash about the economic
programme of India‘s industrialisation.

Commercialization of Agriculture
As we have already seen, the food-grain production did not improve, but
this was not true of some so-described ‗cash crops‘. Both the total and per acre
output of non-food grain crops increased, and this was largely due to increased
demand and rising prices of these both in the external and the internal market.
The mainly dramatic augment of this sort was the Cotton Boom of the early
1860‘s which merits our special attention.

The emancipation of the black slaves through Abraham Lincoln and the
consequent Civil War in U.S.A. led to a massive short fall in the world supply
of cotton in 1860-64. This led to the augment in cotton prices, export of cotton
from India, and the growth on cotton cultivating acreage in India. This Cotton
Boom brought the Indian peasants in Cotton rising areas within the ambit of
the world capitalist system. The significant export houses of Bombay, the
wholesale traders in the big cities, the brokers, and other middlemen in cotton
export trade, down to the stage of the village bania who advanced credit to the
peasant for cotton cultivation, all profited enormously from the Cotton Boom.
This profit, as well as the profit from the commercial crops developed even
earlier, viz. opium and indigo, contributed to the accumulation of capital in the
hands of some Indian businessmen. More significant was the fact that the
Cotton Boom marked the recruitment of India as a supplier of agricultural
commodities and raw material needed through the industrialized West.
Therefore it complemented the procedure of de-industrialisation. The role of
the colony specializing in agriculture and of the industrialized metropolitan
country in the West was demarcated clearly in the modern theory of
international division of labour. This was feature not only of India and
England, but also of other colonies and metropolises in the stage of industrial
capitalist imperialism.

The statistics of agricultural production indicate a substantial augment in

non-food granules output while food grain production shows an opposite
trend. The per annum augment in population in 1891-1947 was 0.67% while
total food-grain production increased through only 0.11% in this period. The
per acre production of food granules decreased through 0.18% per annum. On
the other hand the increased demand in the market and the rising prices of
highly commercialized non-food grain crops increased through 0.86% per
annum and their total output through 1.31% per annum. The non-food grain
crops were primarily cotton and jute but also incorporated tobacco, sugarcane,
oilseeds etc.

Impact of Commercialization on Rural Society

Commercialization of agriculture paved the way for the generation of
usury and merchant capital in rural society and widened the stages of
differentiation in the middle of the peasantry. The common cultivator‘s
dependence on the village bania for advance of credit, for the marketing of his
crop, for loans throughout lean seasons for survival increased as
commercialization progressed. In the payment of land revenue also the money
lender cum trader played a significant role in supplying cash. Finally, the
village bania was also an agent for the penetration of the rural market through
the imported industrial consumer goods, particularly Manchester cloth.

While some of the poorer peasants were raising crops for the market
virtually hypothecated in advance to the money lender, the better-off section
of the peasantry was relatively free. The latter could store their goods, and
wait for better prices than what prevailed throughout the glut in the market
after harvest. They could also cart their crops to markets in towns to obtain a
better price than what the village bania or itinerant dallal offered. Furthermore,
they could create their own decision as to which crop to grow while the
poorest farmer was virtually forced to raise crops as demanded through the
village bania. In some regions, the rich peasants themselves became money
lenders to poorer peasants and therefore the procedure of differentiation was
accentuated.

In course of this differentiation procedure and the operation of money-

trading capital, a rising number of peasants began losing their land and
becoming ‗de-peasanted‘ landless laborers. It must, though, be noted that
landless laborers had existed in the pre-colonial-period too (particularly in the
south of India in substantial numbers on account of servitude of some castes).
It is the economic procedure of depeas anting and the significantly larger
number of landless agriculturists which emerge as the feature characteristics of
the colonial period. According to estimates based on the 1931 census we get
the following picture of social strata in village India. At the bottom of the
pyramid were the landless agricultural laborers (including bonded laborers)
accounting for 37.8% of agriculturists. The stratum above them were the
farmers with very small holdings of below 5 acres (9%) and several kinds of
tenants-at-will and share croppers (24.3%). The layer above consisted of the
better-off section of farmers with land above 5 acres in size (about 25.3%).
Finally at the narrow top of the pyramid were members of the rent getting
class, several of whom did not actually cultivate land themselves (3.6%). The
condition of the bonded laborers was the worst: they worked all their life, and
sometimes for generations, for the ‗master‘. Efforts to improve the condition
of this class of people and the tenants will be discussed later.

MODERN INDUSTRY AND INDIAN CAPITALIST CLASS

The pattern of industrial capitalist imperialism incorporated an agenda of

action through the colonial state for promoting the development of an
economic infrastructure for the use of the natural possessions and raw
materials of the colony. We shall turn to that characteristic very soon. Suffice
it to say that these infrastructural growths, particularly the railways and
transport system, created circumstances of development not only for foreign
capital in some sectors (e.g. jute factories, coal mines, tea, and coffee
plantations) but also for indigenous capital. The latter extended industrial
investment first in cotton textiles, in the teeth of the opposition of Manchester
interests and the inimical tariff policy of the British Indian Government. From
1854 when the first Indian mill was set up in Bombay till the World War I the
progress of Indian industrial capital was painfully slow and halting. It was the
War and the inter-war period which saw the rapid development and industrial
diversification of Indian Capital. This development was in part the story of
thrash about against foreign capitalist domination (mainly pronounced in
eastern India). It also involved a thrash about against British business interests
which exercised powerful influence on policy-creation in England and also
against the unsympathetic British Indian Government. This would explain the
emergence of alliance flanked by the Indian capitalist class and the nationalist
leadership who fully supported national capital.

Within a colonial context the growth of national capital was obviously

subject to severe limitations. The potentials of colonial industrial development
were exceedingly limited. From Shivasubramanian‘s estimates of national
income it is clear how small was the extent of industrial growth even in the
last fifty years of British rule. On the average the ratio of industrial sector‘s
share to the Net Domestic Product was 12.7% in 1900-1904, 13.6% in 1915-
19, and 16.7% in 1940-44. That India virtually remained where it was,
predominantly agricultural, is clear from the ratio of income generated in the
primary sector to the total NDP: 63.6% in 1900-04, 59.6% in 1915-19, and
47.6% in 1940-44. The Tertiary Sector alone showed a striking augment in its
share: 23.7% in 1900-1904 compared to 35.7% in 1940-44.

In common with several other colonial and industrially backward

countries, India was characterized through stagnation in the stage of national
income. In the early years of British rule we have no index of national income.
In the 1860‘s, according to Dadabhai Naoroji‘s calculation, the per capita
income of India was Rs. 20 per annum. We have already seen how Naoroji
and others nationalists recognized the Drain of Wealth from India as one of
the causes of this poverty in India. About this time, 1870 to be exact, the per
capita income in England (Mitchell and Deane‘s estimate) was £24.4 sterling.
This was equivalent to Rs. 568. The more recent estimates of
Shivasubramanian suggest that in the last half century of British rule per capita
income in India remained approximately stagnant. In 1900-04 it was Rs. 52.2
in 1915-19 it who Rs. 57.3 and in 1940-44 it was Rs. 56.6 (at constant price of
1938-39). This gives us and thought of the degree of underdevelopment and
stagnation from which colonial India suffered.
THE COLONIAL STATE

The political impact of colonialism and resistance to colonialism in course

of the freedom thrash about is a subject to be dealt with later in this course.
We are concerned here only with some of the political characteristics of the
colonial procedure. The colonial state was obviously not devised for
fashioning the economy of India in the manner demanded through British
imperial interests; but it was the mainly significant instrument in serving that
purpose. The professed political ideology of late 19th and early 20th century
British rulers has been described as ‗laissez faire‘ plus policeman. But
departures from non-interventionism were frequent, and fundamental. So far
as a colony like India was concerned the theory was that the country needed to
be prepared through active intervention for creation the ‗civilizing mission‘ of
the West effective.

Hence, for instance, the heavy governmental support to British private

capital in Indian railways, in the form of guaranteed interest irrespective of
profit and loss. This was evidently beneficial to British business interests. On
the other hand laissez faire was insisted upon in the sphere of tariff policy:
refusal to put any important tax burden on imported Manchester cloth for
instance, was good for British interests and bad for all Indian mill owners.
Again laissez faire was invoked to absolve the government from any
intervention in trade in food-granules (including export of granules)
throughout the famines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The political structure in Britain ensured that significant business interests

could influence policy-creation in India through Parliament, the Secretary of
State for India who was a member of British Cabinet, the Governor-General,
and the higher bureaucracy in India. Till World War-1 in scrupulous this
influence was clearly visible. Though, the necessity of creation some
compromise flanked by ‗Home‘ pressures and India‘s needs increasingly
moderated the policies of the British Indian Government in the later period.
The viability of rule over India, financial stability of the government, need to
strike compromises with Indian capitalists and other significant interests and
nationalist pressures were some of the factors that modified British policies
from the 1920‘s onwards. Subject to such qualifications one can say that the
colonial state was a serviceable instrument not so much for the
‗modernization‘ of Indian economy and society as for the colonization of India
from the middle of the 19th century to 1947.

THE RISE OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

You also studied how the procedure of colonisation affected the economic,
political, and social circumstances of India. We will discuss how British
policies developed a national consciousness in the nineteenth century. Our
emphasis would be on the factors responsible for the growth of the
consciousness and the shape it took throughout the period under revise.

The rise of national consciousness in the nineteenth century was

essentially the result of the British rule. The economic, political and social
changes brought about through the British rule resulted in the oppression of all
classes of Indian people giving rise to a wide spread dissatisfaction in the
middle of the masses. Moreover, the uniform system of administration,
development of post and telegraph, railways, printing press, and educational
institutions created through the British primarily as measures for running an
effective administration also became instrumental in providing favorable
circumstances for the rise and growth of national movement.

RUIN OF INDIAN ECONOMY

The British economic policies in India led to the ruin of Indian agriculture
and handicraft industries. The peasants, artisans and other classes were badly
impoverished in the procedure. You have already studied the details of the
economic impact which showed itself in the form of de-industrialisation,
commercialization of agriculture, famines etc. Here we will mention very
briefly how the British rule changed our economic life throughout the
nineteenth century.

Agriculture
The British agrarian policy was mainly aimed at drawing out maximum
land revenue. In the Permanent Settlement areas the land revenue was fixed
for the Zamindars (to be paid to the State). The Zamindars kept charging more
from the peasants than what they had to pay to the State. Mainly of the time
the peasants had to borrow money from money lenders. The money lenders
charged exorbitant rate of interest for the money they lent to the peasants. As
you can yourself imagine, whenever the peasants tried to resist the use through
landlords and money lenders, the official machinery helped the latter. A large
number of cash crops (like indigo, cotton, sugarcane) were taken through the
British on dictated prices to be used as raw materials. Cotton and indigo
cultivators were the worst affected. As a result of the British land revenue
policy large number of peasants was reduced to landless laborers. The number
of landless laborers was as high as 20% of the population (52.4 million with
their dependents) in 1901.
Industry
When we come to industry, we find that the artisans were also facing great
hardships. Restrictions were imposed on import of Indian textiles in Britain
while the British could bring their machine-made textiles virtually without any
taxes to India. The Indian artisan was not in a position to compete with the
goods produced through machines in England. With the coming of machines
the artisans had suffered in England. But in that country they were soon
compensated through alternate employment opportunities in new factories. In
India, machine-made products were coming from England, and, the
development of factories in India was very slow as it was disfavored through
State. This being the situation a large number of artisans was rendered jobless.
The workers in factories, mines, and plantations also suffered. They were paid
low wages and lived in extreme poverty.

The newly emerging Indian industrialists also faced hardship due to the
government‘s policies relating to trade, tariff, taxation, and transport. They
could see how Britain was using India mainly as a source of raw materials for
British industries or in the later period as a place for the investment of British
capital. The British capitalists who had vast possessions were provided with
all the facilities. The Indian capitalist class that had just started emerging and
needed government patronage, was, on the other hand totally ignored.

The Indian Scene in 19th Century

You can see from this brief account that approximately all the sections of
Indian population were suffering under the British rule. Though, this
discontent could not automatically lead to the development of a new
consciousness in the middle of the people. This discontent expressed itself at
times, in the form of sporadic revolts against some officer, zamindar, or a new
regulation. There were a number of factors due to which the dissatisfaction
with the foreign rule did not generate a proper national consciousness.
Vastness of the country with backward means of communication, lack of
education, absence of a common language, and differences in the nature of
grievances in dissimilar regions due to differences in the working of the
administrative system were some of the significant reasons.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Due to the factors we have mentioned above the British were also facing
troubles in maintaining effective control of the government. To overcome
these deficiencies the British evolved some administrative measures and new
policies. These measures also helped in the development of national
consciousness in the middle of Indians. Let us now look at these policies and
their effects.

Unified System of Administration

For a better use of the Indian possessions the British brought large parts of
the country under a uniform system of administration. Land revenue
administration, police, law and order machinery and judicial system were
some of the significant measures adopted for bringing about this uniformity in
administration.

Communication Network
Post and telegraph services were extended and improved. All the major
towns were connected with telegraph. After 1853, work on Railway lines was
started. The plan was to link the presidencies with each other and the
hinterland with major ports. The main advantage of Railways for the British
was a cheap mode of transport to carry goods to ports and back. But once the
railway network developed, passenger traffic also increased, and people living
at distant places got new opportunity to interact with one another.

Printing Press
The introduction of the printing press made the transmission of ideas and
learning less expensive. A number of newspapers and periodicals started
appearing. Through these publications the troubles in dissimilar parts of the
country could be shared through people. You can guess from your own
experience how the press could play a significant role in the development of
national consciousness in the middle of the literate sections of the people.

New Education System

The British introduced a new system of education which was mainly
derived from the West - both in form and content. The main thought behind
this system was to make a loyal section of Indians who would effectively carry
out clerical and lower administrative tasks for the British. As Macaulay put it,
the thought was to form ― a class of persons, Indians in blood and color, but
English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect‖. Though the modern
educational system familiarized the educated classes with the ideas of
equality, liberty, and nationalism, in an atmosphere of rising disillusionment
with the colonial rule. The education system itself bred disillusionment as it
was elitist, serving only a small section, while as several as 92% Indians were
illiterate even in 1921.

So the educated Indians turned towards modern nationalist movements in

Europe (like German unification, Italian unification, and nationalist movement
against Turkish empire). They then were exposed to the works of liberal
writers and thinkers like John Milton, Shelly, Bentham, John Stuart Mill,
Herbert Spencer, Rousseau,
Voltaire, Mazzini, and Garibaldi. The Indians who were learning in
England found on their return to India that they were denied all the rights
which were taken for granted in the European countries.
British Policy of Expansion
The British in the beginning conquered dissimilar areas to establish their
hold. But this policy of expansion sustained. They kept extending their
territories through annexing Indian states, one after the other, even if those
states were not at war with the British. The significant in the middle of these
were annexations of Sind (1843), Punjab (1849) Rangoon and Pegu (1852)
and Awadh (1856) —Jhansi, Satara, and Nagpur were also taken over. The
Indian rulers were getting apprehensive of the British.

Intellectual Awakening
Nineteenth Century India is marked through a procedure of social reform
and intellectual ferment. Through intellectual ferment, we mean an attempt at
a critical and creative examination of the modern society with the purpose of
transforming it beside modern lines. This was done through the intellectuals
who had received the benefit of modern education. Raj a Ram Mohan Roy,
Keshub Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade and Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan were in the middle of the leading intellectuals of the nineteenth
century who contributed to the awakening of national consciousness. The
British, in order to give a justification for foreign rule had tried to project the
immediate Pre-British period (18th century) as a period of stagnation. Beside
with this they tried to establish that Indians had no attainment to their credit in
the field of Science and Technology and were incapable of providing a proper
government. The educated Indians countered this thesis through bringing to
light the achievements of Indians in art, architecture, literature, philosophy,
and science. This enquiry into the history, led to a new awakening aimed at
reforming Indian society, through, doing absent with the evil practices which
were being perpetuated in the name of religion.

Racial Discrimination
The attitude of racial superiority adopted through the English also
contributed to the growth of Nationalist sentiments. Separately from social
behaviour this discrimination was accepted in judicial matters as well. G.O.
Travelyan, a historian and an influential civil servant, pointed out in 1864:
―The testimony of a single one of our countrymen has more weight with the
court than that of any number of Hindus, a circumstance which puts a terrible
instrument of power into the hands of an unscrupulous and grasping English
man‖. The experience of this discrimination also contributed to the growth of
national consciousness.
THE INDIAN RESPONSE

The Indians opposed British use and the harmful policies at dissimilar
stages. Slowly this resistance took the form of a national movement, although
the procedure in the initial stages was rather slow. The Indian resistance may
broadly be divided into two forms;
The peasant and tribal movements, and
The middle class opposition.

The Peasant and Tribal Movements

In the nineteenth century we come crossways a number of peasant and
tribal uprisings. The early uprisings were not consciously nationalist uprisings,
but, in due course this contributed to the emergence of nationalist
consciousness. To begin with, these peasant and tribal revolts were organized
against the British oppressive policies. According to Sumit Sarkar, for at least
a century after Plassey there was revolts led through traditional elements
(dispossessed local chiefs, zamindars, or religious figures). These revolts were
pre-dominently of a lower class social character. Kathleen Gough has
compiled a list of 77 peasant uprisings involving violence. The tribal
movements were militant. K. Suresh Singh in his revise of the tribal‘s, says
that, they revolted more often and far more violently than any other
community including peasants in India. Some significant peasant and tribal
revolts are mentioned below.

There is a very long list of peasant and tribal revolts spread throughout
India. Here we will mention a few of them which are significant. In the first
half of the nineteenth century Travancore revolt (1800-09), Bhil revolt (1818-
31), Ho revolt (1820-21) and Khasi revolt (1829-31) were in the middle of
significant people‘s movements. And so were Wahabi movement (1830-69),
Kol revolt (1831). Faraizi movement (1834-47) and Santhal revolt (1855-56).
In mainly of these revolts the leadership and support was provided through the
feudal chiefs. These revolts cannot be described the conscious nationalist
movements in the modern sense. The mainly significant factor behind all these
movements was a combined protest against British policies. At times these
were also sparked off through some oppressive policies of a zamindar, money
lender or an administrative officer. Throughout the same period we come
crossways a number of protests through town people against the British. Strike
in Banaras (1810-11) and the revolt of Bareilly (1816) are significant
examples. In the case of Banaras, the city people on strike against the levying
of House Tax while, in Bareilly, the protest was directed against the Police
Tax, which was levied to give police protection to the citizens. In the case of
Banaras the British had to withdraw the tax while in Bareilly people had to
pay the tax.
The Revolt of 1857
The accumulated feelings of discontent and dissatisfaction with the British
rule gave rise to the revolt of 1857. The revolt spread too mainly of the
Northern and Central India. ― Firstly, in Hindustan they have exacted as
revenue rupees 300 where only 200 were due, and rupees 500 where but 400
were demandable, and still they are solicitous to raise their demands. The
people necessity therefore be ruined and beggared. Secondly, they have
doubled and quadrupled and raised tenfold the chowkeedaree tax and have
wishes to ruin the people. Thirdly, the occupation of all respectable and
learned men is gone, and millions are destitute of the necessaries of life. How
far can we detail the oppression of the tyrants? Slowly matters arrived at such
a pitch that the Government had determined to subvert everyone‘s religion‖

In the revolt we notice for the first time that some sort of nationalist
feelings were inspiring the people. This has been highlighted through Dr. S.N.
Sen in his work Eighteen Fifty-Seven. The revolt was ruthlessly suppressed
and the British Government took the control of India from the East India
Company into its own hands. Even after the suppression of this major revolt
popular uprisings in India sustained throughout the nineteenth century.

Peasant Movements after 1857

The significant movements in the second half of the 19th century were
Indigo revolt (1859-60) in Bengal, Kuki revolt (1860-90) in Tripura, Kuka
revolt (1869-72) in Punjab, Pabna Peasant Movement (1872-73) in Bengal,
Vasudev Balvant Phadke‘s Revolt (1879) in Maharashtra and Birsa Munda‘s
revolt (1899-1900) in South Bihar. Therefore we notice that throughout the
nineteenth century Indian masses were struggling against the British rule.
These revolts invariably ended in failure but they fostered a fighting spirit and
strengthened national consciousness in the middle of the people.

Middle Class Consciousness

Throughout the nineteenth century, separately from popular uprisings and
revolts at the mass stage, a new consciousness was developing in the educated
sections and middle classes. It was this middle class consciousness, which
became the chief medium for the canalization of popular discontent, and, was
instrumental in the development of national consciousness in India. The
educated classes began to critically look at the Indian society and the
awakened sections made all-out efforts for reforms. Ram Mohan Roy was the
pioneer in this field. He recognized Brahmo Samaj to fight social evils.
Dayananda Saraswati shaped the Arya Samaj, Viveekananda recognized
Ramakrishna Mission. A number of other organisations were shaped for doing
absent with the social evils like Sati, untouchability, rituals etc. These reform
movements, though confined in a large part to the middle class sections,
developed a national social consciousness in the middle of Indian people, and,
deepened their sense of belonging to a common culture.

Besides this social consciousness political consciousness was also

developing. As noticed earlier, the educated Indian middle class who
incorporated merchants, traders, industrialists, professional groups like
lawyers, teachers, journalists, and doctors was also suffering under the British
rule. As compared to peasants and workers this class could see more clearly
the imperial designs and analyse the nature of colonial rule. In the beginning
(first half of the 19th century), this class was of the opinion that the means of
communication, railways and other industrial enterprises were going to benefit
Indians. Under this understanding they so supported the British policies but
slowly it became clear that the British administrative measures were to help
the British rule, and, their economic policies were benefiting the British
merchants and capitalists. Once the Indian middle class realized this, they
started protesting against, the colonial rule. But unlike the peasants, tribals and
workers whose protest was expressed in the form of uprisings and revolts, this
class followed a dissimilar policy. The middle class worked in two ways.
They started writing books, articles, and publishing newspapers to
critically analyse the British policies and developing consciousness in
the middle of the masses.
The second method adopted through the middle classes was to form
organisations, associations, and societies for joint programmes and
activities.

Let us first look at the literary activities. We have earlier referred to the
introduction of the printing press, and its utility, in the transmission and
diffusion of ideas. Ram Mohan Roy was a pioneer in this field. He produced a
number of books and started a journal described Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali)
which published many articles on varied themes. Dinabandhu Mitra wrote the
play Nil Darpan depicting the plight of indigo cultivators. Bankimchandra
wrote Anand Math, full of nationalist aspirations. In Urdu a large number of
works were written in prose and poetry about the degrading circumstances of
the masses and destruction of several urban centers. In Marathi, Hindi and
Tamil also a number of works were published. A number of periodicals and
newspapers in dissimilar languages started publication. These publications
were in English and vernacular languages. The prominent in the middle of
these were: the Hindu Patriot, Amrita Bazaar Patrika, Bengali, and Sanjivani
in Bengal, Native Opinion, Mehratta, and Kesari in Bombay, the Hindu,
Andhra Patrika, and Kerala Patrika in Madras, the Hindustan, and Azad in
U.P., the Tribune, and the Akhbar-i-am in Punjab. Through 1877 there were as
several as 169 newspapers in the vernacular. A number of nationalist literary
figures also came into prominence such as Bankimchandra Chatterjee,
Rabindranath Tagore, Vishnu Shastri Chiplukar, Subramaniyam Bharti,
Bhartendu Harish Chandra, and Altaf Hussain Hali.

The second method adopted through the middle class was to form
associations and organisations. Some of the early organisations were the
Landholder‘s Society (1838), Bengal British India Society (1843), and British
India Association (1851) in Bengal; the Bombay Association and Deccan
Association (1852) in Maharashtra, the Madras Native Association in Madras.
The main aim of these organisations was communal action against the British
policies harming their interests. Their methods were mostly legal actions in
courts or petition against the East India Company and British parliament. They
wanted reforms to be incorporated in the Company‘s charter of 1853. But the
charter of 1853 failed to satisfy their aspirations.

After the take over of India‘s administration through the British Crown in
1858, new hopes kindled in the middle of the Indian middle classes. They
thought that the British government would stop the economic use and work for
the welfare of the country. Soon they realized that the British Crown too was
out to use India economically. Now the political activities increased and a
number of new organisations appeared. In England was shaped London India
Association which was later merged with the East India Association (1866). In
Maharashtra was shaped Poona Sarwajanik Sabha (1870) and Indian
Association (1876). In Bengal was shaped Indian National Conference (1883)
and in Madras Mahajan Sabha.

As compared to the earlier organisations shaped through middle class

elements these organisations were political. Their main aim was to protest
against the British policies through petitions and resolutions. They tried to
achieve mass awakening through public meetings and statements. They also
exchanged views on the national issues. Actually these organisations opened
the way for the formation of a strong all India organisation, Indian National
Congress in 1885. You will read in detail about the foundation of Indian
National Congress in a separate unit of your course. Around the same time the
British Government passed some repressive measures like Lincoln Act
Vernacular Press Act, lowering the age for Indian Civil Services etc. You will
read about these measures and see how far Lord Lytton (1876-80) the Viceroy
was responsible for them. The reaction to these measures was very strong. The
main newspaper of Bengal, Bangalee wrote: ― To Lord Lytton necessity belong
the credit of having done much through his repressive measures towards
stimulating the pubic life of this country and for this service certainly his
Lordship will be entitled to the gratitude of our country (June 12 1880)‖.
 THE REVOLT OF 1857
The revolt of 1857 forms one of the mainly significant chapters in the
history of the thrash about of the Indian people for liberation from the British
rule. It shook the foundations of the British empire in India and at some points
it seemed as though the British rule would end for all time to come. What
started merely as a sepoy mutiny soon engulfed the peasantry and other
civilian population over wide areas in northern India? The upsurge was so
widespread that some of the modern observers described it a ― national revolt‖.
The hatred of the people for the ferangis was so intense and bitter that one
observer, W.H. Russell, was forced to write: In no instance is a friendly glance
directed to the white man‘s carriage Oh! That language of the eye! Who can
doubt! Who can misinterpret it? It is through it alone that I have learnt our
race is not even feared at times through several and that through all it is
disliked.

CAUSES

How did the Revolt break out? What were its causes? The main cause for
this was the ruthless use of the Indian people through the British. The British
rule which was formally recognized after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 in
Bengal, strove to fill the coffers of the East India Company at the expense of
the Indians. The East India Company was governed through greedy merchants
and traders who could go to any extent to enrich themselves. The Company
was shaped in 1600, and was given a Royal Charter through Queen Elizabeth
which conferred on it the exclusive privilege to trade with the East. Its main
aim was to assume the trade monopoly in India. It was not an ordinary
merchant company shaped for trade but had its train of soldiers who fought
battles with the Portugues and the French trading companies in the 17th and
18th centuries in order to establish its trade monopoly. After these rival
powers had been defeated it also tried to humble the Indian traders who
offered competition. When the Battle of Plassey was won in 1757, the British
successfully imposed their trade monopoly over the area under their control,
eliminated competition from the Indian traders, and forced the artisans to sell
their products to them. The artisans were now paid so low that they could
hardly survive. The legend has it that the weavers of Dhaka cut their thumbs to
protest against such low payments through the East India Company for their
superb work on muslin renowned for its fine texture.

Use of the peasantry

Although the trade monopoly enriched the East India Company
considerably, its main source of income was now derived from the land. After
entrenching itself in Bengal, it spread its power in India through wars and
treaties. To extract as much money as possible it devised new systems of land
settlements — Permanent, Ryotwari and Mahalwari — each more oppressive
than the other. The Permanent Settlement which was effective in Bengal
Presidency and in large parts of north India did not recognize the hereditary
rights of the peasants on land, which they had earlier enjoyed. The loyal
zamindars and revenue-collectors were now given the proprietory rights on
land. The cultivators were reduced to the status of simple tenants. But even the
newly created landlords were not given absolute rights. Their situation was
also deliberately left very- precarious. They had to pay to the Company
10/11th of the whole rent derived from the cultivators and if they failed to do
so. their property was sold to others.

The other land settlements were no better. In all of these the peasants had
to pay beyond their means and any adverse natural shifts like droughts or
flood compelled them to go for loans to the money lenders who charged
exorbitant interest. This made the peasants so heavily indebted that they were
ultimately forced to sell their land to these money lenders. It is because of this
that the money lenders were so hated in rural society. The peasantry was also
oppressed through petty officials in administration who extracted money on
the slightest pretexts. If the peasants went to the law court to seek redress of
their grievances, they were bound to be totally ruined. When the crop was
good the peasants had to pay back their past debts; if it was bad, they were
further indebted. This nexus flanked by the lower officials, law courts, and
money lenders created a vicious circle which made the peasantry disparate and
ready to welcome any opportunity for change of regime.

Alienation of the Middle and Upper Strata of Indians

It was not merely the peasantry that got alienated from the British rule, the
middle and upper strata Indians also felt oppressed. Throughout the period of
the Mughals or even in the administration of the local princes and chieftains,
the Indians served at all the places — both lower and higher. The
disappearance of these Indian states and their replacement through the British
administration deprived the Indians of higher posts which were now taken
mainly through the British. The Indians now served only as subordinates and
on other petty positions in the administration. Even the mainly brilliant of
Indians were subordinated to the second or third-rate Britishers who as a
matter of right grabbed all the higher paid positions. Further more, the cultural
personnel like poets, dramatists, writers, musicians etc. who were earlier
employed through the native states were now thrown out. The religious men
like Pandits and Maulvis also lost all their former power and prestige.
Annexation of Princely States
The East India Company did not spare even its former allies. The native
state of Awadh was annexed through Dalhousie in 1856 on the pretext that
Nawab Wazid Ali Shah was mismanaging the state. Even before this he had
annexed Satara in 1848 and Nagpur and Jhansi in 1854 on the pretext that the
rulers of these states had no natural heir to succeed them after their death.
These annexations embittered the rulers of these states, creation Rani of Jhansi
and Begums of Awadh staunch enemies of the British. Further the British
refusal to pay pension to Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II
worsened the situation. The annexation of Awadh was also resented through
the sepoys as mainly of who came from there. This action hurt their patriotic
loyalty and sense of dignity. Moreover, since their relatives had now to pay
more taxes on land, it adversely affected the purses of the sepoys themselves.

The Alien Rule

Another significant cause of the unpopularity of the British was the alien
nature of their rule. They never mixed with the Indian people and treated even
the upper class Indians with contempt. They had not come to settle in India but
only to take money home. So the Indians could never develop any affinity
towards them.

Impact on the Sepoys

The revolt of 1857 originated with the mutiny of the Sepoys. These Sepoys
were drawn mainly from the peasant population of North and North-West
India. As we have seen, the rapacious policies followed through the East India
Company were impoverishing and ruining the peasantry. This necessity has
affected the Sepoys also. Infact, mainly of them had joined the military service
in order to supplement their fast declining agricultural income. But as the
years passed, they realized that their capability for doing so declined. They
were paid a monthly salary of 7 to 9 Rupees out of which they had to pay for
their food, uniform and transport of their private baggage. The cost of
maintaining an Indian Sepoy was only one-third of his British counterpart in
India. Moreover, the Indian Sepoy was treated roughly through the British
officers. They were regularly abused and humiliated. The Indian Sepoy,
despite his velour and great fighting capability, could never rise above the
rank of a Subedar while a fresh recruit from England was often appointed his
superior overnight.
Threat to Religion
Separately from degrading service circumstances, another factor inflamed
the feelings of the sepoys. An impression was created in the middle of them
that their religion was being attacked through the British. This belief was also
shared through the general civilian population. The proselytizing zeal of the
missionaries and some of the British officials instilled fear in the minds of the
people that their religion was in danger. At many places conversions to
Christianity were reported to be made. The Government maintained the
chaplains at its own cost and in some cases also provided police protection to
the missionaries. Even the army maintained chaplains at state cost and
Christian propaganda was accepted in the middle of the sepoys. Furthermore,
the sepoys were forbidden to wear their castemarks, and in 1856 an Act was
passed under which every new recruit had to provide an undertaking to serve
overseas, if required. The conservative beliefs of the sepoys were therefore
shaken and they sometimes reacted strongly. For instance in 1824, the 47th
Regiment of sepoys at Barrackpore refused to go to Burma through sea-route
because their religion forbade them to cross ―black water‖. The British reacted
ruthlessly, disbanded the Regiment, and put some of its leaders to death.

In 1844, seven battalions revolted on the question of salaries and batta

(allowance). Even diiring the Afghan War from 1839 to 1842 the soldiers
were approximately on the verge of revolt. Like sepoys, the people of India
had also risen in revolt against the oppressive British rule. The mainly
significant of these uprisings were the Kutcha rebellion (1816-32), the Kol
uprising in 1831 and the Santhal uprising in 1855-56. The main point with
regard to the 1857 challenge, though, was that both the military and civilian
revolts merged and this made it really formidable.

The Immediate Cause

The atmosphere was so surcharged that even a small issue could lead to
revolt. The episode of greased cartridges, though, was a big enough issue to
start the rebellion on its own. Dry tinder-box was there and only a spark was
needed to set it ablaze. Cartridges of the new Enfield rifle which had recently
been introduced in the army had a greased paper cover whose end had to be
bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into rifle. The grease was in some
instances made of beef and pig fat. This totally enraged the Hindu and Muslim
sepoys and made them consider that the government was deliberately trying to
destroy their religion. It was the immediate cause of the revolt.
ORGANISATION

What type of organisation did the rebels employ in order to raise their
banner against the British? On this question there has been a good deal of
controversy in the middle of historians. One view is that there was a
widespread and well-organized conspiracy, while another view maintains that
it was totally spontaneous. The fact seems to be that some type of organized
plan was in subsistence but it had not matured sufficiently when the revolt
broke out. As the rebels shaped a clandestine set-up they did not keep any
records also about the nature, functions, and structure of their secret
organisation. But the stories which have come down to us talk about the red
lotuses and chapattis, symbolising freedom and bread, being passed from
village to village and from one regiment to another. Besides these means
speeches were also delivered and quite preaching mannered through the
roaming sanyasis and fakirs to mobilize and rally anti-colonial forces. All
these stirred the sepoys to revolt.

THE REBELLION

On 29th March, 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, stationed at

Barrackpore, revolted single-handedly attacking his British officers. He was
hanged, and not much notice was taken of this event. But it showed the
resentment and anger aroused in the middle of the sepoys. Less than a month
later, on 24th April, ninety men of the Third Native Cavalary, stationed at
Meerut, refused to use the greased cartridges. Eighty-five of them were
dismissed and sentenced to ten years imprisonment on 9th May. The rest of
the Indian sepoys reacted strongly to this, and the after that day, on 10th May,
the whole Indian garrison revolted. After freeing their comrades and killing
the British officers, they decided to march on to Delhi. This shows that they
did have in mind some sort of alternative to the British.

Another thing which creates it clear that it was not merely army mutiny
was that the people from nearby areas began to loot the military bazaars and
attacked and burnt the bungalows of the British as soon as they heard the shots
fired through the sepoys on their officers. The Gujars from the nearby villages
poured into the city and joined the revolt. Telegraph wires were cut and
horsemen with warning messages to Delhi were intercepted. As soon as the
sepoys from Meerut reached Delhi, the Indian garrison also revolted and
joined the rebels. They now proclaimed the old Bahadur Shah, as the Emperor
of India. Therefore in twenty-four hours, what began as a simple mutiny had
swelled into full-scale political rebellion? In the after that one month the
whole Bengal Army rose in revolt. Whole of North and North West India was
up in arms against the British. In Aligarh, Mainpuri, Bulandshahr, Etwah,
Mathura, Agra, Lucknow, Allahabad, Banaras, Shahabad, Danapur, and East
Punjab, wherever there were Indian troops, they revolted. With the revolt in
army, the police and local administration also collapsed. These revolts were
also immediately followed through a rebellion in the city and countryside. But
in many places the people rose in revolt even before the sepoys. Wherever
revolt broke out, the government treasury was plundered, the magazine
sacked, barracks and court houses were burnt, and prison gates flung open. In
the countryside, the peasants and dispossessed zamindars attacked the money
lenders and new zamindars that had displaced them from the land. They
destroyed the government records and money lenders‘ account books. They
attacked the British recognized law courts, revenue offices, revenue records,
and thanas (police stations). Therefore the rebels tried to destroy all the
symbols of colonial power.

Even when the people of scrupulous areas did not rise in revolt, they
offered their help and sympathies to the rebels. It was said that the rebellious
sepoys did not have to carry food with them as they were fed through the
villagers. On the other hand, their hostility to the British forces was
pronounced. They refused to provide them any help or information and on
several occasions they misled the British troops through giving wrong
information. In central India also, where the rulers remained loyal to the
British, the army revolted and joined the rebels. Thousands of Indore's troops
joined in Indore the rebellious sepoys. Likewise, over 20,000 of Gwalior‘s
troops went over to Tantya Tope and Rani of Jhansi. In the whole of north and
central India the British power was limited only to the towns of Agra, and
Lucknow. Elsewhere the whole British army and administration fell like a
house of cards.

One of the mainly extra ordinary things about the rebellion was its solid
Hindu-Muslim unity. The Hindu sepoys of Meerut and Delhi, unanimously
proclaimed Bahadur Shah as their Emperor. All the sepoys, whether Hindu or
Muslim, accepted the suzerainty of the Emperor and gave the call ― chalo
Delhi‖ (onward to Delhi) after their revolt. Hindus and Muslims fought
together and died together. Wherever the sepoys reached, cow-slaughter was
banned as a mark of respect to the sentiments of the Hindus.

LEADERSHIP

The storm-centers of the revolt were Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly,

Jhansi, and Arrah. All these places threw up their own leaders who for all
practical purposes remained independent, even though they accepted the
suzerainty of Emperor Bahadur Shah.
Bakht Khan
In Delhi Bahadur Shah was the leader. But the real power lay with the
soldiers. Bakht Khan, who had led the revolt of the soldiers at Bareilly, arrived
in Delhi on 3rd July, 1857. From that date on he exercised the real authority.
He shaped a Court of soldiers composed of both Hindu and Muslim rebels.
But even before that the soldiers showed little regard for the authority of the
Emperor. Bahadur Shah deplored the army officers for their ― practice of
coming into the Court carelessly dressed and in utter disregard to the forms of
respect to the royalty‖

Nana Saheb and Tantya Tope

At Kanpur the revolt was led through Nana Saheb, the adopted son of
Peshwa Baji Rao II. The rebellious sepoys also supported Nana Saheb and
under his leadership both the military and civilian elements were united. They
expelled the British from Kanpur and declared Nana Saheb as Peshwa who
acknowledged Banadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Mainly of the fighting
was, though, accepted on through Tantya Tope on his behalf, and it was
Tantya Tope who passed into the popular legend as a great patriot and anti-
British leader.

The Begum of Awadh

At Lucknow the Begum of Awadh provided the leadership and proclaimed
her son, Birjis Kadr, as the Nawab of Awadh. But here again, the more
popular leader was Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faizabad, who organized
rebellions and fought the British.

Rani Lakshmi Bai

Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was another great popular leader. She
whispered that she had been robbed of her ruling rights in defiance of
recognized Hindu law. Though she showed some hesitation at the initial stage,
she fought valiantly once she joined the ranks of the rebels.

Kunwar Singh
But the mainly representative and outstanding leader was Kunwar Singh of
Arrah. Under his leadership the military and civil rebellion were so totally
fused that the British dreaded him mainly. With a war band of about 5,000,
including about 600 Danapur sepoys and the rebellious Ramgarh state
battalion he marched crossways hundreds of miles to reach Mirzapur, Banda
and the vicinity of Kanpur. He reached up to Rewa state and it was thought
that as soon as Rewa fell to the rebels, the British would be forced to move to
the south. But, for some reasons, Kunwar Singh did not move southwards. He
returned to Banda and then back to Arrah where he engaged and defeated the
British troops. He was seriously injured and died on 27th April, 1858 in his
ancestral house in the village of Jagdishpur.

The Unknown Martyrs

Separately from these acknowledged leaders who are remembered for their
patriotism and courage, there were several unknown and unacknowledged but
no less valiant leaders in the middle of the sepoys, peasantry, and petty
zamindars. They also fought the British with exemplary courage to expel them
from India. Peasants and sepoys laid down their lives for the cause of their
country, forgetting their religious and caste differences and rising above their
narrow personal interests.

DEFEAT

The British captured Delhi on 20 September, 1857. Even before this the
rebels had suffered several reverses in Kanpur, Agra, Lucknow, and some
other places. These earlier reverses did not dampen the rebel‘s spirits. But the
fall of Delhi, on the other hand, struck a heavy blow to them. It now became
clear why the British concentrated with so much attention to retain Delhi at all
cost. And for this they suffered heavily both in men and material. In Delhi,
Emperor Bahadur Shah was taken a prisoner and the royal princes were
captured, and butchered. One through one, all the great leaders of the revolt
fell. Nana Saheb was defeated at Kanpur after which the escaped to Nepal
early in 1859 and nothing was heard of him afterwards.

Tatya Tope escaped into the jungles of central India where he accepted on
bitter guerrilla warfare until April 1859 when he was betrayed through a
zamindar friend and captured while asleep. He was hurriedly tried and put to
death on 15th April, 1859. The Rani of Jhansi died on the field of battle on
17th June, 1858. Through 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur
Khan of Bareilly, Maulavi Ahmadullah was all dead, while the Begum of
Awadh escaped to Nepal. Through the end of 1859, the British authority over
India was reestablished, fully and firmly.
CAUSES OF FAILURE

There were several causes which led to the collapse of this mighty
rebellion. Here we list some of them to you.

Lack of a Unified Programme and Ideology

The rebellion swept off the British system of government and
administration in India. But the rebels did not know what to make in its place!
They had no forward-looking plan in mind. This made them rely on the
outmoded feudal system with Bahadur Shah at its head. The other prominent
leaders of rebellion like, Nana Saheb, Begum of Awadh, Rani of Jhansi, etc.,
were also representatives of the old feudal world. This system had lost its
vitality and was unable to withstand the onslaught of the British. It was
because of the failure of these rulers, that the British had earlier been able to
conquer approximately the whole of India. Reliance on these elements made it
hard for the rebel forces to make a new sense of unity in the middle of the
Indian people which alone could have created a viable alternative to the
British rule.

Lack of Unity In the middle of Indians

As mentioned above, no broad based unity in the middle of the Indian
people could emerge. While sepoys of the Bengal army were revolting, some
soldiers in Panjab and south India fought on the side of the British to crush
these rebellions. Likewise, there were no accompanying rebellions in mainly
of eastern and southern India. The Sikhs also did not support the rebels. All
these groups had their reasons to do so. The possibility of the revival of
Mughal authority created a fear in the middle of the Sikhs who had faced so
much oppression at the hands of the Mughals. Likewise, the Rajput chieftains
in Rajasthan and Nizam in Hyderabad were so much harrassed through the
Marathas that they dreaded the revival of Maratha power. Besides this, there
were some elements of the peasantry that had profited from the British rule.
They supported the British throughout the revolt. The zamindars of Bengal
Presidency were the creation of the British; and had all the reasons to support
them. The same applied to the big merchants of Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras who did not go over to the rebels but supported the British.

Lack of Support from the Educated Indians

The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt because, in
their view, the revolt was backward-looking. This educated middle class was
the product of the British system of education and they whispered mistakenly
that the British would lead the country towards modernization.

Disunity In the middle of the Leaders

The main problem though, was lack of unity in the ranks of rebels
themselves. Their leaders were suspicious and jealous of each other and often
indulged in petty quarrels. The Begum of Awadh, for instance, quarrelled with
Maulavi Ahmadullah, and the Mughal princes with the sepoy-generals.
Azimullah, the political adviser of the Nana Saheb, asked him not to visit
Delhi lest he be overshadowed through the Emperor Bahadur Shah. Therefore,
selfishness and narrow perspective of the leaders sapped the strength of the
revolt and prevented its consolidation.

Military Superiority of the British

Another major factor for the defeat of the rebels was the British superiority
in arms. The British imperialism, at the height of its power the world over and
supported through mainly of the Indian princes and chiefs, proved militarily
too strong for the rebels. While the rebels were lacking in discipline and a
central command, the British sustained to have a constant supply of
disciplined soldiers, war materials, and money from British. Sheer courage
could not win against a powerful and determined enemy who planned its
strategy skillfully. Because of ill discipline the rebels lost more men and
material than the British in every encounter. Several sepoys, seeing that the
British had an upper hand, left for their villages. These were the main factors
responsible for the failure of the revolt.

IMPACT

Despite the fact that the revolt of 1857 failed, it gave a severe jolt to the
British administration in India. The structure and policies of the re-recognized
British rule were, in several respects, drastically changed.

Transfer of Power
The first major change was that the power to govern India passed from the
East India Company to the British Crown through an Act of 1858. Now a
Secretary of State for India aided through a Council was to be responsible for
the governance of India. Earlier this authority was wielded through the
Directors of the Company.
Changes in Military Organisation
The second drastic change was effected in the army. Steps were taken to
prevent any further revolt through the Indian soldiers. Firstly, the number of
European soldiers was increased and fixed at one European to two Indian
soldiers in Bengal Army and two to five in Bombay and Madras armies.
Moreover, the European troops were kept in key geographical and military
positions. The crucial branches of the army like artillery were put exclusively
in European hands. Secondly, the organisation of the Indian section of the
army was now based on the policy of ― divide and rule‖. Regiments were
created on the basis of caste, community, and region to prevent the
development of any nationalistic feeling in the middle of the soldiers.

Divide and Rule

This policy of ― divide and rule‖ was also introduced in the civilian
population. Since the British thought that the revolt was a conspiracy hatched
through the Muslims the latter were severely punished and discriminations
made against them in public appointments and in other areas. This policy was
later reversed and a belated appeasement of Muslims began. A policy of
preferential treatment of the Muslims was adopted towards the end of the 19th
century. These policies created troubles for Indian freedom thrash about, and
contributed to the growth of communalism.

New Policy towards the Princes

Another significant change was in the British policies towards the Princely
states. The earlier policy of annexation was now abandoned and the rulers of
these states were now authorized to adopt heirs. This was done as a reward to
those native rulers who had remained loyal to the British throughout the
revolt. Though, this authority of the Indian rulers over scrupulous territories
was totally subordinated to the authority of the British and they were
converted into a Board of privileged dependents.

Search for New Friends

Besides these changes, the British now turned to the mainly reactionary
groups in the middle of the Indians, like the zamindars, princes, and landlords,
for strengthening their fortune in the country. In fact, the revolt of 1857
brought to the surface the real reactionary nature of the British rule in India. It
made mainly of the Indians realize that the British rule in India was essentially
anti people and it was bound to be oppressive and hostile to their national
interest.
ASSESSMENT

Having discussed several characteristics of the rebellion, let us, in the end,
see how the events of 1857 have been interpreted through the modern officials
as well as through subsequent scholars.

The nature of the 1857 uprising aroused fierce controversy from the very
outset. The official British explanation was that only the Bengal army had
mutinied and civil disturbances were caused through the break down of law
and order machinery. Several officials thought that it was only a mutiny. But
this view was challenged through Benjamin Disraeli, the conservative leader,
in July 1857. He said:
―The decline and fall of empires are not affairs of greased cartridges.
Such results are occasioned through adequate causes, and through the
accumulation of adequate causes‖ Them he queried:
―Is it a military mutiny or is it a national revolt?‖

The official view was challenged through a section of the British

community in India also. Colonel G.B. Malleson, who later completed J.W.
Kaye‘s History of the Sepoy War, challenged the official theory of simple
mutiny: ― The crisis came: At first apparently a mere military mutiny, it
speedily changed its character, and became a national insurrection.‖ V.D.
Savarkar, who gave a nationalist interpretation to the uprising, asserted in
1909 that it was the ― Indian War of Independence.‖ Savarkar‘s views were
supported through S.B. Chaudhary, who in his writings demonstrated that
1857 was a ― rising of the people‖. In fact, the historiographic tradition in India
soon accepted this line of argument.

A discordant note was though, struck through R.C. Majumdar. He refused

to recognise 1857 as a War of Independence. His view was that ― to regard the
outbreak of 1857 as either national in character or a war of independence of
India betrays a lack of true knowledge of the history of Indian people in the
nineteenth century‖. Some historians have held that the Muslim elite were
responsible for inciting the trouble. Outrum regarded the revolt as a ―Muslim
conspiracy exploiting Hindu grievances‖. Yet another school of thought
believes that throughout the revolt the people were fighting not only against
the British but also against the feudal structure. The backsliding of these
feudal chiefs led to the collapse of the revolt. Talmiz Khaldun wrote: ― It was
crushed so easily because of betrayal through the propertied classes‖ Later
Historiography, though accepting the popular character of the Revolt, laid
emphasis on its backward-looking character. Bipin Chandra has stressed this
point:
 ―The whole movement lacked a unified and forward looking
programme to be implemented after the capture of power‖

Tara Chand was more explicit when he wrote that the ― Revolt of 1857 was
the last attempt of an effete order to recover its departed glory‖ Percival Spear
added, ― And it has been asserted to have been a purely military outbreak
produced jointly through the grievances and indiscipline of the Indian troops
and the folly of the British military authorities. It is in fact an anchronism to
describe the mutiny as the first essay towards modem independence. It was
rather, in its political characteristic, the last effort of the old conservative
India‖. These, though, are only some of the interpretations offered. The debate
is still going on. We hope to be enriched and enlightened through future
research on the rebellion of 1857.

COLONIALISM: THE NEW ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

- PRE AND POST 1857
The Mughals had recognized a centralized form of administration. In their
administrative set-up, as you can recall, the cult of personality dominated all
departments. The personalized state was, though, unable to stand stress and
strain and proved weak before the onslaught of the East India Company. The
defeat at Plassey exposed all the Indian weaknesses. From now onwards the
British recognized themselves as a strong power. You will revise the pattern of
British Administrative System as under the East India Company and later as
under the British Crown. We will also discuss how behind the problem of
administration lay the fundamental issue, the nature, and object of British rule
over India.

ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH SUPREMACY

The establishment was under the control of a President, later described

Governor, and a Council, consisting of the senior servants of the company in
the factory. New and less significant factories were put under the charge of a
senior merchant or ― factor‖. The Commercial factories which had a President
as head came to be described Presidencies, such as those of Madras, Bombay,
and Calcutta. The jurisdiction and control of the company grew through
dissimilar processes, namely the acquisition of Zamindari rights, conquest, or
cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani.

In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of

Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur. In 1757 the company acquired rights in the
twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was subsequently
assigned to the company. In 1760 Mir Kassim ceded to the company the
district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was confirmed through
the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam. The constitutional position of the British
Crown with regard to territories obtained through a grant from the emperor
was not clear but, the official viewpoint is reflected in this statement:
― In respect to such places as have been or shall be acquired through
treaty or grant from the Mughal or any of the Indian Princes of
Government your Majesty‘s letters, patent are not necessary the
property of the soil vesting in the company through the Indian Grants,
subject only to your Majesty‘s right of Sovereignty over the
settlement.... in respect to such places as have lately been required or
shall, henceforth be conquered, the property and sovereignty vests in
your majesty through virtue of your recognized prerogative and
consequently the company can only derive a right to them, through
your Majesty‘s Grant‖.

Over Englishmen the company relied upon its chartered rights while over
Indians the authority of the Company was that of a Zamindar under a local
fauzdar. After the battle of Buxar in 1764 the British became the supreme
power in Bengal.

ADMINISTRATION BEFORE 1857

When the British took control of Bengal, they tried to establish

administration according to their necessities. Before 1765 the Nawab of
Bengal was looking after the administration. Theoretically he was working as
an agent of the Mughal Emperor, but in practice he had absolute authority. As
Nizam he was incharge of law and order, military power and criminal justice
and as Diwan he was responsible for the revenue collection and administration
of civil justice. In 1764 after the Battle of Buxar the British became supreme
power in Bengal. Open annexation would have created political complication
both for the company in India and the home government. The company so
procured an order from the Mughal emperor granting them the diwani (rights
to collect land revenue) for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Even in the exercise of
its powers as diwan, the actual collection of revenue initially remained in the
hands of the Nawab‘s deputies. The nizamat remained in the hands of the
Nawab. This dual nature of administration came to an end in 1772, when the
company decided to take actual control of revenue collection.

The company had now grown from a predominantly commercial into a

predominantly territorial power. The question now was whether India was to
be governed through a trading corporation which would look primarily to its
commercial interests or whether authority was to be exercised through British
Parliament. With the expansion of political power of the company misuse of
power through its officials also increased. The acquisition of political power
through the company was questioned in England and there was pressure on
parliament to intervene. Continuous wars and mis-management through the
company officials landed it in deep financial crisis. The company requested
parliament for financial help. The parliament agreed on the condition that it
will regulate the administration of company in England and India. For this
purpose the Regulating Act of 1773 was passed.

East India Company vis-a-vis British Parliament

The Regulating Act of 1773 might be regarded as the first serious attempt
through the British Parliament to regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the
first time a supreme government, headed through a Governor General of Fort
William in Bengal and four Councilors, having the supervisory authority over
the presidencies of Bombay and Madras. The presidencies were forbidden to
create war or peace with Indian states without the consent of Governor
General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the
cases where they had received direct orders from the court of Directors. The
Act also provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature at
Calcutta.

The Regulating Act recognized the right of Parliament to regulate the civil,
military and revenue affairs of the company‘s territories in India and registers
the first concern in the intervention of the Indian affairs. The Act suffered
from sure fundamental defects which contributed to the difficulties of Warren
Hastings who was opposed through his councilors. The Act was also vague
about the jurisdiction control over subordinate presidencies and the
jurisdiction flanked by the Supreme Council and the Supreme Court. As a
consequence of the defects of the Act, Warren Hastings found himself unable
to carry out his administrative responsibilities and one crisis often developed
another in the council. In 1781 steps were taken to bring greater control over
the company‘s affairs. The North-Fox coalition made a serious attempt to
reorganize the Company‘s system of government. They introduced two bills.
Charles James Fox spoke of the Company‘s administration as a system of
despotism ― unmatched in all the histories of the world‖. The Company
expressed its opposition to the placing of its patronage at the disposal of
Ministers. The bills were passed through the House of Commons but were
rejected through the Lords.

On assumption of office of the Prime Minister, William Pitt decided to

introduce an India Bill. Pitt had the support of only a minority in the House of
Commons. At the same time he had to allay the fears of the East India
Company. Pitt negotiated with the Company and with its approval worked out
a plan of Parliamentary control over Indian affairs recognized as Pitt‘s India
Bill which passed into a law in August 1784. According to this Act, distinction
flanked by territories and commerce was to be maintained. Territorial
administration was to be placed under a representative body of Parliament
while the Company was to continue to control commerce. The government in
India though, would still be run in the name of the company but political and
revenue matters would be subject to the control and supervision of the
proposed parliamentary body. Pitt‘s India Act recognized an effective
instrument of control, direction and supervision which worked with slight
alterations till 1858. And the control of the Crown was now complete over
India. In the first half of the nineteenth century the character of legislation for
the administration of British territories was to some extent influenced through
Utilitarian thought and principles as shown through Eric Stokes in his book
―The English Utilitarians and India‖. The renewal of the Charter in 1813 was
marked through expression of liberal principles. Administration of the
company was left in its hands but the monopoly of the Company‘s Indian
trade was abolished. Through the Act of 1833, the Company surrendered all its
personal property in India and held it in trust for the crown. The company
disappeared as a commercial agency in India, remaining as a political agent
for the crown. Now the government of India was reconstituted on a new model
which gave it in all India character.

Economic Policy
The economic policy of the British government led to a rapid
transformation of India's economy into a colonial economy, whose nature and
structure were determined through British needs. From 1600-1757 the East
India Company‘s role was of a trading corporation which brought goods or
valuable metals into India and exchanged them for Indian goods like textiles.
After the Battle of Plassey the Company‘s commercial relations underwent a
qualitative change. The company now used its political control to push its
Indian trade. Industrial revolution in Britain further helped to strengthen the
colonial pattern. Flanked by 1/93-1813 British manufacturers launched a
powerful campaign against the company and its commercial privileges and
finally succeeded in abolishing its monopoly of Indian trade. The aim of
British industry was to transform India into a consumer of British
manufactures and a supplier of raw materials.

The colonial pattern of bondage and use brought about the disintegration
of the whole Indian social and economic system. The Company went on
putting additional burdens in order to consolidate its own position in the
territories it possessed and to extend its influence through expeditions and war.
The company needed extra money to pay high dividends to its share holders in
England, tributes to British Government and bribes to influential persons.
After 1813 in addition to export surplus, the company extracted wealth of
India as Home Charges to England. These Home Charges incorporated besides
other forms of expenditure, payment of interest on the Indian debt. Through
1858 Indian debts stood at 69.5 million. India got no adequate economic or
material return for this export of wealth to Britain. The fact of the drain from
1757 to 1857 has been accepted through British officials. Lawrence Sullivan,
Deputy Chairman of the Court of Directors, remarked:
Our system acts very much like a sponge, drawing up all the good
things from the banks of the Ganges and squeezing them down on the
banks of the Thames.

Land Revenue Policy

After assuming control in dissimilar parts of India the company followed a
number of methods for the collection of land revenue depending on the local
circumstances. Mostly it was in the form of revenue farming. Slowly the
company acquired the knowledge about the land revenue system prevalent in
India and devised long term policies in dissimilar regions. The main aim was
to augment the tax collections with little concern for the peasantry or age long
practices followed in India. Mainly three kinds of settlements were followed in
dissimilar parts of the country.
Permanent Settlement: In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special characteristics were:
The Zamindars became the owners of the whole land in their
zamindaries and became mediators of the government in collecting
land revenue.
A Zamindar was to pay over nine-tenth of what he received from the
feasting to the state, retaining a tenth as remuneration for his exertion.
The land revenue to be composed from Zamindar was permanently
fixed through declaring Zamindars as the owners of land.

The Permanent Settlement through declaring Zamindars as owners of land

brought into subsistence a wealthy and privileged class of zamindars which
owed its subsistence to British rule. This class would so be compelled through
its own vital interests to support it. The Permanent Settlement was later
extended to parts of Banaras and North Madras. With the Permanent
Settlement the company lost all get in touch with the peasants who were now
at the mercy of the zamindars. The fixation of revenue had no scientific basis
and was ad hoc. The long standing ties flanked by peasant and zamindars were
arbitrarily annulled. The burden of land revenue was very high.

The Zamindars also faced troubles. Their zamindaries were auctioned for
non- payment of revenue. This encouraged a new group of people to become
Zamindars. The urban based merchants, speculators, money lenders etc.
bought zamindaries. This group had no permanent interests in the
development of land or the welfare of peasantry. As a result a number of
peasant uprisings took place in this region. The prominent were in 1795 in
Panchet, 1798 in Raipur, 1799 in Balasore and in 1799-1800 in villages
around Midnapore. In 1762-63 taxes composed from Bengal were about Rs.
646,000 but through 1790 the Company was collecting Rs. 2680,000. Bengal
once recognized as the granary of the East became approximately barren.
Hunger and famine, death and disease stalked the country. The Select
Committee of the House of Commons reported in 1783:
―About 1, 00,000 a year is remitted from Bengal on the company‘s
account to China and the whole of the product of that money flows into
the direct trade from China to Europe. Besides this Bengal sends a
regular supply in time of peace to those presidencies in India which are
unequal to their own establishment‖.

Madras and Bombay presidencies in the beginning of the nineteenth

century, the cultivator was to be recognized as the owner of his plot of land
subject to the payment of land revenue. Here the British also recognized
themirasdars (i.e. members of village communities) and peasants who paid tax
direct to state. These mirasdars became small landlords. The ryots right of
ownership was though negated through three factors:
Exorbitant land revenue
Government‘s right to enhance land revenue at will and the fact that
The ryot had to pay revenue even when his produce was partially or
wholly destroyed.
The pasture and wasteland which belonged to the village communities
were now appropriated through the state. The burden of revenue also
increased. Mahalwari Settlement: A modified form of Zamindari, which came
to be recognized as Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Gangetic
valley, North-West provinces and parts of Central India and in the Punjab.
Settlement was to be made village through village with landlords or heads of
families, who collectively claimed to be the landlords of the village or estate.
The British introduced a fundamental change in the existing land systems of
the country. In fact the stability autonomy and stability of Indian villages was
shaken through the introduction of these new changes in the land.

Judicial System
The early Charters of the Company gave it authority to create reasonable
laws, ‗constitutional orders‘ and ‗ordinances‘ and within limits to punish
offences committed through its servants, but they gave no territorial powers of
jurisdiction. In 1661 Charles II authorized the Governor and Council of each
factory to exercise criminal and civil jurisdiction, not only over the
Company‘s servants, but over all persons under the said Governor or
Company. After the assumption of Diwani the Company to some extent,
became responsible for civil justice. In criminal matters Muhammadan law
was followed, but in civil cases the personal law of the parties was applied. In
civil suits appeals lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which in effect meant the
President and members of Council while criminal appeals lay with Sadar
Nizamat Adalat which was under the Nawab.

Though, the first concrete step in organizing judicial administration was

taken up through Warren Hastings. He for the first time made the district as a
unit of judicial administration. In each district civil and criminal courts were
recognized. In each district collectors were to preside civil courts, and in
criminal courts an Indian officer worked with the help of two maulvis. Over
the district courts were created the courts of appeal at Calcutta. The Sadar
Diwan Adalat consisted of the Governor and two members of the council
assisted through the Diwan of the exchequer, the head Qanungo etc. Sadar
Nizamat Adalat was presided over through the Nazim‘s deputy, a muslim
officer, who was assisted through Maulvis. In 1773 the Regulating Act set up
in Bengal the Supreme Court which derived its power from the Crown. The
establishment of the Supreme Court led to the emergence of two rival sets of
judicial authorities: The Supreme Court, and Sadar Diwani Adalat. A
temporary solution was found with the appointment of the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court as President of the Sadar Diwani Adalat.

In 1790 criminal appeals were transferred to the Governor-General and

Council who was to be assisted through Chief Qazi and two muftis. This was
part of the general policy of Cornwallis in replacing Indians through
Europeans in all higher posts. Cornwallis recognized District courts under
British judges. He separated the posts of civil judge and the collector from
whom appeals lay to four new appellate courts set up at Calcutta, Dacca,
Murshidabad and Patna. Below the district courts were Registrar's courts,
headed through Europeans and a number of subordinate courts headed through
Indian judges recognized as Munsifs and Amins. Cornwallis erected the
structure of a system of government under which India came to be ruled for
the after that hundred years. It was based on the perpetuation of foreign rule
and use of the wealth of the governed. In 1801 the judicial authority of the
Governor General and council came to an end and three judges were appointed
to form the Sadar Diwani Adalat or Civil Appellate Court. The principle of
duality flanked by the courts of the Crown and the zamindari courts ended in
1861 when the Indian High Court Act recognized High Courts at Calcutta,
Madras and Bombay in place of the Supreme Court as well as the Sadar Court.
The significant characteristics of the new judicial set up were the rule of law,
equality before law, recognition of the right to be judged through his personal
law and the growth of the professional and trained judicial hierarchy.

Though, the new judicial system suffered from sure serious weaknesses. In
criminal eases the Europeans had separate courts and even laws. They were
tried through European judges who at times gave them undue protection. In
civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant
places, the procedures were long and time consuming. Justice was proving
very expensive. Village committees and panchayats lost importance even in
the village matters.

Impact of British Administration

The benefits of British Administration could be seen in the maintenance of
peace and order, belief in liberty and ushering in a procedure of
modernization. A common system of law and uniform court of government
produced a large measure of unity. Though, the remote and impersonal nature
of administration proved to be both a source of weakness and strength. Its
defect was that it produced a lack of sensitiveness to the feelings of the people.
The British administrative policies resulted in the disappearance of indigenous
institutions of local self government and exclusion of Indians from higher
ranks of administration. The effects of subordination of Indian economy to
British interests were several, such as the ruin of artisans and craftsmen,
impoverishment of the peasantry, ruin of old zamindars and rise of a class of
new landlords, stagnation and deterioration of agriculture. The general
discontent which began to brew up in the middle of the Indians as a
consequence of British policies, ultimately led to the out break of 1857.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM AFTER 1857

The Company‘s economic and administrative policies gave rise to

widespread discontent in all sections of societies. This discontent together
with several other factors gave rise to the revolt of 1857. The revolt shook the
East India Company. The British Government also got alarmed. All sections
of political opinion in Britain agreed that the East India Company should be
set aside and British Government should assume direct responsibility for the
administration of India. The British crown through a proclamation in 1858
assumed the direct control of India.

The New Administrative Set Up

Through the Act of 1858 India was to be governed directly through and in
the name of the Crown through a Secretary of State in England. The Secretary
of State was to be assisted through a Council of fifteen members of whom at
least nine would have served in India for not less than ten years, and would
have left India not more than ten years before their appointment to the
Council. The Central administration in India sustained to remain in the hands
of the Governor General who was given the new title of Viceroy. An executive
council was shaped to help the Governor General. The members of executive
council were to act as the heads of departments and advisors to Governor
General.

The India Councils Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor General's council
(from 6 to 12 members) for creation laws in which capability it was
recognized as the Imperial Legislative Council. In this council Indians could
also be associated for creation laws. The Indian National Congress after its
formation in 1885. demanded a number of changes in the administration. As a
result The Act of 1892 was passed. Through this Act the number of members
in the Council was increased from 10 to 16. The Act also empowered the
Council to discuss the annual financial statement. They were not to vote the
budget item through item, but could indulge in a free and fair criticism of the
policy of the Government.

The role of supervision and control of the Secretary of State for India was
increased and a proportional diminution in the powers of the Governor
General vis-a-vis the Home Government was brought about. The dual control
of the President of the Board of Control and the Directors of the Company was
abolished and all the authority was centered in the Secretary of State. The
financial powers enabled the Governor-General to scrutinize and control the
expenditure of the Government of India. The Royal Titles Act of 1877 clearly
brought out the subordination of the Governor General and his council to the
authority of the Secretary of State. While the powers of the Secretary of State
were increased the checks upon his authority were weakened. The Indian
Council was reduced to advisory functions. In fact the Secretary of State
began to be regarded as the ― grand Mughal". When the Viceroy of India, Lord
Mayo tried to assert his Council's authority he was clearly told that:
The principle is that the final control and direction of the affairs of
India rest with the Home Government and not with the authorities
appointed and recognized through the crown, under Parliamentary
enactment, in India itself

These growths became possible as a result of the laying of a direct cable

line flanked by England and India in 1870, the opening of the Suez Canal and
the shortening of voyage flanked by the two countries through introduction of
steam vessels which helped to quicken communication. After abolition of the
East India Company, the Crown began to tighten its control over the Indian
administration. It was in fact a period of British Imperialism in India.

Administrative Decentralization
A beginning in the direction of decentralization was made through the Act
of 1861. It provided legislative powers to the Presidencies of Bombay and
Madras. But they had to obtain permission from the Governor General for
passing an act. Lord Mayo in I870 for the first time granted fixed sums to
provinces to spend it as they wished on Police, Jails. Education, Medical
Services, etc. More financial independence was given in 1877 when Lord
Lytton transferred sure other expenditures like Land Revenue, Excise, General
Administration. Through 1882 the system of giving fixed grants to the
provinces was put to an end. Instead the provinces were asked to generate a
fixed income from the provincial taxes. According to these arrangements some
sources of revenue were fully handed over to the provinces, some partially and
some reserved fro Centre. The expenditure on war and famines was the
responsibility of the centre. This arrangement sustained till 1902.

Local Bodies
Due to financial troubles the Government further decentralized the
administration and promoted municipalities and district boards. The procedure
started in 1864. In the initial years mainly of the members were nominated and
the bodies were presided over through the District Magistrates. They were to
generate revenue to be spent in their jurisdiction. The situation improved
through 1882. Now the local boards were to be developed through out the
country and not only in towns. These bodies were assigned definite duties and
funds. The majorities of nominated members were replaced through elected
members. Now official members were limited to one third, urban bodies were
to be independent and 59 non-officials were also allowed to chair the boards.
But still the official control was firm, right to vote restricted and non-officials
enjoyed very few powers. As pointed out through Bipin Chandra, except in the
― Presidency cities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, the local bodies
functioned just like departments of the Government and were in no
way good examples of local self-government‖

Economic Policy
The British sustained to use India‘s economy. The burden of the East India
Company's London establishment and of dividends to its shareholders was
replaced after 1858, through the expenditure on the Secretary of State‘s India
Office. The Indian debt in England which was already considerable as a result
of the Company‘s military ventures and suppression of the mutiny was further
increased, when compensation to the Company‘s shareholders was added to
Government of India‘s account. The Home charges also incorporated pensions
to British Indian officials, costs of army training, etc. In 1901, the Home
charges came to about $ 17.3 million. Both Home charges and private
remittances were canalized through Indian exports as pointed out through the
nationalist economists from Dadabhai Naoroji onwards. The character of
economic drain which was originally mercantilist underwent a change and it
now took the form of use through free trade. In the later stage it got connected
with the structure of British Indian finance capitalism. In fact India‘s export
surplus became vital for Britains‘ balance of payments through the end of the
nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century the developing capitalist
economies of Europe had erected high tariff walls. Britain was finding it hard
to get markets for its exports. The policy of free trade in India meant a ready
market for its Lancashire textiles while India‘s export surplus helped to
counter balance British deficits. Besides military and strategic advantages, this
indeed was a solid advantage which the British gained from the Indian
Empire.

The British rule inhibited and curbed indigenous industry through a

diversity of structural constraints. The government policies actively promoted
the European enterprise and discriminated against Indians. The railway
network and freight rates encouraged traffic with ports as against inland
centres. The organized money market was largely under the British control,
the only exception being the Punjab National Bank and the Bank of India. The
British controlled the bulk of the external trade through exchange banks,
export import firms, and shipping concerns. The British tried to justify their
policy through pointing to the remittance of capital which had been invested in
railways, plantations, mines and mills, which, they proclaimed would lead to
the development and modernization of India. But the establishment of
railways was geared to British commercial and strategic needs, while
plantations, mines and mills promoted interlocking of British financial,
commercial and industrial activity and served to intensify the capitalist use of
the Indians through the British.

The land revenue policy became interwoven with its commercial policy.
The government made no worthwhile effort for a long time for the
improvement of agriculture. The only government initiative that could be
mentioned in this context is the giving of some paltry taccavi loans from the
1870‘s and the introduction of a canal system passing through Punjab,
Western UP and parts of Madras Presidency. In fact the colonial structure
acted as an inbuilt depressor as proved through the famines in the 1870 and
1890‘s.

Organisation of the Army

Some major changes were made in the organisation of the army in 1861
keeping in view the outbreak of 1857. With the take over of the administration
through the Crown the army of the Company was also merged with the crown
troops. In the re-organisation of the army the main concern of the British was
that the happening of 1857 may never be repeated. For this a number of steps
were taken
The proportion of Europeans in the army was raised. (In 1857 there
were 40,000 Europeans and 215, 00 Indians). In Bengal it was fixed in
the ratio of 1:2 and in Madras and Bombay 2:5.
In the significant branches of army like European hold was recognized
over negligible Indians. Later the same policy was followed about
tanks and armored corps.
A distinction of martial and non-martial races was made and the
former were recruited in large numbers. The soldiers of Bihar, Awadh,
Bengal and South India who had participated in the revolt of 1857
were declared non-martial. While the soldiers who supported the
British like, Sikhs, Gurkhas and Pathans were declared martial.
To divide the soldiers belonging to dissimilar race or caste they were
put in dissimilar companies.
Efforts were made to encourage local loyalties in the middle of the
soldiers so that they may not unite on national thoughts. Therefore the
homogeneity of the army was broken up. Indian soldiers were used in
wars of the British outside India.

Civil Services
Cornwallis had relegated the Indians to a subordinate position and this
position did not alter in spite of the Charter Act of 1833 and Queen‘s
proclamation of 1858. All the superior positions were reserved for Europeans.
The officers for Indian Civil Service were selected through a competitive
examination. Though the doors were open for Indians but more than one or
two could never be selected because:
The examination was held far absent in London
The examination was heavily based on the knowledge of Latin, Greek
and English (the Indians had little background of these languages)
The maximum age was slowly reduced from 23 in 1859 to 19 years in
1878.

All efforts of Indians to remove these hurdles bore little results. Separately
from Civil Services all superior positions in Police, Public Works Department,
Forest, Post and Telegraph and Health services were reserved for Europeans.

Relations with Princely States

After the revolt of 1857 the British realized that the Princely States could
play a significant role in checking the discontent of Indian masses. So the
policy of annexation of Indian states was given up and their co-operation was
sought in strengthening the British imperialism. The Princely States were
asked to extend their co-operation. A number of powers were restored to them
and they were assured that if they sustained to be loyal to the British they
would not be harmed. Through the policy of Paramount a secure check on the
states was also maintained. Now no Indian ruler was allowed to maintain
relations with other countries except through the British. British interfered in
day to day functioning of the states through their mediators described
Residents. British Residents and nominated ministers were posted in
approximately all the states. They were to protect British interests and
implement British policies. The right to recognise the successors was also
reserved with the British government. If any ruler did not fall in line he was
replaced with a person of the British choice. Likewise the rulers of Baroda in
1873 and Manipur in 1891 were removed. In other states also a policy of
interference was followed. In spite of these policies majority of Indian rulers
supported the British to secure their status and privileges.

Hostile Administration
The British through their administrative policies, not only drained the
wealth from India and recognized supremacy of Europeans, they followed a
deliberate policy of hostility towards Indians. We have already referred to the
consequences of British rule in earlier units. Here we will revise a few areas
where this hostility and anti Indian bias was mainly pronounced.
Education: From 1833 onwards the British supported the growth of
limited education. Though, the establishment of the Universities at
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras gave a new impetus to higher education.
But with rising education the educated Indians developed critical
attitude towards the British rule and began organizing the national
movement. This alarmed the British and they adopted a hostile attitude
towards higher education.
Public Services: The British spent vast amounts on army and wars.
While fund allocation for health, irrigation, sanitation and public works
department was meager.
Curbs on Press: The credit for the growth of printing press also goes to
the British. But as soon as the press started playing a significant role in
structure public opinion and growth of consciousness a number of
legislations were passed to check its freedom. The Vernacular Press
Act of 1878 was a serious attempt in curbing the press.
Racial Discrimination: The British in the recruitment of civil and
military officers and judicial matters followed a policy of
discrimination against the Indians. British enjoyed all the privileges
and Indians were deprived of their due right.
Labour Laws: With the rising plantations and factories the number of
work force or laborers was rising. These laborers used to work for long
hours in unhygienic and poor working circumstances. Mainly of these
 organisations were owned through the British while the work force was
Indian. The British made no serious attempt to give relief for laborers.
The factory Act passed in 1881 and 1891 mainly dealt with child
labour and women. These could give very little relief. While for
plantations all the laws were favorable to planters approximately all of
whom were Europeans.

Due to this hostile attitude of administration the Indians started demanding

right for self government. But this demand also failed to invoke favorable
response. We will discuss this in the following sections.

The Question of Self Government for India

After 1857 the thought of self government for the Indians was totally
abandoned. Sir Charles Wood, Secretary of State for India, put forth the view
that representative bodies were impractical in India. The British justified their
inaction on the ground that India was not a nation. They stirred divisions,
primarily beside religious lines but also used caste and local identities for this
purpose. Hunter‘s book Indian Musalmans (1870) while supporting the
Muslims emphasized the distinctiveness and separateness of Muslims and
described them a homogeneous community. Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy,
described the Muslims in 1888 as ― a nation of 50 million‖ having uniform
religious and social customs. Wood in a letter to Lord Elgin, the Viceroy
wrote ― we have maintained our power through playing off (up) one part
against the other and we necessity continue to do so‖

Events in India, though, were taking a shape on account of which the

government was ultimately forced to take notice of the people‘s wishes. The
seventies was a decade of rising disturbances. India experienced some of the
worst famines. A.O. Hume in 1872 warned Lord Northbrook of the situation
―that we have now flanked by us and destruction nothing but the bayonets‖
Political agitation was gathering momentum throughout this period. The
Indian National Congress which came into subsistence in 1885 became a
significant instrument for the articulation of the wishes and aspirations of the
Indian and raised its voice in support of a responsible system of government.
But the government had no intention of satisfying the aspirations of the Indian
people. When the British were forced to introduce legislation in 1892, it
became clear that the government planned to effect no real participation of the
Indians in the government. With the national movement gaining ground the
British were again forced to adopt a conciliatory move and the Act of 1909
was passed. But the principle of separate electorate for the Muslims was
introduced in the Act and eight of twenty seven seals were reserved for them.
It was only after Gandhi had appeared on the national scene and the National
Movement had become an all-India mass movement that a visible shift in the
British attitude took place.

CONSOLIDATION OF THE RAJ: FRONTIER AND FOREIGN

POLICY
Through 1818 the British had conquered approximately the whole of India
except Punjab and Sindh and their annexation too was only a question of time.
After completing the empire structure procedure, the British followed a two-
fold policy for the consolidation of the Raj, namely, the introduction of an
appropriate administrative system and creation arrangements for ensuring
security of the newly conquered territories. The latter effort constitutes the
boundary and foreign policy. This, of course, excludes British relations with
Indian states which were also regulated through the Foreign Department. The
policy of defending British Indian territories is often described as ― an
imperialistic policy‖ for it was formulated in the perspective of world-wide
British imperial interests. Here we are posed with a pertinent question: can we
say that India before 1947 had an independent foreign policy of her own? To a
sure extent it was so. We have the following arguments in support of this
point:
The invasions of Afghanistan and Persia (Iran) and the plundering
expeditions of the boundary tribes which had been going on for a long
time ended with the consolidation of British rule in India.
Being a big and strong component of the Empire India always had
some weight in the formulation of British foreign policy.
Because of aloofness flanked by India and England, the British
Government of India always had some discretion and a sure degree of
initiative in the formulation of foreign policy of India.
Moreover, the British imperial interests in some spheres coincided with
those of India, such as those involving Russia, Persia and China which
gave a fillip to the development of India‘s foreign policy.

In spite of these arguments we necessity remember that India was a

colony. The foreign political activities of the colonial government can be
termed as India‘s foreign policy but these were directed towards the larger
interests of British imperialism. Here we may also draw your attention to the
problem of suggesting the period or a specific year said to be the starting point
of India‘s foreign policy. It is usually whispered that the British East India
Company began to evolve its foreign policy through establishing relations
with the Indian states. These states were compelled to surrender their foreign
relations to be controlled through the paramount British power. The other
starting point is 1818 which inaugurated an era of consolidation of the Raj
through the Company. But in conditions of international law, it was the
transfer of power in 1858-59 from the Company to the British crown that gave
to India‘s foreign policy an independent character, in form, but not in reality.

INTERNATIONAL SITUATION

When we scan the world situation throughout the period of our revise, we
find it favorable to the British. As far as the sea coast and naval defenses were
concerned, Britain having defeated the Dutch, the French and earlier the
Portuguese, was in a strong position. In the context of the defense of land
boundary, the Russian and the Chinese affairs figured prominently in the
diplomatic and military concerns of India throughout the whole of the
nineteenth century. For proper understanding, it is necessary to explain the
situation through dividing the subject matter into three sections.

British Supremacy in the Sub-Continent

After defeating the Portuguese and the Dutch in the early stages of British
conquest of India, the British and the French were involved in a world-wide
disagreement for domination. From 1740 to 1800, the disagreement flanked by
these two powers was primarily confined to South India. The French, though
defeated in the Seven Years War, became a serious threat to the British
Empire in India with the rise of Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in Mysore
and of Napoleon in France. Napoleon‘s Egyptian campaign and the
consequent Battle of Nile (1798) and the French relations with Tipu Sultan
threatened the British in India. With the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt in 1788
and of Tipu Sultan in India, the French menace disappeared altogether in the
South. After 1807 the scene of disagreement shifted to North-West. After the
French defeat in the naval encounters, Napoleon planned his strategy to attack
India via land route. The apprehension of joint operation of the French and the
Persians in collaboration with the Russians alarmed the British Government in
India and compelled Lord Minto, then Governor-General, immediately to send
four diplomatic missions as a counter move to avert the impending threat.
Malcolm was sent to Tehran, Elphinstone to Kabul, Seton to Sindh and
Charles Metcalfe to Lahore. As a result of the efforts of these diplomatic
missions, friendly treaties were concluded with the respective governments
with a view to meeting the challenge of the French. These were the earliest
steps taken up through the British Indian government in evolving India‘s
foreign policy. Although the French threat disappeared with the defeat of
Napoleon but it left a trail for the Russians to follow. It may, though be noted
that the Portuguese small scale attendance in Goa and that of the French in
Pondicherry never posed any threat to the British in the nineteenth century.
Though, through the closing decades of the century, the French tried to
establish a consulate in Burma to encourage insurgency. Similar fears were
entertained when the French made efforts to establish a naval base at Oman,
and the Germans envisaged the construction of the Berlin-Bagdad railway
line.

The Decline of China

Despite cultural contacts and regular visits of the Chinese travellers, India
never apprehended aggression from China. This was because the two-
countries were separated through the high Himalayan ranges — acting as a
barrier flanked by the two countries. Although China extended its sovereignty
over Tibet in the eighteenth century and recognized supremacy over eastern
parts of Central Asia, the situation for India did not materially change. In the
nineteenth century the Chinese power and prestige rapidly declined. This was
a period when several European powers were trying to open up China for
trade. The attention of Chinese was drawn towards resisting these powers
rather than over its north-eastern borders.

The Threat from Russia

The thought of ‗Russian Peril‘, was propagated through Lord Palmerston,
British Foreign Secretary, in the mid-nineteenth century and the term first time
mentioned through William Bentinck, the Indian Governor-General was
whispered to reflect a real danger. Checked through the British in
Mediterranean Sea, the Russians rapidly advanced towards the north- western
boundary of Afghanistan. The British in India had not reached the natural
boundary, as both Punjab and Sindh were independent states. Persia though
weak, aspired to revive the glory it had achieved throughout the period of
Nadir Shah. Mirza Mohammad succeeded to the throne of Persia after his
grandfather‘s death in 1834. He was favorably inclined towards Russia. It
appeared as though the Russians were determined to control the whole of
Close to and Middle East (now recognized as West Asia) and this was seen as
posing a threat to Afghanistan.

Afghanistan
The British were anxious to protect Afghanistan, the emporium of their
trade, and the only entrance to Central Asia from their side. A stage was
therefore set for the Central Asian duel flanked by the two expanding empires.
Persia‘s siege of Herat and the unhappiness of Dost Mohammad (the Amir of
Kabul) with the British policy makers combined with the over-anxiety of the
British Indian administration led to the First Afghan War (1838-42) which
proved to be a great disaster for the British. One of its important consequences
was the annexation of Sindh (1843) and Punjab (1849) which made the
boundary of British Indian empire co-terminus with that of Afghanistan.
 The disaster in the First Afghan War led to the return of Dost Mohammad
on the throne of Kabul. To the separate advantage of England, he maintained
absolute neutrality when England was fighting against Russia in the Crimean
War (1854-56) or was facing in India the revolt of 1857. Soon after the
Crimean War, the Russians advanced swiftly in Central Asia. Creation the
Russian intention clear Prince Gortchadoff wrote in his memorandum of 1864
that in approaching Afghanistan Russia was influenced through the same
imperious law that had led the British armies crossways the plains of
Hindustan and Punjab till they reached the mountains. In pursuance of this aim
Russia extended its boundary through 1864 to Bokhara, to Samarkand in 1868
and to Khiva in 1873. In 1867 a new province of Russian Turkestan was
shaped and reduced Bukhara to the position of a vassal state. In 1873 Khiva
fell to their control. In defense of their policy Russians argued that British
could always pose a threat to them through continental alliances, as had
happened in the Crimean War. It was for this cause, the Russians' argued that
they had secured a strong military position in Central Asia to keep England in
check through the threat of intervention in India.

The British reaction to this Russian posture was two-fold:

One move was to occupy advanced stations in Central Asia and to
secure commanding influence in Afghanistan. This came to be
recognized as ― Forward Policy‖ which was usually held through the
members of the Conservative Party.
The other move recognized as ‗The Policy of Masterly Inactivity‘ or
‗Stationary School‘ usually supported through the Liberals aimed at
reaching a diplomatic understanding with Russia and adopting the
policy of watchful non- intervention as far as Afghanistan was
concerned.

In the case of Russian attack, the Government of India, under this second
policy throughout 1863-75 preferred to meet the danger on the Indian
boundary itself since it was dangerous to strive for political domination over
Afghanistan. Moreover, the Russian military base being far absent from the
expected scene of disagreement, it was better to engage them at the Indian
boundary. Opposed to this line of thinking were the protagonists of Forward
Policy who whispered that the imminent threat of Russian invasion should be
met beyond the ando-Afghan boundary to avoid dangerous repercussions on
the disaffected Indian people. It implied that the British Indian government
should go forward to establish their control over Afghanistan and check the
Russian advance on the Hindukush Boundary.

Second Afghan War

In 1874 the Gladstone ministry fell due to the defeat of the Liberal Party at
the polls. The new ministry was headed through the Conservatives. Disraeli
firmly whispered in the ‗Forward Policy‘ and slowly forced the Indian
Government to the Second Afghan War. The results of this war were not
strikingly dissimilar from those of the First Afghan War. While on the other
side of the Hindukush, the Russian imperial expansion sustained unabated,
their occupation of Merv caused tremendous nervousness in Calcutta and
London. A year later they extended control over Punjab and in 1893 they
overtook Pamir Plateau which bordered directly on Kashmir. Through 1890
the European diplomatic scene began to experience restructuring of relations.
Germany after the fall of Bismarck alienated Russia forcing a bipolarization of
powers. In this procedure the old enemies of England—France and Russia—
came closer to each other, leading finally to the formation of Tripple Entente
in 1907. Therefore they resolved their political differences relating to their
conflicting interests in dissimilar continents.

NORTH-WEST BOUNDARY POLICY

The annexation of Sindh and Punjab brought the British into direct get in
touch with the hill tribes. It was an undefined border beyond which lay the
tangle of great hills, cut through deep winding valleys. The northern part
inhabited through the Pathans was administered through the Punjab province
while the Southern part occupied through the Baluchis recognized as the Sindh
boundary was then under Bombay. The hill tribes though were practically free,
owing only nominal allegiance to the Amir of Kabul. Inhabiting dry and hard
terrain, living on meager possessions but endowed with courage, endurance
and military ability, these people regularly indulged in mass raids and
plundering of the British Indian border areas. These turbulent tribes created a
turmoil that seemed to defy all chances of a stable and peaceful boundary
which was essential for the defense of India. Since the North-West boundary
was under two dissimilar provincial governments, namely Punjab and
Bombay, there developed two separate methods of administering the boundary
and conducting relations with the tribes. On the Sindh boundary where the
valleys were broader and less tortuous than in the Punjab and where the
cultivated land was not very secure to the tribal areas, the closed boundary
system was adopted. Under this system, the boundary was patrolled, and no
tribesman from beyond the border was allowed to enter British territory
without a pass. The Punjab boundary, on the other hand was kept an ‗open
boundary‘. For its protection forts and garrisons were built to guard the narrow
passes. To encourage tribesmen to forsake their old habits of plunder the
government allowed them to trade in the British Indian territory.
 Throughout the early stage, it was Lord Dalhousie‘s policy which served
as a grand strategy to keep the boundary under control. His policy can be
explained in three words, namely, fines, blockades and expeditions. Fines
were imposed as a punishment for plunder and murder; blockades for keeping
crisis within sure limits; and expeditions were led against the tribes which
resorted to mass plunder and rampage. The policy of sending punitive
expeditions and blockades was described as ‗butcher and bolt policy‘ and was
criticized as a barbarous style of reprisal. Flanked by 1849 and 1893 as several
as forty-two such expeditions were accepted in which as several as 2173
British casualties took place. In view of the high rate of casualties the British
officers were discouraged from visiting the tribal region. To strengthen their
control and conciliate the local people, the government encouraged the
holding of fairs to promote internal trade. It also made provision for free
medical treatment through opening dispensaries and hospitals. It created
employment opportunities and encouraged the trials to enlist themselves in
military and para-military forces. It strengthened its hold on the region through
constructing roads and railway lines. Lastly, the government organized the
boundary districts of Hazara, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan and
Dera Ghazi Khan. These were the efforts made to consolidate the boundary as
the first line of defense of India.

A comparative revise of the two systems — Punjab and Sindh — reveals

that the latter achieved greater success at least upto the year 1890, not because
of innate superiority of the system but because of physical differences of the
two frontiers which have already been mentioned. There were other factors as
well. The jirga or the tribal council of the Pathans was a large group consisting
approximately of the whole tribe. In Baluchistan there were only a few leaders
and it was easy to deal with them. Agreements with the Pathan chiefs, on the
other hand, did not possess the value which those arrived at with the Baluch
chiefs, accepted. Another characteristic that proved effective was the
appointment of Major Sandeman as an agent in Baluchistan in February 1877.
His policy of friendly and conciliatory intervention was a great success for the
British. All attempts of application of Sandeman‘s methods to the Pathan
tribes, though, totally failed, because the leaders here did not possess a
comparably high degree of influence over the fellow tribesmen.

The Durand Line (1893)

Establishment of peace on the North-West boundary was a complex
problem as usually the Amir of Kabul intrigued with the boundary tribes. On
Lord Lansdowne‘s insistence, Sir Mortimer Durand was appointed to
negotiate a boundary agreement with the Amir of Kabul settling forever the
responsibility of the Kabul government concerning the tribes on the Indus
border. The agreement concluded on 12 November, 1893 was as follows:
The Amir of Kabul was to retain Wakhan, Asmar, Kafiristan,
Mohmand and a portion of Wazirstan;
The British were allowed to retain Swat, Bajaur, Darwaz Kurrum
Valley, Chalgeh and New Chaman. The tribal areas of Gomal Pass
were also given to the British.

This divided the tribal area flanked by Afghans and the British. It was also
decided that a commission would be appointed to demarcate the boundary.
The Agreement was followed through a survey and demarcation of the border.
The work under the supervision of Mortimer Durand took two years as the
suspicious tribal people hindered the work of demarcation. Though, after the
completion of the line of demarcation recognized as the Durand Line, the
boundary was clearly divided for the purposes of responsibility for
maintaining law and order from Taghdumbash on the north west corner of
Hindukush to Manda Pass, separating, Kafiristan upto Kabul.

The Durand agreement gave the legal right to the British government to
enforce subordination upon the tribes like the Waziris, Afridis, and Bajauris.
Suspicious as the tribes were, the immediate consequence of the agreement
was their frequent revolt against the British. This was used through the British
to lead armed campaigns into the boundary. This agreement proved helpful to
the British for developing communications in the region; for collection of
taxes, particularly salt tax; and interfering in their customs. Their Amir was
unhappy over the loss of his suzerain rights over these tribes.

Having intimate and personal knowledge of the area and the people, Lord
Curzon — the Governor-General (1899-1905)—proposed the withdrawal of
British Indian regular troops and replacing them with bodies of tribal levies.
Besides gaining confidence of the creating local responsibility for maintaining
law and order the proposed change had the additional advantage of being less
costly. He also held a darbar at Lahore on 26 April, 1902 to conciliate the
chiefs of boundary tribes. Further for administrative efficiency and effective
control, he carved out a new province recognized as North-Western Boundary
Province. Therefore Lord Curzon could establish protracted peace

PERSIA AND THE PERSIAN GULF

The region consisting of Persia, the coast of Arabian sea and the Persian
Gulf was strategically very significant to the British as it contained the
approach routes through land and sea to India. On the land route the British
tried to check the invaders at several points of time. First the French forces,
then the Russian. The British foiled the Persian attempt to occupy Herat. After
two Afgan Wars, Persia through the treaty of 1907 was divided into British
and Russian zones. While efforts were being made to check the rising German
influence in the region, revolution broke out in Russia in 1917 which gave the
British an opportunity to occupy the whole of Persia. In 1921 the coup d‘etat
of Reza Khan restored Persia‘s independence. To defend itself against the
intervention of the Big Powers, Persia entered into a pact with neighboring
countries like Turkey, Iraq and Afghanistan recognized as the Eastern Pact.
Nevertheless, the region has remained a lure for the super powers leading to
incessant war in the middle of the local states upto the present day.

On the sea route, particularly around the Persian Gulf the British
consolidated their position through establishing control over strategic sea and
coastal areas. These areas were either annexed to British empire or were
bound to it through treaty relations. Important in the middle of such places
were Mauritius, Zanzibar, Muscat, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman etc. Lord
Lansdowne was the first Viceroy of India (1884-94) who visited the Persian
Gulf, and about a decade later i.e. in 1903, Lord Curzon assembled the
Sheikhs of the Gulf aboard his flagship and proclaimed British supremacy
over the region. In line with this policy the British government forced the
coastal states like Oman and Kuwait not to offer facilities to her European
rivals like France and Germany. After the opening of the Suez canal, this route
became a life line for the British trade, and through treaties with coastal states
the British trade was protected. Moreover, when oil was struck in the region,
the British were the first to set tip their control over oil industry and trade.

TIBET

The Himalayan ranges form a natural boundary flanked by India and

China. These high peaks sheltered several principalities like Nepal, Bhutan,
Sikkim and Tibet. In the middle of these Tibet is the mainly important for the
protection of India‘s boundary. Recognized as the ‗Hermit Kingdom‘, Tibet is
a landlocked country encircled through a chain of mountains with average
height of 10,000 feet above the sea stage. With meager economic possessions,
its people loved isolation and used the Chinese protection granted in 1728 as a
means to ward off foreign dangers. The Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was
nominal, and in practice it was never recognized in the nineteenth century.
Having no threat from Tibet, a state which had given up war-like activities and
China being militarily weak the British interest in Tibet, the backyard of
China, was purely commercial to begin with. Warren Hastings showed keen
commercial interest in the region and sent two missions, one in 1774 and
another in 1783. But the isolationist and suspicious Dalai Lama, the ruler
declined the offer of establishing trade relations with the British East India
Company. Inevitably but slowly the British interest in Tibet increased. In the
middle of several factors accountable for this augment in interest, we may
mention the following as the mainly important ones:
In view of the declining power of China, and scramble in the middle of
the foreign powers to divide it into spheres of influence, Tibet assumed
great strategic importance particularly for the British and the Russians.
After the extension of British influence over Nepal, Bhutan and
Sikkim, the boundaries of British India and Tibet came very secure to
the each other.
When the Russian advance reached Pamirs, it posed a threat to the
security of India from the northern side.
Lastly, throughout the nineteenth century British interest in tea and
shawl wool considerably increased. There was a tremendous pressure
of the traders on the government to develop regular traffic with Tibet
through Bhutan.

With the palpable decline of the Manchu dynasty, the Chinese influence in
Tibet was weakened. When the young Dalai Lama became independent of
Regency Council, he became anxious to liberate himself from the Chinese
influence which in reality was just nominal. But this was the impression which
British, particularly Lord Curzon, shaped. Rumors were rife that a Mongol of
Russian nationality named Agwar Dordshi had gained the confidence of the
Dalai Lama and was shutting flanked by Lhasa and Petersburg. The lure of the
closed land was too strong to resist, the fear of Russia was too great to be
ignored and the desire for trade was too powerful to overcome. For Curzon
these were incentives to action, particularly when he knew that the Tibetan
had little more than prayer wheels with which to resist modern weapons.
Curzon was determined to bring Tibet under the British control;

Though the government in England was reluctant to sanction any

interference in the Tibetan affairs, Curzon was though able to extract
permission to send Colonel Francis Young husband to Tibet. He started his
march into Tibet through Sikkim and reached Lhasa in August 1904. After the
slaughter of 700 Tibetans a treaty was imposed upon them which reduced
Tibet to the status of a protectorate of the British. The treaty acquiesced some
commercial concessions to the British. But the bogy of Russian danger soon
became superfluous because Russia through 1907 treaty acknowledged the
British predominance over Tibet. Even, if it had not done so, the Russians
could not afford to pay much attention to Tibet as they were involved in East
Asia. In fact the British expedition was governed through imperialistic
designs. After the Chinese revolution of 1911, the Dalai Lama announced his
independence. But the new government was determined to create Tibet its
integral part. The British instead of recognizing Tibet as an independent state,
invited representatives of China and Tibet to a tripartite conference in Shimla
in May 1913.
 It met on 13 October, 1913 and finally in 1914 two agreements were
concluded. Through one of them the British accepted China‘s suzerainty over
eastern zone or the inner zone. The outer zone or the western zone was
declared autonomous. Through another treaty it was decided to draw a
boundary flanked by Tibet and British India which is named after the British
delegate Henry McMahon. The boundary through his name was flanked by the
North-West boundary and Tibet; there was a chain of small principalities.
With the expansion of British empire in this region, these small principalities
came into get in touch with the British. In the procedure they were brought
under their direct or indirect control to serve as outposts against Tibet or
China. The first in the middle of them from the western side was the Hindu
Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal. After securing the control of the valley of
Kathmandu in 1768, the Gorkhas steadily encroached upon both east and west,
and occupied Kumaon, Garhwal and the Shimal hills. These areas were
conceded to the British after the Gorkhas were defeat through the Treaty of
Sagauli in 1816.

After the treaty the British used a great deal of tact and ability in their
dealings with the rulers of Nepal. They treated Nepalese ruler as sovereign and
addressed him as ‗Your Majesty‘. It is significant to note that the British did
not depend solely on the high ranges of the Himalays to give India protection
from the North. To them the kingdom of Nepal was a stable and secure buffer
flanked by India and Tibet or China. To the great satisfaction of the British,
Nepal displayed no signs of entertaining any sentiments against the British.
Relations flanked by them were of peaceful co-subsistence and confidence.
They were based, more or less, on the assumption that there existed an alliance
flanked by the two sides. The Nepalese on their part maintained perfect
neutrality throughout the revolt of 1857, while the British enlisted a large
number of Gorkhas as mercenaries in their army. Without any formal alliance
treaty the Nepalese government molded their foreign policy in accordance
with the British interests. For instance it is significant to note the fact that they
did not allow any diplomatic mission other than that of the British into Nepal.

SIKKIM

Flanked by Nepal and Bhutan there is a small Himalayan state recognized

as Sikkim. It had two passes leading to Tibet. One road through Kalimpong
and Jelep pass leads into the Chumbi Valley and the other upward beside the
Tista river to Kampass Tsong and Shigatse. In the period before the Chinese
domination over Tibet, Sikkim was politically and strategically important
because through it Tibet could be approached. Civilized through the Tibetan
monks and ruled through its aristocratic family, Sikkim was an independent
country. Through the closing decades of the eighteenth century, the Gorkhas
temporarily recognized their control over it. The British, though, restored its
independence, and in 1861 declared it their protectorate much against the
wishes of Dalai Lama. The British right over Sikkim was recognized through
the Chinese government in 1890. Here too, the British had acted to guard their
own interests.

BHUTAN

Adjacent to Sikkim on the eastern side is the state of Bhutan. Being poor,
the Bhutanese regularly raided the plains for looting wealth. In one of such
raids, the Bhutanese kidnapped the Raja of Cooch-Behar who was a British
protectorate. To rescue him, Warren Hastings attacked Bhutan and as a result
of the Bhutanese defeat a small strip of land was annexed to the British
territories. The Bhutanese sustained their raids on occasions when the British
were busy elsewhere. They occasionally mistreated the British delegates.
Annoyed with such activities on the border, the British unleashed the policy of
repression and reprisal and recognized their authority so firmly that in the
Young husband Expedition (1904-6), the Bhutanese offered full support.
Finally, through the efforts of Sir Charles Bell a treaty of friendship was
signed at Punakha which recognized the Bhutanese ruler as sovereign in all
matters except foreign relations which were placed under the British control.

NORTH EASTERN BOUNDARY AGENCY (NEFA)

The hill region flanked by Bhutan and Burma was inhabited through the
hill tribes. Akin to their counter parts in the North-West in all qualities except
race and religion, these tribes were practically independent. Exhibiting strong
and war-like spirit, they raided the plains to mitigate their poverty. Their
predatory attacks became a matter of great concern for the British
administration particularly after 1826 when Assam was incorporated into
India. To pacify them the Government of India adopted the policy of offering
them gifts and guaranteed protection. When the British boundary reached the
watershed of the mountain ranges, they recognized a chain of posts and made
the Tibetan government recognize the line which is recognized as the
McMahon Line. In the extreme North-East in the territories inhabited through
the Naga tribes, it was necessary to establish a boundary. Though these tribes
were quickly brought under the British control, they remained separate from
the rest of India through inaccessible mountain ranges. The Nagas were
Christianized through the Baptist Missionaries and the upper strata of society
were westernized.

Manipur another hill state posed serious troubles for the British. In 1826
its ruler was recognized as Maharaja through the British. After 1886, the death
of one of the successors of Maharaja unleashed a chain of murders of British
officials forcing the British Indian government to declare it a protectorate.
Burma, the eastern neighbor of India throughout the late 18th and early 19th
centuries was an expanding empire. After shaking off the Chinese supremacy,
it started expanding its empire. Through conquests it extended its boundary
over Thailand on the east, and on the west over Manipur and Assam and the
Burmese encroachments led to three major wars with Burma (1st in 1824-26,
2nd in 1852 and last in 1885) which resulted in the conquest of the whole of
Burma, through the British.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss the main characteristics of Colonialism.
Discuss the two major objectives of the East India Company.
Discuss the vital forms of surplus extraction or use throughout the
second and third stages of colonialism in India.
Discuss the efforts made through the British to consolidate their
position in India in the latter half of the 19th century.
What do you understand through the conditions 'formal imperialism'
and 'informal imperialism?
How would you explain the alliance flanked by the Indian capitalist
class and the nationalist leadership?
How did the British policies in India affect the Indian economy?
Why was it that throughout the early years of colonial rule the Indian
opposition to the foreign rule could not be properly canalized?
Why did the British lay the Railway lines?
How did printing press help in updating knowledge?
What was the British aim in giving modem education to Indians?
What was the nature of early peasant and tribal revolts?
Why did the educated Indian middle class become disillusioned with
the British after 1857?
How did the formation of organisations help in the growth of National
consciousness?
Did the events of 1857 leave any impact on the Indian society?
Which was the first major Act passed through the British Parliament to
regulate Indian affairs?
How did the policy of free trade help British Industry?
How with the help of the right of Paramountcy did the British interfere
in the affairs of the Princely States?
Why were the British so much concerned about establishing their
supremacy in the North Western Boundary of India?
Discuss the factors responsible for the augment of British interest in
Tibet.
 Discuss the main objectives of the British Indian government's foreign
policy in the North Eastern Boundary Agency.

CHAPTER 2
EMERGENCE OF ORGANIZED NATIONALISM

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Popular uprisings: second half of the 19th century
Social reforms in 19th century India
Indian national congress formation
Indian national congress: moderates and extremists
Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi movement
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this chapter you will be able to:
Know about the factors responsible for several peasant and tribal
uprisings that took place in the second half of the 19th century,
Discover the nature and main features of these uprisings,
Understand the attitude of the colonial regime towards these uprisings,
Know how the working class appeared in India,
Explain the troubles faced through the working class,
Know about the initial struggles waged through the working class,
Know why and how these reforms were initiated in India,
Understand who were the leading reformers and their ideas about the
nature of the Indian society,
Get an thought of the milieu in which the Indian national congress was
founded,
Understand the role played through the educated Indians in its
formation,
Get some details about the first congress meeting,
Describe the character of the early congress,
Know how two diverse viewpoints i.e. Moderates and extremists
appeared in the congress,
Know how this split effected the congress and national movement,
 Explain the background in which the Indian nationalists and the British
authorities confronted each other,
Identify the motives behind the scheme for partitioning Bengal,
Discuss how the swadeshi movement grew, and what political trends
and techniques it developed,
Appreciate the strength of the movement, as well as the difficulties it
encountered, and finally,
Create an over-all assessment of the historic phenomenon.

POPULAR UPRISINGS: SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH

CENTURY

COLONIAL IMPACT

One has to bear in mind the impact of British imperialism on Indian

agriculture and the traditional handicraft industry.
As for agriculture, the land settlements (Permanent, Raiyatwari and
Mahalwari) created sure new elements like a market economy and did
absent with some customary rights like forest and pasturage rights. The
agrarian policies coupled with other growths encouraged money
lending particularly in the context of cash payments of land revenue. In
the context of sharpening social differentiation, money lending got
associated with a complete control of the rural economy and society
through a few moneylenders. And, if it was a tribal tract, this
interaction also implied the procedure of peasantisation i.e. conversion
of tribals into peasants.
Secondly, social differentiation was not a new characteristic but
colonialism accentuated the differences and created a sharper
polarisation flanked by those who owned lands; had acquired wealth,
and through their new ownership rights, had access to the courts to
defend themselves and their property, and those whose customary
rights got undermined. This differentiation had sure implications.
Besides strengthening and polarizing, these differences centered
around class (rich-poor), differences around caste and religion also got
strained for instance if in a scrupulous area the landowner belonged to
a scrupulous caste or religion and the peasants were of another caste or
religion then the caste/religious differences got strained on account of
class differentiation we have noted above. Tribal areas saw the
emergence of ‗outsiders‘ who were moneylenders and landlords, and
who ruthlessly exploited the population.
Another major characteristic of colonial policy was to forcibly
commercialize agriculture, with the obvious thought of providing raw
 material for British industries. This proved hazardous for the peasants
who were forced to grow commercial crops (like indigo and cotton)
instead of food granules, even in years of scarcity.
As for the artisans, colonialism spelt doom for them. The colonisation
of India implied that India was to be a market for British goods. These
were factory-made goods— cheaper and finer than the products of the
India artisans. This led to the wiping out of the traditional Indian
industries like cotton and salt. Besides throwing a large section of the
artisans out of employment, it increased the pressure on land as the
artisans tried to turn to agriculture.

PEASANTS, TRIBALS AND ARTISANS

Before we proceed further it would be useful to mention at this juncture a

few things about the peasants, tribals and the artisans:
When one talks of peasants one is referring to all those people who
directly participate in agricultural production. Some of these were poor
and some others were comparatively more affluent. This differentiation
increased in the colonial period. Besides, the peasant‘s position sank
vis-a-vis the owners of lands since colonialism recognized the property
rights of only the landlords, the peasant‘ s having been reduced to mere
tenants-at-will. The new laws implied that the peasants could be
evicted any time through their landlords.
As for the tribals, there were dissimilar tribal groups like Khonds,
Savaras, Santhals, Mundas, Koyas, KolS, etc. When we speak of
tribals we are not talking of the classic food gatherers and hunters, but
tribal peasants, who had settled down as agriculturists. Of course, they
combined agriculture with hunting and food gathering as well as
manufactures from forest-based products like canes etc. Their relative
isolation coupled with closer ethnic bonds perhaps differentiated them
from peasants. The artisans were those people who were engaged in
the manufacture of traditional handicrafts like cotton products, salt,
iron goods etc. In mainly cases these were perused as caste
professions. As already discussed, the unequal competition with the
British industrial products ruined the artisans. Historical proof about
them is very limited. They were often clubbed with the peasants and
tribals.

POPULAR MOVEMENTS UP TO 1857

We can now begin our discussion through taking up some of the major
popular movements in the middle of the peasants, tribals and artisans in the
1850-1900 stage — recognized as fituris, melis, hools and ulgulan.

Orissa
In the early 1850‘s we come crossways some tribal movements in Orissa.
There were popular movements in the middle of the Khonds of Ghumsar and
Baud (1854-56) and the Savaras of Parliakhemedi. These popular movements
were attributed to Chakra Bisoi who, since 1837, had resisted all attempts to
arrest him. The specific problem in the middle of the Khonds centred on the
determination of the colonial administration to stop the human sacrifices
associated with the ‗meriah‘ sacrifice. What is worth noting is that the new
pressures and uncertainties forced the Khonds to appease their gods for good
harvests of turmeric, but the colonial administration tried to stop this practice.
Some colonial officials hoped that the improvement of material circumstances
of the Khonds would serve to liquidate the ‗meriah‘ sacrifice.

Very little is recognized about Chakra Bisoi and the early tribal
movements. Bisoi took up the cause of a young boy whom the Khonds
‗whispered‘ was the Raja of Ghumsar. 'We get references to Khonds
‗attacking‘ some villages in Ghumsar (1854) and how they refused to betray
Chakra. In a desperate attempt to crush the rebellion the police arrested a
mendicant through mistake; think that he was Chakra Bisoi. It seems some
landholders and ruling chiefs (i.e. of Patana and Kalahandi) who felt
threatened through colonial rule maintained links with Chakra. In 1856-57
there was the Savara rebellion in Parliakhemedi led through one Radhakrishna
Dandasena. The colonial administration saw links flanked by this movement
and Chakra Bisoi, who could never be arrested. Nothing was heard of him
after October 1856. He seems to have faded into popular memory after the
Savara rising was crushed with Dandasena‘s hanging in 1857. Though, there
are doubts whether Chakra Bisoi was behind all these popular movements, or
whether his name came to be associated as a symbol of popular tribal protest.

Santhal Rebellion
Yet another major tribal rebellion was in the middle of the Santhals (1855-
57) of Birbhum, Bankura, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur and Monghyr.
The colonial character of the regime contributed to the precipitation of this
disagreement. We get references to some merchants and moneylenders from
Northern and Eastern India, totally controlling the subsistence of Santhals
through interests on loans, with rates ranging from 50% to 500%. These
exploitative people used two kinds of measures, a big one (Bara Ban) to
receive things and a small measure (Chota Ban) to provide things to the
Santhals. They also grabbed lands of the Santhals. Some of the intermediaries
of the Zamindars were also ruthlessly exploitative. We also get references to
recruitments of forced labour and the sexual use of tribal women at the railway
sites. When the movement started it was not ostensibly anti-British, but was
directed chiefly against the mahajans and traders. The Santhals declared that
their new God had directed them to collect and pay their revenue to the state at
the rate of two annas on every buffalo plough and half anna on each cow
plough. They also fixed interest rates on loans which were to be on the lower
side. The Santhals were punished for night ‗attacks‘ on mahajans, whereas
their oppressors were not even admonished. Rebellion burst forth in 1854,
with an augment in the number of ‗dacoities‘, ‗burglaries‘, ‗thefts‘ of
mahajans, whose wealth was ill-earned.

It was in such a context that two Santhals—Sido and Kanhu offered the
spark which resulted in conflagration. They received the ‗Command‘ of their
God (Thakur) to stand up and defy their exploiters. On June 30, 1855 ten
thousand Santhals assembled at Bhaghadihi where the ‗divine order‘ that the
Santhals should get out of the control of their oppressors was announced
through Sido and Kanhu. The thought that their God would himself fight
beside with them gave the rebellion legitimacy, and in popular tribal
perception labelled it as a thrash about of ‗good‘ against ‗evil‘. As the
movement gathered momentum the way in which the context determined its
form is indeed motivating. From an essentially anti-mahajan and anti-trader
movement it incorporated a new element — the Santhals made no secret of
their opposition to the police, white planters, railway engineers and the
officials, thereby revealing their opposition to the colonial order as well. The
movement lasted for six months. Several villages were ‗attacked' through the
Santhals after being given prior notice. A lot of pressure was exerted on the
zamindars and the Government through the rebels. In several areas the
zamindars helped in the suppression of the rebellion.

1857
After this we can say a few things about the 1857 Rebellion, without going
into details of the Rebellion itself. There is a controversy in the middle of
historians concerning the stage of popular participation in the revolt. Some
scholars like Eric Stokes point out how the rural elite whose interests had been
threatened through colonialism led, the peasants and artisans who followed
them ‗tamely‘. Others, like S.B. Chaudhuri and Rudranshu Mukherjee feel that
although landed elements provided the leadership there were some exceptions,
and, more importantly, the strength of the Rebellion was based on the common
resentment against the oppression of the moneylender united the peasants and
the artisans. British rule was recognized as ‗Bania Ka Raj‘ and the Rebellion
marked an opposition to the moneylenders as well as the British. Beside with
this was the erosion of customary rights and privileges of the peasants. The
forms of popular protest reflect the combination of the twin currents of anti-
imperialism and anti-feudalism which had appeared at that scrupulous
juncture. Symbols of foreign rule such as police stations, railway lines and
telegraph wires were destroyed. As for the popular movements which
converge with the 1857 Rebellion, we get proof of the destruction of records.
In fact, we are told of the ‗debris‘ of accounts books, which reflect the obvious
opposition to the new taxation system. Although the Europeans were the first
targets, they were followed through attacks on their Indian supporters like
moneylenders, auction purchasers, bankers and traders in some regions.

In this stage we also get reference to the dismantling of factories in

Shahjehanpur, Shahibabad, Gaya and Palamau. Although our proof is severely
limited this designates typical reactions of artisans in early industrial societies,
who saw a threat posed through the arrival of new machines. This trend can be
seen in early industrial England (1830) as well. With the disappearance of
British authority, the concept of freedom drove the peasants and artisans to
seize the lands and ‗plunder‘ the houses of the affluent landed sections. Their
property deeds and government records were also destroyed. This situation
altered the nature of the Rebellion. Therefore, people like Kunwar Singh, a big
landlord who led the Rebellion in Bihar, stopped his followers from indulging
in such acts, as, otherwise after the British withdraw there would be no proof
of the rights of people and no proof to determine the amount due from one
party to another.

POPULAR MOVEMENTS AFTER 1857

Popular protest did not end with the suppression of the 1857 uprising. We
find a number of movements taking place after this and shall discuss a few of
them.

Indigo Riots
The indigo riots of 1859 in Bengal is the after that popular movement we
shall look at. Indigo plantations had been set up as early as 1770 through the
East India Company. This created a lot of discontent since the peasants could
not grow food granules which they needed for survival. Through 1859
thousands of peasants had withdrawn their labour, shaped organisations all
over the indigo plantation districts and resisted the repression of the planters
and their armed retainers. The modern newspapers like THE BENGALEE
gave due coverage to the movement and reported how it was marked with
success. Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Nildarpan in Bengali which highlighted the
plight of the peasants. The indigo riots forced the Government to set up an
official enquiry (1860). The movement also knocked down the plantation
system in lower Bengal, forcing the planters to shift to Bihar.
Moplah Uprising
In the 1850-1900 period we also witness a series of Moplah Uprisings in
Malabar. As the Jenmi landlords backed through the police, law courts and
revenue officials tightened their grip over the Moplah peasants the latter
rebelled against the landlords and the British, it is not surprising to see how,
what was essentially a rich-poor disagreement flanked by the Jenmi landlords
and the Moplah peasants was given separate communal colouring through the
colonial state since the landlords were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims.
The landlords resorted with repression, which sustained unabated till 1880. In
their attempts to smother the peasant movement they also burnt the bodies of
the rebels in order to produce a demoralizing effect. Scholars like D.N.
Dhanagare have pointed out how these acts made the peasants retaliate. In
1875 an anonymous petition of the Moplah peasant was submitted to the
Madras Government, which led to an enquiry. Though flanked by 1882 and
1885 there was a renewal of hostilities with the peasants ‗looting‘ the property
and burning the houses of landlords, as well as defiling Hindu temples. These
acts gave an anti-Hindu turn to what was essentially a class disagreement
flanked by peasants and the landlords. Through 1896 the Moplah peasants‘
thrash about assumed an aggressively communal orientation.

Pabna
Another significant movement was the Pabna (in Bengal) peasants‘
movement of 1873-1885. The peasants of Pabna did not object to rent hikes,
and, in fact flanked by 1858 and 1873 they met the rent demands of their
landlords without any resistance. At the root of the movement was the
tendency of the zamindars to annihilate the tenants‘ newly acquired occupancy
right. Occupancy tenants were being converted into tenants-at-will through
forcible written agreements. The peasants rising knowledge of the new laws
made them aware of their plight. Then there was the problem of illegal dues in
some places like Tripura. In 1873 the Pabna peasants shaped an agrarian
league which spread out the whole district very soon. Mainly of the
newspapers which were pre-landlord (like Amrita Bazar Patrika) opposed the
league. What is worth noting is that the peasants did not defy the colonial
authority and declared that their goal was to become the ryots of the 'Queen of
England‘. They were opposed to the harassment and not to the payment of
dues. They wanted to be the ‗Queen‘s Ryots‘ for securing redressal of their
grievances In fact, in the initial stages we get references to a sympathetic
colonial administration supporting the peasants in cases against their
landlords. As the movement developed popular forms of mobilization — i.e.
blasts from conch-shell, drumbeats, etc. brought people together to resist the
illegal demands of the landlords. Through ‗night shouts‘ all the people in
villages expressed their solidarity with the movement. Kalyan Kumar
Sengupta has stressed the ‗Legalistic Character‘ of the movement, with
instances of violence being very unusual as the peasants were primarily
interested in defending their property and holdings. 70% of Pabna‘s
population was Muslims) they painted it as a communal movement. What is
worth noting here is that two prominent leaders of the Pabna peasants —
Kesab Chandra Roy and Sambhunath Pal were Hindus. For almost a decade,
from 1873 the Pabna peasants‘ movement undermined the landlord‘s
perception of their right to fleece the peasants. Besides, the movement also
spread to other areas like Dacca, Rajshahi, Bakergunje, Faridpur, Tripura and
Bogra, etc.

Deccan Riots
The basis of the Deccan Riots, which erupted in 1875, lay in the
development of the ryotwari system itself. We come crossways the emergence
of a class of moneylenders who fleeced the peasants through high interest on
loans (25% to 50%). The decline of the communal system of tax collection
implied that unlike in the earlier days the moneylender was not subject to the
executive and judicial authority of the village. The courts and the new laws
polarised the caste differences flanked by the Vanis (village moneylenders)
and the Kunbis (cultivator caste) through favouring the former. This implied
an augment in the transfer of holding from peasants to moneylenders. The
immovable property of the Kunbi could also be sold to recover loans. Beside
with these troubles was an augment of the population, the dislocation of the
economy and an ill-conceived attempt to enhance rents through the colonial
administration. It was in this situation that things took an explosive turn. The
young Brahmin leaders of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the dominant
landed families which faced decline took up the cause of the peasants. The
Kunbis rose against the Vanis in order to dispossess them of their title deeds
and mortgage bonds which were looked upon as instruments of oppression.
The Deccan Riots resulted in the breakdown of the link that held the Kunbis
and Vanis together. Like the pattern we have noticed earlier, class
disagreement was given the form of a caste disagreement.

Koya Rebellion
In 1879-1880 there occurred the Koya rebellion in the eastern Godavari
tract of present-day Andhra Pradesh which also affected some portions of the
Malkangiri region of Koraput district in Orissa. It was led through Tomma
Dora, the Koya leader. The movement reflected the troubles faced through the
tribals like the erosion of customary rights over forests, the use through
moneylenders who began to control the life of the Koyas through loans and
land transfers. Tomma Dora was hailed through the Koyas as the ‗King‘ of
Malkangiri. We find references to the taking over of a police station at Motu
through the rebels. Though, very soon after this Dora was shot dead through
the police and the movement collapsed.

Birsa Munda Revolt

The last popular movement that we shall discuss developed flanked by
1874 and 1901, and was led through Birsa Munda from about 1895. A tribal
movement, it affected an area of about 400 square miles in the Chotanagpur
region of South Bihar. Bom out of the vital troubles affecting the tribals in the
colonial period — erosion of customary rights forced labour, colonial laws etc.
it had a separate connection with Christianity in the early stage. As K.S. Singh
notes, the Mundas, in fact, accepted Christianity with the belief that the
German missionaries would set things right through checking the malpractices
of the zamindars. In fact, around 1857 some zamindars attacked the German
mission at Ranchi, as it sympathized with the Mundas. From around 1858 we
get references to Christian tribals resisting oppressive zamindars. This trend
became quite pronounced flanked by 1862 and 1888. In 1867 as several as
14,000 ‗Christians‘ filed a petition against the Raja of Chotanagpur and the
local police, and submitted it to the colonial authorities. Some steps were
taken to restore lands of some of the dispossessed Mundas. In March 1879 the
Mundas claimed that Chotanagpur belonged to them. In 1881 some sardars led
through one John the Baptist set up a kingdom at Doesa. After this the
movement went through some major changes. Dissatisfaction with the German
missionaries made the Mundas severe their links with them. Instead, they
turned to the Catholic mission. The colonial officials and the zamindars came
closer to each other in order to smoothed the movement. What developed was
a thrash about which united the ‗rebels‘ against all Europeans including
Christian missionaries and officials as well as the dikus and the landed
elements. It was in this context that the Mundas were led through Birsa
Munda—whose initial popularity was based on his medicinal and healing
powers. The Mundas envisaged an ideal and just order which would be free
from the internal as well as European exploiters. Their search for invincibility
against their powerful oppressors made them look upon ‗forest water‘ as
something which would create them invincible. There was active participation
of women in this movement. On some occasions there was violence also.
Though the movement lacked animosity vis-a-vis the economically
subordinate non-tribal people. The movement of Birsa Munda was ruthlessly
suppressed. Birsa was handed and the repressive machinery directed against
the rebels to break the rebellion. On the basis of the above discussion sure
conclusions can be drawn. The popular movements we have discussed were
directed against colonialism as well as the Indian rich (i.e. moneylenders and
the zamindars) often recognized as dikus or outsiders. What needs to be
emphasised is that the opposition to these dikus was based on the use
perpetrated through them and not because they were non-tribals.
FEATURES OF MOVEMENTS

The movements had sure features:

Inherent in mainly of them was the attempt to look back into the past
when ‗life was much better‘. This incorporated the fury directed
against machines throughout the 1857 Rebellion. This was the cause
for the thrash about for a better present. A tendency existed in some of
the movements to attack the recognized order of the sahukar, zamindar
and the British colonial administration. For instance, Sido and Kanho
tried to replace rent with an annual tribute to them. Another
characteristic, connected to the question of looking back into the past
and attacking the recognized order, was the ‗restorative‘ character of
some of these popular movements. Therefore, on occasions they were
led through the traditionally affluent sections whose privileges had
been undermined as a result of the colonisation of India.
Conversely, in some cases we observe an association with imperialism
in a thrash about against the landlords and the sahukars. On occasions
the people learnt through their experience to identify anti-imperialism
as a necessary component of their thrash about, like the Mundas.
Though, on occasions the illusions of British rule affected popular
perceptions as in the case of the Pabna peasants who wanted to be the
‗Queen‘s ryots‘. This obviously undermined the thrash about against
imperialism. What is, though, striking is how some of these popular
struggles recognized their friends and their enemies. Beginning as an
anti-imperialist movement the popular movement which converged
with the 1857 Rebellion gravitated towards anti-feudalism, posing
troubles for the feudal landed sections as we have seen. The anti-feudal
and pro-Christian Birsaite Mundas also turned anti-imperialists in
course of time.
The popular movements we have discussed envisaged a fair and just
order without use where everybody would be equal and live happily.
This reflected a popular peasant utopia and in several cases was
associated with the hopes of their dawning of ‗new age‘ as well as the
emergence of ‗messiahs‘ (like Sido, Kanho and Birsa).
Another noticeable characteristic was the association of these popular
movements with religion and caste. Given the circumstances as well as
the multiplicity of both religion and caste in our country we have seen
how on occasions some of these popular movements, although they
were centred on class disagreement, got affected through communal
and caste politics. Our proof also points to how, when their position
was threatened, the landed feudal sections tried to divert the popular
movements beside communal lines. Here one can cite the cases of
Malabar and Pabna peasant‘s struggles which were projected as a
communal movement through the landlords.
 While discussing the question of religion and popular movements we
have seen how it also united the popular masses in their thrash about
with their oppressors, as in Malabar or in Chotanagpur region. The
way in which Christianity, a product of British imperialism itself,
became an instrument to fight the feudal as well as the imperialist
order obviously designates how its role changed in a colony like India.
Therefore this dual nature of the role of religion should be grasped.
Another significant facet of these popular movements was their secure
association with ‗lootings‘ and ‗crime‘ directed against the affluent
classes. Although reduced to simple criminality in official records,
what needs to be stressed is that these were very much a part of
popular movements. The thought of hitting at their exploiters was
conditioned through the rationality of setting things right!
Consequently these acts had a popular sanction and on occasions were
communal acts.
The sense of solidarity exhibited through peasants, tribals and artisans
is another feature characteristic. It is worth noting here how territorial
boundaries and ethnic bonds transcended in some of the popular
movements. For instance, while the Pabna movement percolated to
other areas outside the district the Birsa Movement united the Mundas
and the Kols, beside with the absence of any animosity vis-a-vis
economically subordinate non-tribal groups.
And, finally, these popular movements served to considerably narrow
the gap flanked by a section of the Indian Intelligentsia and the popular
masses. We have seen this tendency especially in Bengal. The pro-
peasant sympathies were expressed in some newspapers and in modern
literary works like Nil Darpan (1860).

WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS

After discussing the popular movements in the middle of peasants, tribals

and artisans we now take up the role of industrial workers flanked by 1850 and
1900. Who were these industrial workers? Given the overall circumstances we
have discussed in our general introduction, they were composed primarily of
the dispossessed peasants and artisans who had been thrown out of their
occupations with the advent of colonialism. These workers became associated
with the ‗modern‘ industrial sector which developed out of the interaction of
British colonialism with India. This sector was originally an exclusive
preserve of British capitalists and evolved from about the 1840‘s. The
abundance of raw material and cheap labour attracted British capitalists to
invest in the tea plantations (from 1839), jute, coal, mining and railways (early
1850‘s) and through the turn of the century major recruitments also took place
in the ports. " The only industry with which the Indian business class was
associated was the textile industry. The Indian business class dominated it.
Bom around 1850‘s it was located chiefly in Bombay and Ahmedabad. What
needs to be emphasised is that this ‗modern‘ sector did not lead to full-fledged
capitalist development as it was based on the archaic foundations of a
predominantly feudal economy deliberately preserved through the colonial
regime. Moreover, it was not meant to foster the development of India. These
characteristics had sure implications. Therefore, the workers in the ‗modern‘
sector were left in semi-servile circumstances. Besides having to work for long
hours 15 to 16 hours a day, with low wages and miserable working
circumstances, they (including women and children) were even beaten and
tortured. Their diet was normally worse than what was served to criminals in
jails.

There is ample proof in the Municipal reports which points out deaths due
to illness amongst plantation workers. Given these circumstances the workers
were in no position to organise themselves, and what we come crossways are
mostly spontaneous movements aimed at redressing their adverse
circumstances.

Efforts of the Educated Gentry

The 1850-1900 stage saw scattered and unorganized struggles in the
middle of the workers. There have been characterized as elementary struggles
through Sukomal Sen. In this stage we come crossways sections of the
educated gentry coming forward to focus on the troubles of the workers. In
1870 Sasipada Banerjee, a Brahmo Samajist, founded the ‗Working Men‘s
Club‘ and published a journal from Baranagar (close to Calcutta) in 1874. The
calcutta-Brahma Samaj founded in 1878 the 'Working Men‘s Mission‘ to
propagate religious morality, etc. in the middle of the workers. Through 1878
we come crossways Sorabjee Saprujee Bengalee and Narayan Meghajee
Lokhundy working amidst cotton mill laborers in Bombay. These attempts led
to the drafting of a memorandum in 1884 which incorporated demands for a
rest day on every Sunday, a half an hour break at noon; a 6.30 a.m. to sunset
working day; wages to the workers be paid through the 15th of the month
following the month they have worked and that in case of injury they should
receive full wages till they recovered and if they got maimed they should get
pension. This memorandum was signed through about 5,000 workers and was
submitted to the commission of 1884 appointed through the Government of
Bombay. It left its imprint of the first Indian Factories Act of 1891. In 1890
(April 24) Lokhundy convened another meeting attended through about
10,000 workers. Two woman workers spoke at this meeting. A memorial
asking for a weekly holiday was drawn up and sent to the Bombay Mill
Owners‘ Association. This request was granted on June 10, 1890, and
although perceived as a victory through the workers, it was without any legal
sanction and hence it could not be enforced. The demand for a rest day in a
week became a popular demand in approximately all the industrial centres.

Strikes
Whereas these efforts sought to organise the workers, this stage was
marked through spontaneous workers movements. We get references to a
strike through the river transport porters of Bengal in 1853, a coachmen‘s
strike in Calcutta in 1862 etc. The first big strike occurred in 1862 when about
1,200 laborers of Howrah railway station went on a strike demanding an 8
hours working day. What is worth noting is that this action preceded the
historic May Day Movement of the Chicago workers through about 24 years,
and the strike occurred in a sector which had begun from 1853. This was
followed through a number of strike actions. Therefore, a big strike took place
in the Nagpur Empress Mills in 1877 on the issue of wage rates. Flanked by
1882-1890 there were 25 strikes in the Bombay and Madras presidencies.
What is striking is that in Bombay presidency a large number of strikes
occurred in factories owned through Indians i.e. textile factories. Bengal also
witnessed spontaneous strikes centred on higher wage demands and the
dismissal of workers.

Features
While surveying these popular struggles a few points should be mentioned.
They served to narrow the gap flanked by the workers and the
intelligentsia. The latter got attracted to the workers due to
humanitarian notions triggered off through the socio-reform
movements (like the Brahmo Samai) and modern growths in other
parts of the world which were taking place beside similar lines (e.g.
England). This trend sustained in the early twentieth century—
Gandhi‘s attempts to reach the Ahmedabad Mill Workers and Anusaya
Ben‘s efforts to open-up night schools to educate them in 1918 were
the manifestations of the same spirit.
In several cases the workers were led through ‗jobbers‘ (Sirdars) who
recruited them and who normally belonged to the same region and
caste of the workers. In such cases the workers‘ demands were
sidetracked as the central focus lay on the thrash about flanked by the
‗jobbers‘ and the employers. On other occasions the workers were led
through the intelligentsia. Taken all in all it appears that the workers in
this stage had to look up to ‗outsiders‘ for leadership.

Given the fact that the workers were composed of the disposed sections of
the rural population, and that the colonisation of India prevented any attack on
the old, feudal values dominated the minds of the workers. Here, even the
leadership provided through the intelligentsia (which was influenced through
the old feudal values) failed to produce any serious impact on the workers‘
organisation or their consciousness. The degrading condition of women and
child labourers remained totally ignored due to the dominating feudal values.
Consequently, mainly of these popular struggles concentrated on immediate
troubles faced through workers like wages, retrenchments and a rest day in a
week. Nevertheless, despite their shortcomings we have to acknowledge the
heroism of the workers in a period when there were no organized trade unions
to come to their rescue.

SOCIAL REFORMS IN 19TH CENTURY INDIA

WHY REFORM

An significant question for discussion is about the forces which generated

this awakening, in India. Was this a result of the impact of the West? Or was it
only a response to the colonial intervention? Although both these questions are
inter-related, it would be profitable to separate them for a clear understanding.
Another dimension of this is related to the changes taking place in Indian
society leading to the emergence of new classes. For this perspective, the
socio-religious movements can be viewed as the expression of the social
aspirations of the newly emerging middle class in colonial India. The early
historical writings on reform movements have traced their origin primarily to
the impact of the West. One of the earliest books to be written on the subject
through J.N. Farquhar, held that:
The stimulating forces are approximately exclusively Western, namely,
English education and literature, Christianity, Oriental research,
European science and philosophy and the material elements of Western
civilization

Many historians have repeated and further elaborated this view. Charles
Heist, for instance, attributed not only ideas but also the methods of
organization of socio-religious movements to Western inspiration. The
importance of Western impact on the regenerative procedure in the society in
nineteenth century is undeniable. Though, if we regard this whole procedure
of reform as a manifestation of colonial benevolence and limit ourselves to
viewing only its positive dimensions, we shall fail to do justice to the complex
character of the phenomenon. Sushobhan Sarkar has drawn our attention to the
fact that ―
foreign conquest and domination was bound to be a hindrance rather
than a help to a subject people‘s regeneration‖. How colonial rule acted as a
factor limiting the scope and dimension of nineteenth century regeneration
needs consideration and forms an significant part of any attempt to grasp its
true essence. The reform movements should be seen as a response to the
challenge posed through the colonial intrusion. They were indeed significant
just as attempts to reform society but even more so as manifestations of the
urge to contend with the new situation engendered through colonialism. In
other words the socio-religious reform was not an end in itself, but was
integral to the emerging anti-colonial consciousness.

Therefore, what brought about the urge for reform was the need to
rejuvenate the society and its institutions in the wake of the colonial conquest.
This characteristic of the reform movement, though, introduced an element of
revivalism, a tendency to harp back on the Indian past and to defend Indian
culture and civilization. Although this tended to impart a conservative and
retrogressive character to these movements, they played an significant role in
creating cultural consciousness and confidence in the middle of the people.

SCOPE OF REFORMS

The reform movements of the nineteenth century were not purely religious
movements. They were socio-religious movements. The reformers like
Rammohun Roy in Bengal, Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitavadi) in
Maharashtra and Viresalingam in Andhra advocated religious reform for the
sake of ― Political advantage and social comfort‖. The reform perspectives of
the movements and their leaders were characterized through a recognition of
interconnection flanked by religious and social issues. They attempted to
create use of religious ideas to bring about changes in social institutions and
practices. For instance, Keshub Chandra Sen, and significant Brahman leader,
interpreted the ― unity of godhead and brotherhood of mankind‖ to eradicate
caste distinctions in society. The major social troubles which came within the
purview of the reform movements were:
Emancipation of women in which sati, infanticide, child and widow
marriage were taken up
Casteism and untouchability
Education for bringing about enlightenment in society

In the religious sphere the main issues were:

Idolatry
Polytheism
Religious superstitions
Use through priests
METHODS OF REFORM

In the attempts to reform the socio-religious practices many methods were

adopted. Four major trends out of these are as follows:

Reform from Within

The technique of reform from within was initiated through Rammohun
Roy and followed throughout the nineteenth century. The advocates of this
method whispered that any reform in order to be effective had to emerge from
within the society itself. As a result, the main thrust of their efforts was to
make a sense of awareness in the middle of the people. They tried to do this
through publishing tracts and organizing debates and discussions on several
social troubles. Rammohun‘s campaign against sati, Vidyasagar‘s pamphlets
on widow marriage and B.M. Malabari‘s efforts to augment the age of consent
are the examples of this.

Reforms through Legislation

The second trend was represented through a faith in the efficacy of
legislative intervention. The advocates of this method —Keshub Chandra Sen
in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Maharashtra and Viresalingam in
Andhra—whispered that reform efforts cannot really be effective unless
supported through the state. So, they appealed to the government to provide
legislative sanction for reforms like widow marriage, civil marriage and
augment in the age of consent. They, though, failed to realize that the interest
of the British government in social reform was connected with its own narrow
politico-economic thoughts and that it would intervene only if it did not
adversely effect its own interests. Moreover, they also failed to realize that the
role of the legislation as an instrument of change in a colonial society was
limited because the lack of sanction of the people.

Reform Through Symbol of Change

The third trend was an attempt to make symbols of change through non-
conformist individual activity. This was limited to the ‗Derozians‘ or ‗Young
Bengal‘ who represented a radical stream within the reform movement. The
members of this group prominent of them being Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee,
Ram Gopal Ghose and Krishna Mohan Banerji, stood for a rejection of
tradition and revolt against accepted social norms. They were highly
influenced through ― the regenerating new thought from the West‖ and
displayed an uncompromisingly rational attitude towards social troubles. Ram
Gopal Ghose expressed the rationalist stance of this group when he declared:
―He who will not cause is a bigot, he who cannot is a fool and he who does not
is a slave‖.

Reform Through Social Work

The fourth trend was reform through social work as was apparent in the
activities of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna
Mission. There was a clear recognition in the middle of them of the limitations
of purely intellectual effort if undertaken without supportive social work.
Vidyasagar, for instance, was not content with advocating widow remarriage
through lectures and publication of tracts. Perhaps the greatest humanist India
saw in modem times, he recognized himself with the cause of widow marriage
and spent his whole life, energy and money for this cause. Despite that, all he
was able to achieve was just a few widow marriages. Vidyasagar‘s inability to
achieve something substantial in practical conditions was an indication of the
limitations of social reform effort in colonial India. The Arya Samaj and the
Ramakrishna Mission also undertook social work through which they tried to
disseminate ideas of reform and regeneration. Their limitation was an
insufficient realization on their part that reform on the social and intellectual
planes is inseparably connected with the overall character and structure of the
society. Constraints of the existing structure will describe the limits which no
regenerative efforts on the social and cultural plane can exceed. As compared
to the other reform movements, they depended less on the intervention of the
colonial state and tried to develop the thought of social work as a creed.

IDEAS

Two significant ideas which influenced the leaders and movements were
rationalism and religious universalism.

Rationalism
A rationalist critique of socio-religious reality usually characterized the
nineteenth century reforms. The early Brahmo reformers and members of
‗Young Bengal‘ had taken a highly rational attitude towards socio-religious
issues. Akshay Kumar Dutt, who was an uncompromising rationalist, had
argued that all natural and social phenomena could be analysed and
understood through our intellect purely in conditions of physical and
mechanical processes. Faith was sought to be replaced through rationality and
socio-religious practices were evaluated from the standpoint of social utility.
In Brahmo Samaj the rationalist perspective led to the repudiation of the
infallibility of the Vedas and in Aligarh movement founded through Sir
Sayyid Ahmad Khan, to the reconciling of the teaching of Islam with the
needs and necessities of modem age. Holding that religious tenets are not
immutable, Sayyid Ahmad Khan emphasised the role of religion in the
progress of society: if religion did not keep in step with the times and meet the
demand of society, it would get fossilized as had happened in the case of Islam
in India. Although reformers drew upon scriptural sanction e.g. Rammohun‘s
arguments for the abolition of sati and Vidyasagar‘s for widow marriage,
social reforms were not always subjected to religious thoughts. A rational and
secular outlook was very much apparent in positing an alternative to the then
prevalent social practices. In advocating widow marriage and opposing
polygamy and child marriage, Akshay Kumar was least concerned with
searching for any religious sanction or finding out whether they existed in the
past. His arguments were mainly based on their noticeable effects on society.
Instead of depending on the scriptures, he cited medical opinion against child
marriage. Compared to other regions there was less dependence on religion in
Maharashtra. To Gopal Hari Deshmuk whether social reforms had the sanction
of religion was immaterial. If religion did not sanction them he advocated that
religion itself be changed, as what was laid down in the scriptures need not
necessarily be of modern relevance.

Universalism
An significant religious thought in the nineteenth century was universalism
a belief in the unity of godhead and an emphasis on religions being essentially
the same. Rammohun measured dissimilar religions as national embodiments
of universal theism and he had initially conceived Brahmo Samaj as a
universalist Church. He was a defender of the vital and universal principles of
all religions—monotheism of the Vedas and unitarianism of Christianity—and
at the same time he attacked the polytheism of Hinduism and trinitarianism of
Christianity. Sayyid Ahmad Khan echoed approximately the same thought: all
prophets had the same din (faith) and every country and nation had dissimilar
prophets. This perspective found clearer articulation in Keshub Chandra Sen
who tried to synthesize the ideas of all major religions in the break absent
Brahmo group, Nav Bidhan that he had organized. ― Our position is not that
truths are to be found in all religions, but all recognized religions of the world
are true.‖ The universalist perspective was not a purely philosophic concern; it
strongly influenced political and social outlook, until religious particularism
gained ground in the second half of the nineteenth century. For instance,
Rammohun measured Muslim lawyers to be more honest than their Hindu
counterparts and Vidyasagar did not discriminate against the Muslim in his
humanitarian activities. Even to the well-known Bengali novelist Bankim
Chandra Chatterji who is credited with a Hindu outlook dharma rather than
specific religious affiliation was the criterion for determining the superiority of
one individual over the other. This, though, does not imply that religious
identity did not influence the social outlook of the people in fact it did very
strongly. The reformer‘s emphasis on universalism was an attempt to contend
with this particularizing pull. Though, faced with the challenge of colonial
culture and ideology, universalism, instead of providing the basis for the
developing of a broader secular ethos, retreated into religious particularism.

SIGNIFICANCE

In the development of modem India the reform movements of the

nineteenth century have made very important contribution. They stood for the
democratization of society, removal of superstition and abhorent customs,
spread of enlightenment and the development of a rational and modem
outlook. In the middle of the Muslims the Aligarh and Ahmadiya movements
were the torch bearers of these ideas. Ahmadiya movement which took a
definite shape in 1890 due to the inspiration of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of
Qadian, opposed jihad, advocated fraternal relations in the middle of the
people and championed Western liberal education. The Aligarh movement
tried to make a new social ethos in the middle of the Muslims through
opposing polygamy and through advocating widow marriage. It stood for a
liberal interpretation of the Quran and propagation of Western education. The
reform movements within the Hindu community attacked a number of social
and religious evils. Polytheism and idolatry which negated the development of
individuality or supematuralism and the authority of religious leaders which
induced the habit of conventionality were subjected to strong criticism through
these movements. The opposition to caste was not only on moral and ethical
principles but also because it fostered social division. Anti-casteism existed
only at a theoretical and limited stage in early Brahmo movement, but
movements like the Arya Samaj. Prarthana Samaj and Rama Krishna Mission
became uncompromising critics of the caste system more trenchant criticism
of the caste system was made through movements which appeared in the
middle of the lower castes. They unambiguously advocated the abolition of
caste system, as apparent from the movements initiated through Jotibha Phulle
and Narayana Guru. The latter gave the call—only one God and one caste for
mankind. The urge to improve the condition of women was not purely
humanitarian, it was part of the quest to bring about the progress of society.
Keshub Chandra Sen had voiced this concern: ― no country on earth ever made
enough progress in civilization whose females were sunk in ignorance‖. An
attempt to change the then prevalent values of the society is apparent in all
these movements. In one way or the other, the attempt was to transform the
hegemonic values of a feudal society and to introduce values feature of a
bourgeois order.
 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS FORMATION

MILIEU

As the British extended their sway over India, a sullen feeling of a

resentment grew amongst the people. It was based on their perception that the
new rulers were responsible for their economic hardships. They also felt that
they were being looked down upon in their own country and their way of life
was being threatened. The opportunities accessible to them for advancement
were insufficient. The lower strata of social and economic hierarchy expressed
their resentment through sporadic uprisings. These were often directed against
immediate exploiters—the zamindars, moneylenders and tax collectors. But,
broadly speaking, these were protests against the system built through the
British. The intensity of discontent against foreign rule became visible through
these uprisings. The great Revolt of 1857 itself, in a way sprang up as an
outburst of accumulated discontent of masses in dissimilar parts of the
country.

The New Leaders

The failure of this Revolt revealed the inadequacy of the traditional
method of protest. It also showed that the old aristocratic classes could not be
the saviours of Indian society. The English educated middle class seemed to
be the hope of the future. The agitation accepted on through this class was of a
totally dissimilar character. This class was conscious of the benefits India had
derived from the British connection. It was also familiar with European liberal
ideas of that period. At the same time it had a sense of pride in the country‘s
glorious past and slowly developed the conviction that foreign domination was
inherently opposed to the fulfillment of legitimate hopes and aspirations of the
Indian people. A perception of identity in the interests of people inhabiting
dissimilar parts of the Indian sub-continent was also rising. The educated
Indians whispered for some time that their grievances would be redressed
through the benevolent rulers if they could draw their attention to them. So, in
the beginning, the middle class agitation was confined to ventilation of some
specific political and economic grievances and demands. This stage was,
though, to be left behind after some time.

Art and Literature

Throughout this period, ideas of nationalism and patriotism were given
popular form in songs, poems and plays. Several of the songs were composed
for the Hindu Mela which was organized for some years from 1867 onwards
through a group of Bengali leaders. The purpose was to spread nationalist
ideas and promote indigenous arts and crafts. In the procedure British policies
were blamed for deteriorating the economic circumstances of the people. The
need to use swadeshi goods was also emphasised. These ideas found
expression in some drama performances also. In a play that became popular
around 1860s entitled Neel Darpan, atrocities committed through indigo
planters were highlighted. The mainly significant name in this context is that
of Bankim Chandra Chatterji who wrote historical novels highlighting the
tyranny of the rulers. His mainly well recognized work is Anandmath (1882)
which also contains his immortal song ‗Bande Matram‘ composed a few years
earlier (1875). Similar patriotic feelings can be found in the literature in other
languages. Bhartendu Harishchandra, who is regarded as the father of modem
Hindi, in his plays, poems and journalistic writings, put forward a plea for
using swadeshi things. Similar trends can be seen in Marathi literature also
where there was tremendous augment in the number of publications—from
three flanked by 1818-1827 to 3,284—flanked by 1885-1896.

Newspapers and Journals

The newspapers and journals played a creditable role in structure up public
opinion in favor of Indian national interests and against the excesses and
inequities of the colonial administration. Some well-recognized English
language papers of this period were Amrita Bazar Patrika, Hindoo Patriot and
Som Prakash, published from Calcutta, lndu Prakash and Native Opinion from
Bombay and The Hindu from Madras. Some significant papers published in
Hindi were Hindustan, Bharat Mitra and Jagat Mitra. Jam-e-Jahan Numa and
Khushdil Akbhar were well recognized Urdu newspapers.

Signs of rising political awakening and feeling of oneness were obvious to

perceptive modern British Observers. For instance, writing confidentially to
the Government of ― Within the 20 years of my own recollection, a feeling of
nationality, which formerly had no subsistence, or was but faintly felt, has
grown up.... Now.... we are beginning to find ourselves face to face, not with
the population of individual provinces, but with 200 millions of people united
through sympathies and intercourse which we have ourselves created and
fostered. This seems to me to be the great political fact of the day.‖

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE 1885

The Indian National Congress was not the first political association to be
recognized in India. Several associations had been recognized earlier. The
beginning of organized political activity in India usually dates back to the
establishment of landholders‘ society in 1837. It was an association of
landholders of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and its principal objective was to
guard its class interests. In 1843 was shaped another association named Bengal
British India society. Its objective was wider, i.e. to protect and promote
general public interests. The landholders‘ society represented the aristocracy
of wealth, the Bengal British India society represented the aristocracy of
intelligence. In 1851 the two associations were merged, giving rise to a new
one, named the British Indian Association. This was the time when the Charter
of the British East India Company was due for renewal and a need was felt to
create the views of Indians recognized to the authorities in London.
Associations were also shaped about this time in Bombay and Madras. These
were described the Bombay Association and the Madras Native Association
respectively and were recognized in 1852.

All these associations were dominated through wealthy landed gentry.

Similar, but lesser recognized associations were recognized in other parts of
India too. Deccan Association can be mentioned as one of them. The three
Presidency associations sent petitions suggesting changes in East India
Company‘s Charter. These suggestions provide us a fairly good thought of the
attitude of the publically conscious classes in India at that time. Broadly
speaking, the petitioners wanted that Indians should be appointed to the
legislative bodies. Company‘s monopoly of salt and indigo should be
abolished and the state should provide aid to indigenous industry. It was also
stated that the local governments should have greater powers and Indians
should have better share in the administration of their country. So far as
agrarian issues were concerned, a desire was expressed for the preservation of
existing interests in land. Each petition also expressed concern about the need
to improve the condition of peasants. In the petition sent through members of
the British Indian Association it was stated that while Indians acknowledged
the blessings of an improved form of government, they could not but feel that
they had ‗not profited through their connection with Great Britain to the extent
which they had a right to look for‘. Several of their demands were later taken
up through the Congress.

As has already been mentioned, throughout the 1860s and 1870s ideas of
nationalism and patriotism were very much in the air. A number of political
associations were recognized in dissimilar parts of the country throughout this
period to propagate the cause of reform in several spheres of administration
and to promote political consciousness in the middle of several sections of
people. Of these, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, recognized through M.G.
Ranade, G.V. Joshi, S.H. Chiplankar and his associates in 1870, proved to be
the mainly significant. This Sabha brought out a journal from 1878 which did
much for arousing political consciousness. To carry on political propaganda in
England, some Indian students like Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji,
Dadabhai Naoroji and Manmohan Ghose founded the East India Association
in December, 1866. The half century from the establishment of Landholders
society in 1837 was more a period of aspirations than of achievements. But the
state was set throughout this period for the emergence of a national body. The
need for a national platform began to be keenly felt. In calcutta, dissatisfaction
with the British Indian Association had been rising. Its subscription was Rs. 50
per annum which was too high for the middle class.

Its membership was, so, confined to the wealthy people. In 1876 the Indian
Association was founded in Calcutta. The membership fee was kept at five
rupees, per annum. It soon became very popular amongst the educated people
and became a major force in Bengal and subsequently in Indian politics.
Surendranath Banerjea, a young member of the middle class who had been
ejected from the Indian Civil Service on what appeared to be insufficient
grounds was mainly responsible for its establishment. The aims of the Indian
Association incorporated developing a strong public opinion, promoting
Hindu-Muslim friendship, establishing get in touch with masses and
generating wider awareness amongst the Indian people. These are certainly
ingredients of a broad based nationalist movement. Surendranath Banerjea
said that the new association was based on the conception of United India
derived from the inspiration of Mazzini‘—the main architect of the Stehan
Unification. Several other political bodies were recognized in other parts of
India, like the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association,
the Allahabad People‘s Association, the Indian Association of Lahore etc.
Several of these bodies had branches in the Mofussil towns. After 1885 these
became the local arms of the Congress.

IMPERIAL RESPONSE

Needless to say, all these activities of the educated Indians did not go
unnoticed. The British Government took a note of the rising political
discontact and quickly went on the offensive. This was reflected in the policies
pursued through Lord Lytton who came to India in 1876.

Lytton
Lytton followed openly reactionary and anti-Indian policies. These
afforded excellent opportunities to the Indian Association to organize a
number of all-India political agitations. Lytton sent an expensive expedition of
Afghanistan which was financed out of Indian revenues. He removed import
duties on cotton textiles to benefit British cloth industry at the cost of the
nascent Indian textile industry. These steps were resented through politically
conscious Indians. In domestic policy the Viceroy patronized these sections
like the ruling princes and landholders who played a vital role in the
continuance of the British rule. He viewed the aspirations of educated Indians
with contempt. Throughout his period the maximum age for appearing in the
Indian Civil Service examination was reduced from 21 to 19 years. Since the
examination was held only in London, it was in any case hard for the Indians
to take this examination. The lowering of the age was looked upon as a step
calculated to prevent Indians from appearing in this examination. The Indian
Association took up the issue and launched an agitation over it in the country.
Surendranath himself undertook a tour of dissimilar parts of the country in
1877-78 and acquired all India fame. The Association also sent a well-
recognized Bengali barrister, Lal Mohan Ghose, to England to present a
memorial. Public meetings were organized to protest against the passing of the
Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act. The former imposed restrictions on
the newspapers and journals printed in Indian languages. This caused deep
resentment in the middle of the Indian societies. Amrita Bazar Patrika which
was published in Bengali till then, changed overnight into an English medium
paper so as to escape the restrictions imposed under this Act. Under the Arms
Act, Indians were made to pay a license fee in order to possess a weapon but
Europeans and Eurasians were exempted from doing so. Special concessions
were also given to landholders. Throughout the agitation on these issues vast
mass meetings, attended at some places through ten to twenty thousands
people were organized in district towns.

Ripon
Lord Lytton was succeeded through Lord Ripon in 1880. Ripon‘s
approach was dissimilar. He held that the educated Indians possessed
legitimate aspirations in keeping with their education and the pledges given
through the British Parliament from time to time in this regard should be
honored. Lytton‘s administration, he argued, had given the impression ‗rightly
or wrongly‘ that the interests of the natives of India were in all ways to be
sacrificed to those of England. He wanted to harness the talents of the
educated classes for strengthening British Rule. He repealed the Vernacular
Press Act, promoted local self-government institutions, encouraged the spread
of education and brought the Afghan War to an end. His policy, though, could
not proceed beyond sure limits on account of the constraints imposed through
the very character of British rule in India.

A bitter agitation directed at Ripon and his pro-Indian policies erupted

over the so-described Ilbert Bill in the middle of the Anglo-Indians who had
been annoyed through him. The Criminal Procedure amendment Bill, or the
Ilbert Bill as it came to be described after the name of the Law Member in
Viceroy‘s Council was in essence a measure putting Indian Judges on the
same footing as Europeans in dealing with all cases in the Bengal Presidency.
Its purpose was to enable qualified Indians in the mofussil to try Europeans for
criminal offences (in Presidency towns they were already allowed to do so).
The Bill was brought forward because Indians were now rising in the ranks of
the judicial service. It involved the possibility of trial of Europeans through
Indian judges for criminal offences without a jury. It also gave right to
Europeans to appeal to the High Court if they were not satisfied. But this
provoked a storm of angry criticism amongst the Anglo-Indians. Ripon found
that even the civil service was in sympathy with the opposition. In the press
and in public meetings Indian character and culture were severely criticized.
Ultimately the Government had to bow before this hostile opinion and the Bill
was amended in such a manner that its very purpose was defeated.

The whole controversy has an significant place in the circumstances

leading to the emergency of an All-India body. It is often said that Indians
learnt their first lesson in political agitation from Anglo-Indians on this
occasion. This is not really true. Indians had already realized the importance of
this method and had organized an all-India agitation on the question of Civil
Service Examination. In fact they had already learnt from experience that
Anglo-Indians would not create a common cause with them in their demands
for more power and better privileges. The reaction of Indians throughout the
country on the issue of agitation against the bill was the same. The Indian
press made it clearly recognized that educated Indians valued the principle
underlying the bill and would bitterly resent its abandonment. After the main
principle was abandoned, the Indian press began to talk of an urgent need for
national unity, greater organisation and self-reliance.

Throughout the early 1880s the thought of a national organisation had

become an significant topic for discussion in the Indian press. The Ilbert Bill
controversy seemed to reinforce this need. In July 1883, the Indian
Association held a meeting which was attended through some 10,000 persons.
Here it was decided that ‗a national fund‘ with the aim of securing the political
advancement of the country through means of agitation in England and in
India, should be created. This proposal was widely acclaimed. Though, in
some quarters there was criticism on the ground that the Indian Association
had failed to secure the support of other political associations in the country.
The drive for national fund acquiesced only Rs. 20,000. But it sparked off
widespread debate in the press. It was repeatedly pointed out throughout this
debate that coordinated political action was described for and representatives
of dissimilar political associations should meet annually in big cities of the
country. In December 1883 an International Exhibition was scheduled to be
held in Calcutta. The Indian Association decided to take advantage of this
event and invited prominent public men and associations in dissimilar parts of
the country to meet and discuss questions of general concern. Such a
Conference was held from 28 to 31 December 1883 and was described the
National Conference. It was not a very representative or influential gathering.
But it is important that the programme adopted here was very similar to the
one adopted through the Indian National Congress later. It provided an
opportunity to educated Indians from about forty -five dissimilar places to
meet and exchange views. It has rightly been described as the precursor of the
Indian National Congress of ‗the dress rehearsal‘ for it.

THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATED INDIANS

Here an obvious question arises: which sections of the society were taking
the initiative in organizing political activities throughout this period? We shall
now take up this question. Lead in organizing political activities was taken
through what historians have described as the ‗educated middle classes‘, the
‗professional classes‘, the ‗English educated elite‘ or the ‗intelligentsia‘. It is
significant to indicate some of the traits and attributes of this section of
Indians. Broadly speaking, reference here is to those people who had acquired
knowledge of English, had grown under the impact of British rule and who
had taken to professions like law, teaching and journalism or had secural
government jobs. Originating in Presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras, they had spread like a thin covering over the whole country.

Inspired through national consciousness and a pride in the glory of the

past, the middle class started constitutional agitation for political rights. Its
growth was so gradual that it was hardly noticed at the initial stages. Its social
and economic roots did not lie in industry or commerce, instead this class had
its roots in tenurial landholding, government service or professions. This
section took pride in calling itself the middle class, i.e. a section of society
which was below the zamindars but above the toilers. It looked forward to
playing the same role which the middle class had played in the west—that of
spearheading the transition form the feudal to a ‗modern‘ society through
Renaissance, Reformation, democratization of political institutions and rapid
industrialisation. The members of the middle class belonged to that section of
society which could not be described poor and they were normally from higher
castes. It should, though, be noted that all high caste people did not enjoy a
high economic status in society. For instance, in Bengal and several other parts
of India it was customary for well-to-do families to employ Brahmins as
cooks. Likewise in Bombay, according to figures composed in 1864, 10,000
beggers were listed as Chitpavan or Saraswat Brahmins.

This section of society may be described an elite in the sense that it

seemed to be the select part or pick of the society. But unlike an ‗elite‘, the
ideology of this class was not one of defending it own privileges either in
conditions of education or in conditions of social status. Their one great asset
was English education. Far from confining English education to them, several
of the educated Indians devoted themselves to spreading this kind of
education. Later they were to take up with great zest the demand for the
introduction of compulsory elementary education. Likewise they did not
hesitate to take up such social reforms which could affect their privileges
adversely. In the Indian context, throughout our period of the term ‗educated
middle class‘ stood for groups which acquired western education and began to
assert some type of local or national leadership. The social composition and
outlook of these groups was significantly dissimilar from these of the princes,
chiefs and zamindars who had earlier led resistance movements against the
British. Throughout the nineteenth century this class made a important
contribution to Indian life through championing the cause of religious and
social reforms, writing patriotic songs, plays and novels, preparing economic
critique of British rule and establishing political organizations.

Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy, once remarked that it was ‗a microscopic

minority‘. This remark has been quoted time and again through dissimilar
historians. It was a minority no doubt. But it was a minority which could not
be ignored, as Dufferin himself knew. It was a minority that had common
ideals and used similar idiom and could take a broad all-India view. It should
also be remembered that in history it is the dynamic minorities which have
usually determined the shape of nations. Here a reference may be made to
another saying that had gained some currency. British officials used to argue
that this class did not represent the masses and it were the British who looked
after their interests or were the ‗ma Bapp' of the Indian masses. This argument
was advanced because it served the imperial interest of justifying the
perpetuation of British Raj. To a sure extent educated people in all countries
are cut off from the masses. In India this alienation was compounded through
the foreign medium of modem education. But knowledge of English did not
mean that people ceased to know their own language. It is important that as a
class the educated Indians could never be bought over through the
Government.

FOUNDATION OF THE CONGRESS

In this section we shall take up some relevant issues related to the

foundation of the Congress, its initial scope and activities, resolutions passed
and the extent of the participation through several sections.

First Meeting
The credit for organizing the first meeting of the Indian National Congress
goes to A.O. Hume. He was a retired Government servant who had chosen to
stay back in India after retirement. He was on very good conditions with Lord
Ripon and shared his view that the emergence of the educated class should be
accepted as a political reality and that timely steps should be taken to give
legitimate outlets to the grievances of this class and efforts be made to satisfy
its ambitions. He laboriously consolidated the network of contacts that he had
recognized. Early in December 1884 he reached Bombay to bid farewell to
Ripon. He stayed on there for three months and throughout this period he
discussed with the leaders who were influential in the Presidency, the
programme of political action to be adopted through the educated Indians. In
March 1885 it was decided that a conference of the Indian National Union
(initially it was this name that was adopted) would be convened at Poona
throughout the Christmas week. Initially Hume and his group measured
Calcutta as the mainly likely place for the conference. But later they decided
upon Poona, because it was centrally located and the Executive Committee of
the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha expressed readiness to create arrangements for the
conference and give necessary funds.

Though, fate deprived Poona of the opportunity to host the first session of
the Indian National Congress. The venue had to be shifted to Bombay because
of the outbreak of cholera in Poona. The first meeting was held on Monday, 28
December 1885 in Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. It was attended
through 100 men of whom 72 were nonofficial‘s and were recognized as
members. The honor of being the first ever Congress President belonged to
W.C. Bannered of Bengal. He was one of the first four Indian Barristers and
one of the foremost legal luminaries in his day. His election recognized the
healthy precedent that the President should be chosen from a province other
than the one in which the Congress was being held.

Presidential Speech
The Presidential Speech of the first Congress President was aimed at
stating explicitly the scope, character and objectives of the Congress.
Moreover, the presidential speech also sought to remove several
apprehensions and misgivings which might have arisen in the mind of the
people about the exact intentions of the Congress. The aims and objects of the
Congress were defined very clearly through the President. He described the
objectives as:
Promotion of personal intimacy and friendship amongst the
countrymen,
Eradication of all possible prejudices relating to race, creed or
provinces,
Consolidation of sentiments of national unity,
Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing troubles of
the day, and
Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest.

Besides these demands the President enumerated the blessings conferred

through the British on India. He assured that the educated Indians were
thoroughly loyal and constant well-wishers of the Government. He clarified
that their purpose in organizing the Congress was to represent their views to
the ruling authorities and it was wrong to condemn them as a nest of
conspirators and disloyalists. They accepted Hume‘s leadership because
mainly of the members of the British community in India distrusted educated
Indians. Finally, the President specified in careful words what the Congress
wanted. All that it wanted was that the basis of the Government should be
widened. Such a policy would help not just the Government but also ‗the
people at large‘. This also shows that the Congress was demanding a share in
the government not to serve the interest of its own class but thought of the
interests of all Indians in this context. In fact no aspiration was more keenly
expressed than the one for national unity. The Congress leaders had
tremendous faith in what they described as the British sense of justice. They
were not thinking in conditions of expelling the British. All they wanted was
that the policies adopted through the Government of India should aim at the
welfare and good of Indians which meant really the advancement of their
interests. For this purpose they wanted greater share in running the
government. This was to be done through the development of representative
institutions and appointment of Indians to higher posts.

Participation
It is often argued that the lawyers predominated in the Congress. For
instance, a noted historian Anil Seal points out that over half the delegates at
the first Congress—39 out of 72—were lawyers and that throughout the
decades to come, more than one-third of the delegates to every Congress
session belonged to the legal professions. The old aristocracy—people like
rajas, maharajas, big zamindars and very wealthy merchants were conspicuous
through their absence. Nor did the peasants or artisans feel attracted towards it.
The fact that the lawyers predominated cannot be denied. But this is more or
less true of political organisations and legislatures everywhere. In India the
problem became compounded through the fact that very few careers were
open to educated Indians. So, a very big number adopted the legal profession.
The old aristocratic class did not participate in the Congress proceedings
because it felt threatened through new liberal and nationalist ideas. Though the
question of poverty of India had been discussed for sometime through several
leaders, especially Dadabhai Naoroji, no attempt was made to associate the
masses with the movement at this stage. When the Congress came to discuss
the condition of the people, it resolved that the first step should be the granting
of representative institutions. Given the tactics adopted through the
Congress—that of petitioning and drawing attention to grievances through
public discussions, this was natural.
Proceedings and Resolutions
The proceedings of the Congress were mannered in the mainly orderly and
efficient manner. The resolutions were moved discussed and passed in
accordance with strict parliamentary procedure. Each resolution was proposed
through a member belonging to one province, then seconded through a
member belonging to another province and was supported through members
from other provinces. The speeches were marked through moderation,
earnestness and expressions of loyalty to the Crown. Historian Briton Martin
comments that the first Congress was ‗a distinctly professional affair, which
would have been the envy of any comparable political meeting held in
England or the United States at that time‘. The first congress adopted nine
resolutions:
In one resolution demand was put forward for the appointment of a
Royal Commission for enquiring into Indian affairs on which Indians
would be adequately represented.
The other resolution demanded the abolition of the Indian Council of
the Secretary of State for India. The Congress wanted that the
Secretary of State should be responsible directly to the British
Parliament. This demand was based on the thought that the British
people were just and fair and, if properly informed, they would never
deviate from the right path.
There was also a resolution on foreign policy which condemned the
annexation of Upper Burma.
Other resolutions sheltered subjects such as liberalising the
Constitution and functions of the Central and Provincial Legislative
Councils, holding of simultaneous examination for the Civil Service in
Britain and India and the need to reduce expenditure on the army, etc.

Before dispersing, the Congress took two more decisions:

First was that an attempt should be made to get the resolutions passed
at the Congress session ratified through political associations
throughout the country.
Second, the after that Congress would meet at Calcutta on 28
December, 1886..

These decisions are significant. These show that the leaders did not look upon
the Congress as an isolated event but as the beginning of a movement.
In the above discussion you might have noticed that the question of social
reforms was not touched upon. Some of the members insisted that it should be
taken up. But in view of the fundamental differences of opinion on this issue,
this was not done. Though, some members took advantage of the attendance of
so several people to discuss issues like infant marriage and enforced
widowhood at a public meeting which was held at the same venue after the
formal Congress session Was concluded.
CONTROVERSIES RELATING TO ITS ORIGIN

Since the Indian National Congress has played an significant role in

India‘s history, it was natural that modern opinion as well as subsequent
historians should have speculated about the reasons which led to its
establishment. In fact this question has been discussed ever since the congress
was founded. Several scholars have made diligent attempts to identify the
efforts of an individual or individuals or the scrupulous circumstances which
can be measured as the principal immediate factors behind the event. But the
proof is conflicting. The issue continues to be discussed in the middle of
historians, a hundred years after the event. We shall see how far the
foundation of the Indian National Congress can be explained in conditions of
the alternative positions of:
Official conspiracy theory
Ambitions and rivalries of Indian elites
Growth of feeling that there should be an all-India political body. We
shall now take them up separately

Official Conspiracy Theory

If a body like the Indian National Congress had been founded through an
Indian, it would have been accepted as something normal and logical. But the
fact that the thought of an all-India political organisation was given concrete
and final shape through an Englishmen —A.O. Hume has given rise to several
speculations. Why should an Englishman take the initiative? Moreover, Hume
was not just any Englishman: he belonged to the Indian Civil Service. It is said
that while in service he had come crossways a mass of material which
suggested that as a result of the sufferings of the masses and alienation of
intellectuals, much discontent had accumulated and this could pose a threat to
the continuance of British rule. The memories of the great revolt of 1857 were
still fresh. Moreover, Hume himself had said that his aim was to give, to use
his own expression, a ‗safety valve‘ providing control to the ― great and rising
forces generated through‖ the British themselves. This has been juxtaposed
with W.C. Bannerjee‘s statement that Hume was acting under the direct advice
of Dufferin.

These two facts studied together gave rise to the argument that the Indian
National Congress grew out of the British conspiracy, the aim of which was to
give a peaceful and constitutional outlet to the discontent amongst the
educated Indians and therefore give against the threat to the Raj. But historians
are now disinclined to accept this view and many reasons are offered for this.
People had exaggerated ideas about the influence which Hume was supposed
to wield in official circles. Private papers to Lord Dufferin, the Governor-
General, are now accessible and they show that Hume‘s views were not taken
very seriously through British officials. Secondly, Hume‘s motives were
nobler than just creation of a ‗safety valve‘ with a view to give safe outlets to
educated Indians discontent. He possessed a genuine human sympathy for
India, and worked tirelessly for several years to create the Congress a viable
and continuing organisation. From 1885 to 1906 he was the general secretary
of the Congress and helped in guiding, shaping, coordinating and recording its
activities. For Hume there was nothing inconsistent in working for the
regeneration of the Indian people and at the same time accepting an
‗enlightened‘ distant imperialism from which Indian people could
considerably benefit for their social and cultural regeneration. Finally, because
of other growths to which a reference has been made, the need for establishing
an all-India organisation was being keenly felt and some efforts had in fact
been made in this direction. Hume was through no means responsible for
bringing about changes in the social and political milieu, which, in a broader
sense, made the foundation and survival of a national organisation possible.
The formation of the Congress cannot be described only to the initiative of an
individual. There were other factors, as has already been pointed out. Hume
was only a strong means for the realization of the aspirations of the fairly
large, and articulate middle class that was clamoring for sharing positions of
responsibility with the British in the running of administration in the country.

In this context a question can arise. Why it that educated Indians is

accepted Hume‘s leadership? Considering that some of them had been very
active in their field for approximately a decade, this question becomes all the
more relevant. One cause could be that being an Englishman he was free from
local prejudices. But it seems that the more significant cause was that Indian
leaders wanted to proceed cautiously lest their efforts invite official wrath.
Coming from a British ex-civil servant, such an effort was less likely to arouse
hostility in official circles. They had a fairly correct and realistic estimate of
what was possible. Under the circumstances, they wanted to consolidate and
ventilate their views without arousing suspicion in the minds of their rulers. In
his speech the President mentioned this in clear conditions. He remarked: ‗On
more than one occasion remarks have been made through gentlemen‘, who
should have been wiser, in condemning the proposed Congress as if it were a
nest of conspirators and disloyalists‘. If the founder was an Englishman, there
was less likelihood of inviting distrust. In this context a remark of the great
Moderate leader G.K. Gokhale is often quoted: No Indian could have started
the Indian National Congress.... If the founder of the Congress had not been a
great Englishman and a distinguished ex-official, such was the distrust of
political agitation in those days that the authorities would have at once found
some way or the other of suppressing the movement.
Ambitions and Rivalries of Indian Elite
Throughout the last two decades several historians, mainly centred at
Cambridge, have argued that the Indian National Congress was, in some ways,
not really national, that it was a movement of self-interested individuals and
that it functioned as a vehicle for the pursuit of their material interests and
parochial rivalries. But this view has been challenged in India. It is true that
lust for power or desire to serve one‘s interests cannot be totally ignored. But
at the same time the general factors cannot be brushed aside. Such an
explanation ignores the feeling of hurt caused through racial discrimination,
feeling of pride in the achievements of fellow-countrymen and also the slowly
rising perception that interests of their countrymen would be better served if
relations flanked by Britain and India were restructured. The feeling that
Indians shared common culture and fundamental economic and political
interests had been rising. Identity in aspirations and frustrations under an alien
rule had strengthened these bonds. The founders of the Indian National
Congress and several other organizations were inspired through idealism and
loftiness of a nationalist vision because of which the interests of self, family,
caste and community were subordinated to the interests of the Indian nation.
They sustained to look for ways of translating this national vision into a
reality. The first generation of Congress leaders remained very conscious of
the fact that they were being ruled through the British who had brought to
India several liberal values and a complete break with them might not be in the
interest of their countrymen. On the other hand, they thought of ways of
creation this structure serve the interests of their countrymen.

Need for an All-India Body

Viewed in a larger context, the founding of the Indian National Congress
was a response to the then existing political and socio-economic circumstances
which had resulted from long subjection to the alien rule. Throughout the
1880s, as we have seen, the thought of a national organisation was very much
in the air. In fact, throughout the last ten days of 1885 as several as five
conferences were held in dissimilar parts of the country. The Madras Mahajan
Sabha held its second annual conference from 22 to 24, December. It was so
timed as to enable the members of the Sabha to attend the Congress at Poona.
The Second Indian National Conference, convened through the Indian
Association, met at Calcutta. Early in December 1885 when the plan to hold a
conference at Poona was announced, attempt seems to have been made to
persuade Surendranath Banerjea to cancel his conference. But he expressed his
inability to do so at that stage. It merged with the Indian National Congress in
1886. Two other conferences held throughout the same period were the
conferences organized through Eurasians at Jabalpur and through Prayag
Central Hindu Samaj at Allahabad. Given the emergence of a countrywide
educated class, the ideas they expressed and the organizational growths that
had taken place, it was only a matter of time before a national body was
created. The Indian National Congress represented the culmination of an
awareness amongst educated groups of the need to work together for political
purposes. It marked the culmination of a long procedure of development of
political ideas and a procedure of organisation which had started from 1830s
onwards.

It is motivating to note that the contemporaries—both participants and

observers—showed a consciousness about two things. One was that they were
creation history and second that the Congress was a symbol of the growth of
feeling of nationhood. The verdict of history has confirmed their opinion.

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: MODERATES AND

EXTREMISTS

COMPOSITION OF THE CONGRESS

Beginning with its first session at Bombay in 1885, the congress became
through 1886 (second session at Calcutta) ‗the whole country‘s Congress‘. In
1885, only 72 delegates had attended the Congress session, whereas at
Calcutta (1886) there were 434 delegates elected through dissimilar local
organisations and bodies. Here it was decided that the Congress would meet
henceforth annually in dissimilar parts of the country.

Middle Class Organisation

Representing as it did the whole nation, the Congress could be only a
platform of all the races, castes, creeds, professions, trades and occupations, as
well as of provinces. But this broad sweeping account does not provide a
correct picture. As a matter of fact there was a great disparity in the
representation of several castes, creeds, races, professions, trades and
provinces. In the middle of the classes, the educated middle class had the
largest share. The legal profession was mainly heavily represented in the
middle of the professions. The Brahmins in the middle of the castes were
comparatively larger in number. In the middle of the provinces, as Anil Seal
has shown in his book, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism the
presidencies— Bombay, Calcutta and Madras took the leading part. The
masses were conspicuous through their absence. So was the case with the
landed class. So the Congress was through and large an entirely middle class
affair. A look at the figures of the members who attended the early sessions of
the Congress will bear out this statement.
 As is clear from Table 1 over half the delegates at the first Congress were
lawyers, and for decades to come more than a third of the delegates sustained
to belong to this profession in mainly of the sessions of the Congress.
Journalists, doctors and teachers shaped an overwhelming majority. There
were only two teachers at the first session but their numbers increased to 50 at
the fourth. Several who were not directly represented also sympathized with
the movement. Though the old aristocracy was not interested in public affairs,
the Congress tried to enlist its support as well. The thought behind this move
was that the support from the princes and aristocracy would demonstrate the
unity of British and princely India. This was likely to impress the
conservatives in Britain and also help in financing the movement.

The Methods of Work

Early Congressmen had an implicit faith in the efficacy of peaceful and
constitutional agitation. The press and the platform at the annual sessions were
their agencies. Though, the press was the only agency through which the
Congress propaganda was accepted out throughout the year. Several leaders,
in fact, were editors of either English or Indian language newspapers and
wielded their pen powerfully. The holding of the annual session was another
method of Congress propaganda. At these meetings the Government policy
was discussed, and resolutions were passed in a forceful manner. The annual
sessions attracted the attentions of both the educated sections of the middle
class, and the Government. But the gravest drawback was that the Congress
sessions lasted only for three days a year. It had no machinery to carry on the
work in the interval flanked by the two sessions.

The Congressmens‘ belief in the essential sense of justice and goodness of

the British nation was strong. They worked under the illusion that all would be
well if the British could be acquainted with the true state of affairs in India.
They thought that it was only the bureaucracy which stood flanked by the
people and their rights. So their aim was to educate Indian public opinion and
creation it conscious of its rights. It also intends to inform British public about
the troubles faced through the Indians and remind it of its duty towards India.
To fulfill the latter aim, deputations of leading Indians were sent to Britain to
present the Indian viewpoint. In 1889, a British Committee of Indian National
Congress was founded. To carry on its propaganda the Committee started its
organ India, in 1890. It was to present the Indian viewpoint to the British
authorities, that Dadabhai Naoroji spent a major part of his life in England. He
got elected to the British House of Commons and shaped a strong Indian lobby
in that House.

THE MODERATES

The Congress programme throughout the first stage (1885-1905) was very
modest. It demanded moderate constitutional reforms, economic relief,
administrative reorganization and defense of civil rights.

The Demands and Programme

The more significant of the demands were:
The organisation of the provincial councils,
Simultaneous examination for the i.c.s. in India and England,
The abolition or reconstitution of the Indian council,
The separation of the judiciary from the executive,
The repeal of the arms act,
The appointment of Indians to the commissioned ranks in the army,
The reduction of military expenditure, and
The introduction of permanent settlement to other parts of India.

The Congress expressed opinions on all the significant measures of the

Government and protested against the unpopular ones. These demands were
repeated year after year, although there was hardly any response from the
Government. Throughout the first twenty years (1885-1905) there was
practically no change in the Congress programme. The major demands were
practically the same as those formulated at the first three or four sessions.

This stage of the Congress is recognized as the Moderate stage.

Throughout this period the leaders were careful in their demands. They did not
want to annoy the government and incur the risk of suppression of their
activities. From 1885 to 1892, their main demand sustained to be expansion
and reform of the Legislative Councils, the membership of the Councils for
elected representatives of the people and also an augment in the powers of
these Councils. The British Government was forced to pass the Indian
Councils Act of 1892, but the provisions of this Act failed to satisfy the
Congress leaders. They demanded Indian control over the public purse and
raised the slogan that had earlier been raised through the Americans
throughout their War of Independence, ‗No taxation without representation‘.
Through 1905 the Congress put forth the demand for Swaraj or self-rule for
Indians within the British Empire on the model of the self-governing colonies
like Australia or Canada. This demand was first referred to through G.K.
Gokhale in 1905 (at Banaras) and later explicitly stated through Dadabhai
Naoroji in 1906 (at Calcutta). Economic Drain of India

A strong point made through the nationalists throughout this stage was
about the economic drain of India. Dadabhai described the British rule as 'an
everlasting and every day rising foreign invasion‘ that was slowly destroying
the country. In the nationalist opinion, the British were responsible for the
destruction of India‘s indigenous industries. The remedy for the removal of
India‘s poverty was the development of modem industries. The Government
could promote it through tariff protection and direct government aid. Though,
after seeing the failure of the Government in this regard the nationalists
popularized the thought of Swadeshi or use of Indian goods and boycott of
British goods as a means of promoting Indian industries. They demanded:
End of India's economic drain,
The reduction of land revenue in order to lighten the burden of taxation
on the peasants,
Improvement in the circumstances of work of the plantation labourers,
Abolition of the salt tax, and
The reduction in the high military expenditure of the Government of
India.

They also fully recognized the value of the freedom of the press and
speech and condemned all attempts at their curtailment. In fact, the thrash
about for the removal of restrictions on press became the integral part of the
nationalist thrash about for freedom. The progressive content of these
demands and their direct connection with the needs and aspirations of the
Indian middle class is clear through these demands. Mainly of them opposed
on grounds both economic and political, the large-scale import of foreign
capital in railways, plantations and industries and the facilities accorded to
these through the Government. Through attacking expenditure on the army
and the civil service, they indirectly challenged the basis of British rule in
India. Through attacking the land revenue and taxation policies, they sought to
undermine the financial basis of British administration in India. The use of
Indian army and revenue for British imperial purposes in Asia and Africa was
recognized as another form of economic use. Some of them even questioned
the propriety of placing on Indian revenues the whole burden of British rule
itself. In the form of the drain theory, they impressed upon the popular mind a
potent symbol of foreign use of India.

The Indian leaders were concerned with the problem of economic

development as a whole rather than economic advance in isolated sectors. The
central question for them was the overall economic growth of India. Growths
in dissimilar fields were to be measured in the context of their contribution to
the economic development of the country. Even the problem of poverty was
seen to be one of lack of production and of economic development.

Nature of Economic Demands

As we have noted earlier, even though their political demands were
moderate, their economic demands were radical in nature. The Indian leaders
advocated basically anti-imperialist economic policies. They laid stress on
vital changes in the existing economic relations flanked by India and England.
They vehemently opposed the attempts of foreign rulers to convert India into
supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufacturers. They
criticized the official policies on tariff, trade, transport and taxation. These
were regarded as hampering rather than helping the growth of indigenous
industry.

Evaluation of Work
Whatever may be the drawback in the demands put forward through the
Congress, it was a national body in true sense of the term. There was nothing
in its programme to which any class might take exception. Its doors were open
to all classes and communities. Its programme was broad enough to
accommodate all interests. It may be said that it was not a party, but a
movement. It necessity be said to the credit of the nationalist leaders that
though they belonged to the urban educated middle class, they were too broad-
minded and free from narrow and sectional class interests. They kept in mind
the larger interests of the people in general. Their economic policies were not
influenced through the short sighted vision of a job-hungry middle class. This
challenging critique of the financial foundations of the Raj was a unique
service that the early Congress leadership rendered to the nation.

The British Hostility

The political tone of the Indian National Congress might have been mild
but from the fourth session of the Congress onwards, the government adopted
a hostile attitude towards it. Time passed and nothing substantial was
conceded to the Congress. Elements hostile to the Congress were encouraged
through the British. For instance they encouraged the Aligarh movement
against the Congress. As the century was drawing to its secure, the British
attitude became more hostile to the Congress under Lord Curzon. His greatest
ambition was to assist the Congress to a peaceful demise. Though he took sure
steps which only fanned the nationalist discontent. In an autocratic manner he
tried to control the university education and decreed the partition of Bengal.
This led to a strong national awakening.

Throughout this period general impression grew that they (the Moderates)
were political mendicants, only petitioning and praying to the British
Government for petty concessions. As you have studied earlier, the Moderates
had played an significant role at a critical period in the history of Indian
nationalism. If fact, the flowering of the Moderate thought was the
culmination of a tradition which can be traced back to Raja Rammohun Roy,
who stood for the rational, liberal tradition of modern Europe. His ideas of
reforms ultimately provided the basis for the demands put forward through the
early Congress. As with Rammohun, so with the early Congress leaders, the
attendance of the British administration was significant for sustained political
progress. Quite understandably, their language was careful and their
expectation moderate. But with changing times, the Moderates also began to
alter their position. Through 1905 Gokhale had started speaking of self-rule as
the goal and in 1906 it was Dadabhai Naoroji who mentioned the word Swaraj
as the goal of the Congress. Even so, the Moderates found themselves in a
tight comer with the emergence of extremist leadership within the congress.
The British authorities also doubted their bonfires. The extremists were
attracting youthful section in the middle of the political activists. The well-
meaning, loyal, but patriotic, Moderates could no longer cut ice before the
maneuvering of the British bureaucracy. In the changed situation Extremists
came to the centre stage of the Congress.

THE EXTREMISTS

Extremism in the Indian National scene did not spring up all of a sudden in
the first decade of the twentieth century. In fact it had been rising slowly but
invisibly since the Revolt of 1857 itself.

Ideological Basis of Extremism

The nationalist ideas behind the Revolt of 1857, according to the
Extremists, were Swadharma and Swaraj. Attachment to rationalism and
western ideals had approximately alienated the ‗Liberal‘ (Moderate) school
from the masses in India. That is why despite their high 'idealism, they failed
to create any effective impact on the people. In due course a section was
bound to come to fill this gap. In the place of adoration and imitation of all
things Western, there was a movement through the eighties of the nineteenth
century urging people to look to their ancient civilization. An under-current of
this kind had existed earlier but throughout the Revolt of 1857 it had suddenly
burst into open. Though, the English educated community through and large
had kept itself aloof from the main current of Indian life and remained
untouched through this trend. The historic task of bridging the gulf flanked by
the educated few and the general people was accomplished through
Paramahamsa Ramakrishna and his English- educated disciple, Swami
Vivekananda. Swami Dayananda, who was well-versed in Vedic literature and
the Arya Samaj founded through him also played a vital role in this direction.
The Eclectic Theosophical Society of Annie Besant too made a contribution.
These social reform movements gave impetus to political radicalism. There
was instinctive attachment to native culture, religion and polity. The political
radicals who derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values were
ardent nationalists who wanted to have relations with other countries in
conditions of equality and self respect. They had tremendous sense of self
respect and wanted to keep their heads high. They opposed the moderates who
were measured through them to be servile and respectful to the British. To the
Extremists, emancipation meant something much deeper and wider than
politics. To them it was a matter of invigorating and energizing all
departments of life. They thought that a trial of strength flanked by the ruler
and the ruled was inevitable, and argued for structure a new India of their
dreams in which the British had no contribution to create.

There were three groups of the Extremists—the Maharashtra group,

headed through B.G. Tilak; the Bengal group represented through B.C. Pal
and Aurobindo and the Punjab group led through Lala Lajpat Rai. The Bengal
Extremists were greatly influenced through the ideas of Bankim Chandra, who
was a liberal conservative like Edmund Burke. He wanted no break with the
past which, he thought, might make more troubles than it would solve. He was
opposed to precipitate reforms imposed from above. In his view, reforms
should wait on moral and religious regeneration which should be based on
fundamentals of religion. Bankim blazed the trail for the Extremists in his
contemptuous criticism of the Moderates. This nationalism of the Extremists
was emotionally charged. The social, economic and political ideals were all
blended in this inspiring central conception of nationalism. Carrying this
message to the West Vivekananda generated tremendous self-confidence and
will power. Aurobindo even raised patriotism to the pedestal of mother
worship. He said in a letter, ―
I know my country as my mother. I adore her. I
worship her.‖ Aurobindo was very much attracted through the teachings of
Dayananda who was hardly influenced through any ideas from the West. He
credited Dayananda with more definite work for the nation than any other
reformer. Bankim Chandra, Dayananda and Vivekananda had therefore
prepared the ideological ground on the basis of which the Extremists drew up
their political programme.
Extremists in Action
Tilak resented any interference through an alien government into the
domestic and private life of the people. He quarreled with the reformers over
the Age of Consent Bill in 1891. He introduced the Ganpati festival in 1893.
Aurobindo published ‗New Lamps for Old‘ in the Indu Prakash flanked by
1893 and 1894. Tilak threw a challenge to the National Social Conference in
1895 through not allowing it to hold its session in the Congress pavilion in
Poona. The National Social Conference was under the influence of Moderate
Wing. In the same year the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was captured through the
Extremists from the Moderates. The Shivaji festival was first held on 15 April,
1896, with the foundation of the Deccan Sabha on November 4, 1896, the
division flanked by the Extremists and the Moderates in Maharashtra was
complete, but it was not so all-over India. Pal, for instance, the leader of the
Bengal Extremists was still in the camp of the Moderates. He wrote in 1897 ― I
am loyal to the British Government, because with me loyalty to the British
Government is identical with loyalty to my own people and my own country;
because I consider that God has placed this Government over us, for our
salvation‖. Only in 1902, he could write, ― The Congress here and its British
Committee in London, are both begging institutions‖.

Because of the soft and vacillating policy it pursued, Lajpat Rai also was
not interested in Congress programme. Flanked by 1893 and 1900 he did not
attend any meeting of the Congress. He felt throughout this period that the
Congress leaders cared more for fame and pomp than for the interests of the
country. While one disillusionment after the other demoralized the Moderates
and weakened their cause, the victory of Japan over Russia (1904-05) sent a
thrill of enthusiasm throughout Asia. Earlier in 1896 the Ethiopians had
defeated the Italian army. These victories pricked the bubble of European
superiority and gave to the Indians self-confidence

THE MODERATES AND EXTREMISTS: AN ANALYSIS

There was much in common flanked by the Moderates and the Extremists.
But they also shared sure differences in political perspective and methods. In
this Section we will deal with the differences which existed flanked by the
Moderates and Extremists, culminating in the Surat split in 1907, and how this
affected the National Movement.

Differences
Tilak remarked that the Old (Moderate) and New (Extremist) parties
agreed on the point that appeals to the bureaucracy were useless. But the Old
party whispered in appeals to the British nation, the New Party did not. Like
the Moderates, Tilak also whispered that under the British rule, the industries
had been ruined and wealth drained out of the country, and Indians reduced to
the lowest stage of poverty. But the way out was not. Tilak affirmed, through
petitioning. The extremists whispered that Indians should have the key of their
own house and Self Government was the goal. The New Party wanted the
Indians to realize that their future rested entirely in their own-hands and they
could be free only if they were determined to be free. Tilak did not want
Indians to take to arms, rather they should develop their power of self-denial
and self-abstinence in such a way as not to assist the foreign power to rule
over them. Tilak advised his countrymen to run their own courts, and to stop
paying taxes when time came. He asserted, ― Swaraj is my birthright and I will
have it‖.

The philosophical radicalism of Aurobindo went even further. According

to him the existing condition of the Government in India suffered from corrupt
western influences. To escape it, her necessity gets rid of these circumstances
and seeks refuge in her own superior civilization. The work of nationalism, he
added would be to:
Win Swaraj for India so that the existing unhealthy condition of
political life, full of germs of the social and political malaise which
was overtaking Europe, might be entirely and radically cured, and
Ensure that the Swaraj when gained would be a Swadeshi Swaraj and
not an importation of the European diversity. This is why, in his
opinion, the movement for Swaraj found its first expression in an
outburst for swadeshi sentiment directed not merely against foreign
goods, but against foreign habits, dress, manners and education and
sought to bring the people to their own civilization.

From the foregoing it may appear that through the Extremists used much
stronger and sharper language, but as far as the goals were concerned they
were considerably not very dissimilar from the moderates. As referred earlier,
Gokhale in his Presidential Address and Dadabhai Naoroji in his Presidential
speech had respectively advocated self-government and Swaraj as the goal of
the Congress. The differences were related to the methodology for achieving
the goals.

Personality Conflict
Besides these differences of attitude and emphasis mentioned above, the
controversy flanked by the Moderates and the Extremists raged round the
personality of Tilak. Both Tilak and Gokhale hailed from Poona. Tilak was
militant, as Orientalist who would use any stick to beat the Government with.
He wielded a powerful pen and exerted great influence on public opinion
through his papers, the Mahatma and the Kesari. Gokhale was gentle and soft-
spoken. He had wonderful mastery over Indian financial troubles, was at his
best in the imperial Legislative Council being an expert in exposing the hallow
claims of the Government. He was Hon‘ble Mr. Gokhale (Mahanama
Gokhale). He had recognized at Poona the Servants of India Society with a
view to training a band of dedicated workers who were expected to provide
their all to the service of the motherland. The members of the Society had to
take an oath of poverty, had to observe strict code of conduct. They were
given only a survival allowance and had to perform hard duty.

The variation flanked by Gokhale and Tilak may be traced back to an

earlier period. There had been intense conflict of personalities at Poona from
the beginning of the nineties of the last century. A quarrel ensured flanked by
Tilak and G.G. Agarkar although they had been co-workers in the Deccan
Education Society. Ultimately Tilak was pushed out of the Society. Thereafter
there had been a constant tussle flanked by the followers of Tilak on the one
hand and his opponents on the other. The opponents rallied round Mahadev
Govind Ranade and Gokhale, backed in Congress affairs through Pherozeshah
Mehta from Bombay. Gokhale enjoyed the support of the Congress
establishment. As the Moderates were losing their popularity and the
Extremists were capturing the imagination of the country because of the
growth of the new spirit, the disagreement flanked by the two contending
groups in Maharashtra and Poona also became more pronounced.

There was ferment, all over India. The Bande Mataram under Aurobindo
was not only challenging the right of the British Government to rule India, but
also the right of the veteran leaders to speak for India. Outside Bengal Tilak
was the first to recognise the potential of the ferment in Bengal. The Partition
of Bengal was to him not so much a British blunder as Indian opportunity to
build up strength. He extended support to the anti-partition movement and
encouraged the emerging Extremist leaders in Bengal. Gokhale had seen this
alliance rising since the Benaras Congress (1905). This Tilak-Pal alliance
caused a deep concern not only to the Government, but also to several
Congress Leaders. Tilak was regarded as a dissident, if not a rebel.
Pherozeshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha and the whole Bombay Group distrusted him
since the controversies raging in the 1890s. The differences were partly
temperamental. For at least 15 years there had been a cold war flanked by the
Congress Establishment headed through Mehta on the one hand and Tilak on
the other.

Open Disagreement and Split

Tilak was unpopular with the Moderate group in Bombay. He was a
shrewd tactician waiting for the opportunity to show his hand. The unity
forged at the Benaras Congress with the Bengal Extremists proved
advantageous to Tilak at the Calcutta Congress Gokhale also had his
premonitions about the Calcutta Congress. He apprehended trouble. This
mutual distrust did not augur well for the Congress. To begin with there was
controversy over the Presidentship. Pal and Aurobindo wanted Tilak to be the
President, but the Moderates were in no mood to accept him. To have their
way the latter resorted to an extraordinary maneuver, and without consulting
the Reception Committee, wired Dadabhai Naoroji to accept the presidentship.
After the latter‘s acceptance, the Extremists were presented with a faint
accompli. Therefore having failed in their attempt to get Tilak installed as
President, the Extremists—Tilak, Aurobindo, Pal, Ashwini Kumar Dutt, G.S.
Khaparde etc—shaped themselves into a pressure group to press their points.
The Extremists were in majority and they had substantial local support. There
was much heat in the atmosphere and the meeting of the Subjects Committee
was stormy. Resolutions were discussed and amended under pressure from the
Extremists. Pherozeshah Mehta was the target of their special fury. Mehta,
M.M. Malaviya and Gokhale were heckled and booed. Ultimately a
compromise was hurriedly made, and the resolutions on the partition of
Bengal, Swadeshi and Boycott were re-phrased and secured a smooth passage
in the open session. There was though, no union of the minds and hearts in the
middle of the antagonists. The danger was averted for the time being but a
festering sore was left.

Though the Extremists had failed to get Tilak elected the President of the
Calcutta Congress (1906), they were satisfied with what they had achieved
there. They had appeared as a strong, coherent and powerful force. They had
thwarted what they whispered to be determined attempts to water down the
Congress programme. The Moderates left Calcutta with mixed feelings of
bewilderment, humiliation and dismay. What worried them mainly was the
―rough behaviour‖ adopted through the Extremists. Both the Moderates and
the Extremists participated in the Swadeshi movement, but there were real
differences flanked by the views of the Moderates and Extremists on
Swadeshi. To Tilak, Pal and Aurobindo boycott had double implications.
Materially it was to be an economic pressure on Manchester, producing
thereby a chain reaction on the Government of India. Spiritually it was a
religious ritual of self-punishment. Swadeshi had primarily an economic
message for Gokhale the message of industrial regeneration which he had
imbibed from Ranade. To Surendranath the Swadeshi movement was in spirit
a protectionist movement. It appealed to the masses because they had the
sense to perceive that it would ― herald the dawn of a new era of material
prosperity for them‖. To Tilak and Lajpat Rai it was a moral training in self-
help, determination and sacrifice as well as a weapon of ‗political agitation‘.
To Aurobindo Swadeshi was not ‗secularity of autonomy and wealth‘, but a
return to the faith in India‘s destiny as the world-savior. This Swadeshi had a
far richer and meaningful content for the Extremists than for the Moderates.

Differences of temperament and ideology and conflict of personalities

were to make bitter feelings in the middle of the rival groups. Persistent
criticism through the Extremists alarmed the Moderates. The latter were afraid
that the former had already captured Bengal. Maharashtra, Berar and the
Punjab and there was danger of the rest of the country also being lost to them.
So they were desperate. At Calcutta it has been decided to held the after that
session of the Congress at Nagpur where the Moderates thought that they
would be in majority. The election of the Congress President for the ensuing
session (1907) developed into an occasion for trial of strength flanked by the
Moderates and the Extremists. The Moderates were determined not to allow
Tilak to hold the presidential Chair. This attitude was an ominous sign and
betrayed the determination of the Moderate to wreck of Congress if Tilak got
elected as President and the Extremists had an upper hand.

The Moderates were unanimous on the exclusion of Tilak but not on who
should be elected. Gokhale had his eyes fixed on Rash Behari Ghosh, a
renowned lawyer and powerful orator. But the Moderates found themselves
unnerved at Nagpur and Pherozeshah Mehta changed the venue to Surat where
he thought he would have his way. The Extremists did not like this. The tense
atmosphere and the intemperate language used through both sides pointed to
the inevitability Of the coming crisis at Surat. Rash Behari Ghosh was elected
the Congress President. The relations flanked by the two groups worsened still
further. In the meeting there was open disagreement to the proposal of Ghosh
being elected as President. Tilak was not allowed to express his views in the
matter. This was a signal for pandemonium. There were shouts and counter-
shouts, brandishing of sticks and unrolling of turbans, breaking of chairs and
brushing of heads. There were allegations and counter-allegations as to who
was responsible for this episode. There is no use debating this question now.
But the fact that the internal disagreement had taken this form should have
been a matter of concern for all.

Consequences of the Split

But whoever may be responsible for the split and whatever may be its
cause, it was a great national calamity. Gokhale was aware of this great
disaster. The British bureaucracy was in jubilation. Lord Minto, the Viceroy,
excitingly told Lord Morley, the Secretary of State that the ‗Congress
Collapse‘ (Surat split) was ‗a great triumph for us‘. But Morley knew better.
Approximately prophetically he told the Viceroy that, their immediate collapse
notwithstanding, the Extremists would eventually capture the Congress. The
split did immense harm to the Congress in scrupulous and the national
movement in general. It can be said that the Moderates were the brain of the
Congress and the nation and the Extremists were the heart; the former were
the ‗law‘ and the latter ‗impulse‘. The unified action of the two was absolutely
necessary for the proper functioning of the organisation and growth of national
movement. With the extremists in the wilderness, the Moderates were to
achieve little. For about a decade, the Moderates were not in a position to
show the type of strength that was needed to seriously oppose the British. It
was only after 1916, with the re-entry of the Extremists in the Congress and
exists of the Moderates from it (1918) that the Congress could be reactivated.
But then it was a new story. Mohandas Karamchand Ghandhi, Gokhale‘s
political disciple, associating himself with the programme of the Extremists,
with his emphasis on the synthesis of the cause and faith, law and impulse,
representing the abiding strength of the Indian people was to activise and
rejuvenate the Congress and carry a new stage of action.

PARTITION OF BENGAL AND THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT

The enthusiasm of the articulate representatives of the educated middle
class-the newly acclaimed leaders of Indian Society —appears to have
considerably diminished through the secure of the 19th century. Personalities
like Gladstone in Britain and Lord Ripon in India, who realized the
importance of the educated Indians and sympathized with their aspirations,
were no longer at the helm of affairs. Instead, men who distrusted them
without exception, and who disliked any relaxation of Britain's imperialist
hold over India, were in charge of the governance of India. The authorities
tended to ignore the Indian opinions and turned a blind eye to acts of racial
arrogance through the officials. They even tried to undermine those nominal
concessions which had grudgingly been conceded to Indians from time to time
in the earlier period. The hostility of the Raj was becoming apparent even to
the earlier nationalists. Several of them had realised through 1900 the futility
of their petitioning and praying to the Government. Their very modest
demands for jobs in the Indian Civil Service and some reforms in the
Legislative Councils had practically been disregarded. Their appeal for a just
British rule in India in place of the prevailing "un-British" misrule fell on deaf
ears. Their demands for constitutional concessions that had repeatedly been
made from the Indian National Congress platform for about two decades
produced only the paltry reforms of 1892. The situation was considerably
worsened in the early years of the 20th century due to the attendance in India
of a Viceroy like Lord Curzon, who wanted to treat the Congress as an
― unclean thing‖, reject all its leaders‘ pleas with ― frigid indifference‖ and
consider the Civil Service as one ― specifically reserved for Europeans‖. Like
all staunch imperialists, Curzon was an unqualified racist, proclaiming that
― the highest ideal of truth is to a large extent a Western concept‖ and speaking
of Indians in his benevolent moods in tones ― one normally reserves for pet
animals‖. Alarmed and ruffled through the Curzonian attendance as the earlier
nationalists were, they were not as dispirited as to swallow every humiliation
or to lie ignominiously low. They had grown in stature in the eyes of their own
people, learnt from their social reformers and ideologue to have faith in them
and acquired enough amount of self-respect to ask for civilized treatment and
natural justice. A confrontation flanked by Curzon and the educated middle
class nationalists, so, was bound to take place. It eventually did in Bengal—
where the Indian intelligentsia was mainly assertive and where Curzon was at
his offensive worst.

Curzon was the first to start his attack in Bengal. As early as 1899 he
reduced the number of elected members in the Calcutta Corporation. This
measure was planned primarily to satisfy the European business interests in
the city, who often complained of delays in the grant of licenses and similar
other facilities. The consideration behind the action was obvious, and its
undemocratic nature was unmistakable. The Calcutta citizens felt deeply
offended and wronged. Though, before they could digest this wrong, Curzon
launched an assault on the autonomous character of Calcutta University — the
pride of the educated sections in Bengal. Armed with the recommendations of
Indian Universities Commission, who‘s sole Indian member (Gurudas Banerji)
disagreed wholly with others, Curzon passed the Universities Act (1904). The
objective used as a pretext was ― to raise the standard of education all round‖.
The act cut down the number of elected senate members (mostly Indians) and
transferred the ultimate power of affiliating colleges and schools, as well as
giving them grant-in-aid, to the Government officials. This piece of legislation
left the outraged members of the educated middle class in no doubt about the
Viceroy‘s determination to hurt them and break their spirit in every
conceivable way. They naturally had to prepare themselves mentally for the
worst, and think in conditions of offering resistance. The worst, as it turned
out, came rather quickly and dramatically in July 1905 when Curzon
announced the partition of Bengal.

THE PLAN FOR THE PARTITION OF BENGAL

The province of Bengal under a Lieutenant Governor was an unwieldy

territory of diverse population, using several languages and dialects and
differing widely in conditions of economic development. Separately from
Bengal proper (i.e. Bengali-speaking western and eastern Bengal), it originally
comprised the whole of Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Earlier, too, the British
authorities did occasionally think of reducing the size of the province for
administrative convenience. In 1874 they actually separated Assam from
Bengal through creation it a Chief Commissioner's province, and adding to it,
despite some local opposition, the predominantly Bengali-speaking area of
Sylhet. Assam was further extended in 1897 through the transfer for the time
being of South Lushai hill tracts from Bengal. Such piece-meal reductions,
though, had not conclusively solved the British difficulty in managing a
province of the proportion of Bengal with all its attendant troubles. From the
administrative point of view, as well as from the angle of equal developmental
opportunities for all the areas, some sort of territorial reorganization of the
province of Bengal was so needed. Curzon did not appear to be thinking
unreasonably when he talked of 'readjustments' of Bengal early in 1904. If he
had ever thought of streamlining the province through disassociating the
linguistically divergent, Orissa and Bihar from it, as it was so aptly and
repeatedly advocated through the nationalists themselves, Curzon's policy
would almost certainly have been hailed as a principled and far-sighted one.
Instead, he and his main advisors-Sir A. Fraser, the Lieutenant Governor of
Bengal, and H.H. Risley, Secretary, Home Department, Government of India-
were determined to use the plea for territorial readjustment to throttle the voice
of nationalism. The move was calculated to hurt chiefly those who
spearheaded the national movement in the eastern part of India, namely, the
Bengali-speaking educated middle class. Having been the first to be brought
under the British rule, the Bengalis were in the middle of the pioneers in
taking to English education, imbibing Western Liberal ideas and airing
nationalistic and patriotic views. This annoyed the imperialist authorities and
they decided to take action.
THE MOTIVE BEHIND THE PLAN

In the eyes of Curzon and others like him Bengal was the mainly
vulnerable point in the whole British Indian empire. In their view the Bengalis
were ― a force already formidable, and sure to be a source of rising trouble in
the future‖. To meet the rising nationalist challenge in eastern India Curzon
and his advisors searched for an effective answers, and eventually found it in
the division of the Bengali-speaking people. The official assessment was:
―Bengal united is a power, Bengal divided will pull in many dissimilar ways‖.
Curzon and Company were determined ― to split up and thereby weaken a solid
body of opponents‖ to the British rule. The splitting up operations, or the
arrangement for giving effect to the maxim ― divide and rule‖, had to be done
in such a manner as to create the Bengalis suffer physical as well as mental
division. This Curzon wanted to achieve through creating a situation of mutual
suspicion and jealousy flanked by the two major communities in Bengal — the
Hindus and the Muslims.

Curzon and his advisors knew that their opponents in Bengal came largely
from in the middle of the Hindus, who had benefited more than their Muslim
brethren through taking socio-economic and educational advantage of the
British rule. Majority of the Muslims being agriculturists could not manage to
take a similar advantage. Through shrewedly suggesting that his Government
wished to standby the Muslims in their race for advancement with the Hindus,
and secure them from any threat of Hindu domination, Curzon planned to take
absent from Bengal those territories where Muslims were more numerous, and
join these with Assam to form a new province with Dacca as its Capital. The
new province, Curzon hoped, ― would invest the Mohammedans in Eastern
Bengal with a unity which they have not enjoyed since the days of the old
Mussalman viceroys and kings‖. He also expected Dacca ― to acquire the
special character of a Provincial Capital where Mohammedan interest would
be strongly represented if not predominant‖. Through partitioning Bengal, so,
Curzon and his lieutenants wanted to set up Dacca as a parallel political centre
to the nationalistically oriented Calcutta. To create use, of the Muslims to
counter-balance the Hindus they planned to make out of Bengal a Muslim-
majority province (where 15 million Muslims would live with 12 million
Hindus and reduce the Bengali speaking people into a minority in what would
remain as Bengal (where 19 million Bengali speaking persons should be
outnumbered through 35 million speakers of Hindi, Oriya and other
languages). This mischievous game was being played, above all, to cripple the
educated Indian middle class nationalists.
THE PARTITION

The Curzonian scheme to partition Bengal took a concrete shape slowly

from the time the Viceroy wrote his minute on Territorial Redistribution on 1
June, 1903 to the day the final scheme of division was despatched to the home
authorities in London for sanction on
February, 1905. On 19 July, 1905 the Government of India announced its
decision to form the new province of ― Eastern Bengal and Assam‖,
comprising the Chittagong, Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, Hill Tippera
(Tripura), Malda and Assam. The province came into subsistence on 16
October, 1905, through breaking up Bengal and its 41.5 million Bengali
speaking people.

THE MISCALCULATION OF THE GOVERNMENT

Even while dividing Bengal mainly impudently, and with contempt for the
Bengalis, Curzon. and his men made their own calculations about the type of
resistance, they may have to face. They knew about the worries of the babus in
eastern Bengal over the prospect of clerical jobs. They were also aware of the
difficulty the Bengali Zamindars (having estates in both eastern and western
parts) had to face over the increased expenses for engaging two sets of
mediators and pleaders. The Calcutta High Court lawyers‘, they knew, will
feel concerned over the loss of practice because of a separate High Court in
the new province. They would think of the anxieties of the jute and rice
trading interests close to the port of Calcutta over the challenge that
Chittagong might pose as an alternative outlet. They also knew how Calcutta
nationalists might feel disturbed on account of the loss of a considerable
portion of their audience and following. But they expected all worries to
subside in course of time, or at the mainly, to lead for a while only to protest
meetings and processions that could easily be tolerated and ignored.

The Government had no thought whatsoever of the stormy political

movement which the Partition would cause, breaking it absent from traditional
ways of respectful resentment, generating unprecedented militancy and
turning it rapidly into a battle for swaraj (self- rule). The authorities grossly
underestimated the Bengali dislike for authoritarianism which had been
produced in the middle of them through their long history of virtual
independence from nominal central powers. They also failed to grasp the
Bengali feeling for unity and pride in their attainments, at least in the middle
of the literates which had been fostered through intense educational,
intellectual and cultural activities throughout the whole of the 19th century.
Separately from its being the centre of economic and political affairs, the
metropolis of Calcutta—the capital of British India—had already become the
nerve-centre of Bengali consciousness. It drew students from all parts of
Bengal, sent out teachers, professionals (engineers and doctors) and petty
officials to every nook and comer of the province, often far beyond it. Calcutta
had made a important contribution to the growth of a powerful literary
language. The city had an rising number of high-stage newspapers and
periodicals as well as a band of writers who were producing developed modem
literature.

With their gravitational point in Calcutta, the educated Bengalis were at

the beginning of the 20th century inspiring large parts of the country through
their achievements in literature (led through Rabindranath Tagore), in science
(led through Jagadish Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Roy) in politics (led
through Surendranath Banerjee and the up-coming Bepinchandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh) and in religion (typified through Swami Vivekananda).
Approximately at the same time they were creation careful note of the chinks
that the Boer war had revealed in the so- described impenetrable British
armour. They also felt greatly elated and assured when much under-rated
Oriental Japan defeated in 1904-05 the over-rated Occidental Czarist Russia.
Their rising self-confidence was matched through the rising abhorrence with
which they looked down upon all acts of racial intimidation and
discrimination.

The educated middle class Indians in Bengal, like their counter parts in the
rest of the country, were severely critical of the ―
drain of wealth‖ from India
to Britain, and of the ravages which India suffered on account of frequent
recurrence of famines and plague. They themselves were hard-hit
economically, partly because of over-crowding in the professions, and partly
due to the unremunerative fragmentation through inheritance of their landed
properties. To create matters worse, there was a sudden rise in the prices of all
commodities that affected everybody, including the members of the middle
class, the rise being ―
steepest flanked by 1905 and 1908—precisely the years
of maximum political unrest‖. In sum, one could say that Bengal and the
Bengali middle class in 1905 were through no means in a mood to surrender to
the Curzonian assault. But Curzon himself did not seem to be adequately
aware of it.

BOYCOTT, SWADESHI AND NATIONAL EDUCATION

The anti-partition agitation began in Bengal on the conventional moderate

nationalist lines, though with a great deal of noise and angry protestations.
There were sharp press campaigns against the partition scheme, numerous
public meetings in opposition to it and the drafting of petitions to the
Government for its annulment. Big conferences were held at the Town Hall,
Calcutta, where delegates from districts came to participate and gave vent to
their injured sentiments. All this was impressive, creation the educated middle
class‘s case against the partition loud and clear. But it made no effect on the
indifference of the authorities in India and Britain. The apparent failure of
these methods, so, led to a search for new techniques from the middle of 1905
and resulted in the discovery of the boycott of British goods as an effective
weapon. The boycott suggestion first came from Krishnakumar Mitra‘s
Sanjivani on 3 July, 1905, and was later accepted through the prominent
public men at the Town Hall meeting of 7 August, 1905. The discovery was
followed through the calls of Rabindranath Tagore and Ramendra Sunder
Trivedi, respectively, for the observance of raksha-bandhan (the tying of
thread wristlets on each other‘s hands as a symbol of brotherhood) and
arandhan (the keeping of the hearth unlit at all the homes as a sign of
mourning) oil the day the partition was put into effect. With these measures
the movement gained a new fervor.

The boycott of British products was followed through

The advocacy of swadeshi or exhorting purchasers to buy indigenously
produced goods as a patriotic duty,
Charkha (the spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for
the country‘s economic self-sufficiency, and
The holding of swadeshi melas or fairs for selling handicrafts and other
articles became a regular characteristic.

A considerable enthusiasm was created for undertaking swadeshi or Indian

enterprises. Meanwhile, the picketing before the shops selling British goods
soon led to a boycott of the officially controlled educational institutions. The
British threat to the student-picketers in the form of the withdrawal of grants,
scholarships and affiliations of the institutions to which they belonged
(through the infamous circular of 22 October, 1905 issued through Carlyle, the
Chief Secretary of the Government of Bengal, recognized otherwise as the
―Carlyle Circular‖) and the actual imposition of fines and rustication orders on
them resulted in the decision through large number of students to leave these
schools and colleges of ― slavery‖. Boycott of schools and colleges forced the
leaders of the Swadeshi movement to think in conditions of running a parallel
system of education in Bengal. Soon appeals were made, donations composed
and distinguished persons came forward to formulate programmes for national
education. These efforts resulted in the establishment of the Bengal Technical
Institute (which was started on 25 July, 1906, and which later turned into the
College of Engineering and Technology, Jadavpur—the nucleus of the present
day Jadavpur University), the Bengal National College and School (which was
set up on 15 August, 1906 with Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal) and a
number of national, primary and secondary schools in the districts.
THE SAMITIS AND THE POLITICAL TRENDS

For aiding the cause of national education, and for spreading the messages
of boycott and swadeshi, a large number of national volunteer bodies or
samitis sprang up in Calcutta and the districts. Some of the distinguished in the
middle of them were the Dawn Society (named after the well-known journal
of the time-Dawn), the Anti-Circular Society (shaped initially to protest
against the "Carlyle Circular"), the Swadeshdhandhav, the Brati, the
Anushilan, the Suhrid and the Sadhena samitis. These samitis preached the
essentials of swadeshi and boycott, took up social work throughout famines
and epidemics, imparted physical and moral training, organised crafts and
national schools and set up arbitration committees and village societies. ' They
encouraged folk singers and artistes (notably persons like Mukunda Das,
Bhusan Das and Mufizuddin Bayati) to perform on the swadeshi themes in
local dialects. These efforts served to, supplement at the rural stage the spate
of patriotic compositions through literary stalwarts like Rabindranath Tagore,
Rajanikanta Sen, Dwijendralal Roy, Girindramohini Dasi, Sayed Abu
Mohammed, or playwrights like Girishchandra Ghosh, Kshirodeprasad
Vidyavinode and Amritalal Bose. The ideologies of samitis ranged from
secularism to religious revivalism, from moderate politics to social reformism
(through constructive economic, educational and social programmes), and
incorporated within their range political extremism.

Bepinchandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh and Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya, nor

satisfy the impatient, adventurous youth of Bengal. In such circumstances, the
appearance of political extremism—the third trend—was natural. It found
expression in periodicals like New India (edited through Bepinchandra Pal),
Bande Mataram (edited through Aurobindo Ghosh), Sandhya (edited through
Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya) and Yugantar (edited through Bhupendranath
Dutta). The political extremists demanded self-government for India, not
under British tutelage or British Paramountcy (as the moderates wished), but
through severing all British connections, and wiping off all British influences.

The extremist political leaders gave a clarion call for the establishment of
swaraj and attempted to find the ways and means for achieving it. They
speedily came to the conclusion that the techniques of boycott should be
escalated from British goods and educational institutions to other spheres,
such as the British administration, the British courts of law and the British
services, shaking the foundation of British authority in India. Bepinchandra
Pal discribed such escalation as "passive resistance‖ or refusal ― to render any
voluntary or honorary service to the Government‖. Aurobindo Ghosh
improved upon the strategy further in a series of articles in Bande Mataram in
April 1907, and came out with the theory of ― organised and relentless boycott‖
of British goods, British system of education, judiciary and executive, and the
social boycott of the loyalists and civil disobedience of unjust laws.

If British repressions surpassed the limits of Indian endurance, Aurobindo

Ghosh was prepared to embark upon an anti-British armed thrash about. How
could British rule in India continue, Brahmabhandav Upadhyaya asked, if the
chowkidar, the constable, the deputy, the munisiff and the clerk, not to speak
of the sepoy, resigned their respective functions.

The fervor with which the exponents of political extremism brought the
issues of swaraj and its attainment through passive resistance to the fore,
relegated all other points to the back-ground, including the very question that
occasioned the agitation the partition of Bengal. In comparison with the
importance of the thrash about for swaraj, the unification of Bengal seemed
only a secondary issue—― the pettiest and narrowest of all political objects‖.
Such nationalization of a local issue, and the clarification of the national goal
accompanying it, marked the mainly extraordinary advancement that Indian
nationalists were able to create within a brief animated span of merely two
years.

THE CONCEPT OF MASS MOVEMENT, WORKERS AND

PEASANTS

The national goal of swaraj, and the means to achieve it through boycott in
all spheres, or through the method of passive resistance as it was then
formulated necessitated not only a widespread awakening of the masses, but
also their whole-hearted participation in well- organised anti-British mass
movements. The educated middle class had through and large awakened with
the progress of the Swadeshi movement and even some members of the landed
aristocracy and the representatives of commercial and mercantile interests
were becoming sympathetic to the national cause. But the vast majority of the
poorer classes, especially the working class and the peasantry, had not yet
been brought in the thick of the thrash about.

Workers
Some of the swadeshi activists (notably Aswini Coomar Banerji, Prabhat
Kusum Roychoudhury, Althanasius Apurba Kumar Ghosh and Premtosh
Bose) did, though, try to organise workers in Bengal, and direct their
economic grievances into political channels. The lead in the direction came
from 247 clerks of Burn Company in Howrah who struck work in September
1905 in protest against a derogatory new work regulation. This was followed
through strikes in the tramways in Calcutta, in the jute mills and railway
workshops. Coolies, carters and sweepers also took recourse to strikes in
Calcutta to voice their economic demands. Such greater politicization was
noticed in the middle of the more militant printing press, jute mill and railway
workers. A bitter strike in the Government owned presses resulted in the
formation of the first real labour union, namely the Printers‘ Union in October
1905.

A similar thrash about of the employees of the Eastern Indian Railway saw
the organisation of a Railwaymen‘s Union in July 1906. There were attempts
on the part of the swadeshi leaders like Bepin Chandra Pal, Shyamsundar
Chakrabarthy and Liakat Hussain to organise agitated railway workers in
Asansol, Ranigunj and Jamalpur, which ended up in police firing at the
Jamalpur Workshop 27 August, 1906. The jute mill workers, who agitated
approximately on similar lines from 1905, were led through Aswini Coomar
Banerji to form an Indian Millhands‘ Union at Budge-Budge in August 1906.
Though, all these unions later on suffered a set back in the face of the hostility
of the Government. Not being ideologically committed to the cause of the
workers, the enthusiasm of the nationalists in activating them steadily
subsided after 1907.

Peasants
Although the samitis had numerous branches in the rural areas (like the
Swadeshbhandhav Samiti which alone had 175 village branches in
Barisaldistrict), preaching passive resistance to the masses, they failed to stir
up the peasants‘ imagination. To the bulk of the impoverished kisans, their
patriotic calls remained vague, distant and even abstractly rhetorical. The
cause was the lack of genuine interest in the middle of these leaders in
improving the agrarian situation, or in formulating concrete programmes for
the betterment of the peasant masses. The members of the middle class in
Bengal, whether, professionals, clerks or businessmen, depended considerably
for their economic well-being on the rentals from their ancestral lands. Their
rentier character had, so, placed them into an exploitative category vis-a-vis
the exploited peasantry, and had perpetuated a contradiction flanked by their
interests and the peasants‘ aspirations. Already the Bengali middle class did
not usually approve of the meager tenurial rights which the Government had
conceded to the cultivators in the Tenancy Act of 1885. Its representatives had
often been intolerant of the ― insolvent raiyats‖, and as Bhadraloks
(gentlemen), they were contemptuous of the Chhotoloks (Lowly men).

The Swadeshi movement did not raise any voice of protest against the
peasant‘s burden of debts, his periodic eviction from land or against his
sustained subjection to begar (unpaid forced labour). No Samiti gave any call
to the cultivators for launching an agitation on the issues of exorbitant tax and
rent. Even a radical spokesman of the stature of the Aurobindo Ghosh
expressly ruled out such campaigns lest they should hurt the interests of
patriotic Zamindars (Aurobindo Ghosh‘s articles in Bande Mataram, April
1907). What was worse, the strong religious overtone that the Swadeshi
movement acquired in course of time — its undue emphasis on the Hindu
revivalistic symbols and idioms — largely discouraged the Muslim peasants
(who shaped the bulk of the peasantry in east Bengal) from taking a lively
interest in the great commotion.

THE COMMUNAL TANGLE

In traditional societies religion has often been used as a convenient means

to arouse an indigenous and popular brand of nationalism, and it has usually
led to unfortunate consequences. The experience of the Swadeshi movement
was no dissimilar. The Political capital that the leaders in Bengal tried to
create out of Hinduism and Islam contributed in effect to the widening of the
gulf flanked by the two major communities there. Dividing the land and the
people of Bengal, and playing the Hindus and Muslims against each other,
were the recognized British imperialist ideas. These were taken up 1905
through Curzon, Sir Andrew Fraser and Sir Herbert Risley, as it has already
been pointed out, and their successors like Lord Minto (who replaced Curzon
as the Viceroy), Sir Bampfylde Fuller (who was appointed as the first
Lieutenant Governor of East Bengal and Assam) and Sir Lancelot Hare (who
came in place of Fuller) devoutly clung to the same methods. While Minto
was convinced of the necessity for the ― diminution of the powers‖ of the
Bengali politicians, Fuller actually started ― playing one of the two sections of
the population (Hindus and Muslims) against each other‖, and Hare thought of
giving extraordinary advantages to the Muslims in matters of Government jobs
over the Hindus.

Simultaneously with the wooing of the educated Muslims, the authorities

encouraged the aristocratic elements in the middle of them to think in
conditions of Muslim Political Power and to form in October, 1906 the
Muslim League, under the leadership of Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, to
protect the ―
separate‖ interests of the Muslims., Besides in the eastern Bengal
countryside the obscurantist mullahs and maulavis wielded much influence
and often projected the contradiction flanked by Zamindars (majority of whom
happened to be Hindus) and cultivators (majority of whom happened to be
Muslims) in conditions only of religious antagonism.

Despite all this, though, eloquent pleas were heard throughout the
Swadeshi movement in favor of communal harmony (such as the writings in
Sanjivani). Great scenes of Hindu-Muslim fraternization were witnessed (such
as the joint procession of 10,000 students in Calcutta on 23 September, 1906).
Some distinguished Muslim public men took up leading roles in the agitation
(such as Liakat Hussain, Abdul Hakim Ghaznavi, Abdul Rasul,
Maniruzzaman, Ismail Hussain Siraji, Abul Hussain and Din Mahomoed). But
much of the effect of these positive growths was neutralised through the
educated middle class nationalists‘ attempts at utilizing the rites, images and
myths of Hindu orthodoxy as a morale-booster for their rank and file, and as a
medium of communication flanked by the leaders and the led.

The stridently Hinduised exhortations of the nationalist organs like Bande

Mataram, Sandhya and Nabshakti, the uncritical glorification of Hindu past,
the nostaligia for the lost Hindu rashtra (nation), the practice of taking a
pledge of swadeshi (for not using British goods) before a Hindu deity, the vow
of self sacrifice before the goddess Kali and the constant references to the Gita
did not help the political leaders in bringing the Muslims closer to the Hindus.
Rather, these contributed to a hardening of attitudes on the part of both the
communities. The observance of Birashtami (in memory of the eight Hindu
heroes of the medieval past), the emphasis on traditional Hindu values in
programmes for national education, the use of Pauranic images on public
platform, the insistence on the goddess Durga‘s being ― the visible
representation of the eternal spirit‖ of the Bengalis harmed the movement
considerably through the projection of its content in religious forms.
Bepinchandra Pal justified such misrepresentation on the ground that religion
and national life were inseparable, and that ― to separate national life from
religion would mean the abandonment of religious and moral values in
personal life also‖. Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya went a step further, and urged
his audience: ― whatever you hear, whatever you learn, whatever you do—
remain a Hindu, remain a Bengali....‘‘Aurobindo Ghosh—editor Bande
Mataram, went to the farthest point when he discovered germs of democracy,
of even socialism, in the caste rules of Hindu society. Such Hindu revivalistic
propaganda at the height of the agitation, and that, too, through its leading
figures, actually incited Nawab Salimullah‘s men and the mullahs to spread
communal hatred in the middle of the Muslims in accordance of course, with
the Curzonian expectations.

It was comparatively easy in such circumstances for the communalists to

take recourse to communal violence. The eastern part of Bengal saw a series
of communal riots, first in Ishwargunj in Mymensingh district in May 1906,
followed through disturbances in Comilla, Jamalpur, Dewangunge and
Bakshigunj in March 1907, and then again in Mymensingh in April-May
1907. The rioters were encouraged through the rumours, spread through
communalists, of a British decision to hand over the charge of administration
in Dacca to Nawab Salimullah. The riots also revealed a submerged agrarian
character, since the targets were often found to be Hindu Zamindars and
Mahajans (moneylenders). Although they were alarmed through these
untoward growths, the nationalists would not try to understand the whole
phenomena correctly. They seemed to be in a hurry to brand the rioters merely
as British-hired trouble makers, without any serious effort at understanding the
depth of the malaise. As a result, their religious fervor sustained to augment
rather than decrease.

THE RISE OF REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM

A large-scale participation of the masses in the thrash about for Swaraj—

the essential precondition of a successful passive resistance—was not, though,
realized. With little success in the middle of the workers, total failure in
respect of the cultivators and sad mismanagement of the communal tangle, the
Swadeshi movement was unable through a second half of 1907 to rise to its
full potential, or assume the character of a mass upheaval. Besides, as an anti-
imperialist agitation of great intensity, it had to bear continuously the
repressive measures of its powerful opponent. The authorities prohibited the
shouting of the slogan ― Bande Mataram‖ in public places, disqualified from
the Government employment all those who took part in the agitation in any
form and expelled and fined student participants of the movement. Bands of
Gurkha soldiers were sent to Barisal and other places to teach the agitators a
lesson, and the police and the officials were given a free hand to heap
indignities and launch physical assaults on them. The climax was reached in
April 1906 when the delegates attending the provincial conference at Barisal
were lathi-charged through the police. Then followed measures like exemplary
caning of the picketers and institution of cases against them, banning of public
meetings and processions, and innumerable arrests and convictions of persons,
including Bepinchandra Pal and Liakat Hussain. The question of meeting
force with force—using terror against terror—naturally came to the forefront.

A violent method also appealed to the romantic recklessness of the middle

class youth of Bengal, who sought solace in heroic individual acts when mass
actions did not materialize and who pinned their hopes on secret societies
when open politics could not overwhelm the Government. The cult of violence
was also attractive to those who were in a desperate hurry - and whose
patience had practically run out. ― If we sit idle and hesitate to rise till the
whole population is goaded to desperation‖, Yugantar argued in August 1907,
―then we shall continue idle till the end of time....‖ The alternative was for the
advanced elite section to take up arms against the oppressors, strike terror in
the hearts of the hated British officials and their henchmen, and arouse the
masses through death-defying examples. Soon some of samitis grew exclusive
inner circles, hatched conspiracies for selective assassinations and committed
political robberies for raising funds to buy arms and ammunitions. These
militant proceedings were spearheaded through the Yugantar group, ill
Calcutta and the Anushilan Samiti in Dacca. Prafulla Chaki died and
Khudiram Bose, a boy of 18, was hanged for their attempt on the life of a
notorious British Magistrate King ford who escaped unhurt. It also led in April
1908 to the discovery of a secret bomb manufacturing factory in the
Manicktala area of Calcutta, and to the sensational asserts of some hard-core
militants, including Aurobindo Ghosh. Revolutionary terrorism, though, took
this set back in its stride. It sustained to operate—even spread in other parts of
India and abroad—as the clandestine legacy of the momentous, uproarious
Swadeshi movement.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Write how colonialism accentuated social differentiation in Indian
society.
Discuss the troubles faced through the Santhals.
Discuss the emergence of the working class in India.
What were the several methods of reform adopted through the 19th
century reformers?
What do you understand through the Ilbert Bill controversy?
What do you understand through Safety Valve Theory?
Which of the theories concerning the origin of the Congress, do you
find acceptable? And why?
Was Congress a middle class organisation in the early years?
What was the critique of economic policies of the Raj put forward
through early nationalists?
What was the ideological basis of the rise of extremism?
What led to the split in Congress in 1907 at Surat?
What was the Curzon's real motive in partitioning Bengal?
Discuss the circumstances leading to the Swadeshi Movement.
What were the political trends which developed throughout the
Swadeshi Movement?
Why did the peasants not participate in the Swadeshi movement in a
big way?
Why do you think the communal situation worsened in 1906-07?
How did "Revolutionary terrorism" emerge in 1907-08?

CHAPTER 3
RADICAL TRENDS, NATIONALISM AND
MAHATMA GANDHI
 STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Marxist and socialist thought
The first world war: causes and consequences
The Russian revolution: causes, course, and significance
Revolutionary trends, grader party and home rule league
Mahatma Gandhi‘s emergence in Indian politics and his ideology
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit you should be able to:
Understand what the concept of socialism means,
Understand what were the factors that gave rise to the growth of
socialist ideas in Europe,
Get acquainted with the first world war as a major event in history of
the world
Asses the importance of the Russian revolution as a world event,
Identify the factors that contributed to the emergence of revolutionary
terrorism,
Learn about the troubles faced through immigrant Indians in south
Africa,
Know the role of Gandhi in the Ahmadabad workers strike and
Rowlett satyagrah, and understand and explain the ideology of
mahatma Gandhi.

MARXIST AND SOCIALIST THOUGHT

DEFINITION OF SOCIALISM

Socialism is a social system which comes into being as a result of the

socialist-proletarian revolution. It is a form of society which resulted from the
overthrow of the capitalist system. No society can be socialist before having
gone through the stage of capitalism. It is capitalism which makes the
circumstances for the growth of socialist movements and ideology, and
eventually for the structure of a socialist society. We will talk more about it
later when we discuss the ideas of Marx. Socialist society destroys private
ownership of means of production and in its place makes public ownership of
means of production. This means that all possessions out of which wealth can
be created - land, factories, mines, banks - no longer remain the property of
one person or group of persons. They become the property of the whole
people. This also means that nobody can enrich himself from these
possessions just through owning them, and creation others work on them. The
workers who work them are the owners of these possessions, and they derive
from them the wealth created through their own labour, because, they now
themselves own these possessions.

All societies prior to socialist societies are class societies, based on

antagonism of class interests, flanked by those who own possessions and
those, who work on those possessions to produce wealth. Socialist society
destroys this antagonism, because, now the people who work are also the
people who own the possessions. So, in a socialist society there is no use of
one class through another, and, it is a society based on the equality of all men.
This equality is not only political and legal, as in capitalist societies, but also
social and economic, because private property, which is the root of all
inequality, is abolished in a socialist society. Socialist society is, so, a society
characterized through social justice.

This does not mean, though, that people cannot own anything individually.
In a socialist society people do have the opportunity to own their personal
belongings - house hold things, vehicle, house, bank account from their
savings etc. Only, they cannot own those things, means of production - which
they can use to deprive other human beings of the fruits of their labour. In fact,
as wealth increases in a socialist society as a result of increased production,
everyone owns more and more personal belongings, not just a few people. The
augment in production in a socialist society comes about through planned
production. You necessity have heard of the Five Year Plans. In socialist
societies this is a centralized plan which takes into account all the needs of a
society, deciding what needs priority in conditions of everyone's interests.
Socialist society also establishes a state of the working people, in the interests
of the working people. It ensures that everyone works according to his skill
and everyone gets according to his work. Socialist democracy ensures sure
social rights to all people - the right to employment, rest and leisure, health
protection, security in old age, housing, free and equal education, separately
from the right to participate in administering the state and public affairs.

A socialist society promises complete separation of religion and politics.

This does not mean that people cannot hold private beliefs. It means only that
they cannot create religion into a public affair, or use it politically, or
propagate it in schools etc. We all know about the communal riots in our
country, and how religious feelings are exploited through communal groups,
and should, so, see how significant it is to separate religion as a private belief
from politics, and also to build a scientific temper. A socialist society also
grants complete equality to women. It makes the material bases for this
equality also through shorter hours of work for women with small children,
crèches at places of work— so that women can feed their children throughout
the day, canteens and public kitchens at places of work etc. Advanced
capitalist countries also have these benefits, but they have to be heavily paid
for individually. They are commercial enterprises for profit, and only the rich
can afford them. A socialist state guarantees these benefits to all women, with
minimum cost. It gives allowances for children, who are measured a
responsibility of society as a whole, though it is the family which cares for
them and looks after them.

A socialist state also supports all national liberation movements, and

movements of the working people against oppression. Here we would also like
to point out what is meant through socialist thought. Socialist thought is that
body of ideas which analyses society scientifically, and which wants not only
to understand the world, but also to change it for the better. It looks at
mankind‘s historical experience not from the point of view of the interests of
kings and rulers and those privileged, but from the point of view of the down
trodden. It emphasizes the role of the working people in structure human
civilization and in transforming society through its several stages. It aims at
drawing the blue-print of a society which is equal, human, and just, and seeks
to organise the working people for creating such a society. For this purpose, it
creates a critique of the capitalist society, and shows how it is an unequal and
unjust society. A Socialist thought also calls for an end to the capitalist system
for this cause, and helps in the creation of working people‘s organisation and
struggles.

ORIGINS OF SOCIALIST THOUGHT

How did socialist thought come up? Historically, socialist thought arose as
a reaction to the reality of capitalism. Since capitalism first developed in
Western Europe, its opposition in the form of socialist theory also first
developed in Europe. The first revolution based on socialist ideals and
socialist transformation of society was the Russian Revolution of 1917. Before
discussing the rise of socialist movements in Europe, it is first necessary to
describe the historical context in which they arose. The context which gave
birth to socialist ideas, was capitalism, with all its consequences for the vast
majority of the people. Capitalism was the form of society which grew in its
developed form in Western Europe throughout the 19th century. Capitalism is
a society in which the means of production or sources of wealth i.e. land,
factories, mines, raw-materials are owned through a few individuals
recognized as capitalists.

But, in order to produce goods one other thing is also required, and that is
labour. For, if nobody is there to work with the raw materials in the factories,
mines or land, how will things be produced? For production, labour is one of
the mainly essential needs. So, for this purpose, the factory owners employ
workers who do not have any other source of income except the hands with
which they work. So you can see, in a capitalist system there is one class of
people who own things from which income can be derived, and another class
of people who work on these things. Those who own the sources of income do
not work. But still they are the ones who are rich through exploiting the labour
of others. Those who work are poor because they cannot take and sell in the
market what they have produced. But now you will ask me why is that wrong.
After all the capitalist pays wages to the worker for the work he does for him.
And if one gets the profit from the market, the other gets the wages.

But do you know, the workers are not paid the full amount for what they
produce. The factory owner pays to the worker for the number of hours the
worker works in his factory. But the goods the workers collectively produce in
the factory have more value and are sold at a higher price in the market, and
this amount the factory owner keeps, for himself. This is the factory owner‘s
profit with which he becomes rich, while the worker who is the real producer
remains poor. This relationship of inequality is of tremendous importance in a
capitalist society, and it is this that creates the capitalist society an unjust
society. One class lives through owning, the other class lives through working.
One lives without working; the other cannot live unless it works. Can you then
see how a capitalist society is a society of inequality, social injustice and
oppression of the large majority of the people? And how this inequality is a
result of private property and profits?

It was against this rising capitalist factory system that socialist thought
arose. Man can think about a problem only when a problem exists. The
problem of a capitalist society could be thought about through man only when
the consequences of capitalism were felt and seen. So, socialist thought arose
only with the development of capitalism, when it became necessary to think
about how to improve the circumstances of life of the working people in
factories. But did the socialist thinkers emerge suddenly in an intellectual
vacuum? Did no one before them think about the oppressed? No, this is
not so.

But man can conceive (think) of as attainable, only that, which is not very
far removed from the possibilities of his time and age. For instance, going to
the moon could only be a dream in the 16th century when science and
technology were not so developed. To man it seemed a dream then. In the 20th
century, when science and technology had developed so much more, man
began to see that going to the moon was a possibility. It could happen if he
tried and worked for it. And it has happened! Do you think it could have
happened in the 16th century? Likewise, mankind could think of providing all
the necessities of life to everyone, of having a good life for everyone, only
when the possibilities of such a life existed. Only under capitalism and growth
of factories when production increased so much did it become realistic to think
of providing for everyone‘s needs — material and other needs such as leisure,
health and education for all. So, ideas for betterment of mankind existed
approximately as long as man himself has existed, but the ideas of socialism
could emerge only in the 19th century with the growth of factory industry.
Early thinkers had debated about social justice and equality. But for them
justice and equality were seen in relation to the ruling, rich and educated
sections of their society. For instance, Plato of whom you may have heard of,
did not question the slavery of his times. The chivalrous and brave knights of
the medieval legends were not sensitive to their peasants who were serfs. It
was the Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century who extended the thought
of freedom to all. But their thought of freedom was limited. The socialists
developed these ideas of freedom and extended them to a broader vision of
freedom. In fact we cannot think of socialist ideas without thinking of the
intellectual heritage of the Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century. Just as
socialism could not be possible without factory industry, which makes the
circumstances for socialism, socialist ideas could not be possible without the
contribution of the Enlightenment thinkers. Everything in history develops
through stability and disagreement, which sharpens the thrash about to a
higher stage. Socialist thought was therefore not only a product of capitalism,
but also a product of the intellectual heritage of the 18th century
Enlightenment.

EARLY HISTORY OF SOCIALIST THOUGHT

It is not recognized who first used the words ‗Socialism‘ and ‗Socialist‘.
Around 1800, in both England and France there began to appear books,
pamphlets and speeches against capitalism. It is usually whispered that the
word ‗Socialism‘ was first seen in print in 1832, in a French periodical
described Le Globe. The real pioneer Socialists were Charles Fourier and St.
Simon in France, and Robert Owen in England, and around each of them there
developed big movements. Their books came to be widely read throughout
Europe, and in the United States. Together they made a great contribution to
the advance of social, political, and economic thought of their age. They made
a scathing criticism of capitalist society. They showed in their writings how it
was an unjust and an unequal society, and also, how, its main consequence
was a denial of good life for the vast majority of people — even though, as
they pointed out, capitalism had created tremendous possibilities for increased
production.
But it is significant to keep in mind that they were not satisfied with only
criticizing the capitalist society. Each of them also worked out, in the minutest
detail, his own vision of an ideal society—i.e. society as it should be. In this
they went far ahead of the Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th Century. The
Enlightenment thinkers had said that everything necessity is analysed and
judged on the basis of cause and rationality, and that a reasonable government
was one which worked according to a rational law, and granted to its citizens
political and civil liberty. They emphasised the fundamental rights of the
individual, such as freedom of expression, religious toleration, equality before
law etc. because these things were reasonable and everybody should so, have a
right to them. They also talked about popular. sovereignty or the right of
participation of people in their own governance. You may have heard of
Montesquieu who talked of ‗separation of powers‘ and said all power should
not be concentrated in one authority. You may also have heard of Rousseau
and his General Will. The socialist thinkers also demanded equality. But in
their scheme the demand for equality was not limited to political rights or
equality before law. They demanded also social and economic equality. They
wanted not basically the abolition of class privileges but of class distinctions
themselves.

Secondly, they wanted the end of capitalism. They wanted its end not only
because it was exploitative, but also because they recognized that it was not a
permanent stage in history. They thought it was bound to end because it was
unjust, and because of the troubles and contradictions inherent in it. They saw
history from the perspective of the interests of those who were oppressed and;
so, uncompromisingly opposed capitalism. They were also opposed to private
property as a source of profit. So they wanted a common or social ownership
of means of production. That is why they were described Socialists.

But they did not know how to bring into being this new type of society.
This is because they belonged to a period when capitalism had developed
enough for them to see the misery it caused to the working people. But, as yet,
the working class, whose interests are mainly directly and uncompromisingly
opposed to that of the capitalists, had not developed enough class-
consciousness and organisation for independent political action. Also, the
workings of the capitalist system were not yet clear, and it was not yet
recognized that capitalism as a system had inherent in it inevitable crises.
Their theories, so, reflected the undeveloped or early stages of capitalism.
They did not understand what the historic role of the working class would be.
They did not recognise that class thrash about flanked by the workers and
capitalists was a necessary characteristic of capitalism, or that the interests of
the two were irreconcilable. In fact, they did not really understand the working
of the capitalist system. They did not take into account the fact that the profit
of the owners depended precisely on the use of the workers — and that is why
the interests of the workers and the capitalists could not be reconciled.

But they thought otherwise. The solution for them, so, lay in a change of
heart and development of a new morality. This new morality could be
achieved through a new and correct education, through propaganda and
through experiments which would serve as examples for others. They did not
understand that economic changes form the basis for changes in political
institutions and social life. That is why they were recognized as Utopian
Socialists.

St. Simon
One of these Utopian Socialists was St. Simon. He analysed the society of
his day as consisting of two main classes — the ‗idle proprietors‘ and the
‗working industrialists‘. This means that in the second class i.e. of the working
people he incorporated not only workers and peasants and artisans, but also
the rich factory owners who exploited the workers. As you can see, he did not
see the class opposition flanked by the industrialists and the working class.
The result was that he did not oppose private property which, as we have seen,
is the root of use. He opposed only its ‗misuse‘, which he thought was
possible. He also whispered in a gradual and peaceful transformation of
society. He had not learnt from historical experience that a few people may,
but a whole class does not voluntarily provide up the advantages that it enjoys.
His followers later began to demand the abolition of private property,
planning, and sharing of goods according to labour. Though, they also thought
that socialism would result automatically from a further development of
society. Also, they did not analyse the sources and sharing of surplus value,
i.e., the source of use of workers.

Charles Fourier
In Charles Fourier‘s writings there was systematic criticism of capitalist
society, including the position of women. He was the first to say that an index
of the general well being of a society is how it treats its women. He also had a
sure conception of the history of society savagery, feudal, and free
competition or the bourgeois stage. He also recognized that the wealth of a
few in the capitalist society came out of the poverty of the large majority. He
was aware that every period of history has its stages of rise and decline. He set
himself the task of discovering the ― laws of social motion‖ just as scientists
had discovered the ― laws of material motion‖. He knew that capitalism was
only one stage in history — and that each stage of history was based on the
state of production in that stage. But as in the case of St. Simon, he did not see
what the root cause of injustice was in a capitalist society. Like other Utopian
Socialists, he thought that with a change of people‘s hearts it would be
possible to have a peaceful transformation of society.
Robert Owen
Robert Owen was more scientific in his thinking. He recognized that it is
‗being that determines consciousnesses; this means that man is a product not
only of hereditary characteristics, but also of the environment throughout his
lifetime, particularly throughout his period of development. He saw in the
growth of industry the basis for reconstruction of society i.e., a society in
which there will be plenty for all, because without increased production first,
how can you have plenty for all. His vision of a new society was one in which
property will be common and will be worked for the common good of all. He
whispered in Ricardo‘s labour theory of value i.e., it is labour which decides
the value of a product, and that, so, it is labour that makes wealth. He also
recognized that in a capitalist system the worker does not get the full value
(worth) of his labour. But to him everything seemed to be the fault of money.
He did not understand the mechanism whereby this unequal exchange came
about. Also, he was unable to say how the reconstruction of society was to be
achieved. Would the means of production be basically handed over to the
whole people through those who owned them? Or would they have to be
fought for through the people? He was not clear. He tried to establish some co-
operatives in which he thought he could achieve a measure of change that
would create society just, but the co-operatives failed to change anything
fundamental because they were built within the framework of the existing
society.

Lenin summed up Utopian Socialism very aptly in his ‗Three Sources and
Three Components of Marxism‘, in which, he said:
It criticized capitalist society, it condemned and damned it, it dreamed
of its destruction, it had visions of a better order and endeavored to
convince the rich of the immorality of oppression. But Utopian
socialism could not indicate the real solution. It could not explain the
real nature of wage slavery under capitalism, it could not reveal the
laws of capitalist development, or show what social force is capable of
becoming the creator of a new society.

MARXISM: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS

Marxism refers to the ideas of scientific socialism which developed in the

second half of the nineteenth century in Europe. The person who did mainly to
evolve, develop and provide a definite character to these ideas as a body of
thought was Karl Marx. After him, the ideas of scientific socialism are also
recognized as Marxism. A life long friend and collaborator of Karl Marx was
Frederick Engels. In the mainly simple form, their ideas first took Europe
through storm in 1848, when the Communist Manifesto written through them
was published. Thereafter, their books came to be translated in several
languages. Their ideas became the basis for the thrash about of the oppressed,
whose interests and emancipation they stood for.

Marx and Engels did not conjure up their ideas out of the blue. They
incorporated and developed further, and also integrated in a new way, the
teachings of the greatest representatives of German philosophy, English
political economy and French Socialism. Philosophically, Marxism meant a
materialist out look on life and history, i.e. the way in which people produce
their necessities of life, and the way in which they organise their labour to do
it, determines the way they build their society and political structure, and
ultimately, also, the way they think. In short, they showed that it was being
that determined consciousness and not vice versa, because a material thing
existed prior to, and independently of what people thought about it. For
instance, tree existed, so people saw it, recognized it and gave it a name. Had
they not done so it would still have existed. Applied to man‘s history,
Marxism showed that what decided the scrupulous stage of history, was, the
prevailing mode of production i.e., the forces of production and the relations
of production in a society.

In other words, the material bases of life in a society — the economic

system, how they produced their means of living, and how they organised
themselves to do it. Here you necessity know that it was Marx who analysed
and categorized the dissimilar social systems. He showed that it was the
material bases of life which determined the nature of society, and class thrash
about, resulting from these material bases, which caused change and
development in society. The driving and underlying causes of historical
development and change were not the changing ideas of human beings, but
class thrash about. Class thrash about, in turn, was the result of the fact that
some sections of people or classes were the privileged and ruling classes, and
others were unprivileged, oppressed and ruled classes. Their differing and
conflicting position in turn was based on their relationship to the sources of
income-whether they owned them and employed others to work on them, or
whether they worked on them and produced profit for others. Naturally, the
interests of the two were opposed to each other and irreconcilable. In short,
Marxism showed that the prevailing economic system was the base of society,
which determined all its other characteristics, and that class thrashes about was
an integral part of any such society where possessions were privately owned
through some, and, became a means to live through the labour of others. So,
class thrash about was inevitable in history as long as private property existed
i.e., it was an essential part of every stage of historical development till the
socialist revolution, when the possessions would be collectively owned. These
ideas constituted historical materialism.

Based on these ideas they showed how every society passed through the
same stages of development — primitive communism, slavery, feudalism,
capitalism, socialism — and how, though some characteristics may be
dissimilar in dissimilar countries, it was not possible to skip any of these
stages. But Marx and Engels not only evolved an understanding of historical
development, they were also scrupulous about analyzing their own stage of
history quite thoroughly. This is because they not only wanted to understand
the world, they also wanted to change it. In order to change it, though, it was
first essential to understand the workings of how things actually were, as they
existed. Their second major contribution was, so, a thorough and scathing
criticism of the capitalist society, particularly the manner in which it resulted
in the use of the working class through the capitalist. We have already talked
about how this happens earlier in the lesson. It was Marx and Engels who had
worked it out. In this way they made an significant contribution to economic
theory also. They showed how under capitalism a worker spends one part of
the day covering the cost of maintaining himself and his family (wages), while
for the rest of the day he works without remuneration, because now he is
producing over and above what he would be paid for. It is through this, that he
makes surplus value, which is the source of profit for the capitalist and the
means whereby the worker is denied the fruits of his labour. Therefore
capitalism is not just an economic system, it is also a sure set of social
relationships, i.e., a specific relationship flanked by the capitalist and the
worker, which is against the interests of the worker, and which is socially
unjust. The worker is a necessary part of the system because without labour
nothing can be produced, and the worker cannot produce alone, so there is a
sure social organisation of labour. But this social organisation is dominated
through capital or wealth which is owned through the capitalist, and which the
worker does not have.

Marxism : Political Theory

From this economic analysis of capitalism Marx and Engels evolved their
political theory. They pointed out that capitalism itself makes the
circumstances for the overthrow of the capitalist society, i.e., in the womb of
the old society is created the seeds of the new society. Firstly, they showed
that capitalism would inevitably be faced with periodic crises. These crises
come from its very nature. While capitalism produces more and more, the
people become more and poorer and are unable to purchase what is produced.
This leads to, what Marx described the crises of over production and under
consumption, and also, the irreconcilability of the interests of the capitalist and
the worker. This is also the main contradiction of capitalism. In order to obtain
more profit, the capitalist pays as little as possible to the workers, but in order
to sell his products, the workers necessity have more and more money to buy
i.e., he necessity pay them more because they have no other source of income.
Obviously, he cannot do both at the same time. For a time capitalism can
overcome these crises through searching for new markets i.e., colonies, or
through waging wars for the red vision of markets, or through taking over
some welfare measures for the workers to appease them. But this cannot go on
endlessly, because the contradiction lies in the system itself. So, from the
economic analysis of capitalism Marx and Engels drew the political
conclusion that the overthrow of capitalism is inevitable.
The class which, they said, will overthrow this system will be the working
class or proletariat. They pointed out that as large factories are recognized,
there also emerges in them a working class i.e. a proletariat, which owns
nothing except its skill to work and earn. So, this class has no stake in a
system based on private property such as capitalism. So, in the fight against
capitalism, it has "nothing to lose, except its chains". Secondly, the proletariat
is also the mainly exploited section of society under capitalism. and for this
cause the mainly interested in its overthrow. Thirdly, there was no other long
term choice for the proletariat except to fight the system which exploits him -
for how could a worker be independent and live a meaningful life, if, all that
he does for mainly of the day goes into enriching not himself but the
capitalist? So, the overthrow of capitalism becomes a necessary task for the
proletariat, and also a desirable one because on it would depend his right to
shorter hours of work, leisure, culture, equality flanked by men and women
and access to good health and education.

Marx and Engels also pointed out that with the emancipation of the
working class will come the emancipation of all other sections of society, as it
was the working class which shaped the bottom mainly layer of this society.
Also, given its situation, the working class could be the only uncompromising
class in the thrash about for the overthrow of capitalism. Therefore , the
second major political conclusion which Marx and Engels arrived at from their
economic analysis of capitalism, was that. it is the working class which will
lead the thrash about, and be the vanguard of the socialist revolution.
Therefore capitalism created the means of its own destruction. In short, they
said that before or without capitalism there cannot be socialism. Capitalism
with its big factories creates possible increased production, so that, there is
enough to be distributed to each according to his work. Capitalism with its
factory system also makes the working class which can overthrow it.

Marxism : Theory of Revolution

Marx asked the question—will the capitalists voluntarily and of their own
will provide up their profits? Individual capitalists may provide up some part
of their profits in charity. But nothing more. He did not provide this as his
personal opinion. He pointed to the history of human society through the ages
— nothing had been gained through people except through fighting for it,
nothing had been given up through the privileged section of society, except
when, confronted with a fight. So, the emancipation of working class can
come only from the class thrash about of the working class, he said.

But what form will this thrash about take — can it be peaceful? To this
Marx had this to say: the whole armed forces and the state machinery are in
the hands of the ruling class and they use them precisely for protecting their
dominance. There cannot be a peaceful transformation from capitalism to
socialism. The working class has to capture state power through revolution
and guarantee the structure of a socialist state through creating a new state,
which will be the dictatorship of the proletariat. But will the fight be only an
economic fight flanked by the working class and the capitalist? No, according
to Marx, it will not be only an economic fight, and though the working class
will be the motive social force for revolution, other sections will also
participate. Because of the latter‘s social origins though, their role will only be
secondary, and sometimes vacillating. Marx pointed out that growth of
capitalism leads to greater concentration of wealth in fewer hands and rising
poverty of the majority of the people. The crises of capitalism affected not
only the working class, but also the middle class, especially the lower middle
class and the peasantry. So, the fight against capitalism would be not only
through the working class, but also through sections of the middle class
(intelligentsia) and the middle class, who would adopt the political standpoint
of the working class, because, it was politically and socially just, and also
through agricultural labourers in the countryside who were equally oppressed.
But since the social origins of the middle class were rooted in private property,
they could never play an uncompromising role — they would always be
vacillating. A section of them would go with revolution, and a section with the
bourgeoisie or the capitalists. Hence, the primary role of the working class,
which Marx emphasised. Secondly, the fight would be fought in several
spheres — it would be an economic fight, because, capitalists owned all the
possessions, it would be a political fight, because the political structure was
dominated through the capitalists, social, because of social inequality, and
moral, because it was for a more human society.

The first attempt to capture state power was made through the working
class in Paris in 1871. You necessity have heard of the Paris Commune.
Thousands of workers died to establish this, Paris Commune, but they did not
destroy the old state machinery of the ruling class. So, the Paris Commune
could not survive. It was crushed ruthlessly. This experience showed in
practice the truth of Marx‘s understanding that a dictatorship of the proletariat
was necessary for guaranteeing the socialist state until such time as the
economic, social and political bases of ruling class power were eliminated
from society. It is significant to understand this — Marx was not advocating
the physical elimination or killing of the ruling class — he was only
advocating that they no more be allowed to remain a ruling class. In short he
was advocating a classless society, based on complete equality — even
economic equality.
 He also had something more to say about how the revolution was to be
brought about. He had said that the overthrow of capitalism was inevitable,
given its own inherent contradictions and the situation of the working class in
it. But he was not an astrologer. He was a social scientist. He was not creation
a prediction. He did not provide an exact time-table for future revolutions. He
showed how this would depend on class thrash about — that is the thrash
about flanked by the capitalists and the workers, and what was the outcome of
these struggles. In order to succeed the working class well organised. For this
purpose he emphasised the need for political education within the working
class and the formation of working class party to lead the thrash about of the
working class.

Marx not only contributed to theory, he shaped the first International

Working Men‘s Association, based on proletarian internationalism. In other
words, it recognized that the interests of the whole working class of the world
were the same, and that, so, they necessity fight in solidarity. The slogan of the
International Working Men‘s Association, so, was — ‗Workers of the world
unite!‘ The first successful revolution through the working class was in Russia
in 1917. Not only did the working class in Russia abolish private property in
industry in alliance with the peasantry, it nationalized all land. It created a new
state — the socialist state, based on the rule of the working people. It
recognized socialist democracy based on economic equality and social justice.
You will read about it in a separate lesson.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I

The main causes of World War I, which began in central Europe in late
July 1914, incorporated several factors, such as the conflicts and hostility
flanked by the great European powers of the four decades leading up to the
war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in
the disagreement as well. The immediate origins of the war, though, lay in the
decisions taken through statesmen and generals throughout the July Crisis of
1914 caused through the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the
Archduke of Austria Hungary) and his wife Sophie through Gavrilo Princip,
an irredentist Serb and member of the Serbian nationalist organization, the
Black Hand.
The crisis came after a long and hard series of diplomatic clashes flanked
by the Great Powers (Italy, France, Germany, the British Empire, the Austria-
Hungarian Empire and Russia) over European and colonial issues in the
decade before 1914 that had left tensions high. In turn these diplomatic clashes
can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1867. The
more immediate cause for the war was tensions over territory in the Balkans.
Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence
in the region and they pulled the rest of the Great Powers into the
disagreement through their several alliances and treaties.
Some of the mainly significant long term or structural causes are: the
growth of nationalism crossways Europe, unresolved territorial disputes, an
intricate system of alliances, the perceived breakdown of the balance of power
in Europe, convoluted and fragmented governance, the arms races of the
previous decades, previous military planning, imperial and colonial rivalry for
wealth, power and prestige, and economic and military rivalry in industry and
trade – e.g., the Pig War flanked by Austria and Serbia. Other causes that
came into play throughout the diplomatic crisis that preceded the war
incorporated misperceptions of intent (e.g., the German belief that the United
Kingdom would remain neutral) and delays and misunderstandings in
diplomatic communications.
The several categories of explanation for World War I correspond to
dissimilar historians' overall methods. Mainly historians and popular
commentators contain causes from more than one category of explanation to
give a rounded account of the causes of the war. The deepest distinction in the
middle of these accounts is flanked by stories that see it as the inevitable and
predictable outcome of sure factors, and those that describe it as an arbitrary
and unfortunate mistake. In attributing causes for the war, historians and
academics had to deal with an unprecedented flood of memoirs and official
documents, released as each country involved tried to avoid blame for starting
the war. Early releases of information through governments, particularly those
released for use through the "Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors
of the War" were shown to be partial and biased. In addition some documents,
especially diplomatic cables flanked by Russia and France, were found to have
been doctored.

Background
In November 1912, Russia was humiliated because of its inability to
support Serbia throughout the Bosnian crisis of 1908 or the First Balkan War,
and announced a major reconstruction of its military.
On November 28, German Foreign Secretary Gottlieb von Jagow told the
Reichstag (the German parliament), that "If Austria is forced, for whatever
cause, to fight for its position as a Great Power, then we necessity stand
through her." As a result, British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey
responded through warning Prince Karl Lichnowsky, the German Ambassador
in London, that if Germany offered Austria a "blank cheque" for war in the
Balkans, then "the consequences of such a policy would be incalculable." To
reinforce this point, R. B. Haldane, the Germanophile Lord Chancellor, met
with Prince Lichnowsky to offer an explicit warning that if Germany were to
attack France, Britain would intervene in France's favor.
With the recently announced Russian military reconstruction and sure
British communications, the possibility of war was a leading topic at the
German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912 in Berlin, an informal
meeting of some of Germany's top military leadership described on short
notice through the Kaiser. Attending the conference were Kaiser Wilhelm II,
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz – the Naval State Secretary, Admiral Georg
Alexander von Müller, the Chief of the German Imperial Naval Cabinet
(Marinekabinett), General von Moltke – the Army's Chief of Staff, Admiral
August von Heeringen - the Chief of the Naval General Staff and General
Moriz von Lyncker, the Chief of the German Imperial Military Cabinet. The
attendance of the leaders of both the German Army and Navy at this War
Council attests to its importance. Though, Chancellor Theobald von
Bethmann-Hollweg and General Josias von Heeringen, the Prussian Minister
of War, were not invited.
Wilhelm II described British balance of power principles "idiocy," but
agreed that Haldane's statement was a "desirable clarification" of British
policy. His opinion was that Austria should attack Serbia that December, and
if "Russia supports the Serbs, which she evidently does ... then war would be
unavoidable for us, too," and that would be better than going to war after
Russia completed the massive modernization and expansion of their army that
they had just begun. Moltke agreed. In his professional military opinion "a war
is unavoidable and the sooner the better". Moltke "wanted to launch an
immediate attack".
Both Wilhelm II and the Army leadership agreed that if a war were
necessary it were best launched soon. Admiral Tirpitz, though, asked for a
"postponement of the great fight for one and a half years" because the Navy
was not ready for a general war that incorporated Britain as an opponent. He
insisted that the completion of the construction of the U-boat base at
Heligoland and the widening of the Kiel Canal were the Navy's prerequisites
for war. As the British historian John Röhl has commented, the date for
completion of the widening of the Kiel Canal was the summer of 1914.
Though Moltke objected to the postponement of the war as unacceptable,
Wilhelm sided with Tirpitz. Moltke "agreed to a postponement only
reluctantly."
Historians more sympathetic to the government of Wilhelm II often reject
the importance of this War Council as only showing the thinking and
recommendations of those present, with no decisions taken. They often cite
the passage from Admiral Müller's diary, which states: "That was the end of
the conference. The result amounted to nothing." Certainly the only decision
taken was to do nothing.
Historians more sympathetic to the Entente, such as British historian John
Röhl, sometimes rather ambitiously interpret these words of Admiral Müller
(an advocate of launching a war soon) as saying that "nothing" was decided
for 1912–13, but that war was decided on for the summer of 1914. Röhl is on
safer ground when he argues that even if this War Council did not reach a
binding decision—which it clearly did not—it did nonetheless offer a clear
view of their intentions, or at least their thoughts, which were that if there was
going to be a war, the German Army wanted it before the new Russian
armaments program began to bear fruit. Entente sympathetic historians such as
Röhl see this conference, in which "The result amounted to nothing," as
setting a clear deadline for a war to begin, namely the summer of 1914.
With the November 1912 announcement of the Russian Great Military
Programme, the leadership of the German Army began clamoring even more
strongly for a "preventive war" against Russia. Moltke declared that Germany
could not win the arms race with France, Britain and Russia, which she herself
had begun in 1911, because the financial structure of the German state, which
gave the Reich government little power to tax, meant Germany would
bankrupt herself in an arms race. As such, Moltke from late 1912 onwards was
the leading advocate for a general war, and the sooner the better.
Throughout May and June 1914, Moltke engaged in an "approximately
ultimative" demand for a German "preventive war" against Russia in 1914.
The German Foreign Secretary, Gottlieb von Jagow, reported on a discussion
with Moltke at the end of May 1914:
"Moltke described to me his opinion of our military situation. The
prospects of the future oppressed him heavily. In two or three years
Russia would have completed her armaments. The military superiority
of our enemies would then be so great that he did not know how he
could overcome them. Today we would still be a match for them. In
his opinion there was no alternative to creation preventive war in order
to defeat the enemy while we still had a chance of victory. The Chief
of the General Staff so proposed that I should conduct a policy with the
aim of provoking a war in the close to future."
The new French President Raymond Poincaré, who took office in 1913,
was favourable to improving relations with Germany. In January 1914
Poincaré became the first French President to dine at the German Embassy in
Paris. Poincaré was more interested in the thought of French expansion in the
Middle East than a war of revenge to regain Alsace-Lorraine. Had the Reich
been interested in improved relations with France before August 1914, the
opportunity would have been accessible, but the leadership of the Reich lacked
such interests, and preferred a policy of war to destroy France. Because of
France's smaller economy and population, through 1913 French leaders had
largely accepted that France through itself could never defeat Germany.
In May 1914, Serbian politics were polarized flanked by two factions, one
headed through the Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, and the other through the
radical nationalist chief of Military Intelligence, Colonel Dragutin
Dimitrijević, recognized through his codename Apis. In that month, due to
Colonel Dimitrigjevic's intrigues, King Peter dismissed Pašić's government.
The Russian Minister in Belgrade intervened to have Pašić's government
restored. Pašić, though he often talked tough in public, knew that Serbia was
close to-bankrupt and, having suffered heavy casualties in the Balkan Wars
and in the suppression of a December 1913 Albanian revolt in Kosovo, needed
peace. Since Russia also favored peace in the Balkans, from the Russian
viewpoint it was desirable to keep Pašić in power. It was in the midst of this
political crisis that politically powerful members of the Serbian military armed
and trained three Bosnian students as assassins and sent them into Austria-
Hungary.

Domestic political factors

German domestic politics

Left-wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany
(SPD) made large gains in the 1912 German election. German government at
the time was still dominated through the Prussian Junkers who feared the rise
of these left-wing parties. Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately
sought an external war to distract the population and whip up patriotic support
for the government. Russia was in the midst of a large-scale military build-up
and reform that they planned to complete in 1916-1917. Other authors argue
that German conservatives were ambivalent about a war, worrying that losing
a war would have disastrous consequences, and even a successful war might
alienate the population if it were lengthy or hard.

French domestic politics

The situation in France was quite dissimilar from that in Germany as going
to war appeared to the majority of political and military leaders to be a
potentially costly gamble. It is undeniable that forty years after the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine a vast number of French were still angered through the
territorial loss, as well as through the humiliation of being compelled to pay a
large reparation to Germany in 1871. The diplomatic alienation of France
orchestrated through Germany prior to World War I caused further resentment
in France. Nevertheless, the leaders of France recognized Germany's strong
military advantage against them, as Germany had almost twice as much
population and a better equipped army. At the same time, the episodes of the
Tangier Crisis in 1905 and the Agadir Crisis in 1911 had given France a strong
indication that war with Germany could be inevitable if Germany sustained to
oppose French colonial expansionism.
France was politically polarized; the left-wing socialists led through Jean
Jaurès pushed for peace against nationalists on the right like Paul Déroulède
who described for revenge against Germany. France in 1914 had never been
so prosperous and influential in Europe since 1870, nor its military so strong
and confident in its leaders, emboldened through its success in North Africa
and the overall pacification of its vast colonial empire. The Entente Cordiale
of 1904 with Britain held firm, and was supported through mutual interests
abroad and strong economic ties. Russia had fled the triple crown alliance
with Germany and Austria-Hungary because of disagreements with Austria-
Hungary over policy in the Balkans. Russia also hoped that large French
investments in its industry and infrastructures coupled with an significant
military partnership would prove themselves profitable and durable.
The foreign ministry was filled with expert diplomats, but there was great
turnover at the top. In the 18 months before the war there were six foreign
ministers. The leadership was prepared to fight Germany and attempt to gain
back the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine lost in 1871. It is significant to note
though, that France never could have permitted itself to initiate a war with
Germany, as its military pact with Britain was only purely suspicious. The
assumption that Germany would not violate neutral Belgium, was a serious
blunder in French planning.

Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary

In 1867, the Austrian Empire fundamentally changed its governmental
structure, becoming the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. For hundreds of
years, the empire had been run in an essentially feudal manner with a German-
speaking aristocracy at its head. Though, with the threat represented through
an emergence of nationalism within the empire's several component
ethnicities, some elements, including Emperor Franz Joseph, decided that a
compromise was required to preserve the power of the German aristocracy. In
1867, the Ausgleich was agreed on, which made the Hungarian elite in
Hungary approximately equal partners in the government of Austria-Hungary.
This arrangement fostered a tremendous degree of dissatisfaction amongst
several in the traditional German ruling classes. Some of them measured the
Ausgleich to have been a calamity because it often frustrated their intentions in
the governance of Austria-Hungary. For instance, it was very hard for Austria-
Hungary to form a coherent foreign policy that suited the interests of both the
German and Hungarian elite.
Throughout the fifty years from 1867 to 1914, it proved hard to reach
adequate compromises in the governance of Austria-Hungary, leading several
to search for non-diplomatic solutions. At the same time, a form of social
Darwinism became popular in the middle of several in the Austrian half of the
government. This thinking emphasised the primacy of armed thrash about
flanked by nations, and the need for nations to arm themselves for an ultimate
thrash about for survival.
As a result, at least two separate strains of thought advocated war with
Serbia, often unified in the same people.
Some reasoned that dealing with political deadlock required that more
Slavs be brought into Austria-Hungary to dilute the power of the Hungarian
elite. With more Slavs, the South Slavs of Austria-Hungary could force a new
political compromise in which the Germans could play the Hungarians against
the South Slavs. Other variations on this theme existed, but the essential
thought was to cure internal stagnation through external conquest.
Another fear was that the South Slavs, primarily under the leadership of
Serbia, were organizing for a war against Austria-Hungary, and even all of
Germanic civilization. Some leaders, such as Conrad von Hötzendorf, argued
that Serbia necessity be dealt with before it became too powerful to defeat
militarily.
A powerful contingent within the Austro-Hungarian government was
motivated through these thoughts and advocated war with Serbia long before
the war began. Prominent members of this group incorporated Leopold von
Berchtold, Alexander von Hoyos, and Johann von Forgách. Although several
other members of the government, notably Franz Ferdinand, Franz Joseph, and
several Hungarian politicians did not consider that a violent thrash about with
Serbia would necessarily solve any of Austria-Hungary's troubles, the hawkish
elements did exert a strong influence on government policy, holding key
positions.
Samuel R. Williamson has accentuated the role of Austria-Hungary in
starting the war. Convinced Serbian nationalism and Russian Balkan
ambitions were disintegrating the Empire, Austria-Hungary hoped for a
limited war against Serbia and that strong German support would force Russia
to keep out of the war and weaken its Balkan prestige.

International relations

Imperialism
Some scholars have attributed the start of the war to imperialism.
Countries such as the United Kingdom and France accumulated great wealth
in the late 19th century through their control of trade in foreign possessions,
markets, territories, and people. Other empires, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Italy, and Russia all hoped to do so as well in economic advantage. Their
frustrated ambitions, and British policies of strategic exclusion created
tensions. In addition, the limits of natural possessions in several European
nations began to slowly alter trade balance, and create national industries seek
new territories rich in natural possessions. Commercial interests contributed
considerably to Anglo-German rivalry throughout the scramble for tropical
Africa. This was the scene of sharpest disagreement flanked by sure German
and British commercial interests. There have been two partitions of Africa.
One involved the actual imposition of political boundaries crossways the
continent throughout the last quarter of the 19th century; the other, which
actually commenced in the mid-19th century, consisted of the so-described
'business' partition. In southern Africa the latter partition followed rapidly
upon the discoveries of diamonds and gold in 1867 and 1886 respectively. An
integral part of this second partition was the expansion in the interior of
British capital interests, primarily the British South Africa Company and
mining companies such as De Beers. After 1886 the Witwatersrand goldfields
prompted feverish activity in the middle of European as well as British
capitalists. It was soon felt in Whitehall that German commercial penetration
in scrupulous constituted a direct threat to Britain's sustained economic and
political hegemony south of the Limpopo. Amid the expanding web of
German business on the Rand, the mainly contentious operations were those of
the German-financed N.Z.A.S.M. or Netherlands South African Railway
Company, which possessed a railway monopoly in the Transvaal.
Rivalries for not just colonies, but colonial trade and trade routes
developed flanked by the emerging economic powers and the incumbent great
powers. Although still argued differently according to historical perspectives
on the path to war, this rivalry was illustrated in the Berlin-Baghdad Railway,
which would have given German industry access to Iraqi oil, and German
trade a southern port in the Persian Gulf. A history of this railroad in the
context of World War I has arrived to describe the German interests in
countering the British Empire at a global stage, and Turkey's interest in
countering their Russian rivals at a local stage. As stated through a modern
'man on the ground' at the time, Jastrow wrote, "It was felt in England that if,
as Napoleon is said to have remarked, Antwerp in the hands of a great
continental power was a pistol leveled at the English coast, Bagdad and the
Persian Gulf in the hands of Germany (or any other strong power) would be a
42-centimetre gun pointed at India." On the other side, "Public opinion in
Germany was feasting on visions of Cairo, Baghdad, and Tehran, and the
possibility of evading the British blockade through outlets to the Indian
Ocean." Britain's initial strategic exclusion of others from northern access to a
Persian Gulf port in the creation of Kuwait through treaty as a protected,
subsidized client state showed political recognition of the importance of the
issue. If outcome is revealing, through the secure of the war this political
recognition was re-accentuated in the military effort to capture the railway
itself, recounted with perspective in a modern history: "On the 26th Aleppo
fell, and on the 28th we reached Muslimieh, that junction on the Baghdad
railway on which longing eyes had been cast as the nodal point in the
disagreement of German and other ambitions in the East." The Treaty of
Versailles explicitly removed all German ownership thereafter, which without
Ottoman rule left access to Mesopotamian and Persian oil, and northern access
to a southern port in British hands alone.
Rivalries in the middle of the great powers were exacerbated starting in the
1880s through the scramble for colonies, which brought much of Africa and
Asia under European rule in the following quarter-century. It also created
great Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian tensions and crises that prevented a
British alliance with either until the early 20th century. Otto von Bismarck
disliked the thought of an overseas empire, but pursued a colonial policy to
court domestic political support. This started Anglo-German tensions since
German acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific threatened to impinge upon
British strategic and commercial interests. Bismarck supported French
colonization in Africa because it diverted government attention and
possessions absent from continental Europe and revanchism. In spite of all of
Bismarck's deft diplomatic maneuvering, in 1890 he was forced to resign
through the new Kaiser (Wilhelm II). His successor, Leo von Caprivi, was the
last German Chancellor who was successful in calming Anglo-German
tensions. After his loss of office in 1894, German policy led to greater
conflicts with the other colonial powers.
The status of Morocco had been guaranteed through international
agreement, and when France attempted to greatly expand its influence there
without the assent of all the other signatories Germany opposed it prompting
the Moroccan Crises, the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of
1911. The intent of German policy was to drive a wedge flanked by the British
and French, but in both cases produced the opposite effect and Germany was
isolated diplomatically, mainly notably lacking the support of Italy despite
Italian membership in the Triple Alliance. The French protectorate over
Morocco was recognized officially in 1912.
In 1914, there were no outstanding colonial conflicts, Africa essentially
having been claimed fully, separately from Ethiopia, for man-years. Though,
the competitive mentality, as well as a fear of "being left behind" in the
competition for the world's possessions may have played a role in the
decisions to begin the new disagreement.

Web of alliances
A loose web of alliances around the European nations existed (several of
them requiring participants to agree to communal protection if attacked):
Treaty of London, 1839, about the neutrality of Belgium
German-Austrian treaty (1879) or Dual Alliance
Italy joining Germany and Austria in 1882
Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
The "Entente Cordiale" flanked by Britain and France (1904), which
left the northern coast of France undefended, and the separate "entente"
flanked by Britain and Russia (1907) that shaped the Triple Entente
This complex set of treaties binding several players in Europe together
before the war sometimes is thought to have been misunderstood through
modern political leaders. The traditionalist theory of "Entangling Alliances"
has been shown to be mistaken. The Triple Entente flanked by Russia, France
and the United Kingdom did not in fact force any of those powers to mobilize
because it was not a military treaty. Mobilization through a relatively minor
player would not have had a cascading effect that could rapidly run out of
control, involving every country. The crisis flanked by Austria-Hungary and
Serbia could have been a localized issue. This is how Austria-Hungary's
declaration of war against Serbia resulted in Britain declaring war on
Germany:
June 28, 1914: Serbian irredentists assassinate Archduke Franz
Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
July 23: Austria-Hungary, following their own secret enquiry, sends an
ultimatum to Serbia, containing many very severe demands. In
scrupulous, they gave only forty-eight hours to comply. Whilst both
Great Britain and Russia sympathized with several of the demands,
both agreed the timescale was far too short. Both nevertheless advised
Serbia to comply.
July 24: Germany officially declares support for Austria's position.
July 24: Sir Edward Grey, speaking for the British government, asks
that Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain, "who had no direct
interests in Serbia, should act together for the sake of peace
simultaneously."
July 25: The Serbian government replies to Austria, and agrees to
mainly of the demands. Though, sure demands brought into question
her survival as an independent nation. On these points they asked that
the Hague Tribunal arbitrate.
July 25: Russia enters a period preparatory to war and mobilization
begins on all frontiers. Government decides on a partial mobilization in
principle to begin on July 29.
July 25: Serbia mobilizes its army; responds to Austro-Hungarian
demarche with less than full acceptance; Austria-Hungary breaks
diplomatic relations with Serbia.
July 26: Serbia reservists accidentally violate Austro-Hungarian border
at Temes-Kubin.
July 26: Russia having agreed to stand aside whilst others conferred, a
meeting is organised to take place flanked by ambassadors from Great
Britain, Germany, Italy and France to discuss the crisis. Germany
declines the invitation.
July 27: Sir Edward Grey meets the German ambassador
independently. A telegram to Berlin after the meeting states, "Other
issues might be raised that would supersede the dispute flanked by
Austria and Serbia ... as long as Germany would work to keep peace I
would keep closely in touch."
July 28: Austria-Hungary, having failed to accept Serbia's response of
the 25th, declares war on Serbia. Mobilisation against Serbia begins.
July 29: Russian general mobilization is ordered, and then changed to
partial mobilization.
July 29: Sir Edward Grey appeals to Germany to intervene to maintain
peace.
July 29: The British Ambassador in Berlin, Sir Edward Goschen, is
informed through the German Chancellor that Germany is
contemplating war with France, and furthermore, wishes to send its
 army through Belgium. He tries to secure Britain's neutrality in such an
action.
July 30: Russian general mobilization is reordered at 5:00 P.M.
July 31: Austrian general mobilization is ordered.
July 31: Germany enters a period preparatory to war.
July 31: Germany sends an ultimatum to Russia, demanding that they
halt military preparations within twelve hours.
July 31: Both France and Germany are asked through Britain to declare
their support for the ongoing neutrality of Belgium. France agrees to
this. Germany does not respond.
July 31: Germany asks France, wheatear it would stay neutral in case
of a war Germany vs. Russia
August 1 (3 A.M.): King George V of Great Britain personally
telegraphs Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.
August 1: French general mobilization is ordered.
August 1: German general mobilization is ordered.
August 1: Germany declares war against Russia.
August 1: The Tsar responds to the king's telegram, stating, "I would
gladly have accepted your proposals had not the German ambassador
this afternoon presented a note to my Government declaring war."
August 2: Germany and The Ottoman Empire sign a secret treaty.
entrenching the Ottoman-German Alliance
August 3: Germany, after France declines its demand to remain
neutral, declares war on France. Germany states to Belgium that she
would "treat her as an enemy" if she did not allow free passage of
German troops crossways her lands.
August 3: Britain, expecting German naval attack on the northern
French coast, states that Britain would provide "... all the protection in
its powers."
August 4: Germany implements the Alfred von Schlieffen Plan
(modified).
August 4 (midnight): Having failed to receive notice from Germany
assuring the neutrality of Belgium, Britain declares war on Germany.
August 6: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
August 23: Japan, honoring the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, declares war
on Germany.
August 25: Japan declares war on Austria-Hungary.

Note: French Prime Minister Rene Viviani merely replied to the German
ultimatum that, "France will act in accordance with her interests." Had the
French agreed to remain neutral, the German Ambassador was authorized to
ask the French to temporarily surrender the Fortresses of Toul and Verdun as a
guarantee of neutrality.
Arms race
As David Stevenson has put it, "A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened
military preparedness ... was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to
disaster ... The armaments race ... was a necessary precondition for the
outbreak of hostilities." David Herrmann goes further, arguing that the fear
that "windows of opportunity for victorious wars" were closing, "the arms race
did precipitate the First World War." If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been
assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have
been no war. It was "... the armaments race ... and the speculation about
imminent or preventive wars" that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war.

Some historians see the German naval build-up as the principal cause of
deteriorating Anglo-German relations.
The overwhelming British response, though, proved to Germany that its
efforts were unlikely to equal the Royal Navy. In 1900, the British had a 3.7:1
tonnage advantage over Germany; in 1910 the ratio was 2.3:1 and in 1914,
2.1:1. Ferguson argues that, "So decisive was the British victory in the naval
arms race that it is hard to regard it as in any meaningful sense a cause of the
First World War." This ignores the fact that the Kaiserliche Marine had
narrowed the gap through almost half, and that the Royal Navy had long
planned to be stronger than any two potential opponents; the United States
Navy was in a period of growth, creation the German gains very ominous.
Technological changes, with oil- rather than coal-fuelled ships, decreasing
refueling time while rising speed and range, and with superior armour and
artillery also would favor the rising and newer German fleet.
One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the
suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second
Hague Conference was held in 1907. All the signatories except for Germany
supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding
arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States
would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed.

Anglo–German naval race

Motivated through Wilhelm II's enthusiasm for an expanded German navy,
Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz championed four Fleet Acts from 1898 to
1912, and, from 1902 to 1910, the Royal Navy embarked on its own massive
expansion to keep ahead of the Germans. This competition came to focus on
the revolutionary new ships based on the Dreadnought, which was launched in
1906.
In 1913, there was intense internal debate about new ships due to the rising
influence of John Fisher's ideas and rising financial constraints. It is now
usually accepted through historians that in early-mid-1914 the Germans
adopted a policy of structure submarines instead of new dreadnoughts and
destroyers, effectively abandoning the two power standard, but kept this new
policy secret to delay other powers following suit.
Though the Germans abandoned the naval race, as such, before the war
broke out, it had been one of the chief factors in the United Kingdom joining
the Triple Entente and so significant in the formation of the alliance system as
a whole.

Russian interests in Balkans and Ottoman Empire

The main Russian goals incorporated strengthening its role as the protector
of Eastern Christians in the Balkans (such as the Serbians). Although Russia
enjoyed a booming economy, rising population, and large armed forces, its
strategic position was threatened through an expanding Turkish military
trained through German experts using the latest technology. The start of the
war renewed attention of old goals: expelling the Turks from Constantinople,
extending Russian dominion into eastern Anatolia and Persian Azerbaijan, and
annexing Galicia. These conquests would assure Russian predominance in the
Black Sea.

Technical and military factors

Over through Christmas

Both sides whispered, and publicly stated, that the war would end soon.
The Kaiser told his troops that they would be "... home before the leaves have
fallen from the trees", and one German officer said he expected to be in Paris
through Sedantag, about six weeks absent. Germany only stockpiled enough
potassium nitrate for gunpowder for six months. Russian officers likewise
expected to be in Berlin in six weeks, and those who suggested that the war
would last for six months were measured pessimists. Von Moltke and his
French counterpart Joseph Joffre were in the middle of the few who expected
a long war, but neither adjusted his nation's military plans accordingly. The
new British Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener was the only leading
official on either side to both expect a long war ("three years" or longer, he
told an amazed colleague) and act accordingly, immediately structure an army
of millions of soldiers who would fight for years.
Some authors such as Niall Ferguson argue that the belief in a swift war
has been greatly exaggerated since the war. He argues that the military
planners, especially in Germany, were aware of the potential for a long war, as
shown through the Willy-Nicky telegraphic correspondence flanked by the
emperors of Russia and Germany. He also argues that mainly informed people
measured a swift war unlikely. Though, it was in the belligerent governments'
interests to convince their populaces, through skillful propaganda, that the war
would be brief. Such a message encouraged men to join the offensive, made
the war seem less serious, and promoted general high spirits.

Primacy of the offensive and war through timetable

Military theorists of the time usually held that seizing the offensive was
very significant. This theory encouraged all belligerents to strike first to gain
the advantage. This attitude shortened the window for diplomacy. Mainly
planners wanted to begin mobilization as quickly as possible to avoid being
caught on the suspicious.
Some historians assert that mobilization schedules were so rigid that once
it was begun, they could not be cancelled without massive disruption of the
country and military disorganization and so diplomatic overtures mannered
after the mobilizations had begun were ignored. Though in practice these
timetables were not always decisive. The Tsar ordered general mobilization
canceled on July 29 despite his chief of staff's objections that this was
impossible. A similar cancellation was made in Germany through the Kaiser
on August 1 over the same objections, although in theory Germany should
have been the country mainly firmly bound through its mobilization schedule.
Barbara Tuchman offers another explanation in the Guns of August—that the
nations involved were concerned about falling behind their adversaries in
mobilization. According to Tuchman, war pressed against every boundary.
Suddenly dismayed, governments struggled and twisted to fend it off. It was
no use. Mediators at frontiers were reporting every cavalry patrol as a
deployment to beat the mobilization gun. General staffs, goaded through their
relentless timetables, were pounding the table for the signal to move lest their
opponents gain an hour's head start. Appalled on the brink, the chiefs of state
ultimately responsible for their country's fate attempted to back absent, but the
pull of military schedules dragged them forward.

Schlieffen Plan
Germany's strategic vulnerability, sandwiched flanked by its allied rivals,
led to the development of the audacious (and incredibly expensive) Schlieffen
Plan. It aimed to knock France instantly out of contention, before Russia had
time to mobilize its gigantic human reserves. It aimed to accomplish this task
within 6 weeks. Germany could then turn her full possessions to meeting the
Russian threat. Although Count Alfred von Schlieffen initially conceived the
plan before his retirement in 1906, Japan's defeat of Russia in the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904 exposed Russia's organizational weakness and added
greatly to the plan's credibility.
The plan described for a rapid German mobilization, sweeping through the
Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium, into France. Schlieffen described for
overwhelming numbers on the far right flank, the northernmost spearhead of
the force with only minimum troops creation up the arm and axis of the
formation as well as a minimum force stationed on the Russian eastern front.
Schlieffen was replaced through Helmuth von Moltke, and in 1907–08
Moltke adjusted the plan, reducing the proportional sharing of the forces,
lessening the crucial right wing in favor of a slightly more suspicious strategy.
Also, judging Holland unlikely to grant permission to cross its borders, the
plan was revised to create a direct move through Belgium and an artillery
assault on the Belgian city of Liège. With the rail lines and the unprecedented
firepower the German army brought, Moltke did not expect any important
protection of the fortress.
The significance of the Schlieffen Plan is that it forced German military
planners to prepare for a pre-emptive strike when war was deemed
unavoidable. Otherwise Russia would have time to mobilize and crush
Germany with its massive army. On August 1, Kaiser Wilhelm II briefly
became convinced that it might be possible to ensure French and British
neutrality and cancelled the plan despite the objections of the Chief of Staff
that this could not be done and resuming it only when the offer of a neutral
France and Britain was withdrawn.
It appears that no war planners in any country had prepared effectively for
the Schlieffen Plan. The French were not concerned about such a move. They
were confident their offensive (Plan XVII) would break the German center
and cut off the German right wing moving through Belgium. They also
expected that an early Russian offensive in East Prussia would tie down
German forces.

British security issues

In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, Paul
Kennedy, in The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914, claimed
that it was critical for war that Germany become economically more powerful
than Britain, but he downplayed the disputes over economic trade imperialism,
the Baghdad Railway, confrontations in Eastern Europe, high-charged political
rhetoric and domestic pressure-groups. Germany's reliance time and again on
sheer power, while Britain increasingly appealed to moral sensibilities, played
a role, especially in seeing the invasion of Belgium as a necessary military
tactic or a profound moral crime. The German invasion of Belgium was not
significant because the British decision had already been made and the British
were more concerned with the fate of France. Kennedy argues that through far
the main cause was London's fear that a repeat of 1870—when Prussia and the
German states smashed France—would mean Germany, with a powerful army
and navy, would control the English Channel, and northwest France. British
policy makers insisted that would be a catastrophe for British security.

Specific events

Franco–German tensions
Some of the distant origins of World War I can be seen in the results and
consequences of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71, over four decades
before. The Germans won decisively and set up a powerful Empire, while
France went into chaos and military decline for years. The new and prosperous
Germany had the industrial and military capability to control Europe.
Bismarck was a moderating leader who achieved peace and a balance of
power. After his removal the new Kaiser was reckless and his blatant use of
Germany's nationalism, its natural possessions, its economic strengths and its
ambitions sparked rivalries with other nations, such as the Anglo-German
naval arms race.
A legacy of animosity grew flanked by France and Germany following the
German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. The annexation caused widespread
resentment in France, giving rise to the desire for revenge, recognized as
revanchism. French sentiments wanted to avenge military and territorial
losses, and the displacement of France as the pre-eminent continental military
power. French defeat in the war had sparked political instability, culminating
in a revolution and the formation of the French Third Republic. Bismarck was
wary of this throughout his later years and tried to placate the French through
encouraging their overseas expansion. Though, anti-German sentiment
remained. A Franco–German colonial entente that was made in 1884 in protest
of an Anglo–Portuguese agreement in West Africa proved short-lived after a
pro-imperialist government under Jules Ferry in France fell in 1885.
France eventually recovered from its defeat, paid its war remunerations
and rebuilt its military strength again. But it was smaller than Germany in
conditions of population and GDP, and had a less advanced technology.

Austrian-Serbian tensions and Bosnian Annexation Crisis

On night flanked by 10/11 June 1903, a group of Serbian officers
assassinated unpopular King Alexander I of Serbia. The Serbian parliament
elected Peter Karađorđević as the new king of Serbia. The consequence of this
dynastic change had Serbia relying on Russia and France rather than on
Austria-Hungary, as had been the case throughout rule of Obrenović dynasty.
Serbian desire to relieve itself of Austrian influence provoked the Pig War, an
economic disagreement, from which Serbia eventually came out as the victor.
Austria-Hungary, desirous of solidifying its position in Bosnia-
Herzegovina, annexed the provinces on 6 October 1908. The annexation set
off a wave of protests and diplomatic maneuvers that became recognized as
the Bosnian crisis, or annexation crisis. The crisis sustained until April 1909,
when the annexation received grudging international approval through
amendment of the Treaty of Berlin. Throughout the crisis, relations flanked by
Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, and Russia and Serbia, on the other, were
permanently damaged.
After an exchange of letters outlining a possible deal, Russian Foreign
Minister Alexander Izvolsky and Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois
Aehrenthal met privately at Buchlau Castle in Moravia on 16 September 1908.
At Buchlau the two agreed that Austria-Hungary could annex the Ottoman
provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which Austria-Hungary occupied and
administered since 1878 under a mandate from the Treaty of Berlin. In return,
Austria-Hungary would withdraw its troops from the Ottoman Sanjak of
Novibazar and support Russia in its efforts to amend the Treaty of Berlin to
allow Russian war ships to navigate the Straits of Constantinople throughout
times of war. The two jointly agreed not to oppose Bulgarian independence.
While Izvolsky moved slowly from capital to capital vacationing and
seeking international support for opening the Straits, Bulgaria and Austria-
Hungary moved swiftly. On 5 October, Bulgaria declared its independence
from the Ottoman Empire. The after that day, Austria-Hungary annexed
Bosnia-Herzegovina. On 7 October, Austria-Hungary announced its
withdrawal from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Russia, unable to obtain Britain's
assent to Russia's Straits proposal, joined Serbia in assuming an attitude of
protest. Britain lodged a milder protest, taking the position that annexation
was a matter concerning Europe, not a bilateral issue, and so a conference
should be held. France fell in line behind Britain. Italy proposed that the
conference be held in Italy. German opposition to the conference and complex
diplomatic maneuvering scuttled the conference. On 20 February 1909, the
Ottoman Empire acquiesced to the annexation and received ₤2.2 million from
Austria-Hungary.
Austria-Hungary began releasing secret documents in which Russia, since
1878, had repeatedly stated that Austria-Hungary had a free hand in Bosnia-
Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novibazar. At the same time, Germany stated
it would only continue its active involvement in negotiations if Russia
accepted the annexation. Under these pressures, Russia agreed to the
annexation, and persuaded Serbia to do the same. The Treaty of Berlin then
was amended through correspondence flanked by capitals from 7 April to 19
April 1909, to reflect the annexation.

The Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

The Balkan Wars in 1912–1913 increased international tension flanked by
Russia and Austria. It also led to a strengthening of Serbia and a weakening of
Turkey and Bulgaria, who might otherwise have kept Serbia in check,
therefore disrupting the balance of power in Europe in favor of Russia.
Russia initially agreed to avoid territorial changes, but later in 1912
supported Serbia's demand for an Albanian port. An international conference
was held in London in 1912–1913 where it was agreed to make an
independent Albania, though both Serbia and Montenegro refused to comply.
After an Austrian, and then an international naval demonstration in early 1912
and Russia's withdrawal of support Serbia backed down. Montenegro was not
as compliant and on May 2, the Austrian council of ministers met and decided
to provide Montenegro a last chance to comply and, if it would not, then to
resort to military action. Though, seeing the Austrian military preparations, the
Montenegrins requested the ultimatum be delayed and complied.
The Serbian government, having failed to get Albania, now demanded that
the other spoils of the First Balkan War be reapportioned and Russia failed to
pressure Serbia to back down. Serbia and Greece allied against Bulgaria,
which responded with a preemptive strike against their forces beginning the
Second Balkan War. The Bulgarian army crumbled quickly when Turkey and
Romania joined the war.
The Balkan Wars strained the German/Austro-Hungarian alliance. The
attitude of the German government to Austrian requests of support against
Serbia was initially both divided and inconsistent. After the German Imperial
War Council of 8 December 1912, it was clear that Germany was not ready to
support Austria-Hungary in a war against Serbia and her likely allies.
In addition, German diplomacy before, throughout, and after the Second
Balkan War was pro-Greek and pro-Romanian and in opposition to Austria-
Hungary's increasingly pro-Bulgarian views. The result was tremendous
damage to Austro-German relations. Austrian foreign minister Leopold von
Berchtold remarked to German ambassador Heinrich von Tschirschky in July
1913 that "Austria-Hungary might as well belong 'to the other grouping' for all
the good Berlin had been".
In September 1913, it was learned that Serbia was moving into Albania
and Russia was doing nothing to restrain it, while the Serbian government
would not guarantee to respect Albania's territorial integrity and suggested
there would be some boundary modifications. In October 1913, the council of
ministers decided to send Serbia a warning followed through an ultimatum:
that Germany and Italy be notified of some action and asked for support, and
that spies be sent to report if there was an actual withdrawal. Serbia responded
to the warning with defiance and the Ultimatum was dispatched on October 17
and received the following day. It demanded that Serbia evacuate Albanian
territory within eight days. Serbia complied, and the Kaiser made a
congratulatory visit to Vienna to try to fix some of the damage done earlier in
the year.
The conflicts demonstrated that a localized war in the Balkans could alter
the balance of power without provoking general war and reinforced the
attitude in the Austrian government. This attitude had been developing since
the Bosnian annexation crisis that ultimatums were the only effective means of
influencing Serbia and that Russia would not back its refusal with force. They
also dealt catastrophic damage to the Habsburg economy.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR: CONSEQUENCES

At 11:00 am GMT on 11 November 1918 (later recognized as the eleventh

hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) fighting ceased, World War I
came to an end following an armistice with Germany. Throughout the course
of 1919 and 1920 the Allied powers signed the treaties of Versailles, Saint-
Germain-en-Laye, Neuilly-sur-Seine, Trianon, and Sèvres bringing the war to
an official end.
The aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, and social
change crossways Europe, Asia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that
were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries
were abolished, new ones were shaped, boundaries were redrawn,
international organizations were recognized, and several new and old
ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds.
World War I also had the effect of bringing political transformation to
Germany and the United Kingdom through bringing close to-universal
suffrage to these two European powers, turning them into mass electoral
democracies for the first time in their histories.

Blockade of Germany
Through the period from the armistice on 11 November 1918 until the
signing of the peace treaty with Germany on 28 June 1919, the Allies
maintained the naval blockade of Germany that had begun throughout the war.
As Germany was dependent on imports, it is estimated that 523,000 civilians
had lost their lives. N. P. Howard, of the University of Shefield, claims that a
further quarter of a million more died from disease or starvation in the eight-
month period following the conclusion of the disagreement. The continuation
of the blockade after the fighting ended, as author Robert Leckie wrote in
Delivered From Evil, did much to "torment the Germans ... driving them with
the fury of despair into the arms of the devil." The conditions of the Armistice
did allow food to be shipped into Germany, but the Allies required that
Germany give the means (the shipping) to do so. The German government was
required to use its gold reserves, being unable to secure a loan from the United
States.
Historian Sally Marks claims that while "Allied warships remained in
place against a possible resumption of hostilities, the Allies offered food and
medicine after the armistice, but Germany refused to allow its ships to carry
supplies". Further, Marks alleges that despite the troubles facing the Allies,
from the German government, "Allied food shipments arrived in Allied ships
before the charge made at Versailles". This position is also supported through
Elisabeth Gläser who notes that an Allied task force, to help feed the German
population, was recognized in early 1919 and alleges that through May 1919 "
Germany [had] became the chief recipient of American and Allied food
shipments". Gläser further claims that throughout the early months of 1919,
while the main relief effort was being planned, France provided food
shipments to Bavaria and the Rhineland. She further claims that the German
government delayed the relief effort through refusing to surrender their
merchant fleet to the Allies. Finally, she concludes that "the very success of
the relief effort had in effect deprived the [Allies] of a credible threat to induce
Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Though, it is also the case that for
eight months following the end of hostilities, the blockade was continually in
place, with some estimates that a further 100,000 casualties in the middle of
German civilians to starvation were caused, on top of the hundreds of
thousands which already had occurred. Food shipments, furthermore, had been
entirely dependent on Allied goodwill, causing at least in part the post-
hostilities irregularity.

Treaty of Versailles
After the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles on 28 June 1919, flanked by Germany on the one side and France,
Italy, Britain and other minor allied powers on the other, officially ended war
flanked by those countries. Other treaties ended the belligerent relationships of
the United States and the other Central Powers. Incorporated in the 440
articles of the Treaty of Versailles were the demands that Germany officially
accept responsibility for starting the war and pay economic reparations. This
treaty drastically limited the German military machine: German troops were
reduced to 100,000 and the country was prevented from possessing major
military armaments such as tanks, warships and submarines.

Influenza epidemic
A separate but related event was the great 1918 flu pandemic. A virulent
new strain of the flu first observed in the United States but misleadingly
recognized as the "Spanish flu", was accidentally accepted to Europe through
infected American forces personnel. One in every four Americans had
contracted the influenza virus. The disease spread rapidly through the
continental US, Canada and Europe, it eventually reached around the globe,
partially because several were weakened and exhausted through the famines of
the World War. The exact number of deaths is unknown but about 50 million
people are estimated to have died from the influenza outbreak worldwide. In
2005, a revise found that, "The 1918 virus strain developed in birds and was
similar to the 'bird flu' that today has spurred fears of another worldwide
pandemic, yet proved to be a normal treatable virus that did not produce a
heavy impact on the world's health."

Economic and geopolitical consequences

The dissolution of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and (a little
earlier) Ottoman empires created a large number of new small states in eastern
Europe. Internally these new states tended to have substantial ethnic
minorities, which wished to unite with neighbouring states where their
ethnicity dominated. For instance Czechoslovakia had Germans, Poles,
Ruthenians and Ukrainians, Slovaks and Hungarians. The League of Nations
sponsored several Minority Treaties in an attempt to deal with the problem,
but with the decline of the League in the 1930s, these treaties became
increasingly unenforceable. One consequence of the massive redrawing of
borders and the political changes in the aftermath of World War I was the
large number of European refugees. These and the refugees of the Russian
Civil War led to the creation of the Nansen passport.
Ethnic minorities made the location of the frontiers usually unstable.
Where the frontiers have remained unchanged, since 1918, there has often
been the expulsion of an ethnic group, such as the Sudeten Germans.
Economic and military cooperation amongst these small states was minimal,
ensuring that the defeated powers of Germany and the Soviet Union retained a
latent capability to control the region. In the immediate aftermath of the war,
defeat drove cooperation flanked by Germany and the Soviet Union but
ultimately these two powers would compete to control eastern Europe.

Revolutions
Perhaps the single mainly significant event precipitated through the
privations of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917. A socialist and
often explicitly Communist revolutionary wave occurred in several other
European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany and Hungary.
Due to the Russian Provisional Governments' failure to cede territory,
German and Austrian forces defeated the Russian armies, the new communist
government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In that treaty,
Russia renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine,
and the territory of Congress Poland and it was left to Germany and Austria-
Hungary "to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with
their population." Later on, Vladimir Lenin's government also renounced the
Partition of Poland treaty, creation it possible for Poland to claim its 1772
borders. Though, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was rendered obsolete when
Germany was defeated later in 1918, leaving the status of much of eastern
Europe in an uncertain position.

Germany
In Germany, there was a socialist revolution which led to the brief
establishment of a number of communist political systems in (mainly urban)
parts of the country, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and the creation of
the Weimar Republic.
On 28 June 1919, Germany, which was not allowed representation, was
not present to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The one sided treaty through the
victors placed blame for the whole war upon Germany (a view never accepted
through German nationalists but argued through, inter alios, German historian
Fritz Fischer). Germany was forced to pay 132 billion marks ($31.5 billion,
6.6 billion pounds) in reparations (a very large amount for its day which was
finally paid off in October 2010). It was followed through inflation in the
Weimar Republic, a period of hyperinflation in Germany flanked by 1921 and
1923. In this period the worth of fiat Papiermarks with respect to the earlier
commodity Goldmarks was reduced to one trillionth (one million millionth) of
its value. In December 1922 the Reparations Commission declared Germany
in default, and on 11 January 1923 French and Belgian troops occupied the
Ruhr until 1925.
The treaty required Germany to permanently reduce the size of its army to
100,000 men, renounce tanks and have no air force.
Germany saw relatively small amounts of territory transferred to Denmark,
Czechoslovakia, and Belgium, a larger amount to France and the greatest
portion as part of a re-recognized Poland. Germany's overseas colonies were
divided amongst a number of Allied countries. It was the loss of this territory
that now constituted part of Poland that caused through far the greatest
resentment. Nazi propaganda would feed on a general German view that the
treaty was unfair—several Germans never accepted the treaty as legitimate,
and later gave their political support to Adolf Hitler, who was arguably the
first national politician to both speak out and take action against the treaty's
circumstances.

Russian Empire
Russia, already suffering socially and economically, was torn through a
deadly civil war that left more than seven million people dead and large areas
of the country devastated.
Throughout the Russian Revolution of 1917 and subsequent Russian Civil
War, several non-Russian nations gained brief or longer lasting periods of
independence. Finland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia gained relatively
permanent independence, although the Baltic states were occupied through the
Soviet Union in 1940. Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan were recognized as
independent states in the Caucasus region. These countries were proclaimed as
Soviet Republics in 1922, and were eventually absorbed into the Soviet Union.
Though, Turkey had through then captured Armenian territory around Artvin,
Kars, and Igdir: these territorial losses would become permanent. Romania
gained Bessarabia from Russia. After World War I, the Soviet Union was
fortunate that Germany had lost the war as it was able to reject the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk.

Austria-Hungary
With the war having turned decisively against the Central Powers, the
people of Austria-Hungary lost faith in their allied countries, and even before
the armistice in November, radical nationalism had already led to
manydeclarations of independence in south-central Europe after November
1918. As the central government had ceased to operate in vast areas, these
regions found themselves without a government and several new groups
attempted to fill the void. Throughout this same period, the population was
facing food shortages and was, for the mainly part, demoralized through the
losses incurred throughout the war. Several political parties, ranging from
ardent nationalists, to social democrats, to communists attempted to set up
governments in the names of the dissimilar nationalities. In other areas,
existing nation states such as Romania engaged regions that they measured to
be theirs. These moves created de facto governments that complicated life for
diplomats, idealists, and the Western allies.
The Western forces were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire, but
rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to deal with local
authorities who had their own agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in
Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing
demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help throughout the
war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and
other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the Fourteen Points.
For instance, in order to live up to the ideal of self-determination laid out
in the Fourteen Points, Germans, whether Austrian or German, should be able
to decide their own future and government. Though, the French especially
were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a vast security risk.
Further complicating the situation, delegations such as the Czechs and
Slovenians made strong claims on some German-speaking territories.
The result was treaties that compromised several ideals, offended several
allies, and set up an entirely new order in the area. Several people hoped that
the new nation states would allow for a new era of prosperity and peace in the
region, free from the bitter quarrelling flanked by nationalities that had marked
the preceding fifty years. This hope proved far too optimistic. Changes in
territorial configuration after World War I incorporated:
Establishment of the Republic of German Austria and the Hungarian
Democratic Republic, disavowing any stability with the empire and
exiling the Habsburg family in perpetuity.
Borders of newly independent Hungary did not contain two-thirds of
the lands of the former Kingdom of Hungary, including large areas
where the ethnic Magyars were in a majority. The new republic of
Austria maintained control over mainly of the predominantly German-
 controlled areas, but lost several other German majority lands in what
was the Austrian Empire.
Bohemia, Moravia, Opava Silesia and the western part of Duchy of
Cieszyn, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia shaped the new
Czechoslovakia.
Galicia, eastern part of Duchy of Cieszyn, northern County of Orava
and northern Spisz was transferred to Poland.
the Southern half of the County of Tyrol and Trieste were granted to
Italy.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, Slovenia, and
Vojvodina were joined with Serbia to form the Kingdom of the Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia.
Transylvania and Bukovina became parts of Romania.
These changes were recognized in, but not caused through, the Treaty of
Versailles. They were subsequently further elaborated in the Treaty of Saint-
Germain and the Treaty of Trianon.
The new states of eastern Europe mostly all had large national minorities.
Millions of Germans found themselves in the newly created countries as
minorities. One third of ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside of
Hungary. Several of these national minorities found themselves in bad
situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the
national character of the countries, often at the expense of the other
nationalities.
The interwar years were hard for the Jews of the region. Mainly
nationalists distrusted them because they were not fully integrated into
'national communities'. In contrast to times under the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, Jews were often ostracized and discriminated against. Although
antisemitism had been widespread throughout Habsburg rule, Jews faced no
official discrimination because they were, for the mainly part, ardent
supporters of the multi-national state and the monarchy. Jews had feared the
rise of ardent nationalism and nation states, because they foresaw the
difficulties that would arise.
The economic disruption of the war and the end of the Austro-Hungarian
customs union created great hardship in several areas. Although several states
were set up as democracies after the war, one through one, with the exception
of Czechoslovakia, they reverted to some form of authoritarian rule. Several
quarreled amongst themselves but were too weak to compete effectively.
Later, when Germany rearmed, the nation states of south-central Europe were
unable to resist its attacks, and fell under German domination to a much
greater extent than had ever existed in Austria-Hungary.

Ottoman Empire
At the end of the war, the Allies occupied Constantinople (İstanbul) and
the Ottoman government collapsed. The Treaty of Sèvres, a plan intended
through the Allies to dismember the remaining Ottoman territories, was signed
on 10 August 1920, although it was never ratified through the Sultan.
The occupation of Smyrna through Greece on 18 May 1919 triggered a
nationalist movement to rescind the conditions of the treaty. Turkish
revolutionaries led through Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a successful Ottoman
commander, rejected the conditions enforced at Sèvres and under the guise of
General Inspector of the Ottoman Army, left Istanbul for Samsun to organize
the remaining Ottoman forces to resist the conditions of the treaty. On the
eastern front, the defeat of the Armenian forces in the Turkish-Armenian War
and signing of the Treaty of Kars with the Russian S.F.S.R. recovered territory
lost to Armenia and post-Imperial Russia.
On the western front, the rising strength of the Turkish nationalist forces
led Greece, with the backing of Britain, to invade deep into Anatolia in an
attempt to deal a blow to the revolutionaries. At the Battle of Sakarya, the
Greek army was defeated and forced into retreat, leading to the burning of
Smyrna and the withdrawal of Greece from Asia Minor. With the nationalists
empowered, the army marched on to reclaim Istanbul, resulting in the Chanak
crisis in which the British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, was forced to
resign. After Turkish resistance gained control over Anatolia and Istanbul, the
Sèvres treaty was superseded through the Treaty of Lausanne which formally
ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern Turkish Republic. As
a result, Turkey became the only power of World War I to overturn the
conditions of its defeat, and negotiate with the Allies as an equal.
Lausanne Treaty formally acknowledged the new League of Nations
mandates in the Middle East, the cession of their territories on the Arabian
Peninsula, and British sovereignty over Cyprus. The League of Nations
granted Class A mandates for the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon and
British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Palestine, the latter comprising two
autonomous regions: Mandate Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the
Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became part of what is today Saudi
Arabia and Yemen. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire became a pivotal
milestone in the creation of the modern Middle East, the result of which bore
witness to the creation of new conflicts and hostilities in the region.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, funding the war had a severe economic cost. From
being the world's largest overseas investor, it became one of its major debtors
with interest payments forming around 40% of all government spending.
Inflation more than doubled flanked by 1914 and its peak in 1920, while the
value of the Pound Sterling (consumer expenditure ) fell through 61.2%.
Reparations in the form of free German coal depressed local industry,
precipitating the 1926 General Strike.
British private investments abroad were sold, raising £550 million.
Though, £250 million in new investment also took place throughout the war.
The net financial loss was so almost £300 million; less than two years
investment compared to the pre-war average rate and more than replaced
through 1928. Material loss was "slight": the mainly important being 40% of
the British merchant fleet sunk through German U-boats. Mainly of this was
replaced in 1918 and all immediately after the war. The military historian
Correlli Barnett has argued that "in objective truth the Great War in no way
inflicted crippling economic damage on Britain" but that the war "crippled the
British psychologically but in no other way".
Less concrete changes contain the rising assertiveness of Commonwealth
nations. Battles such as Gallipoli for Australia and New Zealand, and Vimy
Ridge for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to
remain subordinate to Britain, leading to the growth of diplomatic autonomy
in the 1920s. These battles were often decorated in propaganda in these
nations as symbolic of their power throughout the war. Loyal dominions such
as Newfoundland were deeply disillusioned through Britain's apparent
disregard for their soldiers, eventually leading to the unification of
Newfoundland with the Confederation of Canada. Colonies such as India and
Nigeria also became increasingly assertive because of their participation in the
war. The populations in these countries became increasingly aware of their
own power and Britain's fragility.
In Ireland, the delay in finding a resolution to the home rule issue, partly
caused through the war, as well as the 1916 Easter Rising and a failed attempt
to introduce conscription in Ireland, increased support for separatist radicals.
This led indirectly to the outbreak of the Irish War of Independence in 1919.
The creation of the Irish Free State that followed this disagreement in effect
represented a territorial loss for the United Kingdom that was all but equal to
the loss sustained through Germany, (and furthermore, compared to Germany,
a much greater loss in conditions of its ratio to the country's prewar territory).
After World War I women gained the right to vote as, throughout the war,
they had had to fill-in for what were previously categorised as "men's jobs",
therefore showing the government that women were not as weak and
incompetent as they thought. Also, there were many significant growths in
medicine and technology as the injured had to be cared for and there were
many new illnesses that medicine had to deal with.

United States
The Espionage Act of 1917 stayed on the law books; over the years it has
been used against hundreds of spies, but also leaders and whistleblowers, such
as Ellsberg and Russo in the 1970s.
Disillusioned through the failure of the war to achieve the high ideals
promised through President Woodrow Wilson, though, American commercial
interests did finance Europe's rebuilding and reparation efforts in Germany, at
least until the onset of the Great Depression. American opinion on the
propriety of providing aid to Germans and Austrians was split, as evidenced
through an exchange of correspondence flanked by Edgar Gott, an executive
with The Boeing Company and Charles Osner, chairman of the Committee for
the Relief of Destitute Women and Children in Germany and Austria. Gott
argued that relief should first go to citizens of countries that had suffered at the
hands of the Central Powers, while Osner made an appeal for a more universal
application of humanitarian ideals. The American economic influence allowed
the Great Depression to start a domino effect, pulling Europe in as well.

France
France annexed Alsace-Lorraine, the region which had been ceded to
Prussia after the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. At the 1919 Peace Conference,
Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau's aim was to ensure that Germany would
not seek revenge in the following years. To this purpose, the chief commander
of the Allied forces, Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, had demanded that for the
future protection of France the Rhine river should now form the border
flanked by France and Germany. Based on history, he was convinced that
Germany would again become a threat, and, on hearing the conditions of the
Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany considerably intact, he observed
that "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years."
The destruction brought upon French territory was to be indemnified
through the reparations negotiated at Versailles. This financial imperative
dominated France's foreign policy throughout the 1920s, leading to the 1923
Occupation of the Ruhr in order to force Germany to pay. Though, Germany
was unable to pay, and obtained support from the United States. Therefore ,
the Dawes Plan was negotiated after President Raymond Poincaré's occupation
of the Ruhr, and then the Young Plan in 1929.
Also very significant in the War was the participation of French colonial
troops, including the Senegalese tirailleurs, and troops from Indochina, North
Africa, and Madagascar. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and
sustained to be treated as second class citizens, several became the nuclei of
pro-independence groups.
Furthermore, under the state of war declared throughout the hostilities, the
French economy had been somewhat centralized in order to be able to shift
into a "war economy", leading to a first breach with classical liberalism.
Finally, the socialists' support of the National Union government
(including Alexandre Millerand's nomination as Minister of War) marked a
shift towards the French Section of the Workers' International's (SFIO) turn
towards social democracy and participation in "bourgeois governments",
although Léon Blum maintained a socialist rhetoric.

Italy
In 1882 Italy joined the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire
forming the Triple Alliance. Throughout World War I Italy aligned with the
Allies, instead of joining its allies in the Triple alliance. With the Treaty of
London, Italy had been offered Trentino and Tyrol as far as Brenner, Trieste
and Istria, all the Dalmatian coast except Fiume, full ownership of Albanian
Valona and a protectorate over Albania, Antalya in Turkey and a share of the
Turkish and German colonial empire.
After the victory, Vittorio Orlando, Italy's President of the Council of
Ministers, and Sidney Sonnino, its Foreign Minister, were sent as the Italian
representatives to Paris with the aim of gaining the promised territories and as
much other land as possible. In scrupulous, there was an especially strong
opinion about the status of Fiume, which they whispered was rightly Italian
due to Italian population, in agreement with Wilson's Fourteen Points, the
ninth of whom read:
"A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected beside clearly
recognizable lines of nationality".
Nevertheless, through the end of the war the Allies realized they had made
contradictory agreements with other Nations, especially in Central Europe and
the Middle-East. In the meetings of the "Big Four", in which Orlando's powers
of diplomacy were inhibited through his lack of English, the Great powers
were only willing to offer Trentino to the Brenner, the Dalmatian port of Zara,
the island of Lagosta and a couple of small German colonies. All other
territories were promised to other nations and the great powers were worried
about Italy's imperial ambitions; Wilson, in scrupulous, was a staunch
supporter of Jugoslav rights on Dalmatia against Italy and despite the Treaty
of London which he did not recognize. As a result of this, Orlando left the
conference in a rage. This basically favored Britain and France, which divided
in the middle of themselves the former Ottoman and German territories in
Africa, without handing to Italy what they had promised in these areas.
In Italy, the discontent was immense: Irredentism claimed Fiume and
Dalmatia as Italian lands; but the disappointement was widespread in all
Italian society, which felt the Country had taken part in a meaningless war
without getting any serious benefits. This thought of a "mutilated victory" was
the cause which led to the Impresa di Fiume. On September 12, 1919, the
nationalist poet Gabriele d'Annunzio led around 2,600 troops from the Royal
Italian Army (the Granatieri di Sardegna), nationalists and irredentists, into a
seizure of the city, forcing the withdrawal of the inter-Allied (American,
British and French) occupying forces.
This event (and D'Annunzio's persona and political choices) is usually
measured the expression of a deep uneasiness which troubled Italy after the
war, and which eventually led to the rise of Italian Fascism.

China
The Republic of China had been one of the Allies; throughout the war, it
had sent thousands of labourers to France. At the Paris Peace Conference in
1919, the Chinese delegation described for an end to Western imperialistic
institutions in China, but was rebuffed. China requested at least the formal
restoration of its territory of Jiaozhou Bay, under German colonial control
since 1898. But the western Allies rejected China's request, instead granting
transfer to Japan of all of Germany's pre-war territory and rights in China.
Subsequently, China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, instead signing a
separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921.
The western Allies' substantial accession to Japan's territorial ambitions at
China's expense led to the May Fourth Movement in China, a social and
political movement that had profound influence over subsequent Chinese
history. The May Fourth Movement is often cited as the birth of Chinese
nationalism, and both the Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Party consider
the Movement to be an significant period in their own histories.

Japan
Because of the treaty that Japan had signed with Great Britain in 1902,
Japan was one of the Allies throughout the war. With British assistance,
Japanese forces attacked Germany's territories in Shandong province in China,
including the East Asian coaling base of the Imperial German navy. The
German forces were defeated and surrendered to Japan in November 1914.
The Japanese navy also succeeded in seizing many of Germany's island
possessions in the Western Pacific: the Marianas, Carolines, and Marshall
Islands.
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Japan was granted all of
Germany's pre-war rights in Shandong province in China (despite China also
being one of the Allies throughout the war): outright possession of the territory
of Jiaozhou Bay, and favorable commercial rights throughout the rest of the
province, as well as a Mandate over the German Pacific island possessions
that the Japanese navy had taken. Also, Japan was granted a permanent seat on
the Council of the League of Nations. Nevertheless, the Western powers
refused Japan's request for the inclusion of a "racial equality" clause as part of
the Treaty of Versailles.

Territorial gains and losses

Nations that gained territory after World War I

Yugoslavia (as the successor state of the Kingdom of Serbia)

Romania
Greece
France
Italy
Denmark
Belgium
Czechoslovakia
Poland
 Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
United Kingdom – League of Nations Mandates
Japan
Portugal

Nations that lost territory after World War I

Germany - forced to provide it up after the Versailles Treaty

China – Jiaozhou Bay and mainly of Shandong in North China forcibly
ceded to the Japanese Empire
Russian SFSR - (as the successor state of the Russian Empire)
Weimar Germany - (as the successor state of the German Empire)
Austria - (as the successor state of Cisleithania and the Austro-
Hungarian Empire)
Hungary - (as the successor state of Transleithania and the Austro-
Hungarian Empire)
Turkey -(as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire)
Bulgaria
United Kingdom – mainly of Ireland as the Irish Free State, Egypt in
1922

Social trauma
The experiences of the war in the west are commonly assumed to have led
to a sort of communal national trauma afterward for all of the participating
countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought
became what is recognized as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully
recovered from their suffering. For the after that few years, much of Europe
mourned privately and publicly; memorials were erected in thousands of
villages and towns.
So several British men of marriageable age died or were injured that the
students of one girls' school were warned that only 10% would marry. The
1921 United Kingdom Census found 19,803,022 women and 18,082,220 men
in England and Wales, a variation of 1.72 million which newspapers described
the "Surplus Two Million". In the 1921 census there were 1,209 single women
aged 25 to 29 for every 1,000 men. In 1931 50% were still single, and 35% of
them did not marry while still able to bear children.
On the other hand, some people argue that it is not at all clear that any
society was not traumatized, or that human losses were heavily mourned. This
was the later view in the West, throughout the 1930s, because through then the
Great Depression and the rise of Nazism made the sacrifices of the First World
War seem meaningless. This was not clear in the 1920s. Neither Hitler's
Germany nor the Soviet Union displayed any proof that the First World War
was at all traumatic. For Germany, the Soviet Union and all the new states, the
First World War had been the creation of the old political order and, as such,
had little effect on the political elites of these countries. The real trauma for
the British political class was the possibility of any war.
As early as 1923, Stanley Baldwin had recognized a new strategic reality
that faced Britain in a disarmament speech. Poison gas and the aerial bombing
of civilians were new growths of the First World War. The British civilian
population had not, for centuries, had any serious cause to fear invasion. So
the new threat of poison gas dropped from enemy bombers excited a grossly
exaggerated view of the civilian deaths that would occur on the outbreak of
any future war. Baldwin expressed this in his statement that "The bomber will
always get through". The traditional British policy of a balance of power in
Europe no longer safeguarded the British home population. Out of this fear
came appeasement. It is notable that neither Baldwin nor Neville Chamberlain
had fought in the war but the anti-appeasers Antony Eden, Harold Macmillan
and Winston Churchill had.
One gruesome reminder of the sacrifices of the generation was the fact that
this was one of the first times in disagreement whereby more men had died in
battle than to disease, which had been the main cause of deaths in mainly
previous wars. The Russo-Japanese War was the first disagreement where
battle deaths outnumbered disease deaths, but it had been fought on a much
smaller scale flanked by just two nations.
This social trauma made itself manifest in several dissimilar ways. Some
people were revolted through nationalism and what it had caused; so, they
began to work toward a more internationalist world through organizations
such as the League of Nations. Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others
had the opposite reaction, feeling that only military strength could be relied on
for protection in a chaotic and inhumane world that did not respect
hypothetical notions of civilization. Certainly a sense of disillusionment and
cynicism became pronounced. Nihilism grew in popularity. Several people
whispered that the war heralded the end of the world as they had recognized it,
including the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Communist and socialist
movements around the world drew strength from this theory, enjoying a stage
of popularity they had never recognized before. These feelings were mainly
pronounced in areas directly or particularly harshly affected through the war,
such as central Europe, Russia and France.
Artists such as Otto Dix, George Grosz, Ernst Barlach, and Käthe Kollwitz
represented their experiences, or those of their society, in blunt paintings and
sculpture. Likewise, authors such as Erich Maria Remarque wrote grim novels
detailing their experiences. These works had a strong impact on society,
causing a great deal of controversy and highlighting conflicting interpretations
of the war. In Germany, nationalists including the Nazis whispered that much
of this work was degenerate and undermined the cohesion of society as well as
dishonoring the dead.
Remains of ammunition
Throughout the areas where trenches and fighting lines were located, such
as the Champagne region of France, quantities of unexploded ordnance have
remained, some of which remains dangerous, continuing to cause injuries and
occasional fatalities in the 21st century. Some are found through farmers
sloughing their fields and have been described the iron harvest. Some of this
ammunition contains toxic chemical products such as mustard gas. Cleanup of
major battlefields is a continuing task with no end in sight for decades to
come. Squads remove, defuse or destroy hundreds of tons of unexploded
ammunition every year in Belgium, France, and Germany.

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION: CAUSES, COURSE, AND

SIGNIFICANCE
The Russian Revolution is the communal term for a series of revolutions in
Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation
of the Russian SFSR. The Emperor was forced to abdicate and the old regime
was replaced through a provisional government throughout the first revolution
of February 1917 (March in the Gregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar
was in use in Russia at the time). In the second revolution, throughout
October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a
Bolshevik (Communist) government.
The February Revolution (March 1917) was a revolution focused around
Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg). In the chaos, members of the Imperial
parliament or Duma assumed control of the country, forming the Russian
Provisional Government. The army leadership felt they did not have the means
to suppress the revolution and Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia,
abdicated. The Soviets (workers' councils), which were led through more
radical socialist factions, initially permitted the Provisional Government to
rule, but insisted on a prerogative to influence the government and control
several militias. The February Revolution took place in the context of heavy
military setbacks throughout the First World War (1914–18), which left much
of the Russian army in a state of mutiny.
A period of dual power ensued, throughout which the Provisional
Government held state power while the national network of Soviets, led
through socialists, had the allegiance of the lower classes and the political left.
Throughout this chaotic period there were frequent mutinies, protests and
several strikes. When the Provisional Government chose to continue fighting
the war with Germany, the Bolsheviks and other socialist factions campaigned
for stopping the disagreement. The Bolsheviks turned workers militias under
their control into the Red Guards (later the Red Army) over which they
exerted substantial control.
 In the October Revolution (November in the Gregorian calendar), the
Bolshevik party, led through Vladimir Lenin, and the workers' Soviets,
overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd. The Bolsheviks
appointed themselves as leaders of several government ministries and seized
control of the countryside, establishing the Cheka to quash dissent. To end
Russia‘s participation in the First World War, the Bolshevik leaders signed the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918.
Civil war erupted flanked by the "Red" (Bolshevik) and "White" (anti-
Bolshevik) factions, which was to continue for man-years, with the Bolsheviks
ultimately victorious. In this way, the Revolution paved the way for the
creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. While
several notable historical events occurred in Moscow and Petrograd, there was
also a visible movement in cities throughout the state, in the middle of national
minorities throughout the empire and in the rural areas, where peasants took
over and redistributed land.

BACKGROUND

The Russian Revolution of 1905 was said to be a major factor to the

February Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday triggered a line
of protests. A council of workers described the St. Petersburg Soviet was
created in all this chaos, and the beginning of a communist political protest
had begun.
World War I prompted a Russian outcry directed at Tsar Nicholas II. It
was another major factor contributing to the retaliation of the Russian
Communists against their royal opponents. After the entry of the Ottoman
Empire on the side of the Central Powers in October 1914, Russia was
deprived of a major trade route through Ottoman Empire, which followed with
a minor economic crisis, in which Russia became incapable of providing
munitions to their army in the years leading to 1917. Though, the troubles
were merely administrative, and not industrial as Germany was producing
great amounts of munitions whilst constantly fighting on two major
battlefronts.
The war also developed a weariness in the city, owing to a lack of food in
response to the disruption of agriculture. Food scarcity had become a
considerable problem in Russia, but the cause of this did not lie in any failure
of the harvests, which had not been significantly altered throughout war-time.
The indirect cause was that the government, in order to finance the war, had
been printing off millions of ruble notes, and through 1917 inflation had made
prices augment up to four times what they had been in 1914. The peasantry
were consequently faced with the higher cost of purchases, but made no
corresponding gain in the sale of their own produce, since this was largely
taken through the middlemen on whom they depended. As a result they tended
to hoard their grain and to revert to survival farming. Therefore the cities were
constantly short of food. At the same time rising prices led to demands for
higher wages in the factories, and in January and February 1916 revolutionary
propaganda, aided through German funds, led to widespread strikes. The
outcome of all this, though, was a rising criticism of the government rather
than any war-weariness. The original fever of patriotic excitement, which had
caused the name of St. Petersburg to be changed to the less German sounding
"Petrograd," may have subsided a little in the subsequent years, but it had not
turned to defeatism and throughout the initial risings in Petrograd in February
1917, the crowds in the streets clearly objected to the banners proclaiming
"down with the war." Heavy losses throughout the war also strengthened
thoughts that Tsar Nicholas II was unfit to rule.
The Liberals were now better placed to voice their complaints, since they
were participating more fully through a diversity of voluntary organizations.
Local industrial committees proliferated. In July 1915, a Central War
Industries Committee was recognized under the chairmanship of a prominent
Octobrist, Guchkov, and including ten workers' representatives. The Petrograd
Mensheviks agreed to join despite the objections of their leaders abroad. All
this activity gave renewed encouragement to political ambitions, and, in
September 1915, a combination of Octobrists and Kadets in the Duma
demanded the forming of a responsible government. The Tsar rejected these
proposals. He had now taken over the position of commander-in-chief of the
armed forces and, throughout his absence from Petrograd while at his military
headquarters at Mogilev, he left mainly of the day-to-day government in the
hands of the Empress. She was intensely unpopular, owing, in part, to her
German origin and to the influence that Rasputin, an unsavoury monk,
exercised over her.
All these factors had given rise to a sharp loss of confidence in the regime
through 1916. Early in that year, Guchkov had been taking soundings in the
middle of senior army officers and members of the Central War Industries
Committee about a possible coup to force the abdication of the Tsar. In
November, Pavel Milyukov in the Duma openly accused the government of
contemplating peace negotiations with Germany. In December, a small group
of nobles assassinated Rasputin, and in January 1917 the Tsar's uncle, Grand
Duke Nicholas, was asked indirectly through Prince Lvov whether he would
be prepared to take over the throne from his nephew, Tsar Nicholas II. None
of these incidents were in themselves the immediate cause of the February
Revolution, but they do help to explain why the monarchy survived only a few
days after it had broken out.
Meanwhile, the Social Democrat leaders in exile, now mostly in
Switzerland, had been the glum spectators of the collapse of international
socialist solidarity. French and German Social Democrats had voted in favor
of their respective governments. Georgi Plekhanov in Paris had adopted a
violently anti-German stand, while Parvus supported the German war effort as
the best means of ensuring a revolution in Russia. The Mensheviks largely
maintained that Russia had the right to defend herself against Germany,
although Martov (a prominent Menshevik), now on the left of his group,
demanded an end to the war and a settlement on the basis of national self-
determination, with no annexations or indemnities.
It was these views of Martov that predominated in a manifesto drawn up
through Leon Trotsky (a major Bolshevik revolutionary) at a conference in
Zimmerwald, attended through thirty-five Socialist leaders in September 1915.
Inevitably Vladimir Lenin, supported through Zinoviev and Radek, strongly
contested them. Their attitudes became recognized as the Zimmerwald Left.
Lenin rejected both the defense of Russia and the cry for peace. Since the
autumn of 1914, he had insisted that "from the standpoint of the working class
and of the laboring masses from the lesser evil would be the defeat of the
Tsarist Monarchy"; the war necessity be turned into a civil war of the
proletarian soldiers against their own governments, and if a proletarian victory
should emerge from this in Russia, then their duty would be to wage a
revolutionary war for the liberation of the masses throughout Europe.
Therefore , Lenin remained the enfant terrible of the Russian Social
Democratic Labour Party, although at this point in the war his following in
Russia was as few as 10,000 and he necessity have seemed no more than the
leader of an extremist wing of a bankrupt organization. Lenin, though, then
executed the protests of Petrograd which set off the 1917 Russian Revolution.

Economic and social changes

An elementary theory of property, whispered through several peasants,
was that land should belong to those who work on it. At the same time,
peasant life and culture was changing constantly. Change was facilitated
through the physical movement of rising numbers of peasant villagers who
migrated to and from industrial and urban environments, but also through the
introduction of city culture into the village through material goods, the press,
and word of mouth.
Workers also had good reasons for discontent: overcrowded housing with
often deplorable sanitary circumstances, long hours at work (on the eve of the
war a 10-hour workday six days a week was the average and several were
working 11–12 hours a day through 1916), constant risk of injury and death
from very poor safety and sanitary circumstances, harsh discipline (not only
rules and fines, but foremen‘s fists), and inadequate wages (made worse after
1914 through steep war-time increases in the cost of living). At the same time,
urban industrial life was full of benefits, though these could be just as
dangerous, from the point of view of social and political stability, as the
hardships. There were several encouragements to expect more from life.
Acquiring new skills gave several workers a sense of self-respect and
confidence, heightening expectations and desires. Living in cities, workers
encountered material goods such as they had never seen while in the village.
Mainly significant, living in cities, they were exposed to new ideas about the
social and political order.
 The social causes of the Russian Revolution mainly came from centuries
of oppression of the lower classes through the Tsarist regime, and Nicholas's
failures in World War I. While rural agrarian peasants had been emancipated
from serfdom in 1861, they still resented paying redemption payments to the
state, and demanded communal tender of the land they worked. The problem
was further compounded through the failure of Sergei Witte's land reforms of
the early 20th century. Rising peasant disturbances and sometimes actual
revolts occurred, with the goal of securing ownership of the land they worked.
Russia consisted mainly of poor farming peasants, with 1.5% of the population
owning 25% of the land.
The rapid industrialization of Russia also resulted in urban overcrowding
and poor circumstances for urban industrial workers. Flanked by 1890 and
1910, the population of the capital, Saint Petersburg, swelled from 1,033,600
to 1,905,600, with Moscow experiencing similar growth. This created a new
'proletariat' which, due to being crowded together in the cities, was much more
likely to protest and go on strike than the peasantry had been in previous
times. In one 1904 survey, it was found that an average of sixteen people
shared each apartment in Saint Petersburg, with six people per room. There
was also no running water, and piles of human waste were a threat to the
health of the workers. The poor circumstances only aggravated the situation,
with the number of strikes and incidents of public disorder rapidly rising in the
years shortly before World War I. Because of late industrialization, Russia's
workers were highly concentrated. Through 1914 40% of Russian workers
were employed in factories of +1,000 workers (32% in 1901). 42% worked in
100–1,000 worker enterprises, 18% in 1–100 worker businesses (in the USA,
1914, the figures were 18, 47 and 35 respectively).

World War I only added to the chaos. Conscription swept up the unwilling
in all parts of Russia. The vast demand for factory production of war supplies
and workers caused several more labor riots and strikes. Conscription stripped
skilled workers from the cities, who had to be replaced with unskilled
peasants, and then, when famine began to hit due to the poor railway system,
workers abandoned the cities in droves to look for food. Finally, the soldiers
themselves, who suffered from a lack of equipment and protection from the
elements, began to turn against the Tsar. This was mainly because, as the war
progressed, several of the officers who were loyal to the Tsar were killed, and
were replaced through discontented conscripts from the major cities, who had
little loyalty to the Tsar.

Political issues
Several sections of the country had cause to be dissatisfied with the
existing autocracy. Nicholas II was a deeply conservative ruler and maintained
a strict authoritarian system. Individuals and society in general were expected
to show self-restraint, devotion to community, deference to the social
hierarchy and a sense of duty to the country. Religious faith helped bind all of
these tenets together as a source of comfort and reassurance in the face of hard
circumstances and as a means of political authority exercised through the
clergy. Perhaps more than any other modern monarch, Nicholas II attached his
fate and the future of his dynasty to the notion of the ruler as a saintly and
infallible father to his people.
This idealized vision of the Romanov monarchy blinded him to the actual
state of his country. With a firm belief that his power to rule was granted
through Divine Right, Nicholas assumed that the Russian people were devoted
to him with unquestioning loyalty. This ironclad belief rendered Nicholas
unwilling to allow the progressive reforms that might have alleviated the
suffering of the Russian people. Even after the 1905 revolution spurred the
Tsar to decree limited civil rights and democratic representation, he worked to
limit even these liberties in order to preserve the ultimate authority of the
crown.
Despite constant oppression, the desire of the people for democratic
participation in government decisions was strong. Since the Age of
Enlightenment, Russian intellectuals had promoted Enlightenment ideals such
as the dignity of the individual and the rectitude of democratic representation.
These ideals were championed mainly vociferously through Russia‘s liberals,
although populists, Marxists, and anarchists also claimed to support
democratic reforms. A rising opposition movement had begun to challenge the
Romanov monarchy openly well before the turmoil of World War I.
Dissatisfaction with Russian autocracy culminated in the vast national
upheaval that followed the Bloody Sunday massacre of January 1905, in
which hundreds of unarmed protesters were shot through the Tsar's troops.
Workers responded to the massacre with a crippling general strike, forcing
Nicholas to put forth the October Manifesto, which recognized a
democratically elected parliament (the State Duma). The Tsar undermined this
promise of reform but a year later with Article 87 of the 1906 Fundamental
State Laws, and subsequently dismissed the first two Dumas when they proved
uncooperative. Unfulfilled hopes of democracy fueled revolutionary ideas and
violent outbursts targeted at the monarchy.
One of the Tsar‘s principal rationales for risking war in 1914 was his
desire to restore the prestige that Russia had lost amid the debacles of the
Russo-Japanese war. Nicholas also sought to foster a greater sense of national
unity with a war against a common and ancient enemy. The Russian Empire
was an agglomeration of diverse ethnicities that had shown important signs of
disunity in the years before the First World War. Nicholas whispered in part
that the shared peril and tribulation of a foreign war would mitigate the social
unrest over the persistent issues of poverty, inequality, and inhuman working
circumstances. Instead of restoring Russia's political and military standing,
World War I led to the horrifying slaughter of Russian troops and military
defeats that undermined both the monarchy and society in general to the point
of collapse.

WORLD WAR I

to defend their land and their lives did not necessarily translate into
enthusiasm for the Tsar or the government.
Russia's first major battle of the war was a disaster: in the 1914 Battle of
Tannenberg, over 30,000 Russian troops were killed or wounded and 90,000
captured, while Germany suffered just 20,000 casualties. Though, Austro-
Hungarian forces allied to Germany were driven back deep into the Galicia
region through the end of the year. In the autumn of 1915, Nicholas had taken
direct command of the army, personally overseeing Russia's main theatre of
war and leaving his ambitious but incapable wife Alexandra in charge of the
government. Reports of corruption and incompetence in the Imperial
government began to emerge, and the rising influence of Grigori Rasputin in
the Imperial family was widely resented. In the eyes of Lynch, a revisionist
historian who focuses on the role of the people, Rasputin was a "fatal disease"
to the Tsarist regime.
In 1915, things took a critical turn for the worse when Germany shifted its
focus of attack to the Eastern front. The superior German army – better led,
better trained and better supplied – was terrifyingly effective against the ill-
equipped Russian forces, driving the Russians out of Galicia, as well as
Russian Poland, throughout the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive campaign.
Through the end of October 1916, Russia had lost flanked by 1,600,000 and
1,800,000 soldiers, with an additional 2,000,000 prisoners of war and
1,000,000 missing, all creation up a total of almost 5,000,000 men.
These staggering losses played a definite role in the mutinies and revolts
that began to occur. In 1916, reports of fraternizing with the enemy started to
circulate. Soldiers went hungry, and lacked shoes, munitions, and even
weapons. Rampant discontent lowered morale, which was further undermined
through a series of military defeats.
Casualty rates were the mainly vivid sign of this disaster. Already, through
the end of 1914, only five months into the war, around 390,000 Russian men
had lost their lives and almost 1,000,000 were injured. Far sooner than
expected, barely trained recruits had to be described up for active duty, a
procedure repeated throughout the war as staggering losses sustained to
mount. The officer class also saw extra ordinary changes, especially within the
lower echelons, which were quickly filled with soldiers rising up through the
ranks. These men, usually of peasant or working-class backgrounds, were to
play a large role in the politicization of the troops in 1917.
The vast losses on the battlefields were not limited to men. The army
quickly ran short of rifles and ammunition (as well as uniforms and food), and,
through mid-1915, men were being sent to the front bearing no arms. It was
hoped that they could equip themselves with the arms that they recovered from
fallen soldiers, of both sides, on the battlefields. With good cause, the soldiers
did not feel that they were being treated as human beings, or even as valuable
soldiers, but rather as raw materials to be squandered for the purposes of the
rich and powerful.
Through the spring of 1915, the army was in steady retreat, which was not
always orderly; desertion, plunder and chaotic flight were not uncommon.
Through 1916, though, the situation had improved in several respects. Russian
troops stopped retreating, and there were even some modest successes in the
offensives that were staged that year, albeit at great loss of life. Also, the
problem of shortages was largely solved through a major effort to augment
domestic production. Nevertheless, through the end of 1916, morale in the
middle of soldiers was even worse than it had been throughout the great retreat
of 1915. The fortunes of war may have improved, but the fact of the war, still
draining absent strength and lives from the country and its several individuals
and families, remained an oppressive inevitability. The crisis in morale (as
was argued through Allan Wildman, a leading historian of the Russian army in
war and revolution) "was rooted fundamentally in the feeling of utter despair
that the slaughter would ever end and that anything resembling victory could
be achieved."
The war devastated not only soldiers. Through the end of 1915, there were
manifold signs that the economy was breaking down under the heightened
strain of wartime demand. The main troubles were food shortages and rising
prices. Inflation dragged incomes down at an alarmingly rapid rate, and
shortages made it hard to buy even what one could afford. These shortages
were a problem especially in the capital, St. Petersburg, where aloofness from
supplies and poor transportation networks made matters particularly bad.
Shops closed early or entirely for lack of bread, sugar, meat and other
provisions, and lines lengthened massively for what remained. It became
increasingly hard both to afford and actually buy food.
Not surprisingly, strikes increased steadily from the middle of 1915, and
so did crime; but, for the mainly part, people suffered and endured, scouring
the city for food. Working class women in St. Petersburg reportedly spent
about forty hours a week in food lines, begging, turning to prostitution or
crime, tearing down wooden fences to keep stoves heated for warmth,
grumbling about the rich, and wondering when and how this would all come to
an end.
Government officials responsible for public order worried about how long
people's patience would last. A report through the St. Petersburg branch of the
security police, the Okhrana, in October 1916, warned bluntly of "the
possibility in the close to future of riots through the lower classes of the
empire enraged through the burdens of daily subsistence."
Nicholas was blamed for all of these crises, and what little support he had
left began to crumble. As discontent grew, the State Duma issued a warning to
Nicholas in November 1916. It stated that, inevitably, a terrible disaster would
grip the country unless a constitutional form of government was put in place.
In typical fashion, though, Nicholas ignored them, and Russia's Tsarist regime
collapsed a few months later throughout the February Revolution of 1917. One
year later, the Tsar and his whole family were executed. Ultimately, Nicholas's
inept handling of his country and the war destroyed the Tsar and ended up
costing him both his reign and his life.

FEBRUARY REVOLUTION

At the beginning of February, Petrograd workers began many strikes and

demonstrations. On 7 March [O.S. 22 February], workers at Putilov,
Petrograd's largest industrial plant, announced a strike.
The after that day, a series of meetings and rallies were held for
International Women's Day, which slowly turned into economic and political
gatherings. Demonstrations were organised to demand bread, and these were
supported through the industrial working force who measured them a cause for
continuing the strikes. The women workers marched to nearby factories
bringing out over 50,000 workers on strike. Through 10 March [O.S. 25
February], virtually every industrial enterprise in Petrograd had been shut
down, together with several commercial and service enterprises. Students,
white-collar workers and teachers joined the workers in the streets and at
public meetings.
To quell the riots, the Tsar looked to the army. At least 180,000 troops
were accessible in the capital, but mainly were either untrained or injured.
Historian Ian Beckett suggests around 12,000 could be regarded as reliable,
but even these proved reluctant to move in on the crowd, since it incorporated
so several women. It was for this cause that when, on 11 March [O.S. 26
February], the Tsar ordered the army to suppress the rioting through force,
troops began to mutiny. Although few actively joined the rioting, several
officers were either shot or went into hiding; the skill of the garrison to hold
back the protests was all but nullified, symbols of the Tsarist regime were
rapidly torn down around the city, and governmental authority in the capital
collapsed – not helped through the fact that Nicholas had prorogued the Duma
that morning, leaving it with no legal authority to act. The response of the
Duma, urged on through the liberal bloc, was to establish a Temporary
Committee to restore law and order; meanwhile, the socialist parties establish
the Petrograd Soviet to represent workers and soldiers. The remaining loyal
units switched allegiance the after that day.
The Tsar took a train back towards Petrograd, which was stopped on 14
March [O.S. 1 March], through a group of disloyal troops. When the Tsar
finally reached his destination, the Army Chiefs and his remaining ministers
(those who had not fled under pretense of a power-cut) suggested in unison
that he abdicate the throne. He did so on 15 March [O.S. 2 March], on behalf
of himself, and then, having taken advice, on behalf of his son, the Tsarevich.
Nicholas nominated his brother, the Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, to
succeed him. But the Grand Duke realised that he would have little support as
ruler, so he declined the crown on 16 March [O.S. 3 March], stating that he
would take it only if that was the consensus of democratic action. Six days
later, Nicholas, no longer Tsar and addressed with contempt through the
sentries as "Nicholas Romanov", was reunited with his family at the
Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. He was placed under house arrest with
his family through the Provisional Government.
The immediate effect of the February Revolution was a widespread
atmosphere of elation and excitement in Petrograd. On 16 March [O.S. 3
March], a provisional government was announced. The center-left was well
represented, and the government was initially chaired through a liberal
aristocrat, Prince Georgy Yevgenievich Lvov, a member of the Constitutional
Democratic party (KD). The socialists had shaped their rival body, the
Petrograd Soviet (or workers' council) four days earlier. The Petrograd Soviet
and the Provisional Government competed for power over Russia.

FLANKED BY FEBRUARY AND THROUGHOUT OCTOBER: "DUAL

POWER" (DVOEVLASTIE)

The effective power of the Provisional Government was challenged

through the authority of an institution that claimed to represent the will of
workers and soldiers and could, in fact, mobilize and control these groups
throughout the early months of the revolution – the Petrograd Soviet [Council]
of Workers' Deputies. The model for the soviet were workers' councils that
had been recognized in scores of Russian cities throughout the 1905
revolution. In February 1917, striking workers elected deputies to represent
them and socialist activists began organizing a citywide council to unite these
deputies with representatives of the socialist parties. On 27 February, socialist
Duma deputies, mainly Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, took the
lead in organizing a citywide council. The Petrograd Soviet met in the Tauride
Palace, the same structure where the new government was taking shape.
The leaders of the Petrograd Soviet whispered that they represented
scrupulous classes of the population, not the whole nation. They also
whispered Russia was not ready for socialism. So they saw their role as
limited to pressuring hesitant "bourgeoisie" to rule and to introduce extensive
democratic reforms in Russia (the replacement of the monarchy through a
republic, guaranteed civil rights, a democratic police and army, abolition of
religious and ethnic discrimination, preparation of elections to a constituent
assembly, and so on). They met in the same structure as the emerging
Provisional Government not to compete with the Duma Committee for state
power but to best exert pressure on the new government, to act, in other
words, as a popular democratic lobby.
The relationship flanked by these two major powers was complex from the
beginning and would shape the politics of 1917. The representatives of the
Provisional Government agreed to "take into account the opinions of the
Soviet of Workers' Deputies", though they were also determined to prevent
"interference in the actions of the government", which would make "an
unacceptable situation of dual power." In fact, this was precisely what was
being created, though this "dual power" (dvoevlastie) was the result less of the
actions or attitudes of the leaders of these two institutions than of actions
outside their control, especially the ongoing social movement taking place on
the streets of Russia‘s cities, in factories and shops, in barracks and in the
trenches, and in the villages.
A series of political crises – see the chronology below – in the relationship
flanked by population and government and flanked by the Provisional
Government and the soviets (which developed into a nationwide movement
with a national leadership, The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of
Soviets (VTsIK)) undermined the authority of the Provisional Government but
also of the moderate socialist leaders of the Soviet. Although the Soviet
leadership initially refused to participate in the "bourgeois" Provisional
Government, Alexander Kerensky, a young and popular lawyer and a member
of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRP), agreed to join the new cabinet, and
became an increasingly central figure in the government, eventually taking
leadership of the Provisional Government. As minister of war and later Prime
Minister, Kerensky promoted freedom of speech, released thousands of
political prisoners, did his very best to continue the war effort and even
organised another offensive (which, though, was no more successful than its
precursors). Nevertheless, Kerensky still faced many great challenges,
highlighted through the soldiers, urban workers and peasants, who claimed
that they had gained nothing through the revolution:
Other political groups were trying to undermine him.
Heavy military losses were being suffered on the front.
The soldiers were dissatisfied and demoralized and had started to
defect. (On arrival back in Russia, these soldiers were either
imprisoned or sent straight back into the front.)
There was enormous discontent with Russia's involvement in the war,
and several were calling for an end to it.
There were great shortages of food and supplies, which was hard to
remedy because of the wartime economic circumstances.
The political group that proved mainly troublesome for Kerensky, and
would eventually overthrow him, was the Bolshevik Party, led through
Vladimir Lenin. Lenin had been living in exile in neutral Switzerland and, due
to democratization of politics after the February Revolution, which legalized
formerly banned political parties, he perceived the opportunity for his Marxist
revolution. Although return to Russia had become a possibility, the war made
it logistically hard. Eventually, German officials arranged for Lenin to pass
through their territory, hoping that his activities would weaken Russia or
even – if the Bolsheviks came to power – lead to Russia's withdrawal from the
war. Lenin and his associates, though, had to agree to travel to Russia in a
sealed train: Germany would not take the chance that he would foment
revolution in Germany. After passing through the front, he arrived in
Petrograd in April 1917.
With Lenin's arrival, the popularity of the Bolsheviks increased steadily.
Over the course of the spring, public dissatisfaction with the Provisional
Government and the war, in scrupulous in the middle of workers, soldiers and
peasants, pushed these groups to radical parties. Despite rising support for the
Bolsheviks, buoyed through maxims that described mainly famously for "all
power to the Soviets," the party held very little real power in the moderate-
dominated Petrograd Soviet. In fact, historians such as Sheila Fitzpatrick have
asserted that Lenin's exhortations for the Soviet Council to take power were
planned to arouse indignation both with the Provisional Government, whose
policies were viewed as conservative, and the Soviet itself, which was viewed
as subservient to the conservative government. Through some historians'
accounts, Lenin and his followers were unprepared for how their groundswell
of support, especially in the middle of influential worker and soldier groups,
would translate into real power in the summer of 1917.
On 18 June, the Provisional Government launched an attack against
Germany that failed miserably. Soon after, the government ordered soldiers to
go to the front, reneging on a promise. The soldiers refused to follow the new
orders. The arrival of radical Kronstadt sailors – who had tried and executed
several officers, including one admiral – further fueled the rising revolutionary
atmosphere. The sailors and soldiers, beside with Petrograd workers, took to
the streets in violent protest, calling for "all power to the Soviets." The revolt,
though, was disowned through Lenin and the Bolshevik leaders and dissipated
within a few days. In the aftermath, Lenin fled to Finland under threat of arrest
while Trotsky, in the middle of other prominent Bolsheviks, was arrested. The
July Days confirmed the popularity of the anti-war, radical Bolsheviks, but
their unpreparedness at the moment of revolt was an embarrassing gaffe that
lost them support in the middle of their main constituent groups: soldiers and
workers.
The Bolshevik failure in the July Days proved temporary. The Bolsheviks
had undergone a spectacular growth in membership. Whereas, in February
1917, the Bolsheviks were limited to only 24,000 members, through
September 1917 there were 200,000 members of the Bolshevik faction.
Previously, the Bolsheviks had been in the minority in the two leading cities of
Russia—St. Petersburg and Moscow behind the Mensheviks and the Socialist
Revolutionaries, through September the Bolsheviks were in the majority in
both cities. Furthermore, the Bolshevik-controlled Moscow Local Bureau of
the Party also controlled the Party organizations of the thirteen (13) provinces
around Moscow. These thirteen provinces held 37% of Russia's population
and 20% of the membership of the Bolshevik faction.
In August, poor or misleading communication led General Lavr Kornilov,
the recently appointed Supreme Commander of Russian military forces, to
consider that the Petrograd government had already been captured through
radicals, or was in serious danger thereof. In response, he ordered troops to
Petrograd to pacify the city. To secure his position, Kerensky had to ask for
Bolshevik assistance. He also sought help from the Petrograd Soviet, which
described upon armed Red Guards to "defend the revolution". The Kornilov
Affair failed largely due to the efforts of the Bolsheviks, whose influence over
railroad and telegraph workers proved vital in stopping the movement of
troops. With his coup failing, Kornilov surrendered and was relieved of his
position. The Bolsheviks' role in stopping the attempted coup further
strengthened their position.
In early September, the Petrograd Soviet freed all jailed Bolsheviks and
Trotsky became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. Rising numbers of
socialists and lower-class Russians viewed the government less and less as a
force in support of their needs and interests. The Bolsheviks benefited as the
only major organized opposition party that had refused to compromise with
the Provisional Government, and they benefited from rising frustration and
even disgust with other parties, such as the Mensheviks and Socialist
Revolutionaries, who stubbornly refused to break with the thought of national
unity crossways all classes.
In Finland, Lenin had worked on his book State and Revolution and
sustained to lead his party, writing newspaper articles and policy decrees.
Through October, he returned to Petrograd (St. Petersburg), aware that the
increasingly radical city presented him no legal danger and a second
opportunity for revolution. Recognizing the strength of the Bolsheviks, Lenin
began pressing for the immediate overthrow of the Kerensky government
through the Bolsheviks. Lenin was of the opinion that taking power should
occur in both St. Petersburg and Moscow simultaneously, parenthetically
stating that it made no variation which city rose up first, but expressing his
opinion that Moscow may well rise up first. The Bolshevik Central Committee
drafted a resolution, calling for the dissolution of the Provisional Government
in favor of the Petrograd Soviet. The resolution was passed 10–2 (Lev
Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev prominently dissenting) and the October
Revolution began.

OCTOBER REVOLUTION

The October Revolution was led through Vladimir Lenin and was based
upon Lenin's writing on the ideas of Karl Marx, a political ideology often
recognized as Marxism-Leninism. It marked the beginning of the spread of
communism in the 20th century. It was far less sporadic than the revolution of
February and came about as the result of deliberate planning and coordinated
activity to that end.
Though Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik Party, it has been argued
that since Lenin was not present throughout the actual takeover of the Winter
Palace, it was really Trotsky's organization and direction that led the
revolution, merely spurred through the motivation Lenin instigated within his
party. Critics on the Right have long argued that the financial and logistical
assistance of German intelligence via their key agent, Alexander Parvus was a
key component as well, though historians are divided, since there is little proof
supporting that claim.
On 7 November 1917, Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin led his leftist
revolutionaries in a revolt against the ineffective Provisional Government
(Russia was still using the Julian Calendar at the time, so period references
show a 25 October date). The October revolution ended the stage of the
revolution instigated in February, replacing Russia's short-lived provisional
parliamentary government with government through soviets, local councils
elected through bodies of workers and peasants. Liberal and monarchist
forces, loosely organized into the White Army, immediately went to war
against the Bolsheviks' Red Army, in a series of battles that would become
recognized as the Russian Civil War.
Soviet membership was initially freely elected, but several members of the
Socialist-Revolutionary Party, anarchists, and other leftists created opposition
to the Bolsheviks through the soviets themselves. When it became clear that
the Bolsheviks had little support outside of the industrialized areas of Saint
Petersburg and Moscow, they basically barred non-Bolsheviks from
membership in the soviets. Not surprisingly, this caused mass domestic
tension with several individuals who described for another series of political
reform, revolting, and calling for "a third Russian revolution," a movement
that received a important amount of support. The mainly notable instances of
this anti-Bolshevik mentality were expressed in the Tambov rebellion, 1919–
1921, and the Kronstadt rebellion in March 1921. These movements, which
made a wide range of demands and lacked effective coordination, were
eventually defeated beside with the White Army throughout the Civil War.

CIVIL WAR

The Russian Civil War, which broke out in 1918 shortly after the
revolution, brought death and suffering to millions of people regardless of
their political orientation. The war was fought mainly flanked by the Red
Army ("Reds"), consisting of the uprising majority led through the Bolshevik
minority, and the "Whites" – army officers and cossacks, the "bourgeoisie",
and political groups ranging from the far Right to the Socialist Revolutionaries
who opposed the drastic restructuring championed through the Bolsheviks
following the collapse of the Provisional Government to the soviets (under
clear Bolshevik dominance). The Whites had backing from nations such as
Great Britain, France, USA and Japan, while the Reds possessed internal
support which proved to be much more effective. Though the Allied nations,
using external interference, provided substantial military aid to the loosely knit
anti-Bolshevik forces, they were ultimately defeated.
The Bolsheviks firstly assumed power in Petrograd, expanding their rule
outwards, eventually reaching the Easterly Siberian Russian coast 4 years after
the war in Vladivostok, an occupation that is whispered to have ended all
important military campaigns in the nation. Less than one year later, the last
area controlled through the White Army, the Ayano-Maysky District, directly
to the north of the Krai containing Vladivostok, was given up when General
Anatoly Pepelyayev capitulated in 1923.
Many revolts were initiated against the Bolsheviks and their army close to
the end of the war, notably the Kronstadt Rebellion. This was a naval mutiny
engineered through Soviet Baltic sailors, former Red Army soldiers, and the
people of Kronstadt. This armed uprising was fought against the antagonizing
Bolshevik economic policies that farmers were subjected to, including seizures
of grain crops through the Communists. This all amounted to large-scale
discontent. When delegates representing the Kronstadt sailors arrived at
Petrograd for negotiations, they raised 15 demands primarily pertaining to the
Russian right to freedom The Government firmly denounced the rebellions
and labelled the requests as a reminder of the Social Revolutionaries, a
political party that was popular in the middle of Soviets before Lenin, but
refused to cooperate with the Bolshevik Army. The Government then
responded with an armed suppression of these revolts and suffered 10
thousand casualties before entering the city of Kronstadt. This ended the
rebellions fairly quickly, causing several of the rebels to flee to political exile.
Throughout the Civil War, Nestor Makhno led a Ukrainian anarchist
movement, the Black Army allied to the Bolsheviks thrice, one of the powers
ending the alliance each time. Though, a Bolshevik force under Mikhail
Frunze destroyed the Makhnovist movement, when the Makhnovists refused
to merge into the Red Army. In addition, the so-described "Green Army"
(peasants defending their property against the opposing forces) played a
secondary role in the war, mainly in the Ukraine.

DEATH OF THE IMPERIAL FAMILY

In early March, the Provisional Government placed Nicholas and his

family under house arrest in the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo, 15 miles
(24 km) south of Petrograd. In August 1917 the Kerensky government
evacuated the Romanovs to Tobolsk in the Urals, allegedly to protect them
from the rising tide of revolution throughout the Red Terror. After the
Bolsheviks came to power in October 1917, the circumstances of their
imprisonment grew stricter and talk of putting Nicholas on trial increased. As
the counter revolutionary White movement gathered force, leading to full-
scale civil war through the summer, the Romanovs were moved throughout
April and May 1918 to Yekaterinburg, a militant Bolshevik stronghold.
Throughout the early morning of 16 July, at almost 01:30, Nicholas,
Alexandra, their children, their physician, and many servants were taken into
the basement and killed. According to Edvard Radzinsky and Dmitrii
Volkogonov, the order came directly from Vladimir Lenin and Yakov
Sverdlov in Moscow. That the order came from the top has long been
whispered, although there is a lack of hard proof . It has been argued that the
execution may have been accepted out on the initiative of local Bolshevik
officials, or that it was an option approved in Moscow should White troops
approach Yekaterinburg. Radzinsky noted that Lenin's bodyguard personally
delivered the telegram ordering the execution and that he was ordered to
destroy the proof .

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE WORLD

Leon Trotsky said that the goal of socialism in Russia would not be
realized without the success of the world revolution. Indeed, a revolutionary
wave caused through the Russian Revolution lasted until 1923. Despite initial
hopes for success in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, in the short-lived
Hungarian Soviet Republic and others like it, no other Marxist movement
succeeded in keeping power in its hands.
This issue is subject to conflicting views on the communist history through
several Marxist groups and parties. Joseph Stalin later rejected this thought ,
stating that socialism was possible in one country.
The confusion concerning Stalin's position on the issue stems from the fact
that he, after Lenin's death in 1924, successfully used Lenin's argument – the
argument that socialism's success needs the workers of other countries in order
to happen – to defeat his competitors within the party through accusing them
of betraying Lenin and, so, the ideals of the October Revolution.

REVOLUTIONARY TRENDS, GHADAR PARTY AND HOME

RULE LEAGUE
The first major attempt at a country—wide mass movement—the
Swadeshi Movement—all but died out through 1907; the after that major
effort came after the First World War. In the intervening years, the national
movement was to witness three dissimilar experiments in political action, all
of which contributed in their own way to the furthering and deepening of
national consciousness. The first experiment that of revolutionary terrorism,
synchronised with the end of the mass stage of the Swadeshi movement, the
other two, the Ghadar and Home Rule Movements spanned the years of the
First World War.

REVOLUTIONARY TRENDS

Revolutionary terrorism was the form of political action adopted through a

generation of highly- motivated nationalist youth whose creative energies
failed to find adequate room for expression within the existing political trends.

Factors Leading to Revolutionary Trends

The Extremists‘ critique of Moderate politics had convinced them of the
futility of trying to convert the British rulers through petitioning and
reasonable argument. They had participated actively in the Swadeshi
movement in the hope and belief that Extremist methods of agitation such as
boycott, passive resistance, etc., would take the national movement out of its
elitist groove. They expected that this movement would bring the British
Government to its knees. As you have already studied in Unit-11, the
Swadeshi movement was only partially successful in mobilizing vast sections
of the masses. It also could not secure the reversal of the partition of Bengal.
This failure was though, approximately inevitable. Firstly because it was the
first major attempt at mass mobilization. And secondly its methods were new
and unfamiliar both to those who advocated them and to those who hesitated
to adopt them. It led to a rising sense of impatience and frustration in the
middle of the youth who began to feel that perhaps something even more
dramatic was needed to arouse the people.

The inability of the Extremist leadership to either adequately analyse the

weaknesses of the movement or to suggest new ways out of the impasse
further strengthened this trend. Some sections of the leadership, such as
Aurobindo Ghosh, in fact supported the new trend. Those who did not quite
agree, preferred to remain silent rather than come out in open criticism,
perhaps out of a feeling that this would be playing into Government hands.
Another factor that helped the growth of the trend of revolutionary terrorism
was the brutal repression of the Swadeshi movement through the Government.
For instance the police made the unprovoked assault on the peaceful crowd at
the Barisal Political Conference on 27th April, which had led the nationalist
paper Jugantar to provide the call: ―Force necessitybe stopped through force‖.
The Government‘s skill to repress was considerably enhanced through the split
that took place in the Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907 flanked by the
Moderates and the Extremists, since it removed or at least reduced the danger
of alienating the Moderates in the event of repression of the Extremists.
Luring the Moderates with promises of constitutional reform, the government
proceeded to launch an all-out attack on the Extremists; Tilak was sentenced
to six years of exile in Burma, Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested in a
revolutionary conspiracy case. Throughout this period a whole generation of
nationalist youth especially in Bengal, were:
Angered through repression
Convinced of the futility of the moderate path and
Impatient with the inability of the extremists to either extract
immediate concessions from the government or to achieve a full scale
mobilization of the masses.

This young generation turned to the path of individual heroic action or

revolutionary terrorism, a path that had been taken before them through the
Irish nationalists and the Russian Nihilists. Though believing in the necessity,
in the long-run, of an armed mass revolt through the people in order to
overthrow imperialism, the daunting nature of this task as well as of attempts
to subvert the loyalty of the army left them with only one choice for
immediate action: assassination of individual British officials, especially the
unpopular ones. This was done:
In order to strike terror in the middle of officialdom;
Remove the fear and inertia of the people; and
Arouse their nationalist consciousness.

Early Activities
Though the trend of revolutionary terrorism acquired a real force only
around 1907-8, there had been earlier examples as well:
After 1905, several newspapers and individuals
started advocating this form of political action. In
1907, there was an attempt, though unsuccessful,
on the life of the Lieutenant- Governor of Bengal.

The real launching of the new trend is, though, recognized with the
throwing of a bomb in April 1908, through Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki
on a carriage in which they whispered Kingsford, the unpopular district judge
of Muzaffarpur, to be traveling. But unluckily, the carriage was carrying two
British ladies who were therefore inadvertently killed. Prafulia Chaki shot
himself dead rather than be arrested, but Khudiram Bose was arrested and later
 hanged. The government also used the opportunity to involve Aurobindo
Radical Trends, Nationalism and
Mahatma Gandhi Ghosh his brother Barin, and several others in a conspiracy case in which
Aurobindo himself was acquitted but his brother and several others were
sentenced to deportation and harsh prison conditions.

Formation of Secret Societies and Revolutionary Activities: The repression

through the British triggered off the formation of secret societies and a spate
of assassinations and what were termed as ‗swadeshi‘ dacoities to raise funds
for buying arms, etc. In Bengal, which became the main centre of
revolutionaries, the organisation of revolutionary activities was spearheaded
through the Anushilan and Jugantar societies. In Maharashtra, Poona, Nasik
and Bombay became centres of revolutionary activity. In Madras, Vanchi
Aiyar of the Bharata Matha Association assassinated an official who was
responsible for firing on a crowd that was protesting the arrest of the Extremist
leader Chidambaram Pillai. In London, Madan Lal Dhingra killed Curzon
Wylie, an Indian Office official and Rashbehari Bose organised a daring
attempt on the life of the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, as he entered Delhi on 23rd
December, 1912. Other revolutionaries, such as Shyamji Krishna Varma, Lala
Har Dayal, V.D. Savarkar, Ajit Singh and Madame Cama recognized centres
in Europe from which they could continue to spread the revolutionary message
and render assistance to comrades at home. In all, it was estimated that 186
revolutionaries were either killed or convicted in the years 1908-1918.

Decline of the Revolutionary Trend

Stern repression facilitated through a series of draconian laws and the lack
of a popular response led to the gradual decline of this wave of revolutionary
terrorism. Individual heroic action undoubtedly earned the revolutionaries a
great deal of popular adulation and sympathy, and several of them such as
Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki became folk heroes. Through its very
nature, though, this form of political action could only be emulated through a
few individuals, and not through the mass of people, who still awaited a
movement that could accommodate their weaknesses and create effective use
of their strengths.

THE GHADAR MOVEMENT

The First World War broke out in 1914 and to several Indian nationalists,
it appeared that once in a lifetime opportunity had arrived to take advantage of
Britain's difficulty. Being embroiled in the War, it was felt, Britain would not
be in a position to effectively answer a nationalist challenge. The challenge
was thrown through two very dissimilar groups of nationalists, the Ghadar
revolutionaries based in North America, and the Home Rule Leagues of Tilak
and Annie Besant in India. We shall first discuss the Ghadar Movement.

Background of the Movement

The Ghadar revolutionaries were recruited largely from the ranks of
Punjabi immigrants who had settled on the West Coast of North America at
least since 1904. They were mostly debt-ridden and land-hungry peasants
from the crowded areas of Punjab, especially Jullundur and Hoshiarpur,
several of whom had served in the British Indian Army and had therefore
acquired the confidence and the means necessary for emigration. The hostile
attitude of the local population including of the white labour unions, the
increasingly restrictive immigration laws, helped through the active complicity
of the Secretary of State for India—all pushed the Indian community to the
realization that they necessity organise themselves if they were to resist the
blatant racial discrimination being imposed on them. For instance, Tarak Nath
Das, an Indian student who was one of the first leaders of the Indian
community in North America and responsible for starting a paper described
Free Hindustan understood very well that while the British government
encouraged Indian labourers to go to work to Fiji where they were needed
through British planters it discouraged their emigration to North America for
they feared that they might get infected through the current ideas of liberty.

Early Activities
The first stirrings of political activity in the middle of Indian immigrants
became apparent as early as 1907 when a CircuIar-e-Azad (Circular of liberty)
was brought out through Ramnath Puri, a political exile, in which he pledged
support to the Swadeshi movement. Tarak Nath Das started the Free
Hindustan and G.D. Kumar brought out a Gurmukhi paper Swadesh Sevak
advocating social reform and asking Indian troops to rise in revolt. Through
1910, Das and Kumar had set up the United India House in Seattle in the USA
and began lecturing every week to a group of Indian labourers. They also
developed secure links with the Khalsa Diwan Society which resulted in 1913
in a decision to send a deputation to meet the Colonial Secretary in London
and the Viceroy and other officials in India. They failed to meet the Colonial
Secretary, despite a wait of a month, but succeeded in securing an audience
with the Viceroy and the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. Their visit to Punjab
became the occasion for a series of public meetings in dissimilar Punjab towns
and enthusiastic support from the people and the press.

Meanwhile, in early 1913, Bhagwan Singh, a Sikh priest who had worked
in Hong Kong and the Malay states, visited Vancouver in Canada and openly
preached the violent overthrow of British rule. Such was the effect of his
exhortations that he was extemed from Canada after three months, but his
ideas had fired the imagination of his audiences.

Towards Organisation
Disappointed with the lack of response from the Indian and British
governments, convinced that their inferior status in foreign lands was a
consequence of their being citizens of an enslaved country, and aroused to
nationalist consciousness and a feeling of solidarity through the constant
political agitation, the Indian community in North America felt the acute need
for a central organisation and a leader. The leader they found was Lala Har
Dayal, a political exile from India, who had come to the U.S. in 1911 and had
been lecturing at Stanford University as well as to the several American
groups of intellectuals, radicals and workers on the anarchist and syndicalist
movements but had not shown much interest in the affairs of Indian
immigrants. His attitude changed with the news of the bomb attack on the
Viceroy in Delhi in December 1912 which convinced him that the
revolutionary spirit was still alive.

He assumed leadership of the immigrant Indian community and, in May

1913, the need for a central organisation was met with the setting up of the
Hindi Association in Portland, which later changed its name to Hindustan
Ghadar Party. Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna was elected the President, Lala Har
Dayal the General Secretary and Pandit Kanshi Ram Maroli the treasurer at
the first meeting of the Association which was also attended through others
including Bhai Parmanand and Ham am Singh ‗Tundilat‘. A sum of $ 10,000
was composed on the spot and decisions were taken to set up a headquarter
through the name of Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco and start a weekly
paper, the Ghadar, for free circulation.

Strategy and Action

The plans of political action outlined through Lala Har Dayal and accepted
through the Hindi Association were based on the understanding that British
rule could only be overthrown through armed revolt and that for this to happen
it was necessary that Indian immigrants go to India in large numbers and carry
this message to the masses and the soldiers of the Indian army. He also
whispered that the freedom accessible in America should be used to fight the
British and not the Americans, for in any case Indians would never be
accepted as equals abroad till they were free in their own land. Basing
themselves on this understanding, the militant nationalists launched a vigorous
propaganda campaign, touring factories and farms where Indian immigrants
worked.
Launching of Paper and its Impact
The paper Ghadar was launched on the first of November, 1913; the first
issue was in Urdu followed a month later through the Gurmukhi version. The
format of the Ghadar paper was intended to convey the message of
nationalism in simple and bold conditions. Its very name meant revolt, thereby
leaving no doubts about its intentions. On its masthead was inscribed the
caption : Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman or ‗An Enemy of British Rule‘. Besides,
the front page of each issue accepted the ‗Angrezi Raj Ka Kacha Chittha‘ or
‗An Expose of British Rule‘, which consisted of 14 points enumerating the
negative effects of British rule. This Chittha was in effect a summary of the
whole nationalist critique of British rule on the issues of drain of wealth, high
land revenue, low per capita income, recurrence of famines which killed
millions of Indians, high expenditure on Army and low expenditure on health,
the policy of divide and rule through pitting Hindus and Muslims against each
other. The last two points of the Chittha also pointed to the way out through
highlighting the small number of Englishmen present in India as compared to
the crores of Indians and through suggesting that the time had come for
another revolt since already fifty-six years had lapsed since the last one in
1857.

The Ghadar was, of course, circulated widely in the middle of Indian

immigrants in North America, but it soon reached immigrants in the
Philippines, Hong Kong, China, Malay states, Singapore, Trinidad and the
Honduras as well as Indian regiments stationed in several of these centres. It
was sent to India as well. The response it generated in the middle of immigrant
communities was tremendous, groups were shaped to read it and discuss the
issues it raised and contributions poured in. The mainly popular proved to be
the poems that were published in the paper, which were soon put together in
the form of a collection described Ghadar Ki Goonj, and were recited and sung
at gatherings of Indians. The poems were marked through a revolutionary
spirit and a strongly secular tone, as the following lines show:

No Pundits or Mullahs do we need No Prayers or litanies we need recite

These will only scuttle our boat Draw the Sword ; ‗it is time to fight‘. The
Ghadar also exhorted the Punjabi to atone for his pro-British role in the Revolt
of 1857 through playing a leading part in throwing off the British yoke and it
changed his self-image from that of a loyal soldier, an image that had been
assiduously cultivated through the British, to that of a rebel whose only aim
was freedom. The message of Ghadar went home so rapidly that Har Dayal
himself was surprised at the intensity of the response and the impatience of
those who had been
GHADAR MOVEMENT: THE MAIN EVENTS

The subsequent course of the Ghadar Movement was, though, determined

through three major events in 1914: the arrest, jumping of bail and flight to
Switzerland of Lala Har Dayal, the fateful voyage of the ship Komagata Maru,
and the beginning of the First World War. In March, 1914 Har Dayal was
arrested. The mainly likely cause was the pressure exerted through the British
government who for obvious reasons would like to see him removed from the
leadership of the Ghadar Movement, but the stated cause was his anarchist
activities. He was released on bail and it was decided that he jump bail and go
the Switzerland.

Meanwhile, in an attempt to defy Canadian immigration laws which

forbade entry to all except those who made a ― direct passage in their own
ship,‖ Gurdit Singh, an Indian contractor living in Singapore chartered a ship,
the Komagata Maru, and, with 376 Indian passengers originating from several
places in East and South East Asia, set sail for Vancouver. On the way,
Ghadar party mobilises visited the ship, gave lectures and distributed
literature. Getting prior intimation of the planned immigration, the Press in
Vancouver warned of the ‗Mounting Oriental Invasion‘ and the Canadian
government prepared to meet the challenge through tightening its laws. On
arrival, the ship was not allowed into the port and was cordoned off through
the police.

Despite the strenuous efforts of the ― Shore Committee" in Vancouver led

through Husain Rahim, Sohan Lal Pathak and Balwant Singh and a powerful
campaign in the USA led through Barkatullah, Bhagwan Singh, Ram Chandra
and Sohan Singh Bhakna, the Komagata Maru was forced out of Canadian
waters. Before it reached Japan, the First World War broke out and the British
government ordered that no passenger was to be allowed to leave the ship till
it reached Calcutta. Its return journey triggered off a wave of resentment at
every port of call in the middle of the communities of immigrant Indians and
heightened anti-British feelings. When the ship reached Budge Budge close to
Calcutta, the hostile attitude of the police led to a conflict which resulted in the
death of 18 passengers. 202 were arrested and the rest succeeded in running
absent.

The third and mainly significant event that brought about a dramatic
change in the situation was the outbreak of the First World War. This was the
opportunity that the Ghadarites had been waiting for to seize and to create the
best of Britain‘s difficulty. It came earlier than they had expected, and their
preparations were still in a rudimentary stage. Nevertheless, a special meeting
of the leading workers of the party met and decided that the time had come for
action and that their major weakness, lack of arms, could be made good
through persuading the Indian soldiers to revolt. The Ghadar party accordingly
issued its Ailan-e-Jung or ‗Proclamation of War‘, which was circulated in the
middle of Indians living abroad. Ghadar activists also embarked on tours
exhorting people to return to India and organise a revolt. The response was
tremendous, with large numbers offering themselves and their whole
belongings to the cause of the nation. Encouraged through this the Ghadar
party began the exodus to India, and batches of revolutionaries began to arrive
in India through dissimilar routes in the latter half of 1914.

The Movement in the Last Stage

The Government of India was lying in wait, armed with the new Ingress
into India Ordinance. Returning immigrants were cautiously scrutinised, and
of an estimated 8,000 who returned, 5,000 who were measured ‗safe‘ were
allowed to go unhindered. Of the remaining, some were interned in their
villages, others detained. Nevertheless, several hard-core activists succeeded
in reaching Punjab. Kartar Singh Sarabha, the young and brilliant Indian
student who had joined the Ghadar Movement in the USA and played a
prominent role in the production of the Ghadar paper, had been in the middle
of the first to reach Punjab safely and he set about the task of organising and
contacting the returning emigrants, holding meetings and formulating a plan of
action. Ghadar activists toured the villages, cyclostyled and distributed party
publications, addressed gatherings at melas and made every effort to persuade
the people to rise in revolt. But the Punjab in 1914 was very dissimilar from
what they had expected, and the people were in no mood to embark upon the
romantic Ghadar adventure. They had also to contend with the active hostility
of loyalist elements such as the Chief Khalsa Diwan who declared them to be
apostates or fallen Sikhs and criminals and cooperated fully in the
government‘s efforts to crush them.

Disappointed with the popular response, the Ghadar revolutionaries after

that attempted to spread their message in the middle of the soldiers and
engineer a mutiny. Attempts at revolt in November 1914 failed for lack of
proper organisation and centralized leadership. Another, more organised,
attempt was made in February 1915 after Rash Behari Bose had been
contacted and entrusted the task of leadership and organisation, but this too
proved abortive as the government succeeded in penetrating the organisation
and taking pre-emptive measures. Bose supervised to escape, but mainly of the
other leaders were arrested and the Ghadar movement effectively crushed.

The Repression
The repression that followed was the heaviest possible: 42 were sentenced
to death and 200 to long prison conditions. As a consequence, an whole
generation of the nationalist leadership of Punjab was politically beheaded.
Efforts through Indian revolutionaries in Berlin to use German help and
organise mutinies in the middle of Indian troops stationed abroad and through
Raja Mahendra Pratap and Barkatullah to enlist the aid of the Amir of
Afghanistan proved equally abortive. Violent rebellion to overthrow British
rule was not fated to have much success.

Failure and Achievements

Should, we, so, term the Ghadar movement a failure? Can we say that
because they did not succeed in their immediate stated objective of organising
an armed revolt and driving the British out, their efforts were in vain? Through
that token, all the major national struggles of 1920-22, 1930-34 or 1942,
would have to be termed as failures, since none of them succeeded in
immediately winning independence. But if the yardstick of success is whether
there was a furthering of nationalist feeling, creation of traditions of
resistance, emergence and trial of new methods of thrash about, the spread of
forward-looking ideologies of secularism, democracy and egalitarianism, then
the Ghadar movement occupies a very significant place in India‘s thrash about
for freedom.

Achievements: The Ghadarites succeeded in popularizing nationalist

ideology—especially the critique of colonialism and the understanding that
Indian poverty and backwardness was a consequence of British rule—in the
middle of vast masses of Indians in India and abroad. They created a cadre of
highly motivated nationalists—and though several of these were lost through
repression, some permanently and others for number of years—who sustained
to play an significant role in structure up the national and later the left and
peasant movements in Punjab and other parts of India for several decades to
follow. Ghadar ideology was also strongly egalitarian and democratic in
content. Their aim was to set up an independent republic in India. Har Dayal,
deeply influenced as he was through the anarchist and syndicalist movements,
also imparted to the movement an egalitarian outlook. His constant references
to the Irish, Mexican, and Russian revolutionaries also helped in saving the
movement from a chauvinist nationalism and in giving it an inter-nationalist
character.

But perhaps the mainly significant attainment of the Ghadarites was that
despite the fact that the vast majority of their followers were recruited from
amongst Punjabi Sikh immigrants, they never betrayed any communal
tendencies and were, on the contrary, strongly secular in their outlook.
Concern with religion was seen as petty and narrow-minded, and unworthy of
revolutionaries. They freely accepted non-Sikhs and non-Punjabis as leaders:
Har Dayal was a Hindu, Barkatullah a Muslim, Rash Behari Bose a Hindu and
Bengali. They revered leaders from all over India—Tilak, Savarkar, Khudi
Ram Bose and Aurobindo Ghosh were their heroes. They also understood that
the ideology of the Sikhs being a ‗martial race‘ was a creation of the colonial
rulers and was meant to preserve them as loyal soldiers and they tried their
best to counter it. They popularised the nationalist salute Bande Mantaram as
the rallying cry of the movement and not any religious greeting such as Sat Sri
Akal. In the words of Sohan Singh Bhakna, the Ghadari Baba who later
became a major nationalist and left leader, ― we were not Sikhs or Punjabis,
our religion was patriotism‖.

Weaknesses: The Ghadar movement inevitably had its share of

weaknesses as well, the chief of which was its over-estimation of the stage of
readiness of the movement. One might say that they sounded the bugles of war
without stopping to look at the state of their own army. The response that they
evoked in the immigrant Indian community, whose nationalist consciousness
was aroused through daily experiences of racial insult, alienation produced
through living in unfamiliar surroundings, and whose small numbers made the
task of its organisation relatively easier, misled them into thinking that the vast
mass of Indians in India were also in a similar state of readiness. They also
underestimated the might of the British rulers, the strength of the ideological
foundations of their rule, and thought that all that the people of India needed
was a call to revolt. The cost that had to be paid for this crucial weakness not
only through the Ghadar movement but through the whole national movement
was heavy indeed, for it is not unlikely that if the major part of the Ghadar
leadership had not been removed from the scene, the political complexion of
the national movement, certainly in Punjab, would have been very dissimilar
indeed as the Ghadarites with their committed nationalist and secular ideology
would inevitably have played a critical role in checking the communal
tendencies that were to raise their head in later years.

HOME RULE LEAGUES

There was another, less dramatic but more effective, response to the
situation arising out of the First World War—the Home Rule Leagues of
Lokmanya Tilak and Annie Besant.

Events leading to the Formation of Leagues

When Tilak returned to India after serving a long sentence of six years in
Mandalay in Burma, he initially concentrated all attention on securing the
readmission of himself and other Extremists into the Indian National Congress
from which they had been thrown out in at Surat. Even in 1907, he had been
far from happy with the split, and now he was convinced even more that unity
was necessary. Besides, the sanction of the Congress was seen to be desirable
for any political activity as the Congress had come to symbolise the national
movement in the minds of the people. Further, disunity had only helped the
British who had removed the Extremists through repression, and then ignored
the Moderates through granting reforms that fell far short of their expectations.
The complete lack of political activity since 1908 was also creation the
Moderates unhappy and several of them were now more favorably disposed
towards the question of the return of the Extremists to the fold.

The Moderate leaders were also under considerable pressure from Mrs
Annie Besant, who wanted to build up a movement in India on the lines of the
Irish Home Rule League, and was urging them to accept the Extremists back
into the Congress. Annie Besant, aged 66 in 1914, had come to India from
England in 1893 to work for the Theosophical Society, and had earlier been an
exponent of Free Thought, Radicalism and Fabianism. She had set up her
headquarters at Adyar close to Madras, and developed a large network of
followers of the Theosophical Society from in the middle of those educated
Indians whose communities had experienced no cultural revival of their own.
With this as a base, she now wanted to start a political movement on
agitational lines.

Two Leagues
The Extremists failed to be allowed re-entry into the Congress at its
session in December 1914, but constant efforts throughout 1915, including the
campaigns launched separately through Annie Besant and Tilak through
newspapers and local associations, secured them their re-entry in December
1915. The opposition to the Extremists was also considerably whittled down
through the death of Pherozeshah Mehta who had been the mainly recalcitrant
in his opposition. The Congress, still dominated as it was through the
Moderates, though, failed to keep its promise of reviving local stage Congress
Committees and beginning a programme of educative propaganda through
September 1916. So, Annie Besant and Tilak launched their own
organisations, the Home Rule Leagues, in 1916. The two Leagues demarcated
their areas of operation: Tilak‘s League was to work in Maharashtra,
Karnataka Central Provinces and Berar and Annie Besant‘s in the rest of India.

Tilak’s Home Rule League

Tilak‘s Home Rule League, launched at the Bombay provincial
Conference held at Belgaum in April 1916, was organised into 6 branches, one
each in Central Maharashtra, Bombay city, Karnataka and Central Provinces,
and two in Berar. It published 6 pamphlets in Marathi and 2 in English, of
which 47,000 copies were sold. Pamphlets were also brought out in Kannada
and Gujarati. Separately from these, the mainly crucial role was played
through Tilak‘s tours of Maharashtra throughout the course of which he
lectured on and explained the demand for Home Rule. ― India was like a son
who had grown up and attained maturity‖, he said. ― It was right now that the
trustee or the father should provide him what was his due‖. His speeches
throughout this period also show no trace of a religious appeal and he
categorically stated :
―Alienness is not linked with religion, trade or profession; it is a
question of interests. He who does what is beneficial to the people of
this country, be he a Muhammedan or an Englishman, is not alien.‖

Nor did his ideas reflect any narrow local linguistic chauvinism or caste
bias. He wanted all the local languages and cultures to develop, and argued for
education to be imparted in the vernaculars. He frontally opposed
untouchability, declaring: ― If a god were to tolerate untouchability, I would
not recognise him as God at all‖. He also urged Brahmins to be tolerant of the
non-Brahmin demands and not oppose them, and simultaneously urged non-
Brahmin not to see their troubles of lack of jobs, etc., in conditions of Brahmin
vs. non-Brahmin, but to understand that it was the greater spread of education
in the middle of Brahmins that gave them greater access to jobs. As soon the
Tilak‘s movement began to gain ground, the government decided to strike a
blow through demanding that he furnish securities of Rs. 60,000 and
threatening to bind him for good behaviour for a period of one year. Tilak lost
the case in the lower court but the High Court exonerated him in November
1916. The government‘s attempt to silence him and its subsequent failure gave
a big fillip to the movement, and Tilak pushed home the advantage through
declaring that Home Rule now had legal sanction. Through April 1917,
Tilak‘s league had enlisted 14,000 members.

Annie Besant’s Home Rule League

Meanwhile, Annie Besant‘s League had also been very active. Even before
the League was formally inaugurated in September, 1916 the Propaganda
Fund has sold 300,000 copies of 26 English pamphlets discussing mainly the
system of government existing in India and the reasons for the demand for
self-government. More pamphlets in Indian languages were brought out and
local branches organised lectures and discussions and set up libraries. The
headquarters at Adyar, run through Annie Besant and her lieutenants
Arundale, C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, and B.P. Wadia also brought out the
papers New India and Commonweal, and Arundale‘s column on ‗Home Rule‘
in New India acted as the vehicle for spreading news and giving instructions.
Besides the existing Theosophical Society members, several new members
including Jawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad, and B. Chakravarti and J. Banerjee
in Calcutta joined the League.
 The Home Rule Leagues also succeeded in enlisting the support of several
Moderate Congressmen who were unhappy with the lack of activity through
the Congress. Members of Gokhale‘s Servants of India Society toured and
lectured and brought out pamphlets supporting the demand for Home Rule; in
U.P., Moderate Congressmen joined the Home Rule Leaguers in touring the
mofussil towns and villages. Nor was there anything very surprising about this
since the Home Rule Leagues were only implementing in a vigorous fashion
the programme of the Moderates.

The annual session of the Congress in December 1916 at Lucknow also

provided the Home Rule Leaguers with an opportunity of demonstrating their
strength and they turned up at this Congress in large numbers. Tilak and Annie
Besant also played a leading role in bringing about the well-known Congress
League Pact which was singed at this session. Tilak answered criticism that
the Hindus had been too generous to the Muslims through saying:
am sure I represent the sense of the community all over India when I
say that we would not care if the rights of self-government are granted
to the Mohammedan community only....I would not care if these rights
are granted to any section of the Indian community.

―When you have to fight against a third party, it is a very significant thing
that we stand on this platform united, united in race, united in religion and
united as regards all shades of dissimilar political opinion‖. And though
undoubtedly the provision for separate electorates for Muslims which was
accepted in the Congress League Pact was a very controversial one it could
not be faulted on grounds of lack of generosity of the majority.

The Home Rule Leagues held a joint meeting at the end of the session
attended through more than delegates and addressed through Besant and Tilak,
and on their return journeys both the leaders toured extensively through parts
of North, Central and Eastern India. The government‘s decision to again try
repression acted as a further spur to the movement. In June 1917, Besant, B.P.
Wadia and Arundale were placed under arrest. Immediately, several who had
earlier kept their aloofness now voiced their protest and joined the movement.
Jinnah, Surendamath Banerjee and Madan Mohan Malaviya were in the
middle of the mainly well-known of these. Tilak advocated passive resistance
to the AICC meeting in July 1917, and Gandhi‘s suggestion of collecting the
signatures of one thousand men willing to defy the internment orders and
march to Besant‘s place of detention was implemented. Village tours and
meetings were intensified and the movement displayed a new resolve.
Change in British Attitude
Faced with this rising agitation, the government in Britain decided to adopt
a soft line. The signal for the change of policy was the declaration of Montagu,
the. Secretary of State for India, in the British House of Commons which
stated: ― the policy of His Majesty‘s government.... is that of rising association
of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development
of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of
responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire‖.
This statement was a separate advance on the position taken in 1909 when
Morley while introducing the Reforms had categorically stated that they were
not planned to lead to self-government. After Montagu‘s declaration, the
demand for self-government or Home Rule could no longer be treated as
seditious, and this was an significant attainment. This did not, though, mean
that Britain was about to grant self-government to India. Any doubts on this
score were dispelled through the accompanying part of the statement which
made it clear that the nature and timing of the reforms would be decided
through the government alone. This gave enough room for continual
postponement of transfer of any real power to Indians. The immediate gain of
the new policy was that Annie Besant was released in September 1917. She
was, at Tilak‘s instance, elected President of the annual session of the
Congress in December 1917. Her popularity at this time was at its height, and
the movement appeared poised for greater advances.

Decline of the Home Rule Leagues

Throughout 1918, though, the Home Rule agitation slowly fizzled out. In
the middle of the factors responsible for this was the withdrawal of support
through the Moderates who had again been won over to the hope for reforms
and worried through the rising talk of civil disobedience in the middle of the
Home Rule rank and file. The publication of the Reforms Scheme in July 1918
further divided the nationalists: while some wanted to reject them, others
wanted to provide them a trial. Annie Besant herself demonstrated
considerable inconsistency in her stand both on the question of the reforms
and on the issue of passive resistance. Tilak was on the whole more constant
in his approach that the reforms were unworthy of Britain to offer and India to
accept, but given Besant‘s continuous vacillation, there was little he could do
on his own. His decision to go to England at the end of 1918 to pursue a libel
case he had filed against Valentine Chirol, the author of Indian Unrest,
physically removed him from the scene for several critical months. The
movement was essentially rendered leaderless.

The tremendous attainment of the Home Rule movement was in creating a

politically aware and committed band of nationalist workers who were to play
the leading role in the coming mass struggles. The contacts they had
recognized in towns and villages throughout the course of the agitation were
also to prove invaluable in the coming years. The ground was also created
through the wide popularization of the thought of Home Rule and the arousal
of national feeling. True, the leaders of the Home Rule Movement were
themselves unable to show the way forward and translate this consciousness
into a mass thrash about. But they prepared the ground for the after that
stage—a stage that was to be shaped and given a unique character through the
personality of Mahatma Gandhi.

MAHATMA GANDHI’S EMERGENCE IN INDIAN POLITICS

AND HIS IDEOLOGY
Mahatma Gandhi played a key role in transforming the content, ideology
and range of Indian politics throughout the National Movement. With his entry
into politics there opened a new stage of thrash about. With the shift to mass
mobilization he remained the dominant personality throughout the National
Movement and played a crucial role in directing the thrash about against
British Imperialism. This Unit takes into account his thrash about in South
Africa and political activities in India till 1920. This is a period which could
be described as the formative stage of Gandhi—a stage in which he tried to
understand Indian economic, social and political reality. It was throughout this
period that he applied new forms of thrash about. We also discuss in this Unit
his ideology and how he applied that in political actions.

GANDHI’S THRASH ABOUT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who came to be popularly recognized as

the Mahatma, was born in a well to do Hindu traditional family of Porbandar
in Kathiawar Gujarat on October 2, 1869. Gandhi went to England for his
studies in 1881, offered the London Matriculation, and qualified for the Bar.
This young barrister returned to India in 1891 and began practicing in the
Bombay High Court. Not being a success as a lawyer, he shifted to Rajkot
where petition-writing brought him a monthly income of about Rs. 300. In
1893, Gandhi sailed to Durban in connection with a legal case of Dada
Abdulla and Co., an Indian firm, doing trade in South Africa. Gandhi had
contracted to work there for a year only but he stayed there upto 1914 with
two breaks in flanked by. Throughout his stay in South Africa Gandhi fought
against racial discrimination which denied to the Indian community human
rights necessary for leading a civilized life.
Condition of Indians
About 2 laks Indians lived in South Africa at a time when Gandhi had to
fight for their cause. Mainly of the Indian Population there comprised
indentured, freed labourers, and a few merchants with their clerks and
assistants. The indentured labourers were treated as semi-slaves through the
white planters. The rest suffered from several racial disabilities with regard to
rights of citizenship, trade, and ownership of property.

They were also subjected to all types of indignities in their daily life:
Every Indian, without any distinction, was contemptuously a ‗coolie‘
which meant a laborer.
The Indians were not allowed to walk on footpaths or to be out at night
without a permit.
They were prohibited to travel in first and second class railway
compartments, and were forced at times to travel on the footboard of
trains.
They were not permitted to enter hotels exclusively reserved for
Europeans.
In Transvaal, Indians were asked to do trade or reside in specific areas
which had highly unhygienic surroundings and had no proper
arrangements for light, water supply and drainage.
Moreover, the ex-indentured labourers had to pay £ 3 as poll tax.

Campaign -1
Gandhi himself experienced this racial discrimination immediately after
reaching South Africa. In the court at Durban, Gandhi was ordered through the
European magistrate to remove his turban. But Gandhi refused to do so and
left the room in protest. While going to Pretoria, Gandhi was not allowed to
travel first class and was asked to shift to Van compartment. When Gandhi
refused to move absent, he was forcibly thrown out. Eventually it was a
proposed bill of the Natal Government to disfranchise Indians, which
compelled Gandhi to launch his thrash about in South Africa. In a farewell
party being given in his honor, Gandhi read a news item that the Natal
legislature was going to pass the above bill. This infuriated Gandhi and he
declared: ‗this is the first nail into our coffin‘. When Indian merchants asked
Gandhi to help them fight this bill, he decided to postpone his return to India.
The farewell party was converted into a committee to plan agitation against
the bill.

In order to lend strength to his thrash about, Gandhi‘s first endeavour was
to infuse a strong sense of solidarity into the heterogeneous element
composing the Indian community of Natal. He shaped an association in 1893
and named it ‗Indian Natal Organisation‘. At the same time, Gandhi‘s effort
was to provide wide publicity to Indian cause with a view to securing support
from the people and governments in India and England. In India, the Indian
National Congress passed a resolution against the disfranchising bill. In
England too, a section of the press and some public men supported the Indian
cause in South Africa. About 400 Indians living in Natal submitted a petition
against the bill. Though the Natal legislature passed the bill and the Governor
gave his assent to it. Gandhi sent a long petition signed through 10,000 Indians
to the Colonial Secretary in England with the appeal that the Queen should not
approve the bill. In view of strong opposition the Colonial office in London
vetoed the bill on the ground that it discriminated against the inhabitants of
another part of the British Empire. But this did not dishearten the Europeans of
Natal. They obtained their object through passing the bill in an amended form.
According to the new bill: ‗No native of countries which had not hitherto
possessed elective institutions founded on parliamentary franchise were to be
placed on voters' list unless they obtained exception from Governor-General.
The amended bill was finally approved.

Gandhi sustained his thrash about against the racial discrimination through
writing and producing articles and pamphlets in order to mobilize public
support. This enraged several Europeans in South Africa. In 1896 when
Gandhi returned to Natal with his family, a mob of 4000 Europeans assembled
at the port to oppose him. Later on, some Europeans attacked him. Fortunately
he was saved through the wife of a senior police official. This, though, did not
deter Gandhi from carrying on his campaign. In his after that visit to India, he
attended the Congress session at Calcutta and succeeded in piloting a
resolution on the condition of Indians in South Africa. In 1902 he again
returned to South Africa and now stayed there continuously for 12 years
fighting against racial discrimination. A weekly Indian Opinion was started in
1903 which became a mouth piece of Gandhi‘s thrash about. In 1904, Gandhi,
with a selected band of his associates, shifted to a place close to Durban
described Phoenix. Here they lived with utmost simplicity and led community
life. The importance of Phoenix was that later all its inhabitants became the
main participants in Gandhi‘s Satyagraha.

Gandhi had once told the British High Commissioner in South Africa:
‗What we (Indians) want is not political power; but we do wish to live side
through side with other British subjects in peace and amity, and with dignity
and self respect‘. The Transivaal government, though, came out with a bill in
1906 to further humiliate the Indians. According to this legislation every
Indian - man, woman or child above eight—was required to register and to
provide finger and thumb impressions on the registration form. Whoever
failed to register before a sure date would be guilty of an offence for which he
could be punished or deported. At any time, an Indian could be asked to
produce his registration certificate, and police officers were permitted to enter
into an Indian‘s house to check his papers.

To raise a voice against this bill Gandhi organised a meeting at the Empire
Theatre in Johannesburg. The passions of the people were greatly aroused and
they were determined to fight to the last to keep their honor and dignity.
Gandhi said:
There is only one course open to those like me to die but not to submit
to the law. It is unlikely, but even if everyone flinched, leaving me
alone to face the music, I am confident that I would not violate the
pledge.

Finally, all the participants of the meeting took an oath with God as
witness not to submit to this bill if it became law. Despite vehement
opposition through the Indians, the Transvaal legislature passed the Asiatic
Registration Bill. Gandhi led a delegation to England with a view to appealing
to the British government to veto the bill; but the effort failed and it was
announced that the new law would take effect from July 1, 1907. Gandhi
evolved a new technique recognized as Satyagraha (Truth force or insistence
on Truth) to launch a thrash about against the Act. An organisation described
Passive Resistance Association was shaped which asked the Indian people to
boycott the permit offices. Despite all efforts of the Transvall government to
exhort Indians to get them registered, only 519 had taken registration forms
through November 30, 1907. Gandhi was sentenced to an imprisonment of
two months for violating the registration law.

Gandhi agreed to meet General Smuts when a meeting was arranged

through his friend Albert Cart right. At the meeting, General Smuts, Secretary
for Colonies, assured Gandhi that the registration law would be repealed if
Indians registered voluntarily. Gandhi accepted the proposal and convened a
meeting of Indians to discuss this informal agreement. Gandhi was criticized
through several Indians for accepting this agreement, for they did not expect
any justice from General Smuts. Many Indians even accused Gandhi of
accepting a monetary gain from General Smuts. The after that day, when
Gandhi was going to registration office for voluntary registration, a Pathan
attacked him for his alleged betrayal.

Smuts backed out from his words as he did not repeal the Asiatic
registration law. The government declined to return the Indian‘s original
applications for voluntary registration. Gandhi restarted his Satyagraha
movement. He declared that Indians would bum their registration certificates
and ‗humbly take the consequences‘. A large number of Indians consigned
their registration certificates to flames. In the meantime Transvaal government
enacted the Immigration law which aimed at excluding new immigrants from
India. Gandhi announced that Satyagraha movement would also be directed
against this law.
 A number of prominent Indians living in Natal took part in Gandhi‘s
Satyagraha movement and they were arrested. This time several of the
Satyagrahis in the jail were forced to undergo hard labour. Gandhi was also
treated badly in the Transvaal prison. But the oppressive policy of the
Transvaal state failed to weaken Gandhi‘s resolve and his movement. A small
band of Satyagrahis sustained to court imprisonment. Their families were
given financial support through the Satyagraha association which was funded
through the Indian National Congress, and several rich people in India like
Ratan Tata, Nizam of Hyderabad, etc. Later on, the satyagrahis shifted to a
place named as Tolstoy Farm‘. Here people led a simple community life and
were trained to cultivate all those things which were essential for a true
satyagrahi.

Campaign - 2
In 1913 another bombshell fell on the Indians when a Supreme Court
judgment invalidated at a stroke all marriages which had not been performed
according to Christian rites and registered through the Registrar of Marriages.
In other words, all Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages became illegal and
their children illegitimate. Gandhi made a strong representation against these
implications of the judgement and asked for amendment of the law. Gandhi‘s
strong and persistent protest in this case did not yield any immediate positive
result. He intensified his thrash about and Indian women whose honor was at
stake, actively participated in the programme of action devised through
Gandhi. On November 6, 1913, Gandhi began a march crossways Transvaal
border with a big contingent of Satyagrahis numbering 2037 men, 127 women
and 57 children. This resulted in Gandhi‘s arrest. Despite the oppressive
policy of the South African government, the Indians‘ thrash about did not
lacken. In India Gopal Krishna Gokhale toured throughout India to mobilize
support for Gandhi‘s movement. Lord Harding, the Viceroy of India,
demanded an impartial enquiry into the charges of atrocities levelled against
the South African government. For this sympathetic attitude, Lord Harding
was criticized in London and Pretoria.

Finally Sumts offered to create some compromise. Negotiations began and

a package deal was signed which resolved the major troubles of the Indians for
which the Satyagraha was launched. The poll tax of £ 3 on freed labourers was
abolished, marriages performed according to the Indian rites were declared
legal, and domicile certificate bearing the holder‘s thumb imprint was now
required only to enter the Union of South Africa. In this way the Satyagraha
thrash about which sustained for about eight years was finally described off.
Gandhi was a ‗lover of the British Empire‘ and had a deep sense of faith in
‗British love of Justice and fair play‘ till 1906. Gandhi had helped the British
government in Boar war (1899) through organising an Indian Ambulance
Corps. But soon Gandhi‘s disenchantment with the British began. He found
that the British audience was rising deaf to his pleas. For him Satyagraha
became the last alternative to redress the grievances of his compatriots. But
this did not mean a total end of his loyalty to the Empire; his notion of loyalty
was based on the hope that one day Britain might enact the principles which
she subscribed to in theory.

The thrash about in South Africa deeply influenced the life of Gandhi and
our national movement in several ways. The technique of non-violent
Satyagraha became later on the main weapon with which Gandhi and the
Congress accepted on the thrash about against the British rule. J.M. Brown (in
Gandhi Rise to Power, Indian Politics, 1915-22, Cambridge, 1972), believes
that the Satyagraha was merely a clever strategy intended through Gandhi in
South Africa. But an overview of Gandhi‘s thrash about in South Africa shows
that Gandhi had developed an abiding faith in this method, which was not
applied merely as a convenient tool in the given situation. Another significant
result of Gandhi‘s experiences in South Africa was the realisation on his part
of the necessity and possibility of Hindu-Muslim unity. Later on it became his
deep conviction that the Hindu-Muslim unity was indispensable for launching
a powerful thrash about against the British rule. Above all, the thrash about in
South Africa created a new image of Gandhi that he was the leader of Indian
people and not of any region or religious community. This worked as a
decisive factor in Gandhi‘s entry into Indian politics.
GANDHI’S ARRIVAL IN INDIA

Before returning to India Gandhi went to England. In the meantime, the

First World War broke out. In this situation Gandhi measured it his duty to
help the British government. He decided to organise an Ambulance Corps of
the Indians. Though, after some time due to differences with the British
officials, Gandhi dissociated himself from it. He received a Kaiser-i-Hind
Gold Medal in the New Year Honours list of 1915.

Gandhi reached India on January 9, 1915 and was given a warm welcome
for his partial victory in South Africa. In India, the moderate leader Gokhale
was his political Guru. He wanted Gandhi to join the Servants of India
Society. But Gandhi could not become its member because some members of
the society strongly opposed his entry. Gokhale had extracted a promise from
Gandhi that he would not express any opinion or political matters for a year.
Keeping his vow, Gandhi spend 1915, and mainly of 1916 touring India and
visiting places as far as Sindh and Rangoon, Banaras and Madras. He also
visited Rabindranath Tagores‘ Shantiniketan and the kumbh fair at Hardwar.
All this helped Gandhi in the better understanding of his countrymen and the
circumstances in India. In 1915 Gandhi had set up an Ashram at Ahmedabad
on the bank of the Sabarmati. Here Gandhi lived with his secure associates
who were being trained in the rigorous of moral and emotional life essential
for a satyagrahi.

At this time Gandhi took very little interest in political matters, and mostly
at meetings he spoke on his experiences in South Africa and the ideas he had
formulated there. When Annie Besant approached Gandhi to join her in
founding a Home Rule League he refused on the ground that he did not wish
to embarrass the British government throughout the war. In 1915, he attended
the Congress session, but avoided speaking on significant issues like self
government. Gandhi welcomed the unity move of bringing back Tilak and
others who were earlier excluded from the Congress. But at the same time
Gandhi made it clear that he did not belong to any group. He attended the
reunited session of the Congress but refused to speak on issues which would
have meant aligning himself with a scrupulous group. He spoke strongly on
the indentured labourer‘s recruitment and a resolution was passed for the
abolition of this practice.

ENTRY INTO INDIAN POLITICS

Gandhi‘s entry into Indian politics occurred in the 1917-1918 period when
he became involved in three local issues concerning with Champaran indigo
farmers, the Ahmedabad textile workers and the Kheda peasants. In these
disputes Gandhi deployed his technique of Satyagraha and his victories in all
these cases ultimately paved the way for his emergence as an all India leader.

Champaran
Champaran in the Tirhut division of North Bihar had been seething with
agrarian discontent for some time. European planters had recognized indigo
farms and factories in Champaran at the beginning of the 19th century.
Through 1916-17, a large part of Champaran was held through three
proprietors, the Bettiah, Ram Nagar and Madhuban estates. Bettiah was the
largest estate consisting of over one and half thousand villages. Mainly of
these villages were not supervised through landlords but were leased to
thikadars or temporary tenure holders, of whom the mainly influential group
were European indigo planters. The vital issue of the trouble was the system of
indirect cultivation whereby peasants leased land from planters, binding
themselves to grow indigo each year on specified land in return for an advance
at the beginning of the cultivation season.

Indigo was cultivated under the system described Tinkathia through which
a tenant had to cultivate indigo at three-twentieths of his holdings, which
usually constituted the best portion of the land. Although some slight
modification were made in Tinkathia system in 1908, it did not bring any
material change in the degrading circumstances of the tenants. Planters always
forced them to sell their crop for a fixed and usually uneconomic price. At this
time the demand of Indian indigo in the world market was declining due to the
rising production of synthetic indigo in Germany. Mainly planters at
Champaran realised that indigo cultivation was no longer a paying
proposition. The planters tried to save their own position through forcing the
tenants to bear the burden of their losses. They offered to release the tenants
from rising indigo (which was a vital condition in their agreement with
planters) if the latter paid compensation or damages. Separately from this, the
planters heavily inflated the rents and imposed several illegal levies on the
tenants.

Gandhi took no interest in the case of indigo cultivators of Champaran

when this question was discussed at the Lucknow session of the Congress in
1916 on the ground that he knew nothing about the matter. But Raj Kumar
Shukul a peasant from Champaran, after strenuous efforts prevailed upon
Gandhi to visit Champaran. Gandhi arrived in Bihar and started creation
investigations in person. When he reached Motihari, the headquarters of the
district of Champaran, he was served with an order to quit Champaran as he
was regarded a danger to the public peace. Gandhi decided to disobey the
order ‗out of a sense of public responsibility.‘ He was immediately arrested
and tried in the district court. But the Bihar government ordered the
Commissioner and District Magistrate to abandon proceedings and grant to
Gandhi the facilities for investigation. Gandhi was warned not to stir up
trouble, but he was free to continue his investigations into the cultivator‘s
grievances.

The Government appointed Champaran Agrarian Committee with Gandhi

as one of its members. The committee unanimously recommended the
abolition of Tinkathia system and several illegal exactions under which the
tenants groaned. The enhanced rents were reduced, and as for the illegal
recoveries, the committee recommended 25% refund. The major
recommendations of the Committee were incorporated in the Champaran
Agrarian Act of 1917. In this agitation, the chief supporters of Gandhi came
from the educated middle class. For instance, Rajendra Prasad, Gorakh Prasad,
Kirpalani and some other educated persons from the cities worked as his
secure associates. Local Mahajans traders and village Mukhtars (attorneys)
also helped him. But it was the peasantry which gave him the real massive
support. Gandhi approached them in a mainly simple and unassuming manner.
In the countryside, he often walked on foot or traveled in a bullock cart. He
came where ordinary people lived and talked about their fight in the language
they understood.

Kheda
Gandhi‘s second intervention was for the peasants of Kheda in Gujarat
where his method of Satyagraha came under a severe test. Mainly of Kheda
was a fertile tract and the crop of food granules, tobacco and cotton produced
here had a convenient and sizeable market in Ahmedabad. There were several
rich peasant proprietors described Patidars or from the Kunbi caste. Besides, a
large number of small peasants and landless labourers also lived in this region.

In 1917 excessive rain considerably damaged the Kharif crop in Kheda.

This coincided with an augment in the price of kerosine, iron, cloth and salt
because of which the cost of living for the peasantry went up. In view of the
poor harvest, the peasants demanded the remission of land revenue. The
‗revenue code‘ provided for a total remission if the crops were less than
twenty five per cent of the normal production. Two Bombay barristers, V.J.
Patel and G.K. Parakh made the enquiries and reached the conclusion that a
major portion of the crop was damaged. But the government did not agree
with their findings. After enquiry into the state of the crop in Kheda the
Collector decided that there was no justification for the remission of land
revenue. The official contention was that the agitation was not a spontaneous
expression of the peasant discontent but was started through ‗outsiders‘ or
members of the Home Rule League and Gujarat Sabha of which Gandhi was
the president at that time. The truth was that initiative for the agitation against
payment of revenue came neither from Gandhi nor from the other Ahmedabad
politicians; it was raised through local village leaders like Mohanlal Pandya of
Kapadvanj taluka in Kheda.

Gandhi maintained that the officials had over-valued the crops and the
cultivators were entitled to a suspension of revenue as a legal right and not as
a concession through grace. After a lot of hesitation he decided to launch a
Satyagraha movement on 22 March 1918. He inaugurated the Satyagraha at a
meeting in Nadiad, and urged the peasants not to pay their land revenue. He
toured villages and gave moral support to the peasants in refusing to pay
revenue, and to expel their fear of the government authority.

Gandhi was also assisted in this thrash about through Indulal Yajnik.
Vallabhbhai Patel and Anasuya Sarabhai. The Satyagraha reached at its peak
through 21 April when 2,337 peasants pledged not to pay revenue. Mainly of
the Patidars took part in this Satyagraha. Some poorer peasants were coerced
through the government into paying the revenue. Moreover, a good Rabi crop
had weakened the case for remission. Gandhi began to realise that peasantry
was on the verge of exhaustion. He decided to call off the agitation when the
government issued instructions that land revenue should be recovered from
only those who had the capability to pay and no pressure should be exerted on
the genuinely poor peasants. This agitation did not have a uniform effect on
the area. Only 70 villages out of 559 in Kheda were actually involved in it and
it was described off after a token concession. But this agitation certainly
helped Gandhi in broadening his social base in the rural Gujarat.

Ahmedabad
Gandhi organised the third campaign in Ahmedabad where he intervened
in a dispute flanked by the mill owners and workers. Ahmedabad was
becoming the leading industrial town in Gujarat. But the mill owners often
faced scarcity of labour and they had to pay high wages to attract enough mill
hands. In 1917 plague outbreak made labour shortage more acute because it
drove several workers absent from Ahmedabad to the countryside. To
dissuade the workers from leaving the town, the mill owners decided to pay
‗Plague Bonus‘ which was sometimes as high as 75% of the normal wages of
the workers. After the epidemic was over, the mill owners decided to
discontinue the Plague Bonus. But the workers opposed the employers move
and argued that it was helping them to offset the war time rise in the cost of
living. The mill owners were prepared to provide 20% augment but the
workers were demanding a 50% raise in the wages in view of the price hike.
 Gandhi was kept informed about the working circumstances in
Ahmedabad mills through one of the secretaries of the Gujarat Sabha. Gandhi
knew Ambalal Sarabhai, a mill owner, as the latter had financially helped
Gandhi‘s Ashram. Moreover, Ambalal‘s sister. Anasuya Sarabhai had
reverence for Gandhi. Gandhi discussed the workers troubles with Ambalal
Sarabhai and decided to intervene in the dispute. Both workers and mill
owners agreed to refer the issue to a board of arbitration consisting of three
representatives of the employers and three of the workers with the British
Collector as Chairman. Gandhi was incorporated in the board as representing
the workers. But, suddenly the mill owners decided to withdraw from the
board on the ground that Gandhi had no real authority or mandate from the
workers, and that there was no guarantee that workers would accept the
arbitration award. They declared the lockout of the Mills from 22 February
1918.

In such a situation, Gandhi decided to revise the whole situation in detail.

He went through a mass of data concerning the financial state of the mills and
compared their wage rates with those of Bombay. Finally he came to the
conclusion that the workers should demand 35% instead of 50% augment in
their wages. Gandhi began the Satyagraha movement against the mill owners.
The workers were asked to take a pledge stating that they would not resume
work without 35% augment arid that they would remain law abiding
throughout the lockout. Gandhi, assisted through Anasuya Sarabhai organised
daily mass meetings of workers, in which he delivered lectures and issued a
series of leaflets on the situation. The mill owners ended the lockout on 12
March and announced that they would take back the workers who were willing
to accept 20% increase. On the other hand, Gandhi announced on 15 March
that he would undertake a fast until a settlement was reached. Gandhi‘s object
was to rally the workers who were thinking of joining the mills despite their
pledge. The fast created tremendous excitement in Ahmedabad and the mill
owners were compelled to negotiate. A settlement was reached on 18 March.
According to this agreement, the workers on their first day would receive 35%
raise, in keeping with their pledge. On the second day, they would get 20%
increase, offered through the mill owners. From the third day until the date of
an award through an arbitrator, they would split the variation and receive 27
1/2 % increase. Finally the arbitrator‘s award went in favor of the workers and
35% raise was given to them.

THE ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA

Throughout the years 1917 and 1918 Gandhi took little interest in all India
issues. He protested against internment of Annie Besant, and also demanded
the release of Ali brothers (Mahomed Ali and Shaukat Ali) who were actively
associated with the Khilafat issue. Unlike other political leaders of the time, he
did not take active interest in the Reform proposals. But it was the British
decision to pass ‗Rowlatt Act‘ which forced him to plunge into national
politics in a forceful manner.

Rowlatt Act
In 1917 the Government of India had appointed a committee under the
chairmanship of Justice Sydney Rowlatt to investigate ―revolutionary crime‖
in the country and to recommend legislation for its suppression. After a review
of the situation, the Rowlatt committee proposed a series of change in the
machinery of law to enable the British government to deal effectively with the
revolutionary activities. In the light of these recommendations the Government
of India drafted two bills and presented them to the Imperial Legislative
Council on 6 February 1919. The government maintained that the bills were
‗temporary measures‘ which aimed at preventing ‗seditious crimes‘. The new
bills attempted to create war-time restrictions permanent. They provided trial
of offences through a special court consisting of three high court judges. There
was no provision of appeal against the decision of this court which could meet
in camera and take into consideration proof not admissible under the Indian
Proof Act. The bill also proposed to provide authority to the government to
search a place and arrest a person without a warrant. Detention without a trial
for maximum period of two years was also provided in the bills. The bills
were regarded through nationalist leaders as an effort to conciliate a section of
official and non-official white opinion which had resented Montagu‘s Reform
proposals.

Movement
There was widespread condemnation of the bills in the whole country.
Gandhi also launched his campaign against the bills. He said that the proposed
powers were out of all proportion to the danger, particularly when the Viceroy
possessed emergency powers of legislation through ordinance. He also stated
that they were instruments of distrust and repression, nullifying the proposed
reforms. Moreover, he opposed not just the content of the bills, but also the
manner in which they were foisted in the country without regard to public
opinion. He shaped a Satyagraha Sabha on 24th February 1919 in Bombay to
protest against the Rowlatt Bills. Its members signed a pledge proclaiming
their determination ― to refuse civilly to obey these laws (i.e., the Rowlatt
Bills) and such other laws as a committee hitherto appointed may think fit and
we (members) further affirm that in this thrash about we will faithfully follow
truth and refrain from violence to life, person or property.‖ While launching
the Satyagraha agitation against the Rowlatt bills Gandhi said: ― It is my firm
belief that we shall obtain salvation only through suffering and not through
reforms dropping on us from the English — they use brute force, we soul
force.‖

Despite strong opposition in the whole country the government remained

firm. The Council passed one of the bills, though all the non-official members
voted against it. The Viceroy gave assent to the bill on March 21, 1919. A
group of liberals like Sir D.E. Wacha, Surendranath Banerjee, T.B. Sapru and
Srinivas Sastri opposed Gandhi‘s move of starting Satyagraha. Their cause for
opposing the Satyagraha was that it would hamper the Reforms. Some of them
also felt that the ordinary citizen would find it hard to civilly disobey the Act.
Annie Besant also condemned the Satyagraha on the grounds that there was
nothing in the Act to resist civilly, and that to break laws at the dictate of
others was exceedingly dangerous. But the younger and radical elements of
Annie Besant‘s Home Rule League supported Gandhi! They shaped the main
cadre of Satyagraha movement in dissimilar parts of the country. In organising
this Satyagraha, Gandhi was also assisted through sure Pan-Islamic Leaders,
particularly Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal Ulema group at Lucknow, and some
radical members of the Muslim League. M.A. Jinnah also opposed the Rowlatt
Bill vehemently and warned the Government of the dangerous consequences if
the government persisted in clamping on the people of India the ― lawless law‖.

Gandhi inaugurated his Satyagraha through calling upon the countrymen

to observe a day of ‗hartal‘ when business should be suspended and people
should fast and pray as a protest against the Rowlatt Act. The date for the
‗hartal‘ was fixed for 30th March but it was changed to April 6th. The success
of hartal varied considerably flanked by regions and flanked by towns and the
countryside. In Delhi a hartal was observed on 30th March and ten people
were killed in police firing. Approximately in all major towns of the country,
the hartal was observed on the 6th April and the people responded
enthusiastically. Gandhi described the hartal a ‗magnificent success. Gandhi
intensified the agitation on 7th April through advising the satyagrahis to
disobey the laws dealing with prohibited literature and the registration of
newspapers. These scrupulous laws were selected because disobedience was
possible for an individual without leading to violence. Four books including
Hind Swaraj of Gandhi, which were prohibited through Bombay Government
in 1910 were chosen for sale as an action of defiance against the government.
Gandhi left Bombay on the 8th to promote the Satyagraha agitation in Delhi
and Punjab.

But, as his entry in Punjab was measured dangerous through the

government, so Gandhi was removed from the train in which he was travelling
at Palwal close to Delhi and was taken back to Bombay. The news of Gandhi‘s
arrest precipitated the crisis. The situation became tensein Bombay and
violence broke out in Ahmedabad and Virangam. In Ahmedabad the
government enforced martial law. The Punjab region as a whole and Amritsar,
in scrupulous, witnessed the worst scenes of violence. In Amritsar, the news of
Gandhi‘s arrest coincided with the arrest of two local leaders Dr. Kitchlew and
Dr. Satyapal on 10th April. This led to mob violence and government
structures were set on fire, five Englishmen were murdered, and a woman
assaulted. The civil authority lost its control of the city. On 13th April,
General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a peaceful unarmed crowd
assembled at Jallianwala Bagh. Mainly of the people were not aware of the
ban on meetings, and they were shot without the slightest warning through
General Dyer who later on said that it was no longer a question of merely
dispersing the crowd, but one of ‗producing a moral effect.‘ According to
official figures, 379 persons were killed but the unofficial accounts gave much
higher figures, approximately three times of the official figures. The martial
law was immediately enforced in Punjab also on the 13 April (night).

Importance
The whole agitation against the Rowlatt Act shows that it was not properly
organised. The Satyagraha Sabha concentrated mainly on publishing
propaganda literature and collecting signatures on the Satyagraha pledge. The
Congress as an organisation was hardly in the picture at all. In mainly of the
areas people participated because of their own social and economic grievances
against the British rule. Gandhi‘s Rowlatt Act Satyagraha provided a rallying
point to the people belonging to dissimilar sections and communities. This
characteristic of the movement is quite apparent from the massive
participation of the people in Punjab, which Gandhi had not even visited
before the movement. Broadly speaking, the movement was intense in cities
than in rural areas.

On 18th April Gandhi decided to call off the Satyagraha because of the
widespread violence particularly in his home state in Ahmedabad city. He
confessed publically that he committed a ‗Himalyan blunder‘ through offering
civil disobedience to people who were insufficiently prepared for the
discipline of Satyagraha. The mainly important result of this agitation was the
emergence of Gandhi as an all India leader. His position became
approximately supreme in the Indian national movement and he began to
exercise decisive influence on the deliberation of the Congress. At Amritsar
session of the Congress in 1919, Gandhi proposed that the Indians should
cooperate in the working of Reforms despite some inadequacies. But in
September 1920 Gandhi reversed his policy of cooperation and decided to
launch the Non-Cooperation Movement.
THE GANDHIAN IDEOLOGY

In this part we will revise the main characteristics of Gandhian ideology.

Before we discuss Gandhi‘s ideology it is necessary to mention that there were
a number of influences which worked on Gandhi and helped him in evolving
his philosophy. His autobiography creates it clear that the outlook of his
parents and the socio-religious millieu of his native place left a profound
influence on him. In scrupulous, the values of Vaishnavism and the tradition
of Jainism shaped his early thoughts. Moreover, some Hindu texts like the
Bhagavata Gita also influenced him. The Gospals (especially the Sermon on
the Mount) and the writings of Tolstoy, Thoreau and Rushkin also greatly
influenced his thinking. Gandhi was primarily a man of action and his own
experiences in life helped him more than his readings in evolving and shaping
his ideology.

Satyagraha
The chief characteristic of Gandhi‘s ideology was Satyagraha i.e. ‗true
force‘. As mentioned earlier, it was evolved through Gandhi in South Africa
but after it had been fully developed it became a dominant element in India‘s
thrash about for freedom from 1919 onwards. For Gandhi, the Satyagraha was
to be used so that through self suffering and not through violence the enemy
could be converted to one‘s own view.
P. Sitaramayya aptly explains Satyagraha as follows: It involves self-
chosen suffering and humiliation for the resisters. If it is effective, it is
so through working on the conscience of those against whom it is
being used, sapping their confidence in the exclusive rightness of their
cause creation their physical strength significant, and weakening their
resolution through insinuating a sense of guilt for the suffering they
have part in causing.
Gandhi made a distinction flanked by the Satyagraha and passive
resistance, when he wrote: The latter (passive resistance) has been
conceived as a weapon of the weak and does not exclude the use of
physical force or violence for the purpose of gaining one‘s end;
whereas the former (Satyagraha) has been conceived as a weapon of
the strongest, and excludes the use of violence in any shape.

In fact, for Gandhi, Satyagraha was not merely a political tactic but part of
a total philosophy of life and ideology of action. Gandhi whispered that the
search for truth was the goal of human life. Since no one could know the
ultimate Truth one should never attack another‘s integrity or prevent another‘s
search for truth. Non-Violence shaped the basis of Satyagraha. Gandhi
wrote:
 When a person claims to be non-violent, he is expected not to be angry
with one who has injured him. He will not wish him harm; he will wish
and Mahatma Gandhi
him well; he will not swear at him; he will not cause him any physical
hurt. He will put up with all the injury to which is subjected through
the wrong doer. Therefore non-violence is complete innocence.
Complete Non-Violence is complete absence of ill will against all that
lives.

Gandhi emphasised that non-violent Satyagraha could be practised through

common people for achieving political-ends. But some time Gandhi took a
position which fell short of complete non-violence. His repeated insistence
that even violence v as preferable to a cowardly surrender to injustice
sometimes created a delate problem of interpretation. In 1918 Gandhi
campaigned for military recruitment in the hope of winning concessions from
the British government after the war which can not be easily recruited with the
doctrine of non-violence. In practice, Satyagraha could assume several
forms—fasting, non-violent picketing, dissimilar kinds of non-cooperation and
ultimately in politics, civil disobedience in willing anticipation of the legal
penalty. Gandhi firmly whispered that all these forms of Satyagraha were pure
means to achieve pure ends. Gandhi‘s critics sometime take the view that
through the technique of Satyagraha, Gandhi succeeded in controlling the
mass movements from above. The dominant section in the peasantry and the
business groups also found the Gandhian non-violent model convenient
because they feared to lose if political thrash about turned into uninhibited and
violent social revolution. On the whole, the use of Satyagraha through Gandhi
and the Congress in national movement brought dissimilar sections and classes
of society together against the British rule.

Religion
Another significant characteristic of Gandhi‘s ideology was his attitude
towards religion. Religion for Gandhi was not a doctrinal formulation of any
religious system but a vital truth underlying all formal religions. Gandhi
described religion as the thrash about for Truth. His conviction was that
religion could not be relegated to the realm of private opinion but necessity
influence and permeate all activities of men. He was convinced that religion
provided the fundamental basis for political action in India. This creates easy
for us to explain that Gandhi took the Khilafat issue of the Muslims with a
view to bringing them in the movement against the British government.
Gandhi also used the religious idiom through concepts like ‗Ram Raj‘ to
mobilize people in the national movement. Though, it cannot be denied that
this use of religious idiom prevented Gandhi and the national movement under
his leadership from giving effective challenge to a major category of division
in the middle of the Indian people which can cause a fissure in our national
unity in periods of crisis and strain, and tended to push into the background
their internal differences and conflicts.

Hind Swaraj
The other significant characteristic of Gandhian thought was the body of
ideas which he illustrated in his book ‗Hind Swaraj‘ (1909). In this work,
Gandhi pointed out that the real enemy was not the British political
domination but the modem western civilization which was luring India into its
stranglehold. He whispered that the Indians educated in western style,
particularly lawyers, doctors, teachers and industrialists, were undermining
Indian‘s ancient heritage through insidiously spreading modem ways. He
criticized railways as they had spread plague and produced famines through
encouraging the export of food granules. Here he saw Swaraj or self rule as a
state of life which could only exist where Indians followed their traditional
civilization uncorrupted through modem civilization. Gandhi wrote:

Indian‘s salvation consists in unlearning what she has learnt throughout the
past 50 years or so. The Railways, telegraphs, hospitals, lawyers, doctors and
such like have to go and the so-described upper classes have to learn to live
consciously and religiously and deliberately the simple life of peasant. These
ideas certainly look utopian and obscurantist in the context of the early
twentieth century. But it seems that his ideas reflected adverse effects of rule
on the artisans and poor peasantry in the countryside. Later on, Gandhi tried to
provide concrete shape to his social and economic ideas through taking up the
programme of Khadi, village reconstruction and Harijan welfare (which
incorporated the removal of untouchability). It is true that these efforts
of Gandhi could not totally solve the problem of the rural people, but it cannot
be denied that this programme of Gandhi succeeded in improving their
circumstances to a sure extent and creation the whole country conscious of the
new need for its social and economic reconstruction.

Swadeshi
Gandhi advocated swadeshi which meant the use of things belonging to
one‘s own country, particularly stressing the replacement of foreign machine
made goods with Indian hand made cloth. This was his solution to the poverty
of peasants who could spin at home to supplement their income and his cure
for the drain of money to England in payment for imported cloth. It is
motivating to find that despite his pronounced opposition to the influences of
Western Industrial civilization Gandhi did not take a hostile view towards
emerging modem industries in India. As noticed earlier, Gandhi had secure
relations with industrialists like Ambalal Sarabhai. Another noted industrialist
G.D. Birla was his secure associate after 1922. Gandhi whispered in the
interdependence of capital and labour and advocated the concept of capitalists
being ‗trustees‘ for the workers. In fact, Gandhi never encouraged
politicization of the workers on class lines and openly abhorred militant
economic struggles. As a matter of fact, all the major elements of Gandhi‘s
ideology are based on a distrust of disagreement in the notion of class
interests. Gandhi always emphasised the broad unity that can and necessitybe
achieved on the basis of a larger objective in the middle of people divided on
account of class or any other category.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the contribution of Karl Marx to social and political theory.
Write a note on the social and economic changes brought about
through the world war in several countries.
Explain the causes of the Russian Revolution.
discuss the achievements of the Ghadar Movement.
Discuss Gandhi's attitude towards the Peasants' Movement in
Champaran.
What do you understand through the concept of Satyagraha as
propagated through Gandhi?

CHAPTER 4
NATIONALISM: INTER-WAR YEARS-I

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Constitutional reforms: 1892-1920
Non-cooperation and khilafat movements: 1919-1922
The Akali movement
The non-Brahmin movement in western and southern India
Swarajists and constructive work: 1922-29
Growth of communalism up to the second world war
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you should be able to:
Trace the growth in size and functions of legislative bodies throughout
this period,
Learn about the factors which prompted the British to introduce these
changes,
Understand the non-cooperation and khilafat movements;
 Know about the dissimilar reform movements that took place prior to
the Akali movement;
The social and cultural thrash about against the British ideas as well as
the traditional social order, in the west and south of India;
Get familiar with how the Swaraj party originated and what ideology it
professed; and
Understand the communalism and trace its development in the early
20th century.

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS: 1892-1920

BACKGROUND

Under the Charter Act of 1833 a fourth member, recognized as the Law
Member, was added to the Executive Council of the Governor-General. He
was entitled to sit and vote in the Council of the Governor-General only when
it met for legislative purposes. Therefore for the first time a separation was
introduced flanked by the Executive and legislative functions of the Central
Government. Another change introduced through this Act was that the
Presidency Governments were deprived of their independent legislative
power.

Twenty years later, in 1853, another Charter Act was passed under which
the Law Member was given full rank as a Member of the Council of the
Governor-General. At the same the distinction flanked by the Council of the
Governor-General as an Executive and as a Legislative body became more
marked because the size of this Council for legislative purposes was increased
through including six ‗Additional Members‘. They were all salaried officials,
four represented the three Presidencies and the Government of the North-
Western province (roughly Western half of present day U.P.) and two were
judges. The Act styled such members as Legislative Councilors. The proposal
to add non-official members, either European or Indian, was not accepted.

The Legislative Council had, in 1854, laid down an elaborate procedure

for the transaction of business. In addition to creation laws, it became a body
for inquiring into several grievances. Moreover, the provincial governments
resented the centralization of the law creation procedure. The Revolt of 1857,
though, provided an urgent cause for British Government‘s desire to create
further changes in the set-up. It was felt that a major cause of the revolt was
lack of get in touch with and understanding flanked by Indians and the
authorities. An Act recognized as the Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861
which reflected this thinking.
 For purposes of legislation, the Governor-General's Council was
reinforced through Additional members, not less than six and not more than
twelve in number to be nominated through the Governor-general and holding
office for two years. A significant innovation was introduced through
providing that, of these Additional Members, not less than one half were to be
non-officials, i.e. persons not in the Civil or military service of the Crown.
Under this provision three Indians were usually nominated. Further, the
functions of the Council for Legislative purposes were confined strictly to
legislation. The Act also restored to the Governments of Bombay and Madras
the power of legislation and provided for the establishment of Legislative
Councils in other provinces. Such Councils were recognized in Bengal in
1862, Punjab in 1886 and the North Western Province in 1887.

For the first twenty years the power to nominate the non-official members
was used as a means of distributing official patronage. Only Princes, their
divans or big landholders were nominated and amongst these too, only those
who had helped the British throughout the Revolt of 1857-58. Still the
decision to nominate non-officials was important. It amounted to a tacit
recognition that Indian opinion was worth listening to, that the British officials
were not the' best interpreters of the wishes of Indians and that not even an
authoritarian colonial government could work in complete seclusion.

THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1892

Now we will discuss the reasons which prompted the British to pass the
Indian Councils Act of 1892, the chief features of the Act, its shortcomings
and achievements would also be analyzed.

Need for Constitutional Changes

From the point of view of the Govt, the Act of 1861 worked satisfactorily.
But the period which followed saw an extra ordinary growth of national
consciousness in India. A feeling rapidly developed that the people inhabiting
the country had common interests, aspirations and destiny; you have studied
the factors leading to the rise and growth of this feeling in Block I Unit 3. You
also know that in its very first session the Congress passed a resolution
demanding expansion of Central and provincial Legislative Councils through
addition of elected members and enlargement of their functions. These
demands were reiterated in subsequent years.

Lord Dufferin was the Governor-General when the Indian National

Congress was founded. Throughout his tenure the Government of India
vigorously pursued with the Govt, at London the question of enlarging the size
and functions of the Central and provincial Legislative Councils. The question
naturally arises: why should an autocratic or a despotic government think in
conditions of adding more Indians to the Legislative Councils, and also of
enlarging their functions? The question becomes all the more significant in
view of the fact that there was no pressure from the masses and there was no
revolutionary movement aiming at the overthrow of the Raj Moreover, the
Government apparently viewed the demands of educated Indians with
suspicion and denied that they in any way represented the people of India.

As you have learnt in Block II, Unit 8, though the Government of India
had initially recognized the Indian National Congress, it soon withdrew its
patronage. The Government had perhaps realized that the growth of
nationalism was inimical to the interests of British rule. Basically the demand
of these nationalist leaders was that India should be ruled in the interest of
Indian people. On the other hand, the primary objective of the Government of
India was to safeguard and further British imperial interests. In this situation,
the British needed to enlarge the basis for their support in India and they could
do this through satisfying the aspirations of those Indians who were ready to
confine their demands within a narrow constitutional framework. Through
introducing changes in the constitutional structure dissatisfaction of educated
Indians could be obviated without adversely affecting Government‘s all-
embracing autocracy. It was with this objective that a new Indian Councils Act
was passed in 1892.

Main Provisions of the Act

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was an amending Act. Consequently the
vital constitutional provisions remained the same as under the Act of 1861.
Mainly two kinds of changes were introduced:
Changes in the composition of legislative bodies
Enlargement of functions

The number of Additional Members of the Central Executive Council was

increased to not less than ten nor was more than sixteen of whom, as under the
Act of 1861, not less than half to be non-officials. There was some hope that
elections might be introduced. But ultimately the Governor-General was
empowered to invite dissimilar bodies in India to elect, select or delegate their
representatives and to create regulations for their nomination.

Under the Regulations finally adopted, the Central Legislative Council was
to consist of nine ex-officio members (the Governor-General, six members of
the Executive Council, the Commander-in-chief and the head of the province
in which the Council met, i.e. Lieutenant Governor of Bengal or Punjab), six
official Additional Members and ten non- official members of the Legislative
Councils of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and the North- Western Province.

When Legislative Councils were created in Punjab and Burma one

member each was returned from there also. One member was appointed 5n the
recommendation of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce. In practice these
bodies elected their representatives and forwarded the names. These names
were always accepted through the Government. Therefore the members were
in fact elected representatives though this elective principle was introduced
with great caution. The thought behind adopting this procedure was to
underline that the members occupied seats on the Legislative Council not as
representatives of specific bodies but as nominees of the Governor-General.
The rest were nominated non-official members. The official members together
with the ex-officio members constituted an official majority.

Similar changes were introduced in the composition of provincial

Legislative Councils. In the entire provinces official majority was maintained.
So far as the functions were concerned, besides discussing legislative
proposals, the members were allowed to discuss the annual Financial
Statement presented through the Govt. Though, the Financial Statement was
presented as an unalterable document. Members could only present their
observations which could have influence on the budget in subsequent years,
not on the budget of the year under consideration. In the case of provinces the
discussion was limited to those branches of revenue and expenditure which
were under the control of Provincial Governments. The members were also
allowed to put questions on internal matters. Supplementary questions were
not allowed. In spite of this limitation it was an important innovation because
even in the British House of Commons till that time Question Hour had not
fully evolved.

This Act was criticized at the 1892 and 1893 sessions of the Indian
National Congress mainly because principle of direct-election had not been
introduced. But the regulations proved liberal enough to enable several of the
nationalist leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Lalmohan Ghosh, W.C.
Banerji, Surendranath Banerjee and Pherozesiiah Mehta to enter the
legislations. The non-official members gave a good account of them in respect
of their defeating skills and their skill as legislators and took advantage of
each opportunity to put forward the Indian point of view. On the whole it
seems that the provisions of the Act satisfied the aspirations of the nationalist
leaders because flanked by 1894 & 1900 the general for Council reform were
not very prominent in the agenda of the Congress Sessions. Though the effect
was short-lived because the same years saw the first stirrings of Extremism
and through 1904 the Congress as a whole was again demanding a further big
dose of legislative reform.
MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

The promulgation of the Morley-Minto Reform of 1909 is to be seen in the

background of a stage of turmoil and militant activities that followed the
Indian Council Act of 1892.

Need for Constitutional Changes

Outside the Congress the one and a half decade following 1892 saw rising
impatience with the goal and methods of the Congress itself. Throughout
1885-1906 the number of students passing the matriculation in India increased
from 1286 to 8211. Though through today‘s standards the number appears
ridiculously small, this amounted to an approximately sevenfold augment in
conditions of numbers. The number of newspapers and journals published and
their total circulation also shows a similar trend. This does indicate that the
number of those Indians who were likely to be conscious of their rights as
citizens and of the duties of a government, and also of those who had begun to
understand the disadvantages of being under alien rule increased considerably.
These years also saw the beginning of what has been described as ‗extremist‘
and revolutionary streams of the Indian National Movement to which, in the
middle of other things, Curzon‘s policies considerably contributed.

Lord Curzon, the Governor-General from 1898-1905, exuded the

confidence which had resulted from Britain‘s strong international position. His
policy of centralization, his unconcealed contempt for the aspirations of
educated Indians and the Indian National Congress and, above all, this move
relating to the Partition of Bengal, brought resentment of the people to the
surface. Ever since the partition plan was announced in December 1903, the
people of Bengal had started expressing their dissatisfaction in clear and
unmistakable conditions. Several alternative plans were also suggested, still
the partition plan was accepted out. This unpopular decision became a symbol
of the total disregard of the wishes of the governed on the part of the rulers.
The Congress leaders began to think in conditions of reconsidering the
ultimate goal of their organization and, more particularly, the method of
putting pressure on the British. Embittered opposition to British rule generated
through the partition move found expression in demonstrations in Calcutta and
other places and slogans of Swadeshi, boycott and national education were
raised.

Some of the Moderate leaders, especially in Bengal, came out openly in

support of the boycott and Swadeshi programme of the Extremists. But they
soon retreated and returned to the method of appeals and petitions. They
wanted the government to create some liberal gesture. In his presidential
address at the Congress session held at Benaras in 1905 G.K. Gokhale said:
‗The goal of the Congress is that India should be governed in the interests of
the Indians themselves‘. In the middle of the immediate demands he
emphasized reform of Legislative Councils and appointment of at least three
Indians to the Secretary of State‘s Council. The Moderate leaders became
more hopeful when at the end of 1905 the Liberals came to power in Britain
and John Morley, a man recognized for his Liberal views, became the
Secretary of State for India. A little earlier a conservative, Lord Minto had
succeeded Curzon as Governor-General. The names of Morley and Minto
became associated with the changes introduced under the Indian Councils Act
of 1909 which, together with some other changes, became recognized as
Morley-Minto Reforms.

Morley and Minto were very dissimilar in their backgrounds, reputations

and practical experiences. But as regards the policy in India they had similar
views. Both recognized that the partition of Bengal was a grave blunder and
had hardened anti-government feeling in the country. They also showed the
fear that this feeling was extending to the Muslims. These feelings were
openly expressed in official as well as unofficial correspondence. For instance,
in a public dispatch the Government of India wrote:
―We seem to be slowly losing our hold on the English speaking classes
and there are indications that the thinly veiled animosity felt through a
considerable section of these classes is filtering down to a lower
stratum of the populations, who do not understand the causes at work,
but who do see that the English official no longer holds the
commanding position that he did. A new departure is badly needed.‖
The ‗new departure‘ they thought of was the introduction of changes in the
composition and functions of the legislative bodies. This way they could rally
the Moderates to the Empire because this was one of the primary demands
they had been creation. The British rulers though, were aware that the vital
demand of Moderates that India should be ruled for the benefit of Indians
could not be accommodated within an imperialist framework. To work for
awakening national consciousness and at the same time profess loyal
acceptance of British rule was in the ultimate conditions impossible. So, in
addition to creation an attempt to win over this section of the people, the
British raised other pillars of support for their regime in India. Soon after his
arrival, Lord Minto had written: ‗I have been thinking a good deal lately of
possible counterpoise to Congress aims‘. First the officials thought of
establishing a separate Council of ‗notables‘ which could consist of rulers of
Indian States, Zamindars, etc. who were loyal to the British. But later they
decided to provide representation to the landholders on the Imperial
Legislative Council itself.

In the meanwhile, as you shall see in Unit 22, a deputation of some

Muslim leaders met the Viceroy at Simla in October 1906. They demanded
that the position accorded to the Muslims in any type of representation should
be commensurate with the numerical strength and political importance of their
community. The British saw in these demands a promising alternative. They
could make a counterpoise to the rising demands of the Congress leaders
through patronising this section of Muslims. As we shall see, Muslims got
weight age as well as separate electorates. The nationalist leaders argued that
this deputation had been stage-supervised through the British. Mohammad Ali
described it as ‗a command performance‘. Admirers of the Muslim League
have denounced this charge and have argued that the followers of Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan had been demanding nomination of Muslims to represent
Muslim interests ever since the 1880s and that when the prospect of
introduction of elections appeared, a demand for more seats and separate
electorates was directed through the logic of events. It cannot, though, be
denied that the British encouraged communal separatism as a means of
continuing their rule. This is the cause why, with a comparatively weak
organization and through the method of prayer and petition which Congress
had been pursuing for more than two decades, the League achieved notable
success within a short time after its foundation. The first suggestion for
introducing constitutional changes was made in the summer of 1906 and the
Indian Council act was passed in May 1909 after long and painstaking
deliberations. Beside side this policy of conciliation reflected in the move for
legislative reforms, the Government adopted a policy of outright repression for
those who sustained to oppose and condemn the Government. Throughout
1907-08 the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act banning meetings in
specific areas. The Newspapers (Incitement and Offences) Act enabling
seizure of presses and The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act imposing a
ban on the samitis in Bengal were passed.

One significant demand of Indian leaders was fulfilled even before the Act
was passed and without introducing any statutory change. This was the
appointment of two Indians to the Council of the Secretary of state for Indian
and of the Governor-General and Provincial Governors. This step was taken
not with the aim of rising administrative efficiency but with the express
purpose of creating a stake for qualified Indians in the then existing structure.
Under this provision comparatively unimportant portfolios like those of law or
education were given to Indians. Yet the step was significant because it
amounted to an implicit acceptance of two facts: first, that Indians were fit to
be appointed to the highest position, second, that Indians were better
interpreters of the wishes of their countrymen than British officials.

Like the earlier Indian Council Act of 1892, the Act of 1909 was also an
amending Act. Like its predecessor, it also introduced changes in the size and
functions of the Councils of the Governor-General and Governors for the
purpose of creation Laws and Regulations.
Changes in the Composition of Legislative Bodies
This Act increased the strength of the Central as well as Provincial
Councils. The number of additional members in the Central Council was
increased to sixty while the number of additional members in Provincial
Councils was to be flanked by thirty and fifty. This number does not contain
the ex-officio members. The additional members were to be of two types—
official and non-official. At the Centre, the official members (including ex-
officio members) were to be in a majority. In the provincial legislatures non-
official majorities were conceded. This was done because of the understanding
that the non-official members would represent such diverse interests and
classes that it would be hard for them to take a joint stand. Moreover, if the
eventuality of their passing an undesirable bill did come up, these bills could
conveniently be vetoed.

In the Central or Imperial Legislative Council there were 37 official (9 ex-

officio + 28 additional official members) and 32 non-official members. The
Act of 1909 became, a landmark because of the manner in which non-official
seats were distributed and filled. Of these 32 non-official seats 5 were filled
through nomination through the Government. The remaining 27 seats were
distributed as follows:
Through non-official members of the Provincial
Legislative Councils
Through landholders of six provinces
6
Through Muslims of five provinces
5
Alternately through Muslim landholders of U.P. or of Bengal
1
Chambers of Commerce of Calcutta and Bombay
2

Similar provisions were made for forming Provincial Legislative Councils

with variations depending on their peculiar circumstances. The Muslims and
landholders were given weight age not with reference to any advantages
verified through actual practice but in anticipation of them.

These seats were to be filled in through elections. For thirteen ‗open seats‘
doubly indirect system of elections was introduced. The tax-paying citizens in
a town or village elected representatives for municipal committees or local
boards and they, in turn, elected representatives for provincial Legislative
Councils. These non-official members of the Provincial Councils, in their turn,
elected representatives to the Supreme Legislative Council. Therefore some
200 non-official members of Provincial Legislative Councils filled 13
unreserved seats. This size was ludicrously small and criticized even in the
Montagu-Chelmsford Report. The representatives of landholders and Muslim
were elected directly even to the Central legislature. This made the
discrimination flanked by Muslims and non-Muslims seem all the more
invidious and unjust. While Muslim landlords, rich traders, graduates and
professional men got a right to vote directly for election to the Provincial and
even Central Legislatures, non-Muslims, howsoever rich or qualified, had no
such right unless they were members of municipal committees or district
boards. This distinction hurt.

Further, Muslims were to be elected through separate electorates, that is to

say, the electorates consisting of Muslims only. Separate registers were
prepared containing the names of Muslim voters only. Muslims were also
given weight age i.e. more seats were given to them than the number
warranted through their proportion in the local population. They were also
given the right to compete on equal conditions with the other communities in
the general electorates. In the elections for the Central Legislative Council
held in 1909 Muslims were able to win four seats which were open to others
too and so had in all 11 out of 30 non- official seats (two seats assigned to
Chambers of Commerce which was filled through non- Indians have been
excluded here). It should, though, be noted that though both officials and
Muslim leaders always talked in conditions of whole Muslim community, in
practice, only some specific elite groups like landlords, government servants
etc. were preferred. The aim of the Government in giving preferential
treatment to the Muslims was not to correct imbalances in Indian society but
to bind some Muslim leaders to the Government with ‗silken chains of
gratitude‘.

Though, the election regulations proved liberal enough to enable

prominent political leaders of this period, who whispered in the method of
constitutional agitation, to enter the legislative bodies. The members of the
Central Legislative Council incorporated: Nawab Saiyid Muhammad Bahadur,
Srinivasa Shastri, G.K. Gokhale, D.E. Wacha, Bhupendranath Basu,
Surendranath Banerjee, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Tej Bahadur Sapru,
Mahomed Ali Jinnah, Raja of Mahmudabad and Mazharul Haque.

Changes in Functions
The Act did not create any alteration in the legislative powers of these
Councils. It basically extended their functions. The members of the Legislative
Councils were given the right to move resolutions on matters of general public
interest subject to sure limitations. These resolutions were to be in the form of
recommendations to the Government which the latter might or might not
adopt. Elaborate rules were laid down for discussing the Financial Statement
presented in the house through the Finance member. Opportunity for
discussing the statement and moving resolutions was given before the budget
in its final form was presented. The right to ask questions was extended
through giving the member, who asked the original question, a right to put
supplementary questions also.

From the above discussion it is clear that the Government had two aims in
introducing the so-described Constitutional Reforms:
To strengthen the Raj through rallying the moderates to the empire
To encourage divisions amongst politically active Hindus and Muslims
or in other words, it was intended as a milestone in the ‗divide and
rule‘ strategy.

It soon became obvious that the Government of India was not able to
achieve either of these objectives. Initially the Moderate leaders were satisfied
and set themselves to work enthusiastically. Earlier they had captured the
Congress at Surat in 1907; yet the fact remains that within the Congress their
role became steadily less significant. The proceedings of the Congress became
dreary. After the pact flanked by the Moderates and the Extremists in 1916,
the Moderates steadily moved to the fringes of the freedom thrash about and
ceased to play a central role.

The Government also did not succeed in keeping the politically active
Hindus and Muslims separately although on this there are differences of
opinion in the middle of historians. The immediate results of the introduction
of the principle of weight age and separate electorates for the Muslims belied
the expectations of the Government. In a body where dissimilar groups had
been meticulously assorted with the declared purpose of acting as
counterweights to each other, it was natural that some members would support
the Government. But what stands out in the legislative behaviour of the
members is that there was hardly any issue on which they took the stand in
line with the aims of the framers of the Act. They tended to vote together,
especially on issues on which a national debate had been going on for
sometime. This happened in the cases of issues like fiscal autonomy for India,
state control of railways, abolition of cotton excise duties, abolition of
emigration under indenture and demand for more expenditure on education. In
fact debates on these issues brought up the identity of interests of the subject
people vis-a-vis a foreign Government. It is true that the Government could
turn down these proposals because it had an official majority at the centre and
even in the provinces it could count on the support of some nominated non-
official members. Yet the debates in the legislature served a significant
purpose. In the debates on bills and resolutions, members produced logically
incontrovertible arguments which often placed the official members in an
embarrassing situation. The arguments reverberated in the press throughout
the length and breadth of the country. The debates therefore helped in eroding
the moral foundations of the Raj.

In the long run, though, the introduction of weight age and separate
electorates for Muslims proved to be the master stroke of imperialist strategy.
Once religion was inserted as a political factor, pursuance of interests beside
religious lines became the accepted norm necessitating appeal to religious
sentiments to get seats and to retain them.

MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS

Through 1916 all parties in India as well as Britain began to think that
some changes in the structure of government were necessary. The aspirations
of the Indians had also increased throughout this period. As a response to the
political pressure in India throughout the war years and to buy support of
Indians the Montagu-Chelmsford scheme was introduced through the British.
Circumstances Leading to Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
Morley and Minto could hardly have imagined that the scheme of
constitutional ‗Reforms‘ which they had evolved after three and a half years of
painstaking consultations at dissimilar stages would cease to satisfy barely
seven years later. Through 1916 all parties in India as well as Britain began to
think that some changes in the structure of the Government of India were
necessary. This was largely the result of the circumstances produced through
the outbreak of the World War in August, 1914. The war did not pose any
immediate threat to India. But being part of the British Empire, India became
automatically involved. Thereafter, India made ungrudging contribution to the
war effort and supplied manpower, money and material. Because of the help
given on a crucial occasion, expectations of Indians increased. It was not that
they wanted reward for having served the rulers. Actually fighting shoulder to
shoulder with European soldiers had given new self-confidence to the Indians.
They wanted recognition of their skill to rule themselves. This aspiration was
reinforced through the ideas generated throughout the war. The American
President, Woodrow Wilson had said that the war was being fought to create
the world safe for democracy. A hope appeared that this would at least mean
that India would be put on the road to self-government.

In this background of raised expectations, several schemes of

constitutional changes were suggested. Indians themselves put forward a
number of schemes. The mainly important one, though, was the scheme that
was worked out and adopted at Lucknow. To understand its significance it is
necessary to go back a little. As already said, after the Morley-Minto Reforms,
Muslims did not become supporters of the Government. Several factors were
responsible for this. In December, 1911 Partition of Bengal was revoked. This
step alienated the Muslim political elite. In 1912 Lord Harding‘s government
rejected the proposal relating to the establishment of the University of Aligarh.
In 1913 there were riots in Kanpur when a platform adjoining a mosque was
demolished. Outside India Britain had refused to help Turkey in Italian and
Balkan Wars (1911-13). Slowly, under the dynamic and liberal leadership of
men like Muhammad Ali, Shauna Ali, Hasrat Mohani and Fazlul Haq the
Muslim League accepted the goal of self-government for India suited to its
circumstances. The Muslims could not remain uninfluenced through the
aspirations generated through the World War. The Muslim League decided to
enter into negotiations with the Congress to formulate a scheme for the future
Government of India. Around the same time Mrs. Annie Besant, who till then
had confined her activities only to religious matters, started a Home Rule
League. Tilak had been released from Jail in 1914. He started another Home
Rule League at Pune. These Leagues worked with great enthusiasm and
accepted on intense propaganda in favour of Home Rule or self-government
for India after the War through means of discussion groups, lecture tours and
mass sale of pamphlets. Activities of the League caused great concern in
official circles. It is motivating to note that in the telegram in which Governor-
General Chelmsford asked the Secretary of State to create a general statement
of policy, he made a reference to the Home Rule agitation as also to the
possible impact on India of the overthrow of Tsarist autocracy in Russia. In
the meanwhile, at Lucknow, the Moderates and the Extremists, as also the
Home Rulers and the Muslim League, came together and unanimously
adopted the agreement recognized as the Lucknow Pact (Dec. 1916). They
also jointly prepared a scheme of constitutional reforms. Amongst the British,
an influential group which described itself the ‗Round Table‘ discussed the
question of structure for the Govt, of India. Its members (Lionel Curtis,
Williams Duke and others) felt that any extension of elected majorities
without giving some type of executive responsibility would only make
permanent opposition in the Legislative bodies. So, they came forward with
the thought of introducing dyarchy in the provinces. The term ‗dyarchy‘ is
Greek and its dictionary meaning is a form of government in which two
persons, states or bodies are jointly vested with supreme power.

In this background when the Government of India was asked to create a

contribution of one million pounds to the war fund, it was felt that some steps
would have to be taken to assuage public opinion. The Government
desperately needed additional revenues for its own use. Ultimately it was
allowed to impose tariff duty on imports. A 1/2 per cent imports duty was
imposed on cotton while the excise duty was retained at 3 1/2 per cent.

The chief consideration behind this duty was purely financial. But it also
provided some protection to Indian cotton industry and therefore met, to some
extent, this long standing demand of Indian leaders. It was decided that the
British Government should also create a statement about its eventual goal in
India. Piece meal and supposedly evolutionary schemes, it was felt, would no
longer be acceptable to Indians. Only through seizing the initiative could the
British control the situation.

The devolution of increased political power and responsibility on the

Indians was basically a response to political pressure in India. It was a device
to buy support of Indians. It was in these circumstances that on 20 August
1917 Lord Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, made the following
statement in the British Parliament:
The policy of His Majesty‘s Government... is that of rising association
of Indians in every branch of administration, and the gradual
development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible government in India as an
integral part of the British Empire.
 In this declaration it was also made clear that progress in the realization of
this goal was to be made through successive stages and substantial steps in this
direction were to be undertaken immediately. The time and manner of each
advance was to be decided through the British Parliament. The action of
Parliament in such matters would be determined in the light of the
performance of Indians. Montagu decided to visit India himself and prepare a
scheme of constitutional changes.

In November 1917, Lord Montagu visited India and conferred with Lord
Chelmsford, the Viceroy, the officials of the central and provincial
governments and Indian leaders. On the basis of these deliberations the Report
on Indian Constitutional Reforms, which came to be recognized as Montagu-
Chelmsford Report or basically as Montford Report was published in July
1918. The Declaration of August 1917 had on the whole been welcomed in
India. But the scheme put forward in this Report fell far short of the
expectations of Indian leaders except some Moderate leaders. Annie Besant
denounced its provision relating to gradual transfer of power as ‗unworthy to
be offered through England or to be accepted through India.‘

In August 1918 a special session of the Congress was described at Bombay

to consider this report. In this session a resolution was passed through the
Congress condemning the scheme as ‗inadequate, unsatisfactory and
disappointing.‘ The Moderate leaders, on the other hand, were convinced that
the proposals marked a substantial advance upon the then existing
circumstances and that there should be sincere appreciation of the good faith
shown therein. Montagu who had been looking around for support throughout
the time noted in his diary: ‗A new organisation of Indians to be created,
assisted in every possible way through the Government, for propaganda on
behalf of our proposals, and to send a delegation to England to assist us‘. The
Moderates abstained from attending the Congress session at Bombay and in
November 1918, they assembled in a separate All India Conference in the
same city. In his presidential address Surendranath Banerjee defined his party
as ‗the friends of reform and the enemies of revolution‘. In May

Banerjee led a deputation of the moderates to England in order to provide

proof before the Joint Parliamentary Committee. It was on the basis of the
Montford Report that the Government of India Bill was drafted and introduced
in the British Parliament. It became an Act in December 1919. The Preamble
of this Act was based on August 1917 Declaration.

Changes in the Central Government

The chief executive authority remained vested in the Governor-General
who remained responsible to the British Parliament through the Secretary of
State and not to the Indian Legislature. The constitution of governor-general's
executive Council was slightly modified while substantial changes were made
in the composition of the Indian Legislature. But it was made clear that the
aim was not to augment its powers but merely to create it more representative
and augment opportunities of influencing the Government.

To implement the policy of rising association of Indians in every branch of

administration, it was provided that, of the six members of the Executive
Council of the Governor-General, three would be Indians. It should though be
noted that these members were given portfolios of lesser significance like
Law, Education, Labour, Health or Industry. They were accountable to the
Governor-General and through him to the Secretary of State and not to the
Legislature.

The Act provided for a bi-cameral legislature at the centre. The two
Houses were the Council of State and the Legislative Assembly. The Council
of State was to consist of 60 members of whom at least 33 were elected
members. Not more than 20 nominated members could be officials. The
Legislative Assembly was to consist of 145 members of whom 104 were to be
elected members. Of these 52 were to be returned through general
constituencies, 30 through Muslims, 2 through Sikhs, 7 through landholders, 9
through Europeans and 4 through the Indian Commercial Community. The
communal electorates were extended to contain the Sikhs also. It should be
noted that these seats were distributed amongst the Provinces not on the basis
of their population but their so-described importance. The life of the Assembly
was to be three years. But it could be extended through the Governor-General.

The powers and functions of this legislature sustained more or less as

before. The only important change was that it became necessary to obtain the
previous sanction of the Governor-General before introducing any bill relating
to matters enumerated in the provincial list. The power of the Governor-
General was extended. In addition to the power to veto any bill, the Governor-
General was given the power of certification also, i.e. he could secure the
enactment of a bill whose passage in the form measured to be necessary was
refused through the legislature. He could do so through certifying that the bill
was essential for the safety, tranquility or interests of British India or any part
thereof. The scope of interrogative functions was enlarged through extending
the right to put supplementary questions to all the members.

Under the Montford scheme partial responsible government was

introduced in the provinces. Because of this, demarcation flanked by the
spheres of Central and Provincial governments became necessary. Hence two
lists were drawn up. This division was created on the principle that matters
concerning the whole of India or more than one province should be placed in
the Central list while those concerning the provinces should be placed in the
provincial list. The central subjects incorporated foreign and political
relations, the public debt, tariff and customs, patents, currency,
communications etc. The subjects in the provincial list were local self-
government, health, sanitation, education, public works, agriculture, forests,
law and order, etc. The residual powers were vested in the Governor- General
in Council.

It was felt that even partial transfer of power to Indians could be

meaningful only if the provinces were not dependent on the Indian
government for the means of provincial development. Hence the Act provided
for complete separation of the sources of revenue flanked by the central and
provincial governments.

Changes in the provincial Government

Under the Government of India Act of 1919 responsibility for sure
functions of the Government in the provinces was transferred while control
over others was reserved in British hands. Under this division the subjects
were divided into two halves described ‗Reserved‘ and ‗Transferred‘.
Accordingly the provincial government was also to consist of two halves. The
Governor and the members of his Executive Council were to administer the
reserved subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administered through
the Governor acting with ministers. This novel sharing of executive powers in
the provinces came to be recognized as ‗dyarchy‘. Each side of the
Government was clearly differentiated from the other in its composition and
its constitutional relations with the Governor and the Legislative Council.

Broadly speaking four heads i.e. local self-government, health, education

and some departments relating to agriculture were incorporated amongst
transferred subjects. All other subjects were reserved subjects. These
incorporated police, justice, control over printing presses, irrigation, land
revenue, factories etc.

The Governor and the members of the Executive Council were appointed
through the British Government and were jointly responsible to the Governor-
General and the Secretary of State for India. The number of Executive
Councilors was not to exceed four. The Ministers who were entrusted with the
Transferred subjects were appointed through the Governor. He usually chose
ministers from amongst the leading elected members of the Legislature. In
practice there were two or three ministers in each province. According to the
letter of the law, the ministers held office throughout the pleasure of the
Governor. But, in practice, they were allowed to continue as long as they
retained the confidence of the legislature. The basis of relations flanked by the
provincial governors and ministers was laid down in the Instrument of
Instructions which was issued to Governor which stated:
‗In considering a minister‘s advice and deciding whether or not there is
enough cause to dissent from his opinion, you shall have due regard to
his relations with the Legislative Council and to the wishes of the
people of the province as expressed through their representatives
therein‘.

This Instrument of Instructions also defined special responsibilities of the

Governor which gave him wide powers to override the decisions of his
ministers. The thought that the ministers should be jointly responsible for their
actions was discussed at that time. But finally the observance of this principle
was not made binding.

The Government of India Act was applied originally to eight provinces —

Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar and Orissa, Central
Provinces and Assam. In 1923 its provisions were extended to Burma and
sometime later to North Western Boundary Province. In each of these
provinces a unicameral legislature, described the Legislative Council, was
created. It was to consist of the Governor‘s Executive Council, elected
members and nominated members. It was further provided that at least 70 per
cent of the members of a Council should be elected members and not more
than 20 per cent could be official members. The size of these legislative bodies
was considerably increased. It varied from province to province. The
maximum number was 140 for Bengal and minimum was 53 for Assam.

The elected members were to be elected through direct election, i.e. the
primary voters elected the member. Franchise was based primarily on property
qualifications. In 1920 out of a total population of 241.7 millions, only 5.3
millions got the right to vote which amounts to less than five percent. Women
were not given the right to vote or to stand in elections. In Britain women got
the right to vote only in 1918.

After examining the question of separate electorates the authors of the

Montagu- Chelmsford Report concluded that they were ‗a very serious
hindrance to the development of self-governing principle‘. They also
described these as contrary to the teachings of history and added that these
perpetuated class divisions and stereotyped existing relations. Still they did not
recommend that these should be given up. They extended these to the Sikhs in
Punjab. Later the demand of the Justice Party for reservation of seats for non-
Brahmans was accepted. Separate electorates were also provided for Indian
Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.
Observations on the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
The whole conception of dyarchy was based on a faulty principle. It is
very hard to divide the functions of a state into water-tight compartments. The
problem was confounded through the illogical division. While agriculture was
a transferred subject, land revenue and irrigation were reserved subjects. C.V.
Chintamani who was a minister in the United Provinces cited a motivating
case. In 1921 an enquiry was started in the department of agriculture on the
question of fragmentation of holdings. When the report was submitted in1922
it was felt that the question should have been taken up through the Revenue
Department and hence the Governor asked this reserved Department to take up
the case. In 1924 it was again discovered that part of the work should have
been done in the Co-operative Department. Likewise, European and Anglo-
Indian education was outside the purview of the Education Minister.

A system like this could work if there was vital trust flanked by the two
halves. While ministers were there to further the interests of their countrymen,
the members of the Executive Council and usually of the civil service were
there to safeguard British imperial interests. Ministers had no control over
civil servants even in the ‗transferred‘ departments. The secretaries of
departments had direct access to the Governor which placed the members in a
disagreeable position. Further, the minister had to serve two masters. He was
appointed through the Governor and could be dismissed through him. But he
was accountable to the legislature. Above all, the so-described nation-structure
departments were entrusted to ministers who could show results only if money
was accessible. The ministers complained that the reserved departments got all
the money they wanted before necessities of transferred departments were
measured.

The circumstances in India were not conducive to favorable reception of

the ‗Reforms‘ Scheme. The year 1918-19 saw a bad monsoon, trade
depression consequent discontent amongst the people. One of the Rowlatt
Bills become an Act in March 1919 in spite of unanimous opposition from the
Indians. On 6 April Gandhi gave a call for hartal which was a great success.
On 13 April 1919 came the Jallianwala tragedy which together with the events
put the relations flanked by the Government and the people under a great
strain. Slowly, objections to the ‗Reform‘ scheme hardened into rejection.
Muslims were disappointed through the hostile attitude of the British towards
their Khalifa, the Turk ruler. They launched the Khilafat movement under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. On August 1, the Congress decided to adopt
the policy of progressive, non-violent non- cooperation. With this came the
boycott of elections which were to be held in November 1920. The new
constitution suffered a severe blow when it was boycotted through the
Congress.
 The scheme of constitutional changes introduced in 1919 became so
unpopular that it became fashionable to deride it. Yet it has its own
significance in the development of parliamentary democracy in India. It
should be noted that the changes introduced in 1919 went far beyond the
schemes suggested in 1916. Moreover, the Government had made a
declaration of the aim of constitutional changes. Henceforth it would become
impolitic to go back on that promise. In other words, this declaration made
further concessions inevitable. This Act created elected Legislative bodies at
the centre and in the provinces. In these bodies Indian opinion was constantly
and articulately expressed. These debates tended to further weaken the
ideological defenses of the Raj and intensify the rapidly rising anti-imperialist
feeling. At the same time the holding of elections and debates familiarized
Indians with parliamentary phraseology and institutions and have therefore
contributed to the successful functioning of parliamentary democracy here.

The years that followed saw the extension of the national movement and
involvement of fairly large sections of the peasantry, business groups and
industrial labour. This was partly the result of Post-war economic pressures
and partly an expression the world-wide upsurge, which had an anti-capitalist
character in developed countries and an anti- imperialist thrust in the colonies.
This produced a combination of grievances and expectations which if properly
canalized could give a new impetus to the national movement and take it to a
higher stage of development. The elements of emotion and anger aroused
through the Khilafat and Punjab issues were to intensify and accelerate this
phenomenon. Some historians have related the 1919 reforms to the twin
imperial necessities of financial devolution and need for a wider circle of
Indian collaborators. Much more controversial, though, is the direct cause-
effect relationship which the historians sometimes seek to establish flanked by
the Reforms and the emergence of mass policies. The Act of 1919 broadened
the Electorates it is argued and so politicians were forced to cultivate a more
democratic style. Sumit Sarkar, though, does not agree with this view.
According to him it may well explain sure kind of politics and politicians but
hardly the vital fact of the tremendous post-war mass awakening exemplified
admirably through the boycott of elections and massive anti-imperialist
upsurge of 1919-22.

NON-COOPERATION AND KHILAFAT MOVEMENTS: 1919-

1922
Throughout 1920-21 the Indian National Movement entered into a new
stage, i.e. a stage of mass politics and mass mobilization. The British rule was
opposed through two mass movements, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation.
Though emerging out of separate issues both these movements adopted a
common programme of action. The technique of non-violent thrash about was
adopted at a national stage. In this Unit we discuss the reasons for the
launching of these movements; the course of the movements; role of
leadership and the people. This Unit also analyses the local variations and the
impact of these movements.
The background to the movements was provided through the impact of the
First World War, the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
Throughout the post-First World War period the prices of daily
commodities increased sharply and the worst sufferers were the
common people. The volume of imports which declined throughout the
First World War again increased towards the end of the war. As a
result the Indian industries suffered, production fell, several factories
were closed and the workers became its natural victims. The peasantry
was also under the heavy burden of rents and taxes. So the economic
situation of the country in the post-war years became alarming. In the
political field the nationalists were disillusioned when the British did
not keep their promise of bringing in a new era of democracy and self-
determination for the people. This strengthened the anti-British attitude
of the Movements: 1919-1922
The after that significant landmark of this period was the passing of the
Rowlatt Act in March 1919. This Act empowered the Government to
imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law. Its
vital aim was to imprison the nationalists without giving them the
opportunity to defend themselves. Gandhi decided to oppose it through
Satyagraha. March and April 1919 witnessed an extra ordinary
political awakening in India. There were hartals (strikes) and
demonstrations against the Rowlatt Act.
The same period witnessed the naked brutality of the British
Imperialists at Jallianwala Bagh, in Amritsar. An unarmed but large
crowd had gathered on 13 April 1919 at Jallianwala Bagh to protest
against the arrest of their popular leaders,
Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal. General Dyer, the military
commander of Amritsar, ordered his troops to open fire without
warning on the unarmed crowd, in a park from which there was no way
out. Thousands were killed and wounded. This shocked the whole
world. The well-known poet Rabindranath Tagore renounced his
Knighthood in protest.
The introduction of another constitutional reform act which is
recognized as the Government of India Act, 1919 further disillusioned
the nationalists. The reform proposals failed to satisfy the rising
demand of the Indians for self-government. The majority of the leaders
condemned it as ― disappointing and unsatisfactory.‖

All these growths prepared the ground for a popular upsurge against the
British Government. The Khilafat issue gave an added advantage to get the
Muslim support and the final touch to it was given through Gandhi‘s
leadership. We will discuss now the Khilafat issue which provided the
immediate background to the movement.

THE ISSUE OF KHILAFAT

Throughout the First World War Turkey allied with Germany and Austria
against the British. The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their
spiritual leader Khalifa, so naturally their sympathies were with Turkey. After
the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power in Turkey. Hence, the
Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of the
Khalifa‘s position. Their main demands were:
Khalifa‘s control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places,

In territorial adjustments after the war the Khalifa should be left with
enough territories.

In early 1919 a Khilafat Committee was shaped in Bombay. The initiative

was taken through Muslim merchants and their actions were confined to
meetings, petitions and deputations in favour of the Khalifa. Though, there
soon appeared a militant trend within the movement. The leaders of this trend
were not satisfied with a moderate approach. Instead they preached for the
launching of a countrywide movement. They advocated, for the first time, at
the All India Khilafat Conference in Delhi (22-23 November 1919) non-
cooperation with the British Government in India. It was in this conference
that Hasrat Mohani made a call for the boycott of British goods. The Khilafat
leadership clearly spelt out that in case the peace conditions after the war were
unfavourable to Muslims they would stop all cooperation with the
Government. In April 1920, Shaukat Ali warned the British that in case the
Government failed to pacify Indian Muslims, ― we would start a joint Hindu-
Muslim movement of non-cooperation.‖ Shaukat Ali further stressed that the
movement would start ― under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, a man who
commands the respect of both Hindus and Muslims‖.

The Khilafat issue was not directly connected with politics in India but the
Khilafat leaders were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in
this, an opportunity to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.
But in spite of his support to the Khilafat issue and being the president of the
All India Khilafat Committee, Gandhi till May 1920 had adopted a moderate
approach. Though, the publication of the conditions of the Treaty with Turkey
which were very harsh towards Turkey, and the Publication of the Hunter
Committee Report on ‗Punjab disturbances‘ in May 1920 infuriated the
Indians, and Gandhi now took an open position.
 The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June
1920. The meeting was attended through a number of Congress and Khilafat
leaders. In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the
Government was declared. This was to contain:
Boycott of titles conferred through the Government,
Boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. All government jobs,
and
Non payment of taxes to the Government.

August 1st, 1920 was fixed as the date to start the movement. Gandhi
insisted that unless the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were undone, there was to
be non-cooperation with the Government. Though, for the success of this
movement, Congress support was essential. So, Gandhi‘s efforts now were to
create the Congress adopt the non-cooperation programme.

TOWARDS NON-COOPERATION: CALCUTTA TO NAGPUR

It was not an easy task for Gandhi to get the whole Congress to approve
his programme of political action. According to Prof. Ravinder Kumar Gandhi
―made a concerted bid to convince Tilak of the virtues of Satyagraha and of
the expediency of an alliance with the Muslim community over Khilafat‖.
Though, Tilak was ― sceptical of Satyagraha as an instrument of politics.‖ He
was also not in favour of having an alliance ― with Muslim leaders' over a
religious issue.‖ The basis of cooperation flanked by Hindus and Muslims,
argued Tilak, should be a secular one like the Lucknow Pact (1916). A lot
depended on Tilak's attitude whether hostile or neutral - but unluckily he
passed absent on 1st August 1920. Lala Lajpat Rai and C.R. Das vehemently
opposed the Gandhian thought of boycotting council elections. Jawaharlal
Nehru wrote in his autobiography that ― approximately the whole old Guard of
the Congress opposed Gandhi‘s resolution of non-cooperation.‖

The programme of non-cooperation and boycott was then placed before

the Provincial Congress Committees (PCC) for their opinions. The PCC of the
United Provinces after prolonged debate approved of the principle of non-
cooperation, gradual boycott of government schools and colleges, government
offices, British goods. But there were reservations about the boycott of the
legislative councils. The Bombay PCC approved of non-cooperation as the
legitimate method of agitation, but it objected to boycott of council and only
recommended boycott of British goods as a first stage. The Bengal PCC
agreed to accept the principle of non-cooperation but disagreed with the
thought of council boycott. The Madras PCC approved the policies of non-
cooperation but rejected Gandhi‘s programme.
 While this was the attitude of the ‗traditional‘ bases of Indian politics to
Gandhi‘s programme, the comparatively ‗non-traditional‘ areas in Indian
politics like Gujarat and Bihar fully backed Gandhi‘s programme. The Andhra
and Punjab PCC‘s approved of non-cooperation but deferred a decision on
Gandhi‘s programme until the special Congress session. The dilemma of some
of the provincial Congress leaders in supporting Gandhi‘s programme was
because of the future uncertainty of Gandhi‘s movement and their
unwillingness to boycott the council elections. It was under these
circumstances that a special session of the All India Congress Committee was
held at Calcutta in September 1920. Lala Lajpat Rai was its president. A
strong opposition to Gandhi‘s programme was expected at this session. But
contrary to the intentions of mainly recognized political leaders before the
sessions began, Gandhi supervised to get his proposals accepted at the open
session of the Congress through the majority of 1000 vote.

In the middle of Gandhi‘s supporters were Motilal Nehru, Saijfuddin

Kitchlew, Jitendralal Baneijee, Shaukat Ali, Yakub Hasan and Dr. Ansari;
while his opponents incorporated Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Annie
Besant, etc. Gandhi‘s success came mainly because of the support from the
business groups and the Muslims. The Calcutta Congress approved a
programme of:
Surrender of titles,
The boycott of schools, courts, foreign goods and councils, and
Encouragement of national schools, arbitration courts and Khadi.

The Congress supported Gandhi‘s plan for non-cooperation with

Government till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj
recognized. The final decision was left for the Nagpur session of the Congress
to be held in December 1920. Though, the precise nature of the Swaraj at
which Gandhi aimed was not clear to contemporaries. Although Gandhi said
that it was ―Parliamentary Swaraj in accordance with the wishes of the people
of India‖. Jawaharlal Nehru admitted that it was a ―vague swaraj with no clear
ideology behind it.‖

In November 1920, following the reformed franchise the council elections

were held. All the Congress candidates boycotted the elections. Gandhi‘s call
for boycotting elections got massive response from dissimilar Indian
provinces. This was an alarming sign for the British Government. Only 27.3
per cent of the Hindu voters and 12.1 per cent of the Muslim electorate
participated in urban areas. In the rural areas 41.8 per cent of the Hindus and
28.3 per cent of the Muslims voted. In the midst of lot of controversies and
debates over the Gandhian programme, the Congress session started at Nagpur
from 26 December 1920. The Nagpur Congress saw the dramatic change of
C.R Das of Bengal from a critic of Gandhi‘s programme to the mover of the
non- cooperation resolution at Nagpur. It endorsed the non-cooperation
resolution which declared that the whole scheme, beginning with the
renunciation of all voluntary association with the Government at one end and
refusal to pay taxes at the other, should be put into force at a time to be
decided through the Congress. Resignation from the councils, renunciation of
legal practice, nationalization of education, economic boycott, organization of
workers for national service, rising of a national fund and Hindu-Muslim unity
were suggested as steps in the programme. The Nagpur session also brought a
revolutionary change in the congress organization. The changes were:
Formation of a working committee of 15 members,
Formation of an all india committee of 350 members,
Formation of congress committees from town to village stage,
Reorganization of provincial congress committees on a linguistic basis,
and
Opening of congress membership to all men and women of the age of
21 or more on payment of 4 annas as annual subscription.

This was the first positive move on the part of the Congress to create it a
real mass based political party. This period also witnessed a fundamental
change in the social composition of the party as well as in its outlook and
policies. Gandhi with a novel weapon of Satyagraha appeared as the mass
leader in the Congress party.
From the above discussion it becomes clear that the programme of the
Non-Cooperation Movement had two main characteristics:
Constructive and
Destructive.

Under the first category came:

The nationalization of education,
The promotion of indigenous goods,
The popularization of charkha and khadi, and
The enrolment of a volunteer corps.

In the later category figured the boycott of:

Law courts,
Educational institutions,
Elections to the legislature,
Official functions,
British goods as well as the surrender of honors and titles conferred
through the British.
MAIN STAGES OF THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

The campaign for non-cooperation and boycott started with great

enthusiasm from early 1921. Though, we find some changes in the central
emphasis of the movement from one stage to other. In the first stage from
January to March 1921, the main emphasis was on the boycott of schools,
colleges, law courts and the use of Charkha. There was widespread student
unrest and top lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal
practice. This stage was followed through the second stage starting from April
1921. In this stage the vital objectives were the collection of Rs. one crore for
the Tilak Swaraj Fund through August enrolling one crore Congress members
and installing 20 lakh Charkhas through 30 June. In the third stage, starting
from July, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth, boycott of the forth
coming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921, popularization of
Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo through Congress volunteers.

In the last stage, flanked by November 1921, a shift towards radicalism

was visible. The Congress volunteers rallied the people and the country was
on the verge of a revolt. Gandhi decided to launch a no revenue campaign at
Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech,
press and association. But the attack on a local police station through angry
peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of U.P., on 5th February
changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked through this incident, withdrew
the Non Cooperation Movement.

PEOPLES’ RESPONSE TO THE MOVEMENT

The leadership of this movement in the initial stages came from the middle
class. But the middle class had a lot of reservations about Gandhi‘s
programme. In places like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras which were centers of
elite politicians, the response to Gandhi‘s movement was very limited. Their
response to the call for resignation from government service, surrendering of
titles, etc. was not very encouraging. Though, the economic boycott received
support from the Indian business group, because the textile industry had
benefited from the nationalists emphasis on the use of Swadeshi. Still a section
of the big business remained critical of the Non-Cooperation Movement. They
were particularly afraid of labour unrest in the factories following the Non-
Cooperation Movement.

Besides the elite politicians, the comparative new comers in Indian politics
found expression of their interests and aspirations in the Gandhian movement.
Leaders like Rajendra Prasad in Bihar, Sardar Vallabh bhai Patel in Gujarat,
provided solid support to Gandhian movement. In fact, they found non-
cooperation as a viable political alternative to terrorism in order to fight
against a colonial government. The response from the students and women
was very effective. Thousands of students left government schools and
colleges and joined national schools and colleges. The newly started national
institutions like the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Gujarat Vidyapeeth and the Jamia
Millia Islamia and others accommodated several students although many
others were disappointed. Students became active volunteers of the movement.
Women also came forward. They gave up Purdah and offered their jewellery
for the Tilak Fund. They joined the movement in large members and took
active part in picketing before the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor.

The mainly significant landmark of this movement was the massive

participation of the peasants and workers in it. The long-standing grievances
of the toiling masses against the British, as well as the Indian masters got an
opportunity through this movement to express their real feelings. Although the
Congress leadership was against class war, the masses broke this restraint. In
rural areas and some other places, the peasants turned against the landlords
and the traders. This gave a new dimension to the movement of 1921-22.

SPREAD OF THE MOVEMENT, LOCAL VARIATIONS

The call for non-cooperation and boycott no doubt got massive response
from dissimilar parts of India. The years 1921 and 1922 were marked through
massive popular protests against the British Raj in India. Though, the
movement was shaped in mainly places according to local circumstances. It
was the local grievances of the people which found expression through this
movement, and the instructions of the Congress leadership were not always
followed. Let us take a brief look at dissimilar regions in relation to the Non-
Cooperation Movement.

Bengal
Mass participation in the Gandhian method of protest was less enthusiastic
in Bengal. Rabindranath Tagore appreciated Gandhi for bringing to the masses
a new consciousness. But he attacked his ‗narrowness, obscurantism‘ and
Charkha. Elites of Calcutta were critical of some Gandhian ways. Hartals,
strikes and mass courting of arrest greatly pressurized the British Government
to change its attitude towards India. In the countryside, an intense propaganda
was accepted on and as a Government report said, ― The things that are said
and done in Gandhi‘s name would create that gentleman shudder, if ever he
heard of fraction of them.‖ The villagers in Midnapur district opposed the
newly created Union Boards and the tax imposed through them. The people
refused to pay taxes or agricultural rent to the Government or private landlords
in the outlying districts of North Bengal.

Bihar
In Bihar the local issue of the right to graze cattle on common government
wastelands and the confrontation flanked by the ― lower and upper castes" on
the issue of the former taking the sacred thread got merged with the Non-
Cooperation Movement. The issues of cow protection and the rights of Kisans
were also focused upon. Because of this linkage, North Bihar, especially
Champaran, Saran, Muzaffarpur and Purnia districts, became the storm centres
of the movement through November 1921. Hat (village market) looting and
confrontation with the police became frequent.

U.P
The United Provinces became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-
Cooperation Movement. Qrganised non-cooperation was an affair of cities and
small towns. In the countryside it took a dissimilar form. Here the movement
got entangled with the kisan movement. Despite the repeated appeal for non-
violence from the congress leadership, the peasants rose in revolt not only
against Talukdars but also, against merchants. Flanked by January and March
1921 the districts of Rae Bareli, Pratapgarh, Fyzabad and Sultanpur witnessed
widespread agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra. The
major demands were:
No nazarana (extra premium on rent)
No eviction from holdings, and
No bebar (forced labour) and rasad (forced supplies), etc.

In late 1921 there was another strong peasant outburst which is recognized
as the ‗Eka‘ movement under a radical leader Madari Pasi. The vital demand
here was the conversion of produce rents into cash. Another important event
was the destruction of thousands of acres of reserved forests in the Kumaon
Division in July 1921 through the hill-tribes as they disliked the forest
regulations.

Punjab
In Punjab the response to this movement was not very extra ordinary in the
city areas. But here the powerful Akali movement for reform and control of
the Gurudwaras got closely recognized with non-cooperation. Although
Gandhi gave it only guarded approval, his non-cooperation tactic was
uniformly used through the Akalis. It showed an extra ordinary communal
unity flanked by the Sikhs, the Muslims and the Hindus.
Maharashtra
In Maharashtra non-cooperation remained relatively week because the
Tilakites were unenthusiastic about Gandhi, and Non-Brahmins felt that the
Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair. The higher castes disliked Gandhi‘s
emphasis on the elevation of the depressed classes and their participation in
the Non-Cooperation Movement. Though, there were some sporadic local
outbursts. At Malagaon in Nasik district a few policemen were burnt to death
following the arrest of some local leaders. In the Poona area some peasants
tried to defend their landrights though Satyagraha.

Assam
Non-Cooperation received massive support in the distant province of
Assam. In the gardens of Assam the coolies rose in revolt with shouts of
―Gandhi Maharaj Ki Jai‖; for higher wages and better condition of work.
There were also signs of a non-revenue movement in the middle of peasants.

Rajasthan
Peasant movements in the princely states of Rajasthan strengthened the
Non Cooperation Movement, as they did in Bihar and U.P... The peasants
protested against cesses and begar. The Bijolia Movement in Mewar and the
Bhil Movement under Motilal Tejawat acquired impetus from the Non-
Cooperation Movement.

Andhra
In Andhra the grievances of tribal and other peasants against forest laws
got connected to the Non-Cooperation Movement. A large number of these
people met Gandhi in Cudappa in September 1921 to get their taxes reduced
and forest restrictions removed. Forest officials were boycotted. To assert their
right they sent their cattle forcibly into the forests without paying the grazing
tax. In the Paland area on the margin of forests, Swaraj was declared and
police parties were attacked. Gandhi-Raj, the protesters whispered, was about
to come. A powerful movement for non-payment of land revenue also
developed in Andhra flanked by December 1921 and February 1922. The
Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area.
In the same period Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and
combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Karnataka
Karnataka areas remained comparatively unaffected through the
movement and the initial response of the upper and middle class professional
groups in many areas of the Madras presidency was limited. Out of 682 title
holders only 6 returned their honors and 36 lawyers gave up their legal
practice. In the whole presidency 92 national schools with 5,000 pupils were
started. The labour in the Buckingham and Carnatic textile mills went on
strike from July to October 1921. They were given moral support through the
local Non-Cooperation leaders. Similar responses were there in several other
regions. For instance in Orissa the tenants of the Kanika Raj refused to pay
Abwabs. But in Gujarat the movement went on purely Gandhian lines.

THE LAST STAGE

The Government very cautiously observed the growths and composed

secret reports from the provinces about the progress of the movement. When
the movement ultimately started, the Government took recourse to repression.
The Congress and the Khilafat volunteer organizations were declared
unlawful. Public assemblies and processions were banned. At several places
the police fired on the satyagrahis. Arrests and Lathi charge became a
common scene. Through the end of 1921 all significant leaders except Gandhi
were imprisoned. Alarmed through Hindu-Muslim unity, the Government also
tried to make a split flanked by the Congress and the Khilafatists. Therefore
the Government machinery was fully geared to crush the movement.

The repression through the British strengthened the determination of the

Indians to continue the movement with greater vigour. Meanwhile the viceroy
tried to negotiate with the Congress leaders through Madan Mohan Malaviya
and offered to recognize the National Volunteers and to release the political
prisoners. In mid-January 1922 Gandhi explained the position of the Non-
Cooperation Movement at the All Parties Conference and there was a general
agreement on his assessments. On 1 st February he sent an ultimatum to the
viceroy that he could start mass civil disobedience if the political prisoners
were not released and repressive measures not abandoned. Since the whole
country was not fit for civil disobedience he decided to launch it on 5th
February. Congress volunteers were fired at through the police at Chauri
Chaura in Gorakhpur district in U.P. In retaliation the infuriated mob killed 21
policemen. This violent incident shocked Gandhi and he suspended the Non
Cooperation Movement. He also postponed the proposed civil disobedience at
Bardoli.

Several Congressmen were shocked and surprised through Gandhi‘s

decision. They vehemently protested against it. Subhas Chandra Bose
described it a "national calamity‖. Jawaharlal Nehru expressed his
―amazement and consternation‖ at the decision. Explaining his position
Gandhi replied to Jawaharlal Nehru:

―The movement had unconsciously drifted from the right path. We

have come back to our moorings, and we can again go straight ahead.‖

On 12 February 1922 the Congress Working Committee meeting at

Bardoli condemned the inhuman conduct of the mob at Chauri Chaura. It
endorsed the suspension of the mass civil disobedience movement. The same
day Gandhi started his five day fast as a penance. Therefore, the first non-
cooperation virtually came to an end. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March, 1922
and was sentenced to six years‘ imprisonment.

The Khilafat issues also lost its relevance when Kemal Pasha came to
power in Turkey. The Sultan of Turkey was stripped of all political power.
Kemal Pasha wanted to modernize Turkey and to create it a secular state. The
Caliphate was abolished. Naturally it led to an end of Khilafat movement.

CAUSES OF WITHDRAWAL

Explaining the causes of withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement,

Gandhi said that the Chauri Chaura incident had forced him to withdraw the
movement. The incident proved that the country still had not learnt the lesson
from the non-violence. To quote Gandhi, ― I would suffer every humiliation,
every torture, absolute ostracism and death itself to prevent the movement
from becoming violent.‖

As far as the peasants were concerned the Non-Cooperation Movement

was slowly turning into a no-rent movement against the Zamindars. But the
Congress leadership was in no way interested in attacking the legal rights of
the Zamindars. Gandhi‘s aim was of a ― controlled mass movement‖ involving
dissimilar Indian classes, and not a class revolution.

So he was against the continuation of this movement which might turn into
a class revolution. He made it quite clear that he was against any type of
violent or radical movement at that stage. In spite of an objective
revolutionary situation existing in India there was no alternative revolutionary
leadership. If the movement was not suspended it might have led to chaos
because the leadership had no control over local movements.

THE AKALI MOVEMENT

SOCIAL EVILS IN SIKH SOCIETY AND EARLY REFORMS

As you might have read, Sikhism started as a movement of social protest

against social evils such as discrimination in the name of caste, ritualism
taking precedence over the true spirit of religion and the domination of the
priestly classes through religion. Its founder, Guru Nanak Dev, whispered in
unity of the Godhead and the brotherhood of mankind. He condemned
meaningless rites and rituals and preached belief in one God. Like other saints
of medieval India, he laid emphasis on good actions and honest living. ― Truth
is high but higher still is truthful living‖, said Nanak. To put his teachings into
practice Guru Nanak introduced the twin institutions of Sangat, congregation,
and Pangat, eating food from the free community kitchen while sitting in one
line. Guru Nanak also advocated equality for women. ― Why degrade women
who provide birth to kings and greatmen‖, said Nanak. He preached against
the dissimilar evils rampant in society and advocated the establishment of a
just social order. Though, these simple and practical teachings of Guru Nanak
and of successive Sikh Gurus were not followed properly through the people.
In due course Sikh religion was firmly recognized and developed its own
rituals and institutions. The establishment of Sikh rule through Ranjit Singh
resulted in the introduction of pomp and show in religious places, therefore
giving rise to the same social evils which the Sikh Gurus and other social
reforms that had condemned. At the same time there arose a number of social
and religious reform movements in the Sikh community. We will revise a few
significant movements here.

The Nirankari Movement

Baba Dayal Dass a saintly man and a modern of Maharaja Ranjit Singh
was the first in the middle of the reformers in Sikh religion, which had the
courage to condemn the social evils that had slowly crept in Sikh society.
Baba Dayal disapproved the worship of graves. He also introduced a
simplified version of marriage named Anand Karaj which latter got legal
recognition with the passage of the Anand Marriage Act in 1909. Under this
System, marriage is performed in the attendance of the Guru Granth, with the
priest singing four relevant hymns from this holy book of the Sikhs. No other
rituals are performed and dowry, marriage procession, drinking and dancing
are disapproved.

Baba Dayal died on 30th January 1855 and was succeeded through his son
Baba Darbara Singh, who sustained to propagate his father‘s teachings.
Darbara Singh faced considerable opposition. The priests in charge of the
Golden Temple did not allow him to enter the shrine and perform the rites of
marriage according to Anand Karaj ceremony. After Baba Darbara Singh's
death his brother Rattan Chand, popularly recognized as Baba Ratta Ji
sustained the work. It is motivating to note that in the earlier period, social
reformers in Sikhism were not accessorily baptised Sikhs but the people who
had great love and regard for the Sikh position of simplicity in social life. The
movement is popularly recognized as the Nirankari (Formless God). Baba
Dayal preached against idol worship of human gurus and expected his
followers to consider in one formless God — Japo Piario Dhann Nirankar, Jo
deh dhari sab Khuar (All glory to the formless One, god corporeal you
necessity shun).

The Namdhari Movement

The Namdhari movement popularly recognized as the Kuka movement
because of the followers resorting to shrieks (Kukan) while in ecstasy. Started
through Bhagat Jawahar Mal and Baba Balak Singh, the movement became a
powerful instrument of socio-religious awakening in the middle of the Sikhs
under Baba Ram Singh. Ram Singh enjoined upon his followers the worship
of one God through prayer and meditation. He advised his followers to be
engaged at all times in the worship of God. He also preached against social
evils such as the caste system, female infanticide, early marriage and barter of
daughters in marriage. He also popularized simple and inexpensive Anand
marriages. The teachings of Baba Ram Singh had a wide appeal in the middle
of the Sikh masses. Modern European officials viewed the rising popularity of
Baba Ram Singh‘s mission with serious concern as is apparent from the
following account in the Parliamentary Papers of the government:
― ...He (Ram Singh) abolishes all distinctions of caste in the middle of
Sikhs; advocates marriages of all classes; enjoins the marriage of
widows, all of which he performs himself; he never takes alms himself
and prohibits his followers from doing so, enjoins abstinence from
liquors and drugs....he exhorts his disciples to be cleanly and truth-
telling and it is well that every man carries his staff; and they all do.
The Granth is their only accepted inspired volume. The brotherhood
may be recognized through the tie of their turban — sheedapug —
through a watch-word-through necklace of knots made in a white
woollen cord, to repeat beads and which are worn through all the
community‖.

Though Baba Ram Singh‘s mission was specially marked for its teachings
of righteous living, toleration and mercy, some of his followers got out of
control and, in a fit of religious frenzy, committed excesses which resulted in a
conflict with the Government. Some of his more fanatic followers, who got
excited over the killing of cows, murdered the butchers at Amritsar, Rajkot
and Malerkotla. As a punishment, they were blown off from the cannon‘s
mouth. There is variation of opinion in the middle of the scholars as to
whether the movement was social or political, but the official action against
the Kukas definitely created great hatred for British rule in the minds of the
people in Punjab. This helped in preparing the ground for the subsequent
thrash about of the Akalis in the early twentieth century.

The Singh Sabha Movement

The year following the persecution of the Kukas and the suppression of
their movement saw the birth of the Singh Sabha (1873 A.D). The Singh
Sabha movement and its activities had a much wider appeal in the middle of
the Sikh masses and, consequently, made a far greater impact. The promoters
of the Singh Sabha movement, mainly of who belonged to the educated
middle class, were linked with other socio-religious movements in Punjab as
well. They also were aware of similar movements in other parts of the country.
They whispered that social evils in the middle of the Sikhs were due to lack of
education in the middle of them.

They thought that social and religious reform could be brought about only
when the masses were made aware of their earlier heritage. The Singh Sabha
aimed mainly at social and religious reform through the spread of education
and consciously refrained from discussing political questions or in any way
incurring the displeasure of the British rulers. The Singh Sabha leadership,
who either because of their own vested interests as big land holders or because
of their perception of the ‗interests of the Sikhs‘ did not want to incur
displeasure of the British rulers. The preachers of this movement, so, did not
hold the British Government directly responsible for the manifold social and
religious ills. Though, it was hard to totally dissociate the British Government
from the deplorable state of affairs that was depicted through these preachers.
While referring to the prosperous days of Ranjit Singh‘s rule in Punjab, they
compared the present degraded condition of the Sikhs with the past sufferings
under the Mughals. It was suggested that this similarity in circumstances under
the Mughals and the British ‗was due to the similarity in causes‘.

Though, the major contribution of the Singh Sabha leadership lay in the
creation of a network of Khalsa schools, colleges and other centres of learning.
The Singh Sabha leaders felt that the spread of education in the middle of the
Sikhs needed support from the British rulers. So, they sought the patronage of
the Viceroy and other British officials. Soon after the establishment of the
Khalsa Diwan at Lahore, an active campaign was started for the foundation of
a Central College for the Sikhs around which was to be organised a system of
schools in the outlying districts. Educational activities of the Singh Sabha
received ready support and patronage from the Government of India and the
British officials and the rulers of the Sikh princely states that the Khalsa
College was founded at Amritsar in 1892.
 Though the promoters of the Khalsa College and their British patrons
founded the college for purely educational advancement, the students and
some of the teachers there could not escape the influence of the prevailing
political unrest in the province and the rising movement of nationalism in the
country. The C.I.D. officials reported to the authorities that the Khalsa College
had, through 1907, ‗become a significant centre for inculcating national
feelings in the middle of the students‘. It was perhaps due to the influence of
these politically conscious teachers and the inspiration of G.K. Gokhale, M.K.
Gandhi and other nationalist leaders that the students demonstrated twice
against the European officers who visited the college with a view to suggest
sure measures to curb the rising nationalist feelings in the middle of the
college students. Through the Sikh Education Conference, the Singh Sabha
also created a net work of Khalsa Schools which indirectly served as centres
of social awakening and reform.

Movements of socio-religious reform in the middle of the Sikhs exposed

the evils which had slowly crept into the Sikh social and religious life and
indirectly inculcated in them a desire for reform. Rising political unrest in the
Punjab in the early twentieth century, the influence of the nationalist press and
above all the rising forces of nationalism in the country further added to the
discontent in the middle of the Sikhs and prepared ground for the coming
Akali thrash about which was directed against the Mahants and other vested
interests in Sikh shrines on the one hand and against British imperialism in the
Punjab on the other. We will read about it in the after that section.

THE AKALI MOVEMENT

The Akali movement was started through the Sikh reformers to purify their
religious places through removal of the evil social practices that had slowly
crept into them. The Sikh shrines, popularly recognized as the Gurdwara or
Dharamsal were recognized through the Sikh Gurus as centres of religious
activity and social and moral instruction, and for providing food and shelter to
the poor and needy. The Sikh teaching of equality of mankind was practised
here. All persons, irrespective of their caste, color and sex could enter these
places and share the free meal served in the Langar (Community Kitchen)
attached to each Gurdwara. Modern writers mention that the Sikhs attached no
importance to the monopoly of the Brahmins in social and religious matters.
Men from all the four varnas freely entered the Sikh Gurdwaras and partook of
the sacred prasad and free meal served in the Langar.

In keeping with the Sikh tradition of piety, those appointed incharge of the
Gurdwaras did not look upon the offerings as their personal income but used
them for running free community kitchen and other works of social welfare.
Throughout the days of Sikh persecution after the death of the tenth Sikh
Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, control of the Sikh Gurdwaras passed on to the
Udasis or those who professed Sikhism but did not strictly adhere to its
outward symbols and coulld, therefore, escape persecution. The Udasis in
charge of several Gurdwaras at this time rendered a significant service to the
Sikh religion through keeping the Gurdwaras going. They were widely
respected as men of high moral character and integrity. Mainly of them were
not attacned to any scrupulous shrine or to its wealth and property but moved
from place to place. There were, though, some who recognized regular
institutions and admitted followers and came to be recognized as Mahants. In
the earlier stages, these Mahants enjoyed the confidence and reverence of the
congregation of their areas. They also followed the advice of Guru Nanak not
to covet the offerings. But this tradition of purity arid simplicity was given up
through mainly of the Mahants as a result of the augment in their income
derived from revenue-free jagirs bestowed on mainly of the historic shrines
through Maharaja Ranjit Singh and other Sikh chiefs.

Misuse of Shrine Funds

The rise of the powerful Sikh chiefs in the later part of the eighteenth
century and establishment of kingdom through Ranjit Singh in 1799 A.D.
brought about an important change in Sikh religion. The property and
privileges attached to the religious places led to the introduction of
complicated rites and rituals and emergence of rich and powerful Mahants.
Approximately all the well-recognized Gurdwaras were endowed with rich
tax-free jagirs through Maharaja Ranjit Singh and other Sikh Chiefs. With
sudden augment in the income, came a change in the style of living of the
Mahants of some significant Gurdwaras. They began to convert the trust
property of the Gurdwara into their personal possessions. This was in total
disregard of the injunctions laid down through Sikh Gurus and the Sikh
scriptures. Slowly, the Mahants and their followers began to live a life of
luxury and started indulging in several social evils. Followers of Sikhism tried
to check the evil practices of these Mahants through social protest and
organised a movement of liberation of Sikh shrines from the control of the
hereditary Mahants. This movement is popularly recognized as the Akali
movement because of the Akali Jathas (bands of volunteers) leading this
movement of reform.

Thrash about for the Akali Control over the Golden Temple and Akal Takht
The city of Amritsar, earlier described Ramdaspur and Guru-ka-Chak, was
founded through the fourth Guru, Ram Dass, in 1577. The Fifth Guru, Arjun
Dev, built the Temple in 1589 now popularly recognized as the Golden
Temple. The sixth Guru, Hargobind, built the Akal Takht and declared it as
the Sikh seat of temporal authority. In its earlier stages, the Golden Temple
and the Akal Takht were looked after through competent and pious priests like
Bhai Mani Singh. But throughout the period of the persecution of the Sikhs at
the hands of the Mughal Governors of Punjab and later through the Abdali
invader, Ahmad Shah Abdali, the control of these two significant Sikh centres
passed on to the Udasi Mahants. Throughout the days of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh‘s rule the shrine was richly decorated with marble and gold plates and
came to be recognized as the Golden Temple. A rich revenue-free jagir was
also attached to these shrines.

Mismanagement and corruption

The appointment of Sarbarah through the Government created more
troubles. The Sarbarah did not feel responsible towards the people but was
busy pleasing his appointing authority— the Deputy Commissioner of
Amritsar. The priests indulged in all sorts of evil practices, such as
misappropriation of offerings and other valuables. The sanctity of these places
was destroyed. Here brothels were run, pornographic literature sold, and
innocent women visiting the temples raped.

Corrupt practices in the precincts of the Golden Temple and the Akal
Takht at Amritsar and official control over its management had been a source
of great discontent in the middle of the Sikhs long before the beginning of the
movement for reform. The reformers were anxious to free these central seats
as early as possible from evil influences and official control. The British
authorities in Punjab resisted any effort at reform or change in the existing
system of management. They thought that this would deprive them of the
privilege to use these religious places to consolidate their power and weaken
their political opponents. Usually the Government-appointed Sarbarahs of the
Golden Temple were used for the glorification of the British rule and its
functionaries. With the weakening of the Sikh control over the management
and the rising hold of officialdom, the manager and priests started taking their
cue from the Deputy Commissioner and ignored Sikh opinion and sentiments
in the day-to-day affairs of the temple. The Government appointed Sarbarah,
after ensuring that the appointing authority was pleased, spent his time in
appropriating the wealth belonging to the shrine and neglected his daily
religious duties. Costly gifts to the temple slowly found their way to the homes
of the Sarbarah and other priests. The precincts began to be used through
Pandits and astrologers and idols were openly worshipped in the Gurdwara
premises. According to modern accounts, on Basant and Holi festivals the
whole place degenerated into a hunting ground for the local rogues, thieves
and other bad characters. Pornographic literature was freely sold, and brothels
were opened in the neighboring houses where innocent women visiting the
holy temples were made victims of the lust of licentious Sadhus, Mahants and
their friends.

Discrimination on the basis of Caste

While Sikh religion does not recognize any caste distinctions, the priests in
charge of the Golden Temple did not allow members of the so-described low-
castes, recognized as Mazhabi Sikhs to offer their prayers in the temple
directly. They had to hire an attendant of the so-described higher-caste to carry
their offering of Prasad in the Temple. As a result of socio-religious
awakening created through several movements of reform in the middle of the
Sikh community the Khalsa Biradri of Amritsar advocated free integration of
the members of the so-described low-castes, including community dining and
inter-marriages. As the priests of the Golden Temple did not allow the
members of the so-described low-castes, to enter the temple and offer Prasad
themselves, the Khalsa Biradri thought of creating public awareness on the
subject and defy the authority of the priests. They organised a Diwan in the
Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, on the 12th of October, 1920, in which Professor
Teja Singh, Bawa Harkishan Singh and Jathedar Kartar Singh Jhabbar and
other prominent Jiaders of the reform movement participated. In the Diwan the
so-described untouchables who had embraced Sikhism were baptised. Later
prominent Sikh leaders shared food with them and marched to the Golden
Temple in the form of a religious procession. When they reached the temple
the priest on duty Bhai Gurbachan Singh refused to accept Prasad from the so-
described low-castes and to offer prayer on their behalf. After heated exchange
of arguments the matter was decided through consulting the holy book, the
decision went in favour of the party of reform. Though, the priests did not
accept the change in the status and left the shrine in protest. Since the holy
book (Guru Granth) was left unattended the reformers took control of the
situation and shaped a committee for the management of the Golden Temple
and the Akal Takht.

Therefore you can see that reformers felt very strongly about:
The misappropriation of funds through the temple management.
The misuse of temple premises through anti social corrupt elements,
and
The ban on the entry of low caste people in the holy shrines.

Under these circumstances the Akali reformers had to take control of the
significant shrines — the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht.

Nankana Tragedy
After taking control of the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar
the reformers paid their attention to other Sikh Gurdwaras. In Napkana, the
birth-place of Guru Nanak Dev, Gurdwara Janam Asthan and other shrines
were being controlled through hereditary Mahants. Narain Dass who was
incharge of the Gurdwara Janam Asthan at Nankana was practising a number
of social and religious evils. He kept a mistress, invited dancing girls into the
Gurdwara and permitted profane singing in the holy premises. In spite of
protest from dissimilar Sikh circles the Mahant did not abandon the evil
practices. Accordingly, a Jatha of 130 reformers including some women
proceeded to Gurdwara Janam Asthan under the leadership of Bhai Lachhman
Singh. When the Jatha reached the Gurdwara in the early hours of February
20, 1921 the Mahant and the mercenaries hired through him attacked these
armless, peaceful reformers. A number of marchers were killed and the
wounded were tied to the trees and burnt. In order to destroy the proof the
Mahant and his men composed all the bodies and put them to fire.

The barbaric killing of all the 130 members of the Jatha through the
Mahant sent waves of shock and resentment throughout the country. Mahatma
Gandhi and other national leaders condemned this brutal action of the Mahant.
Mahatma Gandhi visited Nankana on 3rd March to express sympathy with the
Akali reformers. In his speech Mahatma Gandhi condemned the action of the
Mahant and advised the Akali reformers to offer non-cooperation to the
Government in the matter of official commission of enquiry. It was on the
advice of Mahatma Gandhi and other national leaders that the Akali reformers
decided to broaden their movement. They launched a two pronged attack. It
was directed against the corrupt Mahant on the one hand and the Punjab
government on the other. It was this changed policy which led to the Akali
agitations over the issues of the Keys of the Toshakhana (treasury) and later
their peaceful thrash about at Guru-ka-Bagh.

Toshakhana Key’s Affair

As mentioned earlier the Akali reformers had taken control of the Golden
Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, when the priests ran absent from the
scene, and appointed a Committee for the management of these two shrines.
The Committee asked the government-appointed manager of the Golden
Temple to nandover the keys of the Toshakhana (treasury) to the committee.
But before the manager came to do so the keys were taken absent through the
British Deputy Commissioner.

This action of the government created great resentment in the Sikh

community. To get back the keys the Akali reformers launched a powerful
agitation which is popularly recognized as the Keys Affair. In this agitation
the Sikh reformers were also joined through the Congress volunteers in
Punjab. Since Mahatma Gandhi‘s non-cooperation movement was already
going on, the Punjab Government thought of isolating the Akali reformers
from the congress programme of non-cooperation through releasing all the
Akali volunteers arrested in connection with the agitation over the keys affair
and returning the keys of the Golden temple treasury to the President of the
committee. This victory of the Akali reformers was seen through the national
leaders as a victory of the forces of nationalism. On this occasion Mahatma
Gandhi sent the following telegram to Baba Kharak Singh, President of the
S.G.P.C.:
― First battle for India‘s freedom won. Congratulations‖

After the suspension of the non-cooperation movement in February, 1922

as a result of violence at Chauri Chaura and arrest of Mahatma Gandhi and
other Congress leaders, Punjab government thought of teaching a ‗lesson‘ to
the Akali reformers. This led to another agitation recognized as Guru-ka-Bagh
Morcha.

Guru-ka-Bagh Morcha
As mentioned above, unconditional release of the Akali prisoners arrested
in connection with the keys affair and return of the keys to the committee
undermined the prestige of the Punjab government. The officials in Punjab
thought of retrieving their lost prestige through arresting the Akali volunteers
who were cutting wood from the dry kikar (Acacia Nilotica) trees attached to
the Gurdwara Guru-ka-Bagh. The argument used through the police was that
the dry wood was private property of the Mahant of the Gurdwara and Akali
reformers were committing a ‗theft‘ through taking this wood for use in the
community kitchen. To assert their right to cut dry trees for use in the
community kitchen, the Jathas of the Akalis started marching to Guru-ka-Bagh
and the police started arresting these reformers.

After arresting over 5,000 reformers the government in Punjab found no

place in the jails to keep them. They started beating them mercilessly till they
became unconscious and released them. In this peaceful suffering at Guru-ka-
Bagh the Akali reformers won wide sympathy and support from the press and
also from the national leaders. Rev. C.F. Andrews, a British missionary
sympathetic to Indian political aspirations, after visiting the scene of Akali
beating at Guru-ka-Bagh was so moved through the sufferings of the innocent
Akali volunteers that he described the police action as ― inhuman, brutal, foul
and cowardly which was incredible to an Englishman and a moral defeat of
England‖.

As a result of the criticism of the official action through the national

leaders which found wide coverage in the press, the Governor of Punjab
ordered the police to stop beating the Akali Jathas at Guru-ka-Bagh. All those
arrested in connection with the Guru-ka-Bagh agitation were released
unconditionally and the volunteers were allowed to carry the wood from the
garden for use in the community kitchen at Guru-ka-Bagh.

The Akali Agitation in Nabha

Victories of the Akali reformers in two agitations, the keys Affair and the
Guru-ka-Bagh greatly raised the power and prestige and morale of the Akali
leadership. In their hour of victory they launched another agitation and
demanded the restoration of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha to his
throne from which he had been forcibly removed through the British Govt.
This issue was not directly related with the Akali movement whose chief
concern so far had been social and religious reforms. But since through now
the Akali reformers had appeared as a powerful expression of the nationalist
protest in the province, the Congress leadership supported them in their
agitation in Nabha. At a special session of the Congress Working Committee
held at New Delhi in September 1923 the Congress decided to send Jawaharlal
Nehru, A.T. Gidwani and K. Santhanam as observers to visit Nabha and report
on the situation there to the Congress Working Committee. Nehru and his
colleagues were arrested soon after entering the Nabha territory and put
behind the bars on flimsy charges. Throughout their stay in the Nabha jail and
subsequent trial the Congress Observers not only got first hand knowledge
about the Akali thrash about but also discovered the arbitrary nature of the
justice in the Sikh state of Nabha which had been put under the control of a
British administrator.

Jawaharlal Nehru in his statement that he wrote in the Nabha jail on the
23rd November, 1923 (Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, edited through
Prof. S. Gopal, pp. 369-75, Vol. I) attacked the judicial machinery in Nabha
for their ‗unscrupulous and crooked‘ ways and praised the Akali Sikhs for
their courage and sacrifice. The last paragraph of the original hand written
statement reads as follows:
―I rejoice that I am being tried for a cause which the Sikhs-have made
their own. I was in jail when the Guru-ka-Bagh thrash about was
gallantly fought and won through the Sikhs. I marvelled at the courage
and sacrifice of the Akalis and wished that I could be given an
opportunity of showing my deep admiration of them through some
form of service. That opportunity has now been given to me and I
earnestly hope that I shall prove worthy of their high tradition and fine
courage. Sat Sri Akal. ‖ Central Jail, Jawaharlal Nehru, Nabha, Sept.
25, 1923
PASSAGE OF THE GURDWARA BILL AND END OF THE AKALI
MOVEMENT

Throughout their agitation in Nabha the Akalis faced toughest opposition

from the British administrator of Nabha and Maharaja Bhupinder Singh, the
Sikh ruler of the princely state of Patiala. As a result of firing over the Shahidi
Jatha at Jaito in February, 1924 the agitation again took a serious turn. The
Akali agitation was likely to affect the Sikh soldiers in the British army.
Moreover through the Akali agitation Congress programme and ideology were
spreading to the Sikh peasantry in Punjab. The attendance of these factors
compelled Punjab Government to find a solution to Akali problem through
passing a Bill in July 1925 which gave the Sikh community a legal right to
elect functionaries to manage their Gurdwaras. This legislation put an end to
the hereditary control of the Mahants and introduced democratic control in the
gurdwara management. And with this ended the five year long Akali agitation
in Punjab in which over 30,000 Akali volunteers were put behind the bars and
a large number of their sympathisers lost their jobs or pensions and were made
to pay heavy fines.

As a result of their thrash about the Akali reformers succeeded in

liberating their historic Sikh shrines from the control of the hereditary
Mahants. The movement also created a great religious and political awakening
in the middle of the people. They were made to realise that there was no
religious sanction in the Sikh tradition for practising caste. According to the
Gurdwara Act, any Sikh irrespective of his caste can be elected to any position
including that of the President of the SGPC Sikh women also got the right of
vote at par with men. They could perform all religious and social duties in the
Sikh temples. The Akali movement also created social awareness in the
middle of the inhabitants of the princely Sikh states of Patiala, Nabha, Jind
and Faridkot, who were groaning under social and religious oppressions. It
was the result of the march of the Akali Jathas in the villages Of the former
Sikh princely states that gave the people the much needed moral support to
organize themselves to fight against the social oppression in these princely
states. It is motivating to note that even when the Akali movement was over,
the people in the princely Sikh states sustained their fight under the leadership
of Sardar Sewa Singh Thikriwala. The Praja Mandal and state people‘s
conference sustained their thrash about till India became independent and
these states were merged with the Union of India.

THE NON-BRAHMIN MOVEMENT IN WESTERN AND

SOUTHERN INDIA
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

The social and cultural thrash about in the nineteenth century was a
resistance offered simultaneously against the ideological hegemony of the
British colonial rule and the traditional social and cultural order. With the
formation of a ―community of intellectuals‖, at local stage and on the national
place, there developed an awareness of the weaknesses of the traditional order,
which could be combated with modem western ideas. The birth of modem
ideas was though, influenced through the specific material, social and political
circumstances under colonialism and in dissimilar parts of the country these
ideas came up through dissimilar movements. The nineteenth century saw the
emergence of a number of sociocultural movements which sought to reform
and regenerate Indian culture and traditional institutions.

Casteism which produces inequality and social division, inhuman practices

like Sati, infanticide and polytheism etc., were criticised with the help of new
ideals of freedom, cause, toleration and human dignity. The English educated
middle class were united in waging a series of social and cultural battles,
against caste inequality and its hierarchy that went with it. They also worked
for the general emancipation of women through taking up issues like widow
marriage, female education and equal property rights. Rationalism and
religious universalism were no doubt two significant ideas used through the
nineteenth century intellectuals which gave birth to radical social critiques like
that of Jotibao Phule in Maharashtra. These intellectual struggles were
informed through an ideology or a world view which was broadly the same:
― while opposing the hegemonic values of a feudal society they were
advocating the introduction and acceptance of values feature of a bourgeois
order‖. Influenced as it was through western liberalism, this world view
resulted in the retreat of many ideas as is apparent from the character of some
recent radical social and cultural movements. This we shall see in the
following sections.

CULTURAL THRASH ABOUT IN MAHARASHTRA

The traditional social stratification in Maharashtra was governed through

Varnashrama dharma that is the division of society into an unequal
hierarchical order comprising Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.
The social interaction flanked by dissimilar castes governed through this
stratification was maintained through strict rules of pollution and purity. At the
top, was the Brahmin caste with several rights and privileges which
maintained their social control over society through developing a religious
ideology which gave legitimacy to several superstitions and inhuman
practices? At the lowest end were the Ati-Sudras or untouchable outcastes
deprived of education and all other rights.

In Maharashtra the Hindus were 74.8 per cent of the total population.
According to the Census of 1881, the Kunbis or Marathas were the main
community about 55.25 per cent of the total population. Kunbis were also
economically powerful in rural society; being a rich peasant class they
controlled agricultural production. Though, the influence of the traditional
ideology and the institution of caste made them subservient to the Brahmins.

The Brahmins, on the other hand, exercised considerable influence over

other castes due to their ritualistic power and monopoly Over learning and
knowledge. Throughout the British period the Brahmins successfully adopted
the new English education and dominated the colonial administration. The
new intelligentsia so, came mostly from the already advanced Brahmin caste,
occupying strategic positions as officials, professors, lower bureaucrats,
writers, editors or lawyers. This created fear in the middle of the non-Brahmin
castes.

It was this traditional social order which came under heavy fire both from
The Christian missionaries and the nationalist intelligentsia that had imbibed
western liberal ideas. We can divide the reform movements into two separate
strands. The early radical reforms like Jotirao Govindrao Phule tried for a
revolutionary reorganization of the traditional culture and society on the basis
of the principles of equality and rationality. The later moderate reformers like
Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901), though, gave the argument of a return
to the past traditions and culture with some modifications. It was the early
radical tradition of Phule which gave birth to the non-Brahmin movement in
Maharashtra.

JOTIRAO GOVINDRAO PHULE (1827-1890)

Personality
Jotiba Phule was bom into a Sudra Mali family in Poona in 1827. His
father was a gardener or a flower merchant. Being a member of the oppressed
sudras, Phule could easily understand the troubles of the Ati-Sudras, i.e., the
untouchable Mahars and Mangs and identify himself with them. He received
initial education in a mission school but had to discontinue it in 1833.

An incident in 1848 turned Phule into a social revolutionary. When he

went to attend a Brahmin friend‘s marriage, some orthodox Brahmins insulted
him through calling him a sudra and asked him to leave. This humiliation
made Jotiba search for the roots of caste discrimination and the inhuman
practice of untouchability.
Ideas on Society and Economy
In his quest for the truth, Phule read the Vedas, the Manu Samhita, the
Puranas, the thought of Buddha, Baseshwar and Tirthankar and the medieval
Bhakti saints extensively. He also acquainted himself with the western thought
and the Christian and Islamic religions. Phule judged the whole culture and
tradition though the spirit of rationality and equality. While the principle of
equality described for a total rejection of caste system, authoritarian family
structure and subordination of women, the principle of rationality demanded
the removal of superstitions, ritualism and the traditional whole of cultural
behaviour. This described for a complete rejection of the sacred Hindu texts
and scriptures which sustained the iniquitous institutions. Like Dr. Ambedkar,
Phule read the scriptures as he would read ordinary books, the object in the
two cases being to find out the truth. He had radical views on social, religious,
political and economic issues.

Jotiba Phule measured the caste system as an antithesis of the principle of

human equality. The existing caste system reserved a perpetual slavery for the
sudras, especially the untouchables. The untouchables were not allowed to
walk on the streets throughout the sunrise lest their long shadows should
pollute Brahmin houses.

Interpreting the past history, Phule argued that the alien Aryans after
conquering the original inhabitants i.e. the Dravidians imposed the unequal
caste system. They then invented the supposed divine origin of caste divisions
to perpetuate their use of the natives branded as sudras. Showing the
egalitarian past of the united sudras, he sought to raise the morale of the non-
Brahmins and united them to revolt against the century‘s old inequality and
social degradation.

Since Hindu religion justified and sanctioned caste system, Phule rejected
it totally. He was an iconoclast through his satirical writings. Phule exposed
the irrationalities in Hindu religion. He criticized idolatry, ritualism and
priesthood, theory of Karma, rebirth and Heaven. For Phule, God is one and is
impersonal. His religion rests on thirty three principles of truth which contain
freedom and equality of men and women and dignity of labour.

―Brahmins hide Vedas from Sudras because they contain clues to

understand how Aryas suppressed and enslaved them‖, wrote Phule. Naturally
he looked upon education of the masses as a liberating and revolutionary
factor. In the words of Phule: No riches without vigour, no vigour without
morality, no morality without knowledge, no knowledge without education.
Unless ignorance and illiteracy of the masses are removed through education
they would not rebel against their mental and physical slavery. He urged the
British Government to impart compulsory primary education to the masses
through teachers drawn from the cultivating classes.

Women and untouchables were the two worst sufferers in Hindu society.
Phule argued that women‘s liberation was connected with the liberation of
other classes in society. He regarded Brahminism responsible for keeping
women uneducated and slaves to men. He turned to break the hold of the
authoritarian family structure. Equality flanked by classes as also flanked by
men and women was pleaded through Phule. Throughout marriages he asked
the bridegroom to promise the right of education to his bride.

The pamphlet, Isara (warning), published in 1885 contains Phule‘s main

ideas on economics of the agrarian classes. Aware of the troubles of
agricultural labourers and small peasant cultivators, Phule supported them in
their struggles. For instance, in Konkan, he stood through the tenant
sharecroppers and criticized the Khots for exploiting them. Mostly concerned
with the immediate issues like irrigation facilities, indebtedness, land
alienation to moneylenders, burden of land revenue, etc., Phule though, failed
to elaborate any coherent economic ideology. Phule saw the British ruleas an
instrument in breaking the slavery of sudras and hoped for a further
revolutionary transformation of society under their rule. He was one of the
first to introduce peasantry as a class in politics. He opposed the Indian
National Congress, for it failed to take up peasant troubles. His concept of
nation rested upon freedom and equality.

Activist
To propagate his ideas the means that Phule used were: Publication of
journals and magazines, pamphlets and books and the Marathi language both
in speeches and writings. A journal, Deen Bandhu, in Marathi, was edited and
published through Phule for disseminating his thought and exposing the
oppressive character of the Aryan-Vedic tradition. In his book, Gulamgin
(slavery), which appeared in 1873, Phule elaborated his conception of the
historical roots Of sudras‘ slavery under Brahminical domination and
compared it with the negro slavery in America.

In Setakaryancha Asuda (The whip-cord of the Peasantry), he elaborated

on what the peasants can do about their misery and use. Through 1870, the
social reforms talked about through the liberals and those sponsored through
Phule appeared on opposite lines. Unlike liberals, Phule s aim was a total
reconstruction of the socio-cultural structure based on the principles of
rationality, equality and humanism. The primary task of his thrash about was
to make an awareness of inequality in people‘s minds. This Phule
accomplished through critically analyzing and exposing the Brahminical
literature. Phule also tried to translate his ideas into actual struggles. He started
a girl‘s school in 1851 and one for sudras. Widows were offered protection
and shelter. A water tank was opened close to his house, to give drinking
water for Sudras. Phule started the Satya Shodhak Samaj (society for Finding
Truth) in 1875.

Phule also organized the poor tenants in Junnar against the extraction of
heavy rents through landlord-moneylenders. This compelled government to
impose ceiling on rentals. Therefore throughout his life, Phule took the side of
down-trodden classes. He worked for the removal of unequal caste system and
for the establishment of democratic justice. Jotiba Phule possessed an
awareness of the relationship flanked by caste inequalities and social
subordination and material backwardness of sudra castes. Though, he failed to
perceive the actual character of colonial rule and, like other liberals, whispered
in its historically progressive role. The kind of social revolution envisaged
through Phule could not be accomplished without any radical changes in
agrarian relations and without removing colonialism.

Non-Brahmin Movement in the Early Twentieth Century

With the death of Jotiba Phule in 1890, his Satya Shodhak movement
receded into the background. Even though the movement was revived through
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur (1874-1922), with the establishment
of Satya Shodhak Samaj in July 1913 at Kolhapur, it acquired a narrow
complexion. Shahu Maharaj no doubt furthered the cause of non-Brahmin
movement through starting educational institutions, hostels and scholarships
for the students of the depressed classes. Flanked by 1913 and 1922 he was
also actively associated with many non-Brahmin and Kshatriya caste
conferences.

Under Shahu Maharaj, the non-Brahmin movement passed into the hands
of business and land-owing (feudal) upper caste non-Brahmins, which used it
for their political gains. A major battle waged through Shahu Maharaj was for
acquiring Kshatriya status within the Varnashrama Dharma for himself and his
community. This was nothing but a betrayal of Phule‘s ideology which left the
lower sudra castes to their social degradation and poverty.

After 1918, with Montague-Chelmsford reforms, Shahu Maharaj, beside

with the Justice Party in Madras, used the movement for demanding special
political representation for backward classes in the Councils. Therefore the
Satya Shodhak movement deviated from its main path and turned into a
movement for the benefit of the landowning upper caste non- Brahmins.
Character of the Movement
It is argued through historians like Anil Seal that the Brahmins, being a
traditional literate caste, adapted themselves to the colonial system faster and
began to monopolize the opportunities in professions and bureaucracy. As a
result, the non-Brahmins rose against this Brahmin monopoly. Though, a
deeper analysis of Jotiba Phule‘s social reforms reveals a wider consciousness
of the system of caste inequalities and its relationship with the social
subordination and material backwardness of the Sudras. For Phule vehemently
argued for a fundamental change in sudras‘ attitude towards their caste
subordination. He recognized an ideological basis for a revolution in social
and religious values.

Yet the movement was slowly diverted from its radical path, through
Shahu of Kolhapur, because of some inherent weaknesses. Phule did not see
the essential link flanked by material circumstances of the people and their
culture. His support to British rule obscured the colonial use of the peasantry,
and their interest in sustaining the old feudal social and economic order which
generated and sanctified caste inequalities.

NON-BRAHMIN MOVEMENTS IN SOUTH INDIA

In the Madras presidency the Brahmins constituted 3.3% of Hindus. But in

the rituals dominated traditional hierarchy, they were superior to other castes.
Traditionally being a literate caste, the Brahmins were quick in adopting
English education and monopolizing opportunities in professions and colonial
bureaucracy. This aroused the envy and hostility of the non-Brahmin
communities, which in turn, resulted in a non-Brahmin movement.

Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu

Recent historical works show that the Tamil renaissance had resulted in
the growth of Dravidian consciousness, and its political manifestation was the
starting of non-Brahmin movement. Based on the Tamil classical works like
Pattupattu, Manimekalai, Cilappatikaram, published flanked by 1887 and
1904, Tamil scholars had elaborated on a picture of classical Dravidian
civilization which was separate from the Aryan and Sanskritic culture.
Interestingly, the notion of independent subsistence of Tamil culture was first
developed through a European scholar, Caldwell; this was later elaborated
through Tamil Scholars. The non-Brahmin Tamil scholars also attempted to
show that the Aryans had distorted the superior Dravidian religious systems
like Saiva Siddhanta philosophy and imposed the teachings of the Vedas and
the caste system on the South Indian people. It was this rediscovered separate
cultural identity, which expressed itself in the non-Brahmin movement after
1916.

Justice Party and Non-Brahmin Politics

The non-Brahmin resentment took a political form, in 1916 in Madras city,
with the formation of South Indian Liberal Federation, recognized as the
Justice Party, which claimed to represent the interests of all non-Brahmins in
the Madras Presidency including Muslims, Christians and Untouchables. The
founders of the organization were T.N. Nair, P. Tyagaraya Chetti and C.
Natesa Mudaliar. The initial demand of the Justice leaders for reserved seats in
the Provincial Legislative Council was slowly extended to contain concessions
in education, public appointments and nomination to local boards.

The development of a non-Brahmin section of the professional middle

class and the creation of the Justice Party to express its political views,
dominated the political scene till the late 1930‘s. Though, the social base of
the Justice Party being the non-Brahmin leading zamindars and the urban
business groups, it served the political interests of these feudal and
commercial classes. Understandably in the 1920s, there arose a disagreement
within the Justice Party. Some felt that the party should be working for the
reform and regeneration of non-Brahmin society and culture, and should not
remain confined to a quest for jobs and offices. This urge for social uplift
through cultural reform, could not be satisfied, through the narrow social and
political perspective of the feudal and commercial leadership. On the other
hand, the rising mass character of the national movement, after 1920-22,
started drawing mainly of the non-Brahmin peasant groups within its fold.
Especially after 1927-28, the mass national movement overshadowed the
Justice Party. At this juncture the non-Brahmin intellectuals like E.V.R.
Naicker, who came out of the Indian National Congress due to
disillusionment, launched a separate popular movement, described the Self-
Respect Movement, giving a new twist and lease of life to the non-Brahmin
movement in Madras.

E.V. Ramasami Naicker (1879-1973) and the Self-Respect Movement

E.V. Ramasami Naicker, popularly recognized as Periyar, was bom in
Erode in 1879. Even at an early age he rebelled against the rules of caste
purity and participated in inter-caste dining. As a Gandhian, he became a hero
of Satyagraha at Vaikom, Kerala, when he vehemently supported the
‗Harijans‘. Through 1922, while still a member of Congress, Periyar
abandoned Hindu mythology. He felt convinced that it represented a
corrupting influence. He went to the extent of advocating the burning of Manu
Dharma Shastras and Ramayana. With the starting of his paper, Kudi Arasu, in
1925, he turned into a radical social reformer. Infact, Periyar resigned as
Secretary of the Madras Provincial Congress Committee over an incident in
which Brahmin and non-Brahmin eating facilities were segregated in a
gurukul (school) run through Congress. When he left the Congress in 1925 he
declared ― hereafter my work is to dissolve the Congress‖. In 1927 he broke off
even with Gandhi on the issue of Varnashrama dharma. After a visit to the
Soviet Union, Periyar added his version of Marxism to the Dravidian
ideology. In an article published in Kudi Arasu, in May 1933, he wrote that
the correct path for the Self-Respect Movement was to ― take as our problem
the destruction of the cruelties of capitalists and the cruelties of religion....that
is the only way to solve these troubles‖.

Ideas on Society'
Periyar attacked religion and the supremacy of the Brahmins. Like Phule
in Maharashtra, he attacked the caste system. He propagated the concept of
equality and the vital dignity of all human beings. He was the only reformer
who extended his concept of equality and human dignity to women, one of the
mainly oppressed sections in our society. The Self-Respect Movement under
Periyar sought to change the subordinate position of women in family and
society. He attempted through his Kudi Arasu to popularize an ideology that
allowed women the dignity which comes out of recognition of their freedom
and autonomy in every field of life. Let us now take a closer look at Periyar‘s
radical ideas.

Periyar argued that religion and Shastras went against rationalism. He held
religion mainly responsible for the low social position of non-Brahmin groups
and women. The non-Brahmins were encouraged to do absent with the
services of priests in birth, death and marriage ceremonies. The ‗self-respect
marriages‘, without the Brahmin priest, had become popular. In such
marriages the groom and the bride took a simple vow that they accept each
other as equal partners in life, exchanged garlands, and the elders present
blessed them. Interestingly many such marriages were inter-caste marriages.
Like Jotiba Phule, Periyar did not differentiate flanked by caste and religion.
Social disparity, structured through the caste system, was seen as a stronger
impediment than the class division brought about through wealth.

Activist
The Self-Respect Movement saw women‘s subordination in relation to the
prevailing caste system. Through rejecting religion and scriptures as the
guiding principles for social organization, Periyar described for the creation of
a society based on equality and justice. He accentuated vocational training and
education for women as necessary means for their economic independence.
The social radicalism of Periyar Was reflected in his stand on the issues of
widow marriage and birth control. He challenged the right of man and the
Shastras to decide whether or not widows should marry. As for the right to
divorce, Periyar saw that as a woman‘s prerogative. ― All our marriage laws‖,
declared Periyar, ― are intended to enslave women. Rituals are meant only to
cover this fact‖. Periyar strongly supported the right to divorce as conducive to
happiness, dignity and freedom of women. As for birth control, Periyar saw it
as central to women‘s freedom. He described on the people to employ
appropriate methods for birth control even if the government did not approve
of it. The Self-Respect Movement disturbed literature on the subject to mould
public opinion in favour of birth control. Periyar also attacked the patriarchal
notion of women‘s chastity or Karpu.

Limits
The social base of Periyar‘s movement is confined to the upper non-
Brahmin castes, despite its geographical extension to small towns and rural
areas. That was the vital limitation of his social radicalism and his war against
religion, the caste system and his championship of the cause of women.
Therefore the Self-Respect Movement, which intervened to bring about
structural chances in culture and society and sponsored Dravidian‘s freedom
from the ― slavery of the mind‖, could not create a wider impact. Because of
his wrong perspective, Periyar decided to achieve this through extending his
social thrash about to the political arena and merging the Justice Party with the
Self-Respect League in 1944 to form the Dravida Kazhagam. This changed the
character of Periyar‘s earlier social reform movement. The Dravidian or non-
Brahmin movement, was henceforth, increasingly engaged in narrow electoral
politics. This weakened the ideological thrash about against the Brahminical
culture and caste system, initiated through Periyar earlier.

Self-Respect Movement in Andhra

In Andhra, Brahmanetharodyamamu which literally means the movement
launched through those other than the Brahmins, was basically for cultural
reform and social uplift of the non-Brahmin groups like Kammas, Reddis,
Balija and Velamas. These peasant groups, with their substantial
landownership and economic dominance, lacked modem English education or
the traditional ritual status on the basis of which they could claim a high social
status in society. Naturally, they attacked the Brahmin monopoly over ritual
status and the government jobs. This movement had its origin in their
perceived sense of social and cultural deprivation. The non-Brahmin section of
the landowning and rich upper class suffered on account of being clubbed into
a Sudra category through the Brahmins.

Some specific incidents acted as an incentive for the movement. It was

alleged that the Brahmin teachers denied Kamma students the right to revise
the Vedas. At Kothavaram village, Krishna district, the Brahmins protested
against the use of suffix ― Chowdary‖ in the place of ― Dasa‖ through members
of the Kamma caste. In Krishna district the Brahmins filled a registered notice
that the Kammas should not be allowed to revise Sanskrit. At Amritalur,
Kamma students were driven absent through Brahmins ?s they were enraged
through the attendance of Sudras who, they thought, had no right to hear the
Vedas. Tripuraneni Ramaswamy Chowdary (1887-1943), a prominent non-
Brahmin leader, refers to many such incidents. In one incident he was rebuffed
for his interest in literature, through Brahmin teachers who remarked, ― You
are a Sudra. It would be a sin for you to write verse. Sanskrit is the language
of the Gods. It is a great crime for a Sudra to learn it‖. It was this social and
cultural environment which strengthened the self-respect movement,
especially with an event like the one that which occurred at Kollur in 1916.

The English educated upper caste Hindu non-Brahmins described a

conference in Kollur, Guntur district, to decide the meaning of the term
‗Sudra‘ in 1916. They went so far as to question the symbols of Rama,
Krishna and other epic heroes. In the procedure of defining ‗Sudra‘ category
as a socially higher category than the Brahmins, they re-interpreted the epics,
emphasizing social and ritual injustice tolerated through Aryans to the
Dravidians.

The ideas developed through leaders like Tripuraneni were approximately

similar to the vital ideas put forward through Phule and Periyar. Tripuraneni
challenged the authority the sacred texts. He argued that as aliens the Aryans
had imposed their socio-cultural and religious system on the indigenous
Dravidians. The caste system, which was sustained through religion, was the
handiwork of Aryans. The non-Brahmin leaders also highlighted the fact that,
even though a minority group, the Brahmins had monopolized Western
education, jobs and professions. They demanded the ― non-Brahmanisation of
services‖.

Tripuraneni, an eminent scholar, spent his whole life propagating the self-
respect movement in Coastal Andhra. He attacked ‗Brahminism‘ but not the
Brahmins as individuals. He interpreted many sacred texts and epics to show
how Sudras were kept servile to Brahminism through the popular religious
classics. In Kurukshetra Sangraman, Tripuraneni argues that the Kauravas
were in fact more upright than the Pandavas, and that the latter had no right to
rule. His Sambuka Vadha, exposes the power politics of Aryans against
Sudras. Encouraged through Vasishta, the King, Rama in the name of
preserving the Varnashrama dharma, killed the Sudra sage, Sambuka, as he
was spreading the sacred knowledge, which was denied to Sudras through
Brahmins.
 Tripuraneni tried to change the consciousness of the people through his
literature. He stood for the emancipation of women and Sudras from the
― Slavery of Shastras‖. He sought to transform the then ―priest ridden Hindu
sect to a broad free society‖. The mainly successful reform accepted out
through him was the system of traditional marriage. The Kammas started
performing swasanoha pourohityam, i.e., marriage services through their own
community priests. Tripuraneni‘s book, Vivaha Vidhi, explains marriage rites
in Telugu, for mainly of Sanskrit mantras were unintelligible to the Sudras.
The self-respect movement in the 1920s and ‘30s played a vital role in
developing inter- caste (non-Brahmins) dinners, inter-caste widow marriages
and modem education.

In this attempt at breaking the social and ritual domination of the Brahmins
there appeared caste politics and non-Brahmin political awareness. At a
general stage, the bulk of nonBrahmin intellectuals and peasant classes
supported the national movement. Tripuraneni, for instance, was a well
recognized nationalist. To sum up, the Self-Respect movement in Andhra was
a cultural response of the nonBrahmin intellectuals to the superior Brahmin
social and spiritual domination. The intellectual leaders embarked upon the
reinterpretation of the sacred texts. One drawback, though, was that the
movement addressed only the troubles of upper caste nonBrahmins, and left
out the ‗harijans‘ in the lower order. It aimed at restructuring the caste system
with the upper caste non-Brahmins on the top, rather than fighting for its
complete abolition as in Maharashtra.

Non-Brahmin Movement in Karnataka

The Vokkaligas, two dominant castes in Karnataka, had suffered sub-
divisions before being listed as a single unified caste through the Census of
1901. This categorization, argued one historian, ― provided the leaders of the
non-Brahmin movement with an important base for communal mobilization‖.
Serious solidarity efforts were also made internally through dissimilar caste
associations. The Lingayats recognized the Mysore Lingyat Education Fund
Association in 1905, while the Vokkaligas shaped the Kokkaligara Sangha in
1906. Though, it was the non-Brahmin movement, which provided these caste
associations with a common platform, and held these social groups together.
 The non-Brahmin movement in Karnataka took its birth around 1918 and
it was spearheaded through Vokkaligas and Lingayats. A delegation of non-
Brahmin leaders described on the Maharaja of Mysore in 1918 and protested
against the discrimination practised against non-Brahmins. This resulted in the
appointment of a committee headed through Sir Leslie Miller, who submitted
his report in 1919. On the recommendation of Miller, the Government passed
an order for an equitable communal representation in the public service.

With the emergence of the Congress movement in Mysore State, the non-
Brahmin movement was slowly drawn towards the national liberation thrash
about and it finally merged with the Congress in 1938. When secular politics
also recognizes the caste based demands, though genuine they might be, what
follows is an ascendancy of caste associations to voice the secular demands.
This was what happened to the non-Brahmin movement in Karnataka.
Throughout the 1930s and ‘40s, the non-Brahmin groups began to lose their
cohesion and each caste category began to demand separate representation for
itself both in the Representative Assembly and in Government services.
Therefore, the non-Brahmin movement was transformed into a Backward
class‘s movement from the 1940s. The two dominant groups, the Vokkaligas
and the Lingayats, began to fight flanked by themselves for a share of political
power in the newly emerging representative political system, especially after
1950.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE MOVEMENTS

A comparative analysis of the non-Brahmin movements of Maharashtra,

Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Karnataka shows dissimilar stages of perception with
regard to the system of caste inequalities and its relationship with socio-
cultural subordination and material backwardness of Sudra caste. Of course,
there were some crucial social and religious elements which were perceived as
common to the oppression of the non-Brahmin groups, in all these regions. Let
us look at these commonalities and differences. Religious conservatism of
high caste Brahmins and the rigid caste structure were perceived as the main
reasons for the socio-cultural backwardness of non-Brahmin peasant groups
and the main obstacles to their programme of radical social reform. Unlike in
other regions, Jotiba Phule in Maharashtra, put forward a deeper analysis of
social inequalities and vehemently argued for a fundamental change in the
attitude of non-Brahmins towards their status as Sudras. He totally rejected the
existing religious ideology and caste system. Unlike the nineteenth century
social reformers, Phule saw no possibility of reforming them internally. It was
in establishing an ideological basis for a revolution in social and religious
values that Phule displayed his greatest talent. He projected a new communal
identity for all the lower castes of Maharashtra. In his bid to discover the
identity of Sudras, Phule drew on the existing symbols from Maharashtra‘s
warrior and agricultural tradition and gave them a powerful new meaning. One
drawback, though, was Phule‘s support to the British rule.

He failed to understand the real nature of the colonial rule. Even his social
reform got distracted under Maharaja of Kolhapur, because the emphasis was
on Kashatriya status for his caste and electoral politics. Emphasis on English
education, larger representations in provincial Legislative Councils and local
boards and reservation in government services could also be seen in the case
of Justice Party in Madras and non-Brahmin movement in Karnataka. Though,
educational development was central to the self-respect movements in Tamil
Nadu and Andhra.

In Tamil Nadu it was Periyar who articulated new radical ideas for the
uplift of women and non-Brahmin groups. Unlike in other regions, the Self-
Respect Movement under Periyar sought to integrate the emancipation of
women and Sudras through reforming the system of marriage and rejecting the
caste system. When compared to Maharashtra, the social base of Periyar‘s
movement was confined to the rural landowning classes and urban based
business groups and he failed to mobilize the untouchables.

Likewise in coastal Andhra the self-respect movement was dominated

through upper caste non- Brahmins: Kammas, Reddis and Velamas. The non-
Brahmin category failed to encompass the Untouchables—Malas and Madigas
who constituted the mainly oppressed class of agricultural labourers. The
movement only aimed at the upward social mobility of the landowning upper
caste non-Brahmins. It never questioned the rationale of the caste system.
Instead of rejecting the hierarchical principle itself, they drew heavily on it to
restate their position. This was in contrast to the Maharashtra scene in the 19th
century where Phule had rejected the Varnashrama dharma. The result was a
cleavage in the middle of the non-Brahmins, who split into dissimilar caste
groups and started articulating their immediate demands like better education,
government jobs and representation in politics. One of the negative trends, as
witnessed in Karnataka, was the rising use of caste category even to put
forward secular demands. This negative trend became more pronounced after
India had attained her independence in 1947.
SWARAJISTS AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK: 1922-29

BACKGROUND

Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi the Congress appeared as a great

nationalist forum of all shades and opinions voicing anti-imperialist
sentiments. Throughout Gandhi‘s first Civil Disobedience movement (1920-
22), its roots spread out in the middle of all classes of people. The formal
acceptance of Swaraj as the goal of the Congress really converted Non-
Cooperation into a mass movement. Gandhi‘s catchy slogan ‗Swaraj in one
year‘ stirred the masses of men into action. The suspension of Non-
Cooperation in February, 1922 created widespread disappointment and
precipitated an open division in the leadership of the Congress. The
Government took advantage of the situation to take resort to a policy of
repression. It invoked Bengal Regulation III of 1816 and promulgated an
ordinance providing for summary arrest and trial before special
commissioners. The British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, delivered his ‗steel
frame‘ speech, praising the work and efficiency of the I.C.S. cadre. This was
in tune with the shift in policy which virtually repudiated the principles of
self-government and strengthened the autocratic British regime.

A sense of disillusionment led several at this stage to question the efficacy

of Gandhian methods of thrash about. Was it at all possible to train millions of
people in the philosophy of non-violence? Even if it was possible, how long
would it take? Gandhi was now behind the bars and there was no definite
political programme before the country. The artificial Hindu-Muslim unity
was fast disappearing. Acute Hindu-Muslim tensions and outbreak of
communal violence dissipated national energies. The Constructive Work of
the Congress, an essentially socio-economic programme of amelioration,
could not attract the upper middle class intellectuals. They had never
appreciated Gandhi‘s emotional and metaphysical approach to politics. They
looked at politics from the plane of reality, and were keen to rescue the
Congress and its politics from the demoralization that had set in after the
withdrawal of Non-Cooperation.

SWARAJ PARTY: FORMATION

At this stage a new lead was given through C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru.
When the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee reported that the country
was not yet ready to embark upon a programme of mass civil disobedience,
and the constructive programme found only a limited response, these leaders
proposed that instead of boycotting the legislatures, Non-Cooperation should
be accepted into them. They put forward the thought of Council-Entry to
wreck the reforms from within. This proposal attracted many congressmen but
it was stoutly opposed through orthodox Gandhians led through
Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel. There was a split in
the Congress. The No-Changers or orthodox Gandhians decried the
programme of council-entry and desired the congress to follow Gandhi‘s
constructive programme. The Pro-Changers or Swarajists wanted the
constructive programme to be coupled with a political programme of council-
entry. The matter came to a head in December 1922 at the Gaya Session of the
Congress where Rajagopalachari led opposition to Council Entry forcing C.R.
Das to tender resignation from the presidentship of the Congress. On being
outvoted C.R. Das announced the formation of the Swaraj Party on 31
December, 1922 with himself as President and Motilal as Secretary.

The victory of the No-Changers at the Gaya Congress was short-lived. The
Hindu-Muslim riots of 1923 darkened the political atmosphere. It was also
clear that the civil disobedience could not be resumed as a national
programme. The special Congress session, held at Delhi in September 1923
under the presidentship of Maulana Azad allowed congressmen to contest the
forthcoming elections. Annual session at Cocanada blessed the council-entry
through maintaining that Non-Cooperation could be practised inside the
councils also. The Congress described upon all its members to double their
efforts to carry out the constructive programme of Gandhi. Therefore the split
in the Congress was avoided.

Gandhi and Swarajists

The elections were fought and the Swarajists swept the polls in some
provinces. Their position and strength within the Congress increased. Gandhi
was released from the jail in February, 1924. His release revived the old
disagreement and a split in the Congress seemed imminent. In June Gandhi
made a declaration in favour of the original ‗boycott‘ programme. He went to
the length of saying that those who did not accept his policy should function as
a separate organisation. His resolutions at the A.I.C.C. meeting at Ahmedabad
in June 1924 were virtually aimed at eliminating the Swarajists from the
Congress. One of the resolutions described upon every office-holder of the
Congress to spin two thousand yards of yam every month and authorized the
PCCs to take proper action against the defaulters. Those who did not accept
the boycott of the councils were to resign from the AICC. The electorates were
warned against those who flouted the Congress policy. The swarajists were
disturbed as their success with the electorates was to a great extent due to the
prestige and possessions of the Congress. They offered stiff resistance to these
resolutions. In the face of opposition from Das-Nehru combine Gandhi diluted
his resolution which was eventually accepted with the omission, through way
of compromise, of the penalty of loss of office originally attached to it. It was
a serious blow to Gandhi‘s power and prestige. He publicly confessed that he
was 'defeated and humbled‘. Gandhi now lent his support to swarajists and
made them the accredited mediators of the Congress to deal with the
Government.

The Belgaum Congress, presided over through Gandhi, laid the foundation
of mutual trust flanked by No-Changers and the Swarajists. He brought about
an agreement incorporating the suspension of non-cooperation except in so far
as it related to the refusal to use or wear cloth made out of India. It laid down
those dissimilar types of Congress work might be done through dissimilar
sections. The constructive programme with its emphasis on the spinning
wheel, Hindu-Muslim unity, prohibition and the removal of Untouchability
was prescribed to congressmen as the chief means for the attainment of
Swaraj.

Objectives and Aims

The objectives and aims of the Swaraj Party were indicated in its
programme first published in February, 1923. The immediate objective was
‗speedy attainment of full Dominion Status', including ‗the right to frame a
constitution adopting such machinery and system as are mainly suited to the
circumstances of the country and genius of the peoples'. Its manifesto of 14
October 1923 as well as the nature of its demands in the councils, revealed
that it wanted full provincial autonomy implying control over bureaucracy as a
necessary preliminary to the right to frame constitution. The other objective of
the party was to secure the recognition of the principle that the bureaucracy
derived its power from the people. The manifesto made it clear that the
demand which its members would create on entering legislatures was to press
the Government to concede ― the right of the people of India to control the
existing machinery and system of government‖, and to resort to a policy of
―uniform, continuous and constant obstruction‖ if the Government refused to
entertain such a demand.

The constitution of the Swaraj Party, framed in 1923, underwent several

changes until its relationship with the Congress was finally determined at the
Belgaum Congress in December, 1924. The constitution of 1924 laid down the
party‘s objective as the attainment of Swaraj through the people of India
through all legitimate and peaceful means. The exact nature of Swaraj was left
undefined in the constitution.

Programme
The Swaraj Party was the handiwork of those eminent Congress leaders
who had never seen eye to eye with Gandhi in his approach to non-
cooperation. They had no sympathy with the mass action programme of
Gandhi but they acquiesced in it through the force of circumstances in 1920.
Being an integral part of the Congress and operating as one of its departments,
the programme of the Swarajists could not be much dissimilar from that of the
Congress. Fortified through the blessings of the Congress, the Swaraj Party
proclaimed to carry non-violent non-cooperation inside the councils with a
view to wrecking the constitution of 1919.
 The party decided that whenever possible it would:
Refuse supplies and throw out budget to force recognition of their
rights;
Throw out all proposals for legislative enactments through which the
bureaucracy proposed to consolidate its powers;
Move resolutions and introduce and support measures and bills
necessary for the healthy growth of national life:
Help the constructive programme of the Congress;
Follow a definite economic policy to prevent the drain of public wealth
from India through checking all activities leading to use and to
advance, national, economic, industrial and commercial interest of the
country; and
Project the rights of labour—agricultural and industrial, and adjust the
relations flanked by landlords and tenants, capitalists and workmen.

Outside the Council

It was decided that the Party would work for:
Inter-communal unity with a view to bringing about a complete
understanding in the middle of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Brahmins and
non-Brahmins;
Removal of untouchability and raising the status of the depressed
classes;
Village organisation;
Organisation of labour in the country, industrial as well as agricultural,
including ryots and peasants in order to protect and promote their
interests and secure a proper place for them in the thrash about for
Swaraj',
Acquisition of economic control of the country including development
of commerce and industry;
Establishment of control of nationalists over local and municipal
affairs;
Carrying out the constructive programme of the Congress in a manner
as it thought necessary in relation to Swadeshi, Khaddar, temperance,
national education and arbitration boards;
Boycott of selected British goods manufactured outside India on the
advice of a committee with a view to use it as a political weapon in the
pursuit of ‗Swaraj‘;
Formation of a federation of Asiatic countries to secure Asian
solidarity and mutual help in trade and commerce; and
 Organisation of agencies for propaganda outside India of national work
and enlisting sympathy and support of foreign countries in the thrash
about for ‗Swaraj‘.

A cursory look at the programme of the Swarajists would reveal its all-
embracing, omnibus character. It was devised to please all sections of people
with an eye on the election. The Swarajists whispered in class collaboration
rather than in class cleavage. They did not want to disturb the social order as it
had obtained for centuries in India. They stood for justice to the peasantry but
at the same time whispered that ‗poor indeed will be the quality of that justice,
if it involves any injustice to the landlord.‘ The Swarajists had to keep richer
sections of society in good humor owing to their dependence on them for
election and party funds. In espousing the constructive programme they
recognized the utility of legislative bodies as instruments for its
implementation. It necessity though, be admitted that their programme outside
the legislative bodies was quite unwieldy. The creation of a federation of
Asiatic countries and the organisation of agencies for foreign propaganda were
too ambitious to be realized.

Methods
What gave a peculiar distinction to the politics of the Swarajists was their
avowed intention of wrecking the reforms from within, Michael O‘ Dwyer,
formerly Lt. Governor of Punjab had written that to deal with ‗sabotage‘ was
much harder than an open rebellion. The Swarajists‘ methods of obstruction to
all government sponsored laws were calculated to destroy the prestige of the
councils which had throttled the national self-assertion and respect. Motilal
observed in March, 1926 while staging a walk-out of his party, ‗we feel that
we have no further use for these sham institutions and the least we can do to
vindicate the honor and self-respect of the nation is to gel out of them. We will
try to device those sanctions which alone can compel any government to grant
the demand of a nation‘. The Swarajists accepted non-cooperation ‗into the
very aisles and chancel of the Bureaucratic church‘. They created deadlock in
the legislatures, blew up the Dyarchy in the provinces through their method of
obstruction. Through obstruction they meant resistance to the obstruction
placed in the way of Swaraj through the alien government. In a speech in the
Bengal Legislative council in 1925, C.R. Das observed:
―We want to destroy and get rid of a system which does no good and
can do no good. We want to destroy it, because we want to construct a
system which can be worked with success and will enable us to do well
to the masses.‖

The methods of the Swarajists on the destructive side emphasized rejection

of the notable parts of the budgets and rejection of proposals emanating from
the bureaucracy. On the constructive side, they sought to move resolutions
calculated to promote a healthy national life and displacement of bureaucracy.
The General Council of the Swaraj Party laid down specific rules for the
conduct of its members in the legislative bodies. They were not to serve as
members on committees through official nomination. C.R. Das summed up the
methods of work inside the councils therefore:
‗I want you to enter the Councils and to secure a majority and to put
forward national demand. If it is not accepted, I want to oppose the
Government in every measure, good, bad and indifferent, and create
the work of the Council impossible‘.
He further said:
‗If the Government mannered its work through certification, the
Swarajist members would resign creation it a political issue. After re-
election, they would re continue their efforts to oppose all Government
measures and if, in spite of it all, the Government did not yield then the
voters would be advised to stop the payment of taxes and resort to civil
disobedience‘.

Therefore the civil disobedience was to be the last resort against

bureaucratic truculence.

SWARAJISTS AT THE POLLS

There were altogether three elections held under the provisions of the Act
of 1919 in 1920, 1923 and 1926. Owing to the Non-Cooperation movement,
the Congress had boycotted the elections in 1920 leaving the field for the
liberals and others. Through the time elections were held in 1923 the Non-
Cooperation movement had spent its force and the split in the Congress over
Council entry had become pronounced. The Das-Nehru group under the
banner of the Swaraj Party fought elections on the charter of Council entry.

The Liberals were at a disadvantage as they were in the councils in the

previous term. They were overruled through the Government even on trivial
routine matters. The stigma of association with an alien Government was
attached to them. On the contrary the Swarajists had a halo of martyrdom due
to their imprisonment throughout the Non- Cooperation movement. The
Liberals had no tangible attainment to advertise to the electorates while the
Swarajists appeared as ‗Gandhi‘s men‘ committed to the attainment of Swaraj.
They were now going to enter the Councils as the battle for Swaraj outside had
ended without success. Their policy of open antagonism to the prevailing
system of Government made a wide appeal to the electorates.
 The Swarajists appeared as the single largest party in the Central
Assembly, Bombay and Bengal Councils while their number in the U.P.
Council was not insignificant. The Swarajists were successful against the
liberals but they could do little against the Independents who counted for
success on the bases of their local influence. The victory of the Swarajists at
the polls strengthened their position in the congress as against the No-
Changers. They, in effect, came to be recognized as the parliamentary wing of
the congress.

The bulk of the candidates elected were lawyers and businessmen. Table 2
gives the classification of the elected members of the Central Assembly
according to their professions. It would indicate the class of people who
succeeded in the elections. The results of the elections of 1926 came as a rude
shock to the Swarajists. Their strength in the legislative bodies went down
except in the Madras where their success was signal. They suffered heavy
losses everywhere. In the U.P., C.P. and Punjab, the Swarajists were routed. In
the C.P. Legislative Council, they secured only one seat. In the U.P. their
number went down from 31 to 19. In the Central Legislative Assembly their
number went down from 42 to 35. In fact, on the eve of the 1926 elections,
The Swarajists had lost much of their ground. The untimely demise of C.R.
Das in 1925 created a great void. The Swaraj Party was a house divided
against it. Mutual bickerings and distrust eroded its credibility. Denial of
tickets to some Swarajists led them to declare their candidature as
independents. The impression went round that they were self-seekers and
time-servers. The policy of obstruction could not hold together all the
Swarjists and a section of them turned ‗Responsivist Swarajits‘ further eroding
the strength of the Swaraj Party. The protracted Hindu-Muslim tension,
attendance of reactionary elements of both the communities within the party,
which ostensibly professed secularism, really created a hard situation. The
Hindus felt that their interests were not safe in the hands of the Congress. The
activities of the Hindu Mahasabha also weakened the Swarajist position. The
Muslim alienation from the Congress became so marked that its earstwhile
Muslim members fought elections as Muslims, not as Swarajists.

WORK IN THE LEGISLATURES

In the legislative assembly Motilal Nehru led a strong contingent of the

Swarajists. Since they were not in majority, it was desirable to seek support
from other groups to implement effectively the policy of obstruction. Early in
February 1924, a coalition of seventy members was shaped who subscribed to
the policy of obstruction in case the Government failed to respond to the
resolution demanding immediate constitutional progress. This coalition came
to be recognized as the Nationalist Party but all its constituents and members
did not share the radicalism of the Swarajists. The coalition dominated the
proceedings of the legislature in 1924. It rejected the first four demands of the
Budget and did not allow the Finance Bill to be introduced in the legislature.
Rangachariar moved a resolution requesting the Governor- General in Council
to revise the Act of 1919 to secure for India Provincial Autonomy and
Dominion Status. Motilal moved an amendment in favour of a Round Table
Conference to recommend a scheme of full responsible Government. It was
accepted in the Assembly through the majority vote. It was as follows:

‗This Assembly recommends to the Governor-General in Council to

take steps to have the Government of India Act revised with a view to
establishing full Responsible Government for India, and for the said
purpose:
o To summon at an early date representatives to a Round Table
Conference to recommend, with due regard for the protection
of the rights and interests of the significant minorities, a
constitution for India; and
o After dissolving the Central Legislature, to place the said
scheme before a newly elected Indian Legislature, and submit
the same to the British Parliament to be embodied in a Statute.‘

The Government of India was forced to appoint a committee under Sir

Alexander Muddiman, the Home Member, to enquire into the defects in the
working of the Act of 1919 and to suggest remedies. The committee including
eminent Indians like T.B. Sapru, M.A. Jinnah, R.P. Paranjpaya, Sir
Sivaswamy Iyer, Motilal Nehru, in accordance with the creed of Swarajists,
turned down the request of the Government to serve on the committee. The
Swarajists also refused invitations to the levees and parties of the Viceroy as a
protest against the non-settlement of the Indian problem. When the
recommendations of the Lee Commission constituted under the Chairmanship
of Viscount Lee to enquire into the organisation and circumstances of Public
Services, came for approval of the Assembly, Motilal moved an amendment
which was accepted through the majority vote. On that occasion Motilal
condemned the existing constitution of the services and observed that the
Government was attempting the impossible task of working a reformed
constitution on the basis of the preformed administration.

The year 1924-25 registered several victories for the Swarajists in the
Legislative Assembly. They succeeded in throwing out the Budget forcing the
Government to rely on its power of certification. C.D. Iyengar‘s resolution
urging the suppression of the Bengal ordinance through an Act of the
Legislature was accepted through through 58 against 45 votes. V J. Patel
introduced a Bill for the repeal of the State Prisoners Act of 1850, the
Boundary Outrages Act of 1867 and the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act
of 1921. It was accepted except for the omission of the Boundary Outrages
Act. The Government was also defeated on Raja‘s resolution seeking the
establishment of a Military College in India. The official resolution urging the
acceptance of majority report of the Reforms Enquiry Committee was objected
to through Motilal who moved an amendment which was accepted through 72
votes to 45. This amendment reiterated the old stand Of the Swarajists on the
constitutional progress i.e. the establishment of a full responsible government
through a scheme evolved through a Round Table Conference of
representative Indians.

The Swarajists in their zeal to wreck the reforms from within often
succeeded in blocking the passage of the Government‘s Bills and other
measures. They resorted to adjournment motions and asking inconvenient
questions to expose the misdeeds of the alien government. But the wrecking
methods could in no case paralyze the Government. The Independents
declined to join the Swarajists merely for pursuing a policy of obstruction for
its own sake. The Nationalist Party showed signs of crumbling as responsive
cooperators, and Independents did not always see eye to eye with the
Swarajists. In the later parliamentary career the Swarajists protested against
the Government‘s policies through adopting the method of walking in and
walking out regularly. This technique earned for the Swarajists such nick
names as ‗peripatetic patriots‘ and ‗patriotism in locomotion‘.

The success of the Swaraj Party in Bengal and the Central Provinces was
impressive. In Bengal it was the largest party and with the general support of
19 Independents it succeeded in producing ‗deadlock‘. Lord Lytton, the
Governor of Bengal, invited C.R. Das to accept responsibility for the
‗transferred‘ departments. He declined the invitation and organised an
effective coalition to oppose the government. Twice in 1924 and 1925, the
salaries of the ministers were rejected and repeated attempts to restore salaries
proved unavailing. The Governor was compelled to divide the transferred
departments, flanked by himself and the members of the Executive Council.
J.M. Sen Gupta‘s resolution seeking release of political prisoners was accepted
through 72 votes against 41. It was followed through the passage of the
resolution moved through Byomkes Chakravarti for the repeal of sure laws
such as Bengal Regulation, IIT of 1818, the Indian Criminal Law Amendment
Act and the Seditious Meetings Act. The division showed 63 votes for 43
against. The death of C.R. Das in 1925 deprived the Swarajists of their ablest
leader and their position was weakened. Yet the Government was unable to
form a ministry. In 1926, the Swarajists withdrew from the council
proclaiming the death of dyarchy.

In the Central Provinces the Swarajists secured absolute majority enabling

them to paralyze the Government. They refused to accept the office of
ministers. The Government appointed non-Swarajists as ministers. The
Swarajists moved a resolution requesting the ministers to resign. It was
accepted in the council through 44 votes to 24. The Government in the C.P.
could be run through the special powers of the Governor. The Indian Statutory
Commission admitted, although somewhat grudgingly, the success of the
Swarajists therefore:
‗The only really well organised and disciplined party with a definite
programme (though, it is true, a negative one) is that of the Swarajists.
Only in Bengal and the Central Provinces did they, even temporarily,
achieve their initial object of creation dyarchy unworkable and in the
provinces they have tended everywhere, in varying degrees to be
transformed into an opposition of a more constitutional type, and have
not infrequently played a useful part as keen and vigilant critics.’

The Swarajist activities produced a stir in the country and achieved

whatever could be achieved through their tactics under the constitution. The
enthusiasm of the public ran high when dyarchy was overthrown in Bengal
and the Central Provinces. Their activities enlivened an otherwise dull
political atmosphere. Their tactics of obstruction embarrassed the government
while the parliamentary duels of the period constitute a brilliant page in the
annals of parliamentary politics.

CONSTRUCTIVE WORK

The Swarajists could ill-afford to ignore the programme as they knew that
some day they might have to leave the Councils and resort to civil
disobedience beside with those who did not go to the councils. They owed
their political power to their sustained association with Gandhi and the
Congress. The constructive programme provided a common platform to both
the factions of the Congress—No-changers and the Swarajists. It must,
though, be admitted that the Swarajists, being chiefly engaged in council-entry
and parliamentary politics, could do little to implement the programme as
zealously and steadfastly as the No-changers could.

The top leadership of the Swarajists regarded Hindu-Muslim unity and

political education of the masses as sine qua non for the attainment of Swaraj.
The Congress resolved in 1926 on the establishment of a permanent publicity
bureau for educating the masses on communal amity and sound national life.
Maulana Azad, Motilal Nehru and Sarojini Naidu were authorized to take
necessary steps in this direction. At the Gauhati session of the Congress,
Motilal exerted all his influence on the Congress to adopt the programme of
educating the people in their political rights and training them to acquire the
necessary strength to win those rights through carrying out the constructive
programmer. The rise of Swarajists in Indian politics coincided with the worst
period of Hindu-Muslim tension. The communal riots constituted a grave
challenge to all those who cherished in their hearts the values of freedom,
national unity and secularism. But the Swarajists like any other group could do
nothing constructive to halt the downward trend except pious speeches on the
desirability of Hindu-Muslim Unity.

The concept of Swadeshi occupied a very significant place in Gandhian

constructive programme. Gandhi‘s definition of Swadeshi was comprehensive
as it incorporated not only Charkha (spinning wheel) and Khadi (coarse cloth)
but also all other forms of indigenous industries. To him Khadi meant a
wholesale Swadeshi mentality, a determination to find all the necessaries of
life in India and that too through the labour and intellect of the villagers. The
Swarajists also espoused the programme of Swadeshi, and of Charkha and
Khadi, but their passion for Khadi and Charkha was not as strong and as deep
as that of Gandhi or his orthodox followers. Gandhi bemoaned that Khaddar in
the middle of the Swarajists was on the wane and it remained a ‗ceremonial
dress‘ as they did not hesitate to use Videshi (foreign cloths) in their
household circle.

Khadi
The Swarajists did not share Gandhi‘s views on Khaddar and hand
spinning. C.R. Das regarded Charkha and Khadi as instrumental in improving
the economic life of Indian people. He did not subscribe to the commercial
utility of Khadi, and did not regard it as a commodity of world-wide
marketable importance. The Swarajists did not consider that Khadi, Charkha
and indigenous industries alone would create India independent.

‗It is stated‘, said Das, ‗that Khaddar alone will bring us Swaraj. I ask my
countrymen in what way is it possible for Khaddar to lead us to Swaraj?‘ The
Swarajists made no fetish of Khaddar but they missed no opportunity in
exhorting the people to wear Khadi. The instructions issued through the
Swaraj Party to all its members required them to attend the meetings of the
Central Assembly and Provincial Councils dressed in pure Khaddar.

The Swarajists did not ordinarily oppose the enthusiasm of the orthodox
Gandhian and No- changers in the matter of Khaddar and hand-spinning. But
they opposed tooth and nail proposals put forward through Gandhians in the
Congress to create Khadi or Charka—spinning the basis for its membership.
Gandhi‘s resolution creation spinning obligatory for members of all elected
organisations of the Congress drew strong disapproval from the Swarajists. In
the face of strong resistance from the Swarajists Gandhi made provision in the
Hand Spinning Resolution for the removal of the penalty clause. Asked to
describe the attitude of Swarajists towards the Spinning Resolution, Das
replied:
‗The Swarajists have no objection to spin and they have over and over
again declared their faith in the constructive programme. But they
strongly resented anything being forced upon them, and they thought
that it was an attempt to exclude them unconstitutionally from the
congress executive‘.

In conclusion it may be stated that the Swarajists were always ready to

contribute to the progress of Khaddar but they were not its blind worshippers
ready to indulge in excesses.

Untouchability
Untouchability was a blot on Indian Society. The non-cooperation
resolution advised the country to revive hand-spinning and hand-weaving on a
large scale as it would benefit millions of weavers—pariahs of Indian society.
‗Non-cooperation is a plea‘, said Gandhi, ‗for a change of heart, not merely in
the English but in ourselves‘. At the Nagpur session of the Congress, he
described upon the people to create special efforts to rid Hinduism of the
reproach of untouchability. The elevation of the depressed classes received
unfailing attention of the Congress. The Swarajists‘ attitude could not be
dissimilar from what Gandhi thought on the question. They were in full
agreement with the resolution on untouchability passed at the Belgaum
Congress of 1924. They strongly felt that this curse necessity be speedily
removed from the Indian society.

Untouchability showed itself in a horrible form in some parts of India.

Several initiatives were taken throughout this period to fight this curse of
Indian social life. In Vykom, in South India, for instance reformers resorted to
Satyagraha to secure for untouchables the right to use a public road leading to
a Hindu temple. This initiative received full support from Gandhi and the
Swarajists. The Swarajists passed a resolution sympathizing with the
Satyagraha movement at Vykom. The Belgaum Congress described upon the
Travancore Government to recognize the justice of the Satyagrahis claim and
grant speedy relief. The government was made to realise that it was improper
to lead state support to Hindu conservatism. Yielding to the pressure of
satyagrahis, the government of Travancore removed barricades and pickets
although the public opinion remained divided over the question of allowing
the untouchables to use the thorough fare leading to the temple.

In the Tarakeshwar incident the Swarajists took very keen interest against
the autocracy of a Mahant. Swami Viswanand and Swami Sachidanand, two
religious reformers, organised a band of volunteers, declared the temple a
public property and resorted to direct action against the tyranny of the Mahant.
A disagreement took place flanked by the servants of the Mahant and the
volunteers. C.R.Das decried the role of the government and described for the
arrest of the Mahant. The pressure was brought upon the Mahant to hand over
the temple to a committee appointed through Das. The Tarakeshwar affair
produced considerable excitement, several arrests were made and the police
was compelled to resort to firing on one occasion. The Swarajists ultimately
succeeded in effecting a compromise with Mahant on their own conditions.
The whole incident demonstrated sincerity of the Swarajists who wished to do
absent with the discrimination in the matter of religious worship in temples.
They stood for opening the doors of temples for worship to the depressed
classes. The Swarajists also organised inter-caste dinners to break down caste
prejudice. The Swarajists also missed no opportunity of vindicting the rights
of the depressed classes in the Central Legislative Assembly and the
provincial councils. The anti-untouchability activities they undertook created
social consciousness but more persistent efforts were needed to root out the
age-old prejudices.

Other Social Troubles

The evil of drinking or taking intoxicants did not escape the attention of
the Congress reformists. The Congress emphasized the need of ending the evil
and proclaimed its faith in the policy of prohibition. Intemperance or the evil
of consuming intoxicants had existed in pre-British India. The British made
intoxicants a source of their income and were unwilling to enforce prohibition
f6r fear of losing a substantial source of supply of money to the Government.
The nationalists realized the gravity of the situation where an alien
government cared more for its income than for the general good of the society.
As patriots it was their moral duty and social obligation to work for the
regeneration of society. The nationalists realized very clearly that the policy of
the Government of India under which drinking and drug taking habits of
people were used as a source of revenue, was detrimental to national health
and moral welfare of the people. They stood so, for its abolition.

From 1922 to 1929 the Congress, the Swarajists being its integral part, laid
great emphasis on the constructive programme. Mahatma Gandhi made it a
mission of his life and held fast the view that the road to real freedom lay
through the Constructive Programme. The Swarajists lent support to the
Constructive Programme but did not share Gandhi‘s passion and idealism in
this regard. It must, though, be admitted that the constructive work of the
Congress failed to produce the expected results. But the Congress sites did
succeed to a limited extent in creation a dent in the fort of orthodoxy.
DEMORALISATION AND DECLINE

The enthusiasm of 1924 began to wane and the years 1925-27 saw
demoralization and eventual decline of the Swarajists. Inside the legislatures,
the Swarajists failed to pursue the policy of ‗constant, continuous uniform
obstruction‘. The Swarajist tactics had served the purpose of exposing the
hollowness of the constitution of 1919 but these proved unavailing intending
or mending it. A substantial section of the Swarajists realized that the
destructive opposition to all government measures put an end to all socially
useful measures. The spirit of ‗responsive cooperation‘ was getting stronger
month after month. Even C.R. Das became inclined towards cooperation.
Presiding over the Bengal Provincial Conference at Faridpur on 2 May, 1925,
he appealed to the British to effect a reasonable settlement. He said that
‗cooperation with the Government was possible if some real responsibility was
transformed to the people‘. He described for a ‗general amnesty to all political
prisoners‘ and ‗to show a practical demonstration of change of heart‘. He
assured the government that the Swarajists would do everything to discourage
‗revolutionary propaganda‘.

Drift
The Faridpur declaration accelerated the drift towards constitutional
opposition and cooperation with the Government. Lord Birkenhead‘s speech
of 7 July, 1925 paying tribute to the party as "the mainly highly organised
political party in India‘ and disclaiming that ‗we no longer talk of holding the
gorgeous East in fee‘ seemed to have impressed the Swarajists and they were
in a mood to be dissuaded from pure obstructionists politics. In fact, several of
the Swarajists had no faith in the policy of Non-Cooperation. Having entered
the councils, they were not averse to enjoying its privileges. The Swarajist
leaders accepted offices and sat on several committees. Motilal, who had
earlier declined a seat on the Muddimen Committee, now accepted one of the
Skeen Committee. Vithalbhai Patel became President of the Assembly and A.
Ramaswamy Iyenger sat on the Public Accounts Committee. Sir Basil
Blackett eulogised in the Assembly the cooperation of Motilal Nehru. He
asked, ‗what else is Panditji doing in passing the steel protection bill, in
passing last year‘s budget, in separating the railway finance? ‗What else is
Patel doing in presiding over this House?‘ He also praised Iyengar for the
valuable services rendered through him on the Public Accounts Committee.
The Government succeeded in cajoling the Swarajists into some type of
cooperation.

In the Central Provinces the two Swarajist Stalwarts—S.B. Tambe and

Raghavendra Rao—were converted through the Government to its side. This
not only broke the party in the province into two wings—Responsivists and
Non-Cooperators—but split the party as a whole. The Swarajists of Bombay
advocated the path of responsive cooperation. Another Swarajist stalwart
defended S.B. Tambe‘s acceptance of membership of the Governor‘s
Executive Council. ― In what way did Tambe‘s action differ from that of V.J.
Patel‖?, he asked. The Responsive Swarajists voiced publicly the demand to
reconsider the party‘s programme. Motilal‘s rigid discipline and threat, ‗the
diseased limb of the Swaraj Party necessity be amputated‘ offended the
Responsivists to the extent of open rebellion against the Central leadership.

The years 1926-27 further demoralized the Council front. The serious
Hindu-Muslim cleavage disintegrated the Swaraj Party. Madan Mohan
Malaviya and Lajpat Rai organised a new party of Congress Independents and
rallied the Hindus under their banner. They were of the opinion that opposition
to the Government injured the interests of the Hindus. The Swarajists of
Bombay made an open declaration in favour of the cult of responsivism. The
Swaraj Party was now riven with dissensions and defections. Several
Swarajists attended a meeting of leaders, held at Calcutta on 31 December
1925, to forge a common line of action. It became clear that there were no
fundamental differences now in the middle of the liberals, Independents and
Responsivists. In April 1926 several Swarajists attended the Bombay
Conference presided over through T. B. Sapru. The crisis in the Swaraj Party
deepened and Motilal tried to effect reconciliation flanked by the two wings.
He convened a meeting of the party at Sabarmati to explore the possibilities of
a compromise. The meeting approved More or less the principles of
responsivism and laid down sure circumstances for office acceptance. The
non-cooperators attacked the compromise. The Responsivists severed their
connections with the Congress which laid down the policy of Non-
Cooperation inside the councils. The Sabarmati Compromise failed to keep the
Swaraj Party united. Dyarchy which was destroyed in Bengal and C.P was
restored in 1927. In Bengal the demand for ministers‘ salaries was accepted
through 94 to 86 votes and in C.P. through 55 to 16. Through 1927, it became
clear that through clinging to parliamentary politics this party had succeeded
in wrecking itself rather than the constitution of 1919.

Merger
The announcement of Simon Commission in the closing months of 1927
and Lord Birkenhead‘s challenge to Indians to produce a constitution
acceptable to all sections of society opened new political vistas in the country.
The Simon Commission evoked universal boycott while Motilal, taking up the
challenge of Birkenhead, prepared a constitution recognized as Nehru Report.
The Swarajists and the No-changers began to draw closer to one another. The
Calcutta Congress of 1928 resolved that in case the British Government did
not accept the Nehru Report through 31 December 1929, the Congress would
declare complete independence as its goal. The Council Entry programme in
the changed political situation occupied a back seat and lost its relevance. The
Swaraj Party now merged with the Congress as the country began to prepare
for the second round of direct mass action to achieve complete independence.

Disintegration
The Demoralisation and the decline of the Swaraj Party, after its success in
1924, was due to the absence of a broad ideological basis. The unity of the
Nationalist Party proved to be short-lived. The grant of immediate
constitutional advance as a pre-condition for cooperation was too limited a
goal to hold together men of diverse thinking and independent views. The
non-Swarajist constituents of the Nationalist Party realized that the Swaraj
Party gave precedence to its interest at their cost. This led to rift and defection
and the Nationalist Party broke down. Jinnah seceded from the National
Coalition and shaped a separate party described the Independent Party. Before
the elections of 1926 the Nationalist Party was split in to three clear-cut
groups.
The Swarajist or the Congress Party, the Responsive cooperators which
incorporated the Hindu Mahasabha and Independent Congressmen.
They together shaped the Nationalist Party under the leadership of
Lajpat Rai and Madan Mohan Malaviya, and the Independent Party
headed through Jinnah.

There was, though, no marked variation in their political and voting

behaviour.

CAUSES FOR DECLINE

Although the Swarajists, with their programme of Council Entry, seemed

very promising in 1923 and looked like changing the course of Indian Politics,
they petered out very soon, and were undeniably a spent force through 1929.
What were the reasons for this decline? Or was it because of the limitations of
the council entry programme itself? In the last section you read about the
disintegration of the Swarajists. Let us briefly see some of the reasons for it.

Rising Communal Tempo

The rising communal tempo began to shape the course of events. The
communalization of politics narrowed in practice the ideological gap flanked
by the Swarajists and the Hindu Mahasabha. Although the Swarajists had
captured the Congress but in the murkey communal atmosphere the Congress
image, of a national organisation free from communal and religious bias, now
stood battered. The Muslim alienation definitely weakened the Congress and
the former Muslim Swarajists fought elections as Muslim rather than as
Swarajists. The emotional appeal of religion proved irresistible and secularism
became the casualty. In fact, mainly of the Swarajists were not so much
concerned with the secular nationalism as with short term gains. It led them to
compromise with Muslims on adjustment of seats in public services and
legislatures. The socialist basis of mass action alone could have reinforced
secular nationalism in India.

Lure of Office
The lure of office proved to be another cause for the decline of the
Swarajists. They began their career with a bang through entering councils with
the declared objective of stiff resistance to the bureaucracy. The spirit of
resistance soon gave way to cooperation. V.J. Patel was elected President of
the Assembly and Motilal accepted membership of Skeen Commission. The
Policy of unqualified obstruction lost its appeal and the party showed signs of
disintegration. Its ranks were riven with internal dissensions and open
rebellion and desertions decimated it further.

Class Character
The Swaraj Party represented the upper-middle class elements of the
Congress who had always been opposed to direct mass action. They had
joined the nationalist thrash about to prevent it from committing itself to
revolutionary mass action. They were drawn, quite unwillingly, into the vortex
of Non-Cooperation movement. Oh the failure of the movement, they took to
parliamentary politics and later seemed to be content with playing the role of
constitutional opposition. Nevertheless given the constraints of colonial set up,
it was mainly progressive and radical in the middle of all the existing political
parties and groups in the country with the exception of the communists who
were still struggling to find feet in the Indian soil.

GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM UP TO THE SECOND WORLD

WAR
COMMUNALISM: MEANING AND COMPONENTS

Communalism has dissimilar meaning to dissimilar groups and peoples,

institutions, and organisations. At the same time, it can be a belief, a way of
thinking, an ideology, a value and an instrument. It can be used in a diversity
of ways and it can be studied from a number of perspectives. It is so very
significant to know what communalism is.

What is Communalism
Usually speaking, Communalism is a belief that all those who have a
common religion, also have, as a result, common social, political, cultural and
economic interests and identities. In other words, it is the notion that religion
forms the base of the society and a vital unit of division in the society; that it is
religion that determines all the other interests of man. To understand it better,
let us look at it differently. Man is a multi faceted social being, who can, at the
same time have a number of identities. His identity can be based on his
country, region, sex, occupation, position within the family, caste or religion.
A communalist would choose from this wide range, only the religious identity
and emphasize it out of proportions. As a result, social relationship, political
behaviour, and economic struggles might be defined on the basis of the
religious identity. So, briefly put, it is the super-imposition of the religious
category over all others, which becomes the starting point of communalism.
Two more things need to be clarified at this stage:

Firstly, in the context of pre-independence India, communalism expressed

itself mainly in conditions of a disagreement flanked by sure sections of the
Hindus and Muslims. It was partly for this cause that communalism was also
referred to as the Hindu-Muslim problem, or the Hindu-Muslim question, in
modern debates and literature. Though, from this we should not assume that
the problem was confined only to the Hindus and Muslims or that it was a
religious problem at all.

Secondly, communal beliefs and propaganda did not always remain at the
same pitch. In fact, as the society got more politicized and as the thrash about
for independence intensified, communalism also, correspondingly, shifted to
higher stages of propaganda. Briefly, the communal propaganda and
arguments had three stages:
That the interests of all the numbers of a religious community were the
same; for instance it was argued that a Muslim Zamindar and a peasant
had common interests because both were Muslims, (or Hindus or Sikhs
as the case might be),
That the interests of the members of one religious community were
dissimilar from the members of another religious community. In other
 words this meant that all Hindus had dissimilar interests from all
Muslims and vice-versa, in) that not only were these interests
dissimilar, but also antagonistic and conflicting. This, in other words
meant that Hindus and Muslims could not co-exist in peace because of
conflicting interests.

Needless to say, these arguments were false, based on a wrong

understanding of interests and had no roots in reality. Throughout the
medieval period large sections of Hindus and Muslims had co-existed with
tolerance and harmony. Although they maintained their religious differences,
the common people, in the middle of both Hindus and Muslims lived in peace
throughout and sustained to interact on a cross-communal network.

Components
Words like communal ideology, communal tensions, communal violence,
communal politics, communal feelings, etc. are often used inter-changeably. It
is significant to distinguish one from the other and see the several components
of communalism. A distinction was made for the first time in 1939 through
K.B. Krishna (Problem of Minorities) flanked by communal tension and
communal politics. Communal tension was a temporary phenomenon,
occurring in spurts, manifesting in communal violence and mainly involving
the lower classes of people. Communal politics, on the other hand, was a
persistent and continuous phenomenon and involving in the main, the middle
classes, landlords and bureaucratic elements. The only thing that they had in
common was that they both derived their sustenance from communal
ideology.

Communalism can also be seen as a ‗weapon‘ and a ‗value.‘ It was a

‗weapon‘ for those who stood to benefit from it, which had a vested interest in
its continuation, and who used communalism to serve their desired political
ends. Besides a ‗weapon‘ communalism was also a ‗value‘ for all those who
had accepted communalism, come to consider in it, had internalized
communal ideas and incorporated them into their life-style. Such people,
deeply religious in their outlook, and invariably the victims of communal
ideology and propaganda, were not the beneficiaries of communalism but its
victims. They were always exploited through the mediators of communalism
who had a vested interest in it.

We have seen therefore, that there are several component or characteristics

of communalism. Communalism should best be seen as a structure, with all
the components (communal tension, communal politics, weapon, value, etc.)
constituting parts of the structure. They are held together through this
structure, and linked with each other through the thread of communal
ideology, which sustains the structure.

Myths Concerning Communalism

Communalism has been a widely misunderstood phenomenon and, as a
result, there have been several myths about it. It is so very significant to know
what communalism is not. And while trying to understand communalism, it is
significant to keep the myths concerning communalism in mind.
As against popular notions communalism is not merely religion‘s entry
into politics, or politics defined in religious conditions. In other word,
religion‘s entry into politics did not necessarily produce communalism.
To take an instance, two of the greatest secular leaders of the 20th
century—Mahatma Gandhi and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad—were
also deeply religious people and defined their politics in religious
conditions.
Communalism is not the result of religious differences. In other words,
religious differences in themselves do not constitute the essence of
communalism. For instance, religious differences flanked by the
Hindus and Muslims had sustained for centuries but they assumed the
communal form only in the modern period. If fact, communalism is not
a religious problem at all.
Communalism was not inherent in the Indian society, as has often been
assumed. It was not a ‗hang-over‘ of India‘s past. It was a product of
sure peculiar circumstances and combination of forces. Communalism
is a modern phenomenon, as modem as the emergence of colonial rule.
It is to be explained through political and economic growths in the
modem period of Indian history.

EMERGENCE AND GROWTH

How far back should one trace the roots of communalism? This has been a
very controversial problem. Some scholars have attempted to stretch it back to
the medieval period of Indian history. To them, the roots of communalism lay
in the failure of the Hindus and the Muslims to fuse their differences and
constitute one society. Their assumption is that these differences always
existed in India. There was a Hindu society and a Muslim society and not an
Indian society. Though, this has been forcefully contradicted through others
who insist that the role of the divisive forces in Indian society should not be
exaggerated. There existed in India, powerful cohesive and unifying elements
which often brought members of several castes, sects and communities
together. What then, was the starting point of this problem? The genesis of
communalism should be seen with the British conquest of India, which had a
tremendous impact on the society and economy of India.
Socio-Economic Factors
The British conquest brought about a change in the power structure which
usually penetrated down to all the sections of the Indian society. To begin
with, the British conquest marked the decadence of the upper class Muslims. It
was particularly so in Bengal, where they lost their semi-monopoly in
employment in the upper posts of army, administration and judiciary. They
were also slowly evicted from their dominant position in land-holding as well.
In scrupulous the Permanent Settlement of 1793 and the creation of English as
the official court language in 1833, deprived the upper class Muslims of their
wealth, power and influence. As it happened, owing to the uniqueness of the
Indian situation, the loss of the Muslims invariably went in favour of the
Hindus who had responded more positively to education and other
modernizing forces than, the Muslims who remained largely backward. In
other words, ― economic development within the British imperialist system
benefited a group of Indians of whom a far larger proportion were Hindus than
Muslims‖. (W.C. Smith, Modern Islam in India, 1946)

Muslims, adapted later than Hindus to such British novelties as education,

the new professions, posts in the administration, and culture. Consequently an
intellectual awakening resulting in a re-assessment of the old beliefs, customs
and values was also late in the middle of the Muslims, compared to Hindus.
This time ‗lag‘ flanked by Ram Mohan Roy and Syed Ahmed Khan for
instance, would help to explain, a feeling of weakness and insecurity on the
part of the Muslims, leading to a reliance on religion and traditional ways of
thinking.

This ‗lag‘ theory i.e. the theory of a time lag flanked by the Hindus and
Muslims in responding to the forces of modernization and socio-economic
development in the 19th century, has not been found to be wholly acceptable
through recent historians. It should, so be taken with same reservations. One
major cause is, its dissimilar application in dissimilar regions. If the Muslims
as a group suffered in Bengal and as a result of the British rule, they benefited
in some other parts like U.P. Still the ‗lag‘ theory holds importance for as it
gives us a clue to the 20th century phenomenon of the Muslims‘ alienation
from the national mainstream. The relationship of the lag theory with
communalism was summed up very accurately through Jawaharlal Nehru in a
letter to his friend, written in 1939.

―After the Indian mutiny of 1857, there was a period of intense repression
and both the Hindus and the Muslims suffered from it but the Muslims almost
certainly suffered more. Slowly people began to get over this suppression. The
Hindus took to English education which led to state services much more than
the Muslims. The Hindus also took the professions and to industry in large
numbers. In the middle of the Muslims, the reactionary elements, prevented
the spread of modem education as well as industry. The Hindus developed a
new middle class throughout this period, while the Muslims still sustained to
remains largely feudal. The Hindu middle class laid the foundation of the
nationalist movement, but about a generation later, the Muslims went the same
way, took to English education and state service and professions and
developed a new class also. A disagreement arose flanked by the several
middle class elements for state services and this was the beginning of the
communal problem in its modem stage.‖

Communalism in India was, so, a thrash about for jobs flanked by several
communities, unequal educationally, politically and economically. Historian
K.B. Krishna (Troubles of Minorities, 1939), one of the earliest scholars to
work on the communal problem felt that these struggles were accentuated in
an epoch of the development of Indian capitalism, under feudal circumstances,
through British imperialism through its policy of counterpoise. It was so a
product of imperalist-capitalist-feudal structure of India. To quote K.B.
Krishna: ―History of the communal representation is the history of British
policy in India, also one of the growth and diversity of middle class
consciousness in India and the demand of the middle class for political
powers. But British imperialism is one characteristic of the problem. It is now
time to look at the role of British imperialism and politics in promoting the
growth of communalism.

Role of British Policy

The British policy holds a very special responsibility for favoring the
growth of communalism. If communalism could flourish in India and reach
monstrous proportions, which it did in 1947, it was possible largely because of
the support it received from the British government. But before we discuss the
British policy in detail sure clarifications might be made. The British did not
make communalism. We have seen that sure socio-economic and cultural
differences already existed. They were not created but only taken advantage of
through the British, to serve their political end. W.C. Smith has made this
point very forcefully:
―The political policy of the government would have been less
successful than it was, had there not been powerful economic factors
operating to re-enforce it. Communalism could not have proved so
effective a divisive force, nor could the upper class Muslims have been
so effectively repressed, had the Hindu and the Muslim sections of the
class concerned been of the same economic stage. But they were not.‖

It is so, quite obvious that the British policy of ‗divide and rule‘ that we
are going to talk about, could succeed only because something in the internal
social, economic, cultural and political circumstances of society favored its
success. It is significant to note that circumstances were extraordinarily
favorable for the use and growth of communalism as well as for the policy of
‗divide and rule‘. Communalism grew and prospered not only because it
served the political needs of the British rule but also because it met the social
needs of some sections of the Indian society. Communalism was not a British
creation. It was the result of a combination of a diversity of factors. The
history of the British policy toward communalism can be easily traced to the
period just after the rebellion of 1857. The post-1857 period made it
imperative for the rulers to adopt a new set of policies in order to combat the
possible threat to their empire.. The British policy, so, underwent important
changes after 1857 and acquired a dual character. It now consisted of a
combination of liberal and imperialist policies.

Liberal—in so much as it recognized and conceded the claims and

aspirations of the new classes and sections as they arose; and imperalist—
because what was conceded was always circumscribed through imperial
interests, utilizing the rivalries of several classes and interests. This policy was
formulated with a double edged purpose to create friends through catering
favorably to the aspirations of some newly emerging sections, and then to
counterpoise one against the other, to offset one sectional interest against the
other, one class against the other. This was, in a nutshell, the role of British
policy, a policy of concession, counterpoise and coercion.

Once this policy became operative, its net result was the spread of
communalism. But even while pursuing this policy, the communal ideology
became a useful allay in serving the political objectives of the government.
Usually speaking, at this stage, there were two main objectives before the
government. To create some friends in the society, to offer patronage to some
sections mainly in order to exercise influence and extend control and thereby
strengthen its base in the society. If all the sections of the society could unite
under any ideological influence, they could threaten the British empire. So
communal ideology had to be used and spread to deny the oneness of the
Indian people. This was done more effectively in the 20th century when the
communal demands and organisations were encouraged to negate the
legitimacy and credibility of the nationalist demands, ideology and
organisation. Therefore on the one hand, all attempts were made to keep the
Muslims absent from the Congress, and then the claims of the Congress were
run down on the grounds that it did not represent the Muslims!

Communalism served the government in yet another way. Communal

deadlock and the worsening communal situation could also be used as a
justification for the continuation of the British rule. The argument they gave,
went something like this—the major political parties i.e. Congress, Muslim
League and the Hindu Mahasabha could not come to an agreement in the
middle of themselves. The Indian people were divided amongst themselves,
and were so incapable of governing themselves, if the British rule ended. The
impossibility of any Indian alternative to British rule was, therefore,
accentuated. This was the British policy of first encouraging communalism
and then using it for their own political ends. We shall emphasize this point
further, when we deal with the growths in the 20th century.

19th Century Revivalism

The revivalistic tendencies in the 19th century acted as a contributory
factor in the growth of communalism. Revivalism was a very general
phenomenon under imperialism the world over. It meant an attempt at
restoration of self respect which had been deeply injured through political
subjection. This self respect was sought to be restored through glorifying
India‘s past, which was projected as a compensation for India‘s existing
humiliation.

Although revivalism solved same troubles i.e. of inculcating a sense of

pride in one‘s past, it created some other troubles. One such problem was the
projection of dissimilar glorious origins for Hindus and Muslims. This added a
historical to the already existing religious, cultural and socio-economic
differences. The reformers in the middle of the Hindus glorified Indias‘
ancient past and condemned the medieval period as an age of barbarians. Their
Muslim counterparts looked to the history of the Arabs for pride and glory. So
at a time when Hindus and Muslims needed to be united in every sense, they
were shown to be dissimilar people, historically. This damage became clear in
the 20th century when Mohammed Ali Jinnah, while formulating his two-
nation theory (i.e. India was not one nation, but two—Hindu and Muslim
nations) declared that Hindus and Muslims were two nations also because they
had a dissimilar history and that often the hero for one was a villian for the
other,

Political Trends in the late 19th Century

Related to the question of revivalism was the emergence of sure political
trends in the late 19th century in the middle of a section of the Muslims in
India. Although these trends were far from being communal, they
nevertheless, provided the background and a sure justification to subsequent
communal politics. In this connection a reference may be made to Sir Syed
Ahmed khan.

The views and political activities of Syed Ahmed Khan were always
marked with a sure ambivalence. He started his activities without any
communal bias. His main aim was to introduce reforms in the middle of the
Muslims, impress upon them the necessity of modem education and secure
official patronage for them. For this purpose, he founded the Aligarh College
which received financial support from several Hindus and had several Hindu
students and teachers. He himself preached harmony flanked by Hindus and
Muslims. Though, his politics changed after the formation of the Congress in
1885. He found his priority of securing administrative posts for Muslims and
of professing loyalty to the British rule, to be in absolute contradiction with
the anti-imperialist edge of the Congress. Although his main opposition with
Congress was on the attitude towards the British government, he voiced his
disapproval in conditions of the Congress being a Hindu body, and so opposed
to the Muslims. Therefore he laid down the foundation of sure vital themes of
communalism. One such theme was that being a majority. Hindus would
control the Muslims and override their interests, if the British rule ended and
the power was transferred to Indians. It was on this ground that Syed Ahmed
Khan was opposed to the establishment of representative democratic
institutions. According to him the democracy would only mean the power to
the majority as ― it would be like a game of dice in which one man had four
dice and the other only one‖. He also felt that any system of elections would
put power into the hands of Hindus.
Opposition to the nationalist forces,
Opposition to the democratic procedure and institutions, and
Loyalty to the British Government could be traced back to the ideology
of Syed Ahmed Khan and his followers.

Needless to say these arguments were wholly incorrect. Although there

were several Hindus in it, the congress could not be described a Hindu
Organisation, through any stretch of imagination. There was nothing Hindu
about its demands and programme. Badruddin Tyabji, a Muslim, presided on
its session in 1887, and the number of Muslim delegates to the Congress
Session increased in subsequent years so as to contain several prominent
Muslims in it. Also, democracy or modem representative institutions, posed
absolutely no threat to the Muslims. In fact it posed a threat only to the Rajas,
the feudal and Jagirdari elements in the middle of the Muslims (as also in the
middle of the Hindus) of whom Syed Ahmed Khan was a representative.

Role of Communal Organisations

Once communalism raised its head, then in addition to being encouraged
through the Government, it grew on its own. It seemed to have the inbuilt
system, whereby it could augment its strength, even independent of any
external support. Communal organisations played a vital role in this
procedure. The leading communal organisations, All India Muslim League
(shaped in 1906) and the All India Hindu Mahasabha (shaped in 1915) were
opposed to each other, but they always provided justification for each other
and increasingly made each other more communal. Through their political
activities and propaganda they prevented the Hindus and Muslims from
coming together, made them distrust each other and thereby spread
communalism in the middle of the people.

Weaknesses in the National Movement

The growth of communalism in the 20th century could be checked through
a nationalist upsurge. The communal ideology could be defeated through the
nationalist forces and ideology. But the Indian National Congress, as a
representative of the nationalist forces and ideology, failed to prevent the
spread of communalism in the middle of the people. Although fully committed
to secularism and nationalism, and desirous to bring about a unity of the
Indian people, the Indian National Movement fought a battle against the
communal forces but lost ultimately due to a diversity of reasons.
To begin with, the Congress could not comprehensively understand the
nature of communalism. As a result of this, the Congress did not have
a central strategy to combat communalism. So, it kept shifting flanked
by temporary sets of strategies. Also the Congress could not keep pace
with the fast changing character of communalism.
Besides, sure Hindu revivalistic tendencies entered into the national
movement and successfully prevented its attempts to reach out to
Muslims and incorporate them into its fold. Also the use of sure
religious symbols (like Maharaja for instance) acted as a barrier.
At the stage of implementation, the Congress, sometimes, made wrong
choices, while dealing with the communal forces. It tried to offer
concessions and made compromises with them, which only increased
the credibility of the communal groups. On sure other occasions,
opportunities for a compromise were lost, thereby creating a deadlock.

Though, while pointing out the limitations, the complexity of the troubles
should not be ignored. It became very hard to solve the communal problem,
particularly because of the attitude of the Government. The British
government did all it could to prevent a settlement flanked by several political
groups. No matter what the Congress offered to the Muslims, the Government
always offered more, thereby creation the arrangement rebundant. In the after
that section we shall see the Congress attempts at unification and settlement
and the Government attempts at division in details.

COMMUNALISM IN THE 20TH CENTURY

In this section, we shall see some of the major growths in the 20th century
in relation to the communal problem. We shall discuss them very briefly and
see how they affected the communal problem. Some of the points made in the
earlier section concerning the British policy and the Congress attitude will also
be dealt with in this section.

Partition of Bengal and the Formation of the Muslim League

The partition of Bengal (1905) may have started as an administrative
measure, but it was soon transformed into a major political advantage for the
government as it planned to convert Bengal into areas of Hindu majority and
Muslim majority. It was therefore the result of the British desire to weaken the
nationalism of Bengal and consolidate a Muslim block against it. Said Curzon
the Viceroy:
― The partition would invest the Muslims of East Bengal with a unity
which they had not enjoyed since the days of old Mussalman Viceroys
and Kings‖.

The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement was

followed through the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the
end of 1906, with official patronage. It consisted of a group of big Zamindars,
ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims, like Aga Khan, the Nawab of
Dacca and Nawab Mosin-ul-Mulk. Its motive was to thwart the young
Muslims from going over to the Congress, and thereby into the nationalist
fold. The Muslim League was shaped as purely a loyalist body whose only job
was to look up to the government for favour and patronage. And they were not
disappointed. Another significant characteristic of this period was the growth
of Muslim separatism, because of
The surfacing of Hindu revivalistic tendencies throughout the
Swadeshi movement,
The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the
Muslims, and spurts of communal violence. A number of communal
riots broke out in Eastern Bengal, in the period following the Swadeshi
movement.

Separate-EIectorates
The declaration of separate-electorates in the legislative bodies in 1909, as
a part of the Morley-Minto reforms is a major landmark in the history of
communalism. Separate- electorates meant grouping of constituencies, voters
and elected candidates on the basis of religion. In practical conditions it meant
introducing Muslims constituencies, Muslim voters and Muslim candidates. It
also meant that non-Muslim voter could vote for a Muslim candidate. The
election campaign and politicization was therefore strictly confined within the
walls of each religion. All this was to have disastrous consequences.

The introduction of the separate-electorate was based on the notion that the
Indian society was a mere collection of interests and groups and that it was
basically divided flanked by the Hindus and Muslims. Indian Muslims were on
the other hand, regarded as ― a separate, separate and monolithic community‖.
It was also based on the motive of entrusting power in the hands of potential
allies as well as preventing Hindu-Muslim unity. Arguing against joint-
electorates, Minto pointed out to Morley:
― Under the joint scheme, the Hindu would not only be able to elect
their own men, but a Mohammedan as well, who might not represent
bona fide Muslim interests.‖

According to these reforms, the Muslims were assured that they would be
granted representation in the councils, not merely according to their
‗numerical strength‘, but also according to their ‗political importance‘.
Therefore Minto assured a Muslim deputation:
―The pitch of your address, as I understand it, is a claim that in any
system of representation... the Mohammedan community should be
represented as a community... you justly claim that your numerical
strength, both in respect to the political importance of your community
and the service it has rendered to the Empire entitle you to
consideration. I am entirely in accord with you... I can only say to you
that the Mohammedan Community may rest assured that their political
rights and interests as a community will be safeguarded in any
administrative reorganization

The impact of the separate electorates was as follows:

It created the institutional structures containing separatism,
It was to produce severe constraints on the congress and limit its space
for nationalist activities,
It was to activate the communal groups and organisations, and
It ensured the impossibility of a common agreement in the middle of
Indian political groups.

Though, the impact of the separate-electorates was to surface in Indian

politics only later. David Page (Prelude to Partition, 1982) in a recent book has
summed it up very well:
―The granting of separate-electorates appears to have been an attempt
through the Raj to shore up a crucial part of its system of control... it
was an attempt to extend and broaden the base of its rule through
extending and broadening the support of its traditional allies.‖
Lucknow Pact
Lucknow Pact (1916) was an attempt made through the Indian
organisations, namely the Congress and Muslim League, to arrive at a
settlement. The Congress conceded separate electorates as a temporary
arrangement, in order to obtain Muslim League‘s support. Two things need to
be remembered concerning the Lucknow Pact:
It was an arrangement flanked by the leaders, not flanked by the
people. The Congress-League settlement was wrongly equated with a
Hindu-Muslim settlement, the assumption being that the Muslim
League truly represented the Muslims.
Soon the Lucknow Pact became redundant because of the Government
of India Act, 1919, which granted much more to Muslims than the
Lucknow Pact.

Khilafat
The Khilafat agitation, about which you have already read in Unit 18, was
a product of a scrupulous political climate where Indian nationalism and Pan-
Islamism went hand in hand. It witnessed Muslims‘ participation in the
national movement at an unprecedented stage. Though, communalism started
creation inroads into Indian politics and society, just after the withdrawal of
the Non-Cooperation Movement following the violence at Chauri- Chaura.
There were several symptoms of rising communalism in the period 1922-27:
Communal violence erupted at an unprecedented stage. In U.P. alone
there were as several as 91 riots flanked by 1923-1927. Issues of cow-
slaughter and music before mosques come into prominence.
Khilafat bodies representing Hindu-Muslim unity slowly petered out.
The Muslim League got revived throughout 1922-23 and began to
openly preach separatistic politics.
It‘s Hindu counterpart, the Hindu Mahasabha, shaped in 1915 and
lying inactive since then, found good climate in which to revive itself.
Movement like Tabligh (propaganda) and Tanzim (organisation) arose
in the middle of the Muslims. They were partly a response to Shuddhi
and sangathan in the middle of the Hindus. These were again in part a
response to the forcible conversions made throughout the Moplah
rebellion. All this vitiated the atmosphere considerably.
R.S.S. (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) was founded in 1925.

There were several reasons for this worsening communal situation:

The Khilafat alliance brought religious heads into politics. But they
entered politics on their own conditions. The withdrawal of the
 movement though, did not lead to a withdrawal of their participation
from politics. This gave a sure religious interpretation to politics.
The nature of the political structure itself contained the seed the
communalism through the introduction of separate-electorates. This
structure was enlarged through the Montagu-Chelmesford reforms
(1919) which created space for communal propaganda and political
alignments beside communal lines.
The spread of education without a corresponding growth in the
employment opportunities left an army of unemployed educated people
who could use religion for jobs, favors, etc.

The political situation as it stood in 1927 was far from satisfactory.

Nationalist forces were divided and at a low ebb. Communalism was gaining
momentum.

Parting of the Ways

The arrival of the Simon Commission and its close to unanimous boycott
through all sections of political opinion, once again provided an opportunity
for unity. A section of the Muslim League, under the leadership of Jinnah,
took the initiative and was willing to provide up separate-electorates in favour
of joint-electorates, if sure circumstances were met. These were:
L/3rd representation for the Muslims in the central legislature,
Separation of Sind from Bombay as a separate province,
Reform in the North-West Boundary provinces, and
Muslims‘ representation in the legislative council in proportion to their
population in
Punjab and Bengal.

These demands were accepted through the Congress, which opened up

prospects for unity. Bu its rejection in uncompromising conditions through the
Hindu Mahasabha at the All Parties Conference (1928) complicated matters.
The incompatibility flanked by the League and Mahasabha frustrated all
attempts at unity. The Nehru Report (framed through Motilal Nehru and Tej
Bahadur Sapru), was rejected through the Muslim League as it did not
incorporate all their demands. The impact of the Nehru report was important:
It led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who described it a ‗Parting of the
Ways‘ with the Congress, went back to the separate-electorates, and
formulated his well-known fourteen points (including separate-
electorates, reservation of seats in the centre and provinces, reservation
of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.)
which became the text of the communal demands.
It increased the aloofness flanked by several political groups and
pushed Jinnah more toward communalism.
 It also contributed to the aloofness and even hostility of mainly leaders
in the middle of the Muslims toward the Civil Disobedience
Movement.

Towards a Mass Base

The events of 1928-29 demonstrated a drifting separately of the communal
forces. Soon this drifting separately was to reach a point of no return. This was
the starting point of communalism transforming into an irresistible mass force.
Through 1940, all the communal demands were to pale into insignificance in
front of the new demand—the demand for Pakistan, as a separate homeland
for Muslims. This demand was finally achieved in 1947. Let us look at these
events in more details.

The Government of India Act, 1935, provided for provincial autonomy and
a wider franchise than earlier. Elections were held in early 1937 under
separate-electorates. The results were quite revealing. In the general
constituencies, Congress swept the polls, was in a position to form ministries
in six provinces and was the largest single party in two others. In the Muslim
constituencies though, the Congress performance was disappointing. Out of
482 Muslim constituencies, Congress contested 58 and won 26. Quite
interestingly, even the Muslim League, claiming to be a representative of the
Muslims, performed very badly, did not get a single seat in the North-West
Boundary Provinces, got 2 seats out of 84 in Punjab and 3 out of 33 in Sind; It
was not in a position to form a ministry anywhere. In the crucial provinces of
Bengal and Punjab, the ministries were shaped through local parties (Unionist
Party led through Sikander Hayat Khan in Punjab and Praja Krishak Party led
through Fazl ul-Haq in Bengal).

The election results confronted the Muslim League and the Congress with
dissimilar messages. For the Congress, the message was loud and clear. It had
a strong base in the middle of the Hindus but was yet to establish itself as a
representative of the Muslims. Though, the only hope was that even its rival in
the middle of the Muslims, the Muslim League, could not claim to represent
them. The Congress, so, had a two-fold project,
To work in the middle of the Muslims masses and being them into the
Congress fold. In 1937, it did not seem a hard task because the
muslims masses seemed to be totally independent of any dominant
political influence—communal or nationalist.
To ignore the Muslim League totally as it had the feet of clay. There
seemed no point in trying to create a settlement with the league as the
election results had demonstrated its unrepresentative character. Nehru,
so, declared quite triumphantly that there were only two forces in the
 country—nationalism and imperialism being represented respectively
through the Congress and the Government.

To achieve these two-fold tasks, the Congress decided to launch a ‗Muslim

mass get in touch with campaign‘. This was an attempt to ignore all the
organisations and create a direct appeal to the Muslims to join the Congress.
Jinnah was quite alarmed through this move and warned the Congress to stay
absent from the Muslims, because, according to him, only the Muslim League
could represent the Muslims. Lessons for the Muslim League were also very
clear:
Muslim League had, hitherto, been an elite organisation, dominated
through the princes and the Zamindars and had absolutely no base in
the middle of the masses. In order to succeed in the electoral politics
and be in a better bargaining position vis-a-vis other dominant groups,
it was significant to have a mass base and be a popular organisation,
much like the Congress was.
Through 1937 all the fourteen points of Jinnah had been granted
through the government. And yet he found himself nowhere! He was
just not able to carry himself and the League, of which he had become
the permanent President, to a position of Political respectability.
So, it was significant to maximize the league‘s membership and also to
place the demand at a much higher pitch, since all the other demands
(like separate-electorates, reservation of seat, etc.) had been conceded.

In order to achieve these two-fold tasks, Jinnah did the following:

A massive campaign for the popularization of the League was
launched. The Muslim League actually broke out of its elite shell and
began to acquire a mass character (although in the middle of Muslim
masses only). Membership fee was reduced, provincial committees
were firmed and the party programme was also transformed so as to
acquire a socio-economic content.
An equally strong campaign was launched to denounce and condemn
the Congress ministries. They were shown to represent Hindu-Raj, and
hostile to Muslim minorities. This was the surest way of creating a
Hindu-Muslim divide. The Congress was asked to concentrate only on
the Hindus, as it was seen through Jinnah. as a Hindu Body.
In 1940, at the Lahore session, Jinnah came up with the two-nation
theory. It said that Muslims were not a minority, they were a nation.
Hindus and Muslims, consisted of two nations, as they were dissimilar
people economically, politically, socially, culturally and historically.
So the Muslims of India should have a sovereign state for themselves.
Hence the proposal for Pakistan as a separate homeland for Muslims.

As a result of all that has been discussed above, communalism began to

emerge as a mass force. This was to lead to Pakistan in 1947.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss the background against which the Indian Councils Act of 1892
was passed.
What were the main provisions of the Act of 1892?
What was the Khilafat issue ?
What was the programme of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
What is the significance of Kuka Movement
Describe how the low caste people were discriminated against in
religious matters?
Why were the Shahs not paying attention to the opinion of the Sikh
Community in managing the shrines?
Why did Jotiba Phule turn into a social revolutionary?
What were the main contours of self-respect movement in Andhra?
Write the performance of the Swarajists in the legislatures.
What do you understand through the term communalism?

CHAPTER 5
NATIONALISM: INTER-WAR-II

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Freedom movement and nationalist literature
Revolutionary and terrorist movement: Bhagat Singh and Chittagong
Armory raid
Indian national congress—socialist ideas: role of Nehru and Bose
Civil disobedience movement, 1930-1934
Growth of left: communist party of India and congress socialist party
Growth of trade union and peasant movement: 1920-1930
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will:
Become familiar with the literary contribution of the leading writers in
several Indian languages,
Explain the origin and nature of revolutionary organisations in India,
 Analyze how the revolutionary organisations underwent ideological
transformation,
Be able to explain the attitude of early Congress leaders towards
socialism,
Understand the circumstances leading to the civil disobedience
Movement,
Know the historical background of emergence of left in India,
Understand the meaning to Trade Unionism, its early history and the
formation of the All India Trade Union Congress, and
Explain how peasant movements appeared in several parts of the
country and how the peasants were organised in Kisan Sabhas.

FREEDOM MOVEMENT AND NATIONALIST LITERATURE

Literature played an important role in the thrash about for India's freedom.
Beginning with the 19th century, when nationalist ideas began to emerge and
literature in dissimilar Indian languages entered its modern stage, more and
more writers began to employ literature for patriotic purpose. Mainly of them,
in fact, whispered that because they belonged to an enslaved country, it was
their duty to make literature of a type that would contribute to the all-round
regeneration of their society and pave the way for national liberation. Even
when freedom from the British rule had not yet appeared as a programme of
any major political organisation or movement, and the Indian National
Congress was concerned only with constitutional agitation, the realization of
subjection and the need for freedom had begun to be clearly expressed in
literature. With the passage of time, as the freedom movement began to attract
larger sections of the people, and the demand for freedom became more
insistent; literature strengthened the rising idealism of the people. But it also
did something more. Besides inspiring people to create all types of sacrifices
for the cause of the country's liberation, literature also brought out the
weaknesses of the nationalist movement and its leaders. In the following
sections we shall take a look at both of these characteristics.

LITERATURE IN THE 19TH CENTURY

It will not be possible for us to consider literature in all the major Indian
languages. For purposes of convenience we shall confine ourselves mainly to
three languages: Hindi, Gujarati and Bengali. We shall notice that similar
sentiments and ideas found manifestation in the literature of all three
languages. This is a striking similarity that is reflected in the literature of all
the Indian languages. And this shows a broad identity of sentiments and ideas
in relation to the freedom movement all over the country. It was mainly
throughout the later half of the 19th century that political associations and
national consciousness beside modern lines appeared in dissimilar parts of the
country. The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was, in a
way, the culmination of these earlier growths. The literature produced
throughout this period, as also later, was not only influenced through national
consciousness; in turn it also influenced the character and pattern of national
consciousness.

Bengali
There are two towering figures in the annals of early modern Indian
literature. They are Bankimchandra Chattopadhyaya (1838-94) and
Govardhanram Madhavaram Tripathi (1855-1907). Besides being novelists,
both of them were powerful intellectuals who made it their mission to
understand the troubles of their society and country. Their novels were
planned to inspire their countrymen with patriotic sentiments. They, especially
Bankim, also wrote essays that compelled their readers to think about the
causes of the existing wretched state of their country. Bankim even brought
out a journal- the Bangadarsban — with a view to educating and inspiring as
several of his countrymen as possible. His essays were often written in a
humorous and sarcastic style that entertained the reader even as it compelled
him or her to think. The combination of entertainment and education became
even more effective in the novels. Though he wrote social novels also, it was
largely through his historical romances that Bankim broadcast the message of
patriotism. He combined history and fancy to make characters that were only
too to willing create any sacrifice - even lay down their lives, in their fight
against injustice, oppression and subjection. This combination became
particularly effective in the Anandamath (1882). With its celebrated song,
'Vande Mataram', the Anandamath inspired generations of patriots, and the
revolutionaries truly treated it as their gospel.

There was, though, a type of pro-Hindu bias in Bankim's conception of

nationalism. This even assumed the form of an anti-Muslim feeling when, as
in the Anandamath, the fight shown was against Muslim oppressors. This
characteristic of Bankim's nationalism has been the subject of serious
scholarly debate. Let us avoid its details here. What is significant for us, in this
to context is to realise that the type of bias we notice in Bankim is not
confined to him alone. It confined to that group of patriots or nationalists
who~ our text-books describe as revivalists or religious nationalists. This is a
bias which, more or less; is reflected in a cross section of nationalists. We may
also note that this bias is not part of the domination ideology of Indian
nationalism that appeared throughout the later 19th century. In other words,
while an anti-Muslim bias got betrayed time and again, it was not consciously
put towards as part of the nationalist ideology.
 We cannot think of a more convincing instance than that of R.C. Dutt
(1848-1909). Remembered as one of pioneers of what is described as
'economic nationalism' for his powerful exposure of the country‘s use under
British rule, Dutt was heavily westernized in his dress, habits and thoughts.
This was only natural in view of his position as a member of the Indian Civil
Service which was virtually monopolized through Britishers. But despite his
westernisation, Dutt remained a Hindu who admired and respected his
traditions and culture. It is this characteristic of his personality that led him—
the author of The Economic History of India -.:.. to write the History of
Civilization in Ancient India and translate the Rig Veda, Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. This he was prompted to do through what he termed his 'literary
patriotism'. The same literary patriotism influenced the choice of his first four
novels, all of which are historical romances.

Today the role of Dutt's literary writings in the development of Indian

nationalism may have been forgotten. But in his own life-time, and a little
later also, these inspired people in Bengal and in other parts of the country as
much as did his economic writings. There is, therefore , a cultural complement
of Dutt‘s economic nationalism. In fact, the very distinction flanked by
cultural nationalism and economic nationalism is an artificial and arbitrary
distinction. Indian nationalism, like nationalism in other parts of the world,
was a comprehensive force that appealed to people at more than one plane. It
appealed to their idealism as also to their material interests. In the procedure it
affected dissimilar characteristics of their lives as social beings: as members of
a professional group or economic class; as members of a caste, sect or
religion; as members of a linguistic group or region; as man or woman.

Coming back to Dutt's historical novels or romances, there is betrayed in

these a pronounced anti-Muslim bias. It seems that with the passage of time
Dutt came to realise the political dangers of a conception of nationalism in
which that part of India's past was remembered that entailed a confrontation
flanked by Hindus and Muslims. For, later on he moved absent from historical
novels of this type and concentrated on social novels. It is important to note
that, in spite of such a realisation, when he idealized the ancient Indian past in
his social novel Samaj (1893), he unselfconsciously revealed a conception of
Indian nationalism in which Hindus were seen as the key figures. But to say
this is not to suggest that Dutt was a communalist. What his instance is meant
to highlight is the fact that, given the circumstances of later 19th century
colonial India, Indian nationalism necessarily contained undertones that were
capable of emerging, as a result of other politico-economic factors, as
communal tendencies. It means that even the greatest of creative writers
should not be seen as individual figures. They should, rather, be understood as
representative figures who gave expression to the underlying forces and
tendencies of their times. Hence the element of similarity in otherwise such
dissimilar personalities as Bankim and R.c. Dutt.
We have dwelt on this characteristic of Indian nationalism at some length
because it becomes visible to us only at when we seek to understand it in
conditions of modern literature. It is a characteristic that does not correspond
to the standard text-book picture of Indian nationalism where it is neatly
divided into secular and communal (or religious), economic and cultural, and
moderate and extremist. There is cause to modify this stereotype image of
Indian nationalism and to see it as an integrated , though complex, whole.

Gujarati
Let us now turn to Govardhanram Tripathi, one of the makers of modern
Gujarati literature, who wrote the four parts of his well-known novel,
Sarasvatichandra, over a period of no less than fourteen years (1887-1901).
Intended as an epic in prose, and written professedly to inspire and educate the
reading classes of Gujarat about the destiny of their country, Sarasvatichandra
deals with the multi-faceted troubles of India in bondage and lays down
possible lines of action for patriotically inclined Indians. It laments the loss of
India's independence. At the same time, though, it welcomes the fact that of all
the nations it is the British who are ruling over this country. With their
inherent sense of justice and love of democracy, they would prepare India for
self-rule. While Govardhanram placed trust in British justice, he also
emphasised that if the Indians did not look after their own interests, even the
British would feel tempted to totally neglect their welfare.

We may today find it strange that Indians should have trusted the British
like this. Still this faith was an essential part of the Indian attitude towards the
colonial connection. In fact, it was even related to the will of God who, it was
argued, had placed India under British tutelage. In a way mainly of us share
this attitude when we trace, to provide just one instance, the creation of
modern India to the influences released through the British rulers, particularly
English education. Ironically enough, even the emergence of Indian
nationalism is seen, to a large extent, as a product of western influences. This
being the case, we should not find it hard to understand why the early Indian
nationalists welcomed British rule although they were not blind to its
exploitative characteristic.

We may do well, at this stage in our discussion, to follow the reflection of

this dual attitude towards British rule in later 19th century Indian literature. Let
us begin with a very perceptive statement made through Vishnu Krishna
Chiplunkar (1850-82). Commenting on British rule, he wrote in his
Nibandhamala about the way English educated Indians had been affected
through it: 'Crushed through English poetry, our freedom has been destroyed. '
In this comment English poetry' stands for English education and all those
intellectual influences through means of which the faith was instilled in the
middle of Indians that British rule was for their welfare and the result of
divine dispensation. Chiplunkar' had the insight to understand and invisible
dimension of the British hold over India. So powerful, indeed, was this hold
that in spite" of his own insight Chiplunkar himself subscribed to the divine
dispensation theory and enumerated the advantages that India was deriving as
a result of the British colonial connection; significantly enough, he did this in
the very essay in which he had talked of the destruction of India's freedom
through 'English poetry'.

Considering that the insight offered through Chiplunkar more than a

hundred years ago does not come to us easily even today, when we are
celebrating the forty years of our independence, it is in order to further
illustrate the point about the dual-paradoxical — attitude of Indians towards
British rule.

Hindi
We shall now move on to Hindi literature and refer to Bharatendu
Harishchandra (1850- 85) who was largely instrumental in ushering the
modern stage of Hindi literature. Despite his early death Bharatendu produces
a vase mass of literature and wrote in a diversity of forms such as poetry,
drama and essays. He also brought out a number of journals in order to
enlighten the people about the .affairs of their country and society.

A large proportion of Bharatendu's literature is concerned with the

question of subjection. For instance, in a public lecture on the promotion of
Hindi (1877) he asked the people the following poignant question: 'How come,
as human beings we became slaves and they (the British) kings?' This was a
question that touched the very essence of India's political situation, and did so
in such a simple and moving manner that even the mainly ordinary men and
women could understand it. This, though, was a question that could drive in
the middle of people a feeling of importance in the face of their all-powerful
'kings'. Bharatendu, consequently, inspired them with yet another question
which was planned to remove their despair. 'How long', he asked, 'would you
suffer these sorrows as slaves?' He went on, in this lecture, to warn against the
paralysing tendency of depending on foreigners for the country's salvation. He
spurred the people on to set aside their fear and mutual differences, and to
stand up to uphold the dignity of their language, religion, culture and country.
This lecture, it may be mentioned, was delivered in the form of very simple
couplets that could touch the very core of their listeners and readers.

Bharatendu, therefore , employed poetry to carry to the people the message

of patriotism. He even used popular and conventional poetic, and other
literary, forms for the purpose. For instance, he wrote bhajans that were
planned to describe the state of the country. In this manner he could enlarge
the field of his appeal and message. He also advised his contemporaries to
create use of popular literary forms. This, it may be noted, was a development
that reached its climax throughout the heyday of the freedom movement when
popular songs were composed and sung throughout prabhat pheries and public
rallies. Several of these songs the British Indian government was forced to
proscribe, though without much success.

One advantage of such compositions was that the reality of foreign rule
could be brought out in an idiom that even the illiterate millions could
immediately grasp and feel inspired through. No understanding of the
intricacies of political economy with its theories of imperialism was required
to know what the British attendance in India meant. To provide just a couple
of examples, we know that 'drain of wealth' constituted a significant item in
the nationalist critique of British rule. It was a theme that generated a fierce
controversy, and the controversy was often mannered in a language and with
the help of facts and figures that were through no means easy to grasp. And
yet 'drain' became in course of time something that the people had little
difficulty in understanding. In the popularization of 'drain' an important part
was played through literature. Therefore , in his public lecture on the
promotion of Hindi, Btlaratendu singled out 'drain' as the chief evil of foreign
rule - in fact, the very cause why foreign rule existed - and said in everyday
language:

People here have been fooled through the power and trickeries of the
machine. Everyday they are losing their wealth and their distress is
rising. Unable to do without foreign cloth, they have become the slaves
of foreign weavers.

Bharatendu uses the simple term 'foreign weavers' to denote the powerful
industrial interests in Manchester and relates the deeper forces of imperialism
with the life around common men and women in subject India. He translates
into everyday consciousness the two symbols - Manchester and 'drain' - of the
exploitative relationship flanked by Britain and India. Therefore he could
bring out the stark reality of this relationship in a mukari, which is a
conventional poetic form containing only four lines. In what, strikingly
enough, he described as a 'mukari for modern times', Bharatendu provided the
following account of 'drain':

Secretly sucking the whole juice from within, Smilingly grasping the
body, heart and wealth; So generous in creation promises, o friend: Is
it your husband? No, the Englishman.

The choice of popular forms was not confined to poetry alone. In some of
his plays, too, Bharatendu made use of conventional and well-recognized
forms and stories. For instance, his Andher Nagari Chaupatta Raja uses a
popular tale - a tale that was in common circulation in dissimilar parts of the
country - to bring out the arbitrary and oppressive character of British rule.
While the political message is clearly conveyed, the reader is all beside
entertained. Humour is effectively utilized for political ends. As for humor,
Bharatendu supervised to entertain his readers even in otherwise serious
writings. In the Bharat Durdasha (1880), which is his mainly directly political
play, Bharatendu Introduce a number of funny sequences or sentences?

What Bharatendu said about the country's subjection in Iris lecture on the
promotion of Hindi recurs again and again in several of his writings. But this
is often accompanied through generous praise for British rule. Therefore his
Bharat Durdasha, despite its strong patriotic thrust, accepts that with the
establishment of British rule the regeneration of the country has been
facilitated. Likewise, in the Oharat-Janani (1877), another of his political
plays, Bharatendu admits that if the British had not come to administer India,
the country's ruin would have gone on uninterrupted.

It may be stressed that this duality of attitude towards the British

connection is not peculiar to Chiplunkar or Bharatendu. They are merely
examples meant to indicate the general pattern of the educated Indian response
to the west in general and British rule in scrupulous. With the passage of time,
the realisation of subjection and its disastrous consequences tended to become
dominant and the appreciation of the boons offered through the British began
to decline. But until the last Indians could not shed off the tendency to admire
characteristics of the British connection. As we noticed earlier, the tendency
persists in our own day.

LITERATURE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Before delving deeply into the exceedingly diversified genre of modern

Indian literature, it is of tremendous importance to comprehend the fraternal
conditions of `modern`, `modernity` and `modernization` in the Indian
context. These three conditions in the modern context are quite important and
highly condensed conditions for historical experiences. Keeping in mind the
chronological pattern, the twentieth century is measured to be more modern
than the nineteenth century, but that does not exclude the 19th century from
modern literature in India genre. The criterion involved here is not qualitative,
but rather simplistic. Furthermore, anything which is fashionable today is
measured modern whether it is desirable or not.

Though, the more important characteristic of modernity is a value-based

approach. Scrupulous attitudes and ideas are conceived more progressive and
hence it is natural to condition them as modern as opposed to what existed
before. The chronological sense is in a way implicit in this concept. The
Indian context of modern literature bears an essential relation with the social
and political history of the country throughout the mid-19th century, which
indeed had marked a breakthrough. English education had slowly
disseminated in India throughout the first half of the 19th century, but its
effect is seen manifestly in Indian literary creation only in the second half of
the century. A new approach towards literature had appeared in the major
languages. There indeed had existed an unambiguous novelty in form and
content, mostly in both literatures, as form and content are always cohesively
bound together.

Language in Modern Indian Literature

The separate Indian flavor was back in the English language and therefore
the works of the modern Indian writers reflected the Indianite English. Be it
Salman Rushdie, Shahshi Tharoor or Amitav Ghosh the deconstruction of the
British of English was quite apparent. The local languages were freely used in
the prose forms; therefore once again breaking, restructuring and adding a
new twist and dimension to the traditional narrative patterns. . Hindi, Gujarati,
Bengali, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Marathi writers adhered to the `modern`
and `post modern` idiom of writing. For instance, Mulk Raj Anand`s work is
replete with Hindi and Punjabi words like `haa naa`, `saalam huzoor`,
`shabash shabash` (Coolie). Mainly path breaking is Arundhati Roy`s use of
untranslated malyalam words in day to day conversations in her The God Of
Small Things like `chacko sir vannu`, `she is very beautiful sundarikutty`,
`oower, orkunniley, kushambi.`

As far as poetry was concerned, it did not necessarily rhyme. Rather rhyme
was done absent with consciously to bring forth the discordance in the life of
modern man. Both Indian English and local poems deliberately distanced
themselves from rhythm.

Themes in Modern Indian Literature

Post independence, India was faced with a number of crises including
social, political and economic. The society was in a continuous state of flux.
This time the writers were no more eulogizing their nation. Rather they were
bringing to the forefront the reality through their works. Both verse and prose
were time and again emphasizing on the dominant crises. In order to establish
a new narrative, to break absent from the colonial mind set, modern Indian
writers adapted new narrative patterns to put through their notions.
Experimentation in Modern Indian English Literature
Creation a move from the 18th or 19th century, that had indeed sowed the
budding stage of then referred modern Indian literature, writers belonging to
modern India are additionally very conscious about their own culture and
traditions. Hence can be witnessed a massive body of vernacular language and
literature flourishing in it. While some of the authors pen in English, mainly of
them continue to write in their colloquial languages. The philosophy and
thought behind their works exhibit influences of western thoughts and
principles. It is quite laudable that these authors have been successful enough
to maintain the unique flavor of their region in their works and tinge it further
with a modern dimension The literary genre of the modern Indian literature are
manifold. Present Indian readers have novels, plays, short stories, literary
criticism, science fiction and poetry to choose from.

Modern Indian Local Literature

Besides the Indian English Literature, the local literature o the
subcontinent reflected important changes as well. For instance, in Marathi
literature changes were creeping in after 1800which was the period of
intellectual fervor and reformist didactic. Several English books were
translated in Marathi. Ram Ganesh Gadkari and Prahlad Keshav are also
shared the stage with stalwarts like, Mohan Agashe, Sriram Lagoo, Kashinath
Ghanekar, Prabhakar Panshikar started playing several immortal characters
written through geniuses like Vasant Kanetkar, Kusumagraj, Vijay Tendulkar.
This movement in drama was suitably supported through Marathi films which
did not become a roaring success. There were pioneers like V.Shantaram and
Dadasaheb Phalke and Marathi cinema had a tremendous impact on modern
film industry.

Modern Marathi poetry commenced with the works of Jyotibha Phule but
the later poets like Keshuta Balakavi, Ravi Kiran Mandal wrote poetry
inspired through romantic and Victorian English tradition. But the major
paradigmatic shift occurred in the mid forties with the poetry of Mardhekar
and in the nineties in the hands of Abhidhanantar and Shabadavedh. The Little
Magazine movement which became powerful in the fifties because of radical
and path breaking writings gained momentum in the nineties too in the hands
of Manya Joshi, Hemant Divate and Sachin Ketkar.

Similar growths were also witnessed in the South Indian literary circles. In
the 19th century the south Indian literature was inspired through European
genres but in the end of the century things started to change with the help of
modern writers like VVS Aiyar and Subhramania Bharati who started
developing new forms. Modern south Indian literature boasts of great stalwarts
who have left their imprint on the mind of numerous readers the world around.
Indian Modern Litterateurs
Modern writers like Jhaver Chand Meghani, Dharamvir Bharati, Mulk Raj
Anand, Arundhati Roy, Vikram Seth, Jhumpa Lahiri and Amitav Ghosh have
won international awards and put India firmly on the world‘s literary map. The
two mainly well-known names are the Mumbai born Salman Rushdie who
received a booker price for his Midnight‘s Children and the Keralan author
Arundhati Roy who also bagged a booker for her God of Small Things. Other
significant writers are Shashi Deshpande whose A Matter Of Time revolves
around the troubles in the middle class household when the husband leaves;
Rohinton Mistry`s Family Matters and Fine Balance where he deals with
Indian society keeping Mumbai as the background. R.K. Narayan is another
renowned south Indian writer who scaled great heights with his works
revolving around the south Indian small towns of Malgudi. His chief works
are Swami and his Friends, The Financial Expert, The Guide, Waiting for the
Mahatma and Malgudi Days. Kamala Markandaya`s Nector in a Sieve
describes the heart wrenching thrash about of a south Indian woman against
the ravages of time and the destructive forces of nature.

Kaka Saheb Kalelkar is another celebrated writer in pre-independent India.

His philosophical writings demonstrate his vast erudition, his commentary on
the Bhagavad Gita, his essays on culture, his travelogues, his translation of
Gitanjali had won him applauding appreciation from all quarters. The other
eminent personalities that contributed to the literature world redefining
modern Indian literature throughout this period comprise: Vempalli
Gangadhar, K.K.Munshi, Joy Somnath, Khushwant Singh and several others.

Indian modern literature is colossal in its scope and encompasses literature

of several genres and styles. Modern literature in India is influenced
considerably in content through the western philosophy and thought. Though
it knows how exactly to maintain its unique Indian flavor and assorted
richness. In the arena of international literature, modern Indian literature
occupies a position of pride for its sumptuous affluence and originality.
Literature of India still bears some of its ingrained colonial impact and
present-day writers often base their works in the colonial background. Though,
this is not something heavily peculiar for a nation under colonial rule for such
an extensive period of time. Modern Indian writers have taken to writing in
English but time and again their themes are based upon an Indian background
and household.

REVOLUTIONARY AND TERRORIST MOVEMENT: BHAGAT

SINGH AND CHITTAGONG ARMOURY RAID
 The causes that resulted into the out come of Extremism also gave rise to
the revolutionary terrorist movements. The revolutionists aimed at Indian
independence through radical movements. The common aim of them was
`Freedom of the Motherland from British Rule`. To them, it was western
method of violence that could bring an end to the Western Imperialism. They
used to stage acts like murder, acuities, looting of banks, offices and even train
derailments in order to finance their projects. The first indication of
revolutionary movement in India took place in Maharashtra according to the
authors of the Sedition Committee Report published in the year 1918 in the
middle of the Chitpavan Brahmins of the Poona District. These Brahmins were
the descendants of Peshwa rules. Lord Hastings under his headship overthrew
the Peshwas. The discontent towards the British led them to revolt.

The Rand Murder at Poona, 1897 ---- The Chapekar Brothers (Chitpavan
Brahmins) Damodar and Balkrishna on 22nd June in the year 1897 pioneered
the first political murder of Europeans. They targeted Mr. Rand, the President
of the Plague Committee at Poona but unluckily Lt. Ayerst was shot. The
Chapekar Brothers were caught and hanged to death.

Shiyamji Krishnavarma and India House at London ---- Shiyamji

Krishnavarma a qualified lawyer chose London to work for India`s liberation
from the British oppression. With this aim he also recognized an organization
namely the India Home Rule Society or India house. The Indian sociologist
was the monthly journal published from the India house. V.D Savarkar,
Hardayal and Madan Lal Dhingra, a group of Indian revolutionaries became
the members of India house after qualifying for the fellowship programme of
Rs. 1,000. They left for London. With the membership of these young
partisans, the India House matured into a center for pro-India and anti-British
propaganda. Col. William Curzon Wyllie, political A.D.C to the India office in
the year 1909 was shot dead through Madan Lal Dhingra of India House. As a
result Dhingra was caught and hanged to death; Savarkar was deported to
India and sentenced to deportation for life, Shyamji left London for Paris.

The revolutionary activities in Bengal were started with bhadralok class.

Anushilan Samiti recognized through P. Mitra was a secret revolutionary
society. The partition of Bengal led to the enlarged need of Swaraj. Several
journals namely, Bhavani Mandir, the Yugantar, Sandhy started prophesying
anti-British ideas. The young generation of Bengal started enrolling to the
worship Bhawani as the manifestation of Shakti and to develop mental,
physical, moral and spiritual strength. In the year 1907, they made an
unsuccessful attempt to kill Lt. Governors of Eastern Bengal and Bengal.

The Muzaffarpur Murders and the Alipore Conspiracy Case ---- On 30th
April in the year 1908, an attempt was taken to murder the Judge of
Muzaffarpur and ex-chief Presidency Magistrate, Mr. Kingford. Prafulla
Chaki and Khudiram Bose were charged with the bomb throwing. But
unluckily, the bomb killed two innocent ladies. Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram
Bose both were caught. Chaki shot himself immediately but Bose was hanged
to death. After the incident the government raided Maniktala Gardens for
illicit arms and arrested 34 persons including Arobindo and Barindra Ghosh.
They are judged in the Alipore Conspiracy case. At the time of trail approver
Narendra Gosain, the public prosecutor, a deputy Superintendent on 24th
February 1910 were shot dead. According to Rowlatt Committee report 110
dacoities and over 60 cases of attempt to murder were recorded throughout
1906-17.

In other provinces of India under the provisions of Regulation III of 1818

Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh were deported. In Chandi Chowk, Delhi in
December 1912, a bomb was thrown on Lord Harding on his state entry.

In order to meet the revolutionary activities, the government of India

launched several acts like, The Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act 91907);
The Explosive Substances Act (1908); The Indian Criminal Law Amendment
Act (1908); The Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908, The Press Act
of 1910 and The Obnoxious multi-fanged Defence of India Rules, 1915. After
that, Gandhiji`s rise on the national scene through non-violent movements
halted the pace of violent revolutionary activities.

BHAGAT SINGH

Bhagat Singh was one of the mainly well recognized Indian freedom
fighters and Indian revolutionaries and who contributed significantly in the
Indian Freedom Thrash about against the British. Singh was born in a family
that was actively involved in revolutionary activities against the British rule in
the country. He is also addressed as Shaheed Bhagat Singh, meaning martyr.
Singh was born in a Sikh family which was involved in revolutionary
endeavors against the British. He was a prominent member of several
revolutionary associations and was also one of the major leaders of the
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which was later recognized as the
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in the year 1928.

Early Life of Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh was born on 28th September, 1907 to Sardar Kishan Singh
Sandhu and Sardarni Vidyavati Kaur, in Khatkar Kalan village in Lyallpur
district of Punjab. Arya Samaj had a strong on the life of Sardar Kishan Singh.
His uncles as well as his father were all part of the Ghadar Party that was led
through Kartar Singh Sarabha. The Jalianwalabagh Massacre, which took
place in Punjab in 1919, had a deep impact on the mind of young Bhagat
Singh. In the year 1920, Mahatma Gandhi started the Non Cooperation
Movement. Bhagat Singh actively participated with a great hope that this
movement would bring freedom to the country. Bhagat Singh challenged the
British rule and followed the wishes of Mahatma Gandhi through burning his
government-school books and imported clothes.

Throughout his early age, Bhagat Singh used to read a lot of literature and
poetries especially written through Punjabi writers. Allama Iqbal from Sialkot,
who was also a freedom fighter, was Bhagat Singh`s favourite poet. Through
winning an essay competition that was organised through Punjab Hindi
Sahitya Sammelan in 1923, young Bhagat Singh attracted the attention of the
Punjab Hindi Sahitya Sammelan. Initially, he studied at the National College
in Lahore. But after some time, he ran absent from his home in order to escape
early marriage.

Contributions of Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh became an active member of Naujawan Bharat Sabha and
also joined Hindustan Republican Association, which was headed through
Ashfaqulla Khan and Ram Prasad Bismil. Later on, he became the leader of
the association. On 30th of October, 1928, a protest was led through Lala
Lajpat Rai against Simon Commission but that too in a non violent way.
Throughout this protest, the police resorted to Lathi charge and Lala Lajpat
Rai was severely beaten. After this incident, Bhagat Singh with other
revolutionaries, planed to kill the police chief. But because of a mistaken
identity, J. P. Saunders, a Deputy Superintendent of Police was shot instead of
Scott. Immediately after that, Bhagat Singh left Lahore and he also shaved his
beard and cut his hair to avoid recognition.

After this incident, the Defence of India Act was enacted through the
British government in order to provide more power to the police. On the other
hand, in response to this act, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
planned to blast a bomb particularly in the assembly, where the act was
supposed to be passed. According to their plan, it was decided that Bhagat
Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt would throw the bombs. On April 8, 1929, they
threw the bombs; though it neither killed nor injured anyone. Bhagat Singh
and Batukeshwar Dutt surrendered themselves for arrest. They were sentenced
to Transportation for Life for the incident. It was after their arrest that the
British rulers came to know that Singh was involved in the murder case of J.P.
Saunders. He admitted his crime and made statements in the court against the
British as a tool to publicize their cause of freedom thrash about. Though, the
court ordered the case to be accepted out without members of the association
who were present at the hearing. This order produced a chaos amongst the
supporters of Bhagat Singh.

Bhagat Singh beside with other prisoners launched hunger strike in the jail.
The main cause behind this was that the British thieves and murderers were
given better treatment than the Indian prisoners. According to law the Indian
political prisoners were supposed to be given better rights. He also demanded
that the Indian political prisoners should not be forced to do any sort of
undignified work. This hunger strike lasted for 63 days and ended with the
submission of British power. With this, he gained tremendous popularity.

Ideology of Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh used to maintain diary while in jail. The diary was a valuable
one as he made numerous notes relating to the quotations and popular sayings
of several people whose vies he supported, prominent were of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. Political thought of Bhagat Singh`s evolved slowly from
Gandhian nationalism to revolutionary Marxism. Through the end of 1928,
Singh and his comrades renamed their organisation the Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association. After going through the teachings of Karl Marx,
Friedrich Engels, and Vladimir Lenin, he came to consider that, India with
such a large and diverse population could only survive properly under a
socialist regime. Bhagat Singh became the first socialist leader of the country.

Bhagat Singh was hanged on 23rd March, 1931 at 7:30 pm, in Lahore Jail,
beside with fellow revolutionaries Sukhdev and Jai Rajguru. After his
execution, youths in the country rioted in protest. Therefore the desire of
Bhagat Singh to inspire thousands of youths to assist the Indian independence
movement took a serious turn.

REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS IN BENGAL

Bengal Volunteers are regarded the underground revolutionary group

against the British rule in India.The group Bengal Volunteers was operational
from its origination in 1928 until the Indian independence. It was Subhas
Chandra Bose throughout the 1928 Kolkata session of Indian National
Congress, who had unionised a group of volunteers. The group was named
Bengal Volunteers, under the headship of Major Satya Gupta. The GOC was
Subhas Chandra Bose himself. The Bengal Volunteers sustained its activities
even after the Kolkata session of the Congress. Bengal Volunteers soon turned
into an active revolutionary association.

Throughout the early 1930s, members of the Bengal Volunteers group

decided to launch `Operation Freedom`. In the beginning `Operation Freedom`
was launched to demonstrate protests against the police subjugation in
dissimilar jails in Bengal. In August 1930, the revolutionary group Bengal
Volunteers planned to kill Lowman, the then Inspector General of Police, who
was supposed to be present in the Medical School Hospital to see an unwell
senior police officer under treatment. On 29th August 1930, Benoy Basu, in an
unconcerned manner clothed in traditional Bengali dress, violated the security
and opened fire at secure range. Lowman died instantaneously and the
Superintendent of Police, Hodson, was grievously wounded.

The Inspector General of Prisons, Col N.S. Simpson was the after that
target of Bengal Volunteers. Col N.S. Simpson was notorious for brutal
subjugation of the prisoners in jails. The revolutionaries though decided not
only to murder him but were also planning to strike terror within British
official circles through unveiling an attack on the Secretariat Structure - the
Writers` Structure in Dalhousie Square in Kolkata. On 8th December 1930,
Benoy Basu beside with Dinesh Gupta and Badal Gupta, dressed in European
costumes entered the Writers` Structure and shot Simpson dead.

Consequently, the British police started firing. A brief gunfight took place
flanked by the three young revolutionaries and the police. Throughout the
shootout, some other officers like Twynam, Prentice, and Nelson suffered
injuries. Soon police overwhelmed the revolutionists. The three did not wish
to be handcuffed. While Benoy and Dinesh shot themselves with their own
revolvers, Badal consumed potassium cyanide and succumbed to the poison
on the spot. Benoy was taken to the hospital where he died on 13th December
1930. Dinesh endured the close to-disastrous injury. He was declared guilty
and the verdict of the trial was to hang him till death for being involved in
anti-governmental activities and murder.

CHITTAGONG ARMOURY RAID

The background of Chittagong Armoury Raid Case spans over a decade as

the members of the Indian Republican Army took many preparations for the
successful implementation of the revolutionary plans. The Chittagong
Revolutionary Group was an ideal combination of thinkers and doers, such as,
Masterda Surya Sen, who was the leader, Lokenath Bal, Ananta Singh,
Kalpana Dutta, Ambika Chakrobarty, Pritilata Waddedar, Ganesh Ghosh,
Anand Gupta, Jiban Ghoshal, Tarakeswar Dastidar, Harigopal Bal (Tegra),
Ardhendu Dastidar, Sasanka Datta, Naresh Roy, Subodh Roy and Nirmal Sen.
Through the year 1918, Surya Sen, beside with Charu Bikash Datta, Ambika
Chakrabarti and others recognized a separate revolutionary group in the region
of Chittagong.
 Throughout late 1925, when mainly of the leaders of the 2 foremost
revolutionary groups of Bengal, Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti, were jailed,
the Chittagong revolutionary group, recognized as the Indian Republican
Army remained active. Nirmal Sen, one of the members of the group, acquired
expertise in smuggling weapons and ammunitions to Chittagong from the Far
East. After the British Intelligence Branch gained information of the
smuggling procedure, Sen was arrested while he was on a trip to Chittagong in
the year 1926. Surya Sen and other leaders recruited number young and
teenaged boys who were enthusiastic about the revolutionary movement
throughout 1928. Nirmal Sen was a friendly and compassionate leader. Nirmal
Sen acted as the defense minister of the Indian Republican Army, while
Ambika Chakrabarti operated as the foreign minister and also supervised
finance.

The objective of the group was to achieve freedom from the British
Empire in India through aggressive and violent revolutionary means. This
thought was already intensely entrenched in the mind of the "Hindu
bhadralok" youths of the time. Even though the first political assassination of a
British official, Chairman of Plague Commission- W.C.Rand, and a bystander
Lieutenant C.E. Ayerst, was undertaken in Poona (presently recognized as
Pune) in the year 1897, the thought of armed thrash about for national freedom
thrived and developed in Bengal. After the triumphant Battle of Plassey in the
year 1757, Bengal was the base of British East India Company and the
colonial rule. This deeply influenced the populace of the Bengal province,
especially profoundly affected the people of the province, particularly the
upper caste intellectuals. The associations flanked by the Bengali intellectuals
and the British led to the Bengal renaissance throughout the middle of the 19th
century.

After the Arms Act of 1878, the native populace of the country was
forbidden from possessing fire-arms and weapons, while the British Indian
army, Police and other Europeans officials in the country retained highly
sophisticated and technically advanced weapons that were in subsistence
throughout that period. This Act motivated the Chittagong revolutionaries
further for military and physical prowess in order to challenge and confront
the British Empire in India. Many akharas or gymnasiums and secret societies
appeared in Calcutta (now Kolkata) throughout the 1870s, but these soon
waned and died out. The Indian National Congress was recognized in 1885 but
its polite attitude towards the foreign rule, and politics through resolutions and
petitions were much less inspiring as compared to the actions and ideals of the
revolutionaries. Throughout the initial years of the 20th century that the
concept of confronting the British power with the use of weapons were
materialized. Throughout this period, several clubs appeared in Calcutta with
the objective of providing military and physical training and nationalist
principles. Although none of these organisations were explicitly revolutionary,
they provided the base for the revolutions.

On 30 April 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose bombed a horse

carriage in Muzaffarpur in an attempt to murder Douglas Kingsford, the
former Chief Presidency Magistrate of Calcutta, but instead killed 2
Englishwomen. Khudiram Bose was hanged and Prafulla Chaki committed
suicide. Moreover in the Alipore Bomb Case Trial, several freedom fighters
like Barindra, Aurobindo and others were detained through the British police.
Khudiram Bose and another revolutionary named Kanailal Dutt became heroic
martyrs and inspirations for the young revolutionaries of Chittagong and other
Bengali youths as well. But the Indian Republican Army never aimed for
political murders of British officials. Even throughout extensive arrests and
detentions under a range of oppressive laws, the revolutionary group of
Masterda Surya Sen never lacked members as new recruits continuously
joined the armed revolt movement. Many arrests were made under a host of
exploitive laws, like the Defence of India Act 1915, but these groups never
lacked new members and their leaders were never out of new plans for
aggressive revolt. The plan for a national uprising was perhaps the mainly
grand of these, which took advantage of the concern of the British Empire
throughout World War I.

The first stage of the revolutionary freedom thrash about concluded with
the end of the Great War in 1918. Mainly of the leaders in the Presidency of
the Anushilan Samiti and the Jugantar party were arrested, hanged or
sentenced to transportation for life to Port Blair. Throughout this period the
revolutionary activities came to a halt, but numerous groups, set up through
young natives throughout Bengal, remained devoted towards armed revolution
as they whispered that it was the sole way of acquiring independence from the
British dominion.

In the year 1920, Mahatma Gandhi initiated the Non-Cooperation

Movement, which urged the native population to boycott British titles, schools
and colleges, councils, courts and foreign goods. He also requested the people
to take constructive work through establishing national educational institutes,
arbitration courts and developing unity flanked by Hindu and Muslim and the
elimination of untouchability. These resolutions greatly influenced Surya Sen
and his associates, who commenced from the foundation and evolved their
revolutionary ideals. The group aimed to associate with the Jugantar party or
the Anushilan Samiti. Accordingly Surya Sen and mainly of his friends
became a member of the Jugantar party, as it was not much centralized and
separate groups had important independence within its flexible structure.

All detents under the Defence of India Act were released, beside with the
leaders of the national revolutionary movements, after the Royal Proclamation
in 1919. The members of the Jugantar Party in Bengal joined the Indian
National Congress district committees and operated as volunteers. Throughout
this period, Surya Sen, Ambika Chakrabarti, Ananta Singh, Ganesh Ghosh and
their other associates came under the leadership of J.M. Sengupta, who was an
eminent lawyer and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi. As the Chittagong
revolutionary group totally immersed itself in the Non Cooperation Movement
of Gandhi, they became very disappointed after Mahatma Gandhi abolished
the movement on 11 February 1922, due to the violence in Chauri Chaura.

This decision of Gandhi made the previously committed volunteers to opt

for other action oriented principles and methods of attaining independence to
properly utilize the rising militant spirit awakened in the middle of the native
population. Many communist groups were shaped in dissimilar regions of the
nation and the thought of revolutionary terrorism was also revived after the
February decision. Master-Da Surya Sen assumed the decision to recommence
violent methods throughout the Chittagong Congress of April 1922. The
Indian Republican Army was in the second stage of the movement and was
determined to collect finance through robbing the British administration,
purchasing ammos and ammunitions, manufacturing bombs, developing
associations with other groups in Bengal to conduct simultaneous uprisings.

The members of the Indian Republican Army took several preparations for
Chittagong Armoury Raid like establishing physical training clubs in
Chittagong and gathering funds to purchase fire-arms. Nogendra Sen, who was
an ex-soldier, gave vital military training to the members of the Chittagong
revolutionary group who mannered the Chittagong uprising. The British
government of Bengal issued an ordinance on 25 October 1924 and several
such revolutionaries were detained. Subhas Chandra Bose was also arrested
under the ordinance. Many members of the Chittagong group were arrested
under the ordinance but Surya Sen supervised escape the British police for
approximately 2 years.
After 2 years, Surya Sen and other significant members of the Indian
Republican Army were released and gathered in the town of Chittagong. They
were trained to operate revolvers, manufacture sophisticated bombs, and fight
with the British police and hide underground. The leader of the Chittagong
revolutionary group, Masterda Surya Sen had learnt many valuable lessons
from the past years. The ideas of a nationwide uprising had drastically failed,
confidential information were to the British authorities, valuable time was
wasted on planning of gathering of funds through robberies and purchase of
arms and ammunitions.

The prominent members of the group in Chittagong decided to operate

independently and separately to successfully carry out an extra ordinary
uprising. It was further decided that the group will not be involved in any
robberies, arms smuggling and they would not depend on the renowned
leaders in Calcutta either. The revolutionaries resolved to produce their own
funds and construct an army that would share their ideals of national
independence through armed revolution. Master-Da Surya Sen was
determined to conduct small revolutionary activities that will be accepted out
successfully, instead of wasting more time on attaining an all India revolt.

The members of the Chittagong revolutionary group, the Indian

Republican Army, given their past dissatisfaction with Mahatma Gandhi and
the Indian National Congress, again felt let down through them. They were
further convinced that the Congress would be unable to give the lead at this
critical point. The prominent members of the group decided to conduct an
impressive action that would give a spectacular and inspiring instance to the
people of the nation, especially the youth of the country. The leaders of the
Indian Republican Army in Chittagong recruited new members and trained
them in order to plan every detail and take proper preparations for Chittagong
Armoury Raid case. Moreover, some of the members of the group were skilled
in the usage of arms and weapons, where as some other members achieved
expertise in political activities for the successful implementation of the plan.

DECLINE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY TERRORIST MOVEMENT

The revolutionary terrorist movement slowly declined in the 1930s. This

was for many reasons. The mainstream of the national movement, led through
Gandhiji, was opposed to violence and terrorism even when its leaders
admired the heroism of its youthful practitioners and defended them in the
courts and condemned the police repression directed against them.
Government's strong action also slowly decimated the revolutionary ranks.
With the death of Chandrashekar Azad on 27 February 1931 in an encounter
with the police in a public park at Allahabad, the revolutionary movement in
northern India came to a virtual end. Surya Sen's martyrdom marked the
virtual collapse of revolutionary terrorism in Bengal. Revolutionaries in jail or
in Andamans started a serious rethinking about their politics. A large number
of them turned to Marxism as Bhagat Singh and several of his comrades had
already done in the 1920s. Several joined the Communist Party, the Congress
Socialist Party, the Revolutionary Socialist Party and other left parties and
groups. Others joined the Gandhian wing of the Congress.
Even though the revolutionary terrorists of the 1920s and 1930s failed in
their stated objective of leading a mass-base attained thrash about or failed
even to establish get in touch with the masses, they made a major contribution
to the ongoing national thrash about against colonialism. Their courage and
sacrifice and their deep patriotism aroused the Indian people, especially the
youth gave them pride and self-confidence. In north India, Bhagat Singh and
his comrades also sowed the seeds of socialist thought and movement.
 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS—SOCIALIST IDEAS:
ROLE OF NEHRU AND BOSE

SOCIALIST IDEAS AND THE EARLY CONGRESS LEADERS

The leaders of the Indian National Congress, who were renowned public
men and the critics of the British Government and its policies, were aware of
Socialism or the Socialist traditions from the beginning. These leaders also
came in touch with several Socialist activities. Dababhai Naoroji, for instance,
had secure contacts with British Socialists like H.M. Hyndman and actually
attended the International Socialist Conference in Amsterdam (August 1904)
where he was given a rousing welcome. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
Lala Lajpat Rai were also reported to have maintained from time to time some
Socialist connections, and brooded on occasions over the evils of private
property and felt the need for providing equal opportunities for all. There were
several others within the Congress who were likewise knowledgeable, and
even favorably disposed towards Socialism.
The fact, though remains that the earlier nationalist leaders did not
seriously concern themselves with the Socialist ideology. Perhaps mainly of
them thought that adopting these ideas might weaken the national awakening,
and undermine the national unity the Congress was trying to build up. The
nationalist movement in India was conceived from the early days of the
Congress as a campaign for united opposition to the British misrule or as a
combined agitation for the attainment of Swaraj or self-rule. This "unification"
or "combination" was to encompass all communities, categories and classes of
people, including the rich and the poor, the landlords and the landless, the
mill-owners and the workers. It seems that the leaders of the Congress in its
early stage were afraid that Socialism, which encourages the resistance of the
exploited against the exploiters, and sets up workers against industrialists, and
peasants against landlords, would antagonize the wealthy and the well-to-do.
In that case their support and their money-power would not be accessible for
the nationalist cause. Such apprehensions were the outcome of insufficient
understanding of the nature of relations flanked by the British authorities and
their Indian collaborators, as well as of the potentialities of Socialism for
rallying the teeming millions of poverty-stricken, suffering people in anti-
imperialist thrash about.
The suspicion with which the earlier nationalists viewed Socialism was
actually understandable. Mainly of them came from the upper strata of the
Indian society - the Western educated middle class which incorporated the
categories of renters, professionals and entrepreneurs. Such elements would, at
the mainly, sympathize with the misfortunes of the common man from an
aloofness, and that too to the extent that their own interests were not
threatened. Furthermore, up to the First World War, the nationalists in the
Congress were trying only to win concessions from the British regime through
resolutions, representations and debates. They were engaged primarily in
constitutional politics and agitations within the limits the British masters
allowed them. They had not usually thought of raising mass movements or
stirring popular actions, with the solitary exception of the Swadeshi movement
(1905-8).
Therefore , when the masses of Indian people did not form an integral part
of their political programme, the earlier nationalists scarcely felt an urge to
come closer to them. It would not be, though, correct to surmise that the
earlier nationalists of the Congress had not kept the oppressed, the humiliated
and the down-trodden within their sight at all, or had not incorporated them in
their scheme of the future in any way. They were convinced that the
attainment of self-government or the fulfillment of the political objective in
itself would turn India into a happy and prosperous country. Once prosperity
returned, they whispered that the ills of economic disparity would disappear
from the country, and a just and equitable system would emerge. Valid or not,
this line of thinking dominated the proceedings of the Congress for a long
time, even up to the mid-1930s. But the birth of a contrary line of thinking
within the Congress, parallel to the dominant one, could not be prevented
under a changed political climate.

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU AND SOCIALISM

Nehru was socialist and at the same times a democrat. His pragmatic ideas
on democratic socialisms are as follows:
Concept of freedom: Nehru highly esteemed freedom. Through his
concept of freedom he meant the freedom of speech and expression,
association and many other characteristics of creativity. Having
observed the pitfalls of democracy he viewed that democracy will
function smoothly in the free, equal and classless society which gives
equal opportunity of all. He had given integrated conception of
political, social and economic freedom which will only operate in a
socialistic pattern of society.
Characteristics of the socialistic pattern of society: For the promotion
of freedom, a socialistic pattern of society is indispensable. It should
involve the characteristics like removal of poverty; reduction of
inequalities of income and wealth; provision of equal opportunities to
all; check on concentration of economic power, curbing monopolistic
tendencies; democratic values, mixed economy etc. In his words: "I
gazed at the millions of friendly eyes that looked at me and I tried to
understand what lay behind them. The more I saw of India the more I
felt how little I know of her infinite charm and diversity." Being halted
through plights of the teeming millions of Indian people, Nehru
adopted a socialistic pattern of society.
Belief in parliamentary democracy: Nehru was a firm believer in the
parliamentary democracy. He had full faith on the ruling party and
healthy opposition. He whispered on universal adult suffrage for the
success of democracy. For the success of parliamentary democracy, he
put emphasis on the rule of majority, methods of discussion,
negotiation, persuasion and so on. The press, judiciary and public
opinion will have a check on the legislators and will be the guard in
checking corruptions in parliamentary democracy.
Peaceful solution to class disagreement: In a democratic-socialistic set-
up, Nehru opined that class disagreement should be ended through
peaceful solution. He never whispered in the Marxian thought of class
thrash about or communist-policy of 'ruthless suppression'. On a
democratic set-up, due caution should be taken to put an end to the
class conflicts inside the society.
Social development through planning: Nehru thought to bring all-
around development of the society through planning. It will help in
eliminating poverty and achieving social justice for the masses.
Through planning, he wanted to raise national income and to spend
them in productive channels for the improvement of the lot of the poor
people of India. The First Five Year Plan (1951-56), the Second Five
Year Plan (1956-61) and the Third Five Year Plan (1961 -66)
galvanized Nehru's democratic socialism.
Public sector vis-à-vis private sector: Nehru wanted to achieve far
reaching consequences in the field of democratic socialism. So, he put
emphasis on 'Mixed Economy'. For the improvement of the economic
condition of India, Nehru wanted a secure collaboration of private
sector with public sector. He further wanted the development of human
possessions for achieving this end. Through following the thought of
'Mixed Economy', he wanted massive industrialization in the nook and
corner of India.
Cooperative movement: For the success of democratic socialism,
Nehru put emphasis on the cooperative movement in India. He rejected
the trusteeship thought of Gandhi and viewed that the wealthy persons
should own the factories etc. and the poor will work there. The State
should come to help for maintaining these factories etc. granting loan.
That will be possible through cooperative societies. So, he conjured the
vision of a modern India which will maintain a primary school, a
Panchayat and cooperative society. Through instituting democratic
socialism, Nehru adopted a middle path flanked by capitalism and
communism. So, he preached democratic socialism. In his words, I
necessity frankly confess that I am a socialist and a republican and I
 am no believer in king's industry, who has greater power over the lives
and fortunes of men.‖

SUBHAS CHABDRA BOSE AND SOCIALISM

For Subhas Chandra Bose, India's freedom movement was a two-stage

thrash about. The first stage was the thrash about for political freedom from
the British and the second was the thrash about for establishing a socialist
society in free India. As a leader of the masses, Bose's understanding of the
socio-economic troubles of India was conditioned through his observation of
people's sufferings. He was not a theorist in the strict sense of the term. He had
no time for academic discussions on socialism and its possible adoption in
India. Though, he had, at several stages, made recognized his conviction to
establish socialism in India to rescue it from the socio-economic morass. He
made this point for the first time in his speech before the Bengal Branch of the
Independence for India League in October 1928. In the League's manifesto,
which he helped draft, he spelt out his concept of economic democracy, which
aimed at removing economic inequality, achieving equitable sharing of
national wealth, securing equal opportunity for all, and improving the standard
of living of the people. This manifesto was, for all purposes, a document
advocating socialism for India.

His proposal for industrial reconstruction incorporated:

Large scale production through machines,
Nationalization of vital industries,
Nationalization of railways, shipping and airways,
Consultative status for workers on industrial management, especially
in areas of appointment, retrenchment and profit- sharing, and
Resolution of industrial disputes through a neutral arbitration board
For labour welfare, he had also variously suggested
Tax on inherited property,
Ceiling on individual ownership of capital,
Easy credit through co-operatives,
Eight-hours of working,
Unemployment allowance and old-age pension,
Insurance against illness and accident,
Maternity benefits and crèches for workers' children, and
Housing and adequate leave

On agriculture, he proposed uniform land-tenure system, taxing

agricultural income at a uniform rate, cancellation of agricultural debt through
state intervention and adequate compensation, and abolition of the Zamindari
system.

In 1929, Bose raised a demand for "full socialism", and came secure to
Bhagat Singh's socialist organisation Hindustan Republication Army.
Addressing the Midnapore Youth Conference in 1929, he said: "…A new
society has to be recognized on basis of full socialism. Economic disparity is
to be removed and everybody, man and woman, is to be given equal
opportunity for education and advancement in life. We necessity see that a
sovereign state is recognized on a socialist basis." He reiterated his preference
for socialism in 1930 in his letter to the revolutionary leader, Barindra Kumar
Ghosh (younger brother of Shri Aurobindo). "...We do not want political
freedom alone. We want freedom from all bondage. Our freedom thrash about
is meant to break all the three types of bondage - political, economic and
social. Only then will a free and classless society based on socialism be
recognized. The establishment of a classless society is the main objective of
our freedom thrash about."

For Subhas Chandra Bose, socialism was not a foreign ideology. He

whispered that Indian socialism was rooted in ancient India and in the Indian
renaissance of the 19th century. In his presidential address to the Rangpur
Political Conference (March 30, 1929) he said: "…This socialism does not
derive its birth from the books of Karl Marx. It has its origin in the thought
and culture of India…We have to shape our society and politics according to
our own ideals and according to our need." Addressing the Maharashtra
Political Conference (May 3, 1928), Bose observed: "Communism is not a
western institution. In the middle of the Khasis of Assam...private property as
an institution does not exit even in theory. ….I am sure that similar instances
can still be found in other parts of India and also in the history of the country."

In his presidential address to the All-India Naojawan Bharat Shabha,

(Karachi, March 1931), he said: "…I want to see the establishment of a
Socialist Republic in India". Observing that political emancipation should go
hand-in-hand with economic freedom, he said: "...Right to work and enough
wages for sustenance necessity be ensured for all. There will be no place in
society for the idle and everybody necessity enjoy equal opportunity. Above
all, sharing of wealth and income necessity be equal and just for all. Hence, it
is imperative that the state necessity be responsible for production as well as
sharing."

Five principles of socialism

Bose refined his concept of socialism further in his address to the Mathura
session of the United Provinces Branch of the Naojawan Bharat Sabha, (May
1931): "…The basis of our communal social life will be justice, equality,
freedom, discipline and love…. These five principles constitute the essence of
socialism, which I wish to see recognized in India. (Marxist) socialism, when
applied in India, will provide birth to a new type of socialism, which is to be
christened as 'Indian socialism'. It is not possible to ignore national
environment and character, socio-economic circumstances...We necessity
assimilate the knowledge and experience of others through assessing them in
the light of our needs and national character."

In his presidential address to the All-India Trade Union Congress in

Calcutta, (July 1931), Bose said: "…I have no doubt in my mind that the
salvation of India, as of the world, depends on socialism. India should learn
from and profit through the experience of other nations - but India should be
able to evolve her own methods in keeping with her own needs and her own
environment. …India should evolve her own form of socialism. It may be that
the form of socialism which India will evolve will have something new and
original about it, which benefit the whole world".

In his speech at the Third Indian Political Conference held in London in

June 1933, Bose said: "…Free India shall not be a country of capitalists,
hoarders and of any scrupulous community. Free India shall be a socially and
politically democratic country."

Hailing the birth of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934, Bose said
that socialism was not an "immediate problem" for the Indian people.
Nevertheless "socialist propaganda could be mannered only through a party
like the Congress Socialist Party", which stands for and believes in socialism.
Though Bose was not a member of the CSP, he had openly said that he had
been "in agreement with its general principles and policy from the very
beginning".

It is to be noted that the CSP had made it clear that its programme was
based on Marxian socialism and the word 'Congress' was prefixed to 'Socialist'
to signify the organic ties of that organisation with the national movement.

IMPETUS TO SOCIALISM IN THEORY AND PRACTICE

It was in August 1928 that Jawaharlal launched the Independence for India
League as a pressure group within the Congress. The aim behind this move
was:
To counter the concept of Dominion Status,
To plead for complete independence of India from the British, and
To work for the establishment of an Indian republic on Socialist lines.
 Subhas joined him in this venture, and they jointly moved in a resolution at
the Calcutta session of Congress (December 1928) to replace the Congress
goal of "Dominion Status" through "Complete Independence". They could
only achieve limited success but were able to generate awareness for this
demand. The actual success came after that year when Jawaharlal became the
President of the Congress and its Lahore session (December 1929) adopted
"Complete Independence" as the goal. With the hoisting of the tri-colored flag
of independence through the Congress President in the midnight of 31
December 1929 in Lahore, and the nation-wide observance of the
Independence Day on 26 January 1930, the nationalist movement recognized
fully its anti-imperialist credentials. But the content of Complete
Independence or the quality of independence that the common man of free
India should enjoy, was not adequately defined even at this point.
Though, the trend of thinking of leaders like Jawaharlal and Subhas and a
large number of their followers (who had already been calling themselves
"leftist Congressmen" vis-à-vis the more careful and the less militant "rightist
Congress men") was not hard to follow. It was quite apparent from the way
Jawaharlal and Subhas were communicating to the people in general and to the
youth (through the Youth League, the Hindusthani Seva Dal, the Naujawan
Bharat Sabha and the Volunteers' movement), the students (through the
students' organisations and conferences) and the workers (mainly through the
All India Trade Union Congress whose Presidentship was taken over through
Jawaharlal in 1929 and Subhas in 1931) in scrupulous. Their exposure of the
nature of imperialism, their concern for the toiling people and their anxiety for
ensuring social and economic justice stirred popular imagination. Both Nehru
and Bose were in prison when the massive Civil Disobedience Movement was
launched (Subhas from January to September 1930 and Jawaharlal from April
to October 1930), yet they contributed in their own ways to the expanding
social base of the agitation, and inspired people from several strata to take part
in it. Simultaneously, whether Jawaharlal and Subhas were inside the prison or
out of it, their own ideas were taking a definite shape.
This was more specifically true of Jawaharlal, who was able to provide an
indication of the type of independence that the Congress necessity stand for. In
his draft of the Fundamental Rights that was adopted in the Karachi session of
the Congress (March 1931), Jawaharlal unequivocally stated: "In order to end
the use of the masses, political freedom necessity contain real economic
freedom of the starving millions". He went on to demand:
Living wages for workers,
Special taxes on property, and
The state control and ownership of key industries, mineral possessions,
railways,
Waterways, shipping and other means of transport.

Personally, Jawaharlal was even willing to do absent with the institution of

private property, which according to him, "gives dangerous powers to
individuals over society as a whole". It was, though, not possible to carry with
him in this matter several Congressmen, who represented several sectional
interests, to demand the abolition of landlordism and sharing of land to the
landless. Even as it stood, the content of the Fundamental Rights and
Economic Programme of 1931 should be regarded as a significant step in the
march towards Congress Socialism.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT, 1930-1934

Civil Disobedience Movement, launched under the leadership of Mahatma

Gandhi, in 1930, was one of the mainly important stages of Indian freedom
thrash about. The Simon Commission, which was shaped in November 1927
through the British Government to chart and conclude a Constitution for India,
incorporated members of the British Parliament only. As a result, the
Commission was boycotted through every section of the Indian social and
political platforms as an `All-White Commission`. The opposition to the
Simon Commission in Bengal was noteworthy. In disapproval against the
Commission, a `Hartal` or Strike was observed on 3rd of February, 1928 in
several parts of the region. Widespread demonstrations were held in Kolkata
on 19th of February, 1928, the day of Simon`s arrival to the city. Further, on
1st of March, 1928, meetings were held simultaneously in all 32 wards of the
city, spurring people to restore the movement for boycott of British goods.

Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May, 1930, just days before his
projected raid on the Dharasana Salt Works. The Dandi March and the
resultant Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Civil
Disobedience Movement through widespread newspaper coverage. It
sustained for approximately a year, ending with the release of Mahatma
Gandhi from jail and after the discussions at the Second Round Table
Conference with Viceroy Lord Irwin. The crusade had a important effect on
changing British attitudes toward Indian independence and caused vast
numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight for the first time. The Salt
March to Dandi and the flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in
Dharasana, marked the efficient use of civil disobedience as a method for
fighting social and political injustice.

On 8th of April 1929, members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican

Association attacked the assembly chamber of the Imperial Legislative
Council in Delhi. In response, Lord Irwin published a Public Safety Bill.
Moreover, on 31st of October, Lord Irwin announced that the natural
constitutional progress of India was the attainment of Dominion Status. The
Congress Party indicated its willingness to cooperate in formulating a
Dominion constitution. In November, measures were accepted in such a way
that Congress rejected the declaration.
 On 23rd of December, Lord Irwin met with Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Tej Bahadur
Sapru in New Delhi. Erwin though, could not arrive at an agreement for
framing a constitution under Dominion Status. At the ensuing 1930 annual
meeting of the Congress Party held at Lahore, the Congress declared itself for
independence rather than Dominion Status and authorised a campaign of Civil
Disobedience. Gandhi`s Civil Disobedience Movement came out as a march to
Dandi, in objection to the tax on salt. Gandhi reached Dandi on April 6th, and
explicitly violated the salt law.

On 18th of April, around one hundred revolutionaries attacked police and

railway armories at Chittagong. Mahatma Gandhi condemned the raid, which
had made a deep impression throughout India. On 5th of May, the
Government of India had Gandhi arrested and lodged at Yervada Jail close to
Pune. Following the arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, the British faced the full
programme of Civil Disobedience as composed of Indian raids on salt depots,
refusal to pay taxes in chosen areas, spirits and avoidance of business with all
British firms, disobedience of forest laws and boycott of foreign cloth.

On 30th of June, the Government of India outlawed the All-India Congress

Committee and the Congress Working Committee. Further, on 23rd of July,
Lord Irwin facilitated visits to Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru through
two Indian Liberals, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and Mukund Ramrao Jayakar, for
the purpose of finding ways to end civil disobedience movement. On 25th of
January 1931, Lord Irwin authorised Gandhi`s release from prison and
withdrew prohibition of illegality against the Congress Working Committee.

Flanked by February to March, 1931, Lord Irwin and Gandhi met in a

series of talks seeking settlement of the issues originating from the civil
disobedience movement. In the agreement reached on 5th of March, Gandhi
agreed to discontinue Civil Disobedience as it embraced defiance of the law,
non-payment of land revenue, publication of news-sheets, termination of its
boycott of British goods and the restraint of aggressive picketing. The
Government of India agreed to cancel ordinances opposing the movement, to
release Indian prisoners, return fines and property.

GANDHI IRWIN PACT

The well-recognized Gandhi Irwin Pact was a important point in India`s

thrash about for independence. Mahatma Gandhi and the then Viceroy of India
Lord Irwin on signed this historic pact on 5th March 1931.
 This political agreement put forward sure specific action points to be
initiated through the colonial government of India as well as the Indian
National Congress. The significant points those are discussed in the Pact are as
follows:
Discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement through the Indian
National Congress, participation in the Round Table Conference through the
Indian National Congress, the removal of the salt tax which allowed Indians to
produce, trade, and sell salt legally for their own use, the release of prisoners
arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement, removal of all
ordinances issued through the British Government imposing curbs on the
activities of the Indian National Congress and removal of all prosecutions
relating to many types of offences except those involving violence.

POONA PACT

Poona Pact of 1932 is an agreement flanked by the untouchables or

depressed classes of India and the Hindus. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar led the
depressed class. The Poona Pact took place at Yerawada Jail in Pune,
Maharashtra on 24th September, 1932.

Throughout the first Round Table Conference, Ambedkar favored the

move of the British Government to give separate electorate for the oppressed
classes as was done in case of other minorities like Muslims, Sikh etc. The
British invited several Indian leaders in Round Table Conferences throughout
1930-32 to draft a new constitution involving self rule for native Indians.
Mahatma Gandhi did not attend the first Round Table but was present in the
later ones. Gandhiji strongly opposed the proposal of separate electorate for
the depressed classes as he thought that it would disintegrate Hindu society.
He went for an indefinite hunger strike starting from September 20,1932
against the decision of the then British Prime Minister J.Ramsay Mac Donald.
Mr. Ramsay granted communal award to the depressed classes as he gave
them separate position in the constitution for governance of British India.

The whole country was agitated at the health concern of Mahatma Gandhi.
A mass upsurge generated in India to save the life of Gandhiji. Ambedkar was
put in a great pressure and he was forced to soften his stand. The compromise
flanked by the leaders of caste Hindu and the depressed classes was achieved
when Dr. B.R.Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact on September 24, 1932. The
resolution was announced in a public meeting on September 25 in Bombay,
which confirmed-" henceforth, amongst Hindus no one shall be regarded as an
untouchable through cause of his birth and they will have the same rights in all
the social institutions as the other Hindus have". This was a landmark step for
Dalit movement in India that gave share to the Dalits in the political
empowerment of democratic India.

The following text represents the agreement achieved flanked by the

leaders acting on behalf of the oppressed classes and of rest of the community,
concerning the position of that scrupulous class in the legislature and sure
other matters involved with their welfare.
Central Legislature:
There shall be reserved seats for the depressed classes out of general
electorate seats in the provincial legislature as follows- Madras 30;
Bombay with Sind 25; Punjab 8; Bihar and Orissa 18; Central
Provinces 20; Assam 7; Bengal 30; United Provinces 20. Total 148.
These figures are based on the Prime Minister`s (British) decision.
Election to these seats shall be through joint electorate subjects through
the following procedures - the members of the depressed classes
shaped the Electoral College, which was in liberty to elect the panel of
the depressed classes. Voting system was taken into consideration
then. The legislature pointed out that the method of the single vote and
four persons getting the highest number of votes in such primary
elections shall be the candidates for election through the general
electorate.
The symbol of the Depressed Classes in the Central Legislature shall
be based on the principle of joint electorates and reserved seats through
the method of primary election in the manner provided for in clause
above for their representation in the provincial legislatures.
In the Central Legislature eighteen per cent of the seats allotted to the
general electorate for British India in the said legislature shall be
reserved for the Depressed Classes.
The system of primary election to a panel of candidates for election to
the Central and Provincial Legislatures as herein-before mentioned
shall come to an end after the first ten years, unless terminated sooner
through mutual agreement under the provision of clause 6 below.
The system of representation of Depressed Classes through reserved
seats in the Provincial and Central Legislatures as provided for in
clauses (1) and (4) shall continue until determined otherwise through
mutual agreement flanked by the communities concerned in this
settlement.
The Franchise for the Central and Provincial Legislatures of the
Depressed Classes shall be as indicated, in the Lothian Committee
Report.
There shall be no disabilities attached to any one on the ground of his
being a member of the Depressed Classes in regard to any election to
local bodies or appointment to the public services. Every endeavour
shall be made to secure a fair representation of the Depressed Classes
 in these respects, subject to such educational qualifications as may be
laid down for appointment to the Public Services.
In every province out of the educational grant an adequate sum shall be
ear-marked for providing educational facilities to the members of
Depressed Classes.

WOMEN IN THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

Women Throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in Mumbai

Women throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in Mumbai participated
in large numbers. In fact when Mahatma Gandhi returned to politics he
launched a civil disobedience campaign that brought large numbers of women
into public life. Women`s participation in the civil disobedience movement of
1930-32 differed significantly from their earlier participation in the early
1920`s in conditions of both their numbers as well as stage of involvement.

The picketing and demonstration through the women of Mumbai received

more press attention than women`s activities in any other part of the country.
The numbers of women marching were in the thousands and their pickets were
organized and effective. That the women of Mumbai took the lead seemed
natural given the cosmopolitan nature of the city, its transportation system,
and the attendance of Parsees and Christians, both communities supportive of
female education. The large Gujarati population found the message of their
fellow Gujarati, Gandhi, especially appealing. The women`s political
organisation, the Rashtriya Stree Sangha (RSS), had remained under the
presidency of Sarojini Naidu with Goshiben Naoroji Captain and Avantikabai
Gokhale as vice-presidents. It stated its goals as Swaraj and women`s
emancipation. Through 1930, the leadership and structure of the RSS were
sufficiently developed for it to generate a new, smaller organisation, the Desh
Sevika Sangha (Women Serving the County) (DSS) whose members were
ready for action.

Launch of Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi began the civil disobedience campaign in March of 1930 with his
240-mile march from Ahmedabad to Dandi to create salt in defiance of the
British monopoly. Women were very much involved and gathered at every
stop to hear the Mahatma speak. The police reported meetings where there
were thousands of women; in one case they estimated there were 10,000
women in the crowd. Gandhi talked to these village women about their
patriotic duties- picketing liquor and toddy shops, boycotting taxed salt, and
spinning and wearing khaddar. He noted that women`s patience and antipathy
to violence made them particularly well suited for constructive work.

Gandhi was constructing a new ideal for Indian woman that rewrote
passivity and self-suffering as strength. Gujarati women living in Mumbai
responded to this message through forming an organization to plan and direct
efforts to secure shops selling foreign cloth.

Women`s Campaign in Mumbai

April 6, the anniversary of the Amritsar massacre, was chosen fort the
formal breaking of the salt laws. A front line of seven people, including two
women, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Avantikabai Gokhale, were the first
to step onto the beach, light fires, and boil sea water. The crowds that
appeared were larger than anyone had expected. The Bombay Chronicle
reported that thousands of Gujarati women had gathered at the Chowpatty Sea
Face, collecting sea water in their brass and copper jugs. In the heart of the
city, women volunteers picketed liquor shops and asked owners to secure their
doors and patrons to leave the premises. Other women sold salt on the streets,
while still others went from house to house urging housewives to buy only
Swadeshi products. The DSS had intended and supervised this campaign. In
the early excitement of activity, women flocked to join this organization that
soon had 560 members.

Demonstrations and picketing sustained in Mumbai until 1931 when

Gandhi was released from jail. Throughout this time women proved their
effectiveness in agitational politics. Merchants, faced with women picketing
their shops, signed the pledge not to sell foreign cloth until an honorable peace
had been arranged for the country. On the streets women joined men for flag-
raisings and demonstrations.

The Desh Sevikas organized a number of demonstrations that grabbed

headlines and inspired women all over India. Processions of one to two
thousand women, accompanied through their children, were not unusual at this
time. Even larger numbers came to listen to speeches about Swadeshi and
freedom. The largest crowd celebrated Gandhi`s birthday and the release from
prison of three of the mainly significant women leaders: Lilavati Munshi,
Perin Captain and Mrs. Lukanji. A mile-long chain of women, led through
sevikas dressed in orange saris and carrying placards, numbered more than
5,000. Crowds of 10,000 assembled at both ends of this parade. These
numbers could not be matched in other areas of India, but patriotic women
everywhere emulated the spirit.
Women Throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in North India
Women in the Civil Disobedience Movement in North Bengal joined in
large numbers and were active participating members of the public. In North
India women from Allahabad, Lucknow, Delhi and Lahore joined public
demonstrations and shocked a public unused to seeing respectable women in
the streets without veils. In these northern cities demonstrations occasionally
attracted as several as 1,000 women, but mainly of them were much smaller.
They were dramatic events because of their unusual quality rather than their
size. The leadership for these movements came from a few families, such as
the Nehrus and the Zutshis, and mainly demonstrators came from schools and
colleges. Unlike other parts of the country, women`s organizations were
neither the training ground nor recruiting stations for politically active women.

In Allahabad women from the Nehru family were significant leaders. They
made public speeches and went from door to door urging women to join the
movement. Swarup Rani Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru`s old and frail mother,
appeared from a lifetime in the Zenana to walk through the streets in khaddar.
Kamala Nehru, Jawaharlal`s wife, was constantly on the move at this time,
demonstrating in Allahabad, speaking in Lucknow, traveling to Mumbai, and
taking a more active role than her health had previously allowed. Her message
was also direct- all necessity join, take the vow of Swadeshi, and wear
khaddar. If women united, the rebellion could never be crushed.
In Lahore demonstrations against the Simon Commission were marked
through violence. The police lathi-charged the demonstrators and struck Lala
Lajpat Rai, the great patriot of the Punjab, who died a few months later from
his injuries. When Congress met in Lahore in 1929, Sardar Bhagat Singh (later
hanged for revolutionary activities) organized the Lahore Students` Union.
Lado Rani Zutshi, the wife of Motilal Nehru`s nephew, and three of her
daughters, Manmohini, Shyama and Janak, led the movement in Lahore.

Therefore the atmosphere was already charged with patriotic fervor when
the announcement of civil disobedience gave these young people a focus.
Speaking to students Jawaharlal suggested they go to the banks of the Ravi
River and symbolically "create salt" and then concentrate on picketing foreign
cloth and liquor shops.

In Delhi, Satyavati Devi, the granddaughter of Swami Shraddhanand,

became one of the leaders of the Movement. When Satyavati Devi spoke to
women, she reminded them of her lineage and urged them to join her in
creation personal sacrifices for the nation. Satyavati Devi urged women to
take the field because foreign domination was unbearable. Seeing her
inflammatory speeches and judging her as a potential threat the authorities
made a fast move. They arrested and imprisoned Satyavati Devi, released her,
re-arrested her, and finally sentenced her to two years imprisonment in 1932.
 Women`s demonstrations in Delhi had a great impact on the men who
witnessed them. The government‘s confidential records contain detailed
reports of how women`s activities brought men into the movement. On one
occasion Delhi women, dressed in red saris, blocked access to the courts. They
were bounded through male supporters who acted as a protective shield. The
women were steadfast in the face of police attacks and astounded everyone
with their bravery.

The Movement in the North involved women from dissimilar spheres of

life, both the elite as well as the women without any education. Women
leaders wanted to mobilize their less sophisticated sisters for political action
and for this purpose they actively involved them in the several political
movements of the nation without concentrating on the feminist issue at this
point in time.

Women Throughout Civil Disobedience in Chennai

Women throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in Chennai participated
quite enthusiastically even though their political demonstrations were less
dramatic than those in either Mumbai or Bengal. Women picketed and
marched in processions but it was always hard to mobilize large numbers of
women for action. Even though there was seen support given to the Swadeshi
pledge for spinning, wearing, and selling khaddar, usually the women of
Chennai did not join the revolutionary movement much and nor were they the
subjects of extreme police violence.

The cause for the low participation of women lies in the nature of the
politics of Chennai as well as the tactics of the nationalist movement in this
province. First, there had been considerable debate within the Madras
Congress as to whether or not to accept Mahatma Gandhi`s leadership. There
were several leaders who did not support his plan. Second, Congress was seen
as a party of the Brahmin elite. Third, in other parts of the country women
were especially successful in enforcing the boycott of foreign-made cloth. In
Chennai, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, a leading member of Congress, was
more concerned with prohibition than with foreign cloth. Secretary of the
Prohibition League of India and member in charge of the anti-drink campaign
of the Indian National Congress, he regarded this as an issue that went beyond
caste and community and had the potential to unite people in a thrash about
against the government. Unluckily, picketing liquor shops was one of the
mainly dangerous forms of protest in Chennai and deemed inappropriate for
women.

S. Ambujammal was the only daughter of S. Srinivasa Iyengar, a brilliant

lawyer and Congress leader. She had heard a lot about and been greatly
influenced through Mahatma Gandhi. She joined the Non Cooperation
Movement in 1920, began to wear khaddar and spin. Her real entry into the
nationalist movement came in 1928 when she decided to form the Women`s
Swadeshi League. Members of the League took the Swadeshi vow, spun a sure
amount of thread each month, and spread the word about the value or
homespun cloth.
Ambujammal became president of this organization with Mrs. Jamammal
as treasurer. Krishnabai Rau organized the Desh Sevikas (Women Serving the
Country), women willing to picket, and Indirabai Rau (Krishnabai s sister)
took over propaganda. In the beginning this organization consisted of the
officers and a few other women who met daily to spin and discuss the progress
of the protest movement. When the call came to women to join the movement
they went door to door preaching the value of Swadeshi, organized Swadeshi
exhibitions, sold khaddar in the streets, and joined men in picketing. Women
especially enjoyed joining Prabhat Pheries or morning walks when they sang
freedom songs. In the early morning hours women, sometimes numbering in
the hundreds, would walk through the streets singing songs of Swadeshi and
Swaraj.

Krishnabai Rau, a loyal Gandhian since childhood, responded to Gandhi`s

call for civil disobedience through resigning her position as lecturer in
Crosthwaite Girls` College, Allahabad, and returning to Chennai. Well
recognized for her leadership skills and skill to speak publicly (as a student
Krishnabai had organized the Madras Youth League and given proof before
the Joshi Commission), she organized the Desh Sevika Sangha under the
guidance of the Swadeshi League. Dressed in orange saris and blouses, DSS
women picketed foreign cloth shops with men volunteers.

When the police first moved against the demonstrators, they attacked the
men but not the women. This only strengthened women`s resolve to join the
movement against the British. It was not long before the police began to treat
women protesters the same as men. Chennai women were in the middle of the
first arrested in the country. Rukmani Lakshmipathy, accompanying C.
Rajagopalachari in his march to Vedaranyam to break the salt laws in 1931,
was arrested and became the first female political prisoner in Vellore women`s
jail.

At a meeting held to protest the brutal treatment of the Satyagrahis, 5,000

mill-hands began to stone the watching police. The police retaliated through
lathi-charging the group, killing three people and wounding five. This event
frightened both congress leaders and women Satyagrahis neither of whom
wished to incite mob violence or provoke police retaliation. It had the effect of
dampening the enthusiasm of women for mass demonstrations.

Therefore , though the participation of the Chennai women in the Civil

Disobedience Movement was more restricted than in other parts of the country
their limited participation too showed the enthusiasm of women to participate
in the nationalist thrash about.

Women in Throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in Bengal

Women throughout Civil Disobedience Movement in Bengal were very
active in their demonstrations and commitment. The women of Kolkata made
and sold salt, picketed cloth and liquor shops, preached the value of khaddar,
and took processions into the streets. The city, which was a capital under
British India, was also the heart of revolutionary thrash about and women`s
colleges became centres for recruiting new members. In district towns and
villages women joined processions, wore khaddar, and hid fleeing
revolutionaries.

Activities of Women`s Organisations during Civil Disobedience Movement

There were a number of women`s organizations that were mobilizing
women throughout this time. The Mahila Rashtriya Sangha (MRS), begun in
1928, was the first formal organization to mobilize women for political work.
Latika Ghosh, an Oxford-educated teacher, founded this organization because
Subhas Chandra Bose had asked her to. The MRS had goals similar to the RSS
in Mumbai- they wanted to achieve Swaraj and improve women`s
status. Kolkata women shaped the Nari Satyagraha Samiti (NSS) in 1929 in
response to the Congress call for women to be ready to serve the nation. This
group had a core of fifteen to twenty women who were willing to picket and
risk arrest. They were all Bengali women belonging to the three highest castes:
Brahmin, Kayasthas and Vaidyas. They were educated, from professional
families, and had all observed some form of the Purdah System. They chose
white khaddar saris as their uniform. A number of women took part in the
active demonstrations and marches. Middle-class women, rarely seen outside
their own homes, astounded the general public when they appeared as
Satyagrahis. 22 women were arrested for picketing in July of 1930.

Women`s Revolutionary Organisations throughout Civil Disobedience

Movement At the same time as these women were picketing and joining
pro cessions, other women were recruited through revolutionary organizations.
Whereas previously women had supported revolutionaries through keeping
house for them, spreading propaganda, collecting funds, hiding and
transporting weapons, and even creation explosives, now they were directly
involved in revolutionary acts. In some cases women joined the
revolutionaries because they wanted action and were shocked through police
violence. These contain women like Kamala Dasgupta who joined the
revolutionary group Jugantar. Mainly of the women who became involved
with revolutionary groups at this time were students, as revolutionary ideals
have a natural appeal to the young. Though, these young women had very
little physical autonomy as they were socialized to behave modestly.

The Chattri Sangha was an Association for Female Students shaped

through Bina Das, her elder sister Kalyani, Surama Mitra and Kamala
Dasgupta for the discussion of revolutionary matters. When Mahatma Gandhi
described for Civil Disobedience in 1930, Kalyani led the Chattri Sangha girls
in a demonstration outside Bethune College. Even when the police ordered
these young women to disperse they stood their ground. Finally, the British
Commissioner, fed up with police ineptitude, ordered the imprisonment of
women leading these demonstrations.

On April 18, 1930, the Indian Republican Army, a revolutionary

organization led through Surya Sen, attacked the city of Chittagong. The
police successfully counter-attacked within a few hours but this daring strike,
as the Intelligence Bureau noted, had an electric effect on young people.

By1933 mainly of the women revolutionaries were in prison. There had

been flanked by sixty and seventy women who had aided the revolutionary
groups, and of those almost forty were imprisoned. They were patriotic young
women and their aim had been to arouse the masses to action. Educated,
knowledgeable about political issues, they also wanted to prove that women
could be as brave as men.

Rural Women in the Civil Disobedience Movement

In the rural districts of Midnapur, 24 Parganas, Khulna, Bakhergunge,
Noakhali and Chittagong women responded to the call to break the salt laws.
Though, police action against the demonstrating women was quite severe.
Police violence against demonstrating women in Contai was so severe that
Congress described for an enquiry. The findings were serious enough to merit
special government instructions to the Bengal police to deal gently with
women protesters. The police were particularly vicious in Chittagong where
the armoury raid and the proclamation of a Free India through Surya Sen`s
group had posed a clear threat. Since village people aided the fleeing
revolutionaries, all villagers were regarded as potential enemies. Therefore
the participation of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement in Bengal
was quite immense.
SECOND STAGE OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

The government reacted to the second stage of the civil disobedience

movement with the mainly severe measures of repression that it yet had
resorted to. Congress was again outlawed, and more than a lakh of persons
were arrested. The inhuman treatment meted out to men, women and also
children. One may sum up using the words of a report compiled through an
independent English organization, `In 1932 the ordinances and now the acts
recently passed deprive the Indian people of the rights of personal freedom
and safeguard which, mainly British people consider, exist under British law
everywhere.

The Indian people refused to be cowed into submission. There was

picketing of cloth and liquor shops, salt satyagrahas, forest-law violations, and
nonpayment of rent and of revenue. The national flag was hoisted in several
places. The banned congress held an illegal session in Delhi, and congress
activities went on despite police arrests. But it was hard to keep up a high
pitch of enthusiasm over a long period of time. Jawaharlal Nehru has
commented, `the initial push of inspiration was far less than in 1930. It was as
if we entered unwillingly into battle. There was a glory about it in 1930, which
had faded two-years later`.

Yet the people persisted until finally the movement was suspended through
Gandhiji in may 1933.

The civil disobedience movement demonstrated that the Indian people

were willing to thrash about and suffer to reach their goal of independence.
But the British still held power, and they were determined to keep it as long as
they could. They would listen only to `moderate` demands for dominion
status; accept only `moderate` constitutional methods. The movement had
made it clear that the rulers could not govern effectively without the people`s
co-operation. But the government‘s policy of repression compelled the people
to draw back from direct confrontation, and to carry on the thrash about at the
negotiating table and in the council hall.

At the same time that the civil disobedience movement was altering the
balance of power in India, work was progressing in London on a new
`constitution`. It was planned to keep as much control as possible in the hands
of the British. Several years went into the creation of this reactionary
document. The Simon commission had been the first step. The commission‘s
report was submitted in 1930. It provided the basis for the discussions at the
round table conferences.

In March 1933, the government published its conclusions in a white paper.

This was measured over the after that few months `through a joint select
committee` made up of members of both houses of the British parliament.
Some `safe` Indian delegates were nominated through the government to take
part in these deliberations. But they sat in as consultants and not as members,
and so had little effect on the proceedings. A bill based on the white paper was
introduced in the British parliament on 19 December 1934. There followed
several months of strenuous debate. Throughout this the conservative
`diehards`, led through Winston Churchill tried to provide to the new statute a
form that would have been even less acceptable to Indians than the one finally
adopted. The bill became law in August of the after that year as the
government of India act, 1935.

GROWTH OF LEFT: COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA AND

CONGRESS SOCIALIST PARTY

COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA

The Communist Party of India (CPI) is a communist political party in

India. In the Indian communist movement, there are dissimilar views on
exactly when the Indian communist party was founded. The date maintained
as the foundation day through CPI is 26 December 1925. But the Communist
Party of India (Marxist), which separated from the CPI, claims that the party
was founded in 1920.
CPI officially stated that it was shaped in 25 December 1925 at the first
Kanpur Party Conference. But as per the version of CPI(M), the Communist
Party of India was founded in Tashkent, Turkestan Autonomous Soviet
Socialist Republic on 17 October 1920, soon after the Second Congress of the
Communist International. The founding members of the party were M.N. Roy,
Evelyn Trent Roy (Roy's wife), Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani's wife),
Mohammad Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui, Rafiq Ahmed
of Bhopal and M.P.B.T. Acharya. CPI says that there were several communist
groups shaped through Indians with the help of foreigners in dissimilar parts
of the world and Thaskent group was one in the middle of them only.
The CPI began efforts to build a party organisation inside India. Roy made
contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Bengal. Small communist
groups were shaped in Bengal (led through Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led
through S.A. Dange), Madras (led through Singaravelu Chettiar), United
Provinces (led through Shaukat Usmani) and Punjab (led through Ghulam
Hussain). Though, only Usmani became a CPI party member.
Throughout the 1920s and beginning of 1930s the party was badly
organised, and in practice there were many communist groups working with
limited national coordination. The British colonial authorities had banned all
communist activity, which made the task of structure a united party very hard.
Flanked by 1921 and 1924 there were three conspiracy trials against the
communist movement; First Peshawar Conspiracy Case, Moscow Conspiracy
Case and the Cawnpore Bolshevik Conspiracy Case. In the first three cases,
Russian-trained muhajir communists were put on trial. Though, the Cawnpore
trial had more political impact. On 17 March 1924, M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange,
Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani, Singaravelu Chettiar,
Ghulam Hussain and R.C. Sharma were charged, in Cawnpore (now spelt
Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case. The specific charge was that they as
communists were seeking "to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of
British India, through complete separation of India from imperialistic Britain
through a violent revolution." Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational
communist plans and people for the first time learned, on such a large scale,
about communism and its doctrines and the aims of the Communist
International in India.
Singaravelu Chettiar was released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was in
Germany and R.C. Sharma in French Pondichéry, and so could not be arrested.
Ghulam Hussain confessed that he had received money from the Russians in
Kabul and was pardoned. Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani
and Dange were sentenced for several conditions of imprisonment. This case
was responsible for actively introducing communism to a larger Indian
audience. Dange was released from prison in 1927.
On 25 December 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur.
Colonial authorities estimated that 500 persons took part in the conference.
The conference was convened through a man described Satyabhakta. At the
conference Satyabhakta argued for a 'national communism' and against
subordination under Comintern. Being outvoted through the other delegates,
Satyabhakta left both the conference venue in protest. The conference adopted
the name 'Communist Party of India'. Groups such as Labour Kisan Party of
Hindustan (LKPH) dissolved into the unified CPI. The émigré CPI, which
almost certainly had little organic character anyway, was effectively
substituted through the organisation now operating inside India.
Soon after the 1926 conference of the Workers and Peasants Party of
Bengal, the underground CPI directed its members to join the provincial
Workers and Peasants Parties. All open communist activities were accepted
out through Workers and Peasants Parties.
The sixth congress of the Communist International met in 1928. In 1927
the Kuomintang had turned on the Chinese communists, which led to a review
of the policy on forming alliances with the national bourgeoisie in the colonial
countries. The Colonial theses of the 6th Comintern congress described upon
the Indian communists to combat the 'national-reformist leaders' and to
'unmask the national reformism of the Indian National Congress and oppose
all phrases of the Swarajists, Gandhists, etc. about passive resistance'. The
congress did though some differentiation flanked by the character of the
Chinese Kuomintang and the Indian Swarajist Party, considering the latter as
neither a reliable ally nor a direct enemy. The congress described on the Indian
communists to utilize the contradictions flanked by the national bourgeoisie
and the British imperialists. The congress also denounced the WPP. The Tenth
Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, 3 July
1929 – 19 July 1929, directed the Indian communists to break with WPP.
When the communists deserted it, the WPP fell separately.
On 20 March 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and other labour leaders
were made in many parts of India, in what became recognized as the Meerut
Conspiracy Case. The communist leadership was now put behind bars. The
trial proceedings were to last for four years.
As of 1934, the main centres of activity of CPI were Bombay, Calcutta and
Punjab. The party had also begun extending its activities to Madras. A group
of Andhra and Tamil students, amongst them P. Sundarayya, were recruited to
the CPI through Amir Hyder Khan. The party was reorganized in 1933, after
the communist leaders from the Meerut trials were released. A central
committee of the party was set up. In 1934 the party was accepted as the
Indian section of the Communist International. When Indian leftwing elements
shaped the Congress Socialist Party in 1934, the CPI branded it as Social
Fascist.
In connection with the change of policy of the Comintern toward Popular
Front politics, the Indian communists changed their relation to the Indian
National Congress. The communists joined the Congress Socialist Party,
which worked as the left wing of Congress. Through joining CSP the CPI
accepted the CSP demand for Constituent Assembly, which it had denounced
two years before. The CPI though analyzed that the demand for Constituent
Assembly would not be a substitute for soviets. In July 1937, the first Kerala
unit of CPI was founded at a clandestine meeting in Calicut. Five persons were
present at the meeting, P.Krishnapillai E.M.S. Namboodiripad, N.C. Sekhar,
K. Damodaran and S.V. Ghate. The first four were members of the CSP in
Kerala. The latter, Ghate, was a CPI Central Committee member, who had
arrived from Madras. Contacts flanked by the CSP in Kerala and the CPI had
begun in 1935, when P. Sundarayya (CC member of CPI, based in Madras at
the time) met with EMS and Krishna Pillai. Sundarayya and Ghate visited
Kerala at many times and met with the CSP leaders there. The contacts were
facilitated through the national meetings of the Congress, CSP and All India
Kisan Sabha.
In 1936–1937, the cooperation flanked by socialists and communists
reached its peak. At the 2nd congress of the CSP, held in Meerut in January
1936, a thesis was adopted which declared that there was a need to build 'a
united Indian Socialist Party based on Marxism-Leninism'. At the 3rd CSP
congress, held in Faizpur, many communists were incorporated into the CSP
National Executive Committee. In Kerala communists won control over CSP,
and for a brief period controlled Congress there. Two communists, E.M.S.
Namboodiripad and Z.A. Ahmed, became All India joint secretaries of CSP.
The CPI also had two other members inside the CSP executive.
On the occasion of the 1940 Ramgarh Congress Conference CPI released a
declaration described Proletarian Path, which sought to utilize the weakened
state of the British Empire in the time of war and gave a call for general strike,
no-tax, no-rent policies and mobilizing for an armed revolution uprising. The
National Executive of the CSP assembled at Ramgarh took a decision that all
communists were expelled from CSP. In July 1942, the CPI was legalized.
Communists strengthened their control over the All India Trade Union
Congress. At the same time, communists were politically cornered for their
opposition to the Quit India Movement.
CPI contested the Provincial Legislative Assembly elections of 1946 of its
own. It had candidates in 108 out of 1585 seats. It won in eight seats. In total
the CPI vote counted 666 723, which should be seen with the background that
86% of the adult population of India lacked voting rights. The party had
contested three seats in Bengal, and won all of them. One CPI candidate,
Somanth Lahiri, was elected to the Constituent Assembly.In 1946 the party
launched the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, a militant campaign against
feudalism.

FORMATION OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA AND ITS

EARLY HISTORY

Having seen the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and the
formation of the Communist International, some Indian revolutionaries and
intellectuals, working within and outside India, contemplated the formation of
a Communist Party in India. It was M.N. Roy (Manabendra Nath Roy) who
first shaped the Communist Party of India outside India in Tashkent under the
auspices of the Communist International in 1920.

M.N. Roy
Manabendra Nath Roy (Bengali: ) (1887–1954), born
Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, was an Indian nationalist revolutionary, radical
activist and political theorist. Roy was a founder of the communist parties in
Mexico and India, and a delegate to congresses of the Communist
International. Following the rise of Joseph Stalin, Roy left the mainline
communist movement to pursue an independent radical politics. In 1940 Roy
was instrumental in the formation of the Radical Democratic Party, an
organization in which he played a leading role for much of the decade of the
1940s. Roy later moved absent from Marxism to become an exponent of the
philosophy of radical humanism.

Early years
Narendra Nath "Naren" Bhattacharya, later recognized as M. N. Roy, was
born on 21 March 1887 at Arbelia, located in the 24 Parganas of West Bengal,
close to Calcutta (Kolkata). The Bhattacharyas were Sakta brahmins — a
family of hereditary priests. Naren's paternal grandfather was the head priest
of the goddess Ksheputeswari in the village of Ksheput, located in the
Midnapore district of West Bengal. Naren's father also served for a time in
priestly capability there, although the large size of his family — he being one
of 11 siblings — forced a relocation to the village of Arbelia and a change of
occupation.
Following the death of his first wife, the elder Bhattacharya married
Basantakumari Devi, the niece of Dwarkanath Vidyabhusan and was
appointed as a teacher of Sanskrit in the nearby Arbelia English school. The
couple had a total of eight children, including the fourth-born Naren. Naren
Bhattacharya's early schooling took place at Arbelia. In 1898 the family
moved to Kodalia. Bhattacharya sustained his studies at the Harinavi Anglo-
Sanskrit School, at which his father taught, until 1905. Bhattacharya later
enrolled at the National College under Sri Aurobindo, before moving to the
Bengal Technical Institute, where he studied Engineering and Chemistry.
Much of Bhattacharya's knowledge was gained through self-revise, though.

Nationalist revolutionary
Towards the end of the 19th Century militant nationalism began to spread
in the middle of the educated middle classes of Bengal, inspired through the
writings of Bankim and Vivekananda. Naren Bhattacharya was swept up in
this movement, reading both of these leading luminaries extensively.
According to one biographer, Roy gained an appreciation from Bankim that
true religion required one not to be cloistered from the world, but to work
actively for the public good; Vivekananda reinforced this notion of social
service and further advanced the thought that Hinduism and Indian culture
was superior to anything the western world could offer.
With his cousin and childhood friend Hari Kumar Chakravarti (1882–
1963), he shaped a band of free-thinkers including Satcowri Banerjee and the
brothers, Saileshvar and Shyamsundar Bose. Two other cousins of
Bhattacharya and Chakravarti — Phani and Narendra Chakravarti — often
came from Deoghar, where they went to school with Barin Ghosh. A
mysterious Vedic scholar, Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi, active organiser of
secret branches of the Anushilan Samiti in Chinsura started frequenting
Bhattacharya group.
In July 1905 a partition of Bengal was announced, scheduled to take effect
in October. A spontaneous mass movement aimed at annulment of the
partition appeared, giving radical nationalists like Naren Bhattacharya and his
co-thinkers an opportunity to build broader support for their ideas. Following
his expulsion from high school for organizing a meeting and a march against
the partition, Bhattacharya and Chakravarti moved to Kolkata and joined in
the active work of the Anushilan. Under Mokshada‘s leadership, on 6
December 1907 Bhattacharya successfully committed the first act of political
banditry in order to raise money for the secret society. When arrested, he was
carrying two seditious books through Barin Ghosh. Defended through the
Barrister J.N. Roy (secure friend of Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin)
and the pleader Promothonath Mukherjee, he got released on bail, thanks to
his reputation as a student and social worker.
Unhappy with Barin‘s highly centralised and authoritative way of
leadership, Bhattacharya and his group had been looking for something more
constructive than creation bombs at the Maniktala garden. Two incidents
sharpened their interest in an alternative leadership. Barin had sent Prafulla
Chaki with Charuchandra Datta to see Bagha Jatin at Darjeeling who was
posted there on official duty, and do absent with the Lt. Governor; on
explaining to Prafulla that the time was not yet ripe, Jatin promised to get in
touch with him later. Though Prafulla was much impressed through this hero,
Barin cynically commented that it would be too much of an effort for a
Government officer to serve a patriotic cause. Shortly after, Phani returned
from Darjeeling, after a short holiday: fascinated through Jatin‘s charisma, he
informed his friends about the unusual man. On hearing Barin censuring Phani
for disloyalty, Bhattacharya decided to see that exceptional Dada and got
caught for good. The Howrah-Shibpur Trial (1910–11) brought Bhattacharya
closer to Jatindra Mukherjee.

The Indo-German conspiracy

Several Indian nationalists, including Roy, became convinced that only an
armed thrash about against the occupying forces of Great Britain would be
enough to separate India from the British empire. To the furtherance of this
end, revolutionary nationalists looked to a rival imperial power, that of Kaiser
Wilhelm's Germany, as a potential source of funds and armaments.
In August 1914 a massive European war erupted flanked by Britain and
Germany. Expatriate Indian nationalists organized as the Indian Revolutionary
Committee in Berlin made an informal approach to the German government in
support of aid to the cause of anti-British armed thrash about in their native
land. These contacts were favorable and towards the end of the year word
reached India that the Germans had agreed to give the money and material
necessary for the launch of an Indian war of independence from British rule.
Revolution seemed close to.
The task of obtaining funds and armaments for the coming thrash about
was entrusted to Naren Bhattacharya. Bhattacharya was dispatched first to
Java, where over the after that two months he was able to obtain some limited
funds, albeit no armaments. Early in 1915, Bhattacharya set out again, leaving
India in search of vaguely promised German armaments which were
whispered to be en route, somewhere on the Pacific. Roy would not see his
homeland again for 16 years. The actual plan seemed fantastic, as
Bhattacharya-Roy later recounted in his posthumously published memoirs:
 "The plan was to use German ships interned in a port at the northern
tip of Sumatra, to storm the Andaman Islands and free and arm the
prisoners there, and land the army of liberation on the Orissa coast.
The ships were armoured, as several big German vessels were, ready
for wartime use. they also accepted many guns each. The crew was
composed of naval ratings. They had to escape from the internment
camp, seize the ships, and sail.... Many hundred rifles and other small
arms with an adequate supply of ammunition could be acquired
through Chinese smugglers who would get then on board the ships."
At the last minute, money for the conduct of the operation failed to
materialize and "the German Consul General mysteriously disappeared on the
day when he was to issue orders for the execution of the plan," Bhattacharya
recalled. Disgusted but still holding out hope, Bhattacharya left Indonesia for
Japan, hoping to win Japanese support for the liberation of Asia from
European imperialism, despite Japan's nominal alliance with Great Britain.
There he met with Chinese nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen, who had escaped to
Japan following the failure of a July 1913 uprising in Nanking. Sun Yat-sen
refused to assist Bhattacharya in his task of organizing anti-British revolution
in India, expressing instead faith instead in the ultimate liberating mission of
Japan and his own powerlessness owing to British control of Hong Kong,
Sun's base of operations in South China. Efforts to raise money from the
German Ambassador to China were likewise unsuccessful.
Bhattacharya's activities soon drew the attention of the Japanese secret
police, who were concerned about Bhattacharya's efforts at fomenting
revolution. Upon learning that he was about to be served formal notice to
leave Japan within 24 hours and not wishing to be deported to Shanghai,
Bhattacharya immediately set about leaving the country overland through
Korea. He tried to create his way from there to Peking (Beijing), but through
this time he was spotted and recognized through the British secret police, who
detained him. Only through a stroke of good fortune was Bhattacharya able to
win his release from the police, due to the British Consul General's ill ease
with holding a British subject indefinitely without having formal charges first
been preferred. Further efforts to raise funds for armaments from the German
consulate at Hankow resulted in a further tentative agreement. Though, this
plan also came to naught owing to the size of the commitment, which had to
be approved in Berlin, according to German Ambassador to China Admiral
Paul von Hintze. Bhattacharya determined to take his plan for German funding
after that to the German Ambassador in the United States, before heading to
Germany itself. Employees of the German embassy were able to assist
Bhattacharya in obtaining a place as a stowaway aboard an American ship
with a German crew, bound for San Francisco.
Although they knew he was on board the ship, British authorities stopping
the vessel in international waters were unable to locate Bhattacharya in the
secret compartment in which he was hurriedly hidden. In an effort to throw the
British off his trail — and in an effort to obtain more appropriate
accommodations for the long trans-Pacific voyage, Bhattacharya stealthily
disembarked at Kobe, Japan. In Kobe Bhattacharya made use of a false
French-Indian passport previously obtained for him through the Germans in
China. Posing as a seminary student bound for Paris, Bhattacharya obtained an
American passport visa, bought a ticket, and sailed for San Francisco.

International revolutionary
Throughout his stay in Palo Alto, a period of about two months, Roy met
his future wife, a young Stanford University graduate named Evelyn Trent.
The pair fell in love and journeyed together crossways the country to New
York City. It was in the New York City public library that Roy began to
develop his interest in Marxism. His socialist transition under Lala owed much
to Bankim Chandra Chatterjee‘s essays on communism and Vivekananda‘s
message of serving the proletariat. Bothered through British spies, Roy fled to
Mexico in July 1917 with Evelyn. German military authorities, on the spot,
gave him large amounts of money.
The Mexican president Venustiano Carranza and other liberal thinkers
appreciated Roy‘s writings for El Pueblo. The Socialist Party he founded
(December 1917), was converted into the Communist Party of Mexico, the
first Communist Party outside Russia. The Roys lodged a penniless Mikhail
Borodin, the Bolshevik leader, under special circumstances. On the basis of a
grateful Borodin‘s reports on Roy‘s activities, Moscow was to invite Roy to
the 2nd World Congress of the Communist International, held in Moscow
throughout the summer of 1920.
A few weeks before the Congress, Vladimir Lenin personally received
Roy with great warmth. At Lenin's behest, Roy formulated his own ideas as a
supplement to Lenin‘s Preliminary Draft Theses on the National and the
Colonial Questions. Material from Roy's pen was published through
International Press Correspondence (Inprecor), the weekly bulletin of the
Communist International. Roy served as a member of the Comintern's
Presidium for eight years and at one stage was a member of the Presidium, the
Political Secretariat, the Executive Committee, and the World Congress.
Commissioned through Lenin to prepare the East — especially India —
for revolution, Roy founded military and political schools in Tashkent. In
October 1920, as he shaped the Communist Party of India, he contacted his
erstwhile revolutionary colleagues who, at this juncture, were hesitating
flanked by Radicalism (Jugantar) and Mohandas K. Gandhi‘s novel
programme. Secure to the Jugantar in spirit and action, C. R. Das inspired
Roy‘s confidence. From Moscow, Roy published his major reflections, India
in Transition, approximately simultaneously translated into other languages. In
1922 appeared Roy‘s own journal, the Vanguard, organ of the emigre
Communist Party of India. These were followed through The Future of Indian
Politics (1926) and Revolution and Counter-revolution in China (1930), while
he had been tossing flanked by Germany and France.
 Leading a Comintern delegation appointed through Joseph Stalin to
develop agrarian revolution in China, Roy reached Canton in February 1927.
Despite fulfilling his mission with ability, a disagreement with the CCP
leaders and Borodin led to a fiasco. Roy returned to Moscow where factions
supporting Leon Trotsky and Grigory Zinoviev were busy fighting with
Stalin‘s.
Stalin refused to meet Roy and provide him a hearing at the plenum in
February 1928. Denied a decent treatment for an infected ear, Roy escaped
with Nikolai Bukharin‘s help, sparing himself Stalin‘s anger. Shortly after
Trotsky‘s deportation, on 22 May 1928, Roy received the permission to go
abroad for medical treatment on board a Berlin-bound plane of the Russo-
German Airline Deruluft. In December 1929, the Inprecor announced Roy‘s
expulsion from the Comintern, approximately simultaneously with Bukharin‘s
fall from grace.

Imprisonment
Roy returned to India for the first time in December 1930. Upon reaching
Bombay, Roy met leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose, the former
of whom recalled that despite important political differences, "I was attracted
to him through his extra ordinary intellectual capability." Roy's political
activity in India proved to be brief, on 21 July 1931 he was arrested in
Bombay on an arrest warrant issued in 1924. Roy was taken to Kanpur to face
charges under Section 121-A of the Indian Penal Code, "conspiring to deprive
the King Emperor of his sovereignty in India."
No trial was held in open court; rather, the proceedings were mannered
inside the jail in which Roy was held. Roy was allowed neither trial through
jury nor defence witnesses, nor was he allowed to create a defence statement.
Proceedings were mannered from 3 November 1931 until 9 January 1932, at
which time Roy was sentenced to 12 years of rigorous imprisonment. Roy was
taken immediately under armed guard to the Central Jail at Bareilly for
completion of his sentence managing, though, to smuggle out the defence
statement which he was not allowed presenting in court. This disallowed
declaration was published in full through Roy's supporters in India as My
Defence, and in abridged form in New York as I Accuse. Roy was
unapologetic for his advocacy of the use of armed thrash about against British
colonialism, in his own defence declaring
The oppressed people and exploited classes are not obliged to respect
the moral philosophy of the ruling power.... A despotic power is always
overthrown through force. The force employed in this procedure is not
criminal. On the contrary, precisely the guns accepted through the
army of the British government in India are instruments of crime. They
become instruments of virtue when they are turned against the
imperialist state.
 Roy filed an appeal in his case to the Allahabad High Court, but this was
dismissed on 2 May 1933 — although Roy's sentence was at the same time
reduced from 12 years to 6 through the court. Roy ultimately served 5 years
and 4 months of this term, sitting in five dissimilar jails. Dismal prison
circumstances took a severe toll on Roy's health, and he suffered lasting
damage to his heart, kidneys, lungs, and digestive tract as a result of his time
behind bars. Roy also lost many teeth, was regularly feverish, and suffered
constant pain from a chronically infected inner ear. Despite his imprisonment,
Roy still supervised to contribute to the Indian national liberation movement.
A steady stream of letters and articles were smuggled out of jail. He also wrote
a 3000-page draft manuscript provisionally titled The Philosophical
Consequence of Modern Science. Released in November 1936 in broken
health, Roy went to Allahabad for recovery, invited through Nehru. Defying
the Comintern order to boycott the Indian National Congress, Roy urged
Indian Communists to join this Party to radicalize it. Nehru, in his presidential
address at Faizpur session in December 1936, greeted the attendance of Roy,
as:
...one who, though young, is an old and well-tried soldier in India‘s
fight for freedom. Comrade M.N. Roy has just come to us after a long
and mainly distressing period in prison, but though shaken up in body,
he comes with a fresh mind and heart, eager to take part in that old
thrash about that knows no end till it ends in success.

From the podium Roy in his speech recommended the capture of power
through Constituent Assembly. Unable to collaborate with Gandhi, though,
Roy was to stick to his own conviction. In April 1937, his weekly Independent
India appeared and was welcomed through progressive leaders like Bose and
Nehru, unlike Gandhi, and the staunch Communists who accused Roy of
deviation.

Radical humanist
In marrying Ellen Gottschalk, his second wife, "Roy found not only a
loving wife but also an intelligent helper and secure collaborator." They settled
in Dehra Dun. Roy proposed an alternative leadership, seized the crisis
following Bose‘s re-election as the Congress President, in 1938: in Pune, in
June, he shaped his League of Radical Congressmen. Disillusioned with both
bourgeois democracy and communism, he devoted the last years of his life to
the formulation of an alternative philosophy which he described Radical
Humanism and of which he wrote a detailed exposition in Cause, Romanticism
and Revolution.
In his monumental biography, In Freedom’s Quest, Sibnarayan Ray
writes:
If Nehru had his troubles, so had Roy. From early life his sharp
intellect was matched through a strong will and extra-ordinary self-
 confidence. It would seem that in his long political career there were
only two persons and a half who, in his estimate, qualified to be his
mentors. The first was Jatin Mukherji (or Bagha Jatin) from his
revolutionary nationalist period; the second was Lenin. The half was
Josef Stalin....

With the declaration of World War II, Roy (in a position secure to that of
Sri Aurobindo) condemned the rising totalitarian regimes in Germany and
Italy, instead supporting England and France in the fight against fascism. He
severed connections with the Congress Party and created the Radical
Democratic Party in 1940. Gandhi proceeded to foment Quit India in August
1942. In response The British imprisoned without trial approximately the
whole Indian National Congress leadership within hours. Roy‘s line was
clearly dissimilar from that of the mainstream of the national liberation
movement. According to Roy, a victory for Germany and the Axis powers
would have resulted in the end of democracy worldwide and India would
never be independent. In his view India could win her freedom only in a free
world. Subhas Chandra Bose took the pro-active stance that The enemy of my
enemy is my friend; escaping house-arrest and India he shaped the Azad Hind
Provisional Indian Government in Exile and allied with the Japanese brought
the Indian National Army to India's doorstep.
Sensing India‘s freedom to be a post-war reality following the defeat of the
Axis powers and the weakening of British imperialism, Roy wrote a series of
articles in Independent India on the economic and political structures of new
India, even presenting a concrete ten-year plan, and drafting a Constitution of
Free India (1944). Roy in his philosophy devised means to ensure human
freedom and progress. Remembering Bagha Jatin who "personified the best of
mankind", Roy worked "for the ideal of establishing a social order in which
the best in man could be manifest." In 1947, he elaborated his theses into a
manifesto, New Humanism, expected to be as significant as the Communist
Manifesto through Marx a century earlier.

Death and legacy

A lecture tour to the USA was to be suspended, as Roy died on 25 January
1954. Beginning in 1987, Oxford University Press began the publication of the
Selected Works of M.N. Roy. A total of 4 volumes were published through
1997, gathering Roy's writings through his prison years. Project editor
Sibnarayan Ray died in 2008, though, and the Roy works publishing project
was so prematurely terminated.

MEERUT CONSPIRACY CASE

The Meerut Conspiracy Case was a controversial court case initiated in

British India in March 1929 and decided in 1933. Many trade unionists,
including three Englishmen were arrested for organizing an Indian railway
strike. The trial immediately caught attention back home in England, inspired
the 1932 play titled Meerut, through Manchester street theatre group the 'Red
Megaphones', highlighting the detrimental effects of colonization and
industrialization. The British Government was clearly worried about the rising
influence of the Communist International. Its ultimate objective, so the
government perceived, was to achieve "complete paralysis and overthrow of
existing Governments in every country (including India) through means of a
general strike and armed uprising." The government's immediate response was
to foist yet another conspiracy case—the Meerut Conspiracy Case.
In more than one way the Meerut Conspiracy case trial helped the
Communist Party of India to consolidate its position in the middle of workers.
Dange beside with 32 persons were arrested on or about March 20, 1929 and
were put on trial under Section 121A of the Indian Penal Code, which
declares:
Whoever within or without British India conspires to commit any of
the offenses punishable through Section 121 or to deprive the King of
the sovereignty of British India or any part thereof, or conspires to
overawe, through means of criminal force or the show of criminal
force, the Government of India or any local Government, shall be
punished with transportation for life, or any shorter term, or with
imprisonment of either account which may extend to ten years.

The charges
The main charges were that in 1921 Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Muzaffar
Ahmad entered into a conspiracy to establish a branch of the Comintern in
India and they were helped through several persons, including the accused
Philip Spratt and Benjamin Francis Bradley, sent to India through the
Communist International. The aim of the accused persons, according to the
charges raised against them was under section 121-A of the Indian Penal Code
(Act 45 of 1860) to deprive the King Emperor of the sovereignty of British
India, and for such purpose to use the methods and carry out the programme
and plan of campaign outlined and ordained through the Communist
International. The Sessions Court in agent sentences to the accused in January
1933. Out of the accused 27 persons with make other offenders, therefore
raising the evil and the danger to the public. Sentences of convicted others
were also reduced. The convictions of Desai, Hutchinson, Mitra, Jhabwala,
Sehgal, Kasle, Gauri Shankar, Kadara and Alve were also overturned in this
appeal.

FORMATION OF THE CONGRESS SOCIALIST PARTY

The Communists accepted on their activities more or less independent of

the Indian National Congress, but within the Congress a considerable section
was drawn towards the Socialist or Communist ideology and sought to work
out a Socialist programme through the Congress. In the middle of this section
there were leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Jaya Prakash
Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Achyut Patwardhan, and Ram Manohar
Lohia.

The Early Socialists

In 1934, after the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement, a
section of Congressmen decided to enter into the legislatures to work for the
Congress cause within the government. Mahatma Gandhi endorsed the line of
action, adopted through these Congressmen who were recognized as the
Constitutionalists. At this stage some socialists wanted to form a socialist
party within the Congress organisation so as to prevent the erosion of the
revolutionary character of the Congress through entry into the legislatures.
The Socialists within the Congress whispered in Marxist ideas like the
Communists.

Brief Sketches of the Socialists

Jaya Prakash Narayan, the former leader of the Congress Socialists, was
born in 1902 in Bihar. In 1921 he discontinued hid studies in a Patna college
to join the Non-cooperation movement. Thereafter he went to the United
States of America for getting university education. These he earned his
livelihood through doing manual work and sustained his studies. In U.S.., at he
came in get in touch with Communists and became a Marxist. While returning
from USA, he found that the Indian Communists were taking orders from the
Communist international at Moscow. Though he appreciated the Bolshevik
Revolution of Russia and the success of Communism in the country, he did
not like the thought of India communists acting under orders from Moscow.
Returning to India, he joined the Congress party in 1929. In 1930 he was made
the President of the Labour Research department of the Congress. His wife,
Prabhabati was a staunch follower of Gandhi, Jaya Prakash published a book,
entitled Why Socialism? in which he stressed the relevance e of socialism for
India.

Yusuf Meherally was born in 1903, he is a properous business family of

Bombay. He was' influenced through the writings of Mazzafi and Garibaldi
and through the Sinn Fein Movement of Ireland and the Chinese and Russian
revolutions. In 1928 he organised the Bombay Provincial Youth League which
took active part in organising demonstration against the Simon Commission
and in the Civil Disobedience movement. Achyut Patwardhan was born of a
rich Theosophist father in 1905. He was educated at the Banaras Hindu
University. After completing his education, for sometime, he served as a
University lecturer and visited Europe. He joined the Civil Disobedience
Movement and was sentenced to imprisonment in Nasik jail. Patwardhan was
profoundly influenced through the Gabhian and Theosophical ideas. Ashok
Mehta was born in 1911. His father was a prominent Gujarati littérateur. He
was educated at the Bombay University. He joined the Civil Disobedience
Movement and was in sentenced to imprisonment in Nasik jail. For a number
of years he edited the journal of the congress Socialist Party, entitled Congress
Socialist.

M.R. Masani was born in a rich and learned family in Bombay. He studied
at the London School of Economics. He was influenced through Fabian
Socialism, British Labour movement and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
Acharya Narendra Dev was born in 1889 in Uttar Pradesh. His father was a
lawyer. In the early part of his life he was influenced through the extremist
nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Har Dayal and Aurobindo. After
the Bolshevik Revolution he turned to Marxism. He attached importance to the
role of peasantry in the nationalist as well as the socialist movement. So he
devoted himself to the orgnisation of peasantry in Uttar Pradesh. He also
valued the role of middle class intellectuals in the socialist movement. He
proved himself to be a great exponent of Marxism and at the same time
supported Gandhi's constructive activity.
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia was born in a nationalist Manwari family of Uttar
Pradesh in 1910. He was educated at Banaras (Hindu), Calcutta and Berlin
universities. He took his doctorate in Political Economy from the Berlin
University. After his return to India, Jawaharlal Nehru put him incharge of the
Foreign Affairs Department of the All India Congress Committee. Lohia was
influenced through the Social Democratic ideas of Europe and the Gandhian
ideas. He did not consider in Marxism or Communism. He founded a journal,
entitled, Congress Socialist, which later on became the official organ of the
Congress Socialist Party.

Towards an All India Congress Socialist Party

The first All-India Congress Socialists' Conference was convened at Patna
through Jaya Prakash Narayan on behalf of the Bihar Socialist party in May
1934. The Conference was presided through Acharya Narendra Dev. In his
presidential speech, Narendra Dev criticized the new Swarajist section of
Congressmen who wanted to enter the legislatures and thereby run counter to
the revolutionary character of the Congress. He asked the socialists to carry on
their agitation for the adoption of their programme through the Congress. The
Conference passed a resolution asking the Congress to adopt a programme that
was socialist in action and objective.
After this Conference the Congress Socialists worked hard to organize the
All-India Congress Socialist party. As the Organising Secretary, Jaya Prakash
Narayan campaigned in dissimilar parts of the country to organize the
provincial wings of the party. The first annual session of the All-India
Congress Socialist party was held in Bombay in October 1934 under the
presidentship of Sampurnananda. It was attended through delegates from
thirteen provinces. In this meeting the National Executive of the Congress
Socialist party was constituted with Jaya Prakash Narayan as the General
Secretary.

THE IMPACT OF THE CONGRESS SOCIALISTS' PROGRAMME

UPON NATIONAL POLITICS

There was a mixed reaction in the middle of the Congressmen to the

formation of the Congress Socialist party. The conservative or Right Wing
Congressmen criticized the Congress Socialists "loose talk" about the
confiscation of property and class war. Mahatma Gandhi also rejected their
thought of class war. Gandhi did not consider in the necessity of the abolition
of princely order, zamindary and capitalism. He wanted to bring about a
change of heart in the princes, zamindars and capitalists so that instead of
considering themselves the owners of the states, zarnindaries and factories
they should behave as the trustees for their subjects, tenants and workers. But
the leftist Congressmen like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose
welcomed the formation of the Congress Socialist Party, though neither Nehru
nor Bose joined the party. In the annual session of the Congress, held at
Lucknow in April 1936, in his presidential speech Nehru espoused the cause
of socialism. He said:

I see no way of ending the poverty, vast unemployment, degradation

and subjection of the Indian people except through socialism. That
involves vast revolutionary changes in our political and social
structure, ending vested interests in the land and industry as well as the
feudal autocratic Indian states system. That means ending private
property except in a restricted sense and replacement of the present
profit system through the higher ideals of cooperative service.

In 1936 Nehru inducted three Congress Socialists - Narendra Dev, Jaya

Prakash Narayan and Achyut Patwardhan into the Congress Working
Committee, besides another leftist, Subhas Chandra Bose. The Faizpur session
of the Indian National Congress, held towards the secure of 1936 under the
presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted an agrarian programme,
containing such items as reduction of revenue, abolition of feudal dues and
levies, introduction of cooperative farming, living wage for the agrarian
labourers and formation of peasant unions. In the meantime the Congress
Labour Committee asked the Congress ministries, shaped in the provinces in
1937, for adopting measures for safeguarding and promoting the interests of
workers. The Congress Socialists played an significant role in the Kisan
(peasant) movement. Through the efforts of Prof. N.G. Ranga, Indulal Yagnik,
and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati the All-India Kisan Sabha was organised.
The first All-India Kisan Congress met at Lucknow in 1936. The Kisan
organisations demanded the abolition of zamindary, reduction of land tax, and
communal affiliation to Congress. The Congress Socialists changed the
Congress Party's policy from aloofness to closer involvement in the affairs of
princely states. The Congress socialist activists also took part in the
democratic movements of the people in the princely states against their
autocratic rulers. They agitated for civic rights and responsible government.

GROWTH OF TRADE UNION AND PEASANT MOVEMENT:

1920-1930

CONDITION OF THE WORKERS

We will now briefly describe the circumstances of the workers, which

largely explain why trade unions grew in India. Bombay, the main centre of
India's cotton textile industry, and Bengal, the centre of jute and tea industry
had the maximum working class population in India. The living and working
circumstances of the workers were very miserable. They worked for 15 to 18
hours a day. There were no leave rules, no security of jobs. The workers had to
bribe Jobbers (Sirdars), one whom depended their fate. They lived in dark,
damp slums with no water supply, and no sanitary arrangements.
The condition of the coal mine workers was even more miserable. In the
coal mines in Jharia and Giridih the working hours were from 6. a.m. to 6
p.m.. Women and children worked underground and accidents were very
common, but, it was not until 1923 that accident insurance of a sort was
introduced through the Government. Even so, workers found it hard to
establish their claims for compensation. The workers were paid low wages so
that the employers could maximize profits. The Royal Commission of Labour
pointed out that wages were lowest in Madras and Kanpur and highest in
Bombay. Over the years fines were imposition on the workers for breakages,
late attendance and under production. Indebtedness read in the middle of the
workers who often turned to Kabuli money-lenders. These money-leaders
charged high rates of interest. There was no provision for provident fund of
pension. When the workers grew old, they lost their jobs and had to rely for
their substance on their children or relatives.
RISE OF TRADE UNIONISM

The trade unionism in India developed quite slowly as compared to the

western nations. Indian trade union movement can be divided into three
stages.

The first stage (1850 to1900)

Throughout this stage the inception of trade unions took place. Throughout
this period, the working and living circumstances of the labor were poor and
their working hours were long. Capitalists were only interested in their
productivity and profitability. In addition, the wages were also low and
general economic circumstances were poor in industries. In order to regulate
the working hours and other service circumstances of the Indian textile
laborers, the Indian Factories Act was enacted in 1881. As a result,
employment of child labor was prohibited. The growth of trade union
movement was slow in this stage and later on the Indian Factory Act of 1881
was amended in 1891. Several strikes took place in the two decades following
1880 in all industrial cities. These strikes taught workers to understand the
power of united action even though there was no union in real conditions.
Small associations like Bombay Mill-Hands Association came up through this
time.

The second stage (1900 to 1946)

This stage was characterized through the development of organized trade
unions and political movements of the working class. Flanked by 1918 and
1923, several unions came into subsistence in the country. At Ahmedabad,
under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, occupational unions like spinners‘
unions and weavers‘ unions were shaped. A strike was launched through these
unions under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi who turned it into a
satyagrah. These unions federated into industrial union recognized as Textile
Labor Association in 1920.In 1920, the First National Trade union
organization (The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)) was recognized.
Several of the leaders of this organization were leaders of the national
Movement. In 1926, Trade union law came up with the efforts of Mr. N N
Joshi that became operative from 1927. Throughout 1928, All India Trade
Union Federation (AITUF) was shaped.

The third stage began with the emergence of independent India (in 1947).
The partition of country affected the trade union movement particularly
Bengal and Punjab. Through 1949, four central trade union organizations were
functioning in the country:
 The All India Trade Union Congress,
The Indian National Trade Union Congress,
The Hindu Mazdoor Sangh, and
The United Trade Union Congress

The working class movement was also politicized beside the lines of
political parties. For instance Indian national trade Union Congress (INTUC)
is the trade union arm of the Congress Party. The AITUC is the trade union
arm of the Communist Party of India. Besides workers, white-collar
employees, supervisors and managers are also organized through the trade
unions, as for instance in the Banking, Insurance and Petroleum industries.

Trade unions in India

The Indian workforce consists of 430 million workers, rising 2% annually.
The Indian labor markets consist of three sectors:

The rural workers, who constitute about 60 per cent of the workforce.
Organized sector, which employs 8 per cent of workforce, and
The urban informal sector (which comprises the rising software
industry and other services, not incorporated in the formal sector)
which constitutes the rest 32 per cent of the workforce.

SPLIT IN THE AITUC

The Great Economic Depression started in America and spread through

out the world in 1929. The Depression in India sustained till 1936. Hundreds
of factories closed down and thousands of workers lost their jobs. The number
of unions also fell. Unluckily, there were two splits within the All India Trade
Union Congress throughout this period. The first split took place in 1929.
Jawaharlal Nehru was then the president of the AITUC. The main issue was
whether the AITUC would boycott the Royal Commission on Labour
appointed through the British Government or not. The moderates wanted to
join it while the extremists wanted to boycott it. Finally, the moderates left the
AITUC and shaped the Indian Trade Union Federation with V.V. Giri as the
president. There was another split in 1931. The communists left the AITUC
and shaped the Red Trade Union Congress. The splits took place when
thousands of workers were being dismissed through the employers. The splits
weakened the trade union movement.
NEW STAGE

Though, a new stage of trade union movement started from 1935 onwards.
The unity in the AITUC was restored. The Indian economy began to improve
from 1936 onwards. In 1937 the Congress shaped ministries in the provinces.
The formation of the Congress ministries aroused inspiration and expectation
in the middle of the workers. The number of trade unions doubled flanked by
1936 and 1939 and the number of members also increased considerably. The
number of strikes increased from 157 in 1936 to 406 in 1939. Notable strikes
incorporated those affecting the Kesoram Cotton Mills in Calcutta and
Ahmedabad textiles in 1935, the Bengal Nagpur Railway in December 1936,
to February 1937, and a series of labour disputes in Calcutta jute mills and
Kanpur textile mills throughout 1936 culminating in the after that year in
massive general strikes in both centres. An significant development of this
period was the attempt made through the leftists and socialists to unite the
trade unions and peasant organizations for a communal movement. Indeed it
was the stage of the expansion of the trade union movement.

PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Very little is recognized about peasant movements and peasant politics in

Bengal other than what traditional historians have narrated about several
peasant movements from the FAKIR-SANNYASI RESISTANCE and Faraizi-
Wahhabi rebellions to the TEBHAGA MOVEMENT. Whenever peasants stage
rebellions or take part in national uprisings and movements (political or
social), historians have taken notice of them and measured their activities of
historical significance.
There is little scope for writing the history of the region in the thrilling
conditions of revolutionary peasant wars. Although a large number of peasants
resorted to armed thrash about against their exploiters, mainly of the time
these struggles were short-lived, sporadic and under the control of non-peasant
outsiders.
Peasants and Village Communities in East Bengal There are several
definitions of the term "peasant". Eric Wolf's definition that peasants are
cultivators, 'existentially involved' in agriculture, taking 'autonomous decisions
concerning the procedure of cultivation' appears inadequate since it excludes
landless labourers from the category of peasants. In Bengal landless labourers
always identify themselves as peasant‘s vis-à-vis landlords and other
mediators of use. Mainly importantly, if a group or groups from the cultivating
classes regard themselves as 'peasants' and have a genuine sense of belonging
to or identification with the category (peasants) for political purposes they
should be regarded as peasants. They may be classified as 'rich', 'middle' and
'poor' peasants. Broadly, the jotedars/TALUQDARs, RAIYATs and under-raiyats
respectively represent these three broad categories in Bengal.
Besides ZAMINDARs, other mediators of use in East Bengal, such as
MAHAJANs (moneylenders) and BHADRALOK (middle class/professionals
including lawyers and doctors) belonged to the Hindu community while the
bulk of the peasants were Muslims. The colonial government, because of its
indirect rule and aloofness from the masses, was hardly visible and perceived
as exploiters through the bulk of the peasantry. Consequently the peasants'
politics was mostly about how to circumscribe the power and authority of the
zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate throughout the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Though, throughout the first 100 odd years of British Raj, up to
the 1870s, the British colonial masters had been the main adversaries from the
viewpoint of mainly peasants. This was so because of the Government's
promotion and protection of the zamindari and indigo plantation interests,
which directly and adversely affected the peasant interests.
The following questions may be measured for an understanding of the
problem: Are peasants politically inert, unconscious and indifferent? Does
peasant politics connote much more than the 'periodic eruption of the
peasantry'? Peasants are, in general, fatalist and survival-oriented. Their wants
are limited and expectations from society are not that high. They despise all
'non-peasant outsiders' as their exploiters, but go to the same 'outsiders' for
help, guidance and leadership. Peasants are also suspicious of 'outsiders'. Their
religiosity, fatalism, superstitions, and belief in magic - features of all
powerless and dependent communities - have also been significant in
influencing their politics. Consequently religious leaders have also succeeded
in mobilizing peasant support in political movements in the name of religion.
Although peasants in general are 'fatalist' and politically 'inert', nevertheless
they are not 'rural idiots'. Peasants often behave rationally and are prepared to
take risks or gamble for a better future, as they are not always satisfied with
bare survival. This is more so with the rich and middle peasants.
Several examples from peasants' participation in political movements
throughout the period reveal that the top leaders and ideologies of movements
have always been non-peasant in character. Ideologies like Inqilab Zindabad
(Long Live the Revolution) under communist leadership and Pakistan
Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan) under MUSLIM LEAGUE leadership were 'alien'
and non-peasant in character. The peasants have often been mobilized through
non-peasant outsiders on the basis of communal or other non-peasant
ideologies in the name of liberation, freedom and even God and religion.
Elite-Peasant Nexus The advent of British Raj in the second half of the
18th century brought misery to the average Bengali, especially the Muslim
masses, middle classes and aristocracy. The BATTLE OF PALASHI and the
subsequent quick administrative, economic, cultural and political changes
brought a new class of landed and professional elite (mostly Hindu) into
being, and both the Muslim masses and aristocrats became impoverished,
insignificant and without government patronage. Both the pre and post-
PERMANENT SETTLEMENT land systems adversely affected the Muslim landed
classes. The bulk of the Muslims in Bengal basically could not cope with the
changes and failed to compete with the Hindu professionals (babus and
bhadralok) and zamindar-mahajan classes. The rampant corruption and the
unbridled competition for creation vast fortunes in the middle of the bania
and mutsuddi classes (mostly Hindu Bengalis) further impoverished the
Bengali Muslim and peasant-weaver classes not long after the onset of
Company Raj. Consequently as these changes brought a vast number of
frustrated and downtrodden people to the surface, the abrupt changes in the
fortune of hitherto dominant classes, peasants, artisans and weavers also gave
birth to numerous peasant and mass rebellions not long after a few years of the
battle of Palashi. Mainly of these rebellions were disorganized, sporadic and
millennial in nature - their targets being the immediate exploiters and their aim
the redress of the immediate grievances of the rebels.
In the 1770s the Fakir-Sannyasi Movement, led through mendicants and
hermits, coincided with the advent of the Great Famine of 1769-70, a through-
product of the systemic loot of the countryside through the rapacious landlords
and their mediators. FAKIR MAJNU SHAH was one of the well-known leaders of
the movement. Hindu and Muslim masses, peasant as well as non-peasant,
participated in the movement. This movement did not aim at capturing state
power. The rebels hardly understood the cause of their misery and had no
thought about how the big transition had been taking place in the arena of
politics. How the political transformation since Palashi had been installing the
Englishmen as their rulers was basically beyond their comprehension. The
Fakir-Sannyasi rebellion can be explained as one of the major, sporadic, 'pre-
political' mass movements of the 18th century.
The 'Wahabi' and FARAIZI MOVEMENTs (1820s-1850s) were led through
local leaders with local as well as 'borrowed' ideologies of Islamic puritanism
and reform from outside Bengal (Arabian Wahabis and North Indian Syed
Ahmed Barelvi and others). Under Wahhabi influence a local peasant, TITU
MIR of 24-Parganas, started his movement against the local (Hindu) zamindar
for imposing illegal cesses (abwab) including the humiliating beard tax on
Muslim peasants. His movement was short-lived, sporadic and against
immediate exploiters to get rid of immediate use.
The Faraizis, on the other hand, wanted to transform British India, which
they regarded as Dar ul-Harb (abode of war), into Dar ul-Islam (abode of
Islam) through reform and Jihad. They also advocated the non-observance of
Juma and Eid prayers in (non-Muslim) British India, (mainly in the districts of
Faridpur, Barisal, Dhaka and Pabna), so that they would eventually establish
Dar ul-Islam or an Islamic state. They also fought extortionate zamindars
(Hindu) and British INDIGO PLANTERS. The Faraizis also wanted the restoration
of their 'moral economy' or what they perceived as morally correct like the
Wahabis, Fakir-Sannyasis and other peasant leaders.
The Sirajganj and PABNA PEASANT UPRISING of 1872-73, led through both
Hindu and Muslim leaders and participated in through both Hindu and Muslim
peasants, was against arbitrary enhancement of rent through local zamindars.
Under the leadership of local leaders, the rebellion was violent, short-lived,
localised, sporadic and 'pre-political' through nature as the movement did not
aim at abolishing the zamindari system but wanted 'just rent' from the
zamindars who were very much legitimate in their eyes, from the parameters
of their 'moral economy'. This uprising later led to the enactment of the
BENGAL TENANCY ACT of 1885 and eventually to the foundation of the INDIAN
NATIONAL CONGRESS as the government wanted non-violent constitutional
movements as alternatives to the violent ones and promoted better rights for
the peasants to pacify them.
In the SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905-1911) Muslim peasants had a negative
correlation with the movement as their leaders (urban ashraf and rural jotedar)
told them about the benefits of the PARTITION OF BENGAL from the Muslim
point of view. Nawab KHWAJA SALIMULLAH of Dhaka and other Muslim
aristocrats, who later shaped the Muslim League in 1906, inspired the Muslim
peasants mainly. They despised the Hindu bhadralok who were behind the
Swadeshi and terrorist movements. The so-described Ma Kali's Bomb and
attacks on Muslims through Hindu Swadeshis (opponents of the Partition of
Bengal) led to rioting at Jamalpur, Comilla and elsewhere in 1907. Through
1914 Muslim peasants, organised through Muslim ashraf and jotedar leaders,
had started joining and organising Praja conferences. A big one took place at
Kamarer Char in Mymensingh in 1914. These conferences slowly politicised
peasants, who became convinced of the efficacy of non-violent, long-term
political movements against their exploiters to get better rights over land and
less rent and interest on loan etc.
Although the annulment of the Partition of Bengal in 1911 disillusioned
the Muslims in general and shocked their faith in the government, instead of
turning anti-British they became more anti-Hindu throughout the region.
Meanwhile they achieved the Separate Electorates in 1909, as well as a
national Muslim organisation - the Muslim League in 1906, and elected many
vocal Muslim representatives to the Legislative and Executive Councils
(Nawab Syed NAWAB ALI CHOWDHURY, Nawab Syed Shamsul Huda, AK
FAZLUL HUQ and Nawab Khwaja Salimullah being prominent in the middle of
them).
From 1914 onwards began the period of peasant mobilization on a larger
scale - not only through the ulama, but also through the Western educated
Muslim and Namasudra leaders of the region. The proposed amendments of
the Tenancy Act in 1914, to favour the tenant, aroused special interest in the
middle of the jotedars and well-to-do peasants, who expected firmer rights
over their holdings. They organised the first praja or tenant conference at
Kamarer Char in Jamalpur (Mymensingh) in 1914, where men like Fazlul
Huq, Maulana MOHAMMAD AKRAM KHAN, Maulana MANIRUZZAMAN
ISLAMABADI, Maulvi Rajibuddin Tarafdar and other Muslim leaders having
upper-peasant backgrounds and connections, demanded better rights for the
tenantry and criticised the zamindari system. Soon, under the patronage of
Governor Ronaldshay, many peasant and Namasudra organisations came into
being. In late 1917 Fazlul Huq and a group of Muslim lawyers and journalists
founded the Calcutta Agricultural Association. In 1920 the Bengal Jotedars'
and Raiyats' Association was shaped.
It is apparent from dissimilar modern sources that peasants were also
enthusiastic about the Survey and Settlement Operations, the Co-operative
Movement, Union Boards and other government measures including the
formation of the DEBT SETTLEMENT BOARDs to curtail moneylenders' power.
The Settlement operations made the tenants conscious of their rights.
Consequently they resisted landlords' attempts at enhancement of rent. In
some districts, these operations discouraged the practice of exacting abwab
from tenants. When the Tenancy Amendment Bill was on the anvil in the mid-
1920s, peasants shaped their own organisations in order to mobilize
themselves against the zamindars and tenure-holders whose rights, they
anticipated, were going to be curtailed through the Act. In some districts,
anticipating occupancy rights, even sharecroppers became assertive of their
rights.
As an impact of tenancy legislation and the extension of the franchise
down to the well-to-do peasants, the peasants' behaviour in East Bengal in the
subsequent period changed. The zamindars wanted to get rid of the
intermediaries for the loss of income from abwab and nazar (gift), as jotedars
in their turn composed these from their tenants. This attitude is well reflected
in several memoranda of the landlords' associations to the FLOUD COMMISSION
in 1940. The jotedars wanted the status of proprietors and described
themselves talukdars to elevate their social position. The occupancy raiyats
wanted lower rates of rent and more assured rights over their holdings, while
the non-occupancy raiyats aspired to permanent occupancy rights; the
sharecroppers to permanent rights and two-thirds of the crop, and the landless
labourers to the status of grhasthas or husbandman to get a higher social
position as well as permanent tenures. The middle and rich peasants' aspiration
to become bhadralok was the dominant theme in the politics of the peasants
throughout the region.
Throughout 1920-47, due to many government measures and rise of
political consciousness in the middle of the well-to-do peasants, the zamindars'
power was waning and the hopes of the occupancy raiyats and jotedars were
rising. The significance of the peasantry and the impact of its politics lie in the
fact that mainly of the population in the region was agrarian, about 80.66
percent in 1921. There was too little land for too several peasants. Roughly the
tiller-land ratio was 1:2.5 acres in 1921. Agriculture remained the only means
of livelihood for approximately the whole population. Through 1921 East
Bengal had a population of about 29,687,701, the bulk of which was Muslim,
the average density being 660 per square mile.
The enfranchisement of the well-to-do peasants was followed through their
appreciation of the value of their votes in electing office bearers of the Union
Boards and other local self-government bodies. Though, at the same time they
were aggrieved because of the slump in jute price and bad harvest in the wake
of World War I. The issue of Non-Cooperation with the Government espoused
through Gandhi in the wake of the War, and his championing of self-rule and
civil rights soon attracted the peasantry in East Bengal. While the Congress
leaders in the name of swaraj (self-rule) were mobilizing them, peasants in the
region interpreted swaraj as 'a golden age when prices should fall, taxation
should cease, and when the state should refrain from interfering with the good
pleasure of individual man'.
Meanwhile, Gandhi and other leading Hindu and Muslim leaders of the
Congress Party tagged the issue of the Khilafat question beside with that of
Non-Cooperation. Consequently Indian Muslims were aroused to their extra-
territorial loyalty, enthusiasm and romantic ideas mainly through a section of
the ulama, which organised a countrywide civil-disobedience movement
against the British Government. Gandhi took the issue up as the "Muslim
Cow" and supported the KHILAFAT MOVEMENT with a view to strengthening
Hindu-Muslim unity. In East Bengal, peasants and the masses had hardly any
thought about what "Khilafat" was. Peasant masses joined the Khilafat and
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENTs with a view to attaining swaraj or a 'Peasant
Utopia'. In the procedure of attaining their goal, peasants resorted to violent
acts of intimidation, boycott and ostracisation of their immediate exploiters
and adversaries in the village community. swaraj or 'Khilafat', as understood
through the average peasant was a means to attain these 'pre-political' aims.
The concept of nationalism or attaining independence (of India) from the
British was basically beyond them in the 1920s.

Communalization of the 'Nationalist' Peasant (1923-1936)

The withdrawal of the Khilafat - Non-Cooperation Movement through
Gandhi in 1922 reduced the importance of nationalism or swaraj, as
understood through the peasantry. Pan-Islam and Muslim solidarity vis-à-vis
Hindus became more significant politically than the elusive swaraj. The re-
emergence of the ulama (mullas, maulavis, pirs and sufis) in the political arena
of Bengal throughout the Khilafat days after a lapse of about 50 years ulama
played significant political roles up to the last stage of the so-described
Wahabi movement in the 1870s) revived Islamic sentiment in the middle of
the bulk of the peasantry in Bengal. Bengali Muslim peasants afterwards used
Islam as a political weapon to fight their Hindu class enemies. The Movement,
on the one hand, taught the peasant masses the modern ways of agitation (the
politics of hartal and civil disobedience), instructing them how to defy the
authority of their superordinates (both political and socio-economic); and on
the other hand, the movement led to the ascendancy of the ulama, who
remained significant political organizers and mobilizes of the masses, even
long after the Partition of 1947.
The fluctuations in the price of jute, the principal cash crop, and the
DEPRESSION (1929-36) were catalysts in the peasants' political behaviour
throughout the 1920s and 1930s. While 1923 and 1924 were very bad years
for the jute growers due to the slump in jute price, the sudden appreciation of
jute price brought prosperity to them in 1925 and 1926. Though, the prosperity
was short-lived. The Depression soon devoured the vestiges of the so-
described prosperity of the peasantry. Low price of agricultural produce and
unemployment were endemic, especially in the rural areas of East Bengal. As
the bulk of the zamindars and mahajans were Hindu in districts like
Mymensingh, Dhaka, Faridpur, Barisal, Pabna and Rajshahi while the bulk of
the peasantry were Muslims, the tenant-landlord and debtor-creditor conflicts
soon took a communal color as Hindu-Muslim conflicts. Communally
motivated people under the leadership of the ashraf-ulama-jotedar
triumvirate, whose class interests conflicted with those of the dominant Hindu
classes, played significant roles in communalizing the class disagreement
flanked by the Muslim peasants and their Hindu superordinates.
It is noteworthy that although a large number of Bengali Muslim peasants
spontaneously joined the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation movement with a view to
attaining swaraj or their 'golden age' (an use free social order), not long after
the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation movement a new era of peasant
insurgency began, when peasants in some places showed total disregard for
law and the recognized hierarchies in society.
Rural bards and writers, coming from the lower peasant families and
having partial access to the market and inadequate tenancy rights, had already
been ridiculing the peasants for jute cultivation even throughout the days of
the jute boom in 1925-26. Some of the writers presented the Hindu and
Marwari merchants (beside with the Hindu zamindars and mahajans) as
mainly responsible for the slump and fluctuations in jute price. A rural poet
from Mymensingh was equally vocal about the 'non-Bengali' use of peasants:
'When jute came to this land, the Pashchima (North-West Indians) also came
and occupied the country.. Now they are the moneyed people. They do not pay
any regard to the Bengalis. This alien people who once could not get chhatu
(ground granules), look! are now eating Balam rice. The Bengalis on the other
hand are not getting coarse Rangoon rice. The Bengalis have become mute.
The Pashchimas are getting shelter only in Bengal, nowhere else will they
have a place'.
Some of these folk-writers held the Hindus and non-Bengali Marwari
(non-Muslim) traders mainly responsible for the slump and fluctuations in jute
price. 'In one year the Marwari millionaires provide a good price for jute only
to use you in the after that three years', held one of them (Abed Ali Mia). In
short, folk literature reflected the general feelings of the Muslims, including
peasants, towards their Hindu neighbours: moneylenders, shopkeepers,
zamindars' employees, zamindars and others.
The folk literature, which earlier recognized the Hindus as bijati (one
belonging to another religion) and representatives of the mediators of use or as
'great burdens' for the peasantry, also designates that the phenomenon
described 'communalism' was not solely a creation of the politics organised
from above. Communal riots in Calcutta or elsewhere in the subcontinent
added further fuel to the flame of communal hatred at the grassroots stage in
the countryside. Muslim rural bards often narrated the concocted and
exaggerated versions of stories of Calcutta riots (1926) to Muslim villagers
and therefore aroused anti-Hindu communal passion in the middle of rural
Muslims.
Though it sounds paradoxical, there was a higher intensity of peasant
unrest throughout the period of 'economic prosperity' of peasants (1925-26),
when the jute price was very high, than in the preceding period. Consequently
the decline in the occupancy holdings through peasants (due to population
growth and landlords' pre-emptive move to obstruct the Bengal Tenancy Act
Amendment Bill, introduced in 1923) and augment in indebtedness throughout
the bullish jute market in 1925-26 further aggravated the situation. In 1925-26,
when the jute price was exceptionally high (Rs 94 to 142 per bale against Rs
25 to 60 in 1923-24), the erstwhile occupancy tenants, who through then had
been partially or fully converted into sharecroppers (bargadars or adhias), did
not want to part with half or more of the crop (jute) as the share of the jotedar,
who in several cases acquired their land when they failed to repay their debts.
Meanwhile, realising the potential of the peasant masses as possible allies,
the colonial government had taken sure legislative and administrative
measures, such as the introduction of the Bengal Tenancy Act amendment Bill
in 1923 to grant occupancy rights to a large number of peasants; the widening
of the franchise to contain more peasant representatives in the Union Boards
and legislature and formation of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in
1926 to improve the condition of the peasantry. The Hindu zamindar-
bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate and the Hindu press in general opposed all
these government measures as 'anti-nationalist'. Consequently up to the
enactment of the Tenancy Amendment Bill in 1928, Bengali Hindus in
general, representing the zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate, opposed
the Bill while Bengali Muslims under the leadership of the ashra f-ulama-
jotedar triumvirate supported the Bill. It is noteworthy that several Muslim
zamindars also supported the Bill.
In the long run, the peasant movement in predominantly Muslim East
Bengal was communalised under the influence of their non-peasant leaders,
including their 'class-enemies' (zamindars and jotedars). This accelerated the
gradual merger procedure of the ashraf with jotedar and jotedar with the krsak
(lower peasant) belonging to the Muslim Community, leading to the Great
Divide of 1947. While a section of the Hindu elite under the leadership of
Deshbandhu CHITTA RANJAN DAS tried to neutralize the Muslim middle and
lower middle classes through the placatory BENGAL PACT (also recognized as
the Hindu-Muslim Pact) in 1923, with the promise of granting at least 55%
jobs to the Muslim community after the attainment of swaraj (independence),
other members of the Hindu elite stubbornly resisted any such move to win
over the Muslims.
The Hindu opposition to the Pact gave an opportunity to the Muslim
conservatives to launch a countrywide propaganda against the Hindus. The
upshot was the development of communal consciousness at the grassroots
stage in the Muslim community. Peasant mobilization on communal lines was
facilitated through the obdurate attitude of high caste Hindu politicians and
well-to-do classes, several of whom swelled the ranks of communal Hindu
organisations like the Suddhi Sangathan, HINDU MAHASABHA and the
Landlords' Association. All attempts to differentiate the Muslim tenantry into
jotedars' under-raiyats/bargadars did not succeed. Firstly, because the Hindu
upper classes hardly had any get in touch with the lower peasantry. Secondly,
as their co-religionists and patrons, the jotedars had greater control over the
lower peasantry. Last but not least, the notion prevalent in the middle of the
Muslims that they were the 'have-nots of Bengali society', belonging to an
amorphous praja or tenant community vis-à-vis the Hindu landlords, necessity
have turned their class consciousness into communalism. This facilitated the
formation of a joint-front of the rich, middle and poor peasants under the ashra
f-ulama-jotedar triumvirate against the zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan classes.
After the overarching power structure, with zamindars at the top, had been
weakened, the jotedars, whom the lower peasants saw as their fortunate
fellows-cum-patrons, moved into the vacuum left through the 'retreating'
zamindars. Eventually, this led to the overshadowing of the jotedar -tenant
disagreement through the zamindar-jotedar one and this was possible only
after the latter had succeeded in gaining the confidence of the ashraf and the
lower peasantry (also Muslim) in the name of Islam/Muslim solidarity. The
ulama played a vital role in bridging the gap. The external element - the ashraf
and the ulama - was very significant in changing the outlook of the peasant.
Under their influence he was first communalised, then politicised.
While the peasantry was being communalised, East Bengal came under the
devouring and cataclysmic influence of the depression of 1929-1936.
Consequently the simmering discontent in the middle of the lower peasantry
against rural moneylenders, landlords and their mediators flared up into
sporadic incidents of localised peasant movements in support of no-rent
campaigns. Several Muslim peasants were led to consider through both
peasant and non-peasant leaders that Hindu zamindars and mahajans were
responsible for the low prices of crops and consequential misery.
The whole of Bengal and other provinces in 1930s witnessed widespread
anti-British agitation in the name of Civil Disobedience under the aegis of
Gandhi and the Congress Party. Since mainly Congress leaders in East Bengal
represented Hindu bhadralok classes, which were connected with zamindars
and moneylenders, they hardly had any influence on the Muslim peasant
masses in the region. Meanwhile, the government had also taken many 'pro-
peasant' measures to immunize the masses against nationalist, communist and
terrorist propaganda. In the middle of the legislative measures, one may
mention the Bengal Tenancy Act, 1928; the Bengal Rural Primary Education
Act, 1932; the Bengal Local Self-Government Bill, 1933; and the Government
of India Act, 1935. The 'Communal Award' through the Government in 1932
and the 1935 Act not only widened the franchise, but also led to the
'protection' of the Muslim community of the subcontinent. The Hindu
zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate, for its bitter opposition to the 'pro-
peasant' and 'pro-Muslim' measures and its disagreement of class interest with
the peasantry, was not in a position to influence and lead the peasant masses
any more.
The pro-Government Muslim leaders, irrespective of their socio-economic
backgrounds, had started organising Muslim masses throughout East Bengal
on anti-Hindu communal lines. The depression deeply contributed to the
spontaneous response of the peasant masses in organising the anti-Hindu
movements. The organizers of these movements spread wild rumors, telling
the peasant masses that while the Hindu zamindars, traders and moneylenders
were responsible for the low prices of agricultural products, the British
Government had granted impunity to Muslim rioters who would attack, rob
and even kill their Hindu adversaries. In parts of Dhaka and Mymensingh
districts, due to the machinations of some mullas, peasants whispered that the
Government had granted swaraj for seven days and that the nawab of Dhaka
had recognized his authority and would attack Hindu well-to-do classes in
East Bengal. The upshot was communal riots in Dhaka at Ruhitpur, Matuail,
Ati, Jinjira and Mirpur and in many villages in Kishoreganj district in 1930.
The Kishoreganj riots of 1930 approximately totally eclipsed the inherent
class disagreement flanked by peasants and their exploiting moneylenders.
Angry Muslim peasants were very selective in classifying their enemies. They
only attacked Hindu moneylenders and plundered Hindu properties, sparing
Muslims from their wrath. Besides Kishoreganj, Muslim peasants also
attacked and killed Hindus in parts of erstwhile Faridpur, Barisal, Khulna and
Noakhali district throughout the miserable days of the Depression. Even the
Congress-sponsored countrywide Civil Disobedience movement failed to
dissuade Muslim masses from attacking their Hindu neighbours.

REBELLION TO CONCILIATION

These communal disturbances, having local roots under local leadership,

influenced through a pro-Government and anti-Hindu Muslim elite from
Dhaka and elsewhere eventually eliminated both the nationalist Congress
Party and the Communist Party of India as politically relevant forces in the
middle of the peasantry. Meanwhile, Muslim jotedar-talukdar and even ashraf-
zamindar classes had been organising krsak or praja associations with a view
to contesting elections and counteracting the anti-Government nationalist and
communist organisations throughout the region. It is noteworthy that the bulk
of the Muslim peasantry measured Muslim landed classes as part of the
peasant community while Hindu landlords to them were nothing but rent-
receivers and oppressors of the peasantry. Henceforth, Muslim ashraf-ulama-
jotedar leaders started flirting with the Muslim peasantry more vigorously,
promising radical land reform and other pro-peasant measures and projecting
the Hindu zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate as the sole and common
enemy of both the Muslim upper and lower classes of Bengal. Eventually
Muslim leaders successfully mobilized Muslim peasants in the region and
shaped a government under the leadership of AK Fazlul Huq, who in 1937
became the chief minister of Bengal.
Fazlul Huq and fellow Muslim politicians representing the lower middle
and budding middle classes, mostly emanating from the upper peasantry
(jotedars), joined hands with the Urdu-speaking ashraf leaders like
MOHAMMED ALI JINNAH, HUSEYN SHAHEED SUHRAWARDY and KHWAJA
NAZIMUDDIN with a view to installing themselves in power through side-
tracking the dominant Hindu classes. Consequently Fazlul Huq and other
leaders belonging to the KRISHAK PRAJA PARTY had to join the Muslim League
through discarding their 'praja identity" in the wake of the Legislative
Assembly elections of 1937. The mainly fascinating part of the story up to the
Partition of 1947 is the successful mobilization of the under-raiyats and
bargadars (sharecroppers) through the ashraf through the machination of the
praja against the Hindu zamindar-bhadralok-mahajan triumvirate. It is equally
motivating how the nationalists, socialists and communists failed to create
much headway on the peasant front throughout the period.
Fazlul Huq and his Krishak Praja Party (KPP) who had commitments to an
anti-zamindari anti-mahajan economic programme, as reflected in the Election
Manifesto of the KPP, soon joined hands with avowedly communal Muslim
League leaders to form a coalition government in Bengal in April 1937. It is
noteworthy that many Muslim zamindars, including Nawabzada Hasan Ali
Khan of Dhanbari (Tangail), espoused a pro-peasant and anti-zamindar
programme prior to the 1937 elections and afterwards.
Meanwhile, some class-based and anti-British movements took place
alongside the communally motivated movements. The class-based TONK
MOVEMENT of tribal (Hajong) peasants of northern Mymensingh under the
leadership of MONI SINGH and a few communist leaders did not attract non-
tribal Muslim or Namashudra. Some movements remained confined to a
middle-peasant-dominated sub-region of Noakhali, Comilla and Chittagong
throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The absence of Hindu zamindars as principal
mediators of use in the sub-region facilitated the mobilisation of Muslim
peasants on non-communal class or nationalist lines, especially in parts of
Noakhali and Comilla districts. Some leading Congress and communist
leaders of the sub-region, again, belonged to the Muslim community, such as
ASHRAFUDDIN AHMAD CHOWDHURY and Asimuddin Ahmed of Comilla and
Abdul Malek, Muklesur Rahman, Moqbul Mia and others belonging to the
radical Krishak Samity of the Noakhali-Comilla sub-region.
Though, vicious communal riots in Dhaka in 1941 and the mass
mobilisation of Muslims in the name of Pakistan through the ashra f-ulama-
jotedar triumvirate in the wake of the LAHORE RESOLUTION of 1940,
thoroughly communalised the Muslim masses throughout Bengal, including
the Muslim jotedar-dominated northern districts of Rangpur and Dinajpur and
Muslim middle-peasant dominated Noakhali and Comilla districts of Bengal.
In view of the above, the praja-ashraf alliance was inevitable. Fortunately
for the ashraf and the praja (especially the jotedars), through 1941 the bulk of
the Muslim peasantry had been totally disenchanted with the Congress and
other organisations under Hindu leadership due to the pervading influence of
Muslim separatism. Through then the 'anti-feudal' thrash about of the peasants
had been channeled into a 'religious stream' and 'the religious characteristic of
bourgeois nationalism' in Bengal. The marriage of convenience flanked by the
ashraf and praja, which was essential for mutual succor in the post-1937
Elections period for the formation of a viable Muslim ministry to contain
Hindu dominance in Bengal, in fact, signaled the capitulation of the praja to
the rising ashraf.
Through December 1941, Fazlul Huq further alienated himself from the
bulk of the Bengali Muslims, including peasants, through forming a coalition
ministry with the Hindu Mahasabha leader, SHYAMA PRASAD MUKHERJI.
Eventually ashraf leaders like Khwaja Nazimuddin and HS Suhrawardy
replaced Fazlul Huq as the Chief Minister of Bengal up to 1947, and
henceforth quite for sometime, ashraf leaders, in collaboration with some loyal
praja leaders like NURUL AMIN, TAMIZUDDIN KHAN, HAMIDUL HUQ
CHOWDHURY, FAZLUL QUADER CHAUDHURY, ABDUS SABUR KHAN,
Wahiduzzaman (Thanda Mia), Yusuf Ali Chowdhury (Mohun Mia), Fazlur
Rahman and others, remained dominant in Muslim politics in Bengal.
Meanwhile, the Bengal FAMINE, 1943 communal riots in Calcutta in
August 1946 had further vitiated the environment. To the average Muslim in
Bengal Hindu traders, hoarders and black marketers, beside with zamindar and
mahajans, appeared as the main 'culprits', responsible for the famine. Hindu
leaders in general, and zamindars and bhadralok in scrupulous lost their
credibility with the Muslim masses. For the bulk of the Bengali Muslims,
including peasants, the concept of Pakistan appeared as the only choice. The
CALCUTTA RIOT, 1946 precipitated through the DIRECT ACTION DAY of the
Muslim League, made Pakistan inevitable.
Through early 1946 the Muslim League was well entrenched
approximately in every East Bengal district. This was reflected in the elections
of 1946. Muslims voted for the Muslim League with full commitment to
Pakistan. It is, though, altogether a dissimilar matter what the peasants - both
voters and others who were not enfranchised - understood about the
implications of the 'promised land' or the utopia described Pakistan.
Nevertheless the fact remains that when local Muslims involved themselves in
orgies of killing, raping, plundering and forcibly converting their Hindu
neighbours in manyvillages in Noakhali district, avenging the killing of
Muslims in Calcutta through destroying 372 Hindu villages and killing 220
Hindus, an elderly Muslim peasant is said to have remarked that they had
achieved Pakistan as the region flanked by Feni and Chandpur had been
"liberated" from Hindus.
Throughout the hey-days of communalism (1946-47) the Communist Party
of India (CPI) in its bid to revolutionize the Indian peasantry organised class-
based peasant movements in several parts of the Subcontinent. The legendary
Tebhaga Movement in undivided Bengal was one such movement, mainly
confined to tribals, RAJBANGSHIs, SANTALS and GAROs of Rangpur, Dinajpur,
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts in the north. Under the CPI leadership,
mainly high-caste Hindu bhadralok, the movement turned violent as bargadars
forcibly took their share, two-thirds of the crops, from the fields. Several
landless peasants and others having no direct involvement with the
sharecropping system took part in the movement.
It is motivating that both Hindu and Muslim bhadralok opposed the
movement, as they were apprehensive of a class war beyond the parameters of
the village community. Muslim League leaders dissuaded Muslim peasants
through telling them that after the attainment of Pakistan all land would belong
to them as the Hindu landlords would be kicked out of Pakistan or 'the land of
the pure (Muslim)'. Some Muslim leaders promised Choubhaga (literally four
shares) or all the shares of the crop to the Muslim peasants in their promised
'Sonar Pakistan'. Consequently to the average East Bengali Muslim peasant the
'communal' concept of Pakistan was much more persuasive than any appeal in
the name of class solidarity or nationalism. The utopia of Pakistan was so
devouring in the middle of the peasantry that even Hindu communist leaders
of the Tebhaga movement adopted Muslim names (Barin Datta, for instance,
became Abdus Salam), attended public prayer (namaz) sessions with Muslim
peasants to show their support for Islam and hoisted both the Red Flag of
communists and the Green Flag of the Muslim League at the same venues.
Muslim peasants chanted slogans both in favour of Tebhaga and Pakistan in
meetings organised through CPI leaders.
Slowly the demand for Pakistan appeared as the main slogan of Muslim
peasants throughout the region while the demand for tebhaga, being confined
to much smaller section of the peasantry, mainly the tribals, fizzled out in no
time. Peasants, on the other hand, have been firm believers in private
ownership of land. Hence the vacillation and withdrawal of peasant support
from the communist movement. Peasant support for tebhaga does not indicate
their support for communism. Firstly, peasants themselves first raised the
demand, not the CPI; and secondly, the movement did not question the
concept of private ownership of land.
Through 1947, false promises, communalism and above all, the economic
dependence of the average poor peasant on the upper peasantry, blurred the
sub-local differences in the nature of peasants' political behaviour in East
Bengal. The relatively independent middle peasants of Tippera-Noakhali sub-
regions (the vanguards of the anti-British Congress movements in the 1930s
and 1940s), beside with the Muslim lower peasants of the Muslim jotedar-
dominated Rangpur-Dinajpur and Jessore-Khulna sub-regions (who took part
in CPI-led class movements) succumbed to the appeals made in the name of
'Islam in Danger' and radical economic reforms under 'Islamic' and 'golden'
Pakistan through the Muslim League. Meanwhile, the bulk of the Namasudra
peasants had been won over through the high-caste Hindu Congress leaders.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Write the Political Contribution of Premchand's literary works.
Describe the objectives and ideology of these revolutionary
organizations.
Discuss the causes of decline of revolutionary terrorism.
Why were the early Congress leaders hesitant in adopting Socialist
ideas in India?
What troubles did the Congress face after the withdraw1 of Non-
Cooperation Movement?
What was the programme of the civil Disobedience Movement?
Why and how did the British Government try to suppress the
Communist Party of India?
How was the All India Trade Union Congress shaped?

CHAPTER 6
NATIONALISM: INTER-WAR III

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Constitutional reforms 1921-1935
Elections of 1937 and congress ministries
Popular struggles in the princely stages
World War –II: causes, course and consequence
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
Know how the vital character of the Constitution of Free India has
evolved slowly,
Be aware of the several opinions prevailing in the middle of the
Congressmen in relation to the question of constitutional reforms,
Learn about the elections of 1937 and the several characteristics related
to them,
Growth of the Indian Capitalist Class in the context of colonialism and
the colonial economy,
Attitude of the Indian Capitalists as a class towards colonialism,
 Understand the popular struggles in the princely states, and
Explain world war II

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS 1921-1935

EFFECTS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS OF 1919

Before discussing the effects of the Constitutional Reforms of 1919, let us

briefly recapitulate the main characteristics of the Government of India Act of
1919. Under the Government of India Act of 1919 the provincial governments
were given more powers under the system of Dyarchy. Some subjects such as
finance and law and order were described, reserved subjects and remained
under the direct control of the Governor. Other subjects such as education,
public health and local self government were described transferred subjects
and were to be controlled through Ministers responsible to the legislature.
Although some of the spending departments were transferred the Governor
retained complete control over the finances. The Governor hold overrule the
Ministers on any grounds which he measured special. The central legislature
had virtually no control over the' Governor- General and his Executive
Council. On the other hand, the central government had unrestricted control
over the provincial governments.

Reform Proposals flanked by 1920-1927

The reforms introduced through the government of India Act of 1919
disillusioned the Indian nationalists and contributed to a great extent to the
growth of nationalist movement in 1920-1921. Throughout the period after the
withdrawal of Non-Cooperation movement a political vacuum developed
which the Swarajists attempted to fill up. The Gandhian No-changers on the
other hand concentrated on constructive work in villages. In the period flanked
by 1920 and the formation of Simon Commission several reform proposals
were put forward through the Indians. A non-official resolution was
introduced in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1921. The resolution
demanded establishment of full responsible government in the provinces. Two
other non-official resolutions were introduced in 1923 but to no avail.
After entering the assembly the Swarajists introduced a non-official
resolution. It recommended to the Governor-General in Council the
overhauling of Government of India Act of 1919 to establish self-governing
Dominion Status within the British Empire and provincial autonomy in the
provinces. The government rejected this proposal. Home Member Sir
Malcolm Hailey pointed out that responsible government as mentioned in the
Preamble of Act of 1919 in which executive would be responsible to the
legislature with limited powers was to be recognized. Though, full Dominion
self-government was to be a further and final step. Swarajists led through
Motilal Nehru introduced an amendment in 1924. They demanded the framing
of an Indian Constitution through an Indian Constituent Assembly. As a
response the government appointed the Reforms Enquiry Committee under the
chairmanship of Sir Alexander Muddiman, the Home Member in the
Executive Council. The Committee published a majority and minority Report.
Majority Report declared that Dyarchy had not been recognized. Minority
Report stated that Act of 1919 had failed. Though, the official point of view
stated that the Act of 1919 could be improved upon through adopting the
suggestions of the Majority Report. But Motilal Nehru stood through his
earlier resolution. He asked for the summoning of a Round Table Conference
of all Indian (including minority), European and Anglo-Indian interests.
Around this time the Muslim League under the Presidentship of M.A.
Jinnah met at Lahore. It demanded the establishment of full responsible
government, a federal constitution with full autonomy for provinces and
adequate representation for minorities through separate electorates. When a
resolution was introduced in the Council of State for the abolition of separate
electorates Muslim members felt that the moment for doing absent with them
had not came. Later Muslim members agreed to accept the system of joint
electorates if four circumstances were fulfilled:
Sind after being separated from Bombay Presidency was to be made a
separate province (Muslim majority province).
In NWFP and Baluchistan reforms were to be accepted out on the same
lines as in provinces.
Representation in Bengal and Punjab was to be on the basis of
population (this was to ensure Muslim majority in the legislature).
Muslim representation in Central legislature was to be either one third
of the total or more than that.

Jinnah played an significant role preparing this list of demands. A

resolution was passed through the Congress which accepted cost of the
demands put forth through the Muslims. Around this time there took place a
spite the Muslim League. A separate annual session of the League was held at
Lahore under the presidentship of Sir Mian Muhammed Shafi. The split was
compatible with British policy of preventing rapprochement flanked by the
Congress and the League. Against this background the British government
decided to review the Indian situation in order to the tide of rising popular
discontent in India. The result was the coming of the Simon Commission.

SIMON COMMISSION

The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of seven British Members

of Parliament of United Kingdom that had been dispatched to India in 1928 to
revise constitutional reform in Britain's mainly significant colonial
dependency. It was commonly referred to as the Simon Commission after its
chairman, Sir John Simon. One of its members was Clement Attlee, who
subsequently became the British Prime Minister and eventually oversaw the
granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947.

Background
The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced the system of dyarchy
to govern the provinces of British India. Though, the Indian public clamored
for revision of the hard diarchy form of government, and the Government of
India Act 1919 itself stated that a commission would be appointed after 10
years to investigate the progress of the governance scheme and suggest new
steps for reform. In the late 1920s, the Conservative government then in power
in Britain feared imminent electoral defeat at the hands of the Labour Party,
and also feared the effects of the consequent transference of control of India to
such an "inexperienced" body. Hence, it appointed seven MPs (including
Chairman Simon) to constitute the commission that had been promised in
1919 that would look into the state of Indian constitutional affairs. The people
of the Indian subcontinent were outraged and insulted, as the Simon
Commission, which was to determine the future of India, did not contain a
single Indian member in it. The Indian National Congress, at its December
1927 meeting in Madras (now Chennai), resolved to boycott the Commission
and challenged Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, to draft a
constitution that would be acceptable to the Indian populace. A faction of the
Muslim League, led through Mohammed Ali Jinnah, also decided to boycott
the Commission.
An All-India Committee for Cooperation with the Simon Commission was
recognized through the Council of India and through selection through the
Viceroy The Lord Irwin. The members of the committee were: Sir C.
Sankaran Nair (Chairman), Sir Arthur Froom, Rajah Nawab Ali Khan, Sardar
Shivdev Singh Uberoi, Nawab Sir Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Sir Hari Singh Gour, Sir
Abdullah Al-Mamun Suhrawardy, Kikabhai Premchand and Rao Bahadur M.
C. Rajah.
In Burma (Myanmar), which was incorporated in the conditions of
reference of the Simon Commission, there was strong suspicion either that
Burma's unpopular union with India would continue, or that the constitution
recommended for Burma through the Simon Commission would be less
generous than that chosen for India; these suspicions resulted in tension and
violence in Burma leading to the rebellion of Saya San.
The Commission‘s recommendations were:
Future Advance - The first principle was that the new constitution
should, as far as possible, contain within itself provision for its own
development. It should not lay down too rigid and uniform a plan, but
should allow for natural growth and diversity. Constitutional progress
should be the outcome of practical experience. Where further
legislation is required, it should result from the needs of the time, not
from the arbitrary demands of a fixed time-table. The constitution,
while contemplating and conforming to an ultimate objective, should
not attempt to lay down the length or the number of the stages of the
journey…. It has been a feature of the development of responsible
government in other parts of the British Empire that the details of the
constitution have not been exhaustively defined in statutory language.
On the contrary, the constitutions of the self-governing parts of the
British Empire have developed as the result of natural growth, and
progress has depended not so much on changes made at intervals in the
language of an Act of Parliament, as on the development of
conventions, and on the conditions of instructions issued from time to
time to the Crown's representative. The Preamble to the Government of
India Act declares that progress in giving effect to the policy of the
progressive realisation of responsible government in British India can
only be achieved through successive stages; but there is no cause why
the length of these successive stages should be defined in advance, or
why every stage should be marked through a commission of enquiry."
(Simon Report vol. 2 p. 5)
Approximately Responsible Government at the Provincial Stage –
Dyarchy should be scrapped and Ministers responsible to the
Legislature would be entrusted with all provincial areas of
responsibility. Though, safeguards were measured necessary in areas
such as the maintenance of peace and tranquility and the protection of
the legitimate interest of the minorities. These safeguards would be
provided, mainly, through the grant of special powers to the Governor.
Federation – The Report measured that a formally federal union,
including both British India and the Princely States, was the only long-
term solution for a united, autonomous India.
Immediate Recommendations at the Centre - to help the growth of
political consciousness in the people, the franchise should be extended;
and the Legislature enlarged. Otherwise, no substantial change was
recommended in the Centre. The Report strongly opposed the
introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre. It should be noted that Simon
set great store on having a unanimous report. This could only be done
if he recommended no change at the centre as: the diehards were
opposed to any Indian responsibility at the Centre: the Conservative
leadership would oppose any responsibility at the Centre which did not
build in conservative-pro-British control (as they tried to do in the
Government of India Act 1935; and, Labour would oppose the kind of
gerrymandering at the Centre necessary to meet the necessities of the
Conservative leadership.
PROTEST AND DEATH OF LALA LAJPAT RAI

Approximately immediately with its arrival in Bombay on February 3,

1928, the Simon Commission was confronted through throngs of protestors.
The whole country observed a hartal (strike), and several people turned out to
greet the Commission with black flags. Similar protests occurred in every
major Indian city that the seven British MPs visited. Though, one protest
against the Simon Commission would gain infamy above all the oth On
October 30, 1928, the Simon Commission arrived in Lahore where, as with the
rest of the country, its arrival was met with massive amounts of protesters and
black flags. In the Madras Presidency excluding the Chief Minister, P.
Subaroyan the remaining 2 other Ministers resigned - Dewan Bahadur
R.N.Arogyaswamy Mudaliar and A.Ranganatha Mudaliar The Lahore protest
was led through Indian nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had moved a
resolution against the Commission in the Legislative Assembly of Punjab in
February 1928. In order to create way for the Commission, the local police
force began beating protestors with their lathis (sticks). The police were
particularly brutal towards Lala Lajpat Rai, who died later on November 17,
1928.

AFTERMATH

The Commission published its 17-volume report in 1930. It proposed the

abolition of diarchy and the establishment of representative government in the
provinces. It also recommended that separate communal electorates be
retained, but only until tensions flanked by Hindus and Muslims had died
down. In September 1928, ahead of the Commission's release, Mr. Motilal
Nehru presented his Nehru Report to counter its charges that Indians could not
find a constitutional consensus in the middle of themselves. This report
advocated that India be given dominion status of complete internal self-
government.
Noting that educated Indians opposed the Commission and also that
communal tensions had increased instead of decreased, the British government
opted for another method of dealing with the constitutional issues of India.
Before the publication of the report, the British government stated that Indian
opinion would henceforth be taken into account, and that the natural outcome
of the constitutional procedure would be dominion status for India. The
outcome of the Simon Commission was the Government of India Act 1935,
which recognized representative government at the provincial stage in India
and is the basis of several parts of the Indian Constitution. In 1937 the first
elections were held in the Provinces, resulting in Congress Governments being
returnacted in approximately all Provinces.
THE FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

The Round Table Conference was opened officially through King George
V on November 12, 1930 at London and chaired through the British Prime
Minister, Ramsay MacDonald. It was the first time that British and Indian
political leaders and rulers of Indian princely states met at one place.
The three British political parties were represented through sixteen
delegates. There were fifty-seven political leaders from British India and
sixteen delegates from the princely states. In total 89 delegates from India
attended the Conference. Though, the Indian National Congress, beside with
Indian business leaders, kept absent from the conference. Several of them
were in jail for their participation in Civil Disobedience Movement.

Participants

British Representatives: Ramsay Macdonald, Lord Sankey, Wedgwood

Benn, Arthur Henderson, J. H. Thomas, William Jowitt, Hastings
Lees-Smith, Earl Russell, Earl Peel, Marquess of Zetland, Samuel
Hoare, Oliver Stanley, Marquess of Reading, Marquess of Lothian,
Robert Hamilton, Isaac Foot
Indian States' Representatives: Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of
Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja of Bikaner, Rana of Dholpur,
Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja of Nawanagar, Maharaja
of Patiala (Chancellor of the Chamber of Princes), Maharaja of Rewa,
Chief Sahib of Sangli, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani, Manubhai Mehta,
Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan, Akbar Hydari, Mirza Ismail,
Col. K.N. Haksar
British-Indian Representatives: Aga Khan III, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer,
Maulana Mohammad Ali, B. R. Ambedkar, U Aung Thin, Ba U,
Chandradhar Barua, J. N. Basu, Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Sir Hubert Carr,
C. Y. Chintamani, Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari,
Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga, Raja Sher Muhammad Khan of
Domeli, A. K. Fazlul Huq, M. M. Ohn Ghine, A. H. Ghuznavi, Henry
Gidney, Sir O. de Glanville, Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah, Hafiz
Hidayat Hussain, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao Jadhav, M. R. Jayakar,
Cowasji Jehangir, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, T. F. Gavin Jones, N. M.
Joshi, Narendra Nath Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra, Provash Chandra
Mitter, Homi Mody, B. S. Moonje, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Diwan
Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath, A. T. Pannirselvam, Raja of
Parlakimedi, Sir Annepu Parasuramadas Patro, Sahibzada Abdul
Qayyum, M. Ramachandra Rao, B. Shiva Rao, Syed Sultan Ahmed,
Tej Bahadur Sapru, Muhammad Shafi, Sardar Sampuran Singh, V. S.
Srinivasa Sastri, Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Bisheshwar Dayal Seth,
Phiroze Sethna, Dr. Shafa'at Ahmad Khan, Begum Jahanara
Shahnawaz, Rettamalai Srinivasan, Radhabai Subbarayan, Shripad
 Balwant Tambe, Sardar Ujjal Singh, C. E. Wood, Muhammad
Zafarullah Khan
Officials attending in consultative capability: W. M. Hailey, C. A.
Innes, A. C. MacWatters, H. G. Haig, L. W. Reynolds
Indian States Delegation Staff: Richard Chenevix-Trench, Nawab
Mahdi Yar Jung, Ahmed Hussain, Nawab Sir Amin Jung Bahadur, Sir
Reginald Glancy, T. Raghavaiah, Krishnama Chari, K. C. Neogy, L. F.
Rushbrook Williams, Qazi Ali Haidar Abbasi, Jarmani Dass
Secretariats: S. K. Brown, V. Dawson, K. S. Fitze, W. H. Lewis, R. J.
Stopford, J. Coatman, Marmaduke Pickthall, K. M. Panikkar, N. S.
Subba Rao, Geoffrey Corbett, A. Latifi, Girija Shankar Bajpai
Secretariat-General: R. H. A. Carter, Mian Abdul Aziz, W. D. Croft,
G. E. J. Gent, B. G. Holdsworth, R. F. Mudie, G. S. Rajadhyaksha

The conference started with 6 plenary meetings where delegates put

forward their issues. These were followed through discussions on the reports
of the sub-committees on Federal Structure, Provincial Constitution,
Minorities, Burma, North West Boundary Province, Franchise, Defence,
Services and Sindh. These were followed through 2 more plenary meetings
and a final concluding session. The thought of an All-India Federation was
moved to the centre of discussion. All the groups attending the conference
supported this concept. The responsibility of the executive to the legislature
was discussed, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar demanded a separate electorate for the
so-described Untouchables. It was hard for progress to be made in the absence
of Congress (Indian National Congress) but some advances were made. The
princes declared they would join future federation of India as long as their
rights were recognized and the British agreed that representative government
should be introduced on provincial stage.

GANDHI AND THE SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

In spite of the fact that the government stand did not show much change,
Gandhi agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference after
concluding a pact with the Viceroy, recognized as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of
March 5, 1931. Throughout this period revolutionary terrorism was in full
swing and the Communists were organising the labour and strikes.
Apprehensive of anarchy Gandhi concluded a pact with Irwin. The Congress
suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement and it was decided that Gandhi
would be the sole representative and spokesman of the Congress at the second
session of the Round Table Conference. The Congress reiterated Puma Swaraj
as its ultimate political goal.
In the intervening period the situation had, though, undergone a change.
On 26 August 1931, MacDonald's Labour Cabinet resigned and a new
coalition government dominated through the Conservatives was shaped under
him. Wellingdon succeeded Lord Irwin in Delhi in April 1931. Sir Samuel
Hoare a leading conservative became Secretary of State for India. As a result
of these changes official attitude hardened. Mainly of the prominent
personalities of the first session returned to attend the second session. There
were, though, several new faces. Besides Gandhi, there were Muhammed
Iqbal, a great poet, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mrs. Sarojini Naidu and Ali
Imam, great political leaders and nationalists, G.D. Birla, a capitalist and S.K.
Datta, a prominent Indian Christian. They were attending the Conference for
the first time. The second session ended on 1 December, 1931 and made
recommendations on the matters such as:
The composition of the Indian federation
Structure of the federal judiciary
The mode of accession of states to the federation, and
Sharing of financial possessions.

The Congress scheme tabled through Gandhi was the same as had been
suggested earlier through the Nehru Committee Report. The proceedings of
the conference were bogged down through the communal issues. Gandhi was
aware of the fact that the communal problem was so complex that is defied all
immediate solutions. He suggested that the communal settlement be kept
pending till the constitutional settlement had been arrived at. The suggestion
not only displeased the representatives of the minorities but even hardened
their attitude. The Muslim representatives insisted on separate electorates. The
second session therefore concluded in an atmosphere of bitterness and
anxiety.

COMMUNAL AWARD AND POONA PACT

The Poona Pact refers to an agreement flanked by Dr. Babasaheb

Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi signed on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada
Central Jail in Pune (now in Maharashtra), India. To draft a new Constitution
involving self-rule for the native Indians, the British invited leaders of
dissimilar parties in the Round Table Conferences in 1930-32. Mahatma
Gandhi did not attend the first and last but attended the second of the
Conferences. The concept of separate electorates for the Untouchables was
raised through Dr. Ambedkar. Similar provisions were already accessible for
other minorities, including Muslims, Christians, Anglo-Indians and Sikhs. The
British government agreed with Ambedkar's contention, and British Prime
Minister Ramsay MacDonald's Communal Award to the depressed classes was
to be incorporated into the constitution in the governance of British India.
Gandhi strongly opposed it on the grounds that it would disintegrate Hindu
society. He began an indefinite hunger strike at Yerwada Central Jail from
September 20, 1932 to protest against this Award. A compromise was reached
on September 24, 1932.
The text uses the term "Depressed Classes" to denote Untouchables who
were later described Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act
1935, and the later Indian Constitution of 1950. The Untouchables are now
popularly recognized as Dalits.
The Conditions of the Poona Pact were as under:
There shall be seats reserved for the Depressed Classes out of general
electorate. Seats in the Provincial Legislatures were as follows: -
Madras 30
Bombay with Sindh 15
Punjab 8
Bihar and Orissa 18
Central Provinces 20
Assam 7
Bengal 30
United Provinces 20
Total 148
These figures are based on the total strength of the Provincial Councils
announced in the (British)Prime Minister's decision.
Election to these seats shall be through joint electorates subject,
though, to the following procedure –All members of the Depressed
Classes registered in the general electoral roll of a constituency will
form an electoral college which will elect a panel of four candidates
belonging to the Depressed Classes for each of such reserved seats
through the method of the single vote and four persons getting the
highest number of votes in such primary elections shall be the
candidates for election through the general electorate.
The representation of the Depressed Classes in the Central Legislature
shall likewise be on the principle of joint electorates and reserved seats
through the method of primary election in the manner provided for in
clause above for their representation in the provincial legislatures.

Central Legislature:
In the Central Legislature 18 per cent of the seats allotted to the
general electorate for British India in the said legislature shall be
reserved for the Depressed Classes.
The system of primary election to a panel of candidates for election to
the Central and Provincial Legislatures as herein-before mentioned
shall come to an end after the first ten years, unless terminated sooner
through mutual agreement under the provision of clause 6 below.
The system of representation of Depressed Classes through reserved
seats in the Provincial and Central Legislatures as provided for in
clauses (1) and (4) shall continue until determined otherwise through
 mutual agreement flanked by the communities concerned in this
settlement.
The Franchise for the Central and Provincial Legislatures of the
Depressed Classes shall be as indicated, in the Lothian Committee
Report.
There shall be no disabilities attached to any one on the ground of his
being a member of the Depressed Classes in regard to any election to
local bodies or appointment to the public services. Every endeavour
shall be made to secure a fair representation of the Depressed Classes
in these respects, subject to such educational qualifications as may be
laid down for appointment to the Public Services.
In every province out of the educational grant an adequate sum shall be
ear-marked for providing educational facilities to the members of
Depressed Classes.

THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935

The Government of India Act 1935 was originally passed in August 1935
(25 & 26 Geo. 5 c. 42), and is said to have been the longest (British) Act of
Parliament ever enacted through that time. Because of its length, the Act was
retroactively split through the Government of India (Reprinting) Act 1935 (26
Geo. 5 & 1 Edw. 8 c. 1) into two separate Acts:
The Government of India Act 1935 (26 Geo. 5 & 1 Edw. 8 c. 2)
The Government of Burma Act 1935 (26 Geo. 5 & 1 Edw. 8 c. 3)
References in literature on Indian political and constitutional history are
usually to the shortened Government of India Act 1935 (i.e. 26 Geo. 5 & 1
Edw. 8 c. 2), rather than to the text of the Act as originally enacted.
The mainly important characteristics of the Act were:
The grant of a large measure of autonomy to the provinces of British
India (ending the system of dyarchy introduced through the
Government of India Act 1919)
Provision for the establishment of a "Federation of India", to be made
up of both British India and some or all of the "princely states"
The introduction of direct elections, therefore rising the franchise from
seven million to thirty-five million people
A partial reorganization of the provinces:
Sindh was separated from Bombay
Bihar and Orissa was split into separate provinces of Bihar and
Orissa
Burma was totally separated from India
Aden was also detached from India, and recognized as a
separate Crown colony
 Membership of the provincial assemblies was altered so as to contain
more elected Indian representatives, who were now able to form
majorities and be appointed to form governments
The establishment of a Federal Court
Though, the degree of autonomy introduced at the provincial stage was
subject to significant limitations: the provincial Governors retained significant
reserve powers, and the British authorities also retained a right to suspend
responsible government.
The parts of the Act planned to establish the Federation of India never
came into operation, due to opposition from rulers of the princely states. The
remaining parts of the Act came into force in 1937, when the first elections
under the Act were also held.

The Act

Background to the Act

Indians had increasingly been demanding a greater role in the government
of their country since the late 19th century. The Indian contribution to the
British war effort throughout the First World War meant that even the more
conservative elements in the British political establishment felt the necessity
of constitutional change, resulting in the Government of India Act 1919. That
Act introduced a novel system of government recognized as provincial
"dyarchy", i.e., sure areas of government (such as education) were placed in
the hands of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature, while others
(such as public order and finance) were retained in the hands of officials
responsible to the British-appointed provincial Governor. While the Act was a
reflection of the demand for a greater role in government through Indians, it
was also very much a reflection of British fears about what that role might
mean in practice for India (and of course for British interests there).The act of
1935 in provided for the federal structure, sharing of powers, provincial
autonomy, responsible form of government, bicameral legislature, emergency
power of Governor General
The experiment with dyarchy proved unsatisfactory. A scrupulous
frustration for Indian politicians was that even for those areas over which they
had gained nominal control, the "purse strings" were still in the hands of
British officialdom.
The intention had been that a review of India's constitutional arrangements
and those princely states that were willing to accede to it. Though, division
flanked by Congress and Muslim representatives proved to be a major factor
in preventing agreement as to much of the significant detail of how federation
would work in practice.
Against this practice, the new Conservative-dominated National
Government in London decided to go ahead with drafting its own proposals
(the white paper). A joint parliamentary select committee, chaired through
Lord Linlithgow, reviewed the white paper proposals at great length. On the
basis of this white paper, the Government of India Bill was framed. At the
committee stage and later, to appease the diehards, the "safeguards" were
strengthened, and indirect elections were reinstated for the Central Legislative
Assembly (the central legislature's lower house). The bill duly passed into law
in August 1935.
As a result of this procedure, although the Government of India Act 1935
was planned to go some way towards meeting Indian demands, both the detail
of the bill and the lack of Indian involvement in drafting its contents meant
that the Act met with a lukewarm response at best in India, while still proving
too radical for a important element in Britain.

Some Characteristics of the Act

No preamble: the ambiguity of British commitment to dominion status
While it had become uncommon for British Acts of Parliament to contain a
preamble, the absence of one from the Government of India Act 1935
contrasts sharply with the 1919 Act, which set out the broad philosophy of that
Act's aims in relation to Indian political development.
The 1919 Act's preamble quoted, and centered on, the statement of the
Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu (17 July 1917 – 19 March 1922)
to the House of Commons on 20 August 1917, which pledged:
…the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view
to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an
integral Part of the British Empire.

Indian demands were through now centering on British India achieving

constitutional parity with the existing Dominions such as Canada and
Australia, which would have meant complete autonomy within the British
Commonwealth. A important element in British political circles doubted that
Indians were capable of running their country on this basis, and saw Dominion
status as something that might, perhaps, be aimed for after a long period of
gradual constitutional development, with enough "safeguards".
This tension flanked by and within Indian and British views resulted in the
clumsy compromise of the 1935 Act having no preamble of its own, but
keeping in place the 1919 Act's preamble even while repealing the remainder
of that Act. Unsurprisingly, this was seen in India as yet more mixed messages
from the British, suggesting at best a lukewarm attitude and at worst
suggesting a "minimum necessary" approach towards satisfying Indian desires.

No Bill of Rights
In contrast with mainly modern constitutions, but in common with
Commonwealth constitutional legislation of the time, the Act does not contain
a "bill of rights" within the new system that it aimed to establish. Though, in
the case of the proposed Federation of India there was a further complication
in incorporating such a set of rights, as the new entity would have incorporated
nominally sovereign (and usually autocratic) princely states.
A dissimilar approach was measured through some, though, as the draft
outline constitution in the Nehru Report incorporated such a bill of rights.

Relationship to a Dominion Constitution

In 1947, a relatively few amendments in the Act made it the functioning
interim constitutions of India and Pakistan.

Safeguards
The Act was not only very detailed, but it was riddled with ‗safeguards‘
intended to enable the British Government to intervene whenever it saw the
need in order to maintain British responsibilities and interests. To achieve this,
in the face of a slowly rising Indianization of the institutions of the
Government of India, the Act concentrated the decision for the use and the
actual administration of the safeguards in the hands of the British-appointed
Viceroy and provincial governors who were subject to the control of the
Secretary of State for India.
‗In view of the enormous powers and responsibilities which the
Governor-General necessity exercise in his discretion or according to
his individual judgment, it is obvious that he (the Viceroy) is expected
to be a type of superman. He necessity have tact, courage, and skill and
be endowed with an infinite capability for hard work. ― We have put
into this Bill several safeguards,‖ said Sir Robert Horne… ― but all of
those safeguards revolve about a single individual, and that is the
Viceroy. He is the linch-pin of the whole system…. If the Viceroy
fails, nothing can save the system you have set up.‖ This speech
reflected the point of view of the die-hard Tories who were horrified
through the prospect that some day there might be a Viceroy appointed
through a Labour government.‘

Reality of Responsible Government Under the Act – Is the Cup Half-Full or Half-
Empty?
A secure reading of the Act reveals that the British Government equipped
itself with the legal instruments to take back total control at any time they
measured this to be desirable. Though, doing so without good cause would
totally sink their credibility with groups in India whose support the act was
aimed at securing. Some contrasting views:
―In the federal government… the semblance of responsible
government is presented. But the reality is lacking, for the powers in
defence and external affairs necessarily, as matters stand, given to the
governor-general limit vitally the scope of ministerial activity, and the
measure of representation given to the rulers of the Indian States
negatives any possibility of even the beginnings of democratic control.
It will be a matter of the utmost interest to watch the development of a
 form of government so unique; certainly, if it operates successfully, the
highest credit will be due to the political capability of Indian leaders,
who have infinitely more serious difficulties to face than had the
colonial statesmen who evolved the system of self-government which
has now culminated in Dominion status.‖

Lord Lothian, in a talk lasting forty-five minutes, came straight out with
his view on the Bill:
"I agree with the diehards that it has been a surrender. You who are not
used to any constitution cannot realise what great power you are going
to wield. If you look at the constitution it looks as if all the powers are
vested in the Governor-General and the Governor. But is not every
power here vested in the King? Everything is done in the name of the
King but does the King ever interfere? Once the power passes into the
hands of the legislature, the Governor or the Governor-General is
never going to interfere. …The Civil Service will be helpful. You too
will realise this. Once a policy is laid down they will carry it out
loyally and faithfully… We could not help it. We had to fight the
diehards here. You could not realise what great courage has been
shown through Mr. Baldwin and Sir Samuel Hoare. We did not want to
spare the diehards as we had to talk in a dissimilar language… These
several meetings — and in due course G.D. (Birla), before his return in
September, met virtually everyone of importance in Anglo-Indian
affairs — confirmed G.D.'s original opinion that the differences
flanked by the two countries were largely psychological, the same
proposals open to diametrically opposed interpretations. He had not,
almost certainly, taken in before his visit how considerable, in the eyes
of British conservatives, the concessions had been… If nothing else,
successive conversations made clear to G.D. that the mediators of the
Bill had at least as heavy odds against them at home as they had in
India.

False Equivalences
"The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to
sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread."
Under the Act, British citizens resident in the UK and British
companies registered in the UK necessity be treated on the same basis
as Indian citizens and Indian registered companies unless UK law
denies reciprocal treatment. The unfairness of this arrangement is clear
when one considers the dominant position of British capital in much of
the Indian modern sector and the complete dominance, maintained
through unfair commercial practices, of UK shipping interests in
India's international and coastal shipping traffic and the utter
insignificance of Indian capital in Britain and the non-subsistence of
Indian involvement in shipping to or within the UK. There are very
 detailed provisions requiring the Viceroy to intervene if, in his
unappealable view, any India law or regulation is planned to, or will in
fact, discriminate against UK resident British subjects, British
registered companies and, particularly, British shipping interests.
―The Joint Committee measured a suggestion that trade with foreign
countries should be made through the Minister of Commerce, but it
decided that all negotiations with foreign countries should be
mannered through the Foreign Office or Department of External
Affairs as they are in the United Kingdom. In concluding agreements
of this character, the Foreign Secretary always consults the Board of
Trade and it was assumed that the Governor-General would in like
manner consult the Minister of Commerce in India. This may be true,
but the analogy itself is false. In the United Kingdom, both
departments are subject to the same legislative control, whereas in
India one is responsible to the federal legislature and the other to the
Imperial Parliament.‖

British Political Needs vs. Indian Constitutional Needs – the Ongoing Dysfunction
From the moment of the Montagu statement of 1917, it was vital that the
reform procedure stay ahead of the curve if the British were to hold the
strategic initiative. Though, imperialist sentiment, and a lack of realism, in
British political circles made this impossible. Therefore the grudging
conditional concessions of power in the Acts of 1919 and 1935 caused more
resentment and signally failed to win the Raj the backing of influential groups
in India which it desperately needed. In 1919 the Act of 1935, or even the
Simon Commission plan would have been well received. There is proof that
Montagu would have backed something of this sort but his cabinet colleagues
would not have measured it. Through 1935, a constitution establishing a
Dominion of India, comprising the British Indian provinces might have been
acceptable in India though it would not have passed the British Parliament.
‗Considering the balance of power in the Conservative party at the
time, the passing of a Bill more liberal than that which was enacted in
1935 is inconceivable.‘

Provincial Part of the Act

The provincial part of the Act, which went into effect automatically,
basically followed the recommendations of the Simon Commission. Provincial
dyarchy was abolished; that is, all provincial portfolios were to be placed in
charge of ministers enjoying the support of the provincial legislatures. The
British-appointed provincial governors, who were responsible to the British
Government via the Viceroy and Secretary of State for India, were to accept
the recommendations of the ministers unless, in their view, they negatively
affected his areas of statutory ―
special responsibilities‖ such as the prevention
of any grave menace to the peace or tranquility of a province and the
safeguarding of the legitimate interests of minorities. In the event of political
breakdown, the governor, under the supervision of the Viceroy, could take
over total control of the provincial government. This, in fact, allowed the
governors a more untrammeled control than any British official had enjoyed in
the history of the Raj. After the resignation of the congress provincial
ministries in 1939, the governors did directly rule the ex-Congress provinces
throughout the war.
It was usually recognized, that the provincial part of the Act, conferred a
great deal of power and patronage on provincial politicians as long as both
British officials and Indian politicians played through the rules. Though, the
paternalistic threat of the intervention through the British governor rankled.

Federal Part of the Act

Unlike the provincial portion of the Act, the Federal portion was to go into
effect only when half the States through weight agreed to federate. This never
happened and the establishment of the Federation was indefinitely postponed
after the outbreak of the Second World War.

Conditions of the Act

The Act provided for Dyarchy at the Centre. The British Government, in
the person of the Secretary of State for India, through the Governor-General of
India – Viceroy of India, would continue to control India‘s financial
obligations, defence, foreign affairs and the British Indian Army and would
create the key appointments to the Reserve Bank of India (exchange rates) and
Railway Board and the Act stipulated that no finance bill could be placed in
the Central Legislature without the consent of the Governor General. The
funding for the British responsibilities and foreign obligations (e.g. loan
repayments, pensions), at least 80 percent of the federal expenditures, would
be non-votable and be taken off the top before any claims could be measured
for (for instance) social or economic development programs. The Viceroy,
under the supervision of the Secretary of State for India, was provided with
overriding and certifying powers that could, theoretically, have allowed him to
rule autocratically.

Objectives of the British Government

The federal part of the Act was intended to meet the aims of the
Conservative Party. Over the very long term, the Conservative leadership
expected the Act to lead to a nominally dominion status India, conservative in
outlook, dominated through an alliance of Hindu princes and right-wing
Hindus which would be well disposed to place itself under the guidance and
protection of the United Kingdom. In the medium term, the Act was expected
to (in rough order of importance):
Win the support of moderate nationalists since its formal aim was to
lead eventually to a Dominion of India which, as defined under the
Statute of Westminster 1931 virtually equalled independence;
 Retain British of control of the Indian Army, Indian finances, and
India‘s foreign relations for another generation;
Win Muslim support through conceding mainly of Jinnah's Fourteen
Points;
Convince the Princes to join the Federation through giving the Princes
circumstances for entry never likely to be equaled. It was expected that
enough would join to allow the establishment of the Federation. The
conditions offered to the Princes incorporated:
Each Prince would select his state‘s representative in the
Federal Legislature. There would be no pressure for Princes to
democratize their administrations or allow elections for state
representatives in the Federal Legislature.
The Princes would enjoy heavy weight age. The Princely States
represented about a quarter of the population of India and
produced well under a quarter of its wealth. Under the Act:
The Upper House of the Federal Legislature, the
Council of State, would consist of 260 members: 156
(60%) elected from the British India and 104 (40%)
nominated through the rulers of the princely states.
The Lower House, the Federal Assembly, would consist
of 375 members: 250 (67%) elected through the
Legislative Assemblies of the British Indian provinces;
125 (33%) nominated through the rulers of the princely
states.
Ensuring that the Congress could never rule alone or gain enough seats
to bring down the government

This was done through over-representing the Princes, through giving every
possible minority the right to separately vote for candidates belonging to their
respective communities (see separate electorate), and through creation the
executive theoretically, but not practically, removable through the legislature.

Gambles Taken through the British Government

Viability of the proposed Federation. It was hoped that the
gerrymandered federation, encompassing units of such hugely
dissimilar sizes, sophistication and varying in forms of government
from autocratic Princely States to democratic provinces, could give the
basis for a viable state. Though, this was not a realistic possibility (see
e.g. The Creation of India‘s Paper Federation, 1927-35 in Moore
1988). In reality, the Federation, as planned in the Act, approximately
certainly was not viable and would have rapidly broken down with the
British left to pick up the pieces without any viable alternative.
Princes Seeing and Acting in Their Own Long-Range Best Interests -
Which the Princes would see that their best hope for a future would lie
in rapidly joining and becoming a united block without which no group
 could hope, mathematically, to wield power. Though, the princes did
not join, and therefore exercising the veto provided through the Act
prevented the Federation from coming into subsistence. In the middle
of the reasons for the Princes staying out were the following:
They did not have the foresight to realize that this was their
only chance for a future.
Congress had begun, and would continue, agitating for
democratic reforms within the Princely States. Since the one
common concern of the 600 or so Princes was their desire to
continue to rule their states without interference, this was
indeed a mortal threat. It was on the cards that this would lead
eventually to more democratic state regimes and the election of
states‘ representatives in the Federal Legislature. In all
likelihood, these representatives would be largely
Congressmen. Had the Federation been recognized, the election
of states‘ representatives in the Federal Legislature would
amount to a Congress coup from the inside. Therefore ,
contrary to their official position that the British would look
favorably on the democratization of the Princely States, their
plan required that the States remain autocratic. This reflects a
deep contradiction on British views of India and its future. ‗At
a banquet in the princely state of Benares Hailey observed that
although the new federal constitution would protect their
position in the central government, the internal development of
the states themselves remained uncertain. Mainly people
seemed to expect them to develop representative institutions.
Whether those alien grafts from Westminster would succeed in
British India, though, itself remained in doubt. Autocracy was
"a principle which is firmly seated in the Indian States," he
pointed out; "round it burn the sacred fires of an age-long
tradition," and it should be given a fair chance first. Autocratic
rule, "informed through wisdom, exercised in moderation, and
vitalized through a spirit of service to the interests of the
subject, may well prove that it can create an appeal in India as
strong as that of representative and responsible institutions."
This spirited protection brings to mind Nehru's classic paradox
of how the representatives of the advanced, dynamic West
allied themselves with the mainly reactionary forces of the
backward, stagnant East.‘

Under the Act:

‗There are a number of restrictions on the freedom of discussion in the
federal legislature. For instance the act forbids ... any discussion of, or
the asking of questions about, a matter linked with an Indian State,
other than a matter with respect to which the federal legislature has
 power to create laws for that state, unless the Governor-General in his
discretion is satisfied that the matter affects federal interests or affects
a British subject, and has given his consent to the matter being
discussed or the question being asked.‘
They were not a cohesive group and almost certainly realized that they
would never act as one.
Each Prince seemed consumed through the desire to gain the best deal
for himself were his state to join the Federation: the mainly money, the
mainly autonomy.
That enough was being offered at the Centre to win the support of
moderate nationalist Hindu and Muslim support. In fact, so little was
offered that all important groups in British India rejected and
denounced the proposed Federation. A major contributing factor was
the continuing distrust of British intentions for which there was
considerable basis in fact. In this vital area the Act failed Irwin‘s test:
‗I don't consider that… it is impossible to present the problem
in such a form as would create the shop window look
respectable from an Indian point of view, which is really what
they care about, while keeping your hand pretty firmly on the
things that matter.‘ (Irwin to Stonehaven, 12 November 1928)
That the wider electorate would turn against the Congress. In fact, the
1937 elections showed overwhelming support for Congress in the
middle of the Hindu electorate.
That through giving Indian politicians a great deal of power at the
provincial stage, while denying them responsibility at the Centre, it
was hoped that Congress, the only national party, would disintegrate
into a series of provincial fiefdoms. In fact, the congress High
Command was able to control the provincial ministries and to force
their resignation in 1939. The Act showed the strength and cohesion of
Congress and almost certainly strengthened it. This does not imply that
Congress was not made up of and found its support in several
sometimes competing interests and groups. Rather, it recognizes the
skill of Congress, unlike the British Raj, to maintain the cooperation
and support of mainly of these groups even if, for instance in the
forced resignation of Congress provincial ministries in 1939 and the
rejection of the Cripps Offer in 1942, this required a negative policy
that was harmful, in the long run, to the prospects for an independent
India that would be both united and democratic.

Indian Reaction to the Proposed Federation

No important group in India accepted the Federal portion of the Act. A
typical response was:
‗After all, there are five characteristics of every Government worth the
name: (a) The right of external and internal defence and all measures
for that purpose; (b) The right to control our external relations; (c) The
 right to control our currency and exchange; (d) The right to control our
fiscal policy; (e) the day-to-day administration of the land…. (Under
the Act) You shall have nothing to do with external affairs. You shall
have nothing to do with defence. You shall have nothing to do, or, for
all practical purposes in future, you shall have nothing to do with your
currency and exchange, for indeed the Reserve Bank Bill just passed
has a further reservation in the Constitution that no legislation may be
undertaken with a view to considerably alter the provisions of that Act
except with the consent of the Governor-General…. there is no real
power conferred in the Centre.‘ (Speech through Mr Bhulabhai DESAI
on the Report of the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Indian
Constitutional Reform, 4 February 1935.

Though, the Liberals, and even elements in the Congress were tepidly
willing to provide it a go:
―Linlithgow asked Sapru whether he thought there was a satisfactory
alternative to the scheme of the 1935 Act. Sapru replied that they
should stand fast on the Act and the federal plan embodied in it. It was
not ideal but at this stage it was the only thing…. A few days after
Sapru's visit Birla came to see the Viceroy. He thought that Congress
was moving towards acceptance of Federation. Gandhi was not over-
worried, said Birla, through the reservation of defence and external
affairs to the centre, but was concentrating on the method of choosing
the States' representatives. Birla wanted the Viceroy to help Gandhi
through persuading a number of Princes to move towards democratic
election of representatives. …Birla then said that the only chance for
Federation lay in agreement flanked by Government and Congress and
the best hope of this lay in discussion flanked by the Viceroy and
Gandhi.‖

The Working of the Act

The British government sent out Lord Linlithgow as the new viceroy with
the remit of bringing the Act into effect. Linlithgow was intelligent, very hard
working, honest, serious and determined to create a success out of the Act.
Though, he was also unimaginative, stolid, legalistic and found it very hard to
"get on conditions" with people outside his immediate circle.
In 1937, after the holding of provincial elections, Provincial Autonomy
commenced. From that point until the declaration of war in 1939, Linlithgow
tirelessly tried to get enough of the Princes to accede to launch the Federation.
In this he received only the weakest backing from the Home Government and
in the end the Princes rejected the Federation en masse. In September 1939,
Linlithgow basically declared that India was at war with Germany. Though
Linlithgow's behaviour was constitutionally correct it was also offensive to
much of Indian opinion that the Viceroy had not consulted the elected
representatives of the Indian people before taking such a momentous decision.
This led directly to the resignation of the Congress provincial ministries. From
1939, Linlithgow concentrated on supporting the war effort.

ELECTIONS OF 1937 AND CONGRESS MINISTRIES

Provincial elections were held in British India in the winter of 1936-37 as
mandated through the Government of India Act 1935. Elections were held in
eleven provinces - Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United
Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab and Sindh.
The final results of the elections were declared in February 1937. The Indian
National Congress appeared in power in all the provinces except for three -
Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The All-India Muslim League failed to form the
government in any province. The Congress ministries resigned in October and
November 1939, in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's action of
declaring India to be a belligerent in the Second World War without
consulting the Indian people.

ELECTION RESULTS

The 1937 election was the first in which large masses of Indians were
eligible to participate. An estimated 30.1 million persons, including 4.25
million women, had acquired the right to vote (14% of the total population),
and 15.5 million of these, including 917,000 women, actually did exercise
their franchise.
The results were in favour of the Indian National Congress. Of the total of
1,585 seats, it won 707 (44.6%). In the middle of the 864 seats assigned
"general" constituencies, it contested 739 and won 617. Of the 125 non-
general constituencies contested through Congress, 59 were reserved for
Muslims and in those the Congress won 25 seats, 15 of them in the entirely-
Muslim North-West Boundary Province. The All-India Muslim League won
106 seats (6.7% of the total), placing it as second-ranking party. The only
other party to win more than 5 percent of all the assembly seats was the
Unionist Party (Punjab), with 101 seats.

Madras Presidency

Madras Presidency legislative assembly election, 1937

The First legislative assembly election for the Madras Presidency was held
in February 1937, as part of the nationwide provincial elections in British
India. The Indian National Congress obtained a majority through winning 159
of 215 seats in the Legislative Assembly. This was the first electoral victory
for the Congress in the presidency since elections were first mannered for
Madras Legislative Council in 1920. The Justice Party which had ruled the
presidency for mainly of the previous 17 years was voted out of power. The
assembly was constituted in July 1937 and C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) became
the first Congress Chief Minister of Madras.
The Congress also won the election held simultaneously for the Legislative
Council. The victory in Madras was the Congress' mainly impressive electoral
performance in all the provinces of British India. The Congress Government
that was shaped after the elections lasted till October 1939, when it resigned
protesting India's involvement in the Second World War. The after that
election was held in 1946.

Issues and campaign

The Justice Party had been in power in Madras for 17 years since 1920. Its
hold on power was briefly interrupted only once in 1926-28 when P.
Subbarayan was a non-affiliated Chief Minister.
Unpopularity of the Justice Government:
The Justice Government under the Raja of Bobbili had been steadily
losing ground since the early 1930s. It was beset with factional politics
and its popularity was eroding slowly due to the autocratic rule of
Bobbili Raja. The Raja was inaccessible to his own party members and
tried to destroy the power and influence of the District stage leaders
who were instrumental in the party winning power earlier. The
Suthanthira Sangu, in its issue dated February 26, 1935 explained the
destruction of the power of local bodies: The Local Boards Act has
been recently amended, taluk boards have been abolished, a district
board has been bifurcated and attempts have been made to bifurcate
other boards, which are hostile to him.... He is superseding
municipalities, which do not bow to his authority, removing chairmen
not liked through him and trying to forfeit the liberty of these bodies
through the appointment of Commissioners.
The Justice party was seen as the collaborative party, agreeing with the
British Government's harsh measures. Its economic policies throughout
the Great Depression of the 1930s were also highly unpopular. Its
refusal to decrease the land revenue taxation in non-Zamindari areas
through 12.5% was hugely unpopular. The Bobbili Raja, himself a
Zamindar, cracked down on the Congress protests demanding
reduction of the revenue. This further reduced the popularity of the
Justice Party. The Governor of Madras, Lord Erskine reported to the
then Secretary of State Zetland in February 1937, that the peasants in
South India had become fed up with the Justice Party and "every sin of
omission or commission of the past fifteen years is put down to them
[Justice Party]". The affluent lifestyle led through the Justice ministers
at the height of the Great Depression were sharply criticized through
the Madras Press. They drew a monthly salary of Rs. 4,333.60 when
compared to Rs. 2,250 per month the ministers in the Central
Provinces received. This invoked the ire of the Madras press. The
 newspaper India wrote: Is not Rs. 2,000 enough for Madras ministers,
who were only second-rate vakils (lawyers) in the mufassal (rural
areas)? When the poor are suffering for want of money, they are
drawing fat salaries? What an injustice? When the country is on fire,
when the axe of retrenchment has fallen on the poor and when the
people are experiencing intense suffering under the heavy burden of
taxation, the Madras Ministers have started on their tours immediately
after passing the budget.
Even the European owned newspaper The Madras Mail which had
been the champion of the earlier Justice Governments was sickened
through the ineptitude and patronage policies of the Bobbili Raja
administration. On 1 July 1935, it wrote in its editorial: "if the Justice
Party is really determined upon reorganisation... the spoils system
necessity go. The extent of the discontent against the Justice
Government is reflected in an article of Zamin Ryot: The Justice Party
has disgusted the people of this presidency like plague and engendered
permanent hatred in their hearts. Everybody, so, is anxiously awaiting
the fall of the Justice regime which they consider tyrannical and
inauguration of the Congress administration.... Even old women in
villages ask as to how long the ministry of the Raja of Bobbili would
continue

Resurgence of the Congress:

The Swaraj Party which had been the Justice party's main opposition
merged with the Indian National Congress in 1935 when the Congress
decided to participate in the electoral procedure. The Madras Province
Congress party was led through S. Satyamurti and was greatly
rejuvenated through its successful organisation of the Salt Satyagraha
and Civil Disobedience movement of 1930-31. The Civil Disobedience
movement, the Land Tax reduction agitations and Union organizations
helped the Congress to mobilize popular opposition to the Bobbili Raja
government. The revenue agitations brought the peasants into the
Congress fold and the Gandhian hand spinning programme assured the
support of weavers. Preferential treatment given to European traders
brought the support of the indigenous industrialists and commercial
interests. The Congress had effective campaigners like Satyamurti and
Rajaji while the Justice party had only Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar to
counter them. The Congress election manifesto was populist in nature
and promised to reduce land revenue taxes, to ensure decent working
circumstances and wages for the laborers, low rents and all around
prosperity. It even appealed to the Europeans who had reserved seats in
the Assembly. It also appealed to the nationalist sentiment of the
populace. Commenting on the Congress's manifesto, the Indian Annual
Register said:
 The promises made in the election manifesto through the
congress, while seeking suffrage, roused hopes, that the
Congress government, if voted to power, would provide relief
to them. Perhaps the Agrarian distress forced the Indian
National Congress to provide up the policy and programme of
non-cooperation and to undertake the responsibility of
Government under a hated act
The Congress campaign was effective and targeted all sections of the
population like peasants, workers, weavers and businessmen. Against
it the Justice party had no definite program or policies. It could only
harp on the Brahmin domination in Congress. Amidst the background
of the Great Depression and economic distress their charge was not
effective. Satyamurti utilised the services of popular actors like Chittor
V. Nagaiah and K. B. Sundarambal for the election campaign. In
scrupulous Sundarambal vigorously campaigned for the Congress.
Satyamurti also produced a campaign film directed through A.
Narayanan of Srinivasa Cinetone. It featured the speeches of Rajaji,
Satyamurti and other Congress leaders. But the film was banned
through the colonial government. The colored box system enabled the
mainly organised party - the Congress to have uniform slogans
throughout the presidency. The slogan "vote for Gandhi and the yellow
box", was very popular and helped the party to mobilize its supporters.

Government formation
The elections were held and the results declared in February 1937. Rajaji
was elected as the leader of Congress Legislature Party (CLP) in March 1937.
Despite being the majority party in the Assembly and the Council, the
Congress was hesitant to form a Government. Their objections stemmed from
the special powers given to the Governor through the Government of India Act
of 1935. According to the act, the Governor was given 1) special
responsibilities in the area of Finance and (2) control and absolute
discretionary powers over the cabinet in sure other issues. The Governor had
the power to overrule the Cabinet. The Congress refused to accept power (in
all the six provinces where they had won) with such caveats. The Governor of
Madras, Lord Erskine, decided to form an interim provisional Government
with non-members and opposition members of the Legislative Assembly. V.
S. Srinivasa Sastri was first offered the Chief Ministership of the interim
government but he refused to accept it. Eventually an interim Government was
shaped with Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu of the Justice Party as Chief
Minister on 1 April 1937. Congress leaders like S. Satyamurti were
apprehensive about the decision to not accept power. They accepted out a
campaign to convince Congress High Command (Mohandas K. Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru) to accept power within the limitations set through the
Government of India Act. They also appealed to the British Government to
provide assurances that the Governor's special powers will not be misused. On
22 June, Viceroy Linlithgow issued a statement expressing the British
Government's desire to work with the Congress in implementing the 1935 Act.
On 1 July, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) agreed to form
Governments in the provinces they had won. On 14 July, Rajaji was sworn in
as the Chief Minister. The first legislative assembly convened for the first time
on 15 July and elected Bulusu Sambamurti and A. Rukmani Lakshmipathi as
the Speaker and Deputy Speaker respectively.
Impact
The 1937 elections marked the start of the Indian National Congress'
participation in the governance of India. In the Madras Presidency, it also
marked the beginning of Rajaji's ascendancy in the Congress Legislature
Party. Though it was Satyamurti who had led the election campaign, he gave
up the leadership of the Legislature to Rajaji in accordance to the wishes of the
national leaders of the Congress in Delhi. This election also marked the
beginning of Congress dominance in the politics of Madras Presidency and
later the Madras State. Except for an interlude throughout 1939-46, the
Congress would go on to rule Madras uninterrupted till 1967. The Justice
Party was demoralized through its defeat and the Raja of Bobbili temporarily
retired from active politics. The party remained in political wilderness and
eventually came under the control of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in 1938 and
transformed into the Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944.

Madras Presidency legislative council election, 1937

The first legislative council election for the Madras Presidency after the
establishment of a bicameral legislature through the Government of India Act
of 1935 was held in February 1937. The Indian National Congress obtained a
majority through winning 27 out of 46 seats in the Legislative Council for
which the elections were held. This was the first electoral victory for the
Congress in the presidency since elections were first mannered for the Council
in 1920 and C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) became the Chief Minister. The
Justice Party which had ruled the presidency for mainly of the previous 17
years was voted out of power. Congress also won the Legislative assembly
election held simultaneously.

Resurgence of the Congress

The Swaraj Party which had been the Justice party's main opposition
merged with the Indian National Congress in 1935 when the Congress decided
to participate in the electoral procedure. The Madras Province Congress party
was led through S. Satyamurti and was greatly rejuvenated through its
successful organisation of the Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience
movement of 1930-31. The Civil Disobedience movement, the Land Tax
reduction agitations and Union organizations helped the Congress to mobilize
popular opposition to the Bobbili Raja government. The revenue agitations
brought the peasants into the Congress fold and the Gandhian hand spinning
programme assured the support of weavers. Preferential treatment given to
European traders brought the support of the indigenous industrialists and
commercial interests. The Congress had effective campaigners like Satyamurti
and Rajaji while the Justice party had only Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar to
counter them. The Congress election manifesto was populist in nature and
promised to reduce land revenue taxes, to ensure decent working
circumstances and wages for the laborers, low rents and all around prosperity.
It even appealed to the Europeans who had reserved seats in the Assembly. It
also appealed to the nationalist sentiment of the populace. Commenting on the
Congress's manifesto, the Indian Annual Register said:
The promises made in the election manifesto through the congress,
while seeking suffrage, roused hopes, that the Congress government, if
voted to power, would provide relief to them. Perhaps the Agrarian
distress forced the Indian National Congress to provide up the policy
and programme of non-cooperation and to undertake the responsibility
of Government under a hated act

The Congress campaign was effective and targeted all sections of the
population like peasants, workers, weavers and businessmen. Against it the
Justice party had no definite program or policies. It could only harp on the
Brahmin domination in Congress. Amidst the background of the Great
Depression and economic distress their charge was not effective.

Government formation
The elections were held and the results declared in February 1937. Rajaji
was elected as the leader of Congress Legislature Party (CLP) in March 1937.
Despite being the majority party in the Assembly and the Council, the
Congress was hesitant to form a Government. Their objections stemmed from
the special powers given to the Governor through the Government of India Act
of 1935. According to the act, the Governor was given 1) special
responsibilities in the area of Finance and (2) control and absolute
discretionary powers over the cabinet in sure other issues. The Governor had
the power to overrule the Cabinet. The Congress refused to accept power (in
all the six provinces where they had won) with such caveats. The Governor of
Madras, Lord Erskine, decided to form an interim provisional Government
with non-members and opposition members of the Legislative Assembly. V.
S. Srinivasa Sastri was first offered the Chief Ministership of the interim
government but he refused to accept it. Eventually an interim Government was
shaped with Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu of the Justice Party as Chief
Minister on 1 April 1937. Congress leaders like S. Satyamurti were
apprehensive about the decision to not accept power. They accepted out a
campaign to convince Congress High Command (Mohandas K. Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru) to accept power within the limitations set through the
Government of India Act. They also appealed to the British Government to
provide assurances that the Governor's special powers will not be misused. On
22 June, Viceroy Linlithgow issued a statement expressing the British
Government's desire to work with the Congress in implementing the 1935 Act.
On 1 July, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) agreed to form
Governments in the provinces they had won. On 14 July, Rajaji was sworn in
as the Chief Minister. The first legislative assembly convened for the first time
on 15 July and elected Bulusu Sambamurti and A. Rukmani Lakshmipathi as
the Speaker and Deputy Speaker respectively.

Impact
The 1937 elections marked the start of the Indian National Congress'
participation in the governance of India. In the Madras Presidency, it also
marked the beginning of Rajaji's ascendancy in the Congress Legislature
Party. Though it was Satyamurti who had led the election campaign, he gave
up the leadership of the Legislature to Rajaji in accordance to the wishes of the
Congress High Command in Delhi. This election also marked the beginning of
Congress dominance in the politics of Madras Presidency and later the Madras
State. Except for an interlude throughout 1939-46, the Congress would go on
to rule Madras uninterrupted till 1967. The Justice Party was demoralized
through its defeat and the Raja of Bobbili temporarily retired from active
politics. The party remained in political wilderness and eventually came under
the control of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in 1938 and transformed into the
Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944.

Sindh
Elections to the Legislative Assembly of Sind were held in January and
February 1937. These were the first elections in the province after its creation
in 1936. The Communal Award of 1932 had allocated sixty assembly seats to
Sind, based on which it now shaped an assembly of its own.
The seats were divided amongst the following electoral colleges; Muslims
Rural 31 seats, Muslims Urban 2 seats, Women Muslim Urban 1 seat, General
Rural 15 seats, General Urban 3 seats, Women General Urban 1 seat,
Europeans 2 seats, Landowners 2 seats, Commerce and Industry 2 seats and
Labour 1 seat. In total, there were 639,043 eligible voters.
The Sind United Party won twenty-two of the Muslim seats, the Sind
Muslim Political Party won four seats 4 whilst the Sind Azad Party won three
seats. The party identity of one Muslim delegate was unclear. Independent
candidates won the remaining nine seats from the Muslim constituencies.
In the General constituencies, the Sind Hindu Mahasabha won eleven
seats, the Congress Party eight seats seats, Independent Hindus two seats and
Independent Labour Party one seat. From the European and Commercial and
Industry constituencies, non-party candidates were elected.
Though, whilst the Sind United Party had appeared as the winner of the
election its two mainly prominent leaders (Haji Abdullah Haroon and Shah
Nawaz Bhutto) had failed to win the seats they contested. Haroon had
contested the Lyari constituency, in northern Karachi. The Lyari seat was won
through Allah Baksh Gabole. The Larkana seat, which Bhutto had contested,
was won through Sheikh Abdul Majid Sindhi.
After the election the governor of Sind asked the leader of the Sind
Muslim Political Party to form a cabinet. Largescale defections took place
from the ranks of the Sind United Party and the Sind Azad Party in the
assembly.

United Provinces
The UP legislature consisted of a Legislative Council of 52 elected and 6
or 8 nominated members and a Legislative Assembly of 228 elected members:
some from exclusive Muslim constituencies, some from "General"
constituencies, and some "Special" constituencies. The Congress won a clear
majority in the United Provinces, with 133 seats, while the Muslim League
won only 27 out of the 64 seats reserved for Muslims.

Assam
In Assam, the Congress won 33 seats out of a total of 108 creation it the
single largest party, though it was not in a position to form a ministry. The
Governor described upon Sir Muhammad Sadulla, ex-Judicial Member of
Assam and Leader of the Assam Valley Muslim Party to form the ministry.
The Congress was a part of the ruling coalition.

Bombay
In Bombay, the Congress fell just short of gaining half the seats. Though,
it was able to draw on the support of some small pro-Congress groups to form
a working majority. B.G. Kher became the first Chief Minister of Bombay.

Other provinces
In three additional provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar, and Orissa, the
Congress won clear majorities. In the overwhelmingly Muslim North-West
Boundary Province, Congress won 19 out of 50 seats and was able, with minor
party support, to form a ministry.
The Unionist Party under Sikander Hyat Khan shaped the government in
Punjab with 67 out of 175 seats. The Congress won 18 seats and the Akali
Dal, 10. In Bengal, though the Congress was the largest party (with 52 seats),
The Krishak Praja Party of A. K. Fazlul Huq (with 36 seats) was able to form
a coalition government.

THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The election results were a blow to the League. After the election,
Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the League offered to form coalitions with the
Congress. The League insisted that the Congress should not nominate any
Muslims to the ministries, as it (the League) claimed to be the exclusive
representative of Indian Muslims. This was not acceptable to the Congress,
and it declined the League's offer.

RESIGNATION OF CONGRESS MINISTRIES

Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany on September 3,

1939. The Congress objected strongly to the declaration of war without prior
consultation with Indians. The Congress Working Committee suggested that it
would cooperate if there were a central Indian national government shaped,
and a commitment made to India's independence after the war. The Muslim
League promised its support to the British, with Jinnah calling on Muslims to
help the Raj through "honourable co-operation" at the "critical and hard
juncture," while asking the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.
Linlithgow refused the demands of the Congress. On October 22, 1939, it
"call[ed] upon all Congress ministries to tender their resignations." Both
Viceroy Linlithgow and Muhammad Ali Jinnah were pleased with the
resignations. On December 2, 1939, Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for
Indian Muslims to celebrate December 22, 1939 as a "Day of Deliverance"
from Congress:
I wish the Musalmans all over India to observe Friday the 22nd
December as the ― Day of Deliverance‖ and thanksgiving as a mark of
relief that the Congress regime has at last ceased to function. I hope
that the provincial, district and primary Muslim Leagues all over India
will hold public meetings and pass the resolution with such
modification as they may be advised, and after Jumma prayers offer
prayers through way of thanksgiving for being delivered from the
unjust Congress regime.

THE GROWTH OF INDIAN CAPIT ALISM, THE CAPITALIST

CLASS AND THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE

GROWTH OF INDIAN ECONOMY AND INDIAN CAPITALIST

CLASS

The emerging political position if Indian capitalist was linked with the
nature and extent of the growth of the Indian economy. The growths in the
Indian economy throughout the colonial period, especially in the twentieth
century, were significantly dissimilar from the experience of mainly other
colonial countries and largely explain the position of Indian capitalist‘s class
vis-a-vis imperialism. Let us briefly outline these growths:

Soon after the beginning of the twentieth century, the Indian economy
entered a procedure of rapid import substitution. Throughout the two
world wars, as also in the course of world depression of the 1930s the
grip of imperialism over the India economy became comparatively
weaker and the procedure of growth of Indian industry, largely the
indigenous manufacturers substituting foreign imports, gained a large
impetus. More importantly the growth in indigenous industry that
occurred in this period was derived largely from the possessions of
independent Indian capital. In other wards, the Indian capitalists grew
with an independent capital base and not as junior partner of foreign
capital.
Augment in indigenous industrial growth since world war I was
reflected in a definite reversal of the typical colonial pattern of foreign
trade under which the colony imported manufactured goods and
exported agricultural raw material. Flanked by 1914 and 1945, the
proportion of manufactured goods in India‘s total imports declined
considerably, while the proportion in total exports increased.
Conversely, the proportion of raw material in India‘s total exports
declined and the proportion of capital goods (as opposed to consumer
goods) in total imports increased. Also the dependence of Indian
economy of the colonial kind of international trade, began to show a
decline while the growth internal trade took some rapid strides.
The hold of foreign capital which in any case was not large in India, as
in some other colonial countries and was not very important in
domestic industry began to decline throughout the period. Foreign
capital inflow into the Indian economy fell off after a spurt in the early
1920s. On the other hand, repayments of foreign debt and repatriation
of existing foreign instruments (partially through the take over of
foreign companies through Indian capitalists) started rising. especially
since the 1930s. As a result from about 1935 there was outflow of
foreign capital from India. In fact, throughout the World War II, India
accepted to be a debtor country. On the contrary. through the end of
the War, Britain owed Indian to be a debtor country. On the contrary.
through the Rs. 1500/- crores. This meant that India was not dependent
on the London money market any longer as it did not foreign
borrowing.
Throughout the post-World War I period in the course of the processes
discuss above, the Indian capitalist class was able to grow rapidly. It
was able to do so through:
Constant economic and political thrash about, and
Through talking full advantages of the crisis faced through
British imperialism especially throughout the two wars and the
great depression.
 The Indian capitalists restored to import substitution in areas such as
cotton textiles and steel industry and slowly took over areas like banking. jute,
foreign trade. coal, tea, etc., where European capital in India had traditionally
dominated. Also, they initiated some steps which accounted for, the bulk of
new investments made since the 1920s in industries such as sugar, cement,
paper, chemical iron and steel. As a result, on the eve of independence. Indian
enterprise had already captured about 72 per cent of the Indian market. In the
financial sphere too massive advances were made through Indian capital. For
instance:

While in 1914 Indian banks held about 30 per cent of the total deposits,
through 1947 their share had increased to over 80 per cent.
Indian companies grew rapidly in insurance business as well, capturing
about 79 per cent of life insurance and 55 per cent of general insurance
through 1945.
The total assets of the top three Indian business houses in 1946 greatly
surpassed the total assets of the top three non-Indian companies.

Though, this spectacular and independent growth of Indian capitalist class,

quite unusual in a colonial situation, did not occur as is often argued, as a
result of a conscious policy of 'decolonization' initiated through the colonial
state. It occurred inspire of and in opposition to colonialism either when
imperialism was facing a crisis or as a result of waging a constant thrash about
against the colonial interests. The Indian capitalists did not see their interests
as tied with colonialism. Moreover. the capitalist class, on the whole. was not
tied up in a subservient position either economically or politically with pro-
imperialist feudal interests in the country.

Another situation, where a colonial capitalist class may move towards

collaborating with imperialism is when, it sees a threat to its subsistence from
radical anti-capitalist or left wing popular movements in the colony. Such
situations did arise in sure colonial or semi colonial countries, where the
capitalist class sought to suppress the radical movement in alliance with
imperialism. We can cite the instance of China. In India also, the capitalists
were concerned about the growth of the left. Though, whenever the Indian
capitalist class felt that the threat from the left was rising, it responded not
through seeking help from imperialism but through attempting to strengthen,
through several means, the right wing in the national movement. The
following points then emerge from the above discussion:

The Indian capitalist class grew independently and in opposition to

imperialism and so did not see the long-term class interests as being
tied up with imperialism.
 The rapid and independent growth of Indian capitalists enabled them to
feel strong enough to take anti-imperialist position.
The threat of popular left movements did not lead the capitalist class to
collaborate or compromise with imperialism. The issue before the
capitalist class was not, whether to oppose imperialism or not, but that
the path chosen to fight imperialism should not be such that it would
threaten capitalism itself.

THE EMERGENCE OF A CLASS ORGANISATION

It was in the procedure of figuring out its attitude towards imperialism and
the national movement that the capitalist class in India appeared as a political
entity. Since the early I920s, capitalists like G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas
Thakurdas were creation efforts to establish a national stage organisation of
Indian commercial, financial and industrial interests. The initial thought was
to establish an Indian business organisation which could effectively lobby with
the colonial government — a role which relatively more organised non-Indian
business interests were already performing. This effort led to the formation of
the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (F1CCI) in
1927. The FlCCI soon acquired a large membership which increasingly
became representative of Indian business interests from all over the country.
Within a short period of its fonnation, it was recognized through the British
authorities as well as the general Indian public as a body which represented
the dominant opinion within the Indian capitalist class.

Role In Economic Sphere

The capitalist leaders clearly stated that the goal of the FICCI was to
become the "national guardians of trade, commerce and industry‖. It was to
perform in the economic sphere the function that is normally expected a
nationalist organisation. In pursuance of this goal the Indian capitalists
developed a comprehensive economic critique of imperialism in all its
manifestations. For instance, the critique exposed the imperialist use that
was going on through direct appropriates of surplus in form of taxation,
remittance of 'Tribute' or home charges in addition to the use through trade,
foreign investments, financial and currency manipulations and so on. The
leaders of the Indian National Congress, of the eminence of Motilal Nehru and
Gandhi ji, often did not hesitate to seek the assistance of capitalists the
Purshottamdas or G.D. Birla on complex economic matters which related to
Indian interests vis-à-vis imperialism.
Role In Political Sphere

The role of the FICCI, was though not to be limited to creation an

economic critique of imperialism and fighting for the economic demands of
the capitalist class in scrupulous and of the nation as a whole in general. The
leaders of the capitalist class clearly saw the necessity of effective intervention
in politics. Purshottamdas Thakurdas, President of FICCI, declared as its
second annual session in 1928: "We can no more separate our politics from
our economics‖. Investment in politics for the capitalists meant allying with
the Indian National Movement. In the 1928 FICCI session, "Indian Commerce
and industry are intimately associated with and are indeed, an integral part of
the national movement — rising with its growth and strengthening with its
strength". A transformation could be seen in Purshottamdas for he had earlier
opposed the Non- Cooperation Movement. Clearly the capitalists realized that
even their economic aims Could be achieved through fighting for a change in
the existing political system of colonial Domination G.D Birla expressed this
understanding in 1930:

―It is impossible in the present… political condition of our country to

convert the government to our views … the only solutions … lies in
every Indian businessman strengthening the hands of these who are
fighting for the freedom of our country".

But, at the same time Birla was conscious enough to tell the British
Government that he had never financed the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Nature of Anti-Imperialism: The Constitutional Path

The capital class was concerned to what type of national thrash about was
to b supported through them. The capitalists, while determining their attitude
towards the British were, always in favour of not totally abandoning the
constitutional path and the negotiating table. They supported constitutional
forms of thrash about and were not in favour of agitation and civil
disobedience. There were many reasons for the capitalist class adopting this
attitude:

Fears of a Mass Movement

First, the capitalists feared that mass civil disobedience, especially if it was
prolonged, could lead to the radicalization of the masses and instead of just
putting pressure against imperialism it could begin to threaten capitalism
itself. As Lalji Naranji a leader of the Indian Merchant's Chamber, Bombay,
clearly stated in 1930, "Private property", itself could be threatened through a
mass movement and "disregard for authority" created through it could produce
"disastrous after-effects" for the "government of Swaraj". Not wishing the
anti-imperialist movement to the anti-capitalist, the capitalists always tried to
bring back the national movement to a stage of constitutional opposition.
Another cause why the capitalists could not afford to support a prolonged and
all out opposition to the colonial government, was that in their normal day to
day business they needed a minimum cooperation of the government. And, as
we all know that at this time it, was the colonial Government. This
dependence on the existing government for immediate needs, combined with
the fact that mass agitation disrupted normal business, led the capitalists to shy
absent from any type of mass action even under the aegis of the Indian
National Congress.

Constitutional Forums
The capitalists measured that a total or prolonged boycott of all
constitutional avenues such as councils and legislatures or the negotiations like
the Round Table Conferences was a "suicidal policy". They felt that if the
nationalist forces totally abandoned these forums then with the help of loyalist
elements the government could easily get such policies or measures passed in
these forums which would seriously affect Indian economic development. This
again was connected with their own interests. Therefore , keeping this in mind
the capitalists not only supported but at times actually participated in the
several forums offered through the colonial Government. For instance, some
of them even joined the Viceroys Executive Council. In fact they wanted to
extract to their benefit whatever reforms that were possible within the system.

In sure cases the capitalists did not support participation in constitutional

bodies unconditionally. G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas made it clear that they
were to "participate on (their) own conditions", with "no compromise on
fundamentals". It was on this ground, for instance, that the proposals of
constitutional reforms put forward through the Joint Parliamentary Committee
in 1934 were rejected through the FlCCI as being "reactionary".

Moreover, the capitalists usually refused to negotiate with the British

government on constitutional or economic questions without the participation
of, or at least the approval of, the leading organisations of the national
movement. In 1930, for instance, the FlCCI advised its members to boycott
the Round Table Conference saying that "... no conference ... convened for the
purpose of discussing the problem of Indian constitutional advance can come
to a solution .... unless such a conference is attended through Mahatma
Gandhi, as a free man, or has at least his approval". Therefore several leading
capitalists boycotted the first Round Table Conference but attended the second
beside with Gandhi. When the Congress was absent for the third Round Table
Conference, Purshottamdas attended in his individual capability. But he made
it clear that the conference could not settle the constitutional troubles in
Gandhi's absence. The capitalists had clearly realised, that no progress could
be made to safeguard their interests, unless support of the Congress was
secured. Ambalal Sarabhai a prominent capitalist of Ahmedabad summed up
this situation in 1929 when he said, "minus the support of the Congress the
government will not listen to you".

Therefore , the capitalists were in favour of a constitutional approach and

methodology due to two reasons:

They could check the Left through strengthening the Right wing.
They could show it to the government that they were in no way a threat
to the stability of British rule. For instance, Purshottamdas declared in
December 1942, that "the several demands put forward through the
commercial community did not and could not aim at the liquidation of
the British Empire".

It was the faith in constitutionalism that G.D. Birla involved himself

throughout 1935-37 with Gandhi concerning the question of elections and
forming of ministries.

CONGRESS AND THE CAPITALISTS

You would like to know about the relationship flanked by the Indian
National Congress and Capitalists. Usually speaking this relationship is
analyzed from two view points.

The congress was deeply influenced through the capitalists who used it to
serve their own class interests. This view points centered on the thesis that
the capitalists, through using the funds at their disposal pressure and the
Congress into fighting for their own demands like:
A lower Rupee-sterling ratio;
Tariff protection to Indian industries; and
Reservation of coastal traffic to Indian shipping etc.

Besides this the capitalists influenced the political decisions of the

congress like the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931;
selections of Congress candidates in elections particularly in 1937; crushing
the working class movement throughout late 1930s financing the right wing,
etc. A major cause for their support to Gandhi was their firm belief that "he
alone could check a class war" in this country. And Gandhi on the other hand,
sided with the capitalists. Hence Congress was a Capitalistic organisation
through nature.

The second point of view is based on the assumption that the Congress
was not at all influenced through the capitalists rather it dictated its own
conditions.

According to this view point:

A programme of economic nationalism with demands for protection,

fiscal and monetary autonomy vis-a-vis imperialism did not benefit the
capitalist class alone. These were national demands for independent
economic development. Anyone who was anti-imperialist, whether a
capitalist or not, had to fight for these demands. In fact the socialists
and communists in India also fought for these demands. Besides, the
doctrine of economic nationalism was developed through the early
nationalists in India many decades before the Indian capitalist
organised themselves politically, and began to fight for these demands.
As a matter of fact when these demands were first raised in the
nineteenth century, the capitalist‘s class had rarely come into
subsistence and it did not come out in support of them. Clearly, the
Congress did not have to be bought, manipulated or pressurized
through the capitalists to put forward these demands.
Secondly, the Congress dependence on the funds from businessmen,
was not the determining factor as far as the policy decisions were
concerned. Nor was the financial dependence on capitalists so strong
as to effect its policies. The overwhelming majority of Congressmen
maintained themselves on their own account and the day to day
agitations were accepted out with the voluntary hospitality and support
of the common people and the funds raised through membership fees
and small donations. Even throughout the constitutional stage, when
the Congress went in for elections, its dependence on the capitalists for
funds was not such as to create it dependent on them. In reply to a
query from Linlithgow, the Viceroy: "whether the Congress can for
long continue an subsistence divorced from the Gandhian moneybags",
the Director of Intelligence Bureau submitted the following very
important report in March 1939;
―Congress has ... very significant substitutes for regular
finance. The 'appeal to patriotism' saves a lot of cash
expenditures ... Both for normal Congress activities and for
election purposes, the moneybags (capitalists) are less
significant than the Gandhian superstition and the powerful
influence of Congress ministries in office. With these
influences to 'support them, local Congress organisations can
 command so much support from the public that they are in a
position to fight elections without much money".

This is not to say that the Congress did not need or accept funds from the
capitalists, especially throughout the constitutional stages. Though, through
these funds the capitalist class was not in any vital way able to influence the
policy and ideology of the Congress beside lines which was not acceptable to
it independently. The attitude of the Congress leaders, even those who were
supposed to be secure to the capitalists, is very revealing in this context.
Gandhiji, as early as February, 1922, while welcoming and even appealing for
support from merchants and milliowners made it very clear that:

Whether they do so or not, the country's march to freedom cannot be

made to depend on any corporation or groups of men. This is a mass
manifestation. The masses are moving rapidly towards deliverance and
they necessity move whether with the aid of the organised capital or
without. This necessity therefore be a movement independent of capital
and yet not antagonistic to it. Only if capital came to the aid of the
masses, it would redound to the credit of the capitalists and hasten the
advent of the happy day.

Likewise, Motilal Nehru who, in the Swarajist stage, was in secure get in
touch with Bombay and Ahmedabad capitalists and accepted important sums
of money from them for political work, had no hesitation in severely
castigating them in 1928 when he felt that they were trying to retreat from
their erstwhile commitments. He said, the Congress should welcome this
change in the attitude of the mill owners. An alliance flanked by the Congress
and capitalists who are bent on profiting through the sufferings of the nation is
an impossible one. The more appropriate field of work for the Congress is in
the middle of the workers and not the owners of the mills. But I was misled
through the part talk of some of my personal friends in the middle of
the mill owners. Mahatma ji never whispered in an alliance with the latter, and
I have now told him that he was right and I was wrong

The message was clear. The capitals had to behave if the congress was to
work with them. Whether they did so or not the congress would go ahead with
its work relying on the support of other classes. But this did not mean that the
Congress did not want their financial support. On several occasions it took
donations. For instance Dalmia contributed considerably for election funds in
1937 and the constructive programme was always financed through Birla.
CAPIT ALISTS' VIEW OF THE CONGRESS

How did the Indian Capitalists view the Indian National Congress? In fact
the Congress was never perceived through them as their own class party. J. K.
Mehta of the Indian Merchants Chamber put it as a party, " with room in it for
all shades of political opinion and economic views". But at the same time, the
Capitalists tried to ensure that the national movement did not get radicalized,
i.e., come under the influence of socialists or communists. With this
perspective they strengthened the right wing in the Congress. For instance
G.D. Birla wrote to Purshottamdas (3rd August, 1934):

Vallabhbhai, Rajaji and Rajendra Babu are all fighting communism

and socialism. It is so, necessary that some of us who represent the
healthy Capitalism should help Gandhi as far as possible and work
with a common object.

In fact Birla and Thakurdas had earlier opposed the suggestion of Dorabji
Tata for forming a political party of the Capitalists. This was because they felt
that the Congress itself could take care of their interests provided the right
wing dominated in the Congress. The Gandhian principle of trusteeship (Unit
13) suited them well for it discouraged anticapitalist thrash about.

Approaching the Congress

Interestingly, the capitalist themselves showed extra ordinary maturity in
never seeing the Congress as their class party or even as a party amenable only
to their influence. They fully recognized that the Congress was a multi-class
popular movement "with room in it" as 1.K. Mehta of the Indian Merchants'
Chamber put it, "for all shades of political opinion and economic views".
Which shade or which class perspective would exercise greater weight within
the Congress, remained an open question and was partially connected to the
political maturity and farsightedness of each class.

Capitalists Strategy to Contain the Left

It is with this understanding that the capitalists moulded their politics, to
try to ensure that the national movement did not get too radicalized, i.e., it did
not come under the dominating influence of the socialists or communists.
Though, as pointed out earlier, the capitalists did not respond to the rising
threat of the left in Indian through allying themselves with imperialism. For
instance, in 1928, they refused to support the colonial government in passing
the Public Safety Bill which was planned to contain the communists, on the
ground that such a Bill would result in an attack on the national movement.
The fact that the capitalists did not abandon the side of nationalism, even when
threatened through the left tendency within the national movement, went a
long way in maintaining the influence of the capitalist perspective within the
movement.

Instead of abandoning the side of nationalism, the capitalists evolved a

complex strategy to combat the left in the nationalist stream. As a part of their
strategy, they gave support to the right wing of the national movement, and
did extensive political and ideological propaganda, arguing for rapid economic
growth, equitable sharing, partial nationalization, land reforms and schemes
for worker's welfare. Through formulating what FICCI President, G.L. Mehta
described "a constant programme of reforms (as the) mainly effective remedy
against social upheavals". They sought to combat the influence of the left on
the national movement.

It needs to be reiterated, though, that the capitalists' attempt to contain the

national movement within bourgeois limits did not involve any compromise
with imperialism. They remained anti-imperialist, though. their goal was to
evolve or support a strategy of overthrowing imperialism.

POPULAR STRUGGLES IN THE PRINCELY STAGES

INFLUENCE OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT

Nevertheless, as was bound to happen, the national movement, after it had

taken roots in British India, exercised a powerful and rising influence on the
people of the States. The· ideas of democracy, responsible government and
civil liberties popularized through the nationalists had an immediate relevance
for them as they in their day to day life suffered the excesses of autocratic rule.
These ideas were accepted at first through individual nationalists, some of
them terrorists from British India seeking shelter in the states. But when the
national movement assumed a mass character, its influence on the people of
Indian states became more generalized. In fact, the first local-stage popular
associations were organized in the states under the impact of the Non-
Cooperation and Khilafat movement which lasted from 1920 to 1922.

THE FIRST POLITICAL ORGANISATION

In the middle of the states where the first Praja Mandals or State People's
Conferences were set up First incorporated Hyderabad. Mysore, Baroda, the
Kathiawad Slates, the Deccan States, Jamnagar Indore . In the middle of the
leaders who appeared through this procedure, the more significant names are
these of Balwantrai Mehta, Maniklal Kothari and C.R. Abhayankar. It was
largely at their initiative that the first all-India gathering of the people of states
took place in 1927 and led to the formation of the All India States People's
Conference (AISPC), the first section itself being attended through about 700
political workers.

THE CONGRESS POLICY

In 1920, the Indian National Congress had declared its policy towards the
Indian states through a resolution which described upon the rulers to institute
full responsible government. On the question of organising political movement
or struggles in the Indian States, though, the congress policy was more
complex. While individuals living in the States were free to become members
of the Congress and participate in movements led through it, they were not to
carry on political activity in the state in the name of the congress. This they
could do only in their individual capability or as members of local political
organisations such as Praja Mandals, etc. An previous cause for this stand of
the Congress was that the States were legally independent cities; the political
circumstances in dissimilar States varied a great deal and flanked by British
India and the Indian states the differences on this count were immense. So an
organisation such as the Congress, which determined its politics and forms of
thrash about, on the basis of the circumstances in British India, could not
afford to be directly associated with political movements in the states at that
initial stage.
Moreover, it was not advisable for the people in the States to rely on the
more advanced kinds of movement in British India for an acceptance of their
demands. They were required to build up their own strength, advance their
own political consciousness, and demonstrate their capability of thrash about
for their own specific demands. Within the framework of these limitations the
Congress and Congressmen sustained to extend support to the movements in
the states in a diversity of ways. In his Presidential Address to the Lahore
session of the Congress in 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru elaborated the position of
the organisation vis-a-vis the states. He emphatically stated: "Indian States
cannot live separately from the rest of India … the only people who have the
right to determine the future of the States necessity be people of these states.
While the procedure of political awakening and political protest went ahead in
several states in 1920s and early 1930s, the real hurt in the movements in the
states came in the latter half of the 1930s. This was largely product of two
associated growths-the Federation scheme proposed through the Government
of India Act of 1935 and, the assumption of office through Congress ministries
in the majority of India Act of 1935.
Federation Scheme
According to the Federation proposal, the Indian states were to be brought
into a direct constitutional relationship with British India, as separate from the
existing position in which they were in direct relationship only with the British
Crown. This was to be achieved through the setting up of a Federal Indian
Legislature which would have representatives from British India as well as
from the Indian States. Though, while the representatives from British India
would be largely located through the people, the representatives from the
Indian states, who were to constitute one-third of the total members, would be
nominated through the riles of these states. The whole propose of this scheme
was to use the nominated representatives of the states as solid conservative
block to counter the weight of the elected representatives of British India. The
Federation scheme was, so, opposed through all nationalist and it was
demanded that the representatives of the States should also be elected instead
of being nominated. Understandably, this imparted a great sense of urgency to
the demand of responsible government in the Indian States, for there could be
no elective principle at the Federal stage without it being implemented at the
stage of the States

Congress Ministries
The assumption of office of Congress ministries in several of the provinces
also acted as a spurt to the movements in the states. The fact of the Congress
being in power in the provinces in British India generate a feeling of
confidence and aroused expectation in the people of the States. It also acted a
pressure on the rulers, the Congress was no longer just an oppositional
movement, it was a party in power.

RAJKOT: CASE REVISE I

Rajkot was one of the numerously States that dotted the Kathiawad
peninsula of Gujarat and had a population of only 75,000. Its importance,
though, was considerable because Rajkot city was the headquarters of the
Western India States Agency from where the British Political agency accepted
in its dealings with an exercised supervision over all the small states of the
area.

Reign of Lakhajiraj
Rajkot enjoyed the distinction of being one of the first States in India
where popular participation in government was introduced. This was largely
due to the enlightened views of the Thakore Sahib of Rajkot who ruled the
Smte for twenty years till 1930. He had, in 1923, infatuated the Rajkot
Praja Pratinidhi Sabha, a representative assembly consisting of 90 member‘s
election the basis of universal adult franchise. The Thakore Sahib retained the
right of veto that Lakhajiraj rarely exercised this right. In effect the popular
assembly had consideration power. Lakhajiraj promoted industrial and
educational development of the state.
This enugntened ruler actively encouraged the nationalist political activity
in several ways. He gave permission for the holding of the First Kathiawar
Political Conference in Rajkot in 1921, which was presided over through
Vithalbhai Patel, the illustrious brother of Sardar Patel who later went on
became the first Indian President of the Central Legislative Assembly.
Lakhajiraj was a great admirer of Gandhiji and very proud of the achievements
of this 'son of Rajkot'. He would often invite him to his durbar, and then create
him sit on the throne while he himself sat in his durbar. Jawaharlal Nehru was
given a public reception through him throughout a visit to the State. Lakhajiraj
also attended sessions of the Kathiawar Political Conference, wore khadi in
defiance of the British, and donated land for the setting up of a national school
that was to become a centre of political activity.

Return to Despotism
The initiatives taken through Lakhajiraj were too good to last for long. His
death in 1930 brought his son, Dharmendra Singhji to the throne and as a ruler
he proved to be the exact opposite of his father. Dharamendra Singhji was
interested only in his own luxuries and comforts and he was encouraged in this
through the crafty Dewan Virawala who used the opportunity to concentrate
all powers in his own hands. The State's wealth was wasted on extravagant
expenditure and the finances soon reached such a state that monopolies for the
sale of rice, matches, sugar and cereals were given for a price to individual
merchants in order to raise revenues. Taxes were increased, prices rose and the
popular assembly was allowed to lapse. All this produced a discontent and
resentment in the middle of the people, especially since the contrast with the
reign of Lakhajiraj was so sharp.

Beginning of Protest
The ground for thrash about had also been prepared through dissimilar
political groups who had been active in the Kathiawar area for several years.
The group that appeared in the leading position throughout these years,
though, consisted of Gandhian constructive workers and their main leader was
U.N. Dhebar. The first blow was struck in 1936 when a strike of 800 workers
took place under the aegis of a labour union organised through Jethalal Joshi, a
Gandhian activist, in the state-owned cotton mill. The strike lasted 21 days and
the Durbar had to concede the union's demands for better working
circumstances. Encouraged through this success, Jethalal Joshi and U.N.
Dhebar organised in March 1937 a meeting of the Kathiawar Rajakiya
Parishad (Political Conference), the first to be held in eight years. The fifteen
thousand people who attended this conference demanded responsible
government and reduction in taxes and state expenditure.
The ruler made no move either to negotiate or concede the demands. The
Parishad, so, launched the after that stage of the thrash about in August 1938
through organising a protest against gambling, for which too a monopoly had
been sold at the Gokulashtmi fair. The administration had planned repression,
and the protesters were beaten with Iathis first through the Agency police and
then through the state police. The reaction was immediate: there was a
complete hartal and Sardar Patel presided over a session of the Parishad on 5
September. Patel also met Dewan Virawala and presented the demands of the
people which incorporated a committee to frame proposals for responsible
government, a new election for the Pratinidhi Sabha or the popular
representative assembly, reduction of land revenue through 15 per cent,
cancellation of all monopolies or ijaras, and a limit on the ruler's claim on the
State treasury. The Durbar, though, was in no mood to listen, and instead
stepped up the confrontation through asking the British Resident to depute a
British Officer as Dewan in order to effectively deal with the agitation. The
British duly despatched Cadell to take over as Dewan. Dewan Virawala, who
planned the whole scheme, became Private Adviser to the throne, and
sustained to operate from behind the scenes.

The Satyagraha
Seeing the rigid attitude of the administration, the resistance was stepped
up to assume the form of a full-scale satyagraha. There were workers' strikes
in the cotton mill and students also went on strike. All goods either produced
through the State or products sold under monopoly were boycotted. These
incorporated electricity and cloth. Land revenue was not paid and deposits in
the State Bank were withdrawn. In short, all sources of income of the State
were to be blocked. Volunteers flowed in from Bombay, British Gujarat and
the other parts of Kathiawar outside Rajkot.

WORLD WAR –II: CAUSES, COURSE AND CONSEQUENCE

WORLD WAR II

World War II (WWII or WW2), also recognized as the Second World

War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast
majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually
forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the
mainly widespread war in history, with more than 100 million people, from
more than 30 dissimilar countries, serving in military units. In a state of "total
war", the major participants threw their whole economic, industrial, and
scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction flanked by
civilian and military possessions. Marked through mass deaths of civilians,
including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it
resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World
War II the deadliest disagreement in human history.
The Empire of Japan aimed to control East Asia and was already at war
with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is usually said to have
begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland through Germany and
subsequent declarations of war on Germany through France and the United
Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties,
Germany shaped the Axis alliance with Italy, conquering or subduing much of
continental Europe. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany and
the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories flanked by themselves of
their European neighbours, including Poland and the Baltic states. The United
Kingdom and the other members of the British Commonwealth were the only
major Allied forces continuing the fight against the Axis, with battles taking
place in North Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In
June 1941, the European Axis launched an invasion of the Soviet Union,
giving a start to the largest land theatre of war in history, which tied down the
major part of the Axis' military forces for the rest of the war. In December
1941, Japan joined the Axis, attacked the United States and European
territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western
Pacific.
The Axis advance was stopped in 1942. Japan lost a critical battle at
Midway, close to Hawaii, and never regained its earlier momentum. Germany
was defeated in North Africa and, decisively, at Stalingrad in Russia. In 1943,
with a series of German defeats in Eastern Europe, the Allied invasion of Italy
which brought about that nation's surrender, and American victories in the
Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts.
In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France, while the Soviet Union regained
all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. Throughout
1944 and 1945 the United States defeated the Japanese Navy and captured key
Western Pacific islands.
The war in Europe ended with an invasion of Germany through the
Western Allies and the Soviet Union culminating in the capture of Berlin
through Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional
surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration through the
Allies on 26 July 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August
respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, and the
Soviet Union having declared war on Japan through invading Manchuria,
Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945, ending the war in Asia and cementing
the total victory of the Allies over the Axis.
World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the
world. The United Nations (UN) was recognized to foster international co-
operation and prevent future conflicts. The great powers that were the victors
of the war—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom,
and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council. The Soviet Union and the United States appeared as rival
superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the after that
46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers started to
decline, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Mainly countries
whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery.
Political integration, especially in Europe, appeared as an effort to stabilise
postwar relations and cooperate more effectively in the Cold War.

CHRONOLOGY

The start of the war is usually held to be 1 September 1939, beginning

with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on
Germany two days later. Other dates for the beginning of war contain the start
of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937.
Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-
Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and
the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other
starting dates sometimes used for World War II contain the Italian invasion of
Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the
beginning of the Second World War as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought
flanked by Japan and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.
The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It has
been suggested that the war ended at the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J
Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945); in some
European histories, it ended on V-E Day (8 May 1945). Though, the Treaty of
Peace with Japan was not signed until 1951, and that with Germany not until
1990.

BACKGROUND

World War I radically altered the political map, with the defeat of the
Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman
Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. Meanwhile,
existing victorious Allies such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania
gained territories, while new states were created out of the collapse of Austria-
Hungary and the Russian and Ottoman Empires.
 Despite the pacifist movement in the aftermath of the war, the losses still
caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism to become significant in a
number of European states. Irredentism and revanchism were strong in
Germany because of the important territorial, colonial, and financial losses
incurred through the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost
around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies, while
German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed,
and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.
Meanwhile, the Russian Civil War had led to the creation of the Soviet Union.
The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–
1919, and a democratic government, later recognized as the Weimar Republic,
was created. The interwar period saw strife flanked by supporters of the new
republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Although Italy as
an Entente ally made some territorial gains, Italian nationalists were angered
that the promises made through Britain and France to secure Italian entrance
into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925,
the Fascist movement led through Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with
a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished
representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and
pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at forcefully forging Italy as a
world power—a "New Roman Empire".
In Germany, the Nazi Party led through Adolf Hitler sought to establish a
Nazi state in Germany. With the onset of the Great Depression, domestic
support for the Nazis rose and, in 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of
Germany. In the aftermath of the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian
single-party state led through the Nazis.
The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign
against local warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was
soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In
1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought
influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's
right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion
of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.
Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for
help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for
its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought many battles, in
Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933.
Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces sustained the resistance to Japanese
aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.
Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German
government in 1923, became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He
abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the
world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. It was at this
time that multiple political scientists began to predict that a second Great War
might take place. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a
free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The
situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin
was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of
Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme and introduced
conscription.
Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy shaped
the Stresa Front. The Soviet Union, concerned due to Germany's goals of
capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, wrote a treaty of mutual assistance
with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required
to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it
essentially toothless. Though, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made an
independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The
United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the
Neutrality Act in August. In October, Italy invaded Ethiopia, and Germany
was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy
subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.
Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties through remilitarising the
Rhineland in March 1936. He received little response from other European
powers. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolini
supported the fascist and authoritarian Nationalist forces in their civil war
against the Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the
disagreement to test new weapons and methods of warfare, with the
Nationalists winning the war in early 1939. In October 1936, Germany and
Italy shaped the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed
the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In
China, after the Xi'an Incident the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed
on a ceasefire in order to present a united front to oppose Japan.

PRE-WAR EVENTS

Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)

The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in
October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought flanked by the
armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia) and the armed forces of
the Ethiopian Empire (also recognized as Abyssinia). The war resulted in the
military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created
colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it
exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace.
Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing
when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X.

Spanish Civil War (1936–39)

Throughout the Spanish Civil War, Hitler and Mussolini lent military
support to the Nationalist rebels, led through General Francisco Franco. The
Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over
30,000 foreign volunteers, recognized as the International Brigades, also
fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy
war as an opportunity to test in combat their mainly advanced weapons and
tactics. The bombing of Guernica through the German Condor Legion in April
1937 heightened widespread concerns that the after that major war would
contain extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians. The Nationalists won
the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with both sides
throughout the Second World War, but never concluded any major
agreements. He did send volunteers to fight under German command but
Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory.

Japanese invasion of China (1937)

In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of
Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in
the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a
non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending
China's prior co-operation with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek
deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting,
Shanghai fell. The Japanese sustained to push the Chinese forces back,
capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and committed the Nanking
Massacre.
In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance through
flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to
prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken through October.
Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese
resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government
relocated inland to Chongqing and sustained the war.

Japanese invasion of the Soviet Union and Mongolia (1938)

On 29 July 1938, the Japanese invaded the USSR and were checked at the
Battle of Lake Khasan. Although the battle was a Soviet victory, the Japanese
dismissed it as an inconclusive draw, and on 11 May 1939 decided to move
the Japanese-Mongolian border up to the Khalkhin Gol River through force.
After initial successes the Japanese assault on Mongolia was checked through
the Red Army that inflicted the first major defeat on the Japanese Kwantung
Army.
These clashes convinced some factions in the Japanese government that
they should focus on conciliating the Soviet government to avoid interference
in the war against China and instead turn their military attention southward,
towards the US and European holdings in the Pacific, and also prevented the
sacking of experienced Soviet military leaders such as Georgy Zhukov, who
would later play a vital role in the defence of Moscow.
European occupations and agreements
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938,
Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other
European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the
Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German
population; and soon France and Britain conceded this territory to Germany in
the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the
Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial
demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede
additional territory to Hungary and Poland.
Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied through the
agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented
him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent
speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January
1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge
British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of
Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of
Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic.
Alarmed, and with Hitler creation further demands on Danzig, France and
Britain guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy
conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to
Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland,
Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler
accused Britain and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the
Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression
Pact. He offered Poland a new non-aggression pact and recognition of its
current frontiers if it agreed to permit the German-inhabited city of Danzig to
return to Germany, but the Poles declined the proposal and emphasised that
Danzig was necessary for Poland's security.
In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–
Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties
gave each other rights to "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania
for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the
USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The
agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not
have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I, after it
defeated Poland.
The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops
sustained to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the
Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a
"doubtful neutral" that needed to either yield to his demands or be "liquidated"
to prevent it from drawing off German troop‘s in the future "unavoidable" war
with the Western democracies. He did not consider Britain or France would
intervene in the disagreement. On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to
proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal
mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he
decided to delay it. In response to British pleas for direct negotiations,
Germany demanded on 29 August that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately
travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig and the Polish Corridor to
Germany as well as to agree to safeguard the German minority in Poland. The
Poles refused to comply with this request and on the evening of 31 August
Germany declared that it measured its proposals rejected.

COURSE OF THE WAR

War breaks out in Europe (1939–40)

On 1 September 1939, Germany and Slovakia (which was a German client
state at the time) invaded Poland on the false pretext that Poland had launched
attacks on German territory. On 3 September France and Britain, followed
through the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, –
Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa – declared war on
Germany, but provided little support to Poland other than a small French
attack into the Saarland. Britain and France also began a naval blockade of
Germany on 3 September which aimed to damage the country's economy and
war effort. Germany responded through ordering U-boat warfare against
Allied merchant and war ships (Battle of the Atlantic).
On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets
also invaded Poland. The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered
to the Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resistance surrendering
on 6 October. Poland's territory was divided flanked by Germany and the
Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakia also getting small shares. The
Poles did not surrender; they recognized a Polish Underground State and an
underground Home Army, and sustained to fight alongside the Allies on all
fronts in Europe and North Africa.
About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and
the Baltic countries; several of these soldiers later fought against the Germans
in other theatres of the war. Poland's Enigma code breakers were also
evacuated to France. Throughout this time, Japan launched its first attack
against Changsha, a strategically significant Chinese city, but was repulsed
through late September.
On 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France,
but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively through
Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October,
saying "Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the
promises of the present German Government." After this rejection Hitler
ordered an immediate offensive against France, but his generals persuaded
him to wait until May of after that year.
In December 1939 Britain won a naval victory over Germany in the south
Atlantic throughout the Battle of the River Plate.
Following the invasion of Poland and a German-Soviet treaty governing
Lithuania, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to station
Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance." Finland
rejected territorial demands and was invaded through the Soviet Union in
November 1939. The resulting disagreement ended in March 1940 with
Finnish concessions. France and the United Kingdom, treating the Soviet
attack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the
Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion through supporting the USSR's
expulsion from the League of Nations.
In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but in a stage
nicknamed the Phoney War through the British and "Sitzkrieg" (sitting war)
through the Germans, neither side launched major operations against the other
until April 1940. The Soviet Union and Germany entered a trade pact in
February 1940, pursuant to which the Soviets received German military and
industrial equipment in exchange for supplying raw materials to Germany to
help circumvent the Allied blockade.

Western Europe (1940–41)

In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect
shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut
off through unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters. Denmark
immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered
within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the
replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston
Churchill on 10 May 1940.
Germany launched an offensive against France and, for reasons of military
strategy, also invaded the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. That same day Britain invaded Iceland to
preempt a possible German invasion of the island. The Netherlands and
Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks,
respectively. The French-fortified Maginot Line and the Allied forces in
Belgium were circumvented through a flanking movement through the thickly
wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived through French planners as an
impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. As a result, the bulk of
the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were
annihilated.
British troops were forced to evacuate the continent at Dunkirk,
abandoning their heavy equipment through early June. On 10 June, Italy
invaded France, declaring war on both France and Britain; Paris fell on 14
June and eight days later France surrendered and was soon divided into
German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the
Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was usually aligned with
Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize
it, so on 3 July, the British sank it.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania, and then annexed the disputed Romanian region of Bessarabia.
Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation
slowly stalled, and both states began preparations for war.
On 19 July Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no
desire to destroy the British Empire. Britain rejected this, with Lord Halifax
responding "there was in his speech no suggestion that peace necessity be
based on justice, no word of recognition that the other nations of Europe had
any right to self-determination..."
Following this, Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain
(the Battle of Britain) to prepare for an invasion. The campaign failed, and the
invasion plans were cancelled through September. Frustrated, and in part in
response to repeated British air raids against Berlin, Germany began a
strategic bombing offensive against British cities recognized as the Blitz.
Though, the air attacks largely failed to either disrupt the British war effort or
convince them to sue for peace.
Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success
against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping
in the Atlantic. The British scored a important victory on 27 May 1941
through sinking the German flagship Bismarck. Perhaps mainly importantly,
throughout the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted
the Luftwaffe's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in
May 1941.
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist
China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality
Act was amended to allow "cash and carry" purchases through the Allies. In
1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States
Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further
agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large
majority of the American public sustained to oppose any direct military
intervention into the disagreement well into 1941.
Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war,
he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for that eventuality. In
December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out
negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an "arsenal for
democracy" and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the
British war effort. In January 1941 secret high stage staff talks with the British
began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US
enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air
offensive, the "early elimination" of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups,
and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany.
At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and
Germany to formalize the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any
country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked
any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis
expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the
Tripartite Pact. Romania would create a major contribution to the Axis war
against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially
to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.

Mediterranean (1940–41)
Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in
June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and creation an incursion into
British-held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy invaded Greece
due to Mussolini's jealousy of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed
and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred. Britain
responded to Greek requests for assistance through sending troops to Crete
and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided to take action against
Greece when the weather improved to assist the Italians and prevent the
British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British
naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian
oil.
In December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-
offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The
offensive in North Africa was highly successful and through early February
1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops
had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered important defeats,
with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission
through a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralizing many more warships at
the Battle of Cape Matapan.
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to
Libya in February, and through the end of March they had launched an
offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces that had been
weakened to support Greece. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were
pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The
Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June,
but failed on both occasions.
Through late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite
Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were
changed, though, due to growths in neighboring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav
government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown
two days later through a British-encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new
regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April
Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece, creation rapid
progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British
were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of
Crete through the end of May. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter
partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of
Yugoslavia, which sustained until the end of the war.
The Allies did have some successes throughout this time. In the Middle
East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been
supported through German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,
then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to
prevent further such occurrences.

Axis attack on the USSR (1941)

With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan,
and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting
tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the
European War through seizing resource-rich European possessions in
Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in
April 1941. Through contrast, the Germans were steadily creation
preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Soviet
border.
Hitler whispered that Britain's refusal to end the war was based on the
hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against
Germany sooner or later. He accordingly decided to try to strengthen
Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate
them as a factor. In November 1940 negotiations took place to determine if the
Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some
interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan
that Germany measured unacceptable. On 18 December 1940 Hitler issued the
directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.
On 22 June 1941, Germany and Romania invaded the Soviet Union in
Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against
them. They were joined shortly through Finland and Hungary after Soviet
aircraft bombed their territory. The primary targets of this surprise offensive
were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending
the 1941 campaign close to the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, connecting the
Caspian and White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union
as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum ("living
space") through dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to
the strategic possessions needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. .
Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives
before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a
strategic defence. Throughout the summer, the Axis made important gains into
Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel.
Through the middle of August, though, the German Army High Command
decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group
Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing
towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was
overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four
Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially
developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their
air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front
prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the
Soviet Union shaped a military alliance against Germany The British and
Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields. In
August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic
Charter.
Through October, when Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the
Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol
continuing, a major offensive against Moscow had been renewed. After two
months of fierce battles, the German army approximately reached the outer
suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their
offensive. Large territorial gains were made through Axis forces, but their
campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in
Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet
Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg stage
of the war in Europe had ended.
Through early December, freshly mobilized reserves allowed the Soviets
to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data
that recognized a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East enough to
prevent any attack through the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets
to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all beside the
front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometers (62–160 mi) west.

War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)

In 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and
beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become
subject to rising economic pressure. Despite many offensives through both
sides, the war flanked by China and Japan was stalemated through 1940. In
order to augment pressure on China through blocking supply routes, and to
better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers,
Japan had sent troops to northern Indochina Afterwards, the United States
embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions
soon followed.
In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in
Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures (the Three Alls
Policy) in occupied areas to reduce human and material possessions for the
communists. Sustained antipathy flanked by Chinese communist and
nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively
ending their co-operation.
German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to augment pressure on
European governments in south-east Asia. The Dutch government agreed to
give Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for
additional access to their possessions ended in failure in June 1941. In July
1941 Japan occupied southern Indochina, therefore threatening British and
Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and
other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese
assets and a total oil embargo.
Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in
negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war
in China. Throughout these negotiations Japan advanced a number of
proposals which were dismissed through the Americans as inadequate. At the
same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions
for the joint defence of their territories in the event of a Japanese attack against
any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American possession
since 1898) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks
against any "neighboring countries".
Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-
British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November it presented
an interim proposal as its final offer. It described for the end of American aid
to China and the supply of oil and other possessions to Japan. In exchange
they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw
their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina. The
American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all
of China without circumstances and conclude non-aggression pacts with all
Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose flanked by
abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural possessions it needed
in the Dutch East Indies through force; the Japanese military did not consider
the former an option, and several officers measured the oil embargo an
unspoken declaration of war.
Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to make a large
suspicious perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would
then be free to use the possessions of Southeast Asia while exhausting the
over-stretched Allies through fighting a suspicious war. To prevent American
intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise
the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military attendance in the
Philippines from the outset. On 7 December (8 December in Asian time
zones), 1941, Japan attacked British and American holdings with close to-
simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These
incorporated an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, landings in
Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.
These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and many
other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being
heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries,
preferred to maintain a neutrality agreement with Japan.
Germany, followed through the other Axis states, declared war on the
United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American
attacks on German submarines and merchant ships that had been ordered
through Roosevelt.

Axis advance stalls (1942–43)

In January, the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China, and 22 smaller
or exiled governments issued the Declaration through United Nations, thereby
affirming the Atlantic Charter, and taking an obligation not to sign separate
peace with the Axis powers.
Throughout 1942 Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy
to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The
Americans favored a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through
France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the
other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas in
order to throw a "ring" around Germany which would wear out German
strength, lead to rising demoralization, and bolster resistance forces. Germany
itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against
Germany would then be launched primarily through Allied amour without
using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that
a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on
driving the Axis out of North Africa.
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943 the Allies issued a declaration
declaring that they would not negotiate with their enemies and demanded their
unconditional surrender. The British and Americans agreed to continue to
press the initiative in the Mediterranean through invading Sicily to fully secure
the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further
operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943 the
Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the
Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in
1944.

Pacific (1942–43)
Through the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had
approximately fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies,
Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a
large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance in Corregidor, the
Philippines was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing the government of
the Philippine Commonwealth into exile. Japanese forces also achieved naval
victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the
Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. The only real Allied success against
Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha in early January 1942. These easy
victories over unprepared opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as
overextended.
In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby
through amphibious assault and therefore sever communications and supply
lines flanked by the United States and Australia. The Allies, though, prevented
the invasion through intercepting and defeating the Japanese naval forces in
the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's after that plan, motivated through the
earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers
into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to
occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its operations
into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late
May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this
knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese
Navy.
With its capability for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of
the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port
Moresby through an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The
Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern
Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing
Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.
Both plans started in July, but through mid-September, the Battle for
Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were
ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the
island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of
Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy
commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. Through the
start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their
troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first,
an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a
retreat back to India through May 1943. The second was the insertion of
irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, through the
end of April, had achieved dubious results.

Eastern Front (1942–43)

Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 European Axis members
stopped a major Soviet offensive in Central and Southern Russia, keeping
mainly territorial gains they had achieved throughout the previous year. In
May the Axis defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at
Kharkiv, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern
Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban
steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the
front. The Germans split the Army Group South into two groups: Army Group
A struck lower Don River while Army Group B struck south-east to the
Caucasus, towards Volga River. The Soviets decided to create their stand at
Stalingrad, which was in the path of the advancing German armies. Through
mid-November, the Germans had almost taken Stalingrad in bitter street
fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting
with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the
Rzhev salient close to Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. Through
early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German
troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front-line had been
pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-
February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another
attack on Kharkiv, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city
of Kursk.

Western Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942–43)

Exploiting dubious American naval command decisions, the German navy
ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.
Through November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-
offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the
Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an
offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line
through early February, followed through a temporary lull in combat which
Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the
Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to
invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an
Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.
On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating
in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to
launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation,
equipment, and operational security.
In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against
El Alamein and, at a high cost, supervised to deliver desperately needed
supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an
attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive
west crossways Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after through an
Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa, which resulted in the region
joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection through
ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist
this violation of the armistice, they supervised to scuttle their fleet to prevent
its capture through German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa
withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered through the Allies in May 1943.
In early 1943 the British and Americans began the "Combined Bomber
Offensive", a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to
disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and "de-house" the
German civilian population. Through the end of the war mainly German cities
would be reduced to rubble and 7,500,000 Germans made homeless.

Allies gain momentum (1943–44)

Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated many operations
against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Allied forces were sent to eliminate
Japanese forces from the Aleutians, and soon after began major operations to
isolate Rabaul through capturing nearby islands, and to breach the Japanese
Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. Through the end
of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and
additionally neutralized the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline
Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New
Guinea.
In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and
early summer of 1943 creation preparations for large offensives in Central
Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk
Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the
Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences and, for the first time
in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or
operational success. This decision was partially affected through the Western
Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous
Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.
Also in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.
On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives,
thereby dispelling any hopes of the German Army for victory or even
stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk heralded the downfall of
German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern
Front. The Germans attempted to stabilise their eastern front beside the hastily
fortified Panther-Wotan line, though, the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk
and through the Lower Dnieper Offensives.
On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland,
following an Italian armistice with the Allies. Germany responded through
disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating
a series of suspicious lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini,
who then soon recognized a new client state in German occupied Italy named
the Italian Social Republic. The Western Allies fought through many lines
until reaching the main German suspicious line in mid-November.
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. Through May 1943, as
Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable
German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic
naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston
Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in
Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese
territory, while the latter incorporated agreement that the Western Allies
would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on
Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
From November 1943, throughout the seven-week Battle of Changde, the
Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied
relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against
the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio.
Through the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces
from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and mainly lethal siege in
history.
The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border
through the German Army Group North aided through Estonians hoping to re-
establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet
operations in the Baltic Sea region. Through late May 1944, the Soviets had
liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made
incursions into Romania, which were repulsed through the Axis troops. The
Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing many
German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.
The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia. In March 1944,
the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British
positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at
Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive
that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had
invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.
The second Japanese invasion attempted to destroy China's main fighting
forces, secure railways flanked by Japanese-held territory and capture Allied
airfields. Through June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan
and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.

Allies secure in (1944)

On 6 June 1944 (recognized as D-Day), after three years of Soviet
pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning many
Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings
were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France.
Paris was liberated through the local resistance assisted through the Free
French Forces on 25 August and the Western Allies sustained to push back
German forces in Western Europe throughout the latter part of the year. An
attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded through a major
airborne operation in the Netherlands ended with a failure. After that, the
Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, unsuccessfully trying to cross the
Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy the Allied advance also slowed down,
when they ran into the last major German suspicious line.
On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus
(recognized as "Operation Bagration") that resulted in the approximately
complete destruction of the German Army Group Centre. Soon after that,
another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western
Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of Soviet troops
prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate many uprisings, though the
largest of these, in Warsaw, as well as a Slovak Uprising in the south, were not
assisted through the Soviets and were put down through German forces. The
Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the
considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in
Romania and in Bulgaria, followed through those countries' shift to the Allied
side.
In September 1944, Soviet Red Army troops advanced into Yugoslavia
and forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and F in
Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. Through
this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who
had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation
since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and were engaged
in delaying efforts against the German forces further south. In northern Serbia,
the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the
Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A
few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-
occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. In
contrast with impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish
resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets
occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-Finnish armistice on
relatively mild circumstances, with a subsequent shift to the Allied side
through Finland.
Through the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had
repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the
Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese
were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June
and the city of Hengyang through early August. Soon after, they further
invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese
forces at Guilin and Liuzhou through the end of November and successfully
linking up their forces in China and Indochina through the middle of
December.
In the Pacific, American forces sustained to press back the Japanese
perimeter. In mid-June 1944 they began their offensive against the Mariana
and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the
Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime
Minister, Hideki Tōjō, and provided the United States with air bases to launch
rigorous heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October,
American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval
forces scored another large victory throughout the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of
the largest naval battles in history.

Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)

On 16 December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate measure for
success on the Western Front through using mainly of its remaining reserves
to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to attempt to split the
Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture
their primary supply port at Antwerp in order to prompt a political settlement.
Through January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives
fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German
suspicious line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in
Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran
East Prussia. On 4 February, US, British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta
Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on
when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.
In February, the Soviets invaded Silesia and Pomerania, while Western
Allies entered Western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. Through
March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr,
encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna.
In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept
crossways Western Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in
late April. The American and Soviet forces connected up on Elbe river on 25
April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signaling the military
defeat of the Third Reich.
Many changes in leadership occurred throughout this period. On 12 April,
President Roosevelt died and was succeeded through Harry Truman. Benito
Mussolini was killed through Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later,
Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded through Grand Admiral Karl
Dönitz.
German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional
surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective through the end of 8 May.
German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.
In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied through the forces of
the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte
through the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and
captured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins.
Fighting sustained on Luzon, Mindanao and other islands of the Philippines
until the end of the war. In March the Americans firebombed Tokyo which
killed 80,000 people.
In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields
there. British, American and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern
Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon through 3 May.
Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred
flanked by 6 April and 7 June 1945. American forces also moved towards
Japan, taking Iwo Jima through March, and Okinawa through the end of June.
American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut
off Japanese imports.
On 11 July, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed
earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for
unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces through Japan, specifically
stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".
Throughout this conference the United Kingdom held its general election, and
Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
As Japan sustained to ignore the Potsdam conditions, the United States
dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
early August. Flanked by the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta
agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the
Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red
Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945
Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the
deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending
the war.

AFTERMATH

The Allies recognized occupation administrations in Austria and Germany.

The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The
latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled
through the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification
program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the
removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty
and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.
Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory, the eastern
territories: Silesia, Neumark and mainly of Pomerania were taken over
through Poland; East Prussia was divided flanked by Poland and the USSR,
followed through the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these
provinces, as well as of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in
Czechoslovakia, to Germany. Through the 1950s, every fifth West German
was a refugee from the east. The USSR also took over the Polish provinces
east of the Curzon line (from which 2 million Poles were expelled), Eastern
Romania, and part of eastern Finland and three Baltic states.
In an effort to maintain peace, the Allies shaped the United Nations, which
officially came into subsistence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all
member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war—the
United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—shaped the
permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent
members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,
flanked by the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971,
and flanked by the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian
Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance flanked
by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even
before the war was over.
Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, Federal
Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic were created within
the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of
Europe was also divided onto Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Mainly
eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to
establishment of Communist led regimes, with full or partial support of the
Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland, Hungary, East Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania became Soviet Satellite states.
Communist Yugoslavia mannered a fully independent policy, causing tension
with the USSR.
Post-war division of the world was formalised through two international
military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw
Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition flanked by
them, the Cold War, would be accompanied through an unprecedented arms
race and proxy wars.
In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated
Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed
Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was
divided and occupied through the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the
North flanked by 1945 and 1948. Separate republics appeared on both sides of
the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all
of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.
In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June
1946. Communist forces were victorious and recognized the People's Republic
of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.
In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for
Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli
disagreement. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all
of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and possessions throughout
the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.
The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating
nations were affected differently. The US appeared much richer than any other
nation; it had a baby boom and through 1950 its gross domestic product per
person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated
the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial
disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948. Due to
international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation
and delayed European recovery for man-years.
Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany,
and was sped up through the liberalization of European economic policy that
the Marshall plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post
1948 West German recovery has been described the German economic
miracle. Also the Italian and French economies rebounded. Through contrast,
the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received
a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European
country, sustained relative economic decline for decades.
The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also
experienced rapid augment in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan
experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the mainly
powerful economies in the world through the 1980s. China returned to its pre-
war industrial production through 1952.

IMPACT

Casualties and war crimes

Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, because several deaths
went unrecorded. Mainly suggest that some 75 million people died in the war,
including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians. Several civilians
died because of disease, starvation, massacres, bombing and deliberate
genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people throughout the war,
including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest
portion of military dead were ethnic Russians (5,756,000), followed through
ethnic Ukrainians (1,377,400). One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or
wounded in that war. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on
the Eastern Front and throughout the final battles in Germany.
Of the total deaths in World War II, almost 85 percent—mostly Soviet and
Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent on the Axis side. Several of
these deaths were caused through war crimes committed through German and
Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians
died as a direct or indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the
systematic genocide of around six million Jews throughout the Holocaust
beside with a further five million ethnic Poles and other Slavs, notably
Ukrainians and Belarusians, Roma, homosexuals and other ethnic and
minority groups.
Roughly 7.5 million civilians died in China under Japanese occupation.
Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, beside with
gypsies and Jews, were murdered through the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in
Yugoslavia, with retribution-related killings of Croatian civilians just after the
war ended.
The best-recognized Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in
which many hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.
Flanked by 3 million to more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese, were
killed through the Japanese occupation forces. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported 2.7
million casualties occurred throughout the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji
Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.
The Axis forces employed limited biological and chemical weapons. The
Italians used mustard gas throughout their conquest of Abyssinia, while the
Imperial Japanese Army used a diversity of such weapons throughout their
invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against
the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against
civilians and, in some cases, on prisoners of war.
While several of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the world's first
international tribunals, incidents caused through the Allies were not. Examples
of such Allied actions contain population transfers in the Soviet Union,
Operation Keelhaul, expulsion of Germans after World War II, rape
throughout the occupation of Germany, and the Soviet Union's Katyn
massacre, for which Germans faced counter-accusations of responsibility.
Large numbers of famine deaths can also be partially attributed to the war,
such as the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Vietnamese famine of 1944–45.
Brutalised through war and fuelled through racist propaganda, several
American soldiers in the Pacific mutilated corpses and kept grisly war
trophies.
It has been suggested through some historians, e.g. Jörg Friedrich, that the
mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, including Tokyo and
mainly notably the German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne through
Western Allies, which resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and
the deaths of more than 600,000 German civilians be measured as war crimes.
Though, no international law with respect to aerial warfare existed before and
throughout World War II, which was one of the main reasons why Japanese
and German officers escaped prosecution for their aerial raids on Shanghai,
Chongqing, Warsaw, Rotterdam, and British cities throughout the Blitz.

Concentration camps and slave work

The Nazis were responsible for The Holocaust, the killing of almost six
million Jews (overwhelmingly Ashkenazim), as well as two million ethnic
Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including
the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals,
Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of
deliberate extermination. About 12 million, mainly of whom were Eastern
Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.
In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps)
led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania,
Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even
Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.
Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died throughout the war.
Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57
percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million. Soviet ex-POWs and
repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi
collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked
through the NKVD.
Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, several of which were used as labour
camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the
Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for
American POWs, 37 percent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans
and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the
Netherlands, and 14,473 from United States were released after the surrender
of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.
According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians
from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved flanked by 1935 and 1941
through the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and
war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. The US Library of
Congress estimates that in Java, flanked by 4 and 10 million romusha
(Japanese: "manual laborers"), were forced to work through the Japanese
military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other
Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to
Java.
On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning
thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from
Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war.
The US and Canadian governments interned 150,000 Japanese-Americans, In
addition, 14,000 German and Italian residents of the US who had been
assessed as being security risks were also interned.
In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference
millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour through the Soviet
Union. In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet
Union until 1955.

Home fronts and production

In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had important
advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies
(United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent
larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the
European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are incorporated, it then gives
the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and almost 2:1 advantage
in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population
of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the
population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are
incorporated.
Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely
mitigated throughout the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan,
they became the decisive factor through 1942, after the United States and
Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.
While the Allies' skill to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies
having more access to natural possessions, other factors, such as Germany and
Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic
bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly.
Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war,
and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and
Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people,
mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan pressed more than 18 million people
in Far East Asia.
Occupation
In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern and
Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the
annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany recognized economic policies
through which it composed roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US
Dollars) through the end of the war; this figure does not contain the sizeable
plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other
goods. Therefore , the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of
the income Germany composed from taxation, a figure which increased to
almost 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.
In the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never
attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied
possessions to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy
encouraged excessive brutality against what it measured to be the "inferior
people" of Slavic descent; mainly German advances were therefore followed
through mass executions. Although resistance groups did form in mainly
occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in
either the East or the West until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony
which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although
Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European
domination in several territories, their excessive brutality turned local public
opinions against them within weeks. Throughout Japan's initial conquest it
captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m) of oil (~5.5×10 tonnes) left behind
through retreating Allied forces, and through 1943 was able to get production
in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×10 t), 76 percent of its
1940 output rate.

Advances in technology and warfare

Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers and ground-
support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation incorporated
airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies,
equipment and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of civilian
areas to destroy industry and morale). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced,
including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the
German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late
introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in
worldwide air forces.
Advances were made in almost every characteristic of naval warfare,
mainly notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start of
the war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success, actions at Taranto,
Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Sea recognized the carrier as
the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.
 In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys,
rising the effective protection radius and helping to secure the Mid-Atlantic
gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively
low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.
Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon throughout the First
World War were anticipated through all sides to be significant in the second.
The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics,
such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive
capability, with designs such as the Kind VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.
Slowly, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog,
squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.
Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to
increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used
predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into
the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more
advanced than it had been throughout World War I, and advances sustained
throughout the war in rising speed, amour and firepower.
At the start of the war, mainly commanders thought enemy tanks should be
met through tanks with superior specifications. This thought was challenged
through the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against
amour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This,
beside with Germany's use of combined arms, were in the middle of the key
elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics crossways Poland and
France. Several means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-
tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry
antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised. Even with large-scale
mechanization, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout
the war, mainly infantry were equipped likewise to World War I.
The portable machine gun spread, a notable instance being the German
MG42, and several submachine guns which were suited to secure combat in
urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development
incorporating several characteristics of the rifle and submachine gun, became
the standard postwar infantry weapon for mainly armed forces.
Mainly major belligerents attempted to solve the troubles of complexity
and security presented through using large codebooks for cryptography with
the use of ciphering machines, the mainly well recognized being the German
Enigma machine. SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering procedure
of decryption, with the notable examples being the Allied breaking of
Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, which was derived from methodology
given to Britain through the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding
Enigma for seven years before the war. Another characteristic of military
intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect,
such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and
engineering feats achieved throughout, or as a result of, the war contain the
world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided
missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear
weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbors and oil
pipelines under the English Channel.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss the background against which the Simon Commission was
appointed in 1927.
What were the main provisions of the Poona Pact?
What were the benefits derived through Congress through participation
in local bodies elections?
Was the growth of the Capitalist class a through-product of
Colonialism?
What was the attitude of the Indian Capitalist class towards the threat
of the left?
What was the initial impact of national movement on the people of the
Indian States?
Describe in brief the effect of the World War on Indian Political scene.
Why was the United Nations Organization shaped? Name the three
significant organs of the U.N.O.

CHAPTER 7
TOWARDS A SOVEREIGN STATE

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Indian nationalism during World War-II: quit India movement and
INA
Towards independence: 1945-47
Communalism and the partition of British India
Establishment of a democratic polity
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:
Know about the circumstances leading to the beginning of the Quit
India Movement,
 Become familiar with the impact of the World War on the British
rulers and the Indian people,
Explain the nature of communalism in the last decade of British rule,
Get an thought of the background to the demand for Pakistan,
The development of the concept of democracy, and
The development of democratic ideas and institutions in India.

INDIAN NATIONALISM DURING WORLD WAR-II: QUIT

INDIA MOVEMENT AND INA

INDIA IN WORLD WAR II

India was controlled through Britain and therefore India officially

declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The British Raj, as a
possession of Great Britain, shaped part of the Allied Nations and sent over
two million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis
powers. Additionally, many Indian Princely States provided large donations to
support the Allied campaign throughout the War. India also provided the base
for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India
Theater.
Indians fought with distinction throughout the world; in the European
theaters of Germany and Italy, in the deserts against Rommel and in the Asian
region defending India against the Japanese, and liberating British colonies
such as Singapore and Hong Kong when the Japanese surrendered in August
1945.
Muslim League supported the British war effort while largest and mainly
influential party the Congress demanded independence before it would help
Britain. London refused, and when Congress announced a "Quit India"
campaign in August 1942, all its leaders were imprisoned for the duration.
Japan set up an army of Indian POWs recognized as the Indian National Army
with help of Indian revolutionaries.
Separately from this, Indian participation in the Allied campaign remained
strong. The financial, industrial and military assistance of India shaped a
crucial component of the British campaign against Nazi Germany and Imperial
Japan. India's strategic location at the tip of the Indian Ocean, its massive
production of armaments, and its vast armed forces played a decisive role in
halting the progress of Imperial Japan in the South-East Asian theatre. The
Indian Army throughout World War II was one of the largest Allied forces
contingents which took part in the North and East African Campaign, Western
Desert Campaign and the Italian Campaign. At the height of the World War,
more than 2.5 million Indian troops were fighting Axis forces around the
globe. After the end of the World War, India appeared as the world's fourth
largest industrial power and its increased political, economic and military
influence paved the way for its independence from the United Kingdom in
1947.

QUIT INDIA

The Indian National Congress, led through Mohandas Karamchand

Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Azad, denounced Nazi
Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent.
Jawaharlal Nehru pointed out that Nazism and the British Raj represented the
two core ideologies the Congress was fighting against — imperialism and
racism. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing
to cooperate in any way with the government until independence was granted.
The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested over 60,000
national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent
reaction of Congress supporters. Key leaders were kept in prison until June
1945, although Gandhi was released in May 1944 because of his health.
Congress, with its leader‘s incommunicado, played little role on the home
front. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked
closely with the Raj authorities.
Supporters of the British Raj argued that Great decolonisation was
impossible in the middle of a great war. So, in 1939, the British Viceroy, Lord
Linlithgow declared India's entry into the War without consulting prominent
Indian Congress leaders who were just elected in previous elections.
Subhas Chandra Bose (also described Netaji) had been a top Congress
leader. He broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with
Germany or Japan to gain independence. Japan helped him set up the Indian
National Army (INA) which fought under Japanese direction, mostly in
Burma. Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India, a
government-in-exile based in Singapore. It controlled no Indian territory and
was used only to raise troops for Japan.

BRITISH INDIAN ARMY

In 1939 the Indian Army numbered 205,000 men. It took in volunteers and
through 1945 was the largest all-volunteer force in history, rising to over 2.5
million men. These forces incorporated tank, artillery and airborne forces.
Indian soldiers earned 30 Victoria Crosses throughout the World War II.

The Middle East and African theatre

The British government meanwhile sent Indian troops to fight in West
Asia and northern Africa against the Axis. India also geared up to produce
essential goods such as food and uniforms. Pre-Independence India provided
the largest volunteer force (2.5 million) of any nation throughout World War
II.
The 4th, 5th and 10th Indian Divisions took part in the North African
theatre against Rommel's Afrika Korps. In addition, the 18th Brigade of the
8th Indian Division fought at Alamein. Earlier, the 4th and 5th Indian
Divisions took part in the East African campaign against the Italians in
Somaliland, Eritrea and Abyssinia capturing the mountain fortress of Keren.
In the Battle of Bir Hacheim, Indian gunners played an significant role
through using guns in the anti tank role and destroying tanks of Rommel's
panzer divisions. Maj PPK Kumaramangalam was the battery commander of
41 Field Regiment which was deployed in the anti tank role. He was awarded
the DSO for his act of bravery. Later he became the Chief of Army Staff of
independent India in 1967.

South-East Asian theatre

The British Royal Indian Army was the key British Empire fighting
attendance in the Burma Campaign. The Royal Indian Air force's first assault
mission was accepted out against Japanese troops stationed in Burma. The
British Indian Army was key to breaking the siege of Imphal when the
westward advance of Imperial Japan came to a halt.
The formations incorporated the Indian III Corps, IV Corps, the Indian
XXXIII Corps and the Fourteenth Army. As part of the new concept of Long
Range Penetration (LRP), Gurkha troops of the Indian Army were trained in
the present state of Madhya Pradesh under their commander then krishnasamy
(later Major General) Orde Charles Wingate. These troops, popularly
recognized as Chindits, played a crucial role in halting the Japanese advance
into South Asia.

Capture of Indian territory

Through 1942, neighboring Burma was invaded through Japan. Through
then it had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. As a major possession of the United Kingdom, Japan looked to invade
India, as it provided natural possessions and could perhaps be used as a
staging post for an advance into the Middle East and the British oil fields in
Persia and Iraq. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional
Government of Free India on October 21, 1943. In March 1944, the Indian
National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far
as Kohima in Nagaland.
The Japanese advance in South Asia reached its furthest point and was
halted in battles fought on the territory of India itself, at the Battle of Kohima
and the Battle of Imphal.

Recapture of Axis-occupied territory

In 1944-45 Japan was under heavy air bombardment at home and suffered
massive naval defeats in the Pacific. As its Imphal offensive failed, harsh
weather and disease and withdrawal of air cover (due to more pressing needs
in the Pacific) also took its toll on the Japanese and remnants of the INA and
the Burma National Army. In spring 1945, a resurgent British army recaptured
the occupied lands.

The invasion of Italy

Indian forces played a vast part in liberating Italy from fascism. India
contributed the 3rd largest Allied contingent in the Italian campaign after US
and British forces. The 4th, 8th and 10th Divisions and 43rd Gurkha Infantry
Brigade lead the advancement, notably the former two at the well-known
Battle of Monte Cassino where Indian Soldiers are honored to this day as they
advanced and held their ground as they waited for Allied forces to back them
up fought heroically and with pride on the Gothic Line in 1944 and 1945.

INA

Many leaders of the radical revolutionary Indian independence movement

broke absent from the main Congress and went to war against Britain. Subhas
Chandra Bose, once a prominent leader of Congress, volunteered to help
Germany and Japan; he said Britain's opposition to Nazism and Fascism as
"hypocrisy" since it was itself violating human rights and denying individual
liberties in India. Moreover, he argued that it was not Germany and Japan but
the British Raj which was the enemy, since the British were over-exploiting
Indian possessions for War purposes. Bose suggested that there was little
possibility of India being attacked through any of the Axis powers provided it
did not fight the War on Britain's side.
Nazi Germany was of the opinion that if the British Raj was dissolved,
then India could emerge as a valuable ally of the Axis powers and help it gain
dominance in the Indian Ocean area. Berlin was encouraging but gave little
help. Tokyo set up an Indian army for Bose.
The Indian National Army (INA), shaped first through Mohan Singh Deb
consisted initially of prisoners taken through the Japanese in Malaya and at
Singapore who were offered the choice of serving the INA through Japan or
remaining in very negative circumstances in POW camps. Later, after it was
reorganized under Subhas Chandra Bose, it drew civilian volunteers from
Malaya and Burma. Ultimately, a force of under 40,000 was shaped, although
only two divisions ever participated in battle. Intelligence and special services
groups from the INA were instrumental in destabilizing the British Indian
Army in the early stages of the Arakan offensive. It was throughout this time
that the British Military Intelligence began propaganda work to shield the true
numbers who joined the INA, and also described stories of Japanese brutalities
that indicated INA involvement. Further, the Indian press was prohibited from
publishing any accounts whatsoever of the INA.
 As the Japanese offensive opened, the INA was sent into battle. Bose
hoped to avoid set-piece battles for which it lacked arms, armament as well as
man-power. Initially, he sought to obtain arms as well as augment its ranks
from British Indian soldiers expected to defect to patriotic cause. Once the
Japanese forces were able to break the British defenses at Imphal, he planned
for the INA to cross the hills of North-East India into the Gangetic plain,
where it was to work as a guerrilla army and expected to live off the land,
garner support, supplies, and ranks from amongst the local populace to
ultimately touch off a revolution.
Prem Kumar Sahgal, an officer of the INA once Military secretary to
Subhas Bose and later tried in the first Red Fort trials, explained that although
the war itself hung in balance and nobody was sure if the Japanese would win,
initiating a popular revolution with grass-root support within India would
ensure that even if Japan lost the war ultimately, Britain would not be in a
position to re-assert its colonial authority, which was ultimately the aim of the
INA and Azad Hind.
As Japan opened its offensive towards India The INA's first division,
consisting of four Guerrilla regiments, participated in Arakan offensive in
1944, with one battalion reaching as far as Mowdok in Chittagong. Other units
were directed to Imphal and Kohima, as well as to protect Japanese Flanks to
the south of Arakan, a task it successfully accepted out. Though, the first
division suffered the same fate as did Mutaguchi's Army when the siege of
Imphal was broken. With little or no supplies and supply lines deluged
through the Monsoon, harassed through Allied air dominance, the INA began
withdrawing when the 15th Army and Burma Area Army began withdrawing,
and suffer the same terrible fate as wounded, starved and diseased men
succumbed throughout the hasty withdrawal into Burma. Later in the war
though, the INA's second division, tasked with the defence of Irrawaddy and
the adjoining areas around Nangyu, was instrumental in opposing Messervy's
7th Indian Infantry Division when it attempted to cross the river at Pagan and
Nyangyu throughout the successful Burma Campaign through the Allies the
following year. The 2nd division was instrumental in denying the 17th Indian
Infantry Division the area around Mount Popa that would have exposed the
Flank of Kimura's forces attempting to retake Meiktila and Nyangyu.
Ultimately though, the division was obliterated. Some of the surviving units of
the Army surrendered as Rangoon fell, and helped keep order till the allied
forces entered the city. The other remnants began a long march over land and
on foot towards Singapore, beside with Subhas Chandra Bose. As the Japanese
situation became precarious, Bose left for Manchuria to attempt to get in touch
with the Russians, and was reported to have died in an air crash close to
Taiwan.
The only Indian territory that the Azad Hind government controlled was
nominally the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Though, they were bases for the
Japanese Navy, and the navy never relinquished control. Enraged with the lack
of administrative control, the Azad Hind Governor, Lt. Col. Loganathan, later
relinquished his authority. After the War, a number of officers of the INA
were tried for treason. Though, faced with the possibility of a massive civil
unrest and a mutiny in the Indian Army, the British officials decided to release
the prisoners-of-war, in addition the event became a turning point to expedite
the procedure of transformation of power & India's independence.

BENGAL FAMINE

The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine throughout

1940-43. Some of the key reasons for this famine are: a) ever rising financial
needs of the colonial rulers; b) the Japanese invasion of Burma which cut off
food and other essential supplies to the region; c) poor administration through
the British; and d) the financial crunch caused through the war. The British
government at that time made the situation worse through some wartime
policies. Firstly, the British had been deliberately keeping food stocks in
Bengal low to ensure that if the Japanese conquered Bengal, the occupying
forces would not have a ready food supply. Secondly, British soldiers fighting
in that part of the world were relying on Bengali rice exports.
Hence, the government denied an urgent request from Leopold Amery, the
Indian secretary of state, and Archibald Wavell, the Viceroy of India, to stop
exports of food from Bengal in order that it might be used for famine relief.
Winston Churchill, then prime minister, dismissed these requests in a fashion
that Amery regarded as "Hitler-like," through asking why, if the famine was so
horrible, Gandhi had not yet died of starvation. Indeed, he refused to allow
free relief shipments of food from the United States and Canada into Bengal
on the grounds that the food was needed more elsewhere. George Orwell
echoed Amery's sentiments when he said, "The way the British government is
now behaving in India upsets me more than a military defeat."

TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE: 1945-47

BACKGROUND: INDIA AND THE RAJ

The period 1945-47 represents a climax of the political events of the

preceding decades. It is significant, so, to have a look at the background to the
growths which took place in these decisive years. In scrupulous it was the
Second World War and its impact on the British government and the Indian
people which shaped the course of some of the events. Let us now look at how
the War affected the Government, its policies and several sections of the
Indian population.
Second World War: Impact on the Indians
From the decline of the Quit India movement to the collapse of the Axis
powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) in the Second World War, flanked by 1943
and 1945. Beneath the surface, though, a disquietude was structure up steadily
over the War-time sufferings of the people. The Raj could hardly cope with
this disquietude despite all its show of strength, and only hope side- track it
through leaning more heavily on diversionary tactics than ever before.
Popular distress was due primarily to an inflation caused through the
channelizing of Indian products (agriculture, as well as industrial) to meet the
military needs, and through a fall in imports of consumer goods (from Britain)
to the Indian civilians. It was further accentuated through British failure to pay
for the Indian contribution to the defence expenditure and the rising volume of
their debt to India. For instance, if we take 100 as the base for prices in 1939
the following figures show the rise throughout the year 1941- 44:

Year Rice Wheat Cotton Manufacturers Kerosene

1939 100 100 100 100
1941 172 212 196 140
1942 218 232 414 194
1944 333 381 285 175

The attempts of the Government at controlling the prices led quickly to the
disappearance of the product from the open market and their reappearance
soon afterwards – following large scale hoarding —in the ― black market‖ at
very exorbitant prices. Artificial, abnormal scarcities were therefore added to
the normal scarcities that resulted from ceaseless supplies to the allied armies.
Vital items were not ordinarily accessible to the public and when they did
show up in extraordinary circumstances, the common man could hardly afford
them. While the suppliers to the military — "the war contractors" - the
hoarders and ― the black-marketers‖ were having a field day, the consumers in
general, and even the products and the industrial workers were forced to live
through a harrowing time. Such precarious economic rope dancing would only
result in grave disasters if:
The climate turned harsh and the drops failed.
If the food procurers for the government bungled their work and those
for the army overdid theirs;
If the officials mismanaged the government of food granules from one
place to another; and
If the military adopted a ―searched arth‖ policy in a region to stem the
apprehended march of an invading army.

As the cumulative effect of some of these disorders, a gruesome tragedy in

fact took place in Bengal in the later half of 1943 then a devastating famine-
suspected largely to be ― man-made‖ or the handiwork of an apathetic
officialdom-starved more than 3 million people to death. Through not actual
ravaged through famines, the condition of the rest of India was not much
better than that of Bengal and presented more or less a uniform picture of the
depressed countryside and then urban countries. Clearly the suffering people
had reached through 1945 approximately the end of their tether, and the so-
described all powerful Raj could do very little to reverse the trend.

Second World War Impact on the British Government

With a World War at hand, the British were also not really in a position to
deal efficiently with an Indian situation, their eye being fixed wholly on the
prosecution of the fight, they had neither the time nor the plight of the Indians,
or to ponder over the Indian reactions. And when the war came to a secure, the
Raj was too exhausted, too much in need for a respite, to start setting its Indian
house in order afresh. The situation had changed considerably:

The European element in its armed forces was already hankering for
demobilization for an opportunity to go home - rather than staying on
indefinitely in India;
To several Britons, India did no more appear to be an ideal place for
their civil and military careers or an easy field for their protected
expatriate entrepreneurship.
It was no longer convenient, even possible - in the face of obvious
Indian hostility to create use of India's economy for furthering Britain's
global trade interests, except through forcibly silencing all opposition.
The extent of force that Britain had to use upon India in its desperate
bid for survival in 1942 was very hard to repeat at the end of the war in
1945, and that, too, on an anticipated massive scale. The Raj was not
as conditioned mentally and materially for bulldozing another "Quit
India" movement - lurking in the horizon - as it had been in 1942.
Financially, India was no more a debtor to Britain for meeting the
expenses of her "governance", and Britain - on the contrary-had
become indebted to India to the tune of above £ 3,3000 million (the
Sterling Balance).
Administratively, the Indian Civil Service - the famed "steel frame" of
the empire was reduced throughout the war to a wholly run-down state.

Harassed through such crisis-management duties as holding the prices.

ensuring the supplies, tackling the famines or famine-like circumstances,
hunting the "fifth-columnists", sounding air-raid signals, enforcing "black-
outs", and burdened with the ever rising weight of the daily executive and
judicial chores, the capabilities of a meager number of men in the ICS were
stretched so further that they did not seem to be able to carryon for long
without being broken down totally. To create matters worse, the enlistment of
the Britons for the war took precedence over their recruitment in the ICS, and
the British entry into the cadre practically stopped at the height of the war in
1943. Irrespective of its putting up a brave face, the Raj, had little cause to feel
very secure with a minority of loyal Europeans in the ranks in the mid-1940
(587 in number) beside side an Indian majority (614 in total) of uncertain
proclivities in a rapidly changing circumstance. The days of classical
imperialism had come apparently to an end with the termination of the World
War. No body could sum up the British predicament in India better than the
penultimate Viceroy, Lord Wavell eventually did: "Our time in India is
limited, and our power to control events approximately gone".

End of the War: The British Policy

Evidently after the war. it was no longer convenient for a metropolitan
country - and far less profitable - to rule directly over a colony for the
systematized reaping of all the economic advantages from it. Though, the
Second World War through no stretch of imagination marked the collapse of
imperialism, rather it had heralded its survival, and opened up the possibility
of rejuvenation on new lines - neo-colonialism.
A land and its people could still be effectively colonised, sateliectically
placed, economically subjugated and militarily utilised, even after
conceding to them political independence, if their integrity and
solidarity were disrupted and their weaknesses perpetrated through the
setting up of separate, ineffectual, puppet regimes.

That the Indian nationalists would not be willing to play into the hands of
the puppeteers, and that a battle-weary and an internally wrecked Britain could
not again be in a position to control the world market, did hardly discourage
the British to dream on the wild neocolonialist lines. After all, Britain had
little alternative but to hope against all hopes, and to try to ensure its future of
some type in India through diverting the Indians from their goal of sub-
continental liberation, at any rate, and through disuniting and dividing them if
at all possible. The road for diversion it may be recalled, had already been
painstakingly laid, only the traffic had now to be successfully guided into it.

ATTEMPTS AT A NEGOTIATED SETTLEMENTS

Once the tide of the war turned in their favour, the British started realising
through the end of 1944 usually that the Indian situation should not be allowed
to remain where it stood after the Quit India Movement. They realised that it
would be impossible to hold India through force for long. A dialogue so, had
to begin with the imprisoned Congress leaders, if not for anything else, at least
for preventing them in future from taking advantage bf an explosive post-war
situation of economic hardships and unemployment. According to Wavell the
energies of the Congress and its fellow-travelers were required to be directed
from the path of agitation into "some more profitable channel, i.e. into dealing
with the administrative troubles of India and into trying to solve the
constitutional troubles", Churchill and his men stubbornly. resisted this line of
thinking till the termination of the war came in full view (With the surrender
of Germany in May 1945) and the war-time Coalition Government in Britain
was scheduled to create room for a freshly elected 'one.

The Simla Conference

Eventually permitted through the home authorities to set the ball of
negotiations rolling, the Viceroy, Wavell, ordered on 14 June 1945 the release
of all the Congress Working Committee members, and invited them beside
with others, notably the League leaders, to join in a Conference in Simla (24
June - 14 July 1945) for setting up a new Executive Council at the Centre -
practically Indian in composition—excepting the Commander in Chief and of
course, the Viceroy, presiding over its deliberations. The Council would have
equal representation from the so-described (jointly through the British and the
League) "Caste Hindus" and Muslims, and it should function within the
existing constitutional arrangement without its being responsible to the
legislature.

The British in fact were lukewarmly agreeable to discuss the creation of a

new constitution only at the actual end of the war. While attending the
conference, the Congress naturally refused to be treated as a "Caste Hindu"
body, and, asserting its secular nationalist character staked the right to select
the representatives of any community, including Muslims (of whom Abul
Kalam Azad and Abudal Ghaffar Khan presented themselves in Simla in the
capacities of the leaders and distinguished members respectively, of the
Congress delegation), as the Congress nominees to the council. The league,
which insisted -more obdurately than with cause - on its having the sole
agency to speak for every Indian Muslim, objected to the congress stand, and
claimed an absolute jurisdiction for choosing all the Muslim members of the
council.
The claim even embarrassed the victory who felt that the loyal
Unionist Muslims, or those in power in Punjab without compromising
themselves with the League, deserved some representation.

THE POPULAR URGES

The symptomatic expressions of the popular urges flanked by 1945 and

1947 were broadly of two diversities :
 Those which led to direct confrontations with the colonial
administration, and
Those which indirectly underminded colonialism through their
opposition to its indigenous upholders—sure capitalists and
princelings, mainly landlords and mahajans.

The occurrences on both these lines had on the whole been so numerous
that one is left with little alternative but to highlight only the major ones.

Direct Confrontations
Here we discuss some of the major direct confrontations with the colonial
administration.

INA Trials
The initial explosion took place over the INA trials, or the prosecutions
against the imprisoned members of the Indian National Army. Through the
time first trials began in November 1945, the heroic exploits of Netaji Subhas
Chandra Bose and his army had already been revealed to the Indian public,
catching their imagination and swaying their emotions. There was
countrywide protest when the three INA heroes (Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and
Dhillon) belonging to the Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communities, and
symbolizing the unity of the people, were put on the docks in the historic Red
Fort of Delhi. There were meetings and processions, angry outbursts and
agitated speeches approximately everywhere, calling for the immediate release
of the INA prisoners.

The growths in Calcutta, though, surpassed all other places and turned the
city into a storm centre. On 21 November, 1945 students marched a t the call
of the Forward Bloc , towards the administrative quarters in Dalhousie Square.
The processionists were joined on the way through the members of the
Students Federation (Communist student wing) and the . League students'
organisation. Combined, these students tied the nationalist, the League· and
the red flags together to symbolise the. need for anti-imperialist people's
solidarity. The demonstrators were halted through the armed police on
Dharamtolla Street for the night. and fired upon the following day, killing a
Hindu and a Muslim student. The firing instantly inflamed the whole city and
the people of Calcutta went into action through disrupting traffic, burning cars
and lorries and setting up barricades on the streets. The Sikh taxi- drivers,
tramway employees and factory workers struck work and the street corners
hummed in excitement. For full two days 22 and 23 November, the enraged
groups of people repeatedly clashed with the police in dissimilar parts of the
city, faced firings and hit back with whatever little weapons they could lay
their hands upon. Through 24 , November 1945 the British were able to
restore "order". But only after 14 cases If police Firings, 33 deaths injuries to
hundreds of civilians, policemen and the men of the army and destruction of
150 police and army vehicle.

The Calcutta turmoil in scrupulous, and the nation-wide agitation in

general over the INA issued, did not go altogether in vain. The authorities
decided to climb down, first through announcing in December 1945 to try only
those INA members who could be accused of murder and brutalities, and then
through remitting in January 1946, the sentences passed against the first batch
of the accused. After some initial insensitivity, the Government in fact was
quick to read the significance of the INA agitation, in relation to Indian
nationalism. It understood that the agitation "cuts crossways communal
barriers" that the civil disturbances accompanying it could produce disastrous
results for the Raj.

Curiously enough, the Indian public men, whether of nationalist or of

communalist kind, refused to see in the agitation what the British had already
seen, and they decided to brand mass actions as "frittering absent" of energies
in "trifling quarrels" with the police. As an antidote to the unified enthusiasm
of the people, the Congress Working Committee chose (in its meeting of 7 -II
December 1945) to remind everyone of the need for observing strict non-
violence. The Congress and the League leaders' restraint over popular
outbursts could only be explained through their pre-determination in favour of
a negotiated settlement with the British, or through their opting for political
bargaining rather than for fighting to the finish. They were willing to take up
the INA question, or any such issue, only so far as to derive advantages from it
in the coming elections, and no further. For instance the Congressmen made a
promise throughout Punjab elections that all INA personnel will be absorbed
in the army of free India. Mentally they had already preferred at that point the
electoral politics of the ten per cent of Indians to the desperations of the rest -
the ninety per cent.

The INA agitation was through no means over through the end of 1945, it
struck again in February 1946, and at the same epicenter-the volatile Calcutta.
The league students of the city gave a strike call to protest on .11 February
1946 against the sentence of 7 years' imprisonment, passed on A. Rashid Ali
of the INA. Other students organisations including the Communist-led
Students Federation, joined in amidst spontaneous display of inter-communal
solidarity. The protestations were transformed into fierce fights when the
militant working class youth united with the students. A massive rally
(addressed through the League, the nationalist and Communist spokesmen)
and ~ general strike on 12 February paralyzed Calcutta and its industrial
suburbs, leading eventually to clashes with the police and the army, the
erection of barricades on the roads and street skirmishes in several parts. After
two days of bloody encounters, resulting in the deaths of 84 and injuries to
300, the authorities were able finally to restore "order". The tension, though,
sustained to linger on, not only in Calcutta and Bengal, but also in other parts.

COMMUNALISM AND THE PARTITION OF BRITISH INDIA

COMMUNALISM

Communalism is a term with three separate meanings according to the

Random House Unabridged Dictionary. These contain: (1) "a theory of
government or a system of government in which independent communes
participate in a federation"; (2) "the principles and practice of communal
ownership". Several experiments in utopian socialism did implement internal
rules of communalist property ownership in the context of federated
communalism. It is at least theoretically possible for a federation of communes
to contain communes which do not practice communalist rules of property,
which is to say, that the overall national government may be a federation of
communes, but that private property rather than communalist property is the
order within each such commune. Karl Marx, often viewed as the founder of
communism, criticized other socialists of his era, and made particularly
blistering criticisms of utopianism which was usually conceived beside
communalist principles, both federational communalism and local property
communalism.

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

Communalism arises in the middle of the society when a scrupulous

religious or sub-religious group tries to promote its own interests at the
expense of others. In simple conditions, it can be defined as to distinguish
people on the basis of religion. Following are the factors responsible for the
growth of Communalism in India:
Divide and Rule Policy of the British: The British rulers adopted the
policy of 'Divide and Rule' to strengthen their roots while living in
India. They divided the people of several communities of India and
spread the feeling of distrust in the middle of them and hence they
sowed the seeds of communalism in India.
Political Organisations: Dissimilar communal organisations are found
in India which have created hatred in the middle of the people of
several religious communities through propagating, and hence they are
the root cause of communalism.
Inertia indifferent Government: When the government does not take
proper action at the proper time, communalism spreads in the middle
 of the subjects. Sometimes the government favors on the religion and
leave others which make differences.
Ineffective Handling of Communal Riots: Sometimes the state
governments have been proved ineffective to curb the communal riots
in their respective states. It also results in spreading the communalism.

As the result of the above factors, communalism is raising its ugly face in
India after the Independence and also creating great troubles even in the
working of Indian political system. Remedies:
The remedy of constitutional safeguards to root out the chronic malaise
of communalism and castes shall not have desired effect unless it is
tackled through society itself.
Efforts should be made through the enlightened citizens to discourage
the communal and caste based forces from the social, political and
electoral procedure in order to create these forces irrelevant. They are
to be opposed not to be appeased.
Communal carnage and caste wars should be dealt strictly with new
strategies.
To usher an era of social equity and sarva dharma sambhava the people
of India should not mix religion and caste with politics to attain the
goal of common brotherhood for the unity and integrity of the nation

BACKGROUND OF PAKISTAN

The history of Pakistan encompasses the history of the region constituting

modern Pakistan. Prior to independence in 1947, the land that is now Pakistan
was ruled in dissimilar periods through local kings and numerous imperial
powers. The ancient history of the region comprising present-day Pakistan
also comprises some of the oldest empires of South Asia and some of its major
civilizations. Through the 18th century the land was incorporated into British
India. Pakistan's political history began with the birth of the All India Muslim
League in 1906 to protect "Muslim interests, amid neglect and under-
representation" and to oppose Congress and rising Indian nationalism in return
the British Raj would decide to grant local self-rule. On 29 December 1930,
philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal described for an autonomous new state in
"northwestern India for Indian Muslims". The League rose to popularity in the
late 1930s. Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led
the League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, demanding the formation
of independent states in the East and the West of British India. Eventually, a
successful movement led through Jinnah gained independence from the
British, on 14 August 1947.
On 12 March 1949, the first constituent assembly of Pakistan passed the
Objectives Resolution which was proposed through the first Prime Minister
Liaquat Ali Khan, proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would
not be modeled entirely on an European pattern, but on the ideology and
democratic faith of Islam. The legislative elections in 1954 saw the Awami
League coming to power and its leader Huseyn Suhrawardy becoming
country's first Bengali Prime minister. Promulgation of Constitution in 1956
leads to Pakistan declaring itself Islamic republic (official name) with the
adoption of parliamentary democratic system of government. The constitution
transformed the Governor-General of Pakistan into President of Pakistan (as
head of state). Subsequently, Iskander Mirza became the first president as well
as first Bengali in 1956, but the democratic system was stalled after President
Mirza imposed the military coup d'état and appointed Ayub Khan as an
enforcer of martial law. Two week later, President Mirza was ousted through
Ayub Khan; his presidency saw an era of internal instability and a second war
with India in 1965. Economic grievances and political disenfranchisement in
East Pakistan led to violent political tensions and armed repression, escalating
into guerrilla war followed through the third war with India. After an intense
guerrilla insurgency, followed through war with India, the state of East
Pakistan separated at a considerable aloofness from the rest of Pakistan and
became the independent state of Bangladesh in 1971 Pakistan's defeat in the
war ultimately led to the secession of East Pakistan and the birth of
Bangladesh.
Democracy again returned which was resumed from 1972 to 1977 under
leftist PPP led through Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was varnished through
General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president.
Pakistan's banished-secular policies were replaced through the new Islamic
Shariah legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service
and the military. With the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, the new
general elections announced the victory of PPP led through Benazir Bhutto
who was elevated as the country's first female Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Over the after that decade, she alternated power with conservative Pakistan
Mulim League-N (PML(N)) led through Nawaz Sharif, as the country's
political and economic situation becoming worsen. Military tensions in the
Kargil disagreement with India were followed through a 1999 coup d'état in
which General Pervez Musharraf assumed executive powers.
Self-appointing himself as President after the resignation of President
Rafiq Tarar, Musharraf held nation-wide general elections in 2002 to transfer
the executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Jamali, who
was succeeded in the 2004 through Shaukat Aziz. Throughout the election
campaign in 2007 following the parliament completing its term on 15
November 2007, Benazir Bhutto was assassinated which that resulted in a
series of significant political growths when left-wing alliance led through PPP.
The historic general elections held in 2013 marked the return of PML(N)
coming to national prominence with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif assuming
the leadership of the country for the third time in the history.
British rule

British colonization, conquest, and cultural heritage

The whole territory of modern Pakistan was occupied through the East
India Company, later coming under the rule of Queen Victoria of the British
Empire, through a series of wars, the main ones being the Battle of Miani
(1843) in Sindh, the gruelling Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849) and the Anglo-
Afghan Wars (1839–1919), to remain a part of British empire until the
freedom in 1947.
The physical attendance of the British was minimal; they employed
"Divide and Rule" political strategy to remain in power. In his historical
survey Constantine's Sword, James P. Carroll writes: "Certainly that was the
story of the British Empire's success, and its legacy of nurtured local hatreds
can be seen wherever the Union Flag flew." . The administrative units of
British India under the tenancy or the sovereignty of either the East India
Company or the British Crown lasted flanked by 1612 and 1947.

Early period of Pakistan Movement

In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had shaped the Central National Muhammadan
Association to work towards the political advancement of the Indian Muslims,
who had suffered grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failed Sepoy
Mutiny against the British East India Company; the British were seen as
foreign invaders. But the organization declined towards the end of the 19th
century.
In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a forum, which later
became a party, to promote a nationalist cause. Although the Congress
attempted to contain the Muslim community in the thrash about for
independence from the British rule - and some Muslims were very active in
the Congress - the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the party, viewing
it as a "Hindu-dominated" organization. Some Muslims felt that an
independent united India would inevitably be "ruled through Hindus", and that
there was a need to address the issue of the Muslim identity within India.
A turning point came in 1900, when the British administration in the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh acceded to Hindu demands and made
Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, the official language. The
proslytisation mannered in the region through the activists of a new Hindu
reformist movement also stirred Muslim's concerns about their faith.
Eventually, the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to
suppress Muslim culture and religion in the region of an independent India.

The Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded on 30 December 1906, in the
aftermath of partition of Bengal, on the sidelines of the annual All India
Muhammadan Educational Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka. The meeting was
attended through three thousand delegates and presided over through Nawab
Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and
finalized a programme. A resolution, moved through Nawab Salimullah and
seconded through Hakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk(conservative),
declared:
The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total
population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period
the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India
would pass into the hands of that community which is almost four
times as large as ourselves ... our life, our property, our honor, and our
faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British
administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to
face mainly serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the
grasping hands of our neighbors.

The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the Green
Book, written through Maulana Mohammad Ali. Its goals at this stage did not
contain establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on
protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding flanked by
the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian
community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging
violence. Though, many factors over the after that thirty years, including
sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims. In the middle of
those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was
Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This
was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote in the
middle of the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the
British Government". In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the
Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a
pro-Hindu movement openly. This group was spearheaded through the well-
known trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin
Chandra Pal of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their
influence spread rapidly in the middle of other like minded Hindus - they
described it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause of serious concern for
Muslims. Though, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when the party
changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the
British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League
regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims. After vociferous protests of
the Hindu population and violence engineered through secret groups, such as
Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo and his brother etc.,
the British had decided to reunite Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah
whispered in Mutual co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India',
although he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in
any Indian Parliament. The League slowly became the leading representative
body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916, and negotiated
the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, through
which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted
representation for the Muslim community. Though, Jinnah broke with the
Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a
law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a
temperamentally law abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. Jinnah also
became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate
electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British
proposed a constitution for India as recommended through the Simon
Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British then turned
the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties
Congress was convened in Delhi. The attempt failed, but two more
conferences were held, and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed
that a small committee should work on the constitution. The prominent
Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the committee, which incorporated two
Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal
Nehru, was its secretary. The League, though, rejected the committee's report,
the so-described Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals gave too little
representation (one quarter) to Muslims – the League had demanded at least
one-third representation in the legislature. Jinnah announced a "parting of the
ways" after reading the report, and relations flanked by the Congress and the
League began to sour.

Muslim homeland - "Now or Never"

The general elections held in the United Kingdom had already weakened
the leftist Labour Party led through Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
Furthermore, the Labour Party's government was already weakened through
the outcomes of the World War I, which fueled new hopes for progress
towards self-government in British-India. In fact, Mohandas K. Gandhi
traveled to London to press the thought of "self-government" in British India,
and claimed to represent all Indians whilst duly criticized the Muslim League
as being sectarian and divisive. After reviewing the report of the Simon
Commission, the Indian Congress initiated a massive civil disobedience
movement under Gandhi; the Muslim League reserved their opinion on the
Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should
decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in
India.
As the leaders of the Indian Congress were jailed and restrained, the
Round-table conference was held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and
the League were unable to reach a compromise. Witnessing the events in the
Round-table conference, Jinnah had despaired of politics and particularly of
getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority
priorities. Throughout this time in 1930, notable writer and poet, Muhammad
Iqbal described for a separate and autonomous nation-state, who in his
presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he
felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-
dominated South Asia.
The name of the nation-state was coined through the Cambridge
University's political science student and Muslim nationalist Rahmat Ali, and
was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never. After
coining the name of the nation-state, Ali noticed that there is an acronym
shaped from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India:
"P" for Punjab
"A" for Afghania (now recognized as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)
"K" for Kashmir
"S" for Sindh
"Tan" for Balochistan; therefore forming "Pakstan".

An "i" was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease
pronunciation, producing "Pakistan", through Ali. In Urdu and Persian
languages, the name encapsulates the concept of Pak ("pure") and stan
("land") and hence a "Pure Land". In the 1935, the British government
proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial
legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937. After the elections the League
took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in mainly of the
other provinces, and refused to devolve power with the League in provinces
with large Muslim minorities citing technical difficulties.
Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for independence also felt vindicated
through the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar at the 19th session of the
well-known Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. In it, this
legendary revolutionary - popularly described Veer Savarkar and recognized
as the iconic father of the Hindu fundamentalist ideology - propounded the
seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or ethnic exclusivism, which
influenced Jinnah profoundly.
In 1940, Jinnah described a general session of the Muslim League in
Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of the World
War II and the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian
leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the
defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim
majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian Congress and
the nationalists, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the
demand for separate homelands. Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of
Punjab, drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version, that
had appeared after protracted redrafting through the Subject Committee of the
Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United
India because of rising inter-religious violence and recommended the creation
of independent states. The resolution was moved in the general session
through Shere-Bangla Bengali nationalist, AKF Haq, the Chief Minister of
Bengal, supported through Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other leaders and
was adopted on 23 March 1940. The Resolution read as follows:
No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims
unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions
which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as
may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically
in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should
be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent
units shall be autonomous and sovereign ... That adequate, effective
and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the
constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the
protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political,
administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their
consultation. Arrangements therefore should be made for the security
of Muslims where they were in a minority.

In 1941, it became part of the Muslim League's constitution. Though, in

early 1941, Sikandar explained to the Punjab Assembly that he did not support
the final version of the resolution. The sudden death of Sikandar in 1942
paved the way over the after that few years for Jinnah to emerge as the
recognized leader of the Muslims of South Asia. In 1943, the Sind Assembly
passed a resolution demanding the establishment of a homeland. Talks flanked
by Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement and
there were no more attempts to reach a single-state solution.
World War II had broken the back of both Britain and France and
disintegration of their colonial empires was expected soon. Rebellions and
protest against the British had increased. With the election of another
sympathetic Labour government in Britain in 1945, Indians were seeing
independence within reach. But, Gandhi and Nehru were not receptive to
Jinnah's proposal and were also adamantly opposed to dividing India, since
they knew that the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would
never agree to such a thing. In the Constituent Assembly elections of 1946, the
League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (polling 89.2% of total
votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an
implied threat of secession if this was not granted. Through 1946 the British
had neither the will, nor the financial possessions or military power, to hold
India any longer. Political deadlock ensued in the Constituent Assembly, and
the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, sent a cabinet mission to India to
mediate the situation. When the talks broke down, Attlee appointed Louis
Mountbatten as India's last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan
and India and immediate British withdrawal. Mountbatten, of imperial blood
and a world war admiral, handled the problem as a campaign. Ignorant of the
complex ground realities in British India, he brought forward the date of
transfer of power and told Gandhi and Nehru that if they did not accept
division there would be civil war in his opinion and he would rather consider
handing over power to individual provinces and the rulers of princely states.
This forced the hands of Congress leaders and the "Independence of India Act
1947" provided for the two dominions of Pakistan and India to become
independent on the 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively. This result was
despite the calls for a third Osmanistan in the early 1940s.

Creation of Pakistan
On 14 and 15 August 1947, British India gave way to two new
independent states, the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India, both
dominions which joined the British Commonwealth. Though, the decision to
divide Punjab and Bengal, two of the major provinces, flanked by India and
Pakistan had disastrous consequences. This division created inter-religious
violence of such magnitude that exchange of population beside religious lines
became a necessity in these provinces. More than two million people migrated
crossways the new borders and more than one hundred thousand died in the
spate of communal violence that spread even beyond these provinces. The
independence also resulted in tensions over Kashmir leading to the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1947, which culminated in an armistice, brokered through
the United Nations, and a hitherto unresolved Kashmir dispute. The post-
independence political history of Pakistan has been characterized through
many periods of authoritarian military rule and continuing territorial disputes
with India over the status of Kashmir.

PARTITION OF INDIA

The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which
led to the creation, on August 14, 1947 and August 15, 1947, respectively, of
the sovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan (later Islamic Republic of
Pakistan and People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Union of India (later
Republic of India). "Partition" here refers not only to the division of the
Bengal province of British India into East Pakistan and West Bengal (India),
and the similar partition of the Punjab province into Punjab (West Pakistan)
and Punjab (India), but also to the respective divisions of other assets,
including the British Indian Army, the Indian Civil Service and other
administrative services, the railways, and the central treasury.
The secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971 is not sheltered
through the term Partition of India, nor is the earlier separation of Burma
(now Myanmar) from the administration of British India, or the even earlier
separation of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Ceylon, part of the Madras Presidency
of British India from 1795 until 1798, became a separate Crown Colony in
1798. Burma, slowly annexed through the British throughout 1826–86 and
governed as a part of the British Indian administration until 1937, was directly
administered thereafter. Burma was granted independence on January 4, 1948
and Ceylon on February 4, 1948.
 The remaining countries of present-day South Asia, Nepal, Bhutan, and
the Maldives were unaffected through the partition. The first two, Nepal and
Bhutan, having signed treaties with the British designating them as
independent states, were never a part of the British Indian Empire, and so their
borders were not affected through the partition. The Maldives, which became
a protectorate of the British crown in 1887 and gained its independence in
1965, was also unaffected through the partition.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A DEMOCRATIC POLITY

India is the seventh largest (through area) and the second mainly populous
country in the world, with roughly one-sixth of its population, of about a
billion and a quarter. It is the world's largest democracy. It is one of the
world's oldest civilizations yet, a very young nation. Elections to its
Parliament are held once every 5 years. Currently, Prime minister Dr.
Manmohan Singh is the head of the government, enjoying a majority in the
Parliament, while President Pranab Mukherjee, is the head of state. India is a
constitutional republic governed under the world's longest written constitution,
federally consisting of 29 states and seven centrally administered union
territories, with New Delhi as the nation's capital. The country has four main
national parties: the Indian National Congress (INC), Bhartiya Janta Party
(BJP), Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Communist Party of India
(Marxist) (CPI(M)). The Indian National Congress has governed the country
for 3/4th's of the time since independence from Britain in 1947, under the de
facto one party system and now, under the Dominant-party system. At the
stage of its states, several local parties stand for elections to state legislatures,
every five years.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEMOCRACY

The success of democracy in India defies several prevailing theories that

stipulate preconditions. Indian democracy is best understood through focusing
on how power is distributed.

Religion
Religion as a major cultural influence plays an significant role in politics.
Political party support depends greatly on differentiating the electorate beside
religious lines. The major religious communities are those of the Hindus
(although not a homogeneous block), the Muslims (again they too are
differentiated as Shias and Sunnis) and the Sikhs; and several political parties
are recognized through the religion of their supporters. Several national
religious issues are the key points of the success in elections. Even some of the
political leaders use religion for their own sake and as a medium for their
political stability.

Population
India is a second mainly populated country in the world, after that only to
China. The over a billion population poses a challenge to the state's skill to
give everyone with jobs, health-care, education and other public services.
Slowing down the rate of population growth has been a major issue for
governments, over time. India being a democratic country the ever rising
population can only be checked through voluntary means, with the informed
consent of the people. With the current growth rate, India is set to leave China
behind through 2020.

Development
India is still an emerging economy, setting the pace and shape of
development. India began as an explicitly socialist nation and continues with a
large public-sector and several constraints on private enterprise, although
recent governments have reduced some of these restrictions. Their reward has
been faster economic growth, particularly through the growth of trade-oriented
industry. Some recent governments were voted out due to a sluggish economy.

Regions
India is very densely populated. Some advocate splitting some twenty
eight states and seven union territories. It is the 2nd mainly populated country
of the world.

Other factors
Factors such as education, corruption, women's issues, student politics,
criminalization of politics, leadership strategies and the design of political
institutions affect national and local politics. Some other factors such as the
caste issue, environment policy, new long-term investment in the economy
through foreigners etc., also have a bearing.

Abuse of Power through the Elected Representatives

The election procedure in India is pivoted around the commonwealth
concept of representative democracy which was once thought to save the
world from monarchy and autocracy. Even though the representative form of
democracy has succeeded in driving the nation for the past 60 years, in
practice it has yet to be implemented fully. Some of the elected representatives
enjoy all their privileges without being accountable for their duties, the
dereliction of which goes unchecked beside with influence peddling,
nepotism, cronyism and willful negligence. They walk absent scot-free, have
no qualms about wrongdoing and get elected yet again, which bears testimony
to their denigration of the democracy in India

Elitism of Political Dynasties

Of the 65 years of post-independence rule, approximately 60% of the time
in office was held directly through Prime Ministers from the Nehru-Gandhi
family and currently, some 12%, again through another member from the
same family, where the power to rule vests in her through proxy, overlooking
hundreds of other eligible, efficient though, unfortunate political activists. This
trend is no dissimilar at the stage of the states too. Leading politicians are
often accused of declaring and initiating their sons, daughters and other
progeny, as heirs apparent, giving them a headstart into power-politics. In
India, dynastic politics is nothing new. We have seen this or that dynasty
ruling our land for thousands of years. One dynasty getting weakened after a
time to be dethroned through another new dynasty. There were big central
dynasties as well as the local ones. Dynastic politics is not conducive to
democracy, no doubt, but how much democratic is the Indian society yet? For
a society which is still largely feudal with group and clan loyalty or individual
worship still the rule of the game, just organising procedural elections after
regular intervals would not change the practice. If Indians are to uproot family
politics today, we need to lead a comprehensive movement to change the very
nature of India's democratic practice. Personality cult‘s necessity be sacrificed
in favour of struggles for true ideals and overall reforms, something India had
witnessed just after the Emergency was imposed through the authoritarian
Indira regime. But again, the fresh political leadership which arose amid the
thrash about could not gel and soon the dynastic rule was back to the helm.
India, like mainly other developing countries, has seen its democracy being
built from top down and not bottom up, which gives an undue advantage to the
politically/economically privileged sections to call the shots, leading to family
rule. While some countries has gone to the way of family dictatorships, India
at least remained a democracy. Withering the dynastic democratic rule can not
be done in a day as has been said. But what is sure that with deepening of
democracy and rising fragmentation of India's socio-political milieu owing to
many compelling factors, the grip of family rule is bound to loosen. We have
already seen that the Congress, despite remaining a family stronghold, is not
that powerful an entity compared to what is was throughout the days of Indira
Gandhi. A new electoral Class comprising young, educated Indians, the ever-
widening scope of the media, assertion of rights through newer socio-
economic groups, an increasingly mature Election Commission, all these will
help the Indian democracy deepen its roots further in days to come and reduce
influence of dynastic politics. Presently 37% of India‘s parliament members
flanked by ages of 41-50 hold seats inherited from their fathers. It‘s 65%
flanked by 31-40. And 100% for <30.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
 Explain the attitude of the several sections of Indian people towards
this Quit India Movement.
How did the British perpetuate the political hostility flanked by the
Hindus and the Muslims?
Why did the Muslim League raise the cry of Islam in danger?
What were the vital merits and flaws in the Cabinet Mission Plan?
What are the constraints in creation India a truly federal structure?

CHAPTER 8
INDEPENDENT INDIA:
TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT 1947-1972

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Planning and industrialization in India
Planning and land reforms in India
Foreign policy of India
The theory and practice of secularism in India 1947-1972
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Briefly about the background of economic and industrial development
in India;
Become familiar with the British Policy towards Indian agriculture;
Understand the foreign policy of India; and
Understand the secularism in India.

PLANNING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION IN INDIA

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR INDUSTRIALIZATION

Before analyzing the Indian approach, we want to introduce the aims of

industrialization, provide a rough overview of the industrialization strategies
for Less Developed Countries (LDCs) and identify indicators for the
evaluation of the success of industrialization policies.
Why Industrialization?
What are the ultimate objectives of economic development? Dissimilar
governments may have dissimilar objectives in mind. Usually, though, they
will contain a faster growth of national income, alleviation of poverty, and
reduction of income inequalities.
But how is industrialization expected to contribute to these goals? The
experience of industrial economies shows a secure association flanked by
development and industrial expansion. But industry is also thought to give
sure spillovers which would benefit other activities: enhancement of skills,
training of managers, dispersion of technology, etc. Moreover, pessimism
about the prospects of food and raw materials made the substitution of
domestic for imported manufactured goods seem the mainly promising route
to development for several countries.

Industrialization and foreign trade

Economists and policymakers in the developing countries have long
agreed on the role of government in providing infrastructure and maintaining
stable macroeconomic policies. But they have disagreed on policies toward
trade and industry. The form of government intervention in this area is the
distinguishing characteristic of alternative development strategies.
A convenient and instructive way to approach the complex issues of
appropriate trade policies for development is to set these specific policies in
the context of a broader Less Developed Countries strategy of looking
outward or inward. Outward-looking development policies encourage not only
free trade but also the free movement of capital, workers, enterprises, the
multinational enterprise, and an open system of communications. Through
contrast, inward-looking development policies stress the need for LDCs to
evolve their own styles of development and to control their own destiny.
Within these two broad philosophical approaches to development, a lively
debate has been accepted out flanked by the free traders, who advocate
outward-looking export promotion strategies of industrialization, and the
protectionists, who are proponents of inward-looking import substitution
strategies .
The advocates of import substitution (IS) – the protectionists – consider
that LDCs should substitute domestic production of previously imported
simple consumer goods and extend this later to a wider range of more
sophisticated manufactured items – all behind the protection of high tariffs and
quotas on imports. In the long run, IS advocates cite the benefits of greater
domestic industrial diversification and the ultimate skill to export previously
protected manufactured goods, as economies of scale, low labour costs, and
the positive externalities of learning through doing cause domestic prices to
become more competitive with world prices.
Through contrast, advocates of export promotion (EP) of both primary and
manufactured goods cite the efficiency and growth benefits of free trade and
competition, the importance of substituting large world markets for narrow
domestic markets, the distorting price and cost effects of protection, and the
tremendous success of the East Asian export-oriented economies of South
Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong .
The balance of the debate has swung back and forth, with the
protectionists predominating in the 1950s and 1960s, and the export promoters
gaining the upper hand in the late 1970s and in the 1980s and 1990s,
especially in the middle of Western and World Bank economists.

Indicators for measuring economic development

Of course, any development policy has to be assessed through measuring
the economic development it effects. India‘s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru declared on the eve of the departure of the British, on 14 August 1947,
that India‘s task in the future incorporated "the ending of poverty and
ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity".
These measures will be used to determine the success of the inward-
looking policies he initiated, as well as to compare their success with the
success of the reform policies. So, growth of income per capita, alleviation of
poverty and reduction of income inequalities are amongst the mainly
significant indicators.
To measure advances concerning inequality of opportunity and ignorance,
many indicators pertaining to education and health will be used. These are two
significant public goods to which every individual is entitled; both for their
intrinsic importance and for their enhancement of instrumental personal, social
and procedure roles, and also empowerment and distributive roles.

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIALIZATION IN INDIA

This section gives a rough overview of the history of industrialization in

India. Many areas will be discussed in more detail in the following section.

Colonial rule
Under colonial rule, India, as with mainly other developing countries,
followed a non-industrial model. But several Indians whispered that progress
was retarded through this. It was whispered that true economic progress lay in
industrialization; Smith‘s and Ricardo‘s ideas of international specialization
and mutually advantageous free trade were rejected, at least until India became
an exporter of more sophisticated goods.

INDUSTRIALIZATION SINCE INDEPENDENCE

India‘s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, Premier from 1947 to 1964,
saw industrialization as the key to alleviating poverty. Industrialization not
only promised self-sufficiency for his nation that had just regained political
sovereignty, but also offered external economies accruing from technical
progress. Believing the potential of agriculture and exports to be limited,
Indian governments taxed agriculture through skewing the conditions of trade
against it and emphasizing import substitution, therefore giving priority to
heavy industry.
Nehru whispered a powerful state with a centralised planned economy to
be essential if the country was to industrialize rapidly. The Industries
(Development and Regulation) Act (IDRA) in 1951 laid the foundations for
this administrative control on industrial capability. But, over time, the
licensing necessities became increasingly stringent and were accompanied
through a gamut of procedures that required clearance through a number of
disparate and uncoordinated ministries.
In order to pursue IS, the Import Trade Control Order of 1955 subjected
approximately all imports to quantitative restrictions in the form of import
licenses. These were complemented through tariffs at rates that were in the
middle of the highest in the developing world.
Indian state intervention in industrial development has been extensive.
Unlike several East Asian countries, which used state intervention to build
strong private sector industries, India opted for state control over key
industries. At dissimilar times, nationalized industries incorporated chemicals,
electric power, steel, transportation, life insurance, portions of the coal and
textile industries, and banking. To promote these industries the government
not only levied high tariffs and imposed import restrictions, but also
subsidized the nationalized firms, directed investment funds to them, and
controlled both land use and several prices.
Under Prime Minister Indhira Gandhi (1966-77), two major shifts took
place in the role of the state. First, the neglect of agriculture was reversed
through state activism in subsidizing new seeds and fertilizers, agricultural
credit, and rural electrification. The green revolution took off and through the
mid-1970s India was self-enough in grain. The second shift was the further
tightening of state control over every characteristic of the economy. Banks
were nationalized, trade was increasingly restricted, price controls were
imposed on a wide range of products, and foreign investment was squeezed.
In 1973, dealings in foreign exchanges as well as foreign investment came
to be regulated through the Foreign Exchange and Regulation Act (FERA).
The act virtually shut out the inflow of new technology from abroad in the
1970s and 1980s, particularly when these involved large equity participation.
The Indian system of state planning went far beyond the usual inward-
looking industrialization policies that mainly developing countries pursued
after World War II. The government regulated the mainly vital business
decisions for all firms above a sure size: borrowing, investment, capability
utilization, pricing and sharing.
The over-restrictive, and often self-defeating nature of the regulatory
framework, began to become apparent through the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Comprehensive planning was increasingly criticised as planned targets were
not met and several plans were not even implemented. The lack of success in
some dimensions led to a new and more restrictive set of regulations. One
instance is the attempt to reserve sectors for small industries and to restrict the
growth of large firms.
Beginning in the early 1980s, a mild trend towards deregulation started.
Economic reforms were introduced, starting to liberalize trade, industrial and
financial policies, while subsidies, tax concessions, and the depreciation of the
currency improved export incentives. These measures helped GDP growth to
accelerate to over 5% per year throughout the 1980s, compared to 3.5%
throughout the 1970s, and reduced poverty more rapidly. Though India‘s
mainly fundamental structural troubles were only partially addressed. Tariffs
sustained to be in the middle of the highest in the world, and quantitative
restrictions remained pervasive.
Moreover, a important government influence sustained in the allocation of
credit to firms and a discouragement of foreign investment. Relatively
inefficient public enterprises, controlling almost 20% of GDP, remained a drag
on economic growth.
The government expanded antipoverty schemes, especially rural
employment schemes, but only a small fraction of the rising subsidies actually
reached the poor. Competition flanked by political parties drove subsidies up
at every election. The resulting fiscal deficits (8.4% of GDP in 1985)
contributed to a rising current account deficit. India‘s foreign exchange
reserves were virtually exhausted through mid-1991 when a new government
headed through Narasimha Rao came to power.
In July 1991, India launched a second major economic reform program.
The government committed itself to promoting a competitive economy that
would be open to trade and foreign investment. Measures were introduced to
reduce the government‘s influence in corporate investment decisions. Much of
the industrial-licensing system was dismantled, and areas once closed to the
private sector were opened up. These incorporated electricity generation, areas
of the oil industry, heavy industry, air transport, roads and some
telecommunications. Foreign investment was suddenly welcomed.
Greater global integration was encouraged with a important reduction in
the use of import licenses and tariffs (down to 150% from 400%), an
elimination of subsidies for exports, and the introduction of a foreign-
exchange market. Since April 1992, there has been no need to obtain any
license or permit to carry out import-export trade. As of April 1, 1993, trade is
totally free, barring only a small list of imports and exports that are either
regulated or banned. The WTO estimated an average import tariff of 71% in
1993 which has been reduced to 40% in 1995. With successive additional
monetary reforms, the rupee, since 1995, can almost be measured a fully
convertible currency at market rates. India now has a much more open
economy.
SPECIAL AREAS OF ECONOMIC POLICY

After giving a rough overview of the history of industrialization, this

chapter gives more detailed information about the areas of human factors for
industrialization, structure of foreign investment, and the procedure of
privatization.

Human Factors for industrialization

A very necessary ingredient for promoting industrialization and
technological change is the investment in human capital. India‘s current
average adult literacy rate is low at 52%. There are large inequalities flanked
by males (literacy: 64%) and females (literacy: 39%), flanked by urban and
rural areas, and flanked by dissimilar social classes. Low stages of female
education in India are due to the gender division of labour. Females are
expected to spend mainly of their life in domestic work and child rearing.
Secondly, the practice of dowry and the ideology of hypergamous marriage
can turn female education into a liability. An educated girl is likely to be more
expensive to marry off, therefore female education tends to be a threat to the
social order. Illiteracy is widespread not only in older groups, but also in the
middle of young boys and girls, particularly in rural areas.
The extra ordinary neglect of elementary education in India is all the more
striking given the widespread recognition, in the modern world, of the
importance of vital education for economic development. Primary education in
India is not compulsory. Though those who receive primary education and
create it through secondary school have an excellent chance of getting a high-
class University education. India has a vast supply of people with more
education than they can use.
Amartya Sen argued that there were deep-seated class biases in the
pressures that have determined Indian educational priorities, and that the
inequalities in education are, in fact, a reflection of the inequalities of
economic and social powers of dissimilar groups in India. India‘s hierarchical,
brahmin-dominated society has been noticeably casual about primary
education; possessions have been poured into the higher education that
benefits the upper class.
The persistence of endemic illiteracy and educational background in India
usually limits the freedom and well-being of the Indian masses and has a
direct role in the relative deprivation of women in scrupulous. Elementary
education is very significant for a successful integration in the world market
and if the procedure of growth were more ‗participatory‘ it could raise the
income-earning power of large parts of the nation. Even if India‘s high
technology industries, such as modern computer software or engineering
products had an accelerated growth, the bulk of the Indian population would
benefit only marginally.
Foreign Investment Policy Instruments
Since independence, new foreign investment has been rigidly controlled in
line with recognized development thinking. Investment was mostly restricted
to industries where it was felt that the acquisition of foreign technology was
significant, or where the promise of exports was convincing. The FERA was a
landmark. In mainly industries, foreign shareholdings in rupee companies had
to be reduced to 40%. The relative importance of foreign ownership in the
private corporate sector fell significantly in the after that decades. The attitude
towards foreign investment began to change in 1985 as a part of Ghandi‘s
drive for advanced technology. Despite this, looking at 1988 shows how
poorly India fared in attracting private foreign investment. Net Private Foreign
Investment to India (in million US$) was $280. This is compared to her Asian
competitors with figures of $2344 (China), $1093 (Thailand) and $986
(Philippines).
Since the liberalization in, mid-1991 India has become a magnet for
foreign investment. A noteworthy characteristic is the dramatic speed of
approvals, some taking only a week. Automatic approval of projects in 34
industrial sectors is permitted. The constraint that foreign investment should
reach only 40% was relaxed to 51%. In sure sectors, such as infrastructure and
computer software, the ownership can also be as high as 74%. In some sectors
such as transport infrastructure, full foreign ownership is permitted and even
encouraged.
Foreign direct investment rose from $170 million in 1991-92 to $1.3
billion in 1994-95. India is targeting foreign direct investment of at least $10
billion annually through the turn of the century. It attracted a total of $2.4
billion in 1996-97 and $3.4 billion in 1997-98. Foreign direct investment is
almost 25 times higher than it was before the economy was liberalized.
The government in New Delhi is continuing to work toward reforming
long-standing policies to create the country more "investor friendly"; a move
that continues to heighten US interest in the country. A rising number of US
companies, motivated through an increasingly favorable investment climate
and the country's vast reserves of both human and natural possessions, have
seriously begun to consider investing there. US investment has been more than
24% of the total investment since 1991. In 1995 almost $3.5 billion of US
foreign investment flowed into India.
The US continues to be the leading investor in India. The US is followed
through other more ‗traditional‘ investors like the U.K. (6.4%), Israel (5.9%),
Mauritius (4.6%), Japan (4.2%) and Germany (4.1%). Mainly of the
investment interest has been in the telecommunications, oil refining,
automobile and transportation sectors, with other projects developing in the
electronics, software and electrical equipment industries.

Revitalization of the Indian Private Sector

India has always been a trading nation. Centuries of alien rule and decades
of socialism did not stamp out the Indian entrepreneurial spirit. The Statement
of Industrial Policy 1991 reduced the list of industries reserved for the public
sector from 17 to 6. In 1992/93, 104 out of a total of 237 central public sector
enterprises made losses. With few exceptions, the inefficiency of public
enterprises, which generate 17% of GDP, has sustained to be a serious issue. It
is clear that there is a prima facie case for privatization on grounds of
efficiency. Though, the strength of the case for privatization varies with the
kind of industry.
Now exposed to international competition, Indian companies are forming
alliances with each other to face the challenges of the future. It is now even
possible for Indian firms to merge with other companies. Procter & Gamble
merged its operations with Godrej Soaps. Coca Cola acquired Parle, its
erstwhile competitor, therefore extending the cola wars to new exotic lands.
Companies are enjoying the benefits of economies of scale and synergy. As
larger and stronger groups emerge, they will have the possessions necessary to
invest in upgrading technology and will become more competitive.

EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIALIZATION IN INDIA

The indicators named above will be used to evaluate the success of Indian
industrialization policies. A distinction will be made flanked by the period
from Independence until 1980, characterized through inward-looking policies
such as IS, and the period from 1980 until today, characterized through
reforms and the opening up of the Indian economy. The following analysis
with indicators compares the achievements of these two periods only.
Absolute statements of Indian achievements follow later on.
It necessity be emphasised that the analyzed data conceals sharp disparities
within India flanked by development-oriented states and laggards, flanked by
women and men, flanked by adults and children, and flanked by city and
countryside. Dissimilar states have progressed at differing paces and, even
within states, dissimilar regions have achieved markedly varied results. Even
more noticeable than geographic differences in poverty reduction are the
inequalities that persist crossways gender, caste and ethnic groups. Social
indicators for women – literacy, for instance – are distinctly lower than for
men, and the stage of scheduled castes and tribes in both economic and social
achievements is still well below the national average.

Growth of national income

Growth of national income in GNP per capita in India was about 1.4% in
the years from 1960 to 1980. The effects of the reforms of the 1980s are
reflected in growth figures: the average GNP per capita growth increased to
3.25%. And with further opening up in the 1990s, the GNP per capita reaches
new heights with 3.8% average growth in the period from 1987 to 1997.
Alleviation of poverty
In the early 1950s, about half of India‘s population was living in poverty.
Since then, poverty has been declining slowly. The poverty reduction was
given new impetus through the reforms: falling from around 55% in 1974 to
just under 35% in 1994 through a headcount index. In the 1980s and 1990s,
poverty reached historically low stages. Still, because of India‘s rapid
population growth rate, the relative reduction of poverty has not been enough
to reduce the absolute number of poor which increased from about 164 million
in 1951 to 312 million in 1993-94.

Reduction of income inequalities

The reduction of income inequalities has only made slight advances. The
major advances were made mostly before the reforms. On the other hand, one
of the major increases in inequality happened in the late 1970s, and the
growths for the late 1980s / early 1990s in Figure 1 look promising. Compared
to other low-income economies, the inequality is relatively low.

Education
From 1960 to 1977 the reduction of illiteracy was only 11%. From 1978 to
1995, it was 25%, therefore much higher. Of course, there are also long-term
growths involved here, so that the higher reduction in the second period might
be partially due to actions taken in the first period.

Health
Life expectancy, used as an indicator of health, has increased constantly
since independence. Throughout the period from 1960 to 1980, it increased
from 43 years to 52 years, which is an augment of 21% in 20 years. From
1980 to 1995 it grew to 62 years, which is a 19% augment in only 15 years.
This means that the growth of this indicator has increased through a rate of
24% compared to the previous period.
Even clearer is the improvement in the reduction of infant mortality. This
was reduced through 25% in the period 1960 to 1995 and a further reduction
of 45% took place from 1980 to 1995. This is partially due to better education
of mothers, as well as to an improved economic situation of parents.

PLANNING AND LAND REFORMS IN INDIA

The term "land reforms" is used in discussing the several changes made in
the cultivator's relation to land in a land tenure system. Land reforms in India
broadly refers to abolition of intermediary tenures, tenancy reforms, ceiling on
landholding and sharing of surplus land, consolidation of holdings, and
compilation and updating of land records.

LAND TENURE SYSTEM

Land tenure system explains the traditional or legal rights individual or

groups of individuals have on land and the social relationships in the middle of
the rural population that emerges from such land rights. It has two constituents
namely, the system of landownership and secondly, the system of labor
organization in rural regions. Land tenure system in India have been
influenced through the nearby environment, changing with the times and
evolving slowly. Before the Britishers, India had never been governed through
a single ruler. In the Ashoka, Gupta periods and throughout the Mughal
period, a large part of North India was under the central rule and, so, had
uniform land tenure systems. The tenurial system in the Mughal period was
essentially a Ryotwari system, under which land was held directly through a
tenant. Todar Mal, the Finance Minister of Akbar improved the system of land
revenue collection through fixing it at one-third of the average yield of
granules and valued at the average of 10 year's price. After the death of
Aurangazeb in 1707, and with the declining power of Mughal rulers, a class of
intermediaries appeared, which entrenched itself flanked by the ruler and the
cultivators. They composed the revenue from farmers, gave nine-tenths to the
ruler and kept one-tenth for themselves. With the advent of British rule, they
first tried to collect revenue through professional tax collectors and later
through auction to the highest bidder. They later introduced several settlement
systems like Permanent Settlement, Malguzari settlement, Jagirdari system ,
Ryotwari system, Mahalwari system, for assessing and collecting land
revenue, therefore creation all the thitherto de facto authority over land de
jure.
MOVEMENTS AND STRUGGLES TOWARDS LAND REFORM

1757-1856: The period is characterized through rule of East India

company .
Chuar armed uprising 1799 : In 1799, famine and enhanced land
revenue forced the chuar aboriginal tribesmen of Midnapur to rise in
arms against the British. The British insultingly described the tribal
and oppressed people of Midnapur, Bankura and Jangal Mahal as
chuars, a very derogatory term which in fact had been taken from
Chor- Chuhar, meaning thieves and nasty persons who eat mice.
The Kol Uprising (1831-1832): The Kols of Singhbhum in the
Chhotanagpur area enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs . They
resented the transfer of land from Kol headmen (Mundas) to outsiders .
The Santhal Rebellion (1855-57): The Santhal rebellion started in 1855
under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu against the oppression of
police, atrocities of landlords and moneylenders, ill-treatment of small
farmers through land revenue officials in the area of Rajmahal hills .
Though they gave a heroic fight to the British government, the
rebellion was crushed in an unequal battle
Pagal Panthi Movement (1825-1833): Pagal Panthis, is semi-religious
sect shaped through Karam Shah . In 1833, in region of Northern
Mymensingh, Tipu, the son of Kwam Shah took up peasants cause
against the oppression of zamindars, who realized illegal cesses from
the peasants. After Tipu Shah Janku Pathor and Dobraj Pathor took the
leadership of the pagals and organised another resistance movement
against zamindari oppression
Rising Of The Ramosis: The Ramosis of Maharashtra were the lower
ranks of police in Maratha administration. After the fall of the Maratha
kingdom, as a result of Anglo-Maratha war, they were forced to go
back to their agricultural land in former territories of the Peshwa for
their livelihood .But they had to pay heavy land assessment and
revenue putting them to great distress. Chittur Singh revolted in Satara
in 1822 to protest against atrocities over the cultivators. Ramosis under
his banner played a prominent part in creating disturbance and
destroying its forts. In 1825, chronic scarcity in Deccan further
encouraged them to break out into a revolt under the leadership of
Umaji Naik and his associate, Bapu Trimbakji Sawant, in 1826.
Ultimately the colonial government condoned their crimes, gave them
land grants and recruited them as hill police.
The Poligars uprising: The Poligars of Dindigul and Malabar took up
arms against the British land revenue system throughout 1801 to 1805.
The Poligars of the Ceded districts and North Arcot revolted against
the policy of company. These sporadic risings sustained in Madras
Presidency up to 1856 .
 FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA
India has formal diplomatic relations with mainly nations; it is the world's
second mainly populous country, the world's mainly-populous democracy and
one of the fastest rising major economies. With the world's seventh largest
military expenditure, ninth largest economy through nominal rates and third
largest through purchasing power parity, India is a local power, a nascent great
power and a potential superpower. India's rising international influence gives
it a prominent voice in global affairs. The Economist magazine argues, though,
that underinvestment in diplomacy and a lack of strategic vision have
minimized India's influence in the world.
India is a newly industrialized country, it has a long history of
collaboration with many countries and is measured one of the leaders of the
developing world beside with China, Brazil, Russia and South Africa (the
BRICS countries). India was one of the founding members of many
international organisations, mainly notably the United Nations, the Asian
Development Bank, G20 industrial nations and the founder of the Non-aligned
movement. India has also played an significant and influential role in other
international organisations like East Asia Summit, World Trade Organisation,
International Monetary Fund (IMF), G8+5 and IBSA Dialogue Forum.
Regionally, India is a part of SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in
many UN peacekeeping missions and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop
contributor to the United Nations. India is currently seeking a permanent seat
in the UN Security Council, beside with the G4 nations.
India's relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (1857–
1947), when the British Empire monopolized external and defence relations.
When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in
creation or conducting foreign policy. Though, the country's oldest political
party, the Indian National Congress, had recognized a small foreign
department in 1925 to create overseas contacts and to publicize its freedom
thrash about. From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-
standing interest in world affairs in the middle of independence leaders,
formulated the Congress stance on international issues. As a member of the
interim government in 1946, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world.
India's international influence varied over the years after independence.
Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the
acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West. Although
the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to
prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations
in South Asia.
In the 1960s and 1970s India's international position in the middle of
developed and developing countries faded in the course of wars with China
and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt
to balance Pakistan's support from the United States and China through
signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971.
Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which
helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and
internationally through the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union
prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet attendance in
Afghanistan. In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United
States, other developed countries, and China while continuing secure ties with
the Soviet Union. Relations with its South Asian neighbours, especially
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry
of External Affairs.
In the 1990s, India's economic troubles and the demise of the bipolar
world political system forced India to reassess its foreign policy and adjust its
foreign relations. Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious
domestic and international troubles facing India. The end of the Cold War
gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy
without important direction. The hard, pragmatic thoughts of the early 1990s
were still viewed within the nonaligned framework of the past, but the
disintegration of the Soviet Union removed much of India's international
leverage, for which relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could
not compensate. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India improved its
relations with the United States, Canada, France, Japan and Germany. In 1992,
India recognized formal diplomatic relations with Israel and this relationship
grew throughout the tenures of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) government
and the subsequent UPA (United Progressive Alliance) governments.
In the mid-1990s, India attracted the world attention towards the Pakistan-
backed terrorism in Kashmir. The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic
victory for India. The United States and European Union recognized the fact
that Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated into Indian territory and
pressured Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil. Many anti-India militant groups
based in Pakistan were labeled as terrorist groups through the United States
and European Union.
In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons for the second time which resulted
in many US, Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then-defence
minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was
necessary as it provided a deterrence to potential Chinese nuclear threat.
Mainly of the sanctions imposed on India were removed through 2001.
After the 11 September attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies
provided the U.S. with important information on Al-Qaeda and related groups'
activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the
War on Terror, coupled with a surge in its economy, has helped India's
diplomatic relations with many countries. Over the past three years, India has
held numerous joint military exercises with U.S. and European nations that
have resulted in a strengthened U.S.-India and E.U.-India bilateral
relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and U.S. has more than
doubled in the last five years.
 India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed
results. India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is
currently backed through many countries including France, Russia, the United
Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Brazil, Australia and UAE. In 2004, the United
States signed a nuclear co-operation agreement with India even though the
latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US argued that
India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception, though
this has not persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar
deals with India. Throughout a state visit to India in November 2010, US
president Barack Obama announced US support for India's bid for permanent
membership to UN Security Council as well as India's entry to Nuclear
Suppliers Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, Australia Group and Missile
Technology Control Regime.

HISTORY

Even before independence, the Government of British India maintained

semi-autonomous diplomatic relations. It had colonies (such as the Aden
Settlement), who sent and received full diplomatic missions, and was a
founder member of both the League of Nations and the United Nations. After
India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined
the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence
movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution. The
partition and several territorial disputes particularly that over Kashmir, would
strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come. Throughout the Cold War,
India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power
bloc. Though, India developed secure ties with the Soviet Union and received
extensive military support from it.
The end of the Cold War significantly affected India's foreign policy, as it
did for much of the world. The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic
and economic ties with the United States, the People's Republic of China, the
European Union, Japan, Israel, Mexico, and Brazil. India has also forged
secure ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations, the African Union, the Arab League and Iran.
Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia, Israel
has appeared as India's second largest military partner while India has built a
strong strategic partnership with the United States. The Indo-US civilian
nuclear agreement, signed and implemented in 2008, highlighted the rising
sophistication of the Indo-American relations.

POLICY

India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighborhood as

one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and
cultural commonalities. As several as 21 million people of Indian origin live
and work abroad and constitute an significant link with the mother country.
An significant role of India's foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare
and well being within the framework of the laws of the country where they
live.

Role of the Prime Minister

Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, promoted a strong personal
role for the Prime Minister but a weak institutional structure. Nehru served
concurrently as Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he made all
major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and
then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the
Indian Foreign Service. He was the main founding fathers of the Panchsheel or
the five principles of peaceful co-subsistence.
His successors sustained to exercise considerable control over India's
international dealings, although they usually appointed separate ministers of
external affairs.
India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964–66), expanded
the Prime Minister Office (sometimes described the Prime Minister's
Secretariat) and enlarged its powers. Through the 1970s, the Office of the
Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supraministry of the
Indian government. The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime
minister's control over foreign policy creation at the expense of the Ministry
of External Affairs. Advisers in the office provided channels of information
and policy recommendations in addition to those offered through the Ministry
of External Affairs. A subordinate part of the office—the Research and
Analysis Wing (RAW)—functioned in ways that significantly expanded the
information accessible to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW
gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime
Minister, and mannered covert operations abroad.
The prime minister's control and reliance on personal advisers in the
Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of
Indira Gandhi (1966–77 and 1980–84) and her son, Rajiv (1984–89), who
succeeded her, and weaker throughout the periods of coalition governments.
Observers find it hard to determine whether the locus of decision-creation
authority on any scrupulous issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs,
the Council of Ministers, the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime
minister himself.
The Prime Minister is though free to appoint advisers and special
committees to look at several foreign policy options and areas of interest. In a
recent instance, Manmohan Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to
head a special government task force to revise 'Global Strategic Growths' over
the after that decade. The Task Force submitted its conclusions to the Prime
Minister in 2006. The report has not yet been released in the public domain.
Ministry of External Affairs
The Ministry of External Affairs is the Indian government's agency
responsible for the foreign relations of India. The Minister of External Affairs
holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers.
Salman Khurshid is current Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry has
two Ministers of State Preneet Kaur and E. Ahamed. The Indian Foreign
Secretary is the head of Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and so, serves as the
head of all Indian ambassadors and high commissioners. Sujatha Singh is the
current Foreign Secretary of India.

Look East Policy

In the post cold war era, a important characteristic of India's foreign policy
is the Look East Policy. Throughout the cold war, India's relations with its
South East Asian neighbours was not very strong. After the end of the cold
war, the government of India particularly realised the importance of redressing
this imbalance in India's foreign policy. Consequently, the Narsimha Rao
government in the early nineties of the last century unveiled the look east
policy. Initially it focused on renewing political and economic contacts with
the countries of East and South-East Asia.
At present, under the Look East Policy, the Government of India is giving
special emphasis on the economic development of backward north eastern
region of India taking advantage of vast market of ASEAN as well as of the
energy possessions accessible in some of the member countries of ASEAN
like Burma. Look-east policy was launched in 1992 just after the end of the
cold war, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After the start of
liberalization, it was a very strategic policy decision taken through the
government in the foreign policy. To quote Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
"it was also a strategic shift in India's vision of the world and India's place in
the evolving global economy".
The policy was given an initial thrust with the then Prime Minister
Narasimha Rao visiting China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore
and India becoming an significant dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992.
Since the beginning of this century, India has given a big push to this policy
through becoming a summit stage partner of ASEAN (2002) and getting
involved in some local initiatives such as the BIMSTEC and the Ganga–
Mekong Cooperation and now becoming a member of the East Asia Summit
(EAS) in December, 2005.

STRATEGIC PARTNERS

India's rising economy, strategic location, friendly foreign policy and large
and vibrant diaspora has won it more allies than enemies. India has friendly
relations with many countries in the developing world. Though India is not a
part of any major military alliance, it has secure strategic and military
relationship with mainly of the fellow major powers.
Countries measured India's closest contain the Russian Federation, Israel,
Afghanistan, France, Bhutan and Bangladesh. Russia is the largest supplier of
military equipment to India, followed through Israel and France. According to
some analysts, Israel is set to overtake Russia as India's largest military and
strategic partner. The two countries also collaborate extensively in the sphere
of counter-terrorism and space technology. India also enjoys strong military
relations with many other countries, including the United Kingdom, the United
States, Japan, Singapore, Brazil, South Africa and Italy. In addition, India
operates an airbase in Tajikistan and signed a landmark defence accord with
Qatar in 2008.
India has also forged relationships with developing countries, especially
South Africa, Brazil, and Mexico. These countries often represent the interests
of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5, IBSA
and WTO. India was seen as one of the standard bearers of the developing
world and claimed to speak for a collection of more than 30 other developing
nations at the Doha Development Round. India's "Look East" Policy has
helped it develop greater economic and strategic partnership with Southeast
Asian countries, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. India also enjoys friendly
relations with the Persian Gulf countries and mainly members of the African
Union.

BILATERAL AND LOCAL RELATIONS

Afghanistan
Bilateral relations flanked by India and Afghanistan have been
traditionally strong and friendly. While India was the only South Asian
country to recognize the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
in the 1980s, its relations were diminished throughout the Afghan civil wars
and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s. India aided the overthrow of
the Taliban and became the largest local provider of humanitarian and
reconstruction aid.
The new democratically elected Afghan government strengthened its ties
with India in wake of persisting tensions and troubles with Pakistan, which is
continuing to shelter and support the Taliban. India pursues a policy of secure
cooperation to bolster its standing as a local power and contain its rival
Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and
other parts of India. India is the largest local investor in Afghanistan, having
committed more than US$2.2 billion for reconstruction purposes.

Bangladesh
India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as a separate and
independent state, doing so on the 6th of December 1971, ten days before
Bangladesh officially declared its independence. India fought alongside the
Bangladeshis to liberate Bangladesh from West Pakistan, which was imposing
its own culture upon the East Bengalis, in 1971. Bangladesh's relationship
with India has been hard in conditions of irrigation and land border disputes
post 1976. Though, India has enjoyed favorable relationship with Bangladesh
throughout governments shaped through the Awami League in 1972 and 1996.
At the outset India's relations with Bangladesh could not have been
stronger because of India's unalloyed support for independence and opposition
against Pakistan in 1971. Throughout the independence war, several refugees
fled to India. When the thrash about of resistance matured in November 1971,
India also intervened militarily and may have helped bring international
attention to the issue through Indira Gandhi's visit to Washington, D.C.
Afterwards India furnished relief and reconstruction aid. India extended
recognition to Bangladesh prior to the end of the war in 1971 (the second
country to do so after Bhutan) and subsequently lobbied others to follow suit.
India also withdrew its military from the land of Bangladesh when Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman requested Indira Gandhi to do so throughout the latter's visit
to Dhaka in 1972.
Indo-Bangladesh relations have been somewhat less friendly since the fall
of Mujib government in August 1975. over the years over issues such as South
Talpatti Island, the Tin Bigha corridor and access to Nepal, the Farakka
Barrage and water sharing, border conflicts close to Tripura and the
construction of a fence beside mainly of the border which India explains as
security provision against migrants, insurgents and terrorists. Several
Bangladeshis feel India likes to play "big brother" to smaller neighbours,
including Bangladesh. Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer
Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League Government. A 30-year
water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996,
after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed
in 1988. Both nations also have cooperated on the issue of flood warning and
preparedness. The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a
peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal
refugees who had fled into India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused
through an insurgency in their homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The
Bangladesh Army maintains a very strong attendance in the area to this day.
The army is increasingly concerned about a rising problem of cultivation of
illegal drugs.
There are also small pieces of land beside the border region that
Bangladesh is diplomatically trying to reclaim. Padua, part of Sylhet Division
before 1971, has been under Indian control since the war in 1971. This small
strip of land was re-occupied through the BDR in 2001, but later given back to
India after Bangladesh government decided to solve the problem through
diplomatic negotiations. The Indian New Moore island no longer exists, but
Bangladesh repeatedly claims it) as part of the Satkhira district of Bangladesh.
 In recent years India has increasingly complained that Bangladesh does not
secure its border properly. It fears an rising flow of poor Bangladeshis and it
accuses Bangladesh of harboring Indian separatist groups like ULFA and
alleged terrorist groups. The Bangladesh government has refused to accept
these allegations. India estimates that over 20 million Bangladeshis are living
illegally in India. One Bangladeshi official responded that "there is not a
single Bangladeshi migrant in India". Since 2002, India has been constructing
an India - Bangladesh Fence beside much of the 2500 mile border. The failure
to resolve migration disputes bears a human cost for illegal migrants, such as
imprisonment and health risks (namely HIV/Aids).

Bhutan
Historically, there have been secure ties with India. Both countries signed
a friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign
relations. On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was
considerably revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel
Wangchuck. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The
Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal
administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be
guided through the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external
relations."
In the revised treaty it now reads as, "In keeping with the abiding ties of
secure friendship and cooperation flanked by Bhutan and India, the
Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic
of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their
national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for
activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The
revised treaty also comprises in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for
each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element
that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of
2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation.
Tata Power is structure a hydro-electric dam. This dam will greatly
develop the Bhutanese economy through providing employment, and through
selling electricity to India and fulfilling India's burgeoning energy needs. Due
to this dam Bhutan's economy grew 20%, the second highest growth rate in the
world.

China
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War
and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh,
Sino-Indian relations have improved slowly since 1988. Both countries have
sought to reduce tensions beside the boundary, expand trade and cultural ties,
and normalize relations.
A series of high-stage visits flanked by the two nations have helped
improve relations. In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited
India throughout a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the
Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-structure measures for the
disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998
when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests through
citing potential threats from the PRC. Though, in June 1999, throughout the
Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and
stated that India did not consider China a threat. Through 2001, relations
flanked by India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the
move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy
and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and
China recognized Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004.
Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped
forge closer relations flanked by the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36
billion in 2007, creation China the single largest trading partner of India. The
rising economic reliance flanked by India and China has also bought the two
nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their
boundary dispute. They have also collaborated on many issues ranging from
WTO's Doha round in 2008 to local free trade agreement. Similar to Indo-US
nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of
civilian nuclear energy. Though, China's economic interests have clashed with
those of India. Both the countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa and
have competed for control over its large natural possessions. India and China
agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit through
Wen Jiabao to India.

Pakistan
Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links flanked by them, relations
flanked by India and Pakistan have been plagued through years of mistrust and
suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of
contention flanked by India and its western neighbor has been the Kashmir
disagreement. After an invasion through Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani
paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and
Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed
an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi. The First Kashmir War started
after the Indian Army entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the
area from the invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line
of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered
through Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and
northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of
Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it.
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's
Operation Gibraltar, which was intended to infiltrate forces into Jammu and
Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule through India. The five-
week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United
Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent
Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the
disagreement being over East Pakistan. The large-scale atrocities committed
there through the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring
over into India. India, beside with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the
Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the
creation of Bangladesh.
In 1998, India accepted out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was
followed through Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration
in February 1999, relations briefly improved. A few months later though,
Pakistani paramilitary forces and Pakistani Army, infiltrated in large numbers
into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil
disagreement after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush
out the infiltrators. Although the disagreement did not result in a full-scale war
flanked by India and Pakistan, relations flanked by the two reached all-time
low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based
terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines IC814 plane in December
1999. Attempts to normalize relations, such as the Agra summit held in July
2001, failed. An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which
was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack caused a military
standoff flanked by the two countries which lasted for almost a year raising
fears of a nuclear disagreement. Though, a peace procedure, initiated in 2003,
led to improved relations in the following years.
Since the initiation of the peace procedure, many confidence-structure-
measures (CBMs) flanked by India and Pakistan have taken shape. The
Samjhauta Express and Delhi–Lahore Bus service are two of these successful
measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people get
in touch with flanked by the two countries. The initiation of Srinagar–
Muzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and opening of a historic trade route
crossways the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects rising eagerness flanked
by the two sides to improve relations. Although bilateral trade flanked by
India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected
to cross US$10 billion through 2010. After the Kashmir earthquake in 2005,
India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir & Punjab as well as
Indian Kashmir.
The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations flanked by
the two countries. India alleged Pakistan of harboring militants on their soil,
while Pakistan vehemently denies such claims. Relations are currently
hampered since India has sent a list of 40 alleged fugitive in several terror
strikes to Pakistan, expecting them to be handed over to India. Pakistan, on the
other hand, has declared that it has no intentions whatsoever of carrying out
their extradition.
Sri Lanka
Bilateral relations flanked by Sri Lanka and India have been usually
friendly, but were affected through the Sri Lankan civil war and through the
failure of Indian intervention throughout the Sri Lankan civil war. India is Sri
Lanka's only neighbor, separated through the Palk Strait; both nations occupy
a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security
umbrella in the Indian Ocean.
India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative
transformation in the recent past. Political relations are secure, trade and
investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are
constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a
general, broad-based improvement crossways all sectors of bilateral
cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for
assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated
430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus through Indian Navy
ships and then to Delhi & Colombo through special Air India flights.
There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the
primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major
political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United
Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral
relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to
the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.

Australia
The strongest ties flanked by these two states is the commonwealth
connexion. Cricketing and Bollywood ties also help foster relations as in the
frequent travel for games, and, more importantly, the attendance of Australian
cricketers in India for commercial gain. This was further enhanced with the
IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood has also improved ties as
with John Howard's visit to Mumbai to augment tourism to Australia.
Furthermore, there is a going strategic connexion to forming an "Asian
NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia. The bilateral agreements
have worked out for all but the Indo-Australian angle, though this has been
hurt through India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal
to give India with uranium until the latter do so. Though Australia has now
cleared uranium sales to India through Labour party decision in Australian
parliament and through this development the relations flanked by both the
commonwealth nations are set to improve. The Australian and Indian
militaries have already worked well together. Of late the relations flanked by
the two countries were jolted, with attacks on Indian Community students in
Melbourne, Australia. Indian Government lodged strong protests with the
Australian Government. Australian Prime Minister Mr. Kevin Rudd said that
"Australia valued its education system and International Students are valued
more here in Australia." Mr. Rudd though said that his Govt. has ordered a
thorough probe into the attacks and also condemned it in strongest possible
conditions, but no important break through has been achieved. Under the
leadership of Incumbent Prime Minister of Australia Julia gillard the relations
flanked by both the nations have significantly improved on part due to her
holistic approach in relations.

Americas
India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America,
especially Brazil and Mexico have sustained to grow. India and Brazil
continue to work together on the reform of Security Council through the G4
nations while have also increased strategic and economic cooperation through
the IBSA Dialogue Forum. The procedure of finalizing Preferential Trade
Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and
Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile.
Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva was the guest of honor at the
2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi.

United States
Historically, relations flanked by India and the United States were
lukewarm following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in
the Non-Aligned Movement, and pursued even-handed economic and military
relations with the Soviet Union, although US provided support to India in
1962 throughout its war with China. For mainly of the Cold War, the USA
tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain
Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen
against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. An Indo-Soviet twenty year
friendship treaty, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the USA.

Cold War era

India played a key role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement in
1961. Though India pursued secure relations with both the US and the USSR,
it decided not to join any major power bloc and refrained from joining military
alliances. India, though began establishing secure relations with the Soviet
Union.
After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made
considerable changes to its foreign policy. It developed a secure relationship
with the Soviet Union and started getting massive military equipment and
financial assistance from the USSR. This had an adverse effect on the Indo-US
relationship. The United States saw Pakistan as a counterweight to pro-Soviet
India and started giving the former military assistance. This created an
atmosphere of suspicion flanked by India and the US. The Indo-US
relationship suffered a considerable setback when the Soviets took over
Afghanistan when India overtly supported the Soviet Union.
Relations flanked by India and the United States came to an all-time low
throughout the early 1970s. Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and
being told, mainly notably in the Blood telegram, of genocidal activities being
perpetrated through Pakistani forces, US. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger
and US President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then Pakistani
President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army. Kissinger was particularly
concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of
friendship that had recently been signed flanked by India and the Soviet
Union, and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value
of a tacit alliance with the United States. Throughout the Indo-Pakistani War
of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, beside with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in
liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence? Richard Nixon,
then USA President, feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would
mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously
undermine the global position of the United States and the local position of
America's new tacit ally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona
fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the Congress-
imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan,
routing them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to
augment its arms supplies to Pakistan.
When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed sure, Nixon sent the
USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed through the Indians as a
nuclear threat. The Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6
and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed
with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 into
the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets
also sent nuclear submarines to ward off the threat posed through USS
Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.
Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the
incident involving USS Enterprise is viewed as the trigger for India's
subsequent interest in developing nuclear weapons. American policy towards
the end of the war was dictated primarily through a need to restrict the
escalation of war on the western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of
West Pakistan. Years after the war, several American writers criticised the
White House policies throughout the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving
the interests of the United States. India accepted out nuclear tests a few years
later resulting in sanctions being imposed through United States, further
drifting the two countries separately. In recent years, Kissinger came under
fire for comments made throughout the Indo-Pakistan War in which he
described Indians as "bastards." Kissinger has since expressed his regret over
the comments.
Post Cold War era
Since the end of the Cold War, India-USA relations have improved
dramatically. This has largely been fostered through the fact that the USA and
India are both democracies and have a large and rising trade relationship.
Throughout the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an very hard
stage. The Government of India adopted liberalized economic systems. After
the breakup of the Soviet Union, India improved diplomatic relations with the
members of the NATO particularly Canada, France and Germany. In 1992,
India recognized formal diplomatic relations with Israel.

Pokhran tests
In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in many US,
Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defence minister,
George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was necessary as it
provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threat. Mainly of the sanctions
imposed on India were removed through 2001. India has categorically stated
that it will never use weapons first but will defend if attacked.
The economic sanctions imposed through the United States in response to
India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously
damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging
sanctions pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. US
sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to
international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance
projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition.
The US also described for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and
deployment through both India and Pakistan. The non-proliferation dialogue
initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged several of the gaps in
understanding flanked by the countries.

Post–11 September
After the 11 September attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies
provided the US with important information on Al-Qaeda and related groups'
activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan. India's extensive contribution to the
War on Terror has helped India's diplomatic relations with many countries.
Over the past few years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with
US and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened US-India and
EU-India bilateral relationship. India's bilateral trade with Europe and US has
more than doubled in the last five years.
Though, India has not signed the CTBT, or the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty, claiming the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the five
declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and
develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India
had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons through all
countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not favored through
the USA and through sure other countries. Presently, India has declared its
policy of "no-first use of nuclear weapons" and the maintenance of a "credible
nuclear deterrence". The USA, under President George W. Bush has also lifted
mainly of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation.
Relations with USA have considerably improved in the recent years, with the
two countries taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and
joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States.
India has been pushing for reforms in the United Nations and in the World
Trade Organisation with mixed results. India's candidature for a permanent
seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed through many countries
including United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Brazil, African Union
nations, USA and China. In 2005, the United States signed a nuclear co-
operation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US agreed that India's strong nuclear
non-proliferation record made it an exception and persuaded other Nuclear
Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India.
On 2 March 2006 India and the USA signed the Indo-US Nuclear Pact on
co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed throughout the four
days state visit of USA President George Bush in India. On its part, India
would separate its civilian and military nuclear programmes, and the civilian
programmes would be brought under the safeguards of International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA). The United States would sell India the reactor
technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up and upgrading its civilian
nuclear programme. The US Congress needs to ratify this pact since U.S.
federal law prohibits the trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside
the framework of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

Indo-USA strategic partnership

Indo-USA relations got strategic content in the early 1960s. The rise of the
People's Republic of China worried the policymakers in Washington. Chinese
assertion in Tibet, its role in the Korean War and other such acts concerned
Washington. As the relations flanked by India and China were heated
throughout the late fifties, the Americans found a golden opportunity to take
advantage of this situation to promote India as a counterweight to China. But
any unidimensional alliance is bound to be short-lived and this alliance was no
exception to this general rule. As China ceased to be a headache for the
American policymakers through the late sixties, this unidimensional alliance
disappeared into thin air.
The end of the Cold War necessitated as well as facilitated the infusion of
strategic content to Indo-USA relations–this time multidimensional. In the
post Cold War era, the strategic objectives of India and the USA converges on
a number of issues and not just one–as well as the case earlier. These issues
contain, inter alia, containment of terrorism, promotion of democracy, counter
proliferation, freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean, Asian balance of
power, etc.
One of the very motivating characteristics of Indo-USA relations of recent
times is the changes on the conditions of engagement flanked by the two
countries on the issue of nuclear proliferation. While earlier, in the USA
strategic thinking on nuclear proliferation, India figured mainly because of
American concern about latter's nuclear and missile programmes, in the
twenty-first century, though, American strategic thinking on the issue of
nuclear proliferation has undergone major reorientation. Now, the Americans
are increasingly realising the futility of insisting on a rollback of India's
nuclear programme. They, rather, want to leverage India's rising power and
influence in favour of their broader nonproliferation and counter proliferation
objectives.
As promotion of democracy around the world is one of the mainly
significant foreign policy objective of the USA, India – as the largest
democracy of the world- can hardly be overlooked through the USA. This is
the cause, cooperation in promotion of democracy in the world has become
one of the mainly significant facets of Indo-USA relations in recent times.
India is a founding member of the 'Community of Democracies' – a prominent
endeavour of the USA on promotion of democracy. Though, India rejected the
suggestion of the USA about setting up a Centre for Asian Democracy.
Agriculture is another significant area of cooperation flanked by India and
the USA in present times. Considering the fact that both the nations at present
have a vast pool of human possessions adept at knowledge economy, it is only
natural that the best course such partnership can aim at is harnessing these
human possessions through concentrating on development and dissemination
of agricultural knowledge through research, education and training etc. An
initiative to forge such a partnership is the 'India-USA Knowledge Initiative
on Agriculture' (KIA).
Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honor at the first
state dinner, which took place on 24 November 2009, of the administration of
US President Barack Obama. Obama later visited India from 6–9 November
2010, signing numerous trade and defence agreements with India. He
addressed the joint session of the Indian parliament in New Delhi, becoming
only the second US President to do so, and announced that the United States
would lend its support to India's bid for a permanent seat in the United Nations
Security Council, signifying the rising strategic dimension of the relationship
flanked by the world's two largest democracies.

European Union
India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the Union,
signing bilateral agreements in 1973, when the United Kingdom joined. The
mainly recent cooperation agreement was signed in 1994 and an action plan
was signed in 2005. As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade
agreement with India.
The Union is India's largest trading partner, accounting for 20% of Indian
trade. Though, India accounts for only 1.8% of the EU's trade and attracts only
0.3% of European Foreign Direct Investment, although still gives India's
largest source. Throughout 2005 EU-India trade grew through 20.3%.
There was controversy in 2006 when the Indian Mittal Steel Company
sought to take-over the Luxembourg based steel company, Arcelor. The
approach met with opposition from France and Luxembourg but was passed
through the Commission who stated that were judging it on competition
grounds only.
The European Union (EU) and India agreed on 29 September 2008 at the
EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand
their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection
and deepen their strategic partnership. French President Nicolas Sarkozy, the
EU's rotating president, said at a joint press conference at the summit that "EU
welcomes India, as a large country, to engage in developing nuclear energy,
adding that this clean energy will be helpful for the world to deal with the
global climate change." Sarkozy also said the EU and Indian Prime Minister
Manmohan pledged to accelerate talks on a free trade deal and expected to
finish the deal through 2009. The Indian prime minister was also cautiously
optimistic about cooperation on nuclear energy. "Tomorrow we have a
bilateral summit with France. This matter will come up and I hope some good
results will emerge out of that meeting", Singh said when asked about the
issue. Singh said that he was "very satisfied" with the results of the summit.
He added that EU and India have "common values" and the two economies are
complementary to each other.
European Commission President José Manuel Barroso, also speaking at
Monday's press conference, expounded the joint action plan on adjustments of
EU's strategic partnership with India, saying the two sides will strengthen
cooperation on world peace and safety, sustainable development, cooperation
in science and technology and cultural exchanges.
Reviewing the two sides' efforts in developing the bilateral strategic
partnership, the joint action plan reckoned that in politics, dialogue and
cooperation have enhanced through regular summits and exchanges of visits
and that in economy, mutual investments have increased dramatically in recent
years, dialogue in macro economic policies and financial services has
recognized and cooperation in energy, science and technology and
environment has been launched. Under the joint action plan, EU and Indian
would enhance consultation and dialogue on human rights within the UN
framework, strengthen cooperation in world peacekeeping mission, fight
against terror and non-proliferation of arms, promote cooperation and
exchange in developing civil nuclear energy and strike a free trade deal as
soon as possible. France, which relies heavily on nuclear power and is a major
exporter of nuclear technology, is expected to sign a deal that would allow it
to give nuclear fuel to India.
Trade flanked by India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from
25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with
further expansion to be seen. "We have agreed to achieve an annual bilateral
trade turnover of 100 billion euros within the after that five years", Singh told
reporters. A joint statement issued at the end of the summit said the EU and
India would work to reach an agreement on climate change through the end of
2009.

United Kingdom
India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in
Birmingham and Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has a high commission in
New Delhi and five deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad and Kolkata. Since 1947, India's relations with the
United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the
Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer
exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the
UK still have several enduring links. This is in part due to the important
number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian
population in the UK results in steady travel and communication flanked by
the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe
tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the
two mainly apparent British exports, whilst in the UK food from the Indian
subcontinent are very popular. The United Kingdom's favourite food is often
reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official revise reports this.
Economically the relationship flanked by Britain and India is also strong.
India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US. Britain is also one
of the largest investors in India.
In 2008 Britain gave India a £825 million aid package to help India
develop its health and education systems.

France
France and India recognized diplomatic relationships soon after India's
independence from the United Kingdom in 1947. India's strong diplomatic ties
with France facilitated the peaceful handover of Pondicherry to India on 1
November 1954 without any opposition from France.
France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn
India's decision to go nuclear in 1998. In 2003, France became the largest
supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military
and economic trade partner. India's candidacy for permanent membership in
the UN Security Council has found very strong support from former French
President Nicolas Sarkozy. The Indian Government's decisions to purchase
French Scorpène class submarines worth $3 billion USD and 43 Airbus
aircraft for Air India worth $2.5 billion USD have further cemented the
strategic, military and economic co-operation flanked by India and France.
France's decision to ban schoolchildren from wearing of head-dresses and
veils had the unintended consequence of affecting Sikh children who have
been refused entry in public-schools. The Indian Government, citing historic
traditions of the Sikh community, has requested French authorities to review
the situation so as to not to exclude Sikh children from education.
Nicolas Sarkozy visited India in January 2008 and was the Chief Guest of
the Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France was the first country to sign a
nuclear energy co-operation agreement with India; this was done throughout
Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver through the Nuclear
Suppliers Group. Throughout the Bastille Day celebrations on 14 July 2009, a
detachment of 400 Indian troops marched alongside the French troops and
Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.

Arab states of the Persian Gulf

India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and
economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil
consumed through India comes from the Persian Gulf countries and Indian
nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula. The
annual remittance through Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20
billion in 2007. India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with
non-oil trade flanked by India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in
2007. The Persian Gulf countries have also played an significant role in
addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
regularly rising their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy
demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased its oil exports to India through 10% rising
the net oil trade flanked by the two to US$4.5 billion. In 2008, Qatar decided
to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.
India has maritime security arrangement in place with Oman and Qatar. In
2008, a landmark defence pact was signed, under which India committed its
military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats". There has been
progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India.

Russia and Central Asia

The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for
Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union
plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding
military supply relationships were likewise disrupted due to questions over
financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military
systems and spare parts.
The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) throughout the 1971
war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Bangladesh. Soon
after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to
visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. Throughout
his visit to Mumbai (Bombay) he came on board INS Vikrant. Throughout a
conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice
Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He
answered himself: "Well, you had no cause to be worried, as I had a Soviet
nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian
Ocean."

Russian Federation
India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on
stability, trust and mutual understanding. There is national consensus in both
the countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and
further consolidate the strategic partnership flanked by the two countries. A
Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed flanked by present Russian
President Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari
Vajpayee in October 2000.Russia and India have decided not to renew the
1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what
both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian
President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new
relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004
visit. The pace of high-stage visits has since increased, as has discussion of
major defence purchases. Russia, is working for the development of the
Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant that will be capable of producing 1000
MW of electricity. Gazprom, is working for the development of oil and natural
gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and Russia, have collaborated extensively, on
space technology. Other areas of collaboration contain software, ayurveda, etc.
India and Russia, have set a determination in rising trade to $10 billion.
Cooperation flanked by clothing manufacturers of the two countries continues
to strengthen. India and Russia signed an agreement on joint efforts to
augment investment and trade volumes in the textile industry in both
countries. In signing the document incorporated representatives of the Russian
Union of Entrepreneurs of Textile and Light Industry Council and apparel
exports of India (AEPC). A cooperation agreement gives, inter alia, exchange
of technology and know-how in textile production. For this purpose, a special
Commission on Affairs textile (Textile Communication Committee). Counter-
terrorism techniques are also in place flanked by Russia and India. In 2007
President Vladimir Putin was guest of honour at Republic Day celebration on
26 January 2007. 2008, has been declared through both countries as the
Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia.
The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy in 2008.
In December 2008, throughout President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi,
India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy co-operation agreement. In March,
2010, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts
with India which incorporated civilian nuclear energy, space and military co-
operation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) beside
with MiG-29K fighter jets.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

1947-1972

SECULARISM IN INDIA

India is a secular country as per the declaration in the Preamble to the

Indian Constitution. It prohibits discrimination against members of a
scrupulous religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. The Indian nation for the
term secularism is dissimilar from the French notion for the term.
The word secular was inserted into the preamble through the 42nd
Amendment.(1976) It implies equality of all religions and religious tolerance
& respect. India, so does not have an official state religion. Every person has
the right to preach, practice and propagate any religion they choose. The
government necessity not favour or discriminate against any religion. It
necessity treat all religions with equal respect. All citizens, irrespective of
their religious beliefs are equal in front of law. No religious instruction is
imparted in government or government-aided schools. Nevertheless, general
information about all recognized world religions is imparted as part of the
course in Sociology, without giving any importance to any one religion or the
others. The content presents the vital/fundamental information with regards to
the fundamental beliefs, social values and main practices and festivals of each
recognized world religions. The Supreme Court in S.R Bommai v. Union of
India held that secularism was an integral part of the vital structure of the
constitution.

HISTORY OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

Religions of India are recognized to have co-existed and evolved together

for several centuries predating Republic of India. Indian civilization is in the
middle of the oldest and living civilizations of the modern world. India is a
country where religion is very central to the life of several people. India‘s age-
old philosophy as expounded in Hindu scriptures described Upanishads is
sarva dharma samabhava, which means respect for all belief systems. This
vital trait of Sanatan dharma is what keeps India together despite the fact that
India has not been a mono-religious country for over two millennium. A
Hindu Nationalist school of thought also proclaims that with Sanatan Dharma
being the spirit of India, the very concept of western secularism is redundant
and badly imposed.
Some researchers consider that the history of Indian secularism begin with
the protest movements in the 5th century BC. The three main protest
movements were through the Charvakas (a secularistic and materialistic
philosophical movement), Buddhism, and Jainism. All three of them rejected
the authority of the Vedas and any importance of belief in a deity.

Secularism in feudal India

Under feudal system there was no competition flanked by dissimilar
religious in the middle of the people of dissimilar religions. They co-existed in
peace and harmony though at times inter-religious controversies did arise.
There was also tradition of tolerance flanked by religions due to state policies
of several kings since time immemorial from Emperor Ashoka to the Gupta
Emperors to Emperor Akbar in Medieval times. Several religious sects and
practices kept absent from rigid intolerant forms. But, instances of forced
conversions to Islam throughout the rule of Aurangzeb and other Islamic
rulers, and the imposition of the religious tax, Jizya, are also recognized.

Secularism in the caste system

India is one country where caste rigidity and concept of untouchability
evolved and still plays a major role in religious, social and cultural matters.
Nevertheless, the modern understanding of Caste system suggests that the
phenomenon is more widespread than initially whispered. Caste dynamics in
Indian life, even in Christian and Islamic societies, plays larger than life role.
Since mainly of the conversions to Christianity and Islam took place from
lower caste Hindus, these two world religions also developed caste structure.
There are lower caste churches in many places.

SECULARISM IN BRITISH INDIA

In the 18th century, when the British East India Company began to gain
total control over India that ideas of secularism began to impact on the Indian
mind. Until then, religion was measured to be inseparable from political and
social life. The British codified laws pertaining to practices within religions on
the sub-continents. This began when the Governor of Calcutta Warren
Hastings set out his Judicial Plan in 1772 and 1774, this was a judicial system
that codified civil, criminal and commercial laws, while family law and some
property laws were still governed through Muslim and Hindu religious law,
not to mention religious laws of Christians, Sikhs, Parsis and other faiths.
Some see this as a part of their divide-and-rule policy. In doing so they laid the
foundation for a nonuniform civil code which remains largely unchanged to
date. This is a major grouse for Hindu politicians who insist that there should
be a uniform civil code for all citizens. For instance, believers of all faiths
other than Islam are legally bound to be monogamous while those who
practice or convert to Islam are permitted up to four marriages, which is so not
uniform behaviour.
In India, right from the British period, main contradiction was not flanked
by religious and secular but it was flanked by secular and communal. In the
western world main thrash about was flanked by church and state and church
and civil society but in India neither Hinduism nor Islam had any church-like
structure and hence there never was any such thrash about flanked by secular
and religious power structure. The main thrash about was flanked by
secularism and communalism. The communal forces from in the middle of
Hindus and Muslims mainly fought for share in power though they used their
respective religions for their thrash about for power.
The Indian National Congress at the time of independence from British
Raj adopted secularism, not as this worldly philosophy but more as a political
arrangement. As power-sharing arrangement could not be satisfactorily
worked out flanked by the Hindu and Muslim elite the country was divided
into two independent states of India and Pakistan, Muslim majority areas of
North-West going to Pakistan.

SECULARISM IN THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA

After independence and partition, a large body of Muslims were left in

India and hence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru preferred to keep India secular
in the sense that the Republic of India shall have no national religion and the
people of India shall be free both in any individual and corporate sense to
follow any religion of their choice. Therefore India remained politically
secular and its people sustained to passionately practice their religions.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, was a supporter of
secularism and secular politics.
Secularism in India, as pointed out before, emphasised upon the principles
of equal respect for all religions and cultures and non-interference of religion
in the government affairs. Also, according to the Indian Constitution no
discrimination shall be made on the basis of caste, creed, gender and class.
Likewise all citizens of India irrespective of one's religion, caste or gender
have right to vote. According to articles 14 to 21 all will enjoy same rights
without any discrimination on any ground.
According to Article 25 all those who reside in India are free to confess,
practice and propagate religion of one‘s choice subject of course to social
health and law and order. Therefore even conversion to any religion of ones
choice is a fundamental right.
In fact, in India an overwhelming majority of people are religious but are
tolerant and respect other religions and are therefore 'secular' in the Indian
context. Even Sufis and Bhakti Saints are measured quite secular in that sense.
The word secularism has had multiple interpretations, namely: an agnostic
interpretation and a pluralistic interpretation. While Nehru, Mohammed Ali
Jinnah, and Subhas Chandra Bose subscribed to the agnostic interpretation of
Secularism, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and others whispered in
pluralistic interpretation of Secularism.
The Preamble to the Constitution of India grants "liberty of thought,
expression, belief, faith and worship" immediately after proclaiming that India
is a "SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC."
This reading of the constitution suggests that the Constitution of India has a
pluralistic interpretation of Secularism. Also, religious belief governs the
application of laws in India (Indian law), which designates a pluralistic
interpretation of the term Secularism in the Indian legal system. The science of
the concept of legal pluralism and the revise of legal pluralism as it has
naturally existed in India is on-going.

RELIGIOUS LAWS

As the Shah Bano case demonstrated, successive governments have failed

to enact a uniform civil code as regards to marriages, and in this case, the
dissolution thereof. A important observation from this case was that despite a
direct ruling from the Supreme Court of India, the Rajiv Gandhi government,
in pandering to the Minority vote bank not only failed to protect the interests
of a divorced female in a secular and even handed manner (Shah Bano was 62
and a mother five when her husband divorced her), the Muslim Women
(Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 was enacted.

VIEWS

While the pluralist view of Mahatma Gandhi, that all religions are equal,
has a strong impact, there are movements like those of the dalits (depressed
classes) and the communists who have criticised such a view. Gandhi himself
was a devout man and instilled devotion in the Independence Thrash about.
But still he was killed through a religious fanatic for his adherence to minority
appeasement calling it secular principles.
Though, there is obvious variation flanked by secularism practised in
India and elsewhere. The western model of secularism means that religion and
politics are separate from each other (Caesar and God theory). In other words,
polity does not enter in religious affairs and religion in political affairs. This
also means that political mechanism cannot correct troubles inside a religious
group. Though, Indian society being a mixture of religions, is always prone to
dominance and conflicts. Moreover, the issues such as casteism is particularly
of religious origin. To mitigate the harmful effects of casteism and other
source of conflicts and human right violations arising out of religions, it is
necessary that polity/government be able to meddle with religious affairs. As a
result of many year's efforts to detoxify the religions, Government has been
able to reduce the effects of casteism and modernize the Hindu personal laws.
Though, the country is far from having a common civil code. As far as other
religions are concerned, government has only limited success in correcting
human right violations such as atrocities against women in Islam.
Though, skill of Government to indulge in religious affairs also
boomeranged. Religions and castes increased their influence on political
parties. As a result, politico-religion-local chauvinism is becoming more
common in modern Indian Politics. Therefore , practising the Indian Brand of
secularism (mutual tolerance instead of mutual respect) in the last 60 years,
failed to produce communal harmony and trust. Liberhann Commission which
investigated the Babri Masjid Incident, has recommended that religion be
delinked from politics and that Politicians necessity not garner votes preaching
religion or caste. The Indian experiment on secularism is here to continue.
Writing in the Wall Street Journal, Sadanand Dhume criticises Indian
"Secularism" as a fraud and a failure, since it isn't really "secularism" as it is
understood in the western world (as separation of religion and state) but more
beside the lines of religious appeasement. He writes that the flawed
understanding of secularism in the middle of India's left wing intelligentsia has
led Indian politicians to pander to religious leaders and preachers including
Zakir Naik, and has led India to take a soft stand against Islamic terrorism,
religious militancy and communal disharmony in general.
Similar views have also been expressed through noted Indian LGBT rights
activist Ashok Row Kavi in the wake of attempts through some ultra-orthodox
Hindus to scuttle the gay rights movement in India through intimidation and
violence. Kavi writes that extremist groups like Shiv Sena get too much
credibility in the mainstream, which "displays the ridiculousness of the Indian
concept of secularism". He also cites attempts through Islamist sympathizers
to whitewash history books concerning Muslim conquest in the Indian
subcontinent as another instance of India's "secularism".
In India, blaming Kashmiri Pundits for their own ethnic cleansing from
ancestral lands since time immemorial is passed off as secularism. So is
blaming pilgrims, like in Godhra massacre, for their own massacre.
Others, particularly historian Ronald Inden, have also observed that the
Indian government is not really "secular", but one that selectively
discriminates against Hindu communities while superficially appeasing
Muslim leaders (without actually providing any community or theological
benefits to regular Muslims in India). He writes that poorly educated Indian
so-described "intelligentsia" identify Indian "secularism" with anti-Hinduism
and even a tacit Islamophobia. He also cites that often, leftist governments in
India (such as in the Indian state of West Bengal) covertly support madrassa
curricula for Muslims, helping traditional Islamic scholarship and teaching
fundamentalism in "Islamic" disguise. He writes
Nehru's India was supposed to be committed to 'secularism'. The
thought here in its weaker publicly reiterated form was that the
government would not interfere in 'personal' religious matters and
would make circumstances in which people of all religions could live
in harmony. The thought in its stronger, unofficially stated form was
that in order to modernize, India would have to set aside centuries of
traditional religious ignorance and superstition and eventually
eliminate Hinduism and Islam from people's lives altogether. After
Independence, governments implemented secularism mostly through
refusing to recognize the religious pasts of Indian nationalism, whether
Hindu or Muslim, and at the same time (inconsistently) through
retaining Muslim 'personal law'.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
What you understand through the term secular?
Write the way Gandhi defined the relationship flanked by religion and
politics?
Provide two reasons as to why the Indian industry was not able to
expand throughout the colonial rule?
Write the social implication of the land reforms undertaken since
independence.
What were the main causes of discord flanked by India and Pakistan?
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