Block 2

BSW-122
Society, Social Institutions and Social

Problems
Block
2
SOCIAL SYSTEM AND SOCIAL SUB-SYSTEM
UNIT 1
Marriage and Family
UNIT 2
Society and Culture: Plurality of Culture in India
UNIT 3
Social Stratification
Unit 4
The State as a Social Institution: Its Role and Impact on other Institutions
Expert Committee (Original)
Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr.Ranjana Sehgal Prof.

Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social Work, K.K.Mukhopathyaya
New Delhi Indore University of Delhi
New Delhi
Dr. D.K. Lal Das Dr. Rama V.Baru Prof. A.A.Khan

R.M.College of Social JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad
Dr.P.D.Mathew Dr. Jerry Thomas Dr. R.P.Singh

Indian Social Institute Don Bosco IGNOU,New Delhi
New Delhi Guwahati
Dr.AlexVadakumthal Prof. Surendra Singh Dr. RichaChaudhary

CBCI Centre, New Delhi Vice Chancellor B.R.Ambedkar
M.G.Kashi Vidyapeeth University of Delhi
Varanasi Delhi
Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof.A.B.Bose (Retd.) Prof.Prabha Chawla

IGNOU, New Delhi SOCE,IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. A.P.Barnabas(Retd.)
IIPA, New Delhi
Expert Committee (Revision)

Prof Sushma Batra, Dr. Sangeeta Sharma Dr. Saumya,
Department of Social Dhaor, School of Social Work,
Work, University of Delhi Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar IGNOU
College,
University of Delhi
Dr. R.R. Patil, Prof. Gracious Thomas, Dr. G. Mahesh,

Department of Social School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
Work, Jamia Millia Islamia IGNOU IGNOU
Dr. Beena Anthony Reji, Dr. Rose Nembiakkim, Dr. Sayantani Guin,
Aditi Mahavidyalaya, School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
University of Delhi IGNOU IGNOU
Course Preparation Team (Original)
Unit Writers
1. Dr. Vanila Bhaskaran, R.M. college of Social Work, Hyderabad
2. Dr. R.K.Chaudhury, Punjabi University, Patiala,
3. Mr. Joseph Varghese, Consultant, IGNOU, New Delhi
4. Mr. Sundara Babu, JNU, New Delhi & Mr.Gauthama Prabu, Young
Professional, CAPART
Content Editor Language Editor Block Editor and

Prof. EshanulHaq Dr. Bodh Prakash Programme
JNU, New Delhi University of Delhi Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators Unit Transformation Secretarial Assistant

Prof. Gracious Thomas Mr. Joseph Varghese Mr. Balwant Singh,
Dr. R.P.Singh Consultant, IGNOU Ms.Maya Kumari,
Dr. Annu J. Thomas IGNOU
Course Preparation Team (Revision)

Unit Writers
1. Dr. VanilaBhaskaran, R.M. college of Social Work, Hyderabad
2. Dr. R.K.Chaudhury, Punjabi University, Patiala,
3. Mr.Joseph Varghese, Consultant, IGNOU, New Delhi
4. Mr. Sundara Babu, JNU, New Delhi & Mr.Gauthama Prabu, Young
Professional, CAPART
Content Editor Block Editor Programme and Course

Dr. Francina PX Dr. Sayantani Guin, Coordinator
Loyola College of Social Sciences, School of Social Work, IGNOU Dr. Sayantani Guin,
Kerala School of Social Work, IGNOU
Print Production
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
In the previous block you studied the basic concepts related to society. In this
block “Social system and Social Sub-system”, you will learn about some of
the important components of the society such as family, class, caste, culture
and the State. They play an important role in influencing the individual’s
personality. They also determine the role of individuals in society, the value
framework within which he or she makes decisions and the privileges and
liabilities associated with status. Further, problems of individuals and groups
are rooted in the ways these institutions function.
The first unit ‘Marriage and Family’, will deal with one of the most important
institutions of society-the family. The second unit is ‘Society and Culture:
Plurality of Culture in India’ which explains the mutually interacting
components of social structure and culture. The third unit deals with ‘Social
Stratification’ which explains the dynamics of caste and class to you. The
fourth unit is ‘The State as a Social Institution: Its Role and Impact on other
Institutions’. This unit deals with the state which play an important role in the
promotion of welfare among people and protecting their rights. You should
observe the social reality around you especially when you are doing your field
work and relate your observations to the theoretical part described here. Some
of you may not be interested in pursuing studies in Professional Social work.
This block, as well as the entire course on ‘Society, Social Institutions and
Social Problems’, will be highly useful to such learners since they deal with
various behavioral aspects of individuals in a society.
UNIT 1 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
*
Vanila Bhaskaran
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Marriage Institution
1.3 Family Institution
1.4 Relationships within the Family
1.5 General Characteristics of Family
1.6 Socialization
1.7 Stability in Family Patterns
1.8 Adjustments in Marriage
1.9 Change in Family Patterns
1.10 Family Disorganization and Divorce
1.11 Single Parent Families
1.12 Functional Approach to the Family
1.13 Let Us Sum Up
1.14 Key Words
1.15 Suggested Readings
1.16 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to provide you with an understanding of the institutions
of marriage and family. It also aims to help you appreciate the significance
and importance of these institutions for an individual as well as society.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 identify, define and describe the various forms of marriage;

 define and describe the family, its types and function and identify the
factors leading to unhealthy families;
 explain socialization and other functions.
 bring out the factors leading to unhealthy family situations.
 describe the functional approach to the study of family.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
*
Dr. Vanila Bhaskaran, R.M. College of Social Work, Hyderabad
Marriage is an institution admitting men and women to family life, with the implied
purpose of parenthood and establishment of a family. The institution has social
approval and religious sanction. Though various religions have different views upon
marriage the purpose remain the same. It is a socially sanctioned union between man
and woman for the purpose of procreation and establishment of family. This view of
marriage has an interesting and varied history.
Several forms of marriage are found universally. The most universally prevalent are
monogamy and polygamy. Polygamy is the marriage between one male or one
female with several females or males. When a woman has more than one husband at
a time it is called polyandry. Polygamy is a form of marriage in which a male has two
or more wives at a time. Polygamy existed and was accepted in different periods of
time for reasons relevant to situations prevailing in societies at those times.
Polyandry existed where conditions of social life were harsh and efforts of two or
more men were needed for the support of a family. This is a rare phenomenon and
exists only under peculiar and extreme conditions. Sociologists have identified such
families in certain parts of Tibet and remote parts of Africa. Polygamy did not
develop extensively until human groups had accumulated some degree of wealth and
economic surplus to enable one man to support several families. It existed in part
because of the lower impulses of the male sex and partly because of desire for that
status which has been attached to the practice.
However, polygamy as a form of marriage is not as widely prevalent or accepted as

monogamy. Monogamy, the marriage of one man to one woman at a time, has been
and is the leading type of marriage. The advantages of monogamy are well
recognized universally, as it is understood that it creates clearly defined and stronger
family ties than any other form of marriage. It alone produces the highest type of
affection tolerance and devotion and secures the superior care of children. The
cohesive power of the family is greatest in monogamy. A monogamous family is
more stable and lasts longer.
1.2 MARRIAGE INSTITUTION

Marriage is a socially approved way of establishing a family by procreation. As an
institution it involves certain reciprocal rights and duties. The specific patterns of
rights and duties distinguish the marriage institution in one society from the other.
There is some clearly acknowledged social ritual in recognition of the social
significance of marriage in every society. Thus, marriage is the institution concerned
with the reciprocal social relations and cultural behaviour of a man and a woman who
publicly signify their union for the implied purpose, among other possible objectives.
Of founding a family of procreation, the actual cultural components of the marriage
institution, as is the case with all institutions, vary in detail from one society to
another and to some degree also among sub-groups and classes in our own society.
These variations arise out of the differences in the objectives of the marriage
institution and the extent of emphasis laid on them.
Some universal characteristics that can be observed are as follows; sexual activity
between husband and wife; trust and loyalty between the members; care and support
for each other, procreation and rearing of children. Societies everywhere recognize
the importance of marriage by the ceremonial rites they establish in this connection.
The Wedding
A marriage actually begin with legal or religious ceremonies or both. The wedding is
recognition of the public significance of marriage. Such a ceremony indicates
society’s control. The pageantry impress and acknowledges upon the couple the
importance of the commitment they are undertaking.
The Licensing and Ceremony
The formal permission to marry usually required by societies is expressed through

the issue of a license which then makes it mandatory for persons to meet age and
health regulations. The wedding must occur before witnesses so that proper
certification and registration are effected. A legally sanctioned and publicly admitted
marriage is important because of property and other rights and obligations that are
immediately effective when the marriage is a fact. Thus the permanence of the
obligations of the contract is established beyond question and these obligations
cannot be freely discarded. Public sanction and public acceptance make them
binding.
The wedding also indicates that two persons are fused in a new life. The exchange of
gold rings, drinking from the same vessel, garlanding each other or eating a common
piece of food are all symbolic of the union. The ceremony also expresses the good
wishes of relatives and friends. Presenting gifts, wedding greetings, participating in
the ceremony and reception are the expression of marriage wishes.
Religious Rites
The marriage ceremony is a religious rite in many societies which consider marriage
a sacred institution.
Marriage is considered a sacred bond sanctioned by God and realized through
religious institution. The possibility of dissolving a marriage was unthinkable in most
of the societies until recently. Even though some societies are fairly liberal in this
respect, they emphasize the sacred character of the relationship which is reinforced
through the religious rites. These views when accepted serve as supportive social
controls.
Mate Selection
Mates for marriage are obtained through two methods generally through arrangement
or through freedom of choice. The selection of mates must obviously proceed
marriage. Mating of course was carried on in the early associations of people long
before ceremonial marriage appeared. Marriage developed in human societies in part
as a means of controlling mating.
Arrangements for procuring mates in societies is done by parents or some other
person of authority. Now, in this modern society, the assistance of matrimonial
agencies also is sought. The professional matchmaker has long been a part of the
marriage system among many societies. Two important factors are predominant
where mate selection is done by arrangement. Firstly, the social and economic
position of the families to be united is an important matter for consideration. They are
usually marriages of social and economic convenience, binding families together as
coalitions with a common interest. Secondly, the desires of the partners and their
feelings of affection and future happiness may get completely ignored: However, it is
believed that love develops after the marriage, when the couple gets to know each
other. The fact is that so many successful marriages and families have begun by
arrangement and they support the view that prior affection or love between the
prospective partners is not necessary for a happy union.
The second method where freedom of choice is exercised and the selection of the
mate is largely the result of personal choice and is based on association and the
development of romantic love. Hasty decisions based on physiological and emotional
reactions that supercede sound thinking are quite common especially where there is a
strong desire for marriage accompanied by fear of losing the desired person. A
common problem in a society that depends upon free choice and romantic love as the
basis for marriage is the danger that the choice will result from temporary sentimental
attraction rather than from a considered mature decision.
Several factors condition the actual selection of a mate. The sex drive operates as a
strong force in human societies pressing people toward sexually attractive possible
mates. Marriages would hardly take place without this drive. This is nature’s way of
securing the perpetuation of the species. The choice of a specific mate is also
controlled or influenced by conditions. Some of the restrictions that societies set are
the selection within the race, within definite age limits, within the same class, and the
prohibition of incest. Propinquity or the nearness of residence is an influencing
condition or situation. Those with similar characteristics live in similar areas and this
proximity is favorable in meeting and choosing partners of same ideals and dream.
Young men and women in large cities have opportunities in creating acquaintance
which make them in having favorable setting in meeting people.
These factors of nearness, attraction of persons with similar personalities, construct

of the ideal mate and personality needs, however, do not operate as discrete forces in
the choice of a mate. All these aspects of an interwoven set of personal relationships
constitute a pattern for the choice of a mate.
1.3 FAMILY INSTITUTION

The institution of family is a consequence of marriage in several societies. A family
is defined as a group of people related by blood, marriage, or adoption who form an
economic unit are responsible for the care of children, and often live in the same
household. It is considered as the primary unit of society which is responsible for
several functions of the individual as well as society. It is responsible for
socialization of its members and for teaching cultural norms, for provision of the
basic needs of its members as well as preparing them for their careers and future
family lives. Its importance lies in the fact that no individual can exist without a
family and no society can perpetuate itself without enlisting members into families. It
aids societies in serving as a significant controlling agent to achieve orderly social
relations and social control.
1.4 RELATIONSHIP WITHIN THE FAMILY

The family is a procreative, child-bearing, child-rearing and a status-giving group. Its
fundamental principle is the bond of kinship, which shows the network of social
relationships among the family members. This relationship can be elaborated in many
ways which differentiate families from each other in their form and structure in
different societies. Basically, there are two types of relationships in the immediate
family, which are quite apparent: these are the marriage relationship and the
relationship of biological kinship. The relationship between the husband and wife is
of the first type while the other interpersonal relations normally found in the
immediate family are of the biological type. (like father-son, father-daughter, mother-
son, mother-daughter and the relationship between the other members like brother-
brother, sister-sister, and brother-sister).
If we examine the family structure of different societies we can see major emphasis
on the marriage relationship in some place while others emphasize blood
relationships. Thus we see two general types of families: the conjugal family in
which the dominant relationship is that of the spouses and the consanguine family in
which the dominant relationships are those of bloodie. , the bond between the blood
kinsmen involves more obligations and activity than that between spouses. The
conjugal family often gives the individual member more freedom in the sense that he
or she can ,remove himself or herself from the group if the person finds it
uncongenial, unlike the consanguine family in which he or she is bound for life.
During the course of a normal life, an individual belongs to two types of families,
namely:
a) the family of orientation which is the family into which he or she is born
consisting of parents and siblings (brothers and sisters) , and
b) the family of procreation consisting of the spouse and children.
In the societies, which place emphasis on conjugal families on the basis of social life,
the sibling relationships of the family of orientation are loosened and importance is
given to the relationship between the spouses. The consanguine family or household
permits the perpetuation of sibling patterns learned in the family of orientation to be
carried on in full function even after the person has set up a family of procreation.
The family group was the first human school and despite its weaknesses it has often
been considered the best school. The informal education of an individual begins in
the family, where the most effective teaching is done in and through it. It is in the
family that the children can be best educated to learn the basic lessons of personal
health, sex hygiene, general manners etc. The institution of family is also considered
the cradle of personality. The siblings in a family have special social relationships
among themselves. They can be effective teachers of each other too, giving emotional
satisfaction and helping each other in times of problems.
It is in the family that individuals acquire, early and effectively the ideas that
marriages and the family have superior connotations as social institutions. Individuals
also learn that the family needs to be considered not lightly, but as (socially necessary
and sacred) institution, not as a temporary contract which can be assumed carelessly,
but as involving human feelings and intimate relationships that have a lifelong effects
upon personality.
1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY

In their normal functioning, families everywhere show the following characteristics:
1) A family characterized by the existence of a marriage bond between a man and
a woman or between more than one man and more than one woman.
2) It is characterized by a recognized actual or blood relationship bond between the

offspring of the spouses and the other members of the group.
3) The family groups are distinguished by the possession of a residence or series of

residences which are jointly occupied at least occasionally by the members.
4) The family as a group has specific functions to perform. These differ to some
extent from society to society. Some of them which are most commonly found
are the following:
a) Protection to family members from bodily harm and illness and care of the
invalid and ill members of the family.
b) Training and practice in eating, elimination, reaction to pain, speech,

cleanliness, wearing of clothes, and respect for self and others.
c) Socialization of the child and making him/her a member of society
d) Division of labour according to gender, age and other specific
circumstances.
e) The family is vested with the possession and control of certain property.
The control of property usually involves inheritance.
f) Lastly it is through affiliation with a specific family that persons in society

first learn to identify one’s place in society. Their family becomes one of
the main status giving agents of society. The use of a family name is not
universal but where it is prevalent, it serves to symbolise family status and
helps in identification of individuals from their point of view. It is widely
prevalent in India where the individuals identity is very often solely based
on the family name.
g) Another important function of social care is the protection of its members.
Dimensions of Family
Sociologists and anthropologists have developed a set of dimensions on which the

family structures are based.
1) Within the general framework of kinship, two main types of family structure
are Prevalent; the nuclear family and the extended family. The nuclear family
consists of adult parents and their dependents like children. This type seems
to be common in many societies. The extended family includes the nuclear
family and many of its relatives such as grandparents, grandchildren, uncles,
aunts, and cousins. In the Indian context such families are also called as joint
families, as they consist basically of the nuclear family and its relatives.
2) Forms of Marriage - In a majority of societies, a common form of marriage is

monogamy, the marriage of one man to one woman. However, several other
forms have also been observed. Polygamy is the marriage of one person to
several others. Where the marriage of one man to several women is called
polygamy marriage of one woman to many men is called polyandry. Due to
the shortage of women, sharing a common wife among several men became a
necessity and where brothers took one common wife it was known as
fraternal polyandry.
Certain factors encourage one form of marriage rather than the other. Economic
forces, which are usually prominent in specific societies, explain the need for
polygamy or polyandry. For instance, in Tibet, the family’s land holdings descend
jointly to all sons in the family. It is not divided among them individually as it may
not be sufficient to support the family. Therefore, brothers share the land and the
wife.
Patterns of Authority
In most of the societies in which extended families are a norm, patriarchal pattern of
authority exists. In patriarchal families, males are dominant over other family
members. A matriarchal pattern of authority exists, when authority is vested in the
males, or the wife and the mother. The common pattern of authority is patriarchal.
Sometimes in patriarchal societies women may informally dominate in many
families, but this does not become the universal norm. As more women have joined
the workforce, we find a shift in the pattern of authority. Such changes have changed
the character of the family system, in which power and authority is shared among the
male and female members of the family.
Norms for Selection of a Partner
Societies prescribe rules that pertain to the selection of a marriage partner. A system
where people marry outside their family or clan is called exogamy. Parallel to this, is
endogamy, where marriage within the group is permitted.
The most common rule of exogamy is the incest taboo, where marriage or sexual
relations between individuals having a close biological relationship is not permitted.
The choice of partner often is restricted by the rules of exogamy and endogamy
people.
The rule of incest taboo is universal. This rule prohibits sexual relations between two
close relatives like between child and parent and brother and sister. Some societies
extend this rule to first cousins and close blood relations too. However, incest was
not a taboo in the royal family of ancient Egypt. There are several reasons for the
practice of ‘incest taboo. For instance, some have suggested that humans have an
innate aversion to incest while others say that people in the distant past were aware of
the genetic dangers of inter-seeding, still others have pointed out that rules against
incest reduce jealousy and conflict in families.
Patterns of Matrimonial Residence
Residential patterns of married couples are varied in different societies. In societies

where newly married couples live with the husband’s family the pattern is called
patrilocal residence. In societies in which matrilocal residence is the norm, the newly
married couple is expected to live with the bride’s family.
In recent years we see more and more couples set up their own houses, which is
called neo-local residence. This pattern is very common in western societies which
gives more importance to the independence of the individual and his/her personal
interests resulting in the rise of individualism.
1.6 SOCIALIZATION
The process by which an individual develops through interaction with other people,
his specific patterns of socially relevant behaviour and experience is called
‘socialization’. It is the family’s primary responsibility to socialize children into the
norms of the society.
Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each
child born into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his
behaviour can be relied upon. He must acquire the group norms. The society must
socialise each member so that his behaviour will be meaningful in terms of the group
norms. In the process of socialisation the individual learns the reciprocal responses of
the society. Socialisation is a process with the help of which a living organism is
changed into a social being. It is a process through which the younger generation
learns the adult role which it has to play subsequently. It is a continuous process in
the life of an individual and it continues from generation to generation.
In all human groups, the family is an important agent of socialization. It has a flexible
human relationships in which family members interact informally and deal with
common concerns in mutual respect and love. The family teaches the child his or her
first lessons in social living and helps him or her to form basic attitude patterns, ideals
and style of life. It creates feelings of social responsibility social understanding and
teaches the importance of cooperation and mutual respect.
The human child possesses a tendency towards imitation and the family provides
informal conditions where customs and traditions can be learnt through imitation.
Accordingly, the child’s personality is formed and a social identity develops.
Socialization develops the child’s ability to control himself or herself and realizes his
or her responsibility towards the family, community and the society at large.
Socialization in the Family
The family plays the most important role in the individual’s socialization. The child
finds much to learn in the behaviour of his family members, parents, relatives, and
friends. He imitates them in their mannerisms, behaviour, cliches, etc. He tries to
avoid such activities which result in punishment or which are considered bad in the
family. It is the family environment that forms his good habits and it is in the family
that he acquires criminal tendencies.
Need for Socialization
The question why is socialization necessary for the development of an individual is

best answered by the example of the human beings who were for some reasons,
nurtured outside society. Human beings of this kind are described by Gessell in his
work “Wolf children and Human Children” and by Davis in his essays. In 1920, in
India two children were found in a wolf den, of which one was eight years old and
the other a couple of years younger. The second died after the lapse of only a few
months while the first continued to live for six years.
She was named Kamla, this girl was completely innocent of the modes and behaviour
of human. She walked on all fours, legs and hands, growled like a wolf and could not
speak. She became nervous at the sight of human beings as any undomesticated
animals are bound to be. In this way, due to the absence of socialization she
possessed none of the characteristics of human beings save for her bodily structure.
She was taught to speak, wear clothes and eat. In this way, she could learn some
human behaviour due to the influence of socialization after a period of some years.
The self of the individual develops primarily because of socialization. Every social
relationship of the individual contributes to this process of socialization. The problem
of man’s socialization is very complex and it has not yet been completely solved in
any human society. In the words of Davis, “The improvement of socialization offers
one of the greatest possibilities for the future alteration of human nature and human
society”.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Define marriage and its various forms.
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2) Why is family an important social institution?

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1.7 STABILITY IN FAMILY PATTERNS

The institution of family is a stable system and this makes the Indian society well
integrated. However a number of factors have contributed in making the family
unstable. The effects of modernization have shaken the family and made it unstable.
This leads to several problems of maladjustment, misunderstanding and infidelity,
which make the family unstable. People enter marriage with considerations other
than for starting a family and sharing each other’s lives. Individuals marry for
personal convenience, forgetting that married life requires preparation and training.
A successful married life requires a lot of sacrifice and adjustment as two distinctly
different individuals are sharing their life. Other important factors which support a
good married life include a satisfactory family income, sound household management
skills, a high level of commitment of the partners toward preserving the marriage and
partners having those value and ethical considerations that support married life.
The attitudes and actions of both partner and the other members may produce an
environment which is highly favorable for the proper functioning of the family. The
creation of a pleasant atmosphere is a responsibility of both partners. Such an
atmosphere fosters adjustment and whenever the atmosphere is destroyed by any one,
adjustments become difficult. An exaggerated spirit of individualism leads a person
to find the guide to his actions in his own wishes and whims. This produces an
attitude of carelessness towards the family. This attitude which is often expressed in
irresponsibility tends to make the family unstable, as the family thrives on attitudes
of personal responsibility.
A sound family life depends to a large extent on a single or the same standard of
behaviour and responsibility for both men and women. Double standards, or one
standard for men and one for women, destroys personal happiness and social values
in the family.
1.8 ADJUSTMENTS IN MARRIAGE

Adjustment in marriage relates to the following areas - sex relations, managing
family income, social activities, rearing children and mutual friends and families. It is
important to distinguish marital adjustment from two other terms which are
sometimes used more or less interchangeably with it, that is, marital success and
marital happiness. Marital success refers to the achievement of one or more goals of
marriage. Marital success can be determined by the emotional response of a spouse.
It is at least conceivable that one marital partner could be very happy while the other
may be at the nadir of despair. Marital happiness refers to the tone of the subjective
response of the individual spouse to his or her marriage.
The family today is in a transitional stage. The institutionalized family has been
ignored sometimes giving room for tandem marriages and free love. The growth of
individualism has given more freedom to everyone in the family. The trend is
undoubtedly in the direction of families as a form across of companionship. The
patriarchal family of the past had been too rigid. It did not allow individualistic
attitudes in the family. Over decades, the changes occurring in the family have led to
a democratic family which is built on respect for each other’s opinions, for age, on
consideration for the personalities, and on cooperation all around. In order to change
the family from one in which autocracy and ignorance predominate to one in which
rational and mutual give and take rule applies, requires education in democratic
relationships, sexual relationships, parent-child relationships, and in an appreciation
of the family group as a training center for social life.
According to Bogardus, “ A democratic family is one in which the husband and wife
share the authority more or less equally and according to a pre-arranged division of
labour “. It is a group whose life is based not primarily on the fear and force of
authority but on the drawing power of mutual respect and affection. Rational love
rules in the family. The democratic family rests on the principle of mutual self-
sacrifice. A home cannot be a home for one, if a child cannot find it in the attitudes of
a cooperative and companionable father and mother. It should exist as a distinct and
strongly functional group in every known form of society.
1.9 CHANGE IN FAMILY PATTERNS

The structure and functions of families today remain no longer the same as in the
past. The forces of development have affected changes in every aspect of society and
family, as an institution does not exist in isolation. The consequences of changes in
non-domestic institutions have had repercussions on the domestic front. An analysis
of some of the factors that have changed over the last few decades will help us
understand the changes occurring in the family in its present form.
Economic changes and their effects on the family are significant. In the primitive and
early medieval times, the family or the home was an economic center. With the
advent of new and highly specialized division of labor and mass production of goods,
changes in economic life have affected family life. The growth of education and
economic opportunities have offered women a chance to make their own living. This
has, to an extent, impaired the economic unity of the family as a group, because each
member of the family maintains his or her own share of the expenses and lives an
independent economic life.
Moreover, even as affecting the men of the family, have been affected by modem
industry with serious results for the family and the home. It has often taken them
away where they can no longer help to rear the family. The husband is no longer an
important social factor in the family once children also contribute to the support of
the family by working with the parents. Now if they share in the economic burden of
the family they have to leave home and its care and engage in occupations outside the
home. Thus, the extent to which economic activities have been taken out of the home
and are taken over by other institutions has had a significant role to play in the
changing patterns of the family.
The effect of other social changes on the family has also been significant. The growth
of liberal thought has its effect upon family ideals. Individual freedom and expression
of thought have far reaching effects on the family. Certain other factors, like
decreasing size of family and the propagation of a small family, late marriages, rising
socioeconomic aspirations and unwillingness to procreate, single parent families, are
also responsible for bringing about a change in the family patterns.
1.10 FAMILY DISORGANIZATION AND DIVORCE

Divorce is an indicator of the extent of family disorganization. Disorganization in the
family refers to a breakdown in the conjugal family life. The problems in the family
arise from circumstances frequently associated with such a breakdown. William J.
Goode points out that families become disorganized due to different reasons. The
Empty Shell’ is a term used by him to denote a marriage that simply is no longer a
real relationship, although the partners remain together for anyone of a number of
reasons. The number of people living in such empty shells may be quite large in
society. Sometimes these marriages can lead to divorce and desertion. Another reason
which may bring about family disorganization is a catastrophe, either as a result of
internal factors like an illness or disability or external factors such as floods, wars etc.
These tendencies could affect families in such a way that the members are scattered
or are in emotional and mental turmoil.
Some of important reasons of family disorganization according to Robert Weirs are:
1) The changing social context, which emphasizes the right and obligation of the
individual to maximize capabilities, to be mobile and adaptive to stress, self-
devotion and self-determination.
2) The lowering of legal barriers. Laws have been changed to shorten the time
necessary to acquire a divorce. The current laws provide several different
grounds for divorce and even sustain no fault divorces.
3) Greater social tolerance for divorced people.

4) Liberalized attitudes on the part of organized religion.
5) Increased financial independence of women.

In the West one of the most telling causes is the extreme cultural freedom of choice.
Freedom to choose a partner means freedom to continue to choose and freedom to
replace the choice with another. Divorce results in the creation of single parent
families.
1.11 SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

There is a distinction between family households and non-family households. A
family household consists of people related by birth, marriage or adoption and a non-
family household includes two or more unrelated people of either sex as well as
people who live alone. Although the family household is still the dominant form, it
appears to be giving ground to other forms. They indicate that changes in family
structure, parent-child relations, and intimate relations in general, are taking place
universally in every society. Single parent households are an offshoot of unstable
families, desertion, and divorce while single parent families are those families with
children where men and women who are divorced do not remarry and of women who
bear children out of wedlock. For both divorced and never married women with
children, the most serious problem appears to be economic. Most of the divorced or
single parents must seek work to support their families, and this often turns out to be
low paying work.
However, money worries are not the only problems of single parent households.
Single parents often feel stigmatized in a society that places a high value on marriage.
In the absence of another parent in the home to raise children many single parents
feel isolated and unequal to the task. There is however no solid evidence that children
who grow up in single parent families are damaged as a result though it happens to
be. A number of studies have concluded that whether or not both parents are present
makes little difference in the quality of child rearing or the socialization of children.
The children’s sense of gender identity, their health, their social achievements, and
their attitude towards marriage and the family are not affected. Some studies have
found that delinquency is more frequent in unhappy two parent homes than in single
parent homes.
1.12 FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO THE FAMILY

Sociologists have used several approaches to the study of the family. The functional
approach gives emphasis to the functions of the family in society. The contribution
made by the family to the maintenance of the social system forms the core of analysis
by the functionalists. It is assumed that society has certain functional prerequisites or
basic needs that must be met if it is to survive and operate efficiently. The family is
one of the agencies to meet those functional prerequisites. Secondly analysis is done
of the functional relationships between the family and other sub systems of the social
system. It is assumed that there must be a certain degree of integration, and harmony
between the parts of the social system if society is going to function efficiently. Apart
from these functions performed by the subsystem for larger society, its functions for
the individual are analyzed. In the case of the family the functions of the family for
its individual members are to be considered.
Murdock states that the family performs four basic functions- sexual, reproductive,
economic, and educational. They are essential for social life since without sexual and
reproductive life there would be no members of society, without the economic
functions like provision and preparation of food life cannot exist and without
education, which forms a major part of socialization, there would be no culture.
Human society without culture will not function. The family cannot perform these
functions exclusively. It makes important contributions to all of them and no other
institution can match its efficiency in this aspect. The family’s functions for society
are inseparable from its functions for its individual members, It serves both at one
and the same time in much the same way.
This analysis of the family, from the functionalist approach, “provides a conception
of the family’s many sided utility and thus of its inevitability” (Murdock, 1949). The
family is seen as a multi-functional institution, which is indispensable to society.
Murdock, however, does not consider whether these functions could be performed by
other social institutions. Other functionalists like Talcott Parsons (l955) and Vogel
and Bell (1968) argue that Murdock’s description of the family is almost too good to
be true. Parsons (1955) analysis of the family relate to two basic and irreducible
functions which are common in all societies. These are, the primary socialization of
children and the stabilization of adult personalities of the population of society. He
argues that families are factories which produce human personalities and believes
they are essential for the purpose of primary socialization and provides warmth,
security, and mutual support. The family acts as a counterweight to the stresses and
strains of everyday life, which tend to make the personalities unstable. Parsons’
analysis has also been criticized as he has been accused of idealizing the family with
his picture of well-adjusted children and sympathetic spouses caring for each other
needs. Like Murdock, Parsons also fails to explore functional alternatives to the
family.
Vogel and Bell present a functional analysis of certain families that avoids the
tendency of many functionalists to concentrate solely on the positive aspects of the
family. They examined the functions and dysfunctions of the family and indicated
that what is dysfunctional for children can be seen as functional for the parents, for
the family unit, and for the society as a whole. They argue that the cost to the child is
low relative to the functional gains of the whole family. While dealing with the
family both its positive and negative aspects should be considered. It should also be
kept in mind that what is good for a member may be at the cost of another member.
Check Your Progress II
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit.
1) Elaborate the various dimensions of the family.
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2) Define divorce. Explain the reasons for divorce.

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1.13 LET US SUM UP
This unit has dealt with the concepts of marriage and family and aspects
relating to individuals and societies. You have learnt about the importance of
marriage as an institution, its forms and its functions. You have also learnt
about the institution of family, its structure; its forms, its characteristics, and
its dimensions.
1.14 KEY WORDS
Marriage : Marriage is an institution admitting men and

women to family life.
Family : A family is a group of persons united by the ties

of marriage, blood, or adoption, and constituting
a single household.
Socialization : The process by which the individual develops

into a functioning member of the group and
learns the accepted norms of behaviour
of the society through the family.
Divorce : Divorce is an institutionalized pattern for

breaking up the relationship between husband
and wife under certain conditions.
Single Parent : Single parent families are those families

with children where men and women who are
divorced do not remarry. Women who bear
children out of wedlock and raise them without
their father are also called single parents.
Unmarried men who adopt children and raise
them without their mother are also called single
parents.
Functional analysis : Functional analysis of various institutions

studies the functions which it performs for the
society and for the individual members.
1.15 SUGGESTED READINGS
Haralambos, Michael (1980), sociological Perspectives.
Edison Press, London. Schulz, A. David (1976), The changing Family,

Prentice Hall Inc., USA.
Smelser, J. Neil (1993), sociology, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi
1.16 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1 Marriage is an institution admitting men and women to family life,

with the implied purpose of parenthood and establishment of a
family. Several forms of marriage are found universally, especially
monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is the marriage of one man
to one woman at a time and polygamy is the marriage of one man
to several women.
2 Family is considered as the primary unit of the society, which is
responsible for several functions for the individual, as well as the
society. These functions include reproduction and caring for new
members in the society; socialization of younger members of the
society; providing an orderly outlet for sexual feelings; economic
functions, etc.
1) Sociologists and anthropologists have developed a set of dimensions

on which the family structures are based.
Family form-Nuclear family and Extended family.
Marriage form-Monogamy and Polygamy
Authority structure-patriarchy and Matriarchy
Lineage-Patrilinear and Matrilineal and Matrilineal
2) Divorce is a total and final breakdown of relationship between husband
and wife. It had a legal implication and the courts have to declare that
the marriage is dissolved. Some of the important reasons for divorce is
the growing individualism in society, economic independence of
women, availability of legal options and growing acceptance of
divorce in Society.
UNIT 2 SOCIETY AND CULTURE:
PLURALITY OF CULTURE IN INDIA
*
Dr. R.K. Chaudhury
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept of Society
2.3 Concept of Culture
2.4 Relationship of Culture and Society
2.5 Relationship of Culture, Society and Individual
2.6 Plurality of Culture
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Man is the only animal who lives in a society and is considered to have
culture. He is the only animal who laughs and weeps. He alone makes a
distinction between what things are and what things ought to be in the society
in which he resides.
After studying this unit you should be able to:

 Understand the concept of culture and society;
 Understand the relationship between society, culture and the
individual; and
 Describe the concept of plurality of culture.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Human species is considered to have existed on earth for about 1.5 million years.
Evidence of humans leading a social and cultural life is available from this period.
Thus, human beings were the first of species in the animal kingdom, capable of
producing culture. Once this capacity for building culture was attained, its exercise
led to a secure adaptation to their environment. This exercise generated a need and
prompted man to live in the company of others. Man not only started experimenting
with his environment, he also started sharing his experiences with fellow human
beings, sometimes in their original form and at other times in an improvised and
improved form. The beginning of human beings living in aggregates gave rise to the
concept of society. Then man started organizing his experiences and behaviour in an
ordered form which gave rise to a systematized form of life. This constituted his
culture. Both the rise and formation of society and culture went hand in hand.
Biological evolution in man a process of struggle for survival (accompanied cultural
evolution). In the initial stages human beings grouped and organised themselves in
*
Dr. R.K. Chaudhury, Punjabi University, Patiala
the form of small, simple and nomadic bands. This was the beginning of organised
society, though it was quite different from today’s advanced and complex society.
The activities of human beings, their behaviour and living together, and moving in
groups from one place to another in search of food and shelter helped them to develop
a common way of life.
Some sociologists try to distinguish between ‘social’ and ‘cultural’ aspects of human
life. They employ ‘social’ to refer to the relationships among the groups within in
society. For them, ‘culture’ consists of the ways of life of the members’ ofthe
society.’ The relationship of group to another is regarded as an aspect of culture. The
family, e.g., is a social group; the way they act, interact and behave is their culture. A
society is considered to be a group of people who share a common habitat and who
are dependent upon one another for their survival and well-being. Large societies of
today are made up of classes, castes, ethnic groups etc.
2.2 CONCEPT OF SOCIETY

Socrates said, man is a social animal and being social for man is both natural as well
as necessary. There are other animals, who also have an organised life, but the social
life of man is different from, them. Behaviour among animals is instinctive and dies
with the animal but among men, behaviour is learned and passed on from one
generation to another. This aspect is distinctive of man and distinguishes him from
other animals. This characteristic binds all men together to behave in a similar
manner. They form an aggregate of people who lead a similar way of life and there is
also a similarity in their behaviour and other activities. It is from this aspect that
Herskovits has defined society: “Society is an organised, interacting aggregate of
individuals who follow a given way of life.” In simple words it can be said that
society is composed of people. Man studies himself as a member of this aggregate of
people that we call society.
Comte characterizes society in terms of “social statics” and “social dynamics”.

referring to social stability as well as social change. ‘Social statics’ deals with
relatively stable and orderly aspects of social life, e.g., family life, marriage and
kinship and social institutions. Similarly ‘social dynamics’ focuses on the changing
aspects of social life, e.g., social changes, social processes etc. In the context of social
dynamics and the changes that took place in society, Comte emphasized that
evolution of society passed through three stages, i.e. savagery, barbarism and
civilization; evolution of marriage and-family has passed through promiscuity, group
marriage, polygamy and finally monogamy. Likewise the evolution of religion has
passed through the stages of animism, polytheism and monotheism.
The question may arise why it is necessary for a man to live in society or why is
society necessary for man? The answer to these queries can briefly be given as under:
1) Man has his needs and he chooses to meet or fulfill these needs by himself; He
can meet them while being a member of society or while living in society. The
meeting of those needs is conditioned by the patterns of requirements and
behaviour that we can call culture. There is a wide variety of variation in
meeting human needs from one society to another. This variation makes one
society different and unique from other societies.
2) From the very beginning, i.e., from birth itself, man needs the support of others.
Initially he is dependent upon others who provide him help in social and physical
upbringing. His overall growth and development is provided within and by the
organised social life. This is where the society has its basic relevance. Though the
society extends and plays this role throughout the life of man, in the initial phase
of his life he needs it the most.
3) The society provides the understanding knowledge and exposure to a man about
his milieu and environment. It is in society that man learn to behave, to act, to
respond and to play his requisite role for his environment and for the society of
which he is a member.
All these factors do not work independent of each other. They have a cumulative
effect. However, each factor has its own significance. Further, there are some basic
elements of social organisation and ideology. These elements contribute towards
continuity, change and proper functioning of the society.
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer

b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) What do you mean by society?
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2) Why is society necessary for human beings?
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2.3 CONCEPT OF CULTURE

We can begin by saying that man is the only organism capable of building culture and
transmitting it from one generation to another. Some other animals and insects too are
considered to have their culture, but it dies with them but the culture created by man
distinguishes man from other animals.
There are a number of definitions of culture:

One of the best, and most acceptable, early definitions of culture was given by E.B.
Tylor (1871) in his book “Primitive culture”, wherein he described culture as “that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
The definition indicates that culture is not simple and it is not constituted by one or
two elements. Rather it is a complex one and is constituted by a large number of
aspects of life which range, as shown in the definition, from knowledge to law and
customs. This also includes habits acquired by man while living and interacting in
society with other members. Though constituted by a large number of units, called
traits, culture has to be understood in totality, the whole. All the traits are so well
integrated that each one gets almost assimilated into the other. Culture, when seen
holistically, is understood as a complex whole. The following are some of the
characteristics of culture:
1) Culture is a complex whole: All the elements and traits of culture are to be
understood in relationship to one another. All of them, in this respect, constitute
a whole, called culture, and is complex in nature.
2) Culture is learned: Culture of mankind is not instinctive, or innate, or

transmitted biologically. It is composed of habits, i.e., learned tendencies to
react, acquired by each individual through his/her own life experiences after
birth.
3) Culture is inculcated: All animals are capable of learning but man alone seems
to be capable, to a large extent, of passing on his acquired habits and behaviour
to his offspring. A dog can be trained to learn many tricks, but it cannot pass
them on to its puppies. However, man is capable of transmitting all his learning
and habits to his offspring.
4) Culture is social: Habits of cultural order are not only inculcated and
transmitted overtime; they are all social, i.e., shared by all human beings living
together in the society. The habits shared together by the members of the society
constitute their culture.
5) Culture is commercial: The habits that constitute culture of a group form the
ideal norms or patterns of behaviour.
6) Culture is gratifying: Culture always, and necessarily, satisfies biological

needs and secondary needs derived from it. It also helps in gratifying human
interaction with the external world of nature and fellowmen.
7) Culture is adaptive: Culture changes. The process of change appears to be an
adaptive one, comparable to evolution in the organic realm but is of a different
order. Over a period of time culture adjusts to the geographical environment and
to the biological and socio-psychological demands of the human organism. It
adjusts through borrowing and organisation.
8) Culture is integrative: In the process of adaptation, all the elements of culture

tend to form a consistent and integrated whole. Some anthropologists consider
that culture is actually an integrated system which has most of its elements in
perfect equilibrium with one another.
9) Language as a vehicle of culture: All elements of culture are transmitted from

one generation to another through language in verbal or written form. Without
language man cannot transmit the culture from one period of time to another and
from one place to another.
10) Culture is cumulative: Any knowledge, or skill or any other form of culture is
acquired by one generation from the preceding one. The acquired culture is
added or modified and in a cumulative form transmitted to the next generation.
This helps man in acquiring knowledge, skills and other aspects of culture from
the remote past and hand them over to the future generations.
Out of a huge number of definitions, some which clearly and closely express human
behaviour and environment, are given below:
“Culture is the man made part of the environment” (Herskovits, MJ. 1955).
“The sum total of the knowledge, attitudes and habitual behaviour patterns shared
and transmitted by the members of a particular society” (Linton, 1940).
“(All the) historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational,
irrational, and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for the
behaviour of man” (Kluckhohn and Kelly, 1945).
The concept of culture also includes tools, techniques, ideas, values and all life
(Kroeber, 1948). All such aspects, arts and artifacts and the patterns of human
behaivor acquired a transmitted, constituting the distinctive achievement of human
groups, including-their embodiments in artifacts (Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952).
It becomes clear that culture is more than a biological phenomenon. In brief the
notion of culture is inclusive of man’s mature behaviour acquired from his group by
conscious learning or by a conditioning process, techniques of various kinds, social
and other institutions, beliefs, and patterned modes of conduct. Thus man becomes
the only “culture building”- animal.
As stated culture has two aspects:
1) Material culture
2) Non-material culture.
1) Material Culture: It includes all those artifacts or things that have been created
by man himself for his use, e.g., houses, furniture, clothes, tools, etc. It is that
aspect that can be seen, touched and observed. The elements of material culture
can be created, built, destroyed and rebuilt, and improved deliberately according
to the needs and desires of man. Some creations are to protect man from the
environment, and help man in the process of survival and to fight the inclement
weather and hostile climate. Certain aspects, like medicines, are invented,
discovered and put to use to fight diseases, improve health and quality of life.
Some aspects of material culture are created and built to fulfill the desires and
needs arising out of changes in non-material culture, i.e., ideational aspects of
culture. Variations in material culture are wider and more wide spread as
compared to non-material culture.
2) Non-material Culture: It includes all non-material and spiritual aspects of

culture. Ellenwood defined culture in terms of the whole of man’s material
civilization like tools, weapons, clothing, shelter, machines, and even systems of
industry’, and on the other hand as man’s non-material or spiritual civilization,
such as, language, literature, art, religion, ritual, morality, law and government.
The definition clearly identifies the areas that fall under material and
nonmaterial culture.
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
1) How will you define culture and what are the characteristics of culture?
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2.4 RELATIONSHIP OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY

In simple terms this relationship can be understood when we say that culture refers to
the ideas, values and norms in the minds of the people whereas society refers to the
people themselves. Therefore, ideas constitute culture and people constitute society.
Herskovits has made this clear when he observed that “a culture is the way of life of
the people; while a society is an organised and interacting aggregate of individuals
who follow a given way of life”. Further “a society is composed of people the way
they behave is their culture”.
To begin with we may study man’s ideas, institutions, and material objects. In reality
we study man himself. Thus, it is difficult to separate man as a social being from man
as a creature who has culture. The two aspects are so well integrated that one can’t be
understood and explained in the absence of the other. It can be said that both society
and culture are not mutually exclusive. One needs to comprehend social realities with
society and culture.
In society, comprising of individuals, the individual members may die and be

replaced by others. Therefore, society has a structural aspect. Its structure and
continuation is based on the birth, death and replacement by other members. Culture,
on the other is an independent of individual members. Birth, death or replacement of
individual members is not of much consequence to the culture. Society falls in the
realm of classical structure and social organisation whereas culture falls in the realm
of normative order:
On the social level there is a continuous process of interactive behaviour, whose

persistent form of social relationship refers to what we call social structure; whereas
on the cultural level there are beliefs, values, norms etc. in terms of which individuals
define their world, expressing their feelings and judgments. Therefore, culture is the
fabric in which human beings
interpret their experience; social structure is the form that action takes. Thus culture
and social structure are different aspects of the same phenomenon.
S.F. Nadel (1951) has made a distinction between society and culture in this way:
“Society means the totality of social facts projected on to the dimensions of
relationships and groupings; cultures, the same totality in the dimensions of action”.
In this respect, some scholars have even raised the question “are not people -’ society
- the reality rather than their way of life”. Some consider ways of life as the
intangibles and as the inferences drawn from the behavior of people. Therefore, to
study society is important for us because it essentially allows us to understand’ how
the life lived by man in aggregates affects his behaviour.
Relations between individuals, in all societies, change with age, with strength, with
obligations assumed, and with status achieved. Among all societies, social life of an
individual begins by identification with a group. It is the cultural training by the
group that makes an individual fit to live according to the expectations of the group,
or society. It is through the learning experience that a man achieves competence in his
culture.
The necessity of society for human beings has been explained by many scholars. This
necessity is explained partly in terms of physical and mental make-up of man and
partly in terms of his cultural conditioning.
Why should man live in society? Some of the reasons are given below:
Primarily a man needs to fulfill and satisfy his biological, social and other needs in
society. But he adopts cultural means to satisfy them and thus culture becomes a
means to the end. As a member of society, man can express his choices to satisfy his
needs and the process of this satisfaction takes the form of cultural expressions. To
meet his requirements of shelter and food, man uses his cultural capabilities.
It is a fact that at the time of birth the child is most helpless physically and mentally,
to face the environment around him to meet his needs. It takes a lot of time for him to
gain maturity and self-reliance. He needs the sustained support of others in the
process of his upbringing. The whole process of his growth and development takes
place under the care of other members of society or members of his group. This is
carried on in the organised life of the group. It is during this process that a child
inculcates values and norms to develop his personality. He develops skills and
capabilities and equips himself to face the world around him.
It is for the above reasons to be self-reliant and competent to respond to the

expectations of others on him, he must live in society, and live as a member of it in
continuous interaction with other members.
2.5 RELATIONSHIP OF CULTURE, SOCIETY AND

INDIVIDUAL
The social and cultural aspects of life are interrelated. The behaviour of members of a
society is altogether a matter of social relationships. Membership to this relationship
is constituted by individuals who are units of a society. At least two individuals
constitute a social relationship. The significance of an individual in society lies in the
promotion of his culture. All the three aspects culture, society and individuals are
related in a network called the social fabric. Individuals also interact with their
environment, construct ideas, and build their culture - both material and non-material.
To build adequate and positive relationships, individuals must adjust to other
individuals.
The constructive interplay between social, cultural factors and individuals makes
society a civilised place to live in. All these factors jointly work and reinforce each
other. The absence of any one could mean the non-existence of others. It is also in the
face-to-face interaction that the individual’s that their behaviour is influenced by
others.
The behaviour of a single individual can be called his personality, the behaviour of a
group of individuals is also called culture. Culture can also be termed as the total
behaviour of individuals.
In society, individuals learn the forms of conduct or behaviour which is acceptable to

group. This process of learning acceptable behaviour is called acculturation. Thus,
this process works as a bridge between culture as it exists and culture as presented by
the individuals in their behaviour. It is during this process of acculturation that
individuals are moulded into persons as desired by society. This process shapes the
individuals socially viable.
While individuals have a small life span, culture persists from one generation to
another. It is more than any individual who lives in it. Similarly, no society is made
up of all smile people for a long time. Births and deaths constantly change its
members. When a whole generation of individuals in society has passed away, it is
the pattern of behaviour (culture) that links the members to the past. This pattern of
behaviour is passed to the individuals in society who comprise it now. This also helps
us to understand how culture helps individuals to get integrated to his society.
2.6 PLURALITY OF CULTURE

It is observed that in any country we find people having different religions, castes,
creeds, races, and above all, following different ways of life, having their own
cultures and ethnic identities. Such a country is culturally plural. Cultural pluralism is
a pattern or a system in which people of different faiths, religions, castes, creeds can
all work and live together, retaining proudly their own faith and identity and sharing
the common bond of being, either by birth or choice. Plural culture means the co-
existence of several sub-cultures within a given society on equal terms. In such a
pluralistic culture, the validity of various sub-cultures is recognized.
The people living in different sub-cultures follow different ways of life, live
differently and think according to cultural patterns adopted by them. Thus cultural
pluralism also gives rise to the concept of cultural diversity. Cultural differences set
apart one group of people with one culture from another. Each group may be
characterized by their own language, history or ancestry, religion, style of dress or
adornment. The cultural characteristics of plural groups are socially inherited
(socially transmitted) from one generation to another rather than being learnt in one
generation alone.
Structurally, plural groups presenting one culture may be small or large in size, but
all of them display a sense of solidarity among themselves. Generally, the
membership to such plural groups is closed, i.e., it can be acquired through birth and
only its members can use its resources but all the groups live on equal terms and none
are considered to be supreme in a moral sense. Also no group can force anyone to
follow or adopt its way of life.
Each group falling under a plural sub-culture has a collective opinion and shares a
responsibility which is distinct and separate from the desires and intentions of other
groups. Members of each group have common beliefs, common rights and common
duties towards the group and they make efforts to maintain and integrate it.
Rural and urban areas of India present a plurality of cultures. It has tribal, rural and
urban populations. It presents a diversity of culture and people in terms of language,
religion, caste, race, food. dress and way of life. Our country is renowned for its unity
in diversity. This diversity is carried to urban areas as well, but it is not as clearly
defined and demarcated and apparent as it is in tribal and rural areas. Urban areas
present a complex and variety of sub-cultures.
Check Your Progress III
1) What is cultural pluralism?

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2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have attempted to learn what is culture and what is society. Culture is
the way of life we live and society is the interacting aggregate of people. Culture has
been defined in a number of ways. The definition by E.B. Tylor is the most
acceptable. However other definitions present different aspects of culture and society.
All of them lead us to think about ourselves as social being as well as cultural being,
i.e., what kind of social life we had and how we can define it and what are the
different types of cultures and how different cultures interact with each other.
In this unit we have also tried to establish a relationship between society, culture and
the individual. We find that how they are inter-related and inter-twined. One has no
meaning in the absence of the other. Culture has been classified into material and
non-material culture. Both social and cultural factors guide and determine social
growth and development of an individual and help him to integrate into his group
according to its (group) desires and expectations. The individual in turn enriches
culture by extending the inter-personal relationships.
The concept of cultural pluralism has been shown to present different sub-cultures
living together on equal terms and maintaining their identities.
2.8 KEY WORDS
Society : An organized, interacting aggregate of

individuals who follow a given way of life.
Culture : A complex whole which includes knowledge,

belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society
Acculturation : The process of learning the acceptable

behaviour by individuals relevant to the group or
the society to which they belong is called
acculturation.
Cultural pluralism : It is the co-existence of several sub-cultures

within a given society on equal terms.
Bottomore, T.B. (1975), Sociology, Blackie and Son (India) Ltd., New Delhi.
Herskovits, M.l. (1969), Cultural Anthropology, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.,
New Delhi.
Keesing, Roger M. and Keesing, Felix M. (1968), New Perspectives in Cultural
Anthropology. Rinehart andWinston, London.
Kroeber, A.L. (1967) (Indian Ed.) Anthropology, Oxford IBH Publishing Co., New
Delhi.
Kroeber, A.L. and Clyde Kluckhohn, (1985) Culture, Vintage Books, New York.
Majumdar, D.N and T.N. Madan, (1956), An Introduction to Social Anthropology,
Asian Press, Bombay.
Smelser, Neil l. (1993), Sociology, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
1) Society can be defined as “an organized, interacting aggregate of

individuals who follow a given way of life. “There is a need for
similarity in the behaviour of human being. This similarity binds
them together and they live a life in the company of one another at a
given time and space.
2) Society is necessary for man because it fulfills all his needs as a
member. The meeting of these need is conditioned by the pattern of
requirements and behaviour that we call culture. A child needs
sustained support to grow up and learn appropriate behaviour in
society. Parents and other members of the society extend this support.
In the absence of such a support, and individual may not acquire the
abilities to adjust to his social and physical environment. It is society
that provides the requisite exposure to its member about his milieu,
behave, to act, to respond, and to learn his roles, rights and duties.
1) The most acceptable definition of culture has been given by E.B.Taylor:

“Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society”. The main characteristics of culture are that it is learned
and social. It is passed from one generation to another. Further, it has
developed over a long period of time and has experienced number of changes.
Culture unites the members of the society by giving them common meanings
and a sense of common identity.
1) It is the co-existence of several sub-cultures within a given society on

equal terms. The validity of such sub-cultures is recognized by the
larger society.
In a society, people belonging to different subcultures have different

ways of life, but they form a part of the whole. Each sub-culture has
distinctive features expressed in the form of the separate language,
food, dress, norms, values and other cultural patterns. Plural cultures
have their own identity and are generally spread over loosely defined
territorial areas. Sometimes, the boundaries of one sub-culture may
touch the boundaries of other sub-culture. It may not be possible to
clearly say where one sub-culture ends and the other sub-culture
begins, but after traveling a little distance within that area, the
distinctive features of the sub-culture appear and make it apparent.
UNIT 3 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
*
Mr. Joseph Vaeghese
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Social Stratification: theoretical Understanding
3.3 Concept of Class
3.4 Concept of Caste and its Characteristics
3.5 Caste and Social Change
3.6 Impact of Caste System on Indian Society
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will introduce to you the concept and consequences of social
stratification, specially in the Indian context. We will be specially focusing
on Indian society. Differences in wealth and prestige in Indian society has
been a major concern of social reformers political leaders and policy makers.
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
 the concept of social stratification, class, caste and its various

dimensions;
 changes in the caste system and factors responsible for that; and
 impact of caste on Indian society.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Man has always desired an egalitarian society where all human beings have
equality but this noble ideal has never been fully achieved in recorded history
and certainly not in modern societies which are more concerned about equality
than any other societies. The indicators of development devised by national
and international organisations show that inequalities have, in fact, increased
within countries and between the countries during the last century.
A number of agencies at different levels are engaged in reducing economic

and social equalities. The modem state has taken the major responsibility for
reducing social inequalities. International organisations like UNDP, World
Bank, and Asian Development Bank also plays major role in policy
formulation and mobilization of resources to reduce poverty. Voluntary
*
Mr. Joseph Varghese, IGNOU, New Delhi
organizations are increasingly involved in the implementation of development
programmes whose major purpose is to reduce poverty and empower people.
Needless to say these efforts have been only partially successful. There are
number of Government sponsored programmes like MGNREGA, NRLM,
Social Security Schemes etc. for the development of people and through it the
development of the community.
Social workers have a special interest in social stratification. Social work aims
at improving social functioning of individuals, groups and communities. The
type and pattern of social stratification in a society greatly influences
individual and group behaviour. For example, a caseworker will have to deal
with an individual who fears loss of status after a series of business losses.
Information on the class and caste status is this important to understand the
social background of the individual. Similarly groups for doing group work are
often formed on the basis of these criteria. In community organisation the need
is even more as opportunities for development in Indian society depend on the
class and caste position of the respective community. Bringing together all the
communities to the forefront is an unavoidable responsibility of social workers
who are working in the field of community organization and community
development.
3.2 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: THEORETICAL

UNDERSTANDING
Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people
in a hierarchy. In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater
status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are what lead to social
stratification. Social stratification can be defined as the arrangement of groups of
individuals in hierarchical positions on the basis of criteria like wealth, prestige,
ethnicity, gender and power. Because of the similarity of their positions in the social
structure they develop a common consciousness of whom they are, what their
common problems are and what should be done to remove these problems. Social
stratification is a major form of social inequality. Sociologists point out that in
complex industrial countries like U.S.A. the main type of social inequality is
individual based inequality and profession based inequality. Lists have been prepared
to show the public perceptions of the relative prestige attached to various
occupations. One such list shows the medical doctor on the top with the sweeper the
bottom. The social worker has a middle rank.
The quick mobility of individuals disturbs the arrangement of status in the hierarchy
and this prevents the development of group consciousness. For the development of
group consciousness, it is important that there is stability in the social structure and
that individuals remain in a group for a considerable amount of time and that the
avenues for social mobility are limited. In India class and caste are the main factors of
social stratification, about which we will now learn.
There are two prominent social thinkers who have enriched our understanding of the
nature, types and consequences of social stratification: Karl Marx and Max Weber.
Marx’s analysis of society gives an important role to the economic factor. According
to his theory of class, a class consists of a group of people who have similar relations
to the forces of production. For example, in modem societies, all individuals who
own factories are capitalists and all individuals who work in these factories for wages
are workers. Similarly in an agrarian society individuals who own land can be called
feudal lords and those who work for them are serfs or labourers. He also believed that
the interests of these different groups were irreconcilable, which means that one gains
at the expense of others. The result was that the workers, laborers or slaves were
always exploited by the capitalists, feudal lords or slave owners in their respective
societies. All other institutions in society, religious, political or educational, helped
the process of exploitation through various means. For example, religion preaches
fatalism, which convinces people that their suffering cannot be prevented and that
passive suffering can bring them heavenly rewards after their deaths. Similarly the
government puts down with coercion, attempts by the poorer sections to demand
justice in economic opportunities by calling it a law and order problem or rebellion.
In the Indian context, a Marxist analysis would interpret caste and the kanna theory
associated with it as justifying the exploitative relations between the landlord and
serfs. They prevent the serfs from understanding that the landlord is exploiting him
and this prevents him from fighting the exploitative system. Thus Marx places before
us the theory of economic basis of social inequality.
Max Weber, another prominent thinker, agreed with many ideas of Marx but differed
on others issues. He agreed with Marx that the most important dimension of
stratification is economic which results in formation of the hierarchical system of
class but he points out that there are other factors which determine social
stratification. According to him there are three dimensions of stratification: wealth,
status and power. Weber also asserted that class formation did not depend solely on
ownership of productive forces. It depended on the market situation by which an
individual could realize his potential in competition with others. For example, a
reputed lawyer or a doctor may not own a field or an industry but he has specialized
skills, which not many others have. That is why these professionals are paid lucrative
salaries. Weber points out that if the market situation of the individual is good then
the person can become wealthy and consequently gains membership into the upper
class. Status is the second dimension of stratification and it is a measure of prestige
the society gives to an individual and that depends on the lifestyle of the person. A
person who occupies a high office would be respected because of his status and not
because of his economic position. The third dimension is power which is the ability
of the individual to influence the actions of others against their own will. For example
a village community leader may neither be rich nor occupying a high office but his
position as leader of the community gives him power. Weber agrees that in most
cases, all three dimensions, wealth, status and power are interrelated. A person who
enjoys wealth and power is likely to enjoy high status. This is however true of most
cases but not in all cases. For example-a dalit may be skilled and well to do but may
not be given the respect he deserves because of his caste background. Weber by
adding these dimensions of stratification has enabled a broader understanding of
social stratification.

b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this
unit.
1) What are the dimensions of social stratification according to weber?

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3.3 CONCEPT OF CLASS

A social class is a group of individuals who have more or less similar wealth.
The possession of wealth enables the individual to obtain those goods and services
that are scarce and are valued by others. These goods and services differ from society
to society. In traditional society, the wealthy person may buy land and gold while in
modem society he may invest in the stock market or buy luxurious cars or go aboard
for vacations. Wealth allows the person to create more wealth if he/she invests it
prudently.
Concept of Class and its Characteristics
Most modem societies have class-based stratification. However many features of

traditional stratification may be observed in modem societies such as elements of
caste system and feudalism found in India. But with economic development, class
based stratification is becoming increasingly important. Some of the major
characteristics of the class system are as follows-
Class is a Relatively Open Stratification System
Any society is said to be relatively open or closed depending on the number of

opportunities available to its members for upward social mobility. Equally important,
is attitude of the society towards the mobility of its members. If the society offers a
large number of opportunities and encourages members to achieve higher positions
then the society can be called as an open stratification society. On the other hand, if
the society has a limited number of opportunities for upward mobility and its
normative values prohibit its members from achieving higher positions, that society is
called a closed stratification society. Along with development the system of
stratification becomes open and achievement oriented.
The class system is a form of open stratification system. An individual with his
achievements can gain entry to a higher class and acquire prestige. There are
examples of individuals who by their hard work and achievements rose from poverty
and became millionaires. Modem society appreciates such individuals as they are
seen as models for others.
Social mobility in modem societies is based on intelligence, merit, competence and

achievement of individuals. However, in every society, inspite of the openness,
factors like socio-economic background, parental status and resources, social
networks and various ascribed factors play an important role in determining
individual motivation, achievement and the availability of opportunities. Since these
factors are not in control of the individual and cannot be easily modified to his
advantage it cannot be said that modem societies are fully achievement oriented and
open. That is why we have said class based societies are relatively open, that is, in
relation to other societies. We will shortly study the caste system, which is a
relatively closed stratification system.
Social hierarchy in traditional societies is formed by ascription while in class based

societies achievement plays an important role. In other words, the difference between
traditional and modern social hierarchies, lies in the difference between (status
ascribed and status achieved ) being the bases social stratification. Traditional social
hierarchies are based on ascribed states, while modem social hierarchies are based on
achieved status.
The level of competition in modem society is high and only the fittest can survive.
Social workers have to remember two consequences of an achievement based society.
Since achievement is stressed, failures of an individual are look down upon by others
and they lose their self-esteem. You may have read in newspapers about school
children committing suicide after failing in school exams. It is the desire for high
achievement and fulfilling the high expectations of others that pressurize vulnerable
students to take this extreme step. Secondly, an achievement based society should
provide the minimum facilities of health, education and housing to individuals to
make them fit for the competition. In countries like India, we find that these essential
facilities are not provided to all and many people are unable to compete with others
on an equal basis. This makes the social situation unfair to these people. The
government and voluntary organisations implement welfare and development
programmes to enable disadvantaged people to enter the mainstream of society.
Impact of Class System in India
Membership of particular class groups influences the behaviour of its members. It

makes them conscious about their position in society. But in the Indian context more
importance is given to caste and related issues rather than class factors. The class
character in India is quite different from Western societies. Here class and caste
categories co-exist in India and class categories like upper, middle and lower are
parallel to caste categories. They jointly determine the class status, power and
prestige of the individual in the society. Studies have shown that the upper classes
predominantly belong to the upper castes which are an ascribed status. There have
been significant changes in the last decades but the pattern still continues.
The accumulation and distribution of resources including education is determined by

the social position of the individual. Those who are higher in terms of the class and
caste terms control available resources to a great extent, leaving behind a section of
Indian population below and around the poverty line The forces of globalization and
liberalization seem to have widened the gap between the haves and have-nots,
between the rich and the poor, between urban people and rural people and the upper
caste and the lower class and lower caste.
3.4 CONCEPT OF CASTE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Caste is a much debated topic in India. The word ‘cast’ refers to the Spanish word
‘Casta’ which means ‘breed’ in Spanish. In the Indian context it represents caste and
its related social practice. The caste system influences the social life of the Indian in a
number of ways, as it assigns ascribed status to its members.
According to the Rig Veda the oldest and most important of all the four Vedas, there
are four Varnas which are placed in a hierarchical order-the Brahmans, the
Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The profession of brahmans is that of
priests and teachers. The Kshatriyas are warriors and rulers. The Visahyas (Vis) are
traders and other common people. The Shudras occupy the lowest position in the
hierarchy and perform the menial tasks. According to some historians there is a fifth
Varna, the untouchables, and they are not considered as a part of the society. The
tribes and people of other religions are also considered outside the Varna system.
Individuals are born into a caste and membership of a caste is determined by birth.
An individual cannot change his or her caste. But there are instances where castes as
a whole, after an improvement in economic status and changes in lifestyles have
claimed a higher status in society. Such claims mayor may not be accepted. The
dominant castes might react adversely to the claim. But even if the claim is accepted
the caste system remains intact. However the process of Sanskritization, inter caste
marriage and advancement of education has changed the degree of the rigidity of the
caste system in India.
According to G.S. Ghurye, a noted anthropologist, caste has six characteristics:

Hierarchy: Hierarchy is superior-subordinate relationship between various
individuals and groups. Hierarchy in one form or another exists in every society but
the principle of determining the hierarchy differs from society to society. In India
caste is the main bases of social hierarchy. The degree of ritual purity and impurity
associated with a particular caste determines its position in the hierarchy. Wealth and
power are not the determining factors. For example a Brahmin whose economic
status is lower than a Rajput is accorded a superior position because of his higher
ritual status.
In reality, however, political and economic factors do play a significant role in

determining the position of the caste. Sociologists have pointed out that high ritual
status does not actually translate into higher social status. For example, while a
Rajput may not have as important role in ritual matters as the Brahmins, it is unlikely
that he will give a higher status to the Brahmin in other matters.
According to sociologist, M. N. Srinivasan a dominant caste is that caste in the

community that has a sufficiently high ritual status, numerical strength, and material
resources like land, wealth and access to power. It is the combination of these factors
which keeps a caste high in the hierarchy. The dominant caste often has a major role
to play in the village politics and in its social life.
Segmented Division of Society: Castes are well-developed groups with membership

based on birth and not by selection. The rights and duties of the individuals are
controlled by caste councils, which exist in every caste. These councils have large
powers to regulate the social life of its members. They can enforce order by
punishing offenders for a variety of offences. Offences include adultery, causing
injury to others; killing and punishments can include the imposition of fines, ordering
corporal punishment and even the death sentence. Many castes have their own gods
and goddesses that are not a part of the larger religious tradition. Thus caste has a
sufficient degree of autonomy in dealing with the issues related to its members, and is
independent of the controls by the government.
Restrictions on Feeding and Social Intercourse: The exchange of cooked food

between various castes is based on specific rules and conditions. Certain castes accept
only certain kind of foods from members of other castes. Food items are divided into
pakka and kacha. Pakka is cooked in ghee and are considered superior to kacha food
which is cooked in water. A Brahmin can take only pakka food from Kshatriys and
Vaishyas but not from Shudras and untouchables. On the other hand, Kshatriyas will
take kacha food from Brahmin but only accept pakka food from the Vaishyas who are
lower than them. The distinctions in the offering and taking of food are based on the
positions of the caste involved. Similar differences are seen in the occupation also.
Occupations also have been divided among the castes based on their status.
Such kinds of differences are seen in the maintenance of social distance between
different castes. The physical distance between castes reflects the caste positions. For
example in traditional Kerala society, a Nayar may approach a Nambudri but cannot
touch him whereas a member of the Tiya caste (lower than the Nayar caste) has to
maintain a distance of 36 steps from the Nambudri.
Civil and Religious Disabilities and Privileges of Different Castes: Different castes
in the hierarchy have different rights and privileges. The result is that social life is
segregated on the basis of caste. In north Indian villages impure castes are segregated
while pure castes live together. In South India all castes tend to be segregated. In
Tamil Nadu for example, we find that the place where caste Hindus live are called Ur
and where dalits live are called Cheri. The Cheri is situated at a distance from the
village.
Ghurye gives a number of instances from the late ninetieth century and early
twentieth century to show to how these disabilities were enforced. For instance in
Viakom, a town in the princely state of Travancore, Shudras were disallowed from
walking on the temple streets. A nationwide agitation by prominent leaders like
Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar against these discriminatory practices changed the
situation. Similarly in Pune, a Shudra could not enter the city during the morning and
evening as their long shadows would pollute high caste members. We also find
differential treatment in the punishments for committing similar crimes. For example
if caught stealing a Brahmin had to pay only a fine but for the same crime, a Shudra
had to undergo corporal punishment.
The religious practices reinforced this hierarchy and Shudras had liabilities that were
attached to his caste status. They could not enter the most part of the temple, the
sanctum sanctorum. Only Brahmins were allowed this privilege. In rural areas, even
now, there is discrimination against lower caste members. We often hear of caste
violence after lower caste members were disallowed by higher caste members to take
out a marriage procession or funeral procession on the main street
Lack of Unrestricted Choice of Occupation:
Membership of the caste is hereditary and each caste had a traditionally assigned
occupation. Regardless of the individual’s aptitudes and skills he had to adopt the
occupation of his caste. In the same way every occupation was linked to a specific
caste. So each caste has one occupation and that occupation was the presence of that
caste only. For example, only a Brahmin could become a priest because of his birth in
a Brahmin family. Education was given on the basis of caste. Young members would
be attached to older members to train them in the occupation skills of the caste. There
was no universal and common education. However, sociologists have pointed out that
inspite of such restrictions on occupations there were certain occupations like
weaving, agriculture and military that were open to all castes.
In pre-modem times the economic relations between the various castes was in the
form of the jajmani system. Each service caste performed a particular function for the
landlords. They used to receive payment in kind and commonly on an annual basis.
The service castes and the higher castes had a client-patron relationship. In modem
times their relation has undergone a change.
Endogamy: Endogamy refers to the marriage practice in which the members of a

group marry from within the group members. Endogamy is an important
characteristic of the caste system. In many castes there is endogamy at the subcaste
level. For example, Iyers and Iyengars may not marry between each other even
though both are Tamil Brahmins.
There are however exceptions to the rule. These exceptions pertain to hypergamy and
hypogamy. When a higher caste man marries a low caste women it is called
hypergamy and when a lower caste man marries a higher caste woman it is call
hypogamy. Hypergamy is allowed whereas hypogamy is strictly forbidden. It is a
matter of prestige for the lower caste family if their daughter had been accepted by a
higher caste’s man and family. An example of this practice is marriage between a
male Nambudri and a Nair woman.
Caste in other Religions
Among the major religions of the world caste exists only in Hinduism. But in India
adherents of virtually all religions seem to have caste- like divisions. The Muslims,
the Christians, the Buddhists and Sikhs, seems to follow the principle of inclusion
and hierarchy in different ways. Islam and Christianity believe in radical equality
between its members. However, the existence of caste-like practices shows that in
some aspects the social milieu in which a religion is practiced influences it more than
its theology. Similar is the case in Sikhism and Buddhism also.
Caste-like differences may be observed in religions other than Hinduism. In Sikhism,

there are groups like Jat Sikhs and Mazhabi Sikhs. They do not intermarry. In Islam
four groups were identified that can be compared to castes: Syeds, Sheikhs, Pathans
and Mughals. Syeds claim that they are descendants of Prophet Muhammad while
Sheikhs claim that they are descendants of the tribe of Prophet Muhammad. Pathans
and Mughals are considered to be the warrior class comparable to Kshatriyas in
Hinduism. Other groups in Islam are based on professions they pursue like weavers
butchers, water carriers, etc. These groups are considered lower in status than Syeds,
Sheikhs, Pathans and Mughals. Most of these groups are endogamous. There is
limited social intercourse between these members. However anyone from any social
group, if competent in religious knowledge, can become a priest or moulvi..
Christianity is also an egalitarian religion and has encouraged conversions of people

from all castes during different periods of history. Many of these castes have retained
their caste identities even after their conversion to Christianity and this has influenced
their social behaviour. However, Islam and Christianity have no concept of pollution
and purity, which is central to Hinduism. Hence these religions were less influenced
by caste than Hinduism.
1) What are the characteristics of the caste system in India?

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3.5 CASTE AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Though caste is considered a static system, it has undergone changes because of the
forces of modernisation, as discussed below.
Caste and Industrialization
The process of industrialization has affected traditional Indian society in a number of

ways. It has particularly affected the caste system. The most significant change has
been the gradual ‘shift from caste categories to class categories, particularly in the
urban areas. The traditional form of exchange of goods In Indian society was by the
jajmani system. The Jajmani system was based on client-patron relations in which the
lower castes provided services to the upper caste members in exchange for annual
payment in form of goods.
Industrial development has increased the use of inanimate sources of energy and
increased the size of the market. The growth of industries increased the employed
workers who exchanged their labour for wages. The site of production of goods
changed from houses of the manufacturer to that of the factories which were owned
by the capitalists. As industrialisation spread, the movement of workers from the
primary and household sector to the secondary and formal sectors increased.
Industrial development changed the social and economic relations between the
various castes. The services castes often found employment which changed their
status and their incomes. Industries also brought individuals from different castes
together at the site of work and social distance between castes was not maintained
here. Further workers in the industry were selected and promoted on the basis of skill
and hard work, and not based on astrictive factors like caste etc. Gradually
employment in industries changed the relationship between caste, education and
occupations. Inspite of these changes, caste networks continue to affect the
recruitment into industries and other modern organisations. As a result the modern
economic system is not totally free from the effects of caste.
Caste System and Urbanisation
Closely related to industrialisation is the social phenomenon of urbanisation which is

the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. Urban living promoted
anonymity and formal relations between individuals. Major occupations in urban
areas are related to the secondary and tertiary sectors. Employment opportunities in
these sectors are based on the skills, hard work, education and training of the person
and not on his/ her caste.
Social life in urban areas is also different from that in rural areas. Ritual purity and
social distance cannot be maintained. For example no one can ask the person sitting
next to her or him in the bus what her caste in. Similarly, no one knows the cook’s
caste in a hotel and therefore rules regarding cooking could not be followed. All these
factors have weakened the caste system in urban areas.
Caste and the Political System
The Indian Constitution is based on liberal values such as equality, liberty, fraternity,
secularism and citizenship. The basic unit for political participation is the individual.
Caste system is based on values totally antithetical to these values. Inequality,
segmentation, restricted choice of occupation are the values of the caste system. The
Indian Constitution gives every individual the right to vote; right to participate in
elections. Some of the important articles that deal with equality and prevention of
discrimination are Articles 14, 15, 16, and 17. All jobs are open to all members of
society provided they are qualified and compete with others on an equal basis.
These factors had a large impact on the caste system and traditional roles and leaders.
For some years after independence, the elite men mainly, belonging to the upper caste
dominated politics, but by 1980s backward castes and dalits made their presence felt
in the political arena. Democracy is a representative form of government and
therefore increasing inclusion of these groups in the power structure has made Indian
democracy stronger and at the same time democracy has weakened the caste system
in its traditional form.
Caste System and Social Movements
Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Dr. Ambedkar,
Periyar, Narayana Guru and others have lead a number of social movements to
remove the oppressive caste system.
There are reformist and revolutionary types social movements. Mahatma Gandhi,
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Narayana Guru belonged to the first category who
believed that the caste system can be changed slowly and from within the system.
The reformist suggests that for reform in the caste system a change of heart among
the high castes and provision of educational facilities for the lower castes is
necessary. On the other hand, radicals like Ambedkar, Phule and Periyar believed that
the caste system had to be abolished completely and its continuation in any form will
lead to exploitation and oppression. They suggested the organisation of social
movements, agitation and use of law to fight oppression of the caste system. These
two types of movements influence the approach of many voluntary organisations
even now when they have to decide how to deal with problems related to the caste
system.
Caste and Ideology
The Western enlightened ideas based on rationality and reason reached India during
colonial period. Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism and Nationalism were the more
prominent of these ideologies. During colonial era the British managed the education
system. Most Indian intellectual elite were educated by this system and internalized
these values. Many of them, through a variety of ways, tried to modernize the
traditional Indian society.
Caste and Modern Education
Traditional education was ascriptive based while modem education is achievement

oriented. Various castes provided training to the younger members mainly by making
them apprentices to master craftsmen of the same caste.
Modem education, on the other hand, gives universal and scientific education so that
they can have access to diverse occupational opportunities.
The modem education system inculcates values of equality, fraternity, liberty and
social justice in the students. Further; students come together in modem schools for
studying and interact freely with each other. The values imparted by the education
system and their experience of interaction with students from different castes have
weakened the hold of caste values on the minds of the students.
In modem times education has become open but expensive. High quality education is
not available to all, particularly the poorer sections of the society, including most of
the SC/ ST population. Since they are educationally deprived, they are not
empowered by education. There is a need for the provision of quality education tor all
so that these sections are empowered. There is a reservation for SC/ST children in
educational institutions and for courses. Special grants and scholarships are also
provided to these sections for their educational empowerment by the State and
Central Governments. Besides these exclusive schools, hostels etc. are also granted
for them. So we can’t find a huge deprivation and discrimination in this area as on
now. The avenue of foreign education is also open for them who can avail it. There is
an independent commission constituted for scheduled castes and scheduled tribesby
the Central Government to ensure the rights, welfare and wellbeing of these sections.
3.6 IMPACT OF CASTE SYSTEM ON INDIAN SOCIETY

The caste system has weakened but it has certainly not vanished. It has been
transformed and found new functions for itself in modem society. Now we shall see
how the caste system has changed and adapted itself to modem society.
Compartmentalization of Individual Life
The influence of caste is reduced in certain areas of the individual’s life. Eating,
habits and social interactions are areas where the influence of the caste system was
high but is now minimal. But in other areas, like choice of bride or bridegroom for
marriage and social networking caste still plays an important role. This is true mainly
of the urban areas while in rural· areas the situation is different. Many of the
traditional aspects of the caste system are prevalent there. The way caste influences
social life differs from region to region.
Decline of Caste in the Ritual Sphere
Ideas of impurity and purity are not given much importance by people today. Not
many people believe that touching a low caste person or eating with him will pollute
them. Therefore it can be said that the religious justification for caste system has
reduced if not totally ended.
Caste as a Social Network
Castes have become a basis for forming a network to gain resources. Caste
associations are frequently used to get jobs, get promotions, access to goods and
services, to develop business networks and influence decision-making in government
and elsewhere. The mobilization of people takes place on the basis of caste to further
caste interests. Sociologists have pointed out that even movements related to farmers’
demands which do not overtly seem to be caste related are based on the caste
networks.
Earlier caste councils, which were recognized by the government and the people,
used to have vast judicial power to control individual behaviour. But now these
councils use informal power and informal enforcement to settle disputes.
Caste Consciousness and Community Consciousness
Caste is still the basis for defining and maintaining the identity of the person. Caste
identity of the individual comes in conflict with the individual’s identification with
the larger community. The caste-based identities adversely affect the unity of the
people and at times hinder the people from taking collective action. Further caste has
played a role in adversely affecting the distribution of rewards of the community
development programme. The dominant castes have benefited from the various
development programmes at the cost of other castes. Social movements which had
positive aims have also been affected. Bhoodhan movement meant to resolve
community conflicts peacefully could not succeed because of struggle among various
castes on the issue of resources distribution.
These experiences have led many to conclude that a common community

consciousness does not exist in Indian villages. What does exist is caste
consciousness and caste identities. The concept of ‘community’ is a myth. As a social
worker you must be able to find ways in which the development programmes you
implement benefit the target populations.
Caste Consciousness Leads to Violence
Castes based social formations are conflict prone. This is a natural consequence of the
intense caste consciousness and strong identification of caste members with each
other. A lower caste member is not allowed to sit on a horse during a marriage
procession, the low caste members are disallowed to vote; lower caste members are
not allowed entry into the village or to travel on certain roads; low caste members are
disallowed from participating in temple festivals; a girl is teased by men of other
castes. These unjust practices in the past were passively accepted by the lower castes.
However, now-a-days there is resistance to these practices by the lower castes due to
the rising class-consciousness among them that leads to violence.
These violent incidents have their roots in the unequal conditions prevalent in the
area such as unequal distribution of resources, the need for the dominant castes to
keep lower castes in their place, the growing consciousness of the lower caste; about
their low status and the need to respond to the situation, the apathy of the state
machinery towards these sentiments.
Caste has also led to Structural Violence
Structural violence refers to violence in which pain is not directly inflicted on other
but laws and rules are so formed that it hurts the dignity of the person and causes
mental pain. Untouchability is the most virulent form of structural violence, which
hurts the dignity of the person against whom it is practiced. It also makes everyday
life hard for the person. Lower caste members are not allowed entry into certain
common facilities like schools and temples and not allowed to use common
resources. Lower caste woman are not allowed to draw water from the village well
and they have to travel long distances to get water. Certain jobs like cooks in mid day
scheme of the government are not given to dalits as it is believed that they are
polluting the food. As mentioned earlier, the religious aspect of caste has declined but
some people seem to justify untouchability by saying that the lower castes are
physically unclean.
Caste has Caused Problems in Modern Organisation
Caste loyalties cause problems in modern organisations. Very often people are
selected on the basis of caste rather than merit. This has had an adverse impact on the
performance and productivity of the organisation. The presence of caste interferes in
creating an esprit de corps in organizations. Just like the village communities· that are
divided on the basis of caste, modern organisations are also divided on the basis of
caste. At present there is a community consolidation for vote bank and some
particular groups have come up with their own political parties. Caste organisations
have very crucial influence during elections in determining the victory.
Caste has interfered in Uniform Application of Laws and Rules
Modem rules and laws are rationally formulated and apply to all citizens regardless of
his or her social background except when exceptions are allowed by it. Such a
universalistic application of laws is a major requirement in modem democracy. But
caste considerations are not in conformity with universalism.
There are differences in the viewpoints of the upper castes and lower castes, on how
the caste system is affecting them. According to the upper caste view point,
reservations and the rise of the lower castes’ in different fields has put them in a
disadvantageous position. On the other hand the lower castes viewpoint is that as
upper castes occupy strategic positions in the society they are victimized. There is a
continuous conflict between the top and the bottom views of castes. The politicians
make use of this to further their own interests. However in every caste category a
dominant section has emerged which enjoys the available opportunities at the cost of
others. Sociologists have identified some of the positive impact caste has had on
Indian society.
It has promoted plurality in India and at the same time provided the social structure to
integrate the society. Castes have different value system, different life styles, different
occupations and subsequently different interests and this has led to political and
cultural pluralism. Different value systems give rise to different opinions, which can
encourage a diversity of opinions. No single group can dominate the political and
cultural field. Every group has to negotiate with other groups so that their objectives
are attained. Political scientists have said this condition contributes significantly in
making Indian democracy active and vibrant.
It is also claimed that the caste system in its traditional form leads to stability in
society. Kings and dynasties have come and gone but the village communities did not
experience any major change. It is debatable whether the absence of change is a
positive aspect. In any case historians have disputed the view that there has been no
major change in Indian society down the centuries. Another advantage mentioned is
that the caste system provided a person with social security as his occupation was
fixed and in case of distress his fellow caste members would come to his rescue. But
these advantages are mainly those that are found in a traditional society, not in a
modern one.
Note: a) Use the Space Provided for your answer.

1) Name two factors which influenced the caste system in the modern
period.
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3.7 LET SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the different aspects related to social stratification which
is the division of society into groups, which are hierarchically placed, based on one or
more criteria. In modern societies stratification is based on wealth, status and power.
The amount of wealth individual possesses determines which class he/ she belongs
to; the prestige given to him/her, position in society, his/her position in organizations
will determine how much power he/she has.
The two bases of stratification in India are that of class and caste. The changes in the
caste system and its impact on Indian society have been discussed. The social
worker’s own personality may be influenced by these ideas and his/ her practice is
influenced by his/ her position in the society. The social worker’s prejudices should
not come in the way of his/ her practice. Secondly, in all his programmes he/she
should keep in mind the caste and class factor and its influence on the clients.
3.8 KEY WORDS
Social role : the expected patterned behaviour of an

individual occupying a particular status
position.
Status : A social position within a society.
Capitalism : A group of people, with similar interests

or concerns who interact and remain in
informal contact for mutual assistance or
support.
Bhoodan movement : Movement started by Vinoba Bhave to

convince landlord to give excess land to
the landless. This movement was an
attempt to solve the problem of landless
in rural areas without violence.

Ghurye (1986), Caste and Race in Modern India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Gupta, Dipankar (1993), Social Stratification, Oxford

University Press, New Delhi.
Haralamboss, Michael (!989), Sociology, Themes and Perspectives, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
Kolenda, Pauline (1997), Caste in Contemporary India, Beyond organic Solidarity,
Rawat Publications, Jaipur.
Stern, Robert (1998), Changing India, Cambridge University Press, New

Delhi.
1) The dimensions of social stratification according to Weber were

wealth, status and power. The amount wealth an individual possesses
determines his class and his life chances. The status of the person
depends on the lifestyle of the individual person’s ability to control
other people’s behaviour and in modern societies it can be derived
from the position held in an organization.

1) The characteristics of the caste system are a hierarchical relationship
between various groups, ascriptive status, endogamy, fixed
occupations, restrictions on social intercourse, civil and religious
disabilities and privileges of different sections and segmented divisions
of society.
1) Industrialization and the introduction of universal adult franchise

(voting rights) are two factors which influenced the caste system.
UNIT 4 THE STATE AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION: ITS
ROLE AND IMPACT ON THE INSTITUTIONS
*
Mr. Sundara Babu & Mr. Gauthama Prabu
Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 State
4.3 Constitution and Law
4.4 Legislature, Executive and Judiciary
4.5 Citizenship, Rights and Duties
4.6 Democracy, Elite Theory and Power
4.7 Welfare State: Liberty, Equality, Justice
4.8 Nationalism: Religion, Caste and Class
4.9 Civil society, Community Organisations, Social Capital
4.10 Local Governance and Public Opinion
4.11 Let Us Sum Up
4.12 Key Words
1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress.
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to make you familiar with the concept of state as an institution and
its impact on other institutions of society.
After going through the unit, you will be able to understand:
 The role and importance of the state in modern society;

 The various wings of the government;
 The importance of constitution and law; and
 The concepts of civil society, social capital, elite and public opinion.
*
Mr. Sundara Babu, JNU, New Delhi & Mr. Gauthama Prabu, Young Professinal, CAPART
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the concept of the state as an institution, its impact on other societal institutions. It
also provides basic information on many other concepts associated with the state and politics.
The modern state is a complex set of institutions, which are highly integrated and structured. The persons
comprising the state are not treated as individuals but as citizens or voters. Since the laws provide them
equality, all citizens are ideally speaking (and this is provided in our constitution as well) treated equally
with rights and privileges. The state has built up a web of institutions to administer and govern. The
government is composed of individuals and officials occupying these institutions who derive their
authority from their office.
4.2 STATE
A community or society politically organised under one independent government within a definite
territory can be called a State. The state is a special institution, which serves the interest of the whole
community, or a class of society. The state emerges at a definite stage of social development, and in order
to understand the state, social evolution, in general, must be understood first. Without understanding the
general laws of social development, the state and politics cannot be studied objectively.
Population
All states must have a population. No explicit or fixed figure can be considered as the ideal size of
population. There is no rule or political practice governing the number of persons necessary to entitle a
community to recognition as a State. Some writers in the past have, however, undertaken to lay down
within broad lines certain principles, which should determine the size of the population, necessary for the
existence of a State, and some have even assumed to fix exactly the minimum and the maximum number
of inhabitants, but manifestly any such rule would be arbitrary.
Territory
Territory is another essential physical constituent of the State. Territory of the State consists not only of a
definite portion of land, but also includes water and air space within its boundary. It also extends in
addition to a distance of three miles into the sea from its coast, an area called ‘the territorial waters’. The
state boundaries may be natural that is, they may be bodies of water, mountain ranges, and deserts, or
artificial like stones, trenches, walls etc. There is no rule or practice concerning the extent of territory
necessary to constitute the home of a State, more than there is, regarding the amount of population.
Government
A mere mass of people occupying a practical portion of territory does not constitute a State until the
people have organised themselves politically, and established a civil government. There must be some
political agency that commands and regulates the governed who obeys. The government exercises the
authority of the State. Government is a narrower term than the State, being only part of it. The State
includes both the government and the governed. The government is the established form of political
administration of a State.
Sovereignty
It means the supreme and ultimate power of the State by virtue of which it may command and enforce
obedience. It is this, which distinguishes the State from all other associations and organisations.
Sovereignty is characteristic of the State, not of the government, though the government on behalf of the
State may exercise it. There can be no State without sovereignty.
International Recognition
In reality, international recognition is the outcome of the sovereignty of the State, not the condition of its
existence. States are sometimes defined as those entities recognized by other States. A State recognizes
another State when its government is convinced that the other State has the characteristic of a State.
Recognition is the voluntary action of one State for another.
Recognition can be of two types: de facto and de jure.

De facto recognition means the State is recognized as existing in fact, but not necessarily in law. De jure
recognition implies that the State is a rightful one, of legitimate origin and existence.
Role of the State and Impact on other Institutions

The State takes the responsibility to provide all the public goods such as education, health care, drinking
water, basic infrastructure in both rural and urban settings, and provide social security, etc.
In India, the Tenth Plan, in this emerging scenario, makes a distinct shift from an investment-oriented
approach to setting a reform agenda designed to achieve the social targets through effective governance.
It relies on the mobilization of the energies of Central and State Governments, Panchayat Raj institutions
and Non-Governmental Organisations for the accomplishment of the clearly spelt out tasks of social
development. Programs intended for the poor or the targeted groups must be delivered to them
effectively. There are many radical changes in the style of functioning of Government and its agencies
have been asked to bring about greater efficiency, transparency and accountability.
4.3 CONSTITUTION AND LAW

The term “law” is applied to rules for the guidance of human conduct.
No group of people can live longer in peace and tranquility without such rules of conduct. Rules need not
essentially require to have been written. These can be in the form of traditions and conventions as well.
The word law has been derived from the term ‘lag' which means something which lies fixed. So it
follows that the ‘law’ in principle which is fixed or uniform or “generally followed”. Gettell has
classified the laws that govern the conduct of human beings under three categories: (i) moral laws (ii)
social laws, and (iii) political laws.
The people generally obey the law because of (a) the force of the State, (b) the promotion of common
good, or (c) rule conforming habit. However, if we genuinely feel that a particular law is unjust, we
should create public opinion against that law. Mahatma Gandhi has shown how the techniques of non-
cooperation and civil disobedience can be used effectively against autocratic regimes.

1) What is a state and what are its basics elements?
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4.4 LEGISLATURE, EXECUTIVE AND JUDICIARY

Legislature
The legislature is the most important of the three organs of the government because it represents the
people and tries to represent their hopes and aspirations in the shape of laws. Legislature is the official
rule making body of a political system.
The Indian Constitution has adopted the parliamentary system of government, a system in which the
executive is responsible to the legislatures constituted by the election.
The primary function of the legislature is to legislate both in the sense of scrutinizing the details of laws
and in the sense of authorizing or legitimizing the passage of laws.
Being a federal polity, legislative organs have been provided in our Constitution at the Union as well as
the State.
Executive
The executive is that part of the organisation of the government, which is concerned with the enforcement
of the laws enacted by the legislature as well as general administration.
With the conversion of the modem state into welfare state, the functions of the executive have
enormously expanded.
The functions which are performed by the executive in different parts of the world are the following:
a) Maintenance of law and order
Protection of country and maintenance of diplomatic relations
b) The enactment of the laws.
c) The chief executive enjoys the right to grant pardon, amnesty, reprieve, etc., to the persons punished
by the law courts.
d) Miscellaneous functions like formulation of national plans for greater prosperity of the country,
distribution of honours and titles to the persons who are distinguished in their respective fields or
render meritorious services to the state.
Judiciary
The judiciary is the most important organ of the government because it is through the judiciary that
justice is realized as defined by law, both as between one private citizen and another and as between
private citizens and members of government.
The term judiciary is generally applied to designate those officers of the government whose function is to
apply the existing law to individual cases.
It is the responsibility of these officers to discover the relevant facts in any case and protect the innocent
from injury by either the legislature or the executive branch of government.
The main functions of judiciary are: (a) administration of justice (b) protection of the rights and liberties
(c) protection and interpretation of the constitution (d) protection of federation, (e) the advisory role to
the executive, etc.
Note: a) Use space provided for your answer.
1) What are the functions of the Executive?

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4.5 CITIZENSHIP, RIGHTS AND DUTIES

Citizenship
In traditional States, most of the population ruled by the King or Emperor showed little awareness of, or
interest in, those who governed them. Neither did they have any political rights nor influence. Normally
only the dominant classes or more affluent groups felt a sense of belonging to an overall political
community.
In modern societies, by contrast, most people living within the borders of the political system are citizens,
having common rights and duties and knowing themselves to be part of a Nation. While there are some
people who are political refugees or are ‘state less’ almost everyone in the world today is a member of a
definite national political order.
Rights
Rights are the social requirements of a social man or woman for the development of his/her personality
and society at large. There are two aspects of rights: personal and social. Rights have a social character
and are given only to the people living in society and working in the overall interest of society.
According to Green ‘a right is a power of acting for his/her own ends ... secured to an individual by the
community on the supposition that it contributes to the good of the community’.
Duties
There are no duties without rights and no rights without duties. A duty means ‘an obligation imposed by
law on an officer or a private person. As such duty presupposes that one is capable of knowing the rules.
Infants, idiots and animals are not supposed to know the rules and to act in accordance with them.
However we attribute rights to infants, idiots and even animals.
4.6 DEMOCRACY, ELITE THEORY AND POWER

Democracy
The term democracy is derived from two Greek words ‘demos’ which means people and ‘kratta’ meaning
the government. The boundaries of democracy have been widened, so as to add social and economic
justice to the principle of political equality. Abraham Lincoln projected democracy as “government of the
people, for the people and by the people.” Democracy is not a mere form of government. It is also a form
or condition of society as well as an order in which the ownership of property is widely and rather evenly
distributed.
Elite Theory
The elite theory was first developed by two Italian sociologists, namely, Vilfredo Pareto and G. Mosca.
Elite theory claims that the personal qualities of individuals separate the rulers from the ruled. The elite
owe their position to the superiority of their personal characteristics or attributes. For example, they may
possess considerable organisational ability, a talent that Mosca believed to be basis for leadership. On the
other hand, they may possess a high degree of cunning and intelligence, qualities that Pareto saw as one
of the prerequisites of power.
Later versions of elite theory place less emphasis on the personal qualities of the powerful and more on
the institutional framework of the society. They argue that the hierarchical organisation of social
institutions allows a minority to monopolize power.
Elite theory rejected the idea of communism as utopia and argues that an egalitarian society was an
illusion. It saw Marxism as ideology rather than an objective analysis of society. Elite theory argues that
all societies are divided into two main groups, a ruling minority, and the ruled and this situation is
inevitable. According to elite theory, if the proletarian revolution occurs, it would merely result in the
replacement of one ruling elite by another.
The economic infrastructure, be it capitalist or communist, will not alter the inevitability of elite rule.
Apart from the personal qualities of its members, an elite owes its power to its internal organisation. In
Mosca’s words, ‘the power of the minority is irresistible as against each single individual in the majority’.
The elite takes major decisions, which affect society. Even in so called democratic societies, these
decisions will usually reflect the concerns of the elite rather than the wishes of the people. Elite theorists
picture the majority as apathetic and unconcerned with the major issues of the day. The mass of the
population is largely controlled and manipulated by the elite, passively accepting the propaganda, which
justifies elite rule.
Power
Power means strength or the capacity to control. It is described as the ability of an individual or group to
fulfill its desires and implement its decisions and ideas. It involves the ability to influence as well as
control the behaviour of others even against their will. Power is a multifaceted concept admitting various
definitions. Some emphasize different bases of power (for e.g.: wealth, status, knowledge, charisma,
force, authority); some others talk of different forms of power such as, influence, coercion or control; yet
others discuss power from the point of view of its uses such as individual or community ends, political
ends, economic ends etc.
In sum the concept of power involves a

a) Relational situation where power is exercised by one or other(s).
b) It is concerned with bringing about a consequence.
4.7 WELFARE STATE: LIBERTY, EQUALITY, JUSTICE

Welfare State
The term welfare state was originally applied to Britain during the Second World War. After the war the
term came into popular usage, as a convenient way of referring to the social and economic policy changes
taking place, which according to those sponsoring them, would transform British society.
There were these main services provided by the Welfare State:
1) The direction and extension of a range of social services, including social security, National Health
Services, Education, Housing, Employment service and welfare services for elderly and disabled
people and for deprived children.
2) The maintenance of full employment as the paramount aim and policy. ‘

3) A Program of Nationalization.
As a response to mass democracy, the welfare state can be viewed as stemming from demands for greater
equality and recognition of social rights to welfare services and socio-economic security.
As in India, the picture of a ‘democratic republic’ which the preamble envisages is the democratic system
not only from the political but also from the social standpoint. In other words, it envisages not only a
democratic form of Government but also a democratic society, infused with the spirit of ‘justice, liberty,
equality and fraternity’.
This democratic republic which stands for the good of all the people is embodied in the concept of a
‘Welfare State’ which inspires the Directive Principles of State Policy.
Liberty
The idea of liberty has been the most powerful weapon in the hands of the unarmed and it has defeated
the strong enemies of dictators and imperialists. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word liber that
means free. Sometimes it is identified with the absence of restraint-a negative meaning. Sometimes it is
identified with the availability of certain socio-economic conditions in which man/woman may develop
their personality-a positive meaning.
Equality
Equality does not mean identical treatment to all. It means proportional equality equal among equals and
inequality among unequals. The basis of treating equals and unequals should be rational and just.
Explaining the meaning of equality, Laski maintains that equality means the following.
1) The end of special privileges in the society

2) Adequate opportunities are laid open to all and each may develop his/ her personality.
3) All must have access to social benefits and no one should be restricted on the ground. The
inequalities by birth or because of parent and hereditary causes are unreasonable.
Justice
In different social systems, there are different conceptions of justice. The main difficulty in defining
justice is that it is not an independent concept. Justice is closely associated with the system of values and
the behaviour of social systems. Every system is governed by certain norms and values and these in turn
determine justice. With the change of time and circumstances values undergo change that brings a change
in the concept of justice also.
Welfare State-The Indian Scenario
During independence, active participation of people in the national democratic process has articulated
itself through mobilization of a plurality of political structures or political parties, which emerge as new
forms of macro structures of social change and modernization in India.
The significance is directly socio-structural since their commitment is primarily to a legitimate access to
sources of power.
A unique feature of political macro-structure in India has been the continuity of a single party (Congress)
dominance in the sphere of political power, which was only partially broken in general elections of 1967.
This provides the historical setting for any analysis of political structure of India in relation to the process
of modernization.
The political framework of modernization is essentially rooted in the changing sources of legitimation of
authority and process of its diffusion and centricity in the social structure.
In a society having a traditional polity, source of power is in the traditionally established and
institutionalized offices of king, chieftains, or priest-rulers who have had access to this office by virtue of
qualities ascribed to them.
The norms, which form the basis of allocation of these political offices, are inequitably distributed on the
hierarchical principle of caste or other similar status groups. The incumbents to political office have an
authoritarian character and conformity to political norms is arbitrary. In the sense that, the sphere of
action, which may be truly be called ‘political’ or which has to do with policy formulation for the nation
or the community as a whole is limited to a selected few, is also traditionally closed. In such a system
authority has a hierarchical character and not consensual. It is undifferentiated from other roles of
incumbencies vis-a-vis their role in power structure.
Education
The state provides the largest number of educational institutions in our country. The state in India,
through its Constitution had laid “permanent provisions” of education for minorities, scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes. Under the permanent provisions of the Indian constitution, no citizen shall be
denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the state or receiving State aid, on
grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them [Article 29(2)].
Further, all minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the fundamental right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice [Art. 30(1)] and the state shall not, in
granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that
it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language [Art. 30(2)].
Finally, it is the duty of the state to provide free and compulsory education (Art. 45.). The state shall
endeavour to raise the level of nutrition and standard of living and to improve public health and to
prohibit consumption of liquor and intoxicating drugs except for medical purposes [Article 47]. Besides
the Government run educational institutions non-Governmental institutions also provide service to all
without discrimination.
4.8 NATIONALISM: RELIGION, CASTE AND CLASS

Nationalism
Nation-States are associated with the rise of Nationalism, which can be defined as a set of symbols and
beliefs providing the sense of being part of a simple political community. Thus, individuals feel a sense
of pride and belonging in being Indian, British, American, Canadian, or Russian.
Probably people have always felt some kind of identity with social groups of one form or another: their
family, village, or religious community. Nationalism, however, made its appearance only with the
development of the modern state.
Culture and Religion
The Indian state plays a significant role in safeguarding the religions. The unity and fraternity of the
people of India, professing numerous faiths has been sought to be achieved by enshrining the ideals of a
‘secular state’ which means that the state protects all religions equally and does not itself impose a state
religion.
This itself is one of the glowing achievement of Indian democracy when her neighbours such as Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Burma, uphold a particular religions as the state religion. In India on the
other hand the state will neither establish a religion of its own nor confer any special patronage upon any
particular religion. The state shall not compel any citizen to pay any taxes for the promotion or
maintenance of any particular religion or religious institutions.
No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly provided by state funds.
Every person is guaranteed the freedom of conscience and the freedom to profess, practice, and propagate
his/her own religion. Where a religious community is in the minority, the constitution goes further to
enable it to preserve its culture and religious interest.
According to Article 29 of the Indian constitution, the state shall not impose upon it any culture other
than the community’s own culture.
Such community shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of its choice and
the state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against such an educational
institution maintained by a minority community on the ground that it is under the management of a
religious community [Art. 30].
Caste and Politics
Caste is gradually taking up new forms and functions, leaving its traditional ones. It has specially become
more influential in the field of public life and politics. It is playing an important role in India in political
matters. A brief discussion follows as to why and how these two institutions have come closer to each
other and with what consequences.
The first and foremost cause of each entering the fields of the other is that social life is the root for both.
Political relationships are essentially social relationships. It is a system of seeking and attaining social and
economic dominance. The political and administrative structures of a country are merely the projections
of the social system and social relationships existing in a particular phase of time. In a society where
interactional pattern and institutional arrangements are dominantly caste ridden, politics cannot but be
influenced by caste.
According to Rajini Kothari ‘those in India who complain of casteism in politics are merely looking for
sort of politics which has no basis in society. They probably lack any clear conception of either the nature
of politics or the nature of the caste system’. The nature of political democracy has brought caste and
politics closer to each other. Politics is a competitive enterprise. Its purpose is the acquisition of power
for the realization of certain goals, and its process is one of identifying and manipulating existing
allegiance in order to mobilize and consolidate positions. Therefore, the core of politics is the
organisation and mobilization of the masses towards some issues by a leader or a party.
Such mobilizations are done based on group considerations and group allegiances, for all the groups
cannot be mobilized on one issue in one direction due to the difference in the fundamental nature and
interest.
Thus, caste, which has divided a society for centuries, serves as the best technique of group mobilization.
The politicians find caste an extremely well articulated and flexible basis for organisation. Since power
and prestige are no more being offered based on caste the lower caste people have naturally been
prompted to accept political involvement as the other means out.
The people of all categories have tried to mobilize public support in their favor by taking caste as a basis
for propaganda since it gives a readymade ground for such mobilization in Indian society. Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, and Bihar provide good examples of a rapid succession of various caste groups into
factional network of politics, which provide the best channels of mobility.
Class and Society
Classes are those social groups, which occupies specific high and low position in a given society. Social
classes arise from the consequence of a division of labor. They are made up of people of similar social
status who regard one another as social equals. Each class is a sub-culture, with a set of attitudes, beliefs,
values and behaviour norms, which differ from those of other classes.
Social classes are based on total social and economic position in the community, including wealth,
income, occupation, education, self-identification, hereditary prestige, group participation, and
recognition by others.
Class lines are not clearly drawn but represent points along a continuum of social status.
The exact size and membership of a given class is difficult to establish. Class sub-cultures prepare
children to retain the status of their parents. The idea of Marx and Weber regarding class are discussed
below.
Karl Marx
For Marx, the term class has a number of different applications, but the essential aspects of Marx’s
general model of social class are clear:
a) Every society has to produce a surplus to feed, house and clothe dependent children, the sick and
the elderly. Class differences begin when one group of people claim resources that are not
consumed for immediate survival as their private property.
b) Classes, therefore, are defined in terms of ownership (or non-ownership) of productive property,
which makes the taking of surplus possible. At different times in human history different forms of
property (e.g.: slaves, water, land, capital) have been crucial in shaping social relationships, but all
class systems are characterized by two major classes. The most important class relationship
according to Marx was that found in capitalism, between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Max Weber
Weber’s analytical conception of class is regarded as the best and most influential alternative theory of
class Unlike Marx, Weber emphasized other factors, which prompted inequality. In particular, he
considered status or honour and prestige as a distinct variable.
He has emphasized the link between class status and power. He argues that a class is a category or a
group of people who share similar’ life chances’. Status achieved is an important factor in determining
the class position. With Marx, he saw ownership and non-ownership as basic criterion, but Weber gives
more importance to noneconomic factors.
Weber also differs from Marx in viewing bureaucracy as a rational and achieved system of power in
modem societies. Weber’s stress on a variety off actors influencing opportunities and rewards has made
his approach to the analysis of class and social stratification very influential in sociological theory.
1) Mention briefly how weber differs from Marx.
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4.9 CIVIL SOCIETY, COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS,

SOCIAL CAPITAL
Civil Society
Broadly, civil society can be conceived as including all public political non-state activity occurring
between government and family. Civil Society comprises all independent voluntary and private sector
activities that include individuals and households, the media, business and civic institutions and
organisations, etc. Civil society organisations have been responsible for advancing political freedom,
safeguarding basic rights, enhancing civil institutions and furthering social development at a much lower
cost than the government. These responsibilities are reflected in the activities of non-governmental
organisations, social movements, community-based people’s organisations, religious groups, peasants
associations, consumer groups and trade unions. The civil society has a special role for those who are
excluded from the formal structures of governance, such as women, the poor, and minorities (ethnic,
religious, racial), civil society institutions often welcome alternatives.
The stronger or more dense and vibrant the civil Society, the better the democracy functions. Civil
Society is a precondition for democracy.
Community Organisations
The community based people’s organisations are also important contributors to good civic governance.
These organisations are defined as democratic organisations that represent the interest of their members
and are accountable to them. The tradition to organize collectively the community based organisations to
deal with community issues has a long history. It is the people themselves who initiate these
organisations and formulate their programmes. Non-governmental organisations are commanding greater
attention within civil society as vehicles for social service delivery, advocacy and empowerment.
Social Capital
Social capital promotes democratization in general, and democratic performance in particular. Social
capital is the ability of people to work together for common purposes in groups and organisations. Social
capital can be defined simply as the existence of a certain set of informal values or norms shared among
members of the group that permit cooperation among them. Social capital involves features of social
organisations such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate cooperation and coordination for
mutual benefit.
Like other forms of capital, social capital is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends
that would not be attainable in its absence. If one wishes to promote democratic governance, one should
support networks and for instance, cooperative community development schemes.
4.10 LOCAL GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC OPINION

Local Self-Governance: Panchayati Raj
Panchayati Raj in the rural self-government system in India. Panchayati Raj system becomes very
important in the Indian context where almost 80 percent of the people reside in rural areas. Panchayati
Raj in India was inaugurated as a consequence of the recommendations of Balwanth Rai Mehta
committee set up in 1957, to study the community development programme and national extension
service launched in 1952 and 1953 respectively.
In 1992, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment was enacted, which gave Constitutional status to Panchayati
Raj institutions. It also makes it obligatory on all the States to have the three-tier system at (a) the village
level, (b) the intermediate level and (c) the district level.
Public Opinion
Public opinion is said to be the basis of democracy. It is the link between the government and the people.
The term public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate of views the people hold regarding
matters that affect or interest them, their community and society. The people’s conceptions of political
personalities, institutions and ideologies matter in the formulation of opinion. In democracy the
continuance and the fall of the governments depend upon public opinion.
Public opinion is created through means/agents like mass media, political parties, pressure groups,
elections,
debates in the legislature, educational institutions, public meetings etc. The press, radio, television and
cinema are some of the several means of carrying political, social and religious ideas to the people. That
is why a lot of emphasis is laid on freedom of press in a democracy.
4.11 LET US SUM UP

The political trends in India since independence have largely been a series of reconciliations like (a) the
demands articulated by regional interest groups, (b) linguistic formation of states in the political realm,
(c) emphasis on mixed economy in the sphere of economic policy, (d) ideology of secularism in religion
and culture, and (e) neutrality in international relationship etc. These are all reflections of predominantly
reconciliatory pattern of political modernization in India.
The reconciliatory approach is also reflected in the adjustment between ‘traditional institutions’ in
politics, caste associations, kinship groups and ethnic solidarities. They have adapted themselves to the
needs of modern democratic political culture in large measure quite successfully and with fewer
distortions.
Some maladjustment is however, natural in the process. However, so far, the reconciliatory orientation of
Indian politics has succeeded in absorbing their shocks because of the natural elasticity of the Indian
institutions and built-in tendency of tolerance in the cultural tradition of India. We may speculate that in
future among the political protest movements threatening the political structure, reconciliatory orientation
will triumph again and again. This might render the place of political modernization of India slow but it
will certainly minimize the cost of social transformation.
4.12 KEY WORDS
Civil Society : It consists of groups, organizations and

institutions, both formal and informal,
which act independently of the State and
the market to promote diverse interests in
the society.
Social Capital : The capital which is obtained from

networks of relationships, trust,
reciprocity and norms that facilitate
collective and coordinated action,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the
community and benefiting the
participating members and the
community at large.
Arora, Prem (1981), Political Science - Comparative Politics,

Cosmos Bookhive Private Limited, New Delhi.
Jain, M.P. (1989), Political Theory, Authors Guild Publications, New Delhi. Mishra, K.K. (1988),
Political Theory, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi. Narang, A.S. (1996), Indian Government and
Politics, Gitanjali Publishing House, New Delhi.
Tayal, B. B. (1990), Political Theory and Indian Democracy, Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.

1) A society politically organized under one independent government within a definite territorial
boundary can be called a State. The main elements of a state are population, territory,
government, sovereignty and international recognition.
1) The main functions of the executive are:
a) Maintenance of law and order

b) Protection of country and maintenance of diplomatic relations
c) The executive also plays a significant role in enactment of the laws.
d) The chief executive enjoys the right to grant pardon, amnesty, reprieve, etc., to the
persons punished by the law courts.
e) Miscellaneous functions like formulation of national plans for greater prosperity of the
country, distribution of honours and titles to the persons who distinguish themselves in
their respective fields or render meritorious services to the state.
1) Weber, unlike Marx, emphasized other factors that prompted inequality, particularly he
considered status and prestige as a distinct variable. Weber stressed divisions within classes and
empirical changes in class boundaries to much greater extent than Marx.
Weber also differs from Marx in viewing bureaucracy as a fundamental nexus of power
in modern societies.

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BSW-122

Society, Social Institutions and Social

Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr.Ranjana Sehgal Prof.

Dr. D.K. Lal Das Dr. Rama V.Baru Prof. A.A.Khan

Dr.P.D.Mathew Dr. Jerry Thomas Dr. R.P.Singh

Dr.AlexVadakumthal Prof. Surendra Singh Dr. RichaChaudhary

Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof.A.B.Bose (Retd.) Prof.Prabha Chawla

Expert Committee (Revision)

Dr. R.R. Patil, Prof. Gracious Thomas, Dr. G. Mahesh,

Content Editor Language Editor Block Editor and

Course Coordinators Unit Transformation Secretarial Assistant

Course Preparation Team (Revision)

Content Editor Block Editor Programme and Course

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 identify, define and describe the various forms of marriage;

However, polygamy as a form of marriage is not as widely prevalent or accepted as

1.2 MARRIAGE INSTITUTION

The Licensing and Ceremony

The formal permission to marry usually required by societies is expressed through

These factors of nearness, attraction of persons with similar personalities, construct

1.3 FAMILY INSTITUTION

1.4 RELATIONSHIP WITHIN THE FAMILY

1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY

2) It is characterized by a recognized actual or blood relationship bond between the

3) The family groups are distinguished by the possession of a residence or series of

b) Training and practice in eating, elimination, reaction to pain, speech,

f) Lastly it is through affiliation with a specific family that persons in society

Sociologists and anthropologists have developed a set of dimensions on which the

2) Forms of Marriage - In a majority of societies, a common form of marriage is

Norms for Selection of a Partner

Patterns of Matrimonial Residence

Residential patterns of married couples are varied in different societies. In societies

Socialization in the Family

Need for Socialization

The question why is socialization necessary for the development of an individual is

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.

1) Define marriage and its various forms.

2) Why is family an important social institution?

1.7 STABILITY IN FAMILY PATTERNS

1.8 ADJUSTMENTS IN MARRIAGE

1.9 CHANGE IN FAMILY PATTERNS

1.10 FAMILY DISORGANIZATION AND DIVORCE

Some of important reasons of family disorganization according to Robert Weirs are:

3) Greater social tolerance for divorced people.

5) Increased financial independence of women.

1.11 SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

1.12 FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO THE FAMILY

Check Your Progress II

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.

1) Elaborate the various dimensions of the family.

2) Define divorce. Explain the reasons for divorce.

1.13 LET US SUM UP

1.14 KEY WORDS

Marriage : Marriage is an institution admitting men and

Family : A family is a group of persons united by the ties

Socialization : The process by which the individual develops

Divorce : Divorce is an institutionalized pattern for

Single Parent : Single parent families are those families