I'

G.N. RAMAcHANDRAN, an outstanding figure in the field of

s · . · der of ·· •

- esou
coast of India. His' father was a professor of mathematt
local college and thus_had ,considerable influence fn sh
~~cijandran's interes°t in mathematics. After.comple
school years, Ramachandran graduated in 1942 as th_
ranking _student in the B.Sc. (Honors) Physics course
Unfyersity of Madras. He received _ .D. from Cam
University - · · ·

G.N. Ramachandran
(1922-2001)
 CHAPl'ER 8
CELL: 1'HE Um oF LIFE
When you look a.ou~d. you se~ both living and non-Uvtng.Uungs. You
'Jl(lf a Cell?
ll 15 must have wondered and asked yourself - 'what.is it that makes an
SI
s.f ~u111col'Y organism living, or what is it that an 1narumate thing does no . ch
B.3 An 0tiervieW of
a llvin~ -....h.as' ? The answer to this ts the resence of basic unit f
eeU all living organisms.
Some ~e composed of stngle a
8. ~kcuYOtie Cells
4 ce an al'.e c e . · while Qthers, llke us, composed
8.S ElJkCllYOtiC Cells ..
of many cells, are called multicellular
. .
organisms.
'·
' ."

8.1 WHAT IS A CELL? j]ff 1;_aj - sWM~

. ·'

or~antsms are capable ... · ce and

theesse .
'

roveni.ent lea
details of the cell .
•

8.2 CELL THEORY

~ ~ ~ ~~ ~exaimtned alm:ge number

o,~tfi.iiflts-;;an
;:;-:d~ obhcs;!e~ ~-r.i-rf'all p an are composed·of different kinds of
-
__;.- S. . - L

cells wb1rb fmm the tlssµes of the plant. At about the same tune, Theodore
- . .
 -~e.\)-6\J. .
;-
Sch :i:studieddifti
__ ere
_ ~ ~
839
· ~pm:tat ~--..,....- __ >Uter tayer which
' 6'AAM s•·1•t:hN\~ 'plasm& membrane'. He a1soeonaude'a, ba
-re:~,~~ -~ • that th ce- of cell wall ts a

~u, .- .~
O _ ,d) . cells, 0n th __,
r-u~~ .
J. . den an t.~
ose
~ th~e~rfi~q_pn
~ u1a
:;;.::.:t:;;:..~.;;.;;;;;~~~~tk.
to how new

., r tn l
!\.
t'
• ,1.
9+ctthu~. t.o t'\t\
'v\~ -
C
( :;o~) ~~-:.=_::::,
~~~~~~~~:..;::.::;~~
as un erstood today ts:
.:.
.
.,._,_._....,
B,Q. ~'Tl'O J. M .._.,
~+oif\t . all Hytnlt orgarusms are composed of cells and products of~-
.

10 d i l"lt ~t" (0\

- f -~~
f •sol" ~~~~~~i::..::;.,.==~~ s. ,S:\).('1'()

(~
~

'-'°~
.l,
·t)("\

, o.1,
d1N
ct-
c:Crt'f\
11~ . .

~x '
;

8.3 .
You have earlier qbserved cells in an opon ~land/or hu.m~<1!:.et\ ·
cells under the mtcroocoj,e. Let us recollect their structure, The onion "'
o-t.. c e(I ' which ts a tzyical plant cell, has a disttn~t cell wall~ s its _o uter b~
~etts
t,,..)t~

l . · and Just within it is the cell membrane. 'Ifie of the 11,uman chee\ ·
have an_outer. membrane as the delimiting s{fuct..l.lfC of thec ell. Insid~
k>O ~.,..· "' etch ceil Js a dense !!ll!;!)ll!m[l~ ~ und s1J11£1J\'S.called nucleus. Thlo
d.t s;e tN..Q nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genet1e
<s+e «"I J,. material, DNA. Cells that liave membrane bound nuclei are called
,l.. Q)u..f)-t-e.rr eu.ImJyotic -whereas cells that lack'aiiiembran~ - _leus are
G-, ";%/"'""! IT'~ In both piokaryotlc ancl euk oticcellS:- em!- - ma\!!!
f' lasm occupies the volume of the cell. - 1'. e
J mM I a LI Pf 5 . mbo the t and antmal cells. Various .
Pl\~ C l!>~ c reac ons occur o eep e cell in the 'living state'.
J..
--
Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound
s-,retr\ -v€ . distinct structures called organeDes like the endoplasmic reticulwnlERJ,
. -
·. the golgi complex, lysQSomes, mitochondri~. microbodies
.

The prokazyotic~ lls lack such mem!?~~ ~ und org8J?!;l~e$

and vacuoles.

Ribosomes are non-membrane bound or anelles found 1n cell -

. both ,e~ottc-as well as prokruyo tic:-Wtthin the cell, ribosomes are
found not only 1n the cytoplasm·but also within the t\yQJlr~elles -
chl~ ts (in plants} and m1 rta and on rough ER.
Aiil:iifa1 cells contain ano n embrane bound o( anelle called
cen hich helps
~tly 1n size, pe an-----
, the smallest cells, are O
~ ~==~~ - -- _;_..::..:..:::.::..::~~ ~ ~ ~~
). For exarnJlle·
while bacteria
~ -
127

00
Cl''
Red blood cells
(round and biconcave)
White blood cells
(amoeboid)
Columnar epithcUal cells
{long and narrow)

,t

Mesophyll cells
(round and oval)
A tracheid
· · , .(elongated)

I - . ~ . 1 Dtagiam showing dlllerent shapes o1 u,~ ce11s

......-::=---
co
~ - erve cells are some o e onges_er- s. e s so vary -
, ffrelrs~pe. They may be disc-like, p@°ygonal, columnar; cuboid,
' thread like, or even irregular. The shape of the .cell may vary with the . ·
~tbeY;grorm.
8.4 PROKARYOTIC CELLS

The pr9kary~tic cells are represented· by b_1.ct~ri~1 blue-green alg~ l-

m co d PPLO (Pleui'o nia Like Organis
an m the
8.2). :rbey ma _ and size_{ ~e -~ ic
shapes of bacteria are bflciJbis (rod like), coccus (spherical). Yiq{l9 (co~
5l\qPed) ail2_ spirtllum (spiral). - .
f~prgantaattonofthe prekaryotlccell ~ en~
~ u~u proiaryotes exhibit a-1e~ of imipcs
ZS,
 . ':......>
~rtt"' -~ - .
.;,,--,.::::-:--~~
u-¥.'f
\i\.l

\'Qao.m,s-,
L
C

k. .-.'- :-:---:-:-~ now _

uc eus. cm
~ ally n~ ed, not enveloped by a
membrane. In addition to the geno~~
single chromosome/circular DNA} , rn~
f
-'M' I'll: ~;o,•o;
00 b a have sm Circular DNA outs~
~ r+
,-.,..,--
O
(abou7~ µml
~ ~~ ~ =--·These smaller DNA
mld DNA confers ce~
are~
rm - _____ haracters to such bact
[
;:;:. ; ·••:;.1,
::),;:. is resistance o an
r:-- :===::==--:--==~~ ...... Jnhigherclassesyou earn thatthi~
~'-<> QNats used to monitor bacterial transformatto,
~bo
ib'O'e , l\.LW," :-- 7"- - - - - - - -.... with fureign !_)NA. Nuclear membrane is~ \/
S l'l21III'lt'· a tagram showtng comparison of in eukruyote~No organelles, lik~ the .ones In
• eukarycttc cell with ether eukaryotes. are found In prokaiyotic cells O>.:_'!)I
• .;i.,. numb~ ot
organisms ? for tes have some ·
~b,\)ti'u( ._ e t')

8.4.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications

• Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bactelial cells, have a-.
• ope. The cell envelope consists of a
• co
laye
ffien the '
.e., the outennost c
-
follo · ~ ~ ~~?-"'lj~

<.ill. "~ .
. ... _-ff _itf+!d 03-
,.._,...., Tr an •manner1n ch eyresJl(ln ta es gJ)rocedure
bYGram viz::-IJiose that ~ p the l "!/11 stain are Gram po,d~ 111'
. others that 29,Pot are called .=::~ r;, ti b ;--) ·

;ow,~ ' tt
R1£'N'
fl ~ ~gj G~
bacteria. alyx d~
It cou
--:--e=:==-:--."liil ~g different ,
some 1'l!ll<

, \'5.
i f"lU1N'~
•d
in others ~~~;;;.~;f-:;j,
eJ rrrnmrii:m,1
e cell wa!
rai support
·~ N ,

ec~;;;i,~~,~!1~·~~\~\lll~~i~~
-r::;:;;.,.~K" t stffig or co . ' ·
l 11 11 4

n,d,2:....:..~~
.__, ~-7PNif-l>s~
.: ~~~
- ii'!:
~ ~ - ~~ii~m
~ b~ran
r\_
, :e~i~s~~
s;eTf ' '

in the
 ot:!ArepUca,!lon and dts ~ n tg daughter C 118
• ,.uon, secretion roe $ · They alllo
~, Ill res 1 ez:
sealike
of

~~~w~m
1t9:
~jc;;-=-
~ ---- they have
.a...--· Bacteria
I thln
show a
tertal ftagellwiiTs · ·
I

~p0"'1 of~ ~t The ft!amei'i!_, ,c.o.-,S:M•~. "1~

' tJ!' t o ~ the ou!iitde. "Pi)1-..--,>
IS aestdesflage fth · ~",l, <;.

abu
\
'

somes and Inclus1 ,,

es rtbo
-'"!'I!: • are / /'
suuunits ·
pro~otic - so . ___ ,
,rtbosomesm a: _attac o a . ain called fut'n<I l ~ i c , I '
~ - or Potyaom~ The ribosomes ofa potysgme tranS)!te t" •~ mo.r. h<t
~ tntoyrotelns. . . . · S t a - ~ \.j
dies: Res~rve 5- ~_o.yo::s C'<'OO_ t.\ '('(') i 'N\ \:itt,..N
w ,•cct-4\'\~
\-t-,_~ . ~
"!:.- , P•'y\\yd
• .,_o..\j'""'--1->.
I _ _:_-6.!-,:::::::,f- -==~ ) \l ~

8.5 EtJKARYO'fiC CELLS . . . \~ , f..~

Toe eukaryotes Include all the protlsts, plants, ~ .and ~SI, !"- ·
e otic cells there is an e lasm
through the presence of mem rane bound organelles. Eukaryotlc cells
ssess ano tg-- se nuc eus with a nuc ear envelope. In addition,
-- ......""'"""~ ..,,
eukaryotlc cells liave a variety of com lex loco ot o :and c oskeletal
structures. Their genetic material is orgaiiisea to chromosomes.
'";Weu1<aryot1c ~ J;;wtntia[ Plairtarul cells 8Iedlfferent
as tl\e fonner possess cell walls, plastlds and a large central vacuole which
are absent in animal cells. On the other hand, animal cells have centrtoles
which are absent in almost all plant cells (Figure 8~3). ='

f
 I . Rough endoplasmic

Jl1:n§
reticulum

· Plasmodesmata
~~c. Nucleolus

Golgl ( ~~lll'n,. 1

apparatu~ '~
Nuclear
envelope

Plasma
membrane

. Cytoplasm
· Chloroplast

. Golgi- ·
Plasma
membrane

Peroxiome
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum _ Lysosome

Nuclear
envelope [ RJbosom::_/ ·

Nucleolus Mitochondrton

Rough

/ UC~ . .
endoplasmic

. Diagram 'i
sh~o;;;w;;;;;g
tn iiiiiiil:• •P•l~• t.,..c e~ al cell
 s now'look at individual cell organelles to understand their
i,et tl d runcttons. .,
¢Can . .
I'

fc U?t{embrane
1ce
a.6- of tlie me·

'lbese studies sho sed of

~ rotelns The arranged
the U . .~-"'77.:--.:..·~~~~..:;::.:.:=.: w1 e
towards the ou er s towards
~ . T h i s ensures th'at the _n ·
tli~ bons is rotected from the a ueou ,
b addition to phosphollpids ~m-:;;e;,:
m:b;,:
.:;: ran
~ e.:al;..;s;:.
o~c~ ~ ~ .:;.:~
!Jl~~e:~~ n~!:IT'TVI
- ' .

~ ~ ~ ~--::-- ~ ~ ~ ,=,=:~~~
·~~~:.:.;:.:;;=-""!""-' •·
·~**:~
.

\ ~i1)
..-f\

' o ~ ~ aJ
. -;;r-
I

asintegral _ _ . in w_,~~ 4i~ ·

of membrane while the integral prote . ( -\-«\.~~~~,
___·___,· . ... 4
. t ~\j\~ - ~
Phoepholipidl~
r £~ u.fR..
~ ~.:

'

terol J / ,
..._____ 8.4 Fluid II_10salc model of plasma membrane·
 &tQR
.i, J..;:
•
the membrane.
An roved model of the structure of cell memb_!!ne was propo .
{Y"O-.~ f'\ J Sin e tcolso wide as fluid mo1atc
;- (''l'tl( " ~( c.Q..µ ff\ ( re .4) . g asl-flui ature of U d
¾
0

i<W . • c bila er. This ability

~ 2 e membrane ls nieai,,ure as s Ui i
P ,;,>-:=r--.. Toe n~td nature of the membrane ls so portant from the Potntor
C , -----~.,,=~-~ ........1 view of functions like cell growth, formation of mtercell~ on8
0: Tl - ----- . ,i:iaili
- ililiir c:= ""=:::::::, ,
~ - ------ '. secretion, endo~ osls, cell division etc. . -
%k•~,· /4t . OCCll~~ '" aj.oJ ~ e of the,21ost lmpo~ t fu~ tions ~f_the plasma membrane Is the
i (j' wu,re,rt of the molecules aero~ it. The membrane is sel1:cttve.!Y.P.ermeabie
~ 0011> to ~onie molecules presenlon,eitheJ~side~gf it. Many molecules caii7ifflve
, Q..' , across the membrane withoutany_r_equirement ofenergy and this
~"' °:}: ~ l s called the passive transport. Neutral solutes may move across the
( p{fX: ~f ~c,dQ membrane bfffie process or"; lmple diffusion ~ong the concentration
•" "' 6f'
"T'<'1' gradient. i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Wate_r m~ also move
')Jl~ ld.u) · across this membrane from hi er to lower concen_traflon. MoVement-0
xc,~l r __,.
6T> €~ , -- 1
\IOff\.:tt ~ ater- y sion s called-oamoala. As the polar molecules cann(ftpass._,
~ @ougnffie nonpolar' lip@'bllayer, they7equtre a carrier protein of the
t,--l;t- mem6rane to facllitate their trans portacross tlie membrane. A few fons 1
or molecules are transporte d .across .tlie -membrane against theft

·g
' concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentraiton Such
a transport ls an-eiier · de ende · which ATP is utilised and
is called active transport, e ., Na• /K• Pump.

C~ll Wall . . · - . -77

I
As you may recall, a ~ on-li~ gtd stmcblfe 5,alled fu~ ell wall· .
5.t an o ter covertn for #prasma memotan~or fumtl and J?lants. Cell w
n

8.5.3 Endomembrane System

While each of the membranous organelles ts distinct in terms of its
 -, cl"l'lt:>rn ,·~
u c..s. uo.: -- ~
and function, t ese are
r ncne..rnh"lrOnt t '""'~"t..d . k\
'[ cam
~ lf'CT'""-VIO .

ctore Nucleus 4 't$' (~r · ')

ll . ered together as an Nuclear pore ugh .
risid their f e endoplasmic
.aose reticulum l
e""" rnbrane C·
dorne (ERl golgi complex, ly:sosomes afffl ~f\-talc'\S
ti%utorn · tt -
stnce the funcuons ofthe mito a,
c
uoJes. st and peroxisomes
- . not- coord inated
are
1
~the
a above components,
- the~e are not
th dered as part of the endomembrane system.

·· · mic Reticulum (ER} ·

es of. eukaryotic cells
~!~~~~=~:=::=: ork or reticulum of
~ /,
tubular s c eredih the cytoplasm
that is ~ ed the endoplasmic reticulum R
Hence ~E...,;:::;.;.:~-===~ ~ 55~ ;....

compartments.
flie ER often s s ribo13omes
.
attached
-
to
t ~ outer s~rface. The endoplasmic retlcuiun
!)earing ribosomes on their surface is called rough
·S
endopla&mic reticulum (RER). In the absence of Endoplasmi~ {~d. fl{~ 'b\~
rtbosomes they appear smooth ancf are calfed reticulum .:i.o..o""! ~\/\'
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Figure 8.5 Endo:!;:-=-~:.:.
re~ti~c~~--f=z.;;;,;~...
--- . ' jh,...
·RER,~'frequently observed in the cells actively
ln_yo_lved in _rotein Syt!thesis and secrettoii. lfiey Cistemae ·

@)
sive . contlnuo w1
of then

later named Golgi ey consist

sacs or cistemae of
i~;~
8.6). These ':,;
er. Warted number of
e a:a:p~nt in a Go com lex. e Gol
¥~ dZ
cisternae are cone
nucleus with distin

tr
 face c ncave ti"
rffie"ctsandthe
·
-~ .
ihe golgi appamtus p>~~~-m.lLl~imE~~~~
· <l. _ materia18, to be delivered c,1
t. .
===~~===~:____ outside ilie cell. Materials to be packaged tn theform of
the ER fuse
With the cts face of the golgt a~
-
tus-an--=-
d - -.:.:_-
the iiiilunng face. nils explains, why the go~_£aratu
, close assodalion with the endoRlas - ciiit~ . A~n~-~ :,;;;;...=:!~lllal
by rlboso es on the en

~v-~ . ..
l
C

- - -.. .:;..---=-~-~.::::~N..
e isolat
n 3,Y6 I gps.
Ca
1'n i:( m

~~~"!!,'!'a"V .

'
- ·
t evacuolelsthe
~::,z:.~==:::;::::::~.~ ~n~~~l)(l
-,:-l!!,=
~ - ·W· .

-a \t~
"'d-f- ~tOg'r
l~O~lll~
-d
7
toJt..v::1..n.· .
, ,.,--. .. '(I 1
· vacuole ts bo::.,u===:::.=--=.:::11~"'
n - iii;.--__~;;::::::=
__

-=;: :ao.. - _
-; ~;;;_:_~=cf:~-=
\-t...U~f 'S ~/ .

. r M
· ..
paiJJclg.
8.5.4 Mitochondria
. ' .
~orno~
,·
t-
1
.

.
~ ~'Y MtU>Chondria (sing.: mitochondrion), unless spec1ftcally stm,ied, are not
fl'C'd.& 'h .easily vfsJble under the microscoge; The number of mitochondria per ear-
l ~f\H' . «~ ·1 , ~ dependfng on the physiological ali!Mly of the cells. In tams of
½@ .-i and size co _ · . TypieallY
°"~ e-sha or having -1.
e•TA1'1llll!M',

~ -- · · 0.5µm) en h 1.0-4.1~ , acb ondrion is a doub e

:;, . -. ~-,~··.::·. . . ·.··. ··,·::w::-:· . ..,. ,.~:-..-·.,,~-.":"'; -..,,~..,.. "'•·;:-·~·-- :., .

• • ' • • i• •.; :. • - : • ' • •_ 1 <> I • • • • ••: -
JileIIlbrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and the er
- - ~--'~
~rane'"divlding
~ro
}

r,
S ce C e e ~ '/~ ·
t1ng &rof ___.._ I
er m _ rane orms a mimber"of infol ailed ~--..J ~~,'t:..t"\
cri~~ ) t?~~!li~ ma~ Figure 8.7). Toe crtstae Q.bc:u;t- (j(_' ~
e 8!_ea. Toe two membranes have their o~cilfc
enzymes as-soc- ia-t-ed....wi
-•lh the mitochondrial funcfiQ!l, Mttochi.fuifliare u.1 \ ~·

the sites of aerobic r~sptration.Th- , :~- "" · rgy in the form .

of ATP:"benc. a ·
O
~
_:. ~f,:~~~ $ ~ ~5 - - ~i!'so
L -"·
7 ..c;:l.)UO -
'I'---'->\ 1 ~•,~r-
v

posse ~ ~ ;;;~~::l~) _£>~ es .e~ y ~ 4

(70S) and th 5 .... , - - - -
ins. ffie '("c -Al~t_a.~ ;t.v QJ t.
5-tro) r
~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~+-:-1'--;:G::::~.::;;~c_~=::-=l
.8.5.5 Plastids
p
. ,.
· es. 'ilb.ese are easily CJ\~
eybearsomespecilfc ~u
g
p -- , -----=---- ].wts. Based 0 ~ . OT 11.lu,g.,
1YJ!e of plgmeiys plastlds •can be classified Into '
chromJp~ts and 1!,~~ plasts_: ·
The chloroplasts contain c b U and carotenoid
......,..~,,..- pi ents w h

=e; :El._;
 -
1
...,,::.......,~~-

the aleuro lut1 sto

pl
7T'IQ.,r
rn n-<,W N..
~~_j
?t-
bei~""'°
cfF ~ l'\OS "((lo'\'€ }'~th~ · rane und.

. . - ,. ~=-~-z~~
-· ~ ~ 8 Sectional view of chloro~_lail , t membrane fs
"· C'~'o.n - ~
ace limit
Inner membrane of the cltlo umber oforgarlliled
l__________ _:___1flaiatttteeiniedifiimruem;iiilb>rranaruo>tti1ssssa
~ sent in the stroma
,._ -r ... - - 1 \ u"'"
.8). Toylakoids · ru~~l;!!!a§Sl!.P.~~ _Ues ?f~ ins call
."'\.-2 PQ~~ .cJlU -
:granum)o ~ $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ addit1on,thet"1:are
.o{I.C. · bules called the stroma Iamellae connectingth~,thy~~
~===~;::::;:::;::::::-a- .~Th
~~ embraneofthe~ oids enclose a sp a ~
of the chloro last contains enzynt~ requit:ed for the •
teins. It also contains small, cfc>nb.te.. .,
stranded circular ~ hlorophyll ptgmen~ me
present in ffie]liy .2,kls. The m~roplasts are smaller (70S} ·
- - -- - - - - - - - 'tllan the cytoplasmic ribosomes (BOSi:"° · · •
--- - - - - - - - --,9jl\

~r.--7'.::::::::i,....,_.,....-, 8.5.6 Ribosomes ( ~ - c~lf\

Ribosomes are the

~tt~ ·
--..c:~""""'...

to
proteins and are QQ.t sw:rounded by any m embrane.
-,;ie eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the
.A,'-5) pro~_gtic ribosomes are ?qs. ~ch ribosome has two
. su'6iiiifts, lar~er and SIJ!.a ller~~bypits (Fig 8.9). The two
sli6'imlts o( BOS rlboso and 40~ w t
s-
CQJ,
, Ribo ,onie
~ +===~:::::::;:===---~8~.5.7 Cyto
ceeu.t An el
It, ,o~'O,, ,J..:. the c esent in
-t\o~u.:> cytos inacell on. The
1 support tilJty ons sue as mechanical
~' ·~ . · matntenanceoftheshapeofthe_£ell.'

~ - P<fst_m\.~
t-w.J... 'W'G-k:sl~7
w.. -
 187

r. Pluma
----------
Q., ~ c.r<D-\1J..~

membrane

spoke -~ ·

~o of cllla/Oagella showing ~erent parts~ mlcrOPPh

.__,)l'f otagra~ ~ of Internal structure 1
.-
(i . ',(! ,
,"?.•...- pS-r r 6)
Cilia and Flagella . .. · ., ,
I 8,5,8
. Cilia (s· and fl ell~ (sin.~.;..t·}aAflli.U:ru
""1':. ce
- ---
c· .

ar
. - -- turally
ntfromthat
e electron or the fl \ .
a
they are covered with plasma membrane. Their core call
PQSsesses n~ber of microtufui;; running.,;.,p;.:. ar.;..all
-:-;_~el~ e"'!.ii=::::~~ ..,,)
The axoneme usually h · · 9f.!adially arranged
peripheral mic~ tubules, ,.A,u,uau oca~ed_
Such an arrangem.e nt of axon i referred
!!!!_Y s.i"O}. ~ ~ ~al&11
tu~b!!!
ul~esw ~~~~~~~1~~~
also enclosed b th, which
of~ ch-periph a radials oke. Thus x;,,~ ;;,.:..;:+=,; • CQ f\~' ri Q,~ O"'(e u\"\Q
~ - The pe R!!S,r_ ~ - tntA~ :mn ~lilkers::-'.~--k>
_;__ if\ o..trrnos+- aQJ
= ~ ~f ~ ~e~ll~um
~ e~m
~e~r~;~~~~;~~:_:!-;;~
""'" ~c JrU
Ch') ('('<).1J
l ~ ~-c Q. iKR
<a..R
i ..l,:a.l+- ~'in

entrosome and C
lindrical structures
Centrosome is an or anelle usually c
called centrioles. are surroun
matertaf?.Bo'ffi the centrtoles iri
~~~a~·
- --
otlier in which each fiai an o;~anisatlon
,..._..
- 138

deus (n
ce . ot dividing)
extended _ borate nu
fibres called chroma~.
> t t 'nc
t.J?~ ·z:-'-!--
C ~ • ~•

and~M.f=mos.
nucieoU(sing.: nucleolus
El5ti°;;;_pucr&£S.UYhas
Nucle.o lus nuclear envelOJ?!, which
Nuclear pore par~el ~ embranes With a - --::--.,,_
. \.-~ ailed th
N~c-Ie~r ·-- ~ bfil"rier
membrat1e ·-· resent insJ.g~ th
that o t e cytoplasm
~8.11 Structure of nucleus . iii°'e~ b~ sually .L· ~ ntln~s
.~ ~IJ.9<?J>Jasmic,retl~ l ! _ l ~
. · · Ufi!2er of
places the

· 1s o@Y one.nucleu~ , nuclei are

also frequently :obseived. Can you recollect names of organisms that
have more. than one nucleus per cell? Some mature cells even lack
nuc1SJJs, e.g., e01!lf~ of many mammals and s~ e- f u ~f
!_~c~ ~auts. Would you·consider these cells as 'living'? .
se.rni&'J The nyclear ·matrix or the nucleoplum contains nucleolus and
i..oll.o<\:9o0 s~-1-d'/\a___. • c~ matln. The ll~ rtcaJ strudu~ •- P! ~~ In the
. n ·· with the rest of the

__
Ure It

.=:--:--·-~thesis.
isa'
site fop:'
. nucleoli are
erous
-----~ -· - ·
-- · I

La --~
 recall that the mteWh~ :_nucle!1s has a 1~
/

~ 11111Y t ne ork of nuc~ opro1ein fibres called

011
' uidi'~~t ?r ce11clivisi_2n, <:,clls
. ~ • I

I ~ IJI ; ed~ osomes!" place of U'ie nucleuB.

· contains DNA and some basic rote!I)~ £._alle£1
~ 11 sollle non-histone proteins and also RNA. A
"\ ·..,; cell has a roximatel
-,j00 u1.. etr long ~Nt/ s,,~
~~o/~J .___..-
1--.
_
I
doroAAdistrtbute4amongitsJQ_~ix(twen three
-~ 'fires. You will study the details of DNA;-~ . i\<> . "
~ onn of a chromosome In class XII. NO'f'() -
f chr<>ffiosome (visible only In dividing cells) t'~ ·
~ ti~ has a prin_l . ctlon or the ~4:n!1"0mere u~+u ·
· ides of w ic sc s a e tructures cal e 2-Q)q~ at
1 i,&o · present · -:- . teiilfomere ho! "'t_J\~
' ·ds of a chromosome. Based on the .E_osllion 1"hrJ2A.·~1"'=:~
~ entromere. thechfomosf>mes can be c1assmecHnto ~r.r,,-.,,.::L.. ,, .
11
~ es (Figure 8.13). The ~,_!!!lcentrlc chromosome ~ - ·
baS mi_ggle...centromere forming tw~~ual arms of the
- -
il clu'QmosoJJle, To~ suk metacentric .. '":{ ~hromosom
-
cen~rome~~~lighey away from the middle ~!,\e
.
e"haE -r~ l"n.2.~ .
Figure 8.12 Chromosome th ·
klnetochore ")'" Lt j£;b &~.'))
chr~ ome resulting into
t longer arm·. In case of acrocentric chromosome the
arm and o~e .
rd . 0\- . Q.r,_ ('()f'f\ CS.~/
e_j§ ~ltua..,g,<! close tOits end forming op~ Q_rds,. tt
,c.1,== . .,w a
~ 920-l
"""d
~c_

extremely_sl;!Qrt and one~tY~lo ·as the ,t. '{'

,5+-~ ~lU.sht
I . '
I . "•· •

telocentrlc chromosome has terminal centromere. CfM;\;SDQ-k , - -

Satellite
Secondary
constrfction
~ 51YP~ M -oty,~~ t
S:.Uct\ ..io (tl-\1~ bj
Short arm ~t\kJ) s~ l~~w-c<;t)~·
c..J\~ \<:, .
Short arm A ,
---
s, u fl r-.5

' \ .

arm,
"
'.,fypes of 61J;J0~cesl
' .,.,1,,...
s~ ·
uil the pos~ ~omere

L1 . d:
--=
(\I(\! -
.-.. fl\- R to}J\ ~c,.l~
""""'--'U~

c..."-~CKN>-
t;l() R, (N ~ , l a

'
t'\O..~

:tc...'<D 'ocdJQ_~
- - - 4~ ~e..f(j)(.\~Df\Q_g
-.l.l Sometimes a romosomes .
biJT C{jl.J-l~ c...~ """""'"'d:.c~i;~~~~
i- ~'.9 ,o,~,
~ t-,o\b S I \ ~ ~ caJ.JJ
( b~()-t<) .s \ ~ - ~~~~~====:: : : : v
' ol;; . l, -'-.:.,;;:~:~~~;~=11..1.i~~&d:~~n,t,ol~
D ,....;. M~. IA..'\ ' \
oun ute ve s called -•-·--'-odtes tha

,+ vartous enzymes,
.~ are( present
f' . both phw
• ~a anlmal
( ce ~/ ' ,\

SCS,--C,S
lo,< l!!IJ'!t .
'
<>SO
S
yo~ " " -
o/- -r
~,--rt-
_:)~ {1p 0~~ 'r.o¾e ; ~ /C,0~'<2_ ~'xl h,3 <t fY\lJ
ioJ~rd - ~ · '.'1'9~"'- '-~
Jllforgarusms:ire ( - r:::~"";!"'" =e--.> •• '
made o cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vaJY In thclr shape, "2t
~ - , j and actMtles/functtons. Based on tliC preoence or absence ofa membrane boWld
M\~ nucleus and other organelles, cells and hence organism• can be named as
t_QI\
.fi eukaryotic
A typtcaloreuJwyotlc
ccl\'W'-.,. prokary~tlc._ __
cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm.
Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. The plasmll membrane Is ·
· selectively permeable and facilitates transport of several molecules. The_
endoJDembrane system includes ER. golgi complex. lysosomes and vacuoles. All
the cell organelles perlorm different but specific functiops. Centrosome and centrlole
form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion. In animal cells,
\ Mit -.,,bOd,' tS' cen-les also fonn spindle apparatus during cell division. Nucleus contains
Q -rt. Q9<•u'dJ€ll nUcleoll and chromatin network. It not only controls the actlvlties of organelles ·
t..0tffi O'X:\' d.D=¼-'~ f'\ but also plays a major role in heredity. ·
'("J(,, <>+neX Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cistemae. They are of two types:
rough and smooth. ER he! s In the trans rt of subs!aJ:lces, s the of
.,uy\ .-,1;,,-) proteinS, llpoprpteinS

I
_c~ :The golgi body ls a membranous organelle
I ose ~r flattened sa . . secretions of cells are packed in them and
l•. transported from the cell. Lysosomes are single membrane structures
. contaJnlnll enzymes for digestion of all typ,es of macromolecules. Ribosomes
are oived in protein syn es s. ese occur ee y n the cytoplasm or are
associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation and
generation of adenosine triphosphate. They are bound by double membrane;
the outer membrane is smooth and inner one folds into several cristae. Plastlds
~e pigment containing organell~s fou~d in plant cells only. In plant cells,
chloroplasts are _responsible for trapping light energy essential for

;::=~~::;~;~ti:t~
photosynthesis. The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the
The :een coloured plastids are chloroplasts, which
which may contain ~igip;~: 11ke 0ther coloµred plastids are chromoplasts,
.enclosed by nuclear envel~n:, ' a' d e bclarote~~ ~d xanthophyll. The nucleus is
. . r-• ou e membrane stru t
The inner membrane encloses the .1 c ure with nuclear pores.
Thus, cell ls the structural and fi ntiuc eoplasm and the chromatin material.
unc onal unit oflife.
r

141
Ir
EXERCISES

\\7hich of the following ls not correct?

l• (a) Robert Brown discove(ed the cell.
(b) schleiden and Schwann fonnulated the cell theory.
(c) \Tll'Chow explained that ce.Us_~e fanned from pre-existing cells.
[d) A unicellular organism Carries out its life activities within a single cell.
NeW cells generate from
z,
(a) bacterial fennentatton
{b) regeneratton of old cells
(c) pre-existing cells
(d) abiottc materials
3, Match the following
••
·eo1umn1 Columntt
(a) Crtstae -----.........__.. (i) Flat membranous sacs in stroma
(· (b) Cisternae (11) . lnfoldings in mitochondria
(c) Thylakoids (iii) Disc-shaped sacs tn 9o1g1 apparatus
4. Which of the following is correct: ,. _
(a) Cells of all living organisms have a nucl~us.
(b) Both animal and plant cells have a well defined cell wall.
(c) In prokaryotes, there are no membrane bound organelles. · ··
ld) Cells are formed de novo from abiotic inate'rtals. ·
5. · What is a mesosome in a prokaryoti~ _c~ll? Mention ~e functions that it pe:rfo ·
6. How do neutral solutes move across the ,plasma membrane? Cail the polar
molecules also move across iUri -tlie same
way? If not, then how are these
transported across the membrane?
7. Name two cell-organelles that are double membrane bound. What the are
_characteristics of these.two organelles? State their functions and draw labelled
diagrams of both.
8. What are the characteris~cs of prolwyotic cells?
· 9. Multicellular organisms have division oflabour. Explain.
10. Cell is the basic unit of life. Discuss in brief.
11. What are nuclear pores? State their function .
. · 12. Both lysosomes and vacuoles are endomei:-brane structures,_yet they differ in
terms of their functions. Comment.
13. Describe the structure of the following with the help of labelled diagrams.
li) Nucleus (ii) Centrosome · ·
14. What is a centr~~ere? How does_the position of centromere form the basis of
classification -~f chromosomes. Suppo_rt your answer with a diagram sho~
the position of centrornere on different types ~f chrornos?rnes.