NDEJJE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEETRING AND SURVEY

COURE WORK: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 1

COURSE CODE 2102

LECTURER: MR MUTAMBO MICHEAL

GROUP M

NAME REG NO
1. NTALE CHARLES 21/1/328/D/941

2. OPOLOT JUMA 21/1/328/D/878

3. SEMWOGERERE DOUGLAS 21/1/328/D/921

4. KALYEGIRA ROLAND PETER 21/1/328/D/1006

5. KABENGWA RIGAN 21/1/328/D/802

6. MWESIGWA KEVIN 21/1/328/D/788

7. LUATE SIMON 21/1/328/D/782

8. OLUPOT KOKAS ADOA 21/1/328/D/998

9. KITANDWE SIMON 21/1/328/D/095

METALS

A metal is a material that when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured shows a lustrous
appearance and conducts electricity and heat relatively well.

Metals are typically DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE.

Types of metals include

Ferrous metals

Non- ferrous metals

 Ferrous metals
These are metals that contain iron .

Types of ferrous metals.

Cast iron

Wrought iron

Steel cast

Iron as well as alloys of iron with other metals

Extraction of Ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals are extracted from iron ore. The original source for iron ore is the earth’s crust,
which bears metals and metal compounds such as iron oxide.

However the ore is commonly mingled with other metal. The fundamental chemical principles
in the
extraction of iron from the ores is very simple.
Heating the ores in the presence of a reducing
agent will result in the formation of CO or CO2, librated as a gas, and metallic iron. Iron owes its

greatest utility to the fact that it alloys freely with other elements, and its inherent properties
are markedly altered and improved for varying conditions of service.

Manufacture of ferrous metals

Ferrous metals are manufactured in the following ways.

Manufacture of wrought iron.

Manufacture of cast iron.

Cast iron

Pig iron is remelted with limestone (flux) and coke and refined in Cupola furnace (Fig. 13.2). It is
then poured into moulds of desired size and shape. The product is known as cast iron
containing about 2–4% of carbon in two forms, i.e., as the compound cementite—in a state of
chemical combination; and as free carbon—in a state of mechanical mixture. Carbon in the first
form is called combined carbon, and graphite in the latter form. The quality of cast iron thus
depends upon the state in which carbon exists in it. The word cast iron is a misnomer as steel
with carbon content less than 2% can also be cast. The striking difference between steel and
cast iron is that the form or is plastic and forgeable while the latter is not. However, some of the
modern cast iron develop a fair degree or plasticity and toughness.

PROTECTION OF FERROUS METALS

Vapor Corrosion Inhibitors (VCI) are a type of chemical compound used to protect ferrous
metals from rust and corrosion that are infused into packaging materials including poly
films ,paper, emitters, chipboards, desiccants and other components.

One of the easiest and cheapest ways to prevent corrosion is to use barrier coatings like paint ,
plastic or powder.

Other ways include;

Coal tarring: In this method the iron is dipped in hot coal tar so that a film of coal tar sticks to
the surface, and this film protects the iron surface from atmospheric actions leading to
corrosion.

Electroplatings: In this method a thin layer of chromium , cadium, copper or nickel is laid on the
surface of ferrous metal with the help of electric currents and by employing the principle of
electrolysis.
Embedding in cement concrete: If steel is embedded in cement concrete as in case of
reinforced cement concrete construction , it is not affected by corrosion.

Galvanizing : In this method the metal is thoroughly cleaned by removing scales. The surface is
then treated with dilute solution of HCL and after washing it, is dipped in a bath of molten zinc,
the thin layer of zinc grants protection against corrosion.

Metal spraying

Parkersing

Tin plating and Terne plating.

2 NON FERROUS METALS.

These are metals which are not iron based like their ferrous counterparts. These include
alumminium ,nickel, copper, lead.

Types of non- ferrous metals

The common types of non-ferrous metals include;

Aluminum

Nickel

Copper

Tin

Zinc

Alloys
Extraction of non-ferrous metals

In hydrometallurgy, the object metal is first dissociated from other materials using a chemical
reaction, which is then extracted in pure form using electrolysis or precipitation .Finally,
electrometallurgy generally involves electrolytic or electro thermal processing.

Manufacture of non- ferrous metals

1. Aluminium:

The aluminium occurs in abundance on the surface of earth. It is available in various forms such as
oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, etc. But it is commercially produced mainly from bauxite
(AI2O3, 2H2O) which is hydrated oxide of aluminium.

Manufacture of Aluminium:

The aluminium is extracted from bauxite ores as follows

(i) The bauxite is ground and then it is purified.

(ii) It is then dissolved in fused cryolite which is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, AlF3, 3NaF.

(iii) This solution is then taken to an electric furnace and the aluminium is separated out by electrolysis.

Properties of Aluminium:

Following are the properties of aluminium:

(i) It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity.

(ii) It is a silvery white metal with bluish tinge and it exhibits bright lustre on a freshly broken surface.

(iii) It is a non-magnetic substance.

(iv) It is rarely attacked by nitric acid, organic acid or water. It is highly resistant to corrosion.

(v) It is light in weight, malleable and ductile.

(vi) It is very soft.

(vii) It melts at 660°C and its boiling point is 2056°C.

(viii) It possesses great toughness and tensile strength.

(ix) It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.

2. Cobalt:

The cobalt is found to occur in free state in meteorites. Its two important ores are arsenide and
sulphoarsenide.

Manufacture of Cobalt:

The ores are purified and they are then fused with limestone or sand in a blast furnace. It gives impure
oxide of cobalt. The impurities from this oxide of cobalt are removed by various wet processes.

Properties of Cobalt:

Following are the properties of cobalt:

(i) If cobalt is red hot, it can decompose steam.

(ii) If it is in a finely ground powder form, it may absorb hydrogen to the extent of about 150 times its
volume.

(iii) It is a lustrous white metal.

(iv) It is magnetic and can retain its magnetic properties upto a temperature of about 1100°C.

(v) It is malleable and ductile.

(vi) It is not affected by atmosphere at ordinary temperature.

(vii) It is not attacked by alkalies.

(viii) Its specific gravity is 8.90.

(ix) It melts at 1480°C and its boiling point is 2900°C.

Uses and application of Cobalt:

The cobalt is widely used in the preparation of special alloy steels, ceramic products, television articles,
etc. It forms the basis of all blue colours used in glass and porcelain manufacture.

3. Copper:

The copper occurs in practically all important countries of the world. Its principal ores are Cuprite Cu2O,
Copper glance Cu2S, Copper pyrites CuFeS2, Malachite CuCO3, Cu(OH)2 and Azurite 2CuCO3, Cu(OH)2.

The approximate content of copper in the above principal ores is as follows:

Cuprite or red oxide of copper – 88%

Copper glance – 80%

Copper pyrites – 35%

Malachite or green carbonate of copper – 56%

Azurite or blue malachite – 55%.

Manufacture of Copper:

The copper is manufactured by a laborious method and the treatment to be adopted largely depends on
the quality of copper ores.

Following is the general outline of the modern process of copper manufacture:

(i) The ores, usually pyrites, are cleaned and crushed and they are then calcined in a reverberatory
furnace.

(ii) The calcined ores are mixed with silica and a small quantity of coke. The mixture is then smelted in a
blast furnace.

(iii) The melted metal is oxidized in the Bessemer converter. It gives blister copper.

(iv) The impurities contained in blister copper are removed by melting it in a reverberatory furnace in
presence of air.

(v) The slag is removed and pure copper to the extent of about 99.70 per cent is obtained.

(vi) Very pure copper or 100 per cent copper is obtained by the process of electrolysis.

Properties of Copper:

Following are the properties of copper:

(i) It becomes brittle just below its melting point.

(ii) It can be worked in hot or cold condition, but it cannot be welded.

(iii) It has a peculiar reddish brown colour.

(iv) It is a good conductor of hat and electricity.

(v) It is attacked by steam at white heat.

(vi) It is not attacked by dry air, but moist air gives a green coating to the copper surface.

(vii) It is not attacked by water at any temperature.

(viii) It is malleable, ductile and extremely soft.

(ix) It melts at 1083°C and its boiling point is 2300°C.

(x) Its specific gravity is 8.92.

4. Lead:

The lead occurs occasionally in free state in nature. In combined form, it mainly occurs as sulphide, the
ore being known as the Galena PbS. This is the most important and widely distributed ore of lead. It
contains about 86 per cent lead and 14 per cent sulphur. It is always associated with silver sulphide and
often gold. A pure galena possesses a metallic bluish lustre of dark grey colour.

The other ores with their approximate lead content are as follows:

Anglesite – 68%

Bournonite – 40%

Cerussite – 77%

Mimetesite – 75%

Pyromorphite – 75%

Manufacture of Lead:

For the extraction of lead from its ores, the various processes have been evolved in different countries.

The galena is used as the chief ore and the process is as follows:

(i) The ores are ground and sieved. The impurities are segregated out as far as practicable. The
separation is further accomplished in the flotation machine.

(ii) The coke and metallic iron are added to the ores.

(iii) The mixture is then smelted in a blast furnace.

(iv) The impure lead is obtained which is further purified in a reverberatory furnace.

Properties of Lead:

Following are the properties of lead:

(i) It can be cut with a knife.

(ii) It makes impression on paper.

(iii) It melts at 327.5°C and its boiling point is 1620°C.

(iv) It is a lustrous metal with bluish-grey colour.

(v) It is converted into litharge, when heated strongly in presence of air or oxygen.

(vi) It is not attacked by dry air, but moist air takes away its bright metallic lustre and a dark protective
film is produced on the surface of metal.

(vii) It possesses little tenacity.

(viii) It is readily dissolved in dilute nitric acid.

(ix) It is very soft, plastic and almost devoid of elasticity.

5. Magnesium:

The magnesium does not occur in free state in nature, but it is a widely distributed element found in the
combined state. Its principal ores are magnesite MgCO3, dolomite CaCO3, MgCO3, kieserite MgSO4,
H2O and carnallite MgCl2, KCl, 6H2O.

Manufacture of Magnesium:

For obtaining magnesium on a small scale, the anhydrous magnesium chlorite is heated with sodium in
presence of coal gas. For large scale production, the magnesium is obtained by the electrolysis of fused
carnallite.

Properties of Magnesium:

Following are the properties of magnesium:

(i) It burns when heated in air with a dazzling bluish-white light extremely rich in ultra-violet rays.

(ii) It carries away heat easily.

(iii) If it is in the form of finely divided particles, it burns readily and easily.

(iv) If strongly heated, it can decompose steam.

(v) It is a silver-white metal possessing a high lustre.

(vi) It is ductile and malleable.

(vii) It is not affected by alkalies.

(viii) Its melting point is 651°C and it boils at 1110°C.

(ix) Its thermal coefficient of expansion is high.

6. Nickel:

The nickel occurs in free state in meteorites. In combination, it chiefly occurs as sulphide ores and
silicate ores. The most important nickel ore is a mineral composed of magnetic iron pyrites with nickel.

Manufacture of Nickel:

The nickel is extracted from sulphide ores as follows:

(i) The ores are cleaned of earthy matter.

(ii) They are roasted in heaps.

(iii) The roasted ores are smelted in blast furnace along with limestone, quartz and coke.

(iv) The molten mixture of nickel and copper sulphide collects at the bottom. It is led to Bessemer
converter with basic lining.
(v) After treatment in converter, the metallic nickel is obtained by repeated smelting and electrolysis.

Properties of Nickel:

Following are the properties of nickel:

(i) If nickel is red hot, it can decompose steam.

(ii) If it is in a finely ground powder form, it may absorb hydrogen to the extent of about 17 times its
volume.

(iii) It is a greyish white lustrous metal.

(iv) It is capable of taking a high polish and can easily be welded.

(v) It is fairly resistant to the actions of atmosphere and it becomes dull after a long time.

(vi) It is hard, malleable and magnetic.

(vii) It is not attacked by fused alkalies.

(viii) It ranks below iron in electric conductivity.

(ix) Its resistance to corrosion is high.

(x) Its specific gravity is 8.90 and melts at 1452°C. Its boiling point is 2900°C.

7. Tin:

The tin occurs chiefly as tinstone or cassiterite which is its oxide, SnO2. It is also available in nodules
which are known as the stream tin.

Manufacture of Tin:

The tin is extracted from its ore as follows:

(i) The ore is crushed and washed to remove impurities.

(ii) It is then calcined in a revolving calciner.

(iii) The calcined ore is allowed to cool.

(iv) After cooling, it is washed with water.

(v) The liquid is allowed to rest. The refined tinstone collects at the bottom as it is heavy.

(vi) It is then smelted in a furnace with anthracite coal and sand.

(vii) It is finely refined in a reverberatory furnace to obtain commercially pure tin.

Properties of Tin:
Following are the properties of tin:

(i) If a bar of tin is bent, a peculiar noise occurs which is sometimes known as the cry of tin. The cracking
noise is due to the internal friction of crystal surfaces.

(ii) It becomes brittle when heated to a temperature of about 200°C.

(iii) It melts at 231.5°C and boils at 2260°C.

(iv) It is a white metal with a brilliant lustre.

(v) It is dissolved in hydrochloric acid (HCl) with evolution of hydrogen.

(vi) It is not affected by dry air.

(vii) It is not attacked by pure water.

(viii) It is soft and malleable.

(ix) Its specific gravity is 7.31.

(x) It withstands corrosion due to acids.

8. Zinc:

The zinc does not occur in free state in nature. Its principal ores are zincite or red zinc ZnO, franklinite
ZnO, Fe2O3, calamine or zinc-copper ZnCO3 and zinc blende ZnS. A good quality of zinc blende may
contain 50% of zinc. The pure ZnS contains about 65% of zinc. It is the chief source of the metal.

Manufacture of Zinc:

The zinc ore is heated in an electric furnace to remove all volatile constituents present in the ore. The
zinc is liberated in the form of vapour. This vapour is then condensed to get the metallic zinc.

Properties of Zinc:

Following are the properties of zinc:

(i) It burns with a greenish white flame when strongly heated in air.

(ii) It may be drawn into wires and rolled into sheets between temperature range of 100°C to 150°C.

(iii) It melts at 419.4°C and boils at 907°C.

(iv) It is a bluish white metal.

(v) It is brittle at the ordinary temperature.

(vi) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

(vii) It is not affected by dry air.

(viii) It is not affected by pure water.

(ix) It resists corrosion.

(x) Its specific gravity is 7.14.

(xi) If it comes in contact with iron, copper or lead in presence of moisture, the galvanic action starts and
the zinc is quickly destroyed.

(xii) It should be kept clear of lime and calcareous substances.

(xii) It is harmfully attacked and ultimately destroyed by acid, hot water and sea salt.

Protection of non-ferrous metal

Non- ferrous metals are protected from corrosion by passivating oxide layers.

3. STEEL

Steel is a combination of two elements, iron and carbon. And sometimes other elements.

Because of its high tensile strength and low cost it is a major component used in buildings,
infrastructure tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances and weapons.

Types of steel

Carbon steel. Carbon steel looks dull, matte-like and is known to be vulnerable to corrosion.it is
broken into three main sub categories low carbon steel (mild steel) ,medium carbon steel, and
high carbon steel.

Alloy steels. Next up is alloy steel, which is a mixture of several different metals like nickel,
copper, and aluminum. These tend to be more on cheaper side ,more resistant to corrosion
and are favored for some car parts ,pipelines, ship hulls, and mechanical projects

Tool steel. Tool steel is famous for being hard and both heat and scrape resistant. The name is
derived from the fact they are very commonly used to make metal tools, like hammers. For
these they are made up of things like cobalt, molybdenum, and tungsten, and that is the
underlying reason why tool steel has such advanced durability and heat resistance features .
Stainless steel. Stainless steels are probably the most well-known type on the market. This type
is shiny and generally has around 10 to 20% chromium which is their main alloying
element .Thus allows it to be resistant to corrosion and very easily molded into varying shapes.

Manufacture of steel

Steel is manufactured using different manufacture methods.

in hardly 25 minutes. In Open-hearth process also known as Siemen’s-Martin process, the steel

produced is more homogeneous than by Bessemer’s. The electric process is costly but no ash
or smoke is produced. The Crucible process involves melting of blister steel or bars of wrought
iron in fire clay crucibles. Cast steel so obtained is very hard and is used for making surgical
equipments. The Duplex process is a combination of Acid Bessemer process and Basic
OpenHearth process.
 PLASTICS
Plastics are a group of materials either synthetic or naturally occurring that may be shaped
when soft and then hardened to retain a given shape . Plastics are polymers .

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

1. Can be moulded to any desired shape or size and have high tensile and compressive
strengths.
2. Easy to work upon.
3. Light in weight and a few varieties are glossy like glass.
4. Not attacked by insects and fungi.
5. Available in desired colour and texture.
6. Require a little maintenance.
7. Good electrical insulators and have low thermal conductivity.
8. Shock absorbing material.
9. Can be sawn, drilled and punched and welded easily.
10. High strength to weight ratio.
11. High resistance to weathering conditions.
12. Corrosion resistance.
13. Decorative surface effect—painting or polishing of the surface is not required.
14. High refractive index.
15. Some varieties are as hard as steel.
16. Withstands moisture, oil and grease well.

COMPOSITION OF PLASTICS
The constituents of plastics are resin, plasticizer, filler, pigment and dye, lubricant and catalyst.
Resin acts as binder for holding different constituents together. Thermosetting resins are usually
supplied as linear polymer of a comparatively low molecular weight being fusible and
mouldable.
Plasticiser modifies plastic to impart desirable combination of strength, flexibility and
toughness. Plasticizers, which are mostly liquids, are usually organic compounds or resins
possessing very low vapour pressure. Their addition is particularly necessary when the softening
temperature of a resin is too high. Plasticizer is supposed to neutralize a part of the
intermolecular force of attraction between macromolecules of resins. Consequently the
polymeric macromolecules of resin move with greater freedom, thereby increasing the
plasticity and flexibility of the compounded material. However, tensile strength and chemical
resistance is reduced. Some of the examples of plasticisers are vegetable oils (non-drying type),
camphor, esters of stearic and oleic acids, tricresyl phosphate, tributyl phosphate, tetrabutyl
phosphate and triphenyl phosphate.

Filler is added up to 50 per cent of the moulding mixture to increase the hardness, tensile
strength, bond, opacity, finish and workability besides reducing the cost, shrinkage on setting,
and brittleness of the final product. Some of the fillers are wood flour, asbestos fibres, mica,
diatomaceous earth, saw dust, ground cork, paper pulp, corn husk, carbon black, cotton fibre,
metallic oxides, metal powder (Al, Cu, Pb). Carborundum, quartz are found to be most suitable
for extra hardness. Mica is used to improve electrical properties. Barium salts when added to
plastics make them impervious to X-rays. Asbestos is used to make plastics heat resistant.
Carbon and graphite impart chemical resistance and also serve as an internal lubricants.

Pigment is added to achieve desired colour of the plastic and should be resistant to the action
of sunlight.

Lubricant is used to make the moulding of plastic easier to prevent sticking of materials to the
mould for a flawless finish. The examples are stearates, oleates and soaps.

Catalyst is added only in the case of thermosetting plastics to accelerate the polymerisation of
fusible resin during moulding operation into cross-linked infusible form.
Blowing Agent Sodium bicarbonate and ammonium carbonate are sometimes added to plastics
to produce porous articles.
MANUFACTURE OF PLASTICS.

Plastics can be manufactured in the following ways.

 Compression Moulding can be employed both for the thermoplastics and

thermosetting plastics. The fluidised material is filled in the mould cavity by hydraulic pressure .
There is an arrangement to heat the plastic if desired. Temperature and pressure is applied till
the chemical reaction is complete. Finally curing is done by heating (thermosetting plastics) or
by cooling (thermoplastics). After curing is complete, mould is opened and moulded material is
taken out.

 Injection Moulding is best suited for the moulding of thermoplastic materials. The
plastic
powder is fed into a cylinder from a hopper where it is heated. When the mould opens, a screw
or a plunger allows the material to go inside the cylinder from the hopper. The resin melts in
the heating zone from where it is sent to the mould cavity through nozzle. The mould is kept
cold to allow the hot plastic to cure and acquire the shape. Half of the mould is opened to cause
enjection of the finished article.
 Transfer Moulding uses the principle of injection moulding for thermosetting
materials.
Intricate machine parts are moulded by this method. The thermosetting material powder is
heated to become just plastic and injected through an orifice, as shown in Fig. 16.13, into the
mould by the plunger working at high pressure. The temperature of the material rises because
of the friction at the orifice and the powder becomes almost liquid which flows into the mould
and in turn is heated to curing temperature.

 Extrusion Moulding is used for continuous moulding of thermoplastic materials into

articles of uniform cross-section such as tubes, rods, strips, electric cables, etc. The
thermoplastic
material is heated to plastic state and is pushed to a die by a screw conveyer (Fig. 16.14 and Fig.
16.15). As the extruder rotates it has a mixing, smearing, and frictional heating action which
changes the dry granular charge into a soft plastic mass before it reaches the end of the screw.
Here the plastic mass by air jets.
 Blow Moulding Air pressure or vacuum are employed in this method of moulding to
force the softened plastic powder into the mould.
 Blow Moulding Air pressure or vacuum are employed in this method of moulding to
force the softened plastic powder into the mould.
 Lamination.

The plastics are moulded without application of pressure. The resin is melted and poured into
mould. The casting of plastics is similar to that of cast iron. Since the cast plastic is not so
smooth just after casting, they are polished. This method is most suited to the plastics formed

POLYMERS.
A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called macromolecules,
composed of many repeating subunits.
Polymers include both natural and synthetic polymers

Examples of include;
Synthetic polymers.
Nylon
Polyethylene
Polyester
Teflon
And epoxy
Examples of natural polymers
Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted. The are often water based and
examples include ;

Silk

Wool

DNA

Cellulose

And proteins
 POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation may be defined as the union of two smaller molecules of similar or different
types with or without elimination of water resulting in the formation of new C-C linkages. The
mechanism by which polymerisation takes place may be addition or condensation.
A monomer for polymerisation should be bi-, or polyfunctional, i.e., it must contain two or
more functional groups. Some of the other functional groups are hydroxyl acid, amino acid, di-
amino acid, di-acids, di- or polyalcohols.
The structures depend on the functionability of monomers. In case of a bi-functional monomer
there will be two reactive groups at its ends. These groups may align side by side to form a
straight chain like molecule as shown in Fig. 1 The monomer units are linked by primary
covalent bonds and the different chains are held together by secondary force of molecular
attraction. However, during the chain growth side chains may also develop leading to branched
chain molecules as shown in Fig.16. 2.
In case of poly-functional groups the monomer molecules are connected to each other by
covalent bonds and form a three-dimensional network (Fig16. 3
 ADDITIONAL POLYMERISATION

It may be defined as a reaction that yields a product which is an exact multiple of the original
monomeric molecule. Such a monomeric molecule usually contains one or more double bonds,
which by intermolecular rearrangement may make the molecule bi-functional.
Fig. 16.4 (a) shows ethylene polymerisation. One of its double bond is transferred to form a
bond with the adjacent monomer and the resultant product is polyethylene which serves the
prototype for addition polymerisation. It is commonly used in the manufacture of flexible films
and squeeze bottles. Some of the other examples are shown in Fig. 16.4 (b,c).
  DEPOLYMERISATION

Also known as degradation, depolymerisation may occur when used for extended period of
time with steam as in the case of urea-formaldehyde plastic or due to thermal variations dis-
rupting the intramolecular bonds within the molecules of plastic formed at high temperatures.

Depolymerisation is used to its advantage for cracking petroleum into highly combustible
products, light molecules charring of carbohydrates (toast) and of cellulose (charcoal).

 STANDARD TESTS ON PLASTICS

Test plays a critical role in the life cycle of a polymer, from the raw material to the compound
through to the semi-finished and finished product

The key standard tests on plastics include

 Friction tests.

In this test we use a coefficient measurement device plastics by bringing into contact a
specimen (or two specimens) of plastic with a specimen metal.

Some plastics require specific friction properties in order to be used in packaging solutions and
packaging devices, properties of plastics change when subjected to friction and this is due to

i. The type of polymer or additives

ii. The manufacturing process

iii. The type of surface structure and environmental conditions

 Tensile tests

Tensile tests are used to determine the maximum resistance and elongation at rupture
thresholds of plastics

This test is done by applying a constant axial tension load to a standard test piece until
fractures. You will then be able to study the test results on the graphic

 Peel resistance tests

 The purpose of this very useful test is to measure the resistance of adhesive bonds

To perform this test we use two test pieces and place two bonded materials together (or glued)
on one end and the same un bonded materials on the other end. The resulting graph will
illustrate the average peel resistance, indicating if the adhesive bond between the two
materials is adequate.

 Weld strength test

We run this test to make sure containers are leak free- a key property when protecting food
especially food products containing liquids or those that need high barriers . This test is
essential when testing the quality of a material used in food packaging such as top film and
bags or pouches.

 Chromatography gas test.

This test is performed to ensure residual solvents in plastics don’t exceed ten mg/dm2 as per
EU Regulation No.10/ 2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with
food .

This test can detect up to 15 different types of solvents , in addition to the substance used as
the internal standard . Our solvent retention limit is 20 times lower than that stipulated by the
Regulation.

 Hot- tack tests.

This test is done to determine the filling efficiency. This test assesses the hot sealing
performance of packaging materials during production and when it is most critical.

 Oxygen Permability Tests.

This test measures oxygen permeation in plastic films and packaging , a key property in
ensuring adequate food preservation.

 Puncture Tests.
This test helps to determine the penetration or the puncture strength of plastic materials .
Punctures may be caused by the shape of food or even external causes , so its important to
understand the maximum stress the material can withstand when selecting between materials

 Tear Resistance Tests.

This test is performed at constant speed and measures the force required to tear multi- layer or
laminated plastic films .

The test results are very useful when deciding on the type of material to use for bags and
pouches that are manually opened .

 Pasteurization and Sterilization Tests.

Foods are usually pasteurized or sterilized once packaged. This is why packaging materials need
to be able to withstand high temperatures for specific amounts of time. This test can be
performed in a bath or autoclave to observe how the material reacts to specific temperatures
during specific time periods.

 Plastic bag Pressure Tests.

This test is performed by introducing compressed air into a plastic bag or pouch to identify
possible defects along the weld lines .

The bag can also be submerged in water which yields faster test results .

 Anti-Fog Tests.

A specimen is placed in a refrigerator between 7 and 10 degrees and monitored for 24 hours ,
this is the testing method used on a wide range of materials. This test is performed to
determine the anti-fog properties of materials and to ensure that condensation doesn’t form
on the inner surface of the packaging material .
REFERENCES .

 www.wikipedia.com

 www.Intertek.com

 www.twi-global.com

 www.matweb.com

 www.azom.com