Final DFS Report - Bhurigaun Solar Plant - 07.03.2021

DETAILED FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT
Tek Samundra 5 MW Solar PV Project

Thakurbaba, Bardiya
June, 2021
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Detailed-Feasibility Study Report | Tek Samundra 5 MW Solar PV Project, Thakurbaba, Bardiya
This document entails all components of the Detailed Feasibility Study (DFS) Report; a requisite
required for applying for grid connection agreement to develop utility scale solar project in Nepal.
Submitted to:
Nepal Electricity Authority

Power Trade Department
Durbar Marg, Kathmandu
&
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation

Department of Electricity Development (DOED)
Sano Gaucharan, Kathmandu, Nepal
[email protected]
Project Developer:
Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt. Ltd.

Thakurbaba Municipality, Bardiya
Consulting Firm:
Invest and Infra Pvt. Ltd.

Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Contents
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................. 9
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Abbreviations and Acronyms ...................................................................................................................... 12
Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................... 16
Salient Features .......................................................................................................................................... 17
1. Introduction to Project Developer .......................................................................................................... 19
1.1 Background of the Project Developer ............................................................................................... 19
1.2 Legal Entity and Credential ............................................................................................................... 19
1.3 Experience ......................................................................................................................................... 19
1.4 Rationale to Build a Solar PV Plant ................................................................................................... 19
2. Solar PV Sector in Nepal.......................................................................................................................... 20
2.1 The Context ....................................................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Overview of Grid Connected Solar PV Projects in Nepal .................................................................. 20
2.3 Major Utility Scale Solar PV Projects Developed by IPPs .................................................................. 21
2.4 Regulatory Framework and Support Mechanism ............................................................................. 22
3. Project Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 Background of the Project ................................................................................................................ 24
3.2 Objectives of Study ........................................................................................................................... 24
3.3 Scope of work.................................................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Approach and Methodology of the Study......................................................................................... 24
4. Site Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 26
4.1 Site Selection Criteria ........................................................................................................................ 26
4.2 Site Identification Methodology ....................................................................................................... 26
4.3 Description of Project Site ................................................................................................................ 29
4.4 Accessibility ....................................................................................................................................... 29
4.5 Land Availability ................................................................................................................................ 29
4.6 Topography and Orientation ............................................................................................................ 29
4.7 Present Use of Land .......................................................................................................................... 30
4.8 Climatic Characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 30
4.9 Right of Way for Transmission Line .................................................................................................. 33
4.10 Availability of Water and Water Quality ......................................................................................... 33
4.11 Grid Connection and Interconnection Voltage ............................................................................... 34
4.12 Distance to Evacuation Point .......................................................................................................... 34
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4.13 Local Regulations/Land Use Policy .................................................................................................. 35

5. Technology Selection Options................................................................................................................. 37
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 37
5.2 Solar PV Options ............................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.1 Poly Crystalline Technology ....................................................................................................... 37
5.2.2 Mono Crystalline Technology .................................................................................................... 38
5.2.3 Thin Film Technology ................................................................................................................. 38
5.2.4 HIT Technology........................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.5 Comparison of PV Options ......................................................................................................... 40
5.3 Grid Connected Inverter Options...................................................................................................... 41
5.3.1 String Inverter ............................................................................................................................ 41
5.3.2 Central Inverter .......................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.3 Comparison of Inverter Options ................................................................................................ 44
5.4 Ground Mounting Structure Options ................................................................................................ 46
5.4.1 Fixed Tilt System/ Tracking System ............................................................................................ 46
5.4.2 Comparison of Mounting Structure Options ............................................................................. 47
6. Topographical Survey and Mapping ....................................................................................................... 49
6.1 Topographic Survey .......................................................................................................................... 49
6.2 Topographical Contour Plan and Profile Drawings ........................................................................... 50
6.2.1 Area Coordinates, Elevation, Topo Maps and Boundary ........................................................... 50
6.2.2 Sketch of the Available Area for the Project .............................................................................. 52
7. Geological and Geotechnical Study ........................................................................................................ 53
7.1 Detailed Surface Geological and Engineering Geology ..................................................................... 53
7.2 Geomorphological Studies and Mapping.......................................................................................... 53
7.3 Outcrop Joints Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 53
7.4 Geotechnical Investigations and Assessments ................................................................................. 53
7.4.1 MASW or SRT ............................................................................................................................. 55
7.4.2 Shallow Drilling........................................................................................................................... 55
7.4.3 In-situ Testing (DCPT Test) ......................................................................................................... 55
7.4.4 Test Pitting and Trenching for Logging ...................................................................................... 55
7.5 Lab Tests (Sieving of the Soil Samples) ............................................................................................. 55
7.6 Slope Mitigation Measures and Gully Protection Works .................................................................. 55
8. Solar Resource Assessment .................................................................................................................... 56
8.1 Solar Resource Overview .................................................................................................................. 56
8.2 Solar Resource at Project Site ........................................................................................................... 56
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8.2.1 Comparison of High Resolution Available Meteorological Data Sources of the Site ................. 56
8.2.2 Data Validation and Analysis of Solar Resource Data ................................................................ 60
9. Shadow Analysis...................................................................................................................................... 62
9.1 Near Shading ..................................................................................................................................... 62
9.1.1 On-Site Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 62
9.2 Far Shading........................................................................................................................................ 63
9.3 Simulation Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 64
10. Plant Design .......................................................................................................................................... 65
10.1 Array Configurations ....................................................................................................................... 65
10.2 Grid Connected Inverter ................................................................................................................. 67
10.3 Safety and System Protection ......................................................................................................... 68
10.3.1 Overcurrent Protection ............................................................................................................ 68
10.3.2 String Protection ...................................................................................................................... 68
10.3.3 Earthing and Surge Protection ................................................................................................. 69
10.4 Cable Management ......................................................................................................................... 69
10.4.1 Module and String Cables ........................................................................................................ 70
10.4.2 Main DC Cable .......................................................................................................................... 70
10.4.3 Combiner Boxes ....................................................................................................................... 70
10.4.4 Determining the Size of DC and AC Cables .............................................................................. 70
10.4.5 DC Cable Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 70
10.4.6 AC Cable Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 73
10.5 Array Mounting Structure ............................................................................................................... 74
10.6 Power Evacuation System ............................................................................................................... 76
10.6.1 Substation ................................................................................................................................ 76
10.6.2 Transformer ............................................................................................................................. 76
10.6.3 Metering Unit ........................................................................................................................... 77
10.6.4 Lightning Protection ................................................................................................................. 78
10.6.5 SCADA and Communications System ....................................................................................... 80
10.7 Layout and Shading ......................................................................................................................... 80
10.7.1 General Layout ......................................................................................................................... 81
10.7.2 Tilt Angle and Orientation ........................................................................................................ 82
10.7.3 Inter Row Spacing .................................................................................................................... 82
11. Design Layout ........................................................................................................................................ 84
11.1 Array Layout and Placement of Inverter & DC Combiner Box ........................................................ 84
11.2 Positioning of Control Room ........................................................................................................... 84
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11.3 Electrical Layouts ............................................................................................................................ 85

11.3.1 Single Line Diagram .................................................................................................................. 85
11.4 Civil Works Layouts ......................................................................................................................... 88
11.4.1 Mounting Structure Foundation .............................................................................................. 89
11.4.2 Pathways and Cable Trenches ................................................................................................. 89
11.4.3 Drainage System ...................................................................................................................... 89
11.4.4 Foundation for Transformer .................................................................................................... 97
11.4.5 Foundation for Electrical Equipment ....................................................................................... 98
11.4.6 Water Supply............................................................................................................................ 98
11.4.7 Control Room and Powerhouse ............................................................................................... 99
11.4.8 Boundary Fencing .................................................................................................................... 99
11.4.9 Security System ...................................................................................................................... 100
12. Cost Estimate ...................................................................................................................................... 101
13. Estimation of Energy Yield .................................................................................................................. 105
13.1 Calculation of Energy Yield Estimation ......................................................................................... 105
13.2 Performance Modelling using Different Solar PV Technologies and Meteorological Data .......... 107
13.3 Plant Performance ........................................................................................................................ 108
13.4 Performance Summary ................................................................................................................. 108
14. Power Evacuation Plan........................................................................................................................ 109
14.1 Substation Information ................................................................................................................. 109
14.2 Design of Proposed Transmission Line ......................................................................................... 110
14.3 Power Evacuation Scheme ............................................................................................................ 112
14.4 Single Line Diagram of the Proposed Power Evacuation Scheme ................................................ 113
14.5 System Protection Configuration and Metering Scheme ............................................................. 114
14.5.1 Protection Configuration Scheme .......................................................................................... 114
14.5.2 Metering Scheme ................................................................................................................... 115
15. Financial Analysis and Economic Analysis........................................................................................... 117
15.1 Financial Analysis Overview .......................................................................................................... 117
15.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) ......................................................................................................... 117
15.2.1 Project Cost Breakdown......................................................................................................... 117
15.2.2 Exchange Rate Assumptions .................................................................................................. 118
15.2.3 Applicable Taxes..................................................................................................................... 118
15.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX) Overview .................................................................................. 118
15.4 Revenue ........................................................................................................................................ 118
15.4.1 Levelized cost of Electricity (LCOE) ........................................................................................ 119
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15.5 Financing ....................................................................................................................................... 119

15.5.1 Debt Equity Ratio ................................................................................................................... 119
15.5.2 Term Loan .............................................................................................................................. 119
15.5.3 Working Capital Loan ............................................................................................................. 120
15.5.4 Financing Term....................................................................................................................... 120
15.5.5 Interest During Construction & Financing Fees ..................................................................... 120
15.6 Financial Output ............................................................................................................................ 120
15.7 Sensitivity Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 120
15.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 121
16. Work Schedule .................................................................................................................................... 122
16.1 Planning & Development .............................................................................................................. 122
16.2 System Design ............................................................................................................................... 122
16.3 Procurement of Components ....................................................................................................... 122
16.4 Construction.................................................................................................................................. 122
16.5 Testing and Commissioning .......................................................................................................... 122
16.6 Project Implementation Timeline ................................................................................................. 123
17. Risk Assessment .................................................................................................................................. 124
17.1 Technical Risks .............................................................................................................................. 124
17.2 Operational Risks .......................................................................................................................... 125
17.3 Market Risk Study ......................................................................................................................... 126
17.4 Environmental Risks ...................................................................................................................... 126
17.5 Other Risks .................................................................................................................................... 127
18. Environmental and Social Safeguard .................................................................................................. 128
18.1 Initial Environmental Examination Report .................................................................................... 128
19. Power Purchase Agreement Aspects .................................................................................................. 129
19.1 Salient Features ............................................................................................................................ 129
20. Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................................... 132
List of Annexure ........................................................................................................................................ 133
Annex I: Set of Detailed Civil Design Drawings ......................................................................................... 133
Annex II: Solar Power Plant Single Line Diagram ...................................................................................... 133
Annex III: Simulation Result of Estimated Annual Energy Generation ..................................................... 133
Annex IV: Site Pictures .............................................................................................................................. 133
Annex V: Data Sheet of Inverter ............................................................................................................... 133
Annex VI: Data Sheet of PV Module ......................................................................................................... 133
Annex VII: Soil Information of Site ............................................................................................................ 133
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Annex VIII: Layout of Drainage.................................................................................................................. 133

Annex IX: Financial Analysis of the Project ............................................................................................... 133
Annex X: Sunrise and Sunset Time of Proposed Solar Project Site ........................................................... 133
Annex XI: Breakdown of Costs for Civil Work ........................................................................................... 133
Annex XII: Table of Content for ToR of IEE................................................................................................ 133
Annex XIII: ToR for Detailed Feasibility Study and Environmental Study ................................................. 133
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List of Tables
Table 1: Salient Features of the Project ...................................................................................................... 17

Table 2: Shareholders Nomination of the Developer Company ................................................................. 19
Table 3: Key Technical Specifications of Thin-Film based Solar Cells ......................................................... 40
Table 4: Technical Specifications of Various c-Si based Solar Cell .............................................................. 41
Table 5: Inverter Comparison based on Cost .............................................................................................. 45
Table 6: Inverter Comparison based on Energy Production ....................................................................... 45
Table 7: Co-ordinates & Elevation of Traverse Points ................................................................................ 50
Table 8: Recurrence of Earthquake in Nepal between the Period of 1994 and 2000 (After DMG, 2006) . 54
Table 9: Monthly and Daily Average Solar Resource Data at Project Location from Global Solar
Atlas ............................................................................................................................................................ 57
Table 10: Monthly and Daily Global Horizontal Irradiance Data at Project Location from PVGIS .. 58
Table 11: Monthly and Daily Global Horizontal Irradiance Data at Project Location from
Meteonorm................................................................................................................................................. 59
Table 12: Insolation Data According to Gregorian Calendar ............................................................... 60
Table 13: Insolation Data According to Nepali Calendar ..................................................................... 61
Table 14: Results of Shading Analysis Using Solar Pathfinder at Ten Locations ......................................... 63
Table 15: POA Irradiance Calculated in HelioScope .................................................................................... 64
Table 16: Technical Datasheet of the selected PV Module ......................................................................... 66
Table 17: Technical Datasheet of the selected String Inverter Module ...................................................... 67
Table 18: Excerpt of PV String Cable Sizing Tool ......................................................................................... 72
Table 19: Excerpt of PV Array Cable Sizing Tool.......................................................................................... 73
Table 20: Excerpt of AC LT Power Cable Sizing Tool (From Inverter Modules to Control Room) ................ 74
Table 21: Excerpt of AC LT Power Cable Power Loss Calculation Tool ........................................................ 74
Table 22: Technical Details of the Proposed PV Mounting Structure ......................................................... 75
Table 23: Technical Datasheet of Lightning Arrestor (For different Mast Height Configurations) ............. 79
Table 24: Selection of Optimum Tilt Angle and Orientation/Azimuth Values from SolarGIS...................... 82
Table 25: Maximum and Minimum Values of Runoff Coefficient .............................................................. 91
Table 26: Manning's Minimum, Roughness and Maximum Coefficients ................................................... 93
Table 27: Summary of Drain Size Calculations ............................................................................................ 95
Table 28: Detailed Breakdown of the Project Cost Estimate .................................................................... 101
Table 29: Summary Report from Simulation in PVsyst ............................................................................. 105
Table 30: Annual Energy Yield Production Scenario from Simulation in PVsyst....................................... 106
Table 31: Summary of Annual Energy Yield from Simulation in PVsyst.................................................... 106
Table 32: Major Input Parameters for Simulation .................................................................................... 107
Table 33: Plant Performance Summary .................................................................................................... 108
Table 34: Transmission Line Efficiency Calculation for Different Conductor Options .............................. 112
Table 35: Summary of Project Cost Breakdown ....................................................................................... 117
Table 36: Operational Expenditure Overview........................................................................................... 118
Table 37: Total Revenue from Energy sales for first 10 years of Operation ............................................. 119
Table 38: Levelized Cost of Electricity ....................................................................................................... 119
Table 39: Financial Output Indices of the Project ..................................................................................... 120
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Table 40: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in Project Cost) ......................................................................... 120

Table 41: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in O&M Cost) ........................................................................... 121
Table 42: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in Interest Rate) ....................................................................... 121
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Accessibility Map to the Project Site ........................................................................................ 29

Figure 2: Geographical Map of Indo-Gangetic Plain (Indus-Ganga and North Indian River Plane) 31
Figure 3: Daily and Monthly Temperature Profile of the Proposed Project Site ................................. 31
Figure 4: Precipitation Data at the Proposed Project Site ..................................................................... 32
Figure 5: Wind Resource Data at Proposed Project Location from Global Wind Atlas ...................... 33
Figure 6: Radial Distance of Power Evacuation Substation in Bhurigaun from Project Location ............... 34
Figure 7: Layout of String Inverters in Solar Projects.................................................................................. 42
Figure 8: Use of Central Inverter in Solar Project ....................................................................................... 44
Figure 9: Pictorial Representation of String Inverter and Central Inverter ................................................ 46
Figure 10: Engineers at Topographical Survey ............................................................................................ 49
Figure 11: Traced Area of the Survey Location ........................................................................................... 51
Figure 12: Contour Plan of the Proposed Site............................................................................................. 51
Figure 13: Sketch of Available Area for Project .......................................................................................... 52
Figure 14: Earthquake Epicenters Map of Nepal (DMG, 2006) .................................................................. 54
Figure 15: Global Horizontal Irradiation Data at Project Location from Global Solar Atlas ............. 56
Figure 16: Optimum Tilt Angle and Solar Azimuth Data at the Proposed Project Location ............. 57
Figure 17: Monthly Global Horizontal Irradiance Data and Daily Sunshine Duration Hours ........... 59
Figure 18: Solar Pathfinder for Near Shading Analysis at the Proposed Project Location .......................... 62
Figure 19: Far Shading Analysis from Solstice Diagram and Horizon Line at Proposed site ....................... 63
Figure 20: Shading Loss Analysis Performed in HelioScope ........................................................................ 64
Figure 21: Array Configurations and Keepouts Defined on HelioScope ...................................................... 65
Figure 22: Field Segment and Individual PV Frame as defined on HelioScope ........................................... 66
Figure 23: Proposed Concrete Based PV Ground Mounting Structure ........................................................ 75
Figure 24: Schematic showing the Level of Protection for Lighting Arrestor .............................................. 78
Figure 25: Google Earth Image showing Radial Coverage of the Proposed Solar Plant ............................. 79
Figure 26: General Layout of the Proposed Solar Plant Showing Optimum Wiring Schemes ..................... 81
Figure 27: Schematic Showing Calculation Parameters for Inter-Row Spacing .......................................... 82
Figure 28: Solstice Diagram showing Solar Horizon, Elevation, and Azimuth Data.................................... 83
Figure 29: Array Layout and Placement of Inverter & DC Combiner Box ................................................... 84
Figure 30: Positioning of Control Room ...................................................................................................... 85
Figure 31: SLD of 1 Unit of DC Generation Unit, Inverter Unit and Transformer Unit ............................... 87
Figure 32: Rainfall Data (Station Index No. 0414) in Banke ........................................................................ 90
Figure 33: IDF Curve (Station Index No. 0414) in Banke ............................................................................. 92
Figure 34: Cross Section of Drainage Channel with Elevation Profile......................................................... 96
Figure 35: Proposed Foundation Structure for Transformer ...................................................................... 98
Figure 36: Proposed Boundary Fence Design ........................................................................................... 100
Figure 37: Substation in Bhurigaun in Retrospective to Nepal Power Transmission Network Map109
Figure 38: Radial Distance of Power Evacuation Substation in Bhurigaun from Project Location . 110
Figure 39: Proposed Single Line Diagram for Power Evacuation ....................................................... 110
Figure 40: Single Line Diagram of the Proposed Power Evacuation Scheme ........................................... 113
Figure 41: Project Implementation Timeline ............................................................................................ 123
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
°C Degree Centigrade
AC Alternating Current
ACB Air Circuit Breaker
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Center
ADB Asian Development Bank
AM Air Mass
Amp Ampere
a-Si Amorphous Silicon
B/C Benefit Cost
c-Si Crystalline Silicon
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CB Circuit Breaker
CCC Current Carrying Capacity
CCTV Closed-Circuit Television
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CdTe Cadmium telluride
CIS Copper Indium Selenide
CPVC Chlorinated Poly Vinyl Chloride
CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Di-selenide
CT Current Transformer
CUF Capacity Utilization Factor
DC Direct Current
DCCC Derated Current Carrying Capacity
DCPT Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
DF Derating Factors
DFS Detailed Feasibility Study
DNI Direct Normal Irradiation
DSCR Debt Service Coverage Ratio
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation
DMG Department of Mines and Geology
DoED Department of Electricity Development
DSCR Debt Service Coverage Ratio
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIRR Equity Internal Rate of Return
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
EPA Environmental Protection Act
EPC Engineering, Procurement, Construction
EPR Environmental Protection Rule
ERC Electricity Regulatory Commission
ESE Early Streamer Emission
EYA Energy Yield Assessment
FRLS Flame Retardant Low Smoke
FRP Fire Resistant Plastic
GCR Ground Coverage Ratio
GESI Gender Equality Social Inclusion
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GHI Global Horizontal Irradiation

GoN Government of Nepal
GTI Global Tilted Irradiation
HIT Hetero-junction with Intrinsic Thin
HV High Voltage
HT High Tension
IBN Investment Board Nepal
IBC International Building Code
ICC International Criminal Court
IDC Interest During Construction
IDF Intensity Duration Frequency
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IEC International Electro-Technical Commission
IFC International Finance Corporation
Imax Maximum Current
IPP Independent Power Producer
IPPAN Independent Power Producer Association of Nepal
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IRR Internal Rate of Return
Isc Short Circuit Current
ISO International Organization for Standardization
kV Kilo Volt
kW Kilo Watt
kWh Kilowatt Hour
LA Lightning Arrestor
LCIA London Court of International Arbitration
LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy
LDC Load Dispatch Centre
LFRT Low Frequency Ride Through
LLR Land and Land Resource
LPS Lightning Protection System
LSOH Low Smoke Zero Halogen
LT Low Tension
LUP Land Use Policy
LV Low Voltage
LVRT Low Voltage Ride Through
MASL Meters Above Mean Sea Level
MASW Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave
MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCCB Molded Case Circuit Breaker
MHT Main Himalayan Thrust
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
MV Medium Voltage
MVA Mega-Volt Ampere
MW Mega Watt
MWp Mega Watt Peak
MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment
MoFE Ministry of Forest and Environment
MoEWRI Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation
14
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NPV Net Present Value
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
NOCT Normal Operating Cell Temperature
NPV Net Present Value
NPK Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OIBN Office of the Investment Board
OPEX Operational Expenditure
OPTA Optimum Tilt Angle
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PCC Plain Cement Concrete
PCU Power Control Unit
PECVD Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
PID Potential Induced Degradation
PIRR Project Internal Rate of Return
POA Plane of Array
PPA Power Purchase Agreement
PR Performance Ratio
PT Potential Transformer
PTSD Planning and Technical Services Department
PV Photovoltaic
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
PVGIS Photovoltaic Geographical Information System
RAP Resettlement Action Plan
ROI Return on Investment
ROR Run Off the River
Rp Protection Radius
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SF6 Sulphur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker
SLD Single Line Diagram
SPP Simple Payback Period
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
SRT Seismic Refraction Tomography
S/S Sub-station
STC Standard Test Conditions
SVG Static VAR Generator
SWERA Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment
SWCA Soil and Watershed Conservation Act
TL Transmission Line
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
UL Underwriters Laboratories
UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
VAR Volt Ampere Reactive
Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Vmp Maximum Power Point Voltage
WACC Weighted Average Cost of Capital
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Wp Watt Peak
XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene
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Executive Summary
Nepal has been gradually transitioning towards energy intensive economy and decarbonization of energy
sector should be the priority in this metamorphosis. In September 2018, Ministry of Energy, Water Resources
and Irrigation (MoEWRI), Government of Nepal (GoN), published Guidelines for Developing Utility Scale Solar
PV Project in Nepal. This document elaborates on complete project aspect essentials required for
Independent Power Producers (IPPs) to sell electricity to the national grid under the Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA) with Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). This document has been regarded as a cornerstone
in Nepal’s quest to transition towards a clean energy source.
As per the guidelines of MoEWRI, IPPs can produce electricity from alternative sources like Wind, Solar,
Biomass and feed it to the national grid at a fixed PPA rate of NRs. 7.30/kWh. Therefore, development of
renewable energy based on-grid projects is on the rise, especially utility scale solar projects. As of 6th May
2021, Department of Electricity Development (DOED) has issued survey license for 37 projects with total
capacity of 618.32 MW solar and 3MW wind projects1. However, the generation license has been issued to
only a handful (i.e., 16) of the aforementioned projects – 100.47 MW for solar projects and none for others.
Nepal’s quest towards becoming a major energy market in South Asian region depends on having an idyllic
energy mix policy. Renewable energy projects take up less time to construct in turn providing energy
security, reduced fuel dependence on other nations and no seasonal variations through a reliable output
and fuel diversification.
In Nepal, the average solar radiation varies from 3.6 to 6.2 kWh/m2 per day, while the total sun shines days
is about 300 per year. According to July 2008 assessment of solar and wind energy in Nepal 2, the commercial
potential of solar power for grid connection is about 2,100 MW.
As all hydro projects that are currently under construction are Run-Off-River (ROR) types, the Nepalese
power sector will be even more dependent on seasonal fluctuations of river flows. Furthermore, it is unclear
how climate change will affect water security in Nepal. Linked to many uncertainties, climate change affects
RORs by (a) glacier retreat and (b) changes in rainfall intensity and patterns. Projections estimate that run-
off could be reduced by 14 percent due to climate change, reducing both generation capacity and
economically feasible hydropower potential.
Government of Nepal (GoN) is focusing to developing energy infrastructures in the energy mix concept
ensuring future supply reliability and national energy security, with on-grid solar projects on the rise. All
these developments have attracted and motivated various IPPs to set up utility-scale solar PV plants. Owing
to the situation of these developments and new provisions of the government, Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt.
Ltd. (hereinafter as the Project Developer) plans to develop a 5 MW solar project in Thakurbaba
Municipality, Ward No. 2 of Bardiya District in Lumbini Province.
1 https://www.doed.gov.np/license/16
2 SWERA. (2008). Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment in Nepal (SWERA): Final Report (GIS PART)
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Salient Features
Table 1: Salient Features of the Project
S.N. Heading Particulars Description

1 Plant Location Proposed Project Site (Location) Thakurbaba Municipality, Ward No. 2
Coordinates Point Longitude Latitude
A1 81°18'23.00"E 28°27'30.00"N
A2 81°18'60.00"E 28°27'30.00"N
A3 81°18'23.00"E 28°26'57.00"N
A4 81°18'60.00"E 28°26'57.00"N
Province & District Lumbini Province, Bardiya District
Approximate Distance from Nearest 0.3 km
Road Head to Project Site
Approximate Distance from Nearest 1 km
Highway to Project Site
2 Land Profile Type of Land: (Dhanhar, Bhith, Pakho, Khet
etc.)
Ownership of Land: (Private, Public, Private
Raikar, Birta, Guthi, Kipat, etc.)
Topography & Orientation Plain Terai Land (South Orientation)
3 Solar Resource Solar Insolation 5.20 kWh/m2/day
Potential, Planned PV Module Technology Monocrystalline, Tier-1, Efficiency: 21.1%
Technology, and
Proposed Installed Capacity 5.987 MWp
Project Capacity
Proposed Plant Capacity 5 MWac
DC to AC Ratio 1.20
Proposed Study Area 10,29,268 Sq mtr
Proposed Estimated Plant Area 74,498.32 Sq mtr
Capacity of Each Module Proposed 505 Wp
Approximate Total No. of Modules 11856 Nos.
Type of Inverter String Inverter
Inverter Technology 125 KW String Inverter for 1500 Vdc
System with grid support mechanism
No. of Inverters 40
Total Inverter Capacity 5000kWac
Maximum PV input voltage 1500 V
Maximum PV input current 148 A
Inverter peak efficiency 98.9%
Inverter Euro Efficiency 98.7%
Transformer power rating 1 MVA
Transformer voltage
a) Primary 0.6 kV
b) Secondary 33 kV
Transformer vector group Dyn11
Transformer Type Core Type, Oil immersed, Natural Self
Cooled
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Auxiliary Transformer Rated Capacity (if 1MVA 0.6/33 kV

available)
4 Substation Name of Nearest Existing Substation Bhurigaun Substation
Substation Bus Voltage 132/33kV & 33/11 kV
Name of Nearest Proposed Substation New Kohalpur Substation
Substation Bus Voltage 400/220/132 kV; 132/11 kV
Approximate transmission distance to 3.2 km (aerial Distance); Approximately 4
existing Substation Km via road
Plant’s Interconnection voltage 33 kV
Type of ASCR conductor of Transmission DOG conductor
line
5 Plant Performance Total De-rating factor 0.7956
Specific Yield 1759 kWh/kWp/year
Performance Ratio 81.96 %
Capacity Utilization factor 24.03 %
6 Electricity Estimated Annual Energy Generation 10.529 GWh/year
Generation
7 Cost Estimate Estimated Project Cost (Including IDC) NPR. 42,95,30,000
8 Financial Overview Project IRR 15.41 %
Simple Payback Period 5 years
Equity IRR 20.19 %
Minimum DSCR 1.34
B/C Ratio 1.97
Levelized cost of electricity NPR. 4.73
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1. Introduction to Project Developer
1.1 Background of the Project Developer
Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt. Ltd. was registered under office of the company registrar on 15 th February
2015. The company has obtained approval from Office of the Company Registrar on 26 th February 2021 to
develop solar project as an additional objective. The company is in Thakurbaba Municipality of Bardiya
district.
1.2 Legal Entity and Credential
The company was registered as private limited at office of the company registrar on 15 th February 2015 with
the registration number 132354/071/072. The following person are the shareholders of the company.
Table 2: Shareholders Nomination of the Developer Company
S.N. Name of Shareholder No. of Shares
1 Tilak Bahadur Rawal 15,000
2 Binay Rawal 51,000
3 Rita Rawal 15,000
4 Bibek Rawal 15,000
1.3 Experience
The company has fully acknowledged the rapid development of solar power plants in Nepal, therefore it
aims to develop 5 MW utility scale solar project which would not only benefit the local community but also
contribute to national energy policies.
1.4 Rationale to Build a Solar PV Plant
In the present context of Nepal, development of solar power plant is second largest power plant being
developed throughout the country and is aimed to fulfill the generation mix aimed by the government of
Nepal. Additionally, the proposed solar project will be developed in the private land that simplifies the land
related issues that is more pertinent for solar projects.
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2. Solar PV Sector in Nepal
2.1 The Context
Solar power is one of the major renewable energy sources given that the sun irradiation is abundant. The
use of solar resource dates to stone-age when our ancestors used the sunlight to light fires through
magnifying glasses. This fact is the evident that solar energy is also one of the earliest used forms of energy.
From the earliest period of human history to now, we have come far across in terms of use of solar energy.
The energy from the sun is being used mostly in two distinct ways namely, solar thermal and solar
photovoltaics (PV).
In Nepal, solar thermal power is mostly used in residential sector for water heating. Meanwhile, the history
of solar photovoltaics technology does not date back far ago. The huge power-cut period of our country
led to the residential use of solar power for lighting purpose as well as battery charging to cover up the
load-shedding. However, the commercial production of solar PV energy commenced in 2011 when 0.638
MW of energy was generated from the grid connected solar PV power plant installed at Bungmati, Lalitpur
by Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Byawasthapan Board. With 6.8 hours of average sun hours daily
resulting to the irradiation of 3.9 to 5.1 kWh/m2/day, numerous grid-connected utility scale solar PV power
plants have been developed throughout the country since 2011. Some of them have started the production
and have been feeding to the grid while plenty of others have obtained survey license and some have
obtained generation license as well.
The main stakeholders to develop grid-connected solar project in Nepal are: (1) Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources, and Irrigation (MoEWRI), (2) Department of Electricity Development (DoED), and (3) Nepal
Electricity Authority (NEA). Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation (MoEWRI), Government of
Nepal (GoN) is the governing body for the power sector of Nepal. Under the MoEWRI, there are
departments and organizations, namely the Department of Electricity Development (DoED), Nepal Electricity
Authority (NEA), and Electricity Tariff Fixation Commission (ETFC). The Ministry of Energy, Water Resources,
and Irrigation (MoEWRI) mainly works at the policy level for the power and electricity sector of the country.
Additionally, as per the Public Private Partnership and Investment Act 2019, IBN is also the governing body
for the solar projects of more than 200 MW capacity i.e., such projects in PPP modality falls under the
mandate of Investment Board Nepal (IBN). Last but not the least; the regulatory agency for energy projects
is Electricity Regulatory Commission (ERC).
2.2 Overview of Grid Connected Solar PV Projects in Nepal
The grid-connected utility-scale solar PV plant produces electricity and injects its output to the grid. With
the production of such plant in the range of megawatts, it is a huge boost in the power reliability of Nepal
as the dependency over the hydropower is reduced as well as the reduced power generation during the dry
season of hydropower is covered by such solar PV plant. The extent of coverage increases proportionally
with the solar PV generation.
Utility-scale solar PV power plants have been developed and constructed in Nepal over a past decade at a
prominent rate. Most of these power plants are in licensing phase and some have already started production
and have been feeding the electricity to the grid. Till date, 37 solar PV projects have acquired the survey
license totaling to the projected production of 618.32 MW.
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A total of 16 solar PV projects contributing to a total of 100.47 MW have been granted construction license:
Grid-Connected Solar Power Project, Butwal, 33 kV S/S (8.5 MW), Block No 1 Solar Farms Project, Nuwakot
(5.1 MW), Block No 2 Solar Farms Project, Nuwakot (8.3 MW), Bel Chautara Solar Farm Project, Tanahun (5.0
MW), Som Radha Krishna Solar Farm Project, Kaski (4.4 MW), Solar PV Pratappur, Nawalparasi (5.0 MW),
Chandranigahpur Solar Project, Rautahat (4.0 MW), Bhrikuti Solar Power Project, Kapilbastu (9.0 MW), Grid
Connected Solar Project Block 4, Nuwakot (1.37 MW), Grid-Connected Solar Power Project, Dhalkebar, 33
kV S/S (3.0 MW), Grid Connected Solar PV Project, Ramgram, Nawalparasi (2.0 MW), Grid-Connected Solar
Power Project, Duhabi, 33 kV S/S (8.0 MW), Utility Scale Solar PV, Morang (6.8MW), Solar PV Project Banke,
Block-2 (10.0MW), Solar PV Project, Raniyapur, Block 1 (10.0 MW), and Grid Connected Solar PV Project,
Ganeshpur, Kapilbastu (10.0MW).
Similarly, Green Light Solar Power Project (10 MW), Evergreen Solar Power Project (10 MW), Clean Energy
Solar Power Project (10 MW), etc. have applied for survey license whereas Grid-Connected Solar Power
Project, Lahan, (4.0 MW), and Solar Power Project, Simara (1.0 MW), etc. have submitted the construction
license application at DOED.
Most of the aforementioned solar PV power plants are owned by IPPs whereas some of these are also
owned by the government. Nepal Electricity Authority has been constructing utility-scale solar PV power
plant in Nuwakot separating the plant into five different blocks which in total has the generation capacity
of 25 MW of electrical power. Named Grid-tied Solar Farm Project, the plant consists of the five different
blocks, each producing 5.1 MW, 8.3 MW, 3.09 MW, 1.37 MW and 6.5 MW of electricity separately. Out of
25 MW, 10 MW has been recently injected to the central grid while further 10 MW will be fed within 7
months. Remaining 5 MW will take time for production since the 5MW plant has just completed its IEE.
Currently, the generated 10 MW is being injected to 33 kV substation while 66 kV substation is under
construction. With around 500 ropanis of land acquisition, the project investment is NPR 120 million from
the NEA and NPR 4 billion (33.4 million dollars) convenience loan from the World Bank.
2.3 Major Utility Scale Solar PV Projects Developed by IPPs
The private sectors have been actively involved in power generation in Nepal. Independent Power Producers
have a significant contribution in the enhancement of the power sector of the country by making
considerably large sum of investment and producing electricity that has been helping to fulfill the power
demand of the country. Having constructed numerous hydropower for years, the IPPs have also focused on
the solar PV power plant. In the past decade, there has been a surge in the development of utility-scale
solar PV power plant in Nepal from the IPPs and in this period, plenty of potential solar power generation
sites have been studied, surveyed and have been listed up in the DOED for licensing procedures by the IPPs.
IPPs have been developing the power plants with the capacity ranging from 1 MW to over 100 MW. As of
now, few of them have been commercially operating and feeding the grid.
Butwal Solar PV Project with the capacity of 8.5 MW started its commercial operation from December of
2020 being the first private sector solar PV power plant. Located at coordinate longitude 83° 27' 05" E to
83° 27' 23" E, latitude 27° 37' 42" N to 27° 38' 08" N in Butwal N.P., Ridi Hydropower Development Company
Ltd. constructed this power plant with an investment of NPR 700 million in Tilottama Mulicipality-06 in an
area of 26 bighas. With 70 percent loan and 30 percent equity investment, Butwal solar PV plant got
investment of NPR 490 million from Citizens Bank and Nepal Bangladesh Bank. The plant is connected to
33 kV Amuwa substation near Bhairawa. 32,000 solar panels have been installed in the plant each with a
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capacity of 330 watts that will generate 8.5 MW of electricity. For the conversion from DC to AC, ten 850
kW inverters have been connected. Also, an 8.5 MVA transformer will step up the electricity from the inverter
to 33 kV for the national grid connection.
Eco Power Development Pvt. Ltd. has constructed Mithila Solar PV Power Project of 10 MW capacity at
Dhalkebar, Dhanusa (longitude 85° 56' 24" E to 85° 56' 46" E, latitude 26° 56' 05" N to 26° 56' 23" N). The
plant has been connected to the national grid at Dhalkebar substation. Prior to the commercial operation,
the plant will go through a 2-week production test. There are a total of 3 units in the plant: 2 units of 4 MW
each and 3units of 1 MW each. Constructed in within six months with an investment of NPR 900 million, the
project has been financed by Prime Bank. NEA will purchase the electricity produced by the plant at the rate
of NPR 7.30 per unit. The project site covers 22 bighas of land. Design, equipment imports, connection,
construction, and operation of the plant is carried out by Kushal Projects Nepal Pvt. Ltd.
Chandranigahpur Solar Project located at coordinate longitude 85° 22' 17" E to 85° 22' 29" E, latitude 27° 07'
12" N to 27° 07' 20" N in Rautahat is in the final stages of its construction and is envisaged to commence
production within two months. Covering 12 bighas of land, the project consists of 11,112 solar panels of
450 W each producing a total of 4 MW of electricity. The Power so generated will be evacuated to the
Chandranigahpur substation through a 3 km long 33 kV transmission line. The investment for the project is
NPR 330 million which is divided into 75 percent loan and 25 percent equity. Bank of Kathmandu is investing
bank in this project. Api Power Company Pvt. Ltd. is the promoter of this project and the company is also
starting off the construction of Dhalkebar and Simara Solar Power Project each of 1 MW capacity from
Baisakh, 2078.
2.4 Regulatory Framework and Support Mechanism
For utility-scale solar PV projects to prosper, meet the power demand and ultimately contribute to economic
development in the country, there are various governmental institutions in action to provide regulatory
framework and operating to mechanize the support for the solar power sector in Nepal.
The Department of Electricity Development (DoED) is responsible for assisting the Ministry with the
implementation of overall government policies related to the power and electricity sector. The major
functions of the DoED are to ensure transparency of regulatory framework, to accommodate, promote and
facilitate private sector’s participation in the power sector by providing a "One Window" service and then
facilitate the licensing requirements for power projects such as Survey License and Generation License. The
function of the DoED is also to develop, promote, and facilitate inspectorate technical support to private
power developers.
Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) is an autonomous public enterprise and GoN’s largest wholly owned
undertaking, managed by the Board headed by the Minister of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation
(MoEWRI) and as such has a dominant role in Nepal’s economy. It is responsible for generation,
transmission, and distribution of electricity throughout the country. The electricity supply industry in Nepal
is organized mostly on a Single Buyer - Single Seller model. NEA is the ‘Single Buyer’ of electricity from
Independent Power Producers (IPPs). Similarly, it is also a ‘Single Seller’ - i.e., it is the single largest supplier
and distributor of electricity in the country.
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Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation (MoEWRI) manages Nepal’s energy sector, develops
energy resources to accelerate the social and economic development of the country, which include areas
such as: policy development, planning, energy conservation, regulation; research and studies for energy and
its utilization. MoEWRI also monitors the construction, operation, maintenance, and promotion of
multipurpose electricity projects and also promotes private parties in electricity development. Moreover,
MoEWRI is also involved in matters related to bilateral and multilateral agreements regarding energy and
electricity, matters related to tax and coordination of institutions related to the sector.
Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE) sets up for promotion of sustainable development through
environmental protection, conservation and promotion of the natural environment and cultural heritage of
the country. It creates a clean and healthy environment through the conservation of life-supporting
elements comprising air, water, and soil and works on poverty alleviation through environment related
research activities. Likewise, MoFE coordinates adaptation and mitigation programs to minimize the
negative impacts of climate change.
Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) sets up for the regulation of generation and transmission of
electricity along with fixing tariffs and implementing a national grid code to govern power sector in the
country and shall administer the power purchase agreements.
Office of the Investment Board (OIBN) is a high-level government body chaired by the Right Honorable
Prime Minister. IBN functions as a central fast-track government agency established to facilitate economic
development in Nepal by creating an investment-friendly environment, mobilizing and managing domestic
as well as foreign investments. IBN operates to promote and develop the utility-scale solar PV power
projects with capacity above 200 MW. If the solar project capacity is greater than 200 MW then this falls
under the mandate of Investment Board Nepal (IBN) to act as “One Window” service and then provide the
survey license, generation license and monitoring of the projects as well.
Beside above institutions, Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) was set up to promote the use of
alternative/renewable energy technologies to meet the energy needs of Nepal. Acting as an intermediary
institution between the operational levels international development and donor agencies, private
promoters of renewable energy, and policy decision levels in relevant ministries, AEPC’s activities includes
renewable energy policy formulation, planning and, facilitating the implementation of the policies and
plans. Likewise, Provincial and Local Governments also play role in the energy sector. They work on to
enhance and develop renewable energy projects based on roles and responsibilities given by the
Constitution of Nepal 2015 and Local Government Operational Act 2017. Local government is responsible
to solve possible land issues and conflict that might arise between the energy developer and the local
people. Similarly, provincial government coordinates the grid connection agreement for the power
developer.
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3. Project Overview
3.1 Background of the Project
This report has been prepared based on pre-feasibility level assessment carried out for the establishment
of a 5 MW (5.987MWp) grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) project in Thakurbaba Municipality, Ward
No. 2 of Bardiya District in Lumbini Province.
The project developer, Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt. Ltd., aims to supply clean energy to the national grid
and contribute towards energy mix policies as envisioned by the GoN. Further, the proposed solar plant will
be able to address the energy deficit faced by national grid during dry season and complement the national
grid to attain stable supply during wet season.
The benefits of this solar plant to the GoN include but are not limited to:
i. Energy Security
ii. Energy Portfolio Diversification
iii. Import Substitution
iv. Reduced Country and Energy Sector Risk Premium
v. Local Industry Development, Local Employment and Skill Development
Prior to preparing this report, Tek Samundara Khetibari Pvt. Ltd. carried out a site visit based inception study
followed by desk study and pre-feasibility study to assess the feasibility of potential site for installing the
PV system in the proposed area. Subsequently the company had carried out an independent Energy Yield
Assessment (EYA) to estimate the plant capacity, energy generation and plant configuration at a pre-
feasibility level. The following section of this report includes the details of the proposed project along with
maps, photographs, documents and reports as required.
3.2 Objectives of Study
The objective of this pre-feasibility study are as follows:
 To further validate the findings of the desk study and pre-feasibility study report.
 To access the technical and financial viability of the project
3.3 Scope of work
The consulting company prepared detailed feasibility study report as per the guidelines for developing
utility scale solar projects developed by MoEWRI, and detailed procedure entailed by DOED. The study
mainly focuses on technical, financial, and socio-economic viability of the project.
3.4 Approach and Methodology of the Study
The primary data were collected through telephone, e-mail conversation and field-based study specifically
through field visit to solar site and nearest substation to assess and validate the ground conditions, land
availability, and distance to the evacuation point.
Secondary data were collected through various reports published by relevant government agencies of
Nepal, other similar nature solar projects in Nepal and academic research paper of various
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organizations/scholars. Land identification process has been carried out based on the solar developer’s
technical specification on requirement of an area of approximately 25 Ropani/MW. Solar resource data and
meteorological data have been acquired from online based bankable-data sources, whereas the plant
design and EYA were carried out on globally renowned PV design software namely PVSyst.
A detailed feasibility study was undertaken and informal dialogues with the concern authorities and
agencies was undertaken to find out whether the chosen location is outside excluded areas such as strict
natural reserves, national park, buffer zone and the availability of power evacuation point. Additionally,
comprehensive financial analysis was executed to determine some of the major financial parameters that
ensures the financial viability of the project.
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4. Site Assessment
4.1 Site Selection Criteria
Selecting a suitable site is a crucial part of developing a viable solar PV project. Identification of a project
site is one of the first and most important steps for developing a utility scale solar PV Project. The process
of site selection must be followed to identify a best possible one from multiple site options.
Site selection is a critical issue due to its direct impact on the power performance, economic, environmental,
social aspects and existing as well as future infrastructures. In selecting the proposed site, the aim was to
maximize output and minimize cost. The main constraints that were assessed include:
• Solar resource – Global Horizontal Irradiation, annual and inter-annual variation, impact of shading.
• Local climate – flooding, high winds, snow, and extreme temperatures.
• Available area – area required for different module technologies, access requirements, pitch angle
and minimizing inter-row shading.
• Land use – this will impact land cost and environmental sensitivity. The impact of other land users
on the site should also be considered.
• Topography – flat or slightly south facing slopes are preferable for projects in the northern
hemisphere.
• Geotechnical – including consideration of groundwater, resistivity, load bearing properties, soil pH
levels and seismic risk.
• Geopolitical – sensitive areas such as conservation and protected areas, military zones should be
avoided.
• Accessibility – proximity to existing roads, extent of new roads required.
• Grid connection – cost, timescales, capacity, proximity, and availability
• Module soiling – including local weather, environmental, human and wildlife factors.
• Water availability – a reliable supply is required for module cleaning.
• Financial incentives – tariffs and other incentives.
4.2 Site Identification Methodology
Solar Resource
A high average annual GHI is the most basic consideration for developing a solar PV project. The higher the
resource, the greater the energy yield per kWp installed. When assessing the GHI at a site, care must be
taken to minimize any shading that will reduce the irradiation received by the modules. Shading could be
due to mountains or buildings on the far horizon, or mutual shading between rows of modules, or shading
near the location due to trees, buildings, or overhead cabling. Avoiding shading is critical as even small
areas of shade may significantly impair the output of a module or string of modules. The loss in output
could be more than predicted by simply assessing the proportion of the modules that are shaded. When
assessing shading, it must be remembered that the path the sun takes through the sky changes with the
seasons. An obstacle that provides significant shading at mid-day in December may not provide any shading
at all at mid-day in June. The shading should be assessed using the full sun-path diagram for the location.
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Available Land Area
The area required for installed power varies with the technology chosen. The distance between rows of
modules (the pitch) required to avoid significant inter-row shading varies with the site latitude. Sites should
be chosen with sufficient area to allow the required power to be installed without having to reduce the pitch
to levels that cause unacceptable yield loss.
Climate
In addition to a good solar resource, the local climate should not suffer from extremes of weather that will
increase the risk of damage or downtime. Weather events that may need consideration include:
 Flooding – May increase the risk of erosion of support structure and foundations, depending on
geo-technical conditions.
 High wind speeds – The risk of a high wind event exceeding the plant specifications should be
assessed. Locations with a high risk of damaging wind speeds should be avoided. Fixed systems do
not shut down at high wind speeds but tracking systems must shut down in safe mode when speeds
of 16-20 m/s are exceeded.
 Temperature – The efficiency of a PV power plant reduces with increasing temperature. If a high
temperature site is being considered, mitigating measures should be included in the design and
technology selection. For instance, it would be better to choose modules with a low temperature
coefficient for power.
Topography
Ideally, the site should be flat or on a slight south facing (in the northern hemisphere) slope. Such
topography makes installation simpler and reduces the cost of technical modifications required to adjust
for undulations in the ground. With additional cost and complexity of installation, mounting structures can
be designed for most locations. In general, the cost of land must be weighed against the cost of designing
a mounting structure and installation time.
Geotechnical
A geotechnical survey of the site is recommended prior to final selection. The purpose is to assess the
ground conditions in order to take the correct design approach, and to ensure that the mounting structures
will have adequate foundations. The level of the geotechnical survey required will depend on the foundation
design that is envisaged.
Accessibility
The site should allow access for trucks to deliver plant and construction materials. This may require
upgrading existing roads or building new ones. At a minimum, access roads should be constructed with a
gravel chip finish or similar. The closer the site is to a main access road, the lower the cost of adding this
infrastructure. Safe packaging of the modules and their susceptibility to damage in transport must also be
carefully considered.
The site should be in a secure location where there is little risk of damage from either people or wildlife. It
should ideally be in a location where security and maintenance personnel can respond quickly to any issue
and this requirement should be stipulated in the maintenance contract.
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Grid Connection
A grid connection of sufficient capacity is required to enable the export of power. The viability of grid
connection will depend on three main factors: capacity, availability, and proximity. These factors should be
considered thoroughly at an early stage of a project; otherwise, the costs could become prohibitive if the
site is later found to be in an unfavorable area for grid connection.
Land Use
Solar PV power plants will ideally be built on low value land. If the land is not already owned by the
developer, then the cost of purchase or lease needs to be considered. The developer must purchase the
land or rights for the duration of the project. Besides access to the site, provision of water, electricity supplies
and the rights to upgrade access roads must be considered along with relevant land taxes.
Since government permission will be required to build a solar plant, it is necessary to assess the site in line
with the local conditions imposed by the relevant regulatory bodies. The plant will be in operation for at
least 25 years. As such, extraneous factors need to be considered to assess the likelihood of their impact on
energy yield. For example, the dust associated with building projects could have significant impact on the
energy yield of the plant.
Locating the plant in an environmentally sensitive area should be avoided. Government stipulated
environmental impact assessments or plant/wildlife studies will slow down and potentially stop the
development of a project.
Any trees on the project site and surrounding land may need to be felled and removed, with associated
cost. Clearances from the military may be required if the site is in or near a military-sensitive area. Glare
from solar modules can affect some military activities.
Module Soiling
If the modules are soiled by particulates, then the efficiency of the solar plant could be significantly reduced.
It is, therefore, important to consider local weather, environmental, human and wildlife factors while
determining the suitability of a site for a solar PV plant.
Water Availability
Clean, low mineral content water is preferred for cleaning modules. A mains water supply, ground water,
stored water or access to a mobile water tank may be required; the cost of the various options will have an
impact on the project economics. The degree to which water availability is an issue will depend upon the
expected level of module-soiling, the extent of natural cleaning due to rainfall and the required cleaning
frequency.
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4.3 Description of Project Site
The proposed solar power plant site is in Thakurbaba Municipality of Bardiya district, Lumbini Province.
Bardiya district is bordered by Tikapur in the west, Birendranagar in the north-east, Kohalpur in the south-
east, and by India in south.
This project plans to utilize around 74500 sq. m. of suitable land to generate solar PV based power and
connect to the nearest Bhurigaun sub-station. Geographically, the project lies within longitudes of
81°18'60"E & 81°18'23"E and latitudes of 28°27'30"N & 28°26'57"N.
4.4 Accessibility
The project site is near east-west highway and is connected by district roads in Bardiya district. The site is
around 551 km away from Kathmandu and can be easily accessed through national highways. The site is
easily accessible from nearby market namely Bhurigaun. Accessibility map is presented below in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Accessibility Map to the Project Site
4.5 Land Availability
The available land area for the proposed project was identified to be approximately 18 acres based on
preliminary background data provided by the client; this was further validated by on-site field survey
performed by the consultancy which concluded the total available land area to be 17.4 acres.
Although, the total land coverage of the proposed area is 17.4 acres, some area may need to be discarded
to incorporate switch yard, control room and other essential buildings within the solar plant. This has been
further elaborated in subsequent sections of this report.
4.6 Topography and Orientation
The consultancy team conducted an on-site visit to physically evaluate the viability of the selected site for
development of a utility scale solar project. The site coordinates were subsequently uploaded to Google
Earth to allow for recorded data to be cross checked with the overall plot boundary provided by the contour
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survey map from the client. The information was found to be in line with recorded observations and is
considered accurate.
The site is visible from all directions, accessible via roads and vehicles, and lies in flat alluvial deposit
characterized by gentle topography. The project area lies in flat alluvial deposit, with flat topography and
presence of gentle slopes in a seemingly flat area with the elevation ranging between 164 and 166 masl.
Further, the preliminary geotechnical investigation was conducted to assess requirement for specific civil
works and module support structure foundation. Although the land was verified as loamy clay type, the
proposed location was deemed suitable for installation of an on-grid solar project with minor civil
construction considerations during design of foundation structures.
The proposed location also faces temporary issue of waterlogging due to saturation of soil with water. This
condition is more prominent during periods of heavy rainfall or extreme weather conditions, when the soil
becomes waterlogged and fails to dry up. This maybe caused due to the topography, slope, shape, and
drainage patterns of the location. The low-lying areas within the location have slight depressions causing
surface flows concentrate on the lowlands, resulting in natural swamps and other waterlogged lands.
It is advisable to perform a detailed topographical survey and geotechnical analysis to ensure accurate
mathematical calculations for waterlog prevention at a given site during the detailed feasibility stage of the
project. Additionally, studies for efficient drainage can handle the water effectively. In case of any fault in
the natural drainage, artificial drainage systems can be provided for water management. Further solutions
can include raised beds and slightly slanting the bed so that the excess water goes down the bed.
4.7 Present Use of Land
The proposed land area for the solar project is under the ownership of the developer. Currently the land is
vacant. The land has a flat profile, with open space that is approximately 17.4 acres, thus is a good candidate
for an average-sized solar farm.
4.8 Climatic Characteristics
Most of Bardiya lies in the Terai plains under the Indo-Gangetic Plain region3. The proposed project location
specifically lies in the lower tropical climate zone of Bardiya District 4.
3Indo-Gangetic Plain, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain

4Bardiya District Assessment Report, SAF-BIN Project, https://safbin.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/SAF-BIN-project_Nepal_Bardiya-District-
Report.pdf
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Figure 2: Geographical Map of Indo-Gangetic Plain (Indus-Ganga and North Indian River Plane)5
As no weather station has been installed at or in proximity of the site, the climatic condition of proposed
site has been studied through Meteonorm, PVGIS and SolarGIS.
Temperature
Figure 3: Daily and Monthly Temperature Profile of the Proposed Project Site
The proposed project location is in Bhurigaun, Bardiya predominantly lies in the lower tropical temperature
region6. The data sets derived from Meteonorm indicates that the mean annual maximum temperature
ranges from 23˚C to 40˚C whereas the mean annual minimum temperature is 9˚C to 28˚C. Based on the
statistics presented in Figure 3, the temperature profile of the site is suitable for installing an on-grid solar
plant where temperature losses would be minimum.
5 Indo-Gangetic Plain Map. https://alchetron.com/Indo-Gangetic-Plain

6 Bardiya District, Geography and Climate. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardiya_District
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Precipitation
The monsoon season in the country generally starts from the early week of June and lasts for four months
up until September with About 75 to 80 percent of the total annual rainfall fall. The precipitation figures
have been simulated using meteorological data from Meteonorm averaging 10-year data set.
Figure 4: Precipitation Data at the Proposed Project Site
The proposed project location is situated in a region that has average rainfall, with highest precipitation
between months of July and September. The average annual precipitation ranges from approximately 5 mm
to 20 mm in non-monsoon months, and mean monsoon precipitation is approximately 110 mm to 240 mm
which is influenced by southeastern monsoon and quite prominent in the months of June to September.
According to Meteorological Forecasting Division of Department of Hydrology and Meteorology of GON,
the average precipitation between months of June and September (months with maximum precipitation) is
approximately 392 mm from year 2010 to 2020.
Wind Speed
The average wind speed at the location is 1.6 m/s (at a height of 10m) according to the data from a Global
Wind Atlas7, a web-based application that uses atmospheric re-analysis data. In general, most solar panels
can withstand wind gust up to 62 m/s. Likewise, there are no reported weather events like hurricanes and
tornadoes in the proposed area therefore the threat of damage to the proposed plant is minimum.
7 Global Wind Atlas. https://globalwindatlas.info/

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Figure 5: Wind Resource Data at Proposed Project Location from Global Wind Atlas
Generally, areas with wind resource profile like the proposed project location, risk of damage to a solar array
is negligible, therefore nominal design of racking system is recommended.
4.9 Right of Way for Transmission Line
Power from the proposed solar plant shall be evacuated through a proposed 33KV overhead transmission
line to NEA (Nepal Electricity Authority) owned Bhurigaun substation (33kV) which is approximately 4 km
far from proposed power plant. The entire envisioned route of the transmission line will fall through public
road, which will ease the process of acquiring right of way for the proposed transmission line.
Proper right of way for transmission lines should be carefully considered in order to avoid the unnecessary
delay in project implementation schedule, land acquisition and land agreement procedures.
4.10 Availability of Water and Water Quality
Water requirements for site construction work can be catered from bore well or nearby river of Ambasa
Khola. To maintain maximum efficiency, solar PV modules require periodic cleaning. Cleaning may require
large quantities of water depending on the manual labor available and degree of soiling.
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4.11 Grid Connection and Interconnection Voltage
Substation Information
The power generated from the proposed solar plant shall be evacuated through the nearest substation at
Bhurigaun through a 33kV overhead transmission line. The substation falls under Attaria Grid Branch having
its office located in Attaria, Godawari Municipality of Kailali district. The current capacity of Bhurigaun
Substation is 38 MVA; 30MVA under 132/33kV and remaining 8MVA under 33/11kV 8.
Figure 6: Radial Distance of Power Evacuation Substation in Bhurigaun from Project Location
The power from proposed solar plant will be evacuated through a 33kV single circuit transmission line. The
solar power will be generated by the proposed inverter at 600Vac, therefore a step-up transformer with
ratio of 0.6/33kV is required. The proposed solar inverter can deliver power at unity power factor. So, sizing
of Transformer should also be based on unity power factor. As the total inverter capacity is rated for
5000kWac; therefore, the step-up transformer shall be rated as 5000kVA or 5MVA.
4.12 Distance to Evacuation Point
Shortest possible distance should be chosen from project site to power evacuation point, including the right
of way for transmission line, to minimize the project cost. The envisaged transmission line route is 4 km
long and follows along the public road. This is done to avoid crossing the transmission line route through
privately owned land which will simplify acquiring right of way which is considered major bottleneck during
transmission line construction.
8 Annual Report of Nepal Electricity Authority, Released on 2019/20, https://www.nea.org.np/annual_report

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4.13 Local Regulations/Land Use Policy
Land Use Policy 2015
Land use Policy (LUP) is a policy document relating to limits and protection of Land and Land Resources
(LLRs), optimum use and effective management thereto. Legal and institutional management for Lands and
Land Resources (LLRs), and protection, use and management thereon are done under this Policy. This Policy
shall bring about benefits of using Lands and Land Resources (LLRs) by creating a situation of distributing
lands in a just manner. The core base of this Policy is taken from the underlying spirit and letters of sub-
Section (e) (3) titled as: ''Policies relating to Agriculture and Land Reform'' under Article 51 of the
Constitution of Nepal, 2015 on Chapter of ''Directive Principles, Policies and Obligations of the State'', where
it is envisaged that land management and commercialization, industrialization, diversification and
modernization of agriculture shall be done by pursuing a Land Use Policy (LUP). Therefore, the project will
follow all relevant strategies from LUP 2015 during construction and operation phase.
Environment Protection Act, 2076 (2019)
Nepal has enacted a comprehensive and umbrella type Act, the Environment Protection Act, 2019 (EPA,
2019) which is now enforced through appropriate regulatory measures. The EPA provides a legal basis for
the concerned authorities for regulation of an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA). Section 3 of the Act requires the proponent to conduct an IEE or EIA in relation to
the prescribed proposals. The Act uses the word proposal instead of Projects which makes the scope of the
Act much broader in relation to environmental studies. Proponent includes any government, semi
government or non-government agency or organization applying for the approval of a proposal and
possessing the responsibility to work according to such a proposal or implementing the proposal.
Water Resources Act, 2049 (1992)
The objectives of the Water Resources Act, 2049 is to make legal arrangements for determining beneficial
uses of water resources, preventing environmental and other hazardous effects thereof and for keeping
water resources free from pollution. The Act strives to minimize environmental damage to water bodies,
especially lakes and rivers through environmental impact assessment studies and the proponents who wish
to use water resources for various purposes should prepare IEE report before a license can be granted. The
Act stipulates that soil erosion, flooding, landslides, or any significant impact on the environment should be
avoided in all uses of a water resource. The provisions made in Water Resources Act, 2049 (1992) is
mandatory in case of the implementation of the proposed project. As per the provision, the environmental
impact mitigation and enhancement measures have been proposed in view of environment conservation.
Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 2039 (1982)
To manage watersheds of Nepal, the Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 1982 was enacted. The act is
devoted to the protection of watersheds. Under Section 10 of SWCA, power is extended to the Watershed
Conservation Officer to grant permission to construct dams, drainage ditches and canals, cut privately
owned trees, excavate sand, boulders and soil, discharge solid waste and establish industry or residential
areas within any protected watersheds. The Act outlines the essential parameters necessary for proper
watershed management. The Act is relevant to the proposed project as the project will utilize the soil for
tower foundation in different location. There is likely to impact on soil and watershed condition of the
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project area. Hence, the project is obliged to follow the Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, 2039 (1982)
during project implementation.
Environment Protection Rules, 2077 (2020)
The Environment Protection Rules (EPR) was endorsed in June 1997 and revised in 2020 and was made
under the provisions of the Environment Protection Act, 2019 (2076). The recent amendment states that
on-grid solar projects under 10MW require IEE, and transmission line projects requires IEE only for projects
with voltage levels at or above 132 kV unless it traverses through protected area, buffer zone or national
parks. The EPR adopts the environmental assessment criteria mentioned in the IEE guidelines. However, the
EPR establishes the administrative framework for assessing, exhibition and determination of the IEE/EIA, in
terms of issues needing to be addressed and the format/layout of the IEE/EIA document. Under section (18)
of EPA, any person who contravenes any of the provisions of the Act, or the Regulations or the guidelines
issued under the Act, shall be punishable with a fine up to Rs 50,000. If a proposal is implemented without
the approval of the Ministry of Environment (in case of IEE, Ministry of Energy) or relevant government
agency, or the person implementing the proposal is not complying with the conditions of the approval or
license, the authorized official is empowered to close that activity and may impose fine of up to Rs. 100,000
on such person or organization. This Act is relevant to the proposed project.
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5. Technology Selection Options
5.1 Introduction
Solar PV technology offers wide range of selection options, thanks to the continuous progress and
development in the field of science and technology. For the choice of PV modules and inverters, there are
multiple options which are governed by the parameters namely size, efficiency, and cost. In this section, the
available options will be discussed relating to the selection of PV module and the inverter as well as the
alternatives available for the mounting structures.
5.2 Solar PV Options
5.2.1 Poly Crystalline Technology
Polycrystalline technology offers cheap yet efficient long lasting solar panels. The solar panels produced
from this technology consist of several crystals of silicon in a single PV cell. Several fragments of silicon are
melted together to form the wafers of polycrystalline solar panels. In the case of polycrystalline solar panels,
the vat of molten silicon used to produce the cells can cool on the panel itself. These solar panels have a
surface that looks like a mosaic. These solar panels are square in shape and they have a shining blue hue as
they are made up of several crystals of silicon. As there are multiple silicon crystals in each cell,
polycrystalline solar panels allow little movement of electrons inside the cells. These solar panels absorb
energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.
The polycrystalline solar panels are made of multiple photovoltaic cells. Each cell contains silicon crystals
which makes it function as a semiconductor device. When the photons from the sunlight fall on the PN
junction, it imparts energy to the electrons so that they can flow as electric current. Here, p-type materials
are deficient of electrons while n-type materials have an abundance of electrons. Two electrodes are
connected with the PV cells. The electrode that is on the top surface contains small wires while the electrode
on the bottom is a foil-like conductor.
The solar panels manufactured using polycrystalline technology include the following features:
 Polycrystalline solar panels are eco-friendlier than mono-crystalline solar panels as they do not require
individual shaping and placement of each crystal and most of the silicon is utilized during production.
So, very less waste is produced.
 The acceptable maximum temperature of polycrystalline solar panels is 85 °C while the acceptable
minimum temperature is -40 °C.
 Polycrystalline solar panels have lower heat tolerance than mono-crystalline panels. So, at higher
temperatures, these solar panels have lower efficiency than others.
 Polycrystalline solar panels have a higher temperature coefficient than mono-crystalline panels.
 These panels have a high-power density.
 They come with a structural frame of their own which makes mounting cheaper and simpler.
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5.2.2 Mono Crystalline Technology
In mono-crystalline technology, silicon produced as a single crystal with a continuous internal structure is
used for solar cell. This type of silicon is manufactured into a large cylindrical ingot and then thinly sliced to
create wafer cells which are usually very dark blue or black in color. These manufacturing processes demand
greater resources than poly-crystalline cells and so generally cost more but do offer slightly higher
efficiency.
In this technology, first pure silicon is obtained through various chemical and thermal reactions of silicon
oxide in arc furnaces. And then, a mono-crystalline structured silicon piece is dipped in the silicon melt.
When the core is removed from the melt, the cooling silicon melt becomes piled all around the core. This
silicon is divided into slices after getting chunk. This happens in two phases. First the pile is cut in the form
of rectangle blocks. And then these blocks are separated to slices and processed in the form of panel. The
high amount of material loss during production is the disadvantage of these cells. They are produced with
a thickness of about 0.5 mm. Their color is dark blue, and their approximate weight is less than 10 grams.
Moreover, the mono-crystalline solar cells have a unique look because of the octagonal shape.
When sunlight falls on the mono-crystalline solar panel the cells absorb the energy and through a
complicated process create an electric field. This electric field comprises voltage and current and generates
power which can be used directly to power devices that run on direct current (DC). This power can also be
converted to alternating current (AC) using an inverter.
The mono-crystalline solar cells feature following characteristics:
 These cells in the panel have a pyramid pattern which offers a larger surface area to collect more energy
from the sun’s rays.
 The top surface is diffused with phosphorous which helps to create an orientation that is electrically
negative as compared to the bottom which has a positive electrical orientation, which in turn helps to
create the electric field.
 To reduce reflection and thereby increase absorption, the cells are coated with silicon nitride.
 The produced electricity is collected through metal conductors printed onto the cells.
 Because of the above features, the main advantage of mono-crystalline solar cells is the higher
efficiency of conversion of solar energy into electric energy than its two other counterparts.
 These panels have longevity up to 30 years.
 These panels exhibit greater heat resistance.
5.2.3 Thin Film Technology
The solar modules produced using thin film technology are made with thin film deposition (<10 μm
thickness) of a semiconductor onto a substrate. This type of solar-PV modules include semiconductor made
from:
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

 Multi-junction thin-film silicon (a-Si/ μc-Si)
 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
 Copper indium selenide (CIS), and
 Copper indium gallium di-selenide (CIGS)
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Amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cells are the most developed and widely known thin-film solar cells.
Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of both rigid and flexible low-cost substrates.
Amorphous silicon thin-film cells are the oldest and most mature type of thin-film. They are made of non-
crystalline silicon, unlike typical solar-cell wafers. Amorphous silicon is cheaper to manufacture than
crystalline silicon and most other semiconducting materials. Amorphous silicon is also popular because it is
abundant, nontoxic, and relatively inexpensive. The low cost of a a-Si solar cell makes it suitable for many
applications. However, this type of solar cell has very low efficiency (5-7%) and high degradation rate.
Applications of thin-film solar cells began in the 1980s with small strips that were used for calculators and
watches. Throughout the early 21st century the potential for thin-film applications increased greatly,
because of their flexibility, which facilitates their installation on curved surfaces as well as their use in
building-integrated photovoltaics. As thin-film solar cells continue to improve in efficiency, it is predicted
that they could overtake the classic inflexible photovoltaic technologies that have been in use since the
mid-20th century. Sheets of thin-films may be used to generate electricity increasingly in places where other
photovoltaic cells cannot be used, such as on curved surfaces on buildings or cars or even on clothing to
charge handheld devices. Such uses could help to achieve a sustainable energy future.
5.2.4 HIT Technology
The solar cell using hybrid hetero-junction with intrinsic thin (HIT) technology is made of the mono-
crystalline silicon PV cell covered with a thin layer of amorphous silicon film for improving the efficiency
and temperature characteristics. The multi-junction thin-film silicon (a-Si/ μc-Si) which consists of an a-Si
cell with additional layers of a a-Si and micro-crystalline silicon (μc-Si) applied onto the substrate. The μc-
Si layer help absorb more light from the red and near infrared part of the light spectrum, thus increasing
the efficiency of the solar cell.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film solar-PV cells have lower production costs and higher cell efficiencies
compared to a-Si cells. A potential problem of CdTe solar cell is that tellurium is produced in far lower
quantities than cadmium and availability in the long-term may depend on whether the copper industry can
optimize extraction, refining and recycling yields. Cadmium also has issues around its toxicity that may limit
its use.
Copper indium selenide (CIS) and Copper indium gallium di-selenide (CIGS) solar-PV cell absorbs light more
efficiently than a-Si cell, but modules based on this semiconductor require somewhat thicker films than a-
Si PV modules. Indium is a relatively expensive semiconductor material, but the quantities required are
extremely small compared to wafer-based technologies. CIS solar cell production has been successfully
commercialized, but commercial production of CIGS solar cells is in early stages.
Moreover, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) technology is in development phase. Hydrogenated

amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) offers higher absorption compared to c-Si, although having larger band gap
respect to the c-Si (1.7–1.8 eV, compared to 1.12 eV for c-Si) is not well matched to the solar spectrum.
Amorphous silicon as a thin film PV is typically fabricated by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD) at relatively low substrate temperatures of 150–300°C. Since, only a 300 nm film of a-Si:H can
absorb ~90% of above band gap photons in a single pass, these properties led to having lightweight and
flexible solar cells and panels. Another property of a-Si:H cell is that it can be combined with cells based on
nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) or amorphous silicon-germanium (a-SiGe) alloys to form a multijunction cell
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without lattice-matching requirements. Nowadays most commercial a-Si:H modules use multijunction
approach. As we know silicon is cheap, non-toxic and earth abundant, but while a-Si:H cells are well suited
for small scale and low-power applications, their properties such as light induced degradation (the Staebler-
Wronski effect) and low efficiency compared to mature thin film technologies led to decreasing market
interest.
5.2.5 Comparison of PV Options
To select a suitable solar cell technology, the following key factors should be considered:
 PV module cost,
 PV module efficiency,
 PV module reliability,
 PV module lifetime, and
 Overall system cost.
Table below summarizes the key technical specifications of thin-film based solar cells.
Table 3: Key Technical Specifications of Thin-Film based Solar Cells
Characteristics a-Si a-Si/μc-Si CdTe CIS/CIGS

1.Structure P-I-N P-I-N/P-I-N P-N P-N
2.Efficiency (%) 5 to 7 8 to 11 8 to 11 7 to 11
3.Reliability Medium Pretty High Medium Medium
4.Life time (years) 25 25 25 25
5.Energy for cell building Pretty low Pretty low Pretty low Pretty low
6.Spectral response 350-700 nm 350-1100 nm 350-500 nm 400-1100 nm
7.Environmental impact Low Low Pretty high Pretty high
In general, the production costs of thin-film solar-PV modules are lower than crystalline silicon modules.
However, due to the dramatic decline of poly-silicon and wafer production and the increased demand of c-
Si solar-PV modules in recent years, the gap of retail prices of solar-PV modules has been significantly
reduced. As c-Si solar-PV modules has a higher efficiency, they require significantly less hand, cabling, and
support structures per installed MWp than low-efficient thin-film PV modules. In several cases, this makes
the overall system cost of thin-film based solar-PV system higher than that of c-Si based solar-PV system.
With the same land area, the use of thin-film PV modules would reduce the installed capacity of the solar-
PV power plant by 20-60%. In addition, thin-film PV modules have a lower reliability and questionable
lifetime. Based on this analysis, the c-Si types of solar-PV modules is recommended for this project.
It can be seen from following table that mono c-Si and hybrid HIT solar-PV modules have higher efficiency
compared to multi-Si and EGF solar-PV modules. However, the retail prices of multi c-Si solar-PV modules
are much lower than that of mono c-Si and hybrid HIT solar-PV modules, and are not different from thin-
film solar-PV modules. This makes the comparative cost of electricity generated by multi c-Si solar-PV
modules lowest. It is the main reason why multi-crystalline silicon solar-PV modules became the main
technology used in the recent years. In 2013, the market shares of wafer based crystalline silicon solar-PV
cells was close to 90% of market worldwide.
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Table 4: Technical Specifications of Various c-Si based Solar Cell
Characteristics mono c-Si multi c-Si EFG HIT

1.Material mono c-Si multi c-Si multi c-Si c-Si/a-Si
2.Structure P-N P-N P-N P-N
4.Reliability Very high High Medium Medium
6.Energy for cell building Very high High Pretty low Pretty low
5.3 Grid Connected Inverter Options
The inverter is one of the key components of a solar-PV power plant. It converts DC electricity generated
by the solar-PV modules into alternating current (AC) electricity. The size and numbers of inverters required
Characteristics
depend on the installed PV capacity a-Si a-Si/μc-Si
and system design options. CdTe CIS/CIGS
2.Structure P-I-N P-I-N/P-I-N P-N P-N
For the small-scale solar-PV systems, the inverter is directly connected to the low voltage power distribution
grid. For large utility-scale solar-PV power plant, the inverter is connected to the step-up transformers to
4.Reliability Medium
increase the AC power voltage before Pretty
feeding to the medium High Medium
or high voltage power grid. Medium
Commonly, there are three inverter concepts that can be considered for a solar-PV power plant. They are
6.Energycentral
for cell building Pretty low Pretty low
inverter, multi-string inverter and micro-inverter.
Pretty low Pretty low
5.3.1 String Inverter
A string inverter is the type commonly used in home and commercial solar power systems. It is a large box
that is often situated some distance away from the solar array. Depending on the installation size, there
may be more than one string inverter present.
String inverters have been around for a long time and are good for installations without shading issues and
in which panels are positioned on a single plane so do not face different directions. If an installation uses
string inverters and even one panel is shaded for a portion of the day reducing its performance, the output
of every panel on the string is reduced to the struggling panels’ level. Though string inverters are not able
to deal with shading issues, the technology is trusted and proven, and they are less expensive than systems
with micro-inverters. String inverters are commonly used in residential and commercial applications. Also,
as technology improves allowing string inverters to have greater power density in smaller sizes, string
inverters are becoming a popular alternative over central inverters in small utility installations smaller than
1 MW.
String inverters can also be paired with power optimizers, an option that is gaining popularity. Power
optimizers are module-level power electronics meaning they are installed at the module level, so each solar
panel has one. Some panel manufacturers integrate their products with power optimizers and sell them as
one solution known as a Smart Module. This can make installation easier. Power optimizers can mitigate
effects of shading that string inverters alone cannot. They condition the DC electricity before sending it to
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the inverter, which results in a higher overall efficiency than using a string inverter alone. Using a string
inverter, the solar panel array, still typically rated at 12V, 24V or 48V each panel (although higher voltage
panels are now coming out) is wired in series, rather than in parallel. It is that simple: The panels are arrayed
in a "string" to produce the same amount of total power but at higher voltages (typically 200-800V), thus
lower current, allowing much smaller wiring and much smaller and lighter weight inverter construction. The
IR losses encountered in wiring are also present in the inverter equipment's electronics, thus higher voltage
DC input circuitry can be built more economically and with lower internal losses, improving efficiency in the
electronics as well as in the cabling between the solar array and the inverter.
Figure 7: Layout of String Inverters in Solar Projects
5.3.2 Central Inverter
A central inverter is in a protected environment, away from harsh climatic conditions and usually near the
main electricity service panel. In this inverter, DC power is taken from all the solar panels into one combiner
box and then is taken to the central inverter to be converted into AC power. As a result, voltages can be
quite high in the central inverter, sometimes as much as 600 volts DC.
Central inverters are the ones usually used for large-scale industrial applications and have larger capacities
than string inverters and micro inverters. Central inverters converge the plant’s power into one place. Central
inverter units are physically much larger than string inverters, use longer wires and can convert more power
per unit. A 5 MW PV system necessitates the need for a central inverter with a minimal rating of 5 MW
itself.
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In the case of a central inverter, all module strings are merged centrally. This is particularly useful when all
PV modules are subject to similar conditions with respect to inclination and orientation. For this reason,
central inverters are usually used in the case of larger roof systems or free-space systems in the format of a
control cabinet or as a station in container construction. With a capacity of 100 to 1,200 kW, central inverters
feed the generated solar power directly into the medium-voltage grid with a voltage of 20,000 volts.
The simplest architecture of a central inverter consists of a single DC-AC conversion stage. Some inverters
have a DC-DC boost stage to increase the MPP voltage range. In some cases, a low frequency transformer
is provided at the output to boost the AC voltage and provide isolation. However, this decreases the
efficiency and increases the size, weight and cost of the inverter. The trend is to use transformer less
inverters in commercial installations with a front-end boost stage if required.
While central inverters in Europe have always been 1000V rated, they are available in two DC voltage
categories in the U.S.: 600V and 1000V. The 600V DC category is commonly used in commercial rooftop
projects, but also in some utility-scale projects. The 1000V DC rated inverters tend to be larger (>500kW)
and have been used in “behind-the-fence” (utility-owned) projects for several years. Recently, smaller 1000V
DC central inverters are being employed in commercial rooftop projects in response to code changes.
Central inverters for commercial projects in the U.S. have either 480V or 208V 3-phase outputs. Inverters
used in utility projects typically have a lower AC output (determined by the minimum DC voltage) which is
connected to a MV transformer. It is common to parallel the outputs of several inverters on a single
transformer winding if the arrays are ungrounded. Recently, the wind industry standard of 690V AC is
becoming a popular output voltage to take advantage of BOS cost savings.
Central inverters can be either monolithic (using a single power train and MPP tracker) or modular (with
multiple power trains). Modular inverters are more complex but have the advantage of being able to operate
at reduced power in the event of failure of one or more modules. They could use either a multi-MPPT or a
Master-Slave control approach. The multi-MPPT approach essentially uses a separate converter and MPPT
for each floating sub-array, which increases the overall energy harvest under partial shading conditions. In
the Master-Slave approach, the Master module is always on and commands other modules (Slaves) to turn
on as more power is available from the array, which maximizes inverter efficiency under low isolation
conditions.
Solar inverters have historically been required to operate at unity power factor and disconnect from the
grid in case of under-voltage or frequency (anti-islanding). They are now increasingly being required to
support the grid with features such as low-voltage / low-frequency ride through (LVRT/ LFRT), reactive
power support and dynamic power factor control. This requires the ability to control the inverter parameters
and not just monitor them.
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Figure 8: Use of Central Inverter in Solar Project
5.3.3 Comparison of Inverter Options
While there has been the use of traditional central inverter in most of the solar PV power plant in multi-watt
scale, the interest in string inverter has been increasing recently. The factors such as system cost, power
production, reliability, and efficiency are major concerns during the selection of inverter system.
For rooftop or most captive solar power projects string inverters are a better choice. Further, string inverters
offer a high level of redundancy and plant availability due to the fact that in case 1 of the inverters goes
down the plant continues to operate to a high-capacity level. E.g., In case of a solar plant with 50 string
invertors, if one of the inverters breaks down, then the other 49 inverters will continue to work, thereby
providing 98% system availability whereas if it was a central inverter, then the solar plant may have had
100% or 50% of the plant down.
With the advent of higher efficiency string inverters, the DC-AC conversion losses are nearly like central
inverters. String inverters have another advantage of having a better solar energy harvest as compared to
central inverters due to the conversion happening at a lesser number of strings. For example, a 34kw string
inverter will typically have 4 to 6 strings. These solar strings will be connected to 2 independent MPPT inputs.
Hence each MPP tracker is operating with 2 to 3 strings whereas with central inverters usually each MPP
tracker will have about 15 to 20 strings. Hence in case of 1 of the strings having some technical fault or
shading the performance of 15 to 20 strings will be affected in case of a central inverter.
From a serviceability point of view also it is easier to maintain spare PCBs or maybe even a complete unit
as a spare to replace in case of string inverters. But it is very difficult to maintain a central inverter as spare
due to the high cost and large space requirement.
However, in case of very large solar plants such as 50MW or higher capacities, of course it is much better
to choose central inverters such as 1MW or 800kw, etc., considering the large number of inverter
requirements.
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The following table compares between the string and central inverter in terms of system cost.
Table 5: Inverter Comparison based on Cost
Similarly, the energy production comparison between the inverters is made in the table below:
Table 6: Inverter Comparison based on Energy Production

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Figure 9: Pictorial Representation of String Inverter and Central Inverter
5.4 Ground Mounting Structure Options
Module Mounting Structures play a critical role in setting up a durable, long-lasting, and efficient solar
power plant. The first thing that should be examined before the setting up of module mounting structures,
for a ground mount solar plant, is the foundation of these structures. The foundation can be built as a pile
foundation or with ramming, among other methods. A strong foundation is the key to a stable mounting
structure. Based on the design of the plant, and the cost constraints involved, different module mounting
structures may be used while carrying out Ground-Mounted solar installations.
5.4.1 Fixed Tilt System/ Tracking System
With Fixed Tilt Structures, the modules are raised on structures. These are held firmly to the ground with a
strong foundation. The Fixed Tilt structures are designed at a year-round optimum tilt, as the tilt of the
modules cannot be changed once the structures and modules are installed.
The amount of electricity generated by a fixed-tilt solar PV system depends on the orientation of the PV
panels relative to the sun. The panels of a solar PV system collect solar radiation more efficiently when the
sun's rays are perpendicular to the panel.
Fixed-tilt PV systems use two separate angles that determine their orientation relative to the sun: the
azimuth and the tilt.
 The azimuth specifies the compass direction that a tilted panel is facing: north, south, east, or west.
Most panels in the Northern Hemisphere are south-facing.
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 The tilt is the angle from the horizontal ground. A tilt of zero degrees means that the panel is lying flat
on the ground, while a tilt of 90 degrees means that the panel is perpendicular to the ground, like on
the side of a building.
Tracking system can change the tilt of modules in a more closely calibrated manner. This automates the
manual process of physically changing the tilting the modules to the optimum angles. There are two highly
prevalent types of trackers:
 Single Axis Trackers: These permit the movement of the module along a single axis, which can be
maintained uniformly along a single row or a block of modules. This can be thought of lending to the
module a single axis of rotation. Single axis trackers can allow the movement of the module along a
vertical axis or a horizontal axis. Single axis trackers can also be installed in tilted module installations as
well.
 Dual Axis Trackers: These trackers allow modules to rotate along two axes, allowing for a more precise
tracking of the sun’s movement across the sky, allowing for optimum exposure to the sun during
different parts of the day and the year.
5.4.2 Comparison of Mounting Structure Options
With fixed tilt system governing the solar PV sector in the past, the single axis tracker system is significantly
covering the share in the sector. Single-axis trackers are the most common tracking systems installed today.
Although dual-axis trackers can increase total energy production by 5-10% above a single-axis tracker,
single-axis trackers are more cost-effective and reliable. The additional energy produced by a dual-axis
tracker rarely, if ever, outweighs the additional land, installation and operations and maintenance (O&M)
costs required. Most importantly, the rapid decline in PV module pricing has led investors to prefer
increasing a system’s power capacity (number of modules) to achieve energy targets rather than using more
complex tracking systems that improve efficiency. However, single-axis trackers are not always technically
or economically viable. Industry leading manufacturers have designed trackers capable of withstanding
wind speeds up to 135MPH at 3-second gusts. If potential wind speeds are higher a tracking system is likely
not an option. It should also be noted that although the tracker can withstand those wind speeds, the
modules are stowed in a flat position when gusts exceed 60MPH. If the project is in an area with high winds
during daylight hours, there will be production losses due to the modules being stowed.
Site topography also limits tracker viability because trackers need to be installed in relatively flat locations.
Each tracker segment is typically 250-275ft (72-80 PV modules) in length and cannot be installed at grades
exceeding 5-6%. Additionally, ground undulations within the tracker segment need to be leveled to a certain
tolerance. With these restrictions, sites with sloping or unleveled terrain will require extensive grading and
additional costs which typically make trackers uneconomical.
Soil conditions are another main issue to explore for technical viability. Trackers put additional torque on
their piers compared to fixed-tilt racking systems. The additional torque load requires larger and deeper
piers to be installed. Many sites have underlying bedrock which limits the depth of installation requiring
drilling and additional cost. Furthermore, sites with poor soil or contamination may not allow for
underground disturbance (e.g., landfill) and would be better suited for a ballasted fixed-tilt racking system
which avoid underground conditions entirely. Ballasted trackers are not currently available, resulting in poor
soil being the selection criteria for fixed-tilt ballasted systems.
48
After ensuring the technical viability of trackers at a site, economic considerations must be considered. The
gain in efficiency must be measured against the additional cost of the tracker to see if the tracker system
will improve the overall economic return of a solar project. The four main considerations are cost of
equipment, cost of installation, cost of additional land and cost of additional O&M.
Trackers are more expensive to procure and install than fixed-tilt racking systems. This is the most basic
additional cost to include in a financial model. Tracker systems generally add a premium of 15-20% to the
overall system costs when compared to a fixed-tilt system of similar size.
Tracker systems also have larger footprints per megawatt when compared to fixed-tilt systems. The cost of
the additional land must be factored into the financial model. Typically, fixed-tilt systems require 4-5 acres
per megawatt while tracking systems need 4-7 acres per megawatt. An additional 20% of acreage for
tracking systems is a good rule of thumb for checking the economics.
Lastly, tracking systems are more expensive to maintain over the 25-year life of a system. They include
motors, sensors, and moving parts that fixed-tilt systems do not have. These require additional maintenance
and add cost. It is not uncommon to see as much as 10-15% added to O&M plans that utilize tracking
systems. A 10% increase in O&M costs is a decent rule of thumb for the conservative developer.
Single-axis trackers will provide additional energy production resulting in higher project revenue. Careful
evaluation of the technical and financial characteristics of a project will reveal whether this additional
revenue will support the higher costs of a single-axis tracker system.
49
6. Topographical Survey and Mapping
6.1 Topographic Survey
The topographical features of the alignment were surveyed by means of spot surveying. Spot positions were
taken by the total station from different traverse points. The topographical survey and leveling works were
carried out for access pathway, security block, control room, drainage layout.
The location of the survey area is as follows:
i. District: Bardiya
ii. Municipality: Thakurbaba
iii. Latitudes, Longitudes 28° 45’ 38" N, 81° 31' 50" E
iv. Topographic Maps from the Department of 1:25,000
Survey Scale
List of coordinates and elevation of control points established from the survey
department under the Ministry of Land Reform and Management, Government of Nepal.
Figure 10: Engineers at Topographical Survey

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6.2 Topographical Contour Plan and Profile Drawings
6.2.1 Area Coordinates, Elevation, Topo Maps and Boundary
A closed traverse was carried out from security block to control room. Several essential offset points were
also established by conventional method to cover survey area to be mapped from start to end. The List
of Traverse Point with coordinates and elevation are given below:
Table 7: Co-ordinates & Elevation of Traverse Points
S.N. Easting Northing Z (Elevation) REMARKS

1 530599.014 3147374.002 100.000 ST1
2 530604.009 3147376.033 100.010 ST2
3 530410.061 3147488.288 100.836 ST3
4 530415.034 3147486.601 101.478 BS1
5 530683.640 3147453.969 101.361 ST4
6 530682.040 3147451.143 101.012 BS2
7 530721.625 3147460.899 101.490 ST5
8 530809.482 3147518.643 101.537 ST6
9 530608.138 3147377.512 99.803 BD
10 530612.809 3147334.937 100.103 BD
11 530633.451 3147340.126 100.526 BD
12 530638.374 3147327.275 101.382 BD
13 530647.849 3147299.938 101.892 BD
14 530647.882 3147295.120 101.453 BD
15 530650.020 3147270.211 101.413 BD
16 530635.036 3147251.202 100.683 BD
17 530624.622 3147268.593 101.281 BD
18 530628.806 3147278.895 101.594 BD
19 530630.338 3147287.143 101.419 BD
20 530616.577 3147283.776 101.863 BD
21 530599.190 3147263.353 102.254 BD
22 530583.350 3147244.308 102.039 BD
23 530564.970 3147224.701 101.222 BD
24 530531.686 3147208.681 101.208 BD
25 530513.348 3147195.870 100.940 BD
26 530487.037 3147185.817 100.657 BD
27 530465.855 3147174.898 100.654 BD
28 530729.943 3147463.955 101.365 RE
51
After plotting all the available data from topographical survey, following area has been established.
Figure 11: Traced Area of the Survey Location
Figure 12: Contour Plan of the Proposed Site

52
6.2.2 Sketch of the Available Area for the Project
After detailed analysis of the total area, the most viable option is selected as presented below:
Figure 13: Sketch of Available Area for Project

53
7. Geological and Geotechnical Study
7.1 Detailed Surface Geological and Engineering Geology
Study for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accounted for solar PV project. Our
site is alluvial land with missing silt, sand, and gravel on surface with gradient of around 1.8 meter towards
south-west on 72,004.67 m2 land.
7.2 Geomorphological Studies and Mapping
Geomorphological studies and mapping are done to document surface conditions to provide a basis for
projecting subsurface conditions and to assist the design engineer in understanding key factors that must
be accommodated in construction. Major geological features such as faults, landslide area, bedrock
formation contacts are projected here. As per the literature review and archives’ study, our proposed site is
out of zone for such critical geological features.
7.3 Outcrop Joints Analysis
Outcrops within a given area or region of study contains two or more sets of systematic joints, each with its
own distinctive properties such as orientation and spacing, that intersect to form well-defined joint systems.
These were formed at a depth of about ten miles below the surface. Bardiya which lies in Terai, and Terai
belt of Nepal has no such reported exposures or outcrops.
7.4 Geotechnical Investigations and Assessments
Earthquake Catalogue, Historical & Instrumentally Recorded Earthquakes
Earthquake catalogue helps to evaluate the evolution of past seismic activities and future earthquake
scenario by interpreting historical data set. In addition, it makes easy to assess earthquake hazard and risk
as well as earthquake prediction of the area from the input of such information. Collection of the past
earthquakes from the historical information of the country related to seismic disasters produce primitive
set of earthquake catalogues prior to instrumental seismology. The historical earthquake catalogues give
way to understand the place, time, and rough descriptions of damages of earthquakes, which can be
quantified in intensity.
Historical data shows that four great and large earthquakes have occurred in the last century due to sudden
release of accumulated stresses in the active geological faults of the Himalaya (Chitrakar and Pandey, 1986;
DMG, 2006). The 1934 Bihar-Nepal Great Earthquake was one among the four great earthquakes of the
whole Himalaya with a magnitude of Ms 8.3. Occurrence of other significant historical great earthquakes
(M>7.5) in 1255, 1408, 1810 and 1833 are also mentioned in literatures (Chitrakar and Pandey, 1986; Bilham
et al, 1995). National Seismological Centre (Department of Mines and Geology, 2006) has been recording
small to medium sized earthquakes that frequently occurring in the territory of Nepal.
54
Present day seismicity and Historical records indicate that the Himalaya has experienced recurrence of large
earthquakes. Earthquakes Epicenter Map of Nepal shows that medium sized earthquakes (6 to 7 magnitude)
are mostly confined to the MHT between the foothills and the Higher Himalaya. The data of the recorded
earthquake during the period between 1994 and 2000 indicates that the average frequency of earthquakes
of 5<M<6 in west Nepal is two per a year, however, the recurrence rate of earthquake 6<M<7 is lower i.e.,
one in six years.
Table 8: Recurrence of Earthquake in Nepal between the Period of 1994 and 2000 (After DMG, 2006)
Figure 14: Earthquake Epicenters Map of Nepal (DMG, 2006)
Present day seismicity and Historical records indicate that the Himalaya has experienced recurrence of large
earthquakes. Bilhalm et al. (2001) have pointed out a high possibility of a huge earthquake in the Himalayan
region based on the energy accumulation since historical time.
55
There has not been any large earthquake since 1934. Bajracharya prepared the epicenter distribution map
of the 830 past earthquakes (M > 4) in Nepal that had occurred between 1911 and 1993 which can be
applicable to the project site.
7.4.1 MASW or SRT
Multichannel Analysis of Surface Wave (MASW) or Seismic Refraction Tomography (SRT) are mainly done
to image the subsurface geologically. These are effective in estimating mainly seismic data and usually shear
velocity, density, and thickness of subsurface profiles. Our design of the foundation shall be done to counter
the seismic lateral load acting on the structure foundation.
7.4.2 Shallow Drilling
Augers or Direct-The-Hole method can be suitably adopted to further pursue the foundation excavation
and anchoring ground mounted solar arrays in this Shallow Drilling methodology. Standard continuous
flight augers are used for regular open-hole drilling after which they are extracted, and the borehole is filled
with cement/grout.
7.4.3 In-situ Testing (DCPT Test)
Usually, DCPT test is done for the physical soil properties using undisturbed sample collection. And, also to
check the bearing capacity of the soil. For the proposed site, around 120N/mm2 of B.C. is detailed out.
7.4.4 Test Pitting and Trenching for Logging
We have adopted the concrete drainage layout to mitigate the possible logging problem at the presented
site. Detailed drain design is presented at next section of the report.
7.5 Lab Tests (Sieving of the Soil Samples)
Sieve analysis is done to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material by allowing the material
to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount of material
that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass. It is done after the DCPT Test. Undisturbed
sample is collected, transported safely to lab for examination of mechanical properties.
Sieve analysis determines the particle size distribution of a given soil sample and hence helps in easy
identification of a soil's mechanical properties. These mechanical properties determine whether a given soil
can support the proposed engineering structure. It also helps determine what modifications can be applied
to the soil and the best way to achieve maximum soil strength.
7.6 Slope Mitigation Measures and Gully Protection Works
For the sloppy terrain, these measures are to be adopted for safety of the structure to be built on the site.
As our proposed site is on plain geography, we do not have to further pursue any measures. No silt trap is
needed to be built. Proposed drainage structure is enough to mitigate the water logging and flood issue in
the site.
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8. Solar Resource Assessment
8.1 Solar Resource Overview
Satellite based re-analysis data for solar radiation obtained from various web-based applications, namely,
SolarGIS, PVGIS and METEONORM, has been used to establish solar irradiance data for the proposed
location. A ground based solar resource measurement station has been installed in Nepalgunj under the
World Bank ESMAP project9, however, the station lies at a radial distance of >54km which does not provide
a data that would resonate for the proposed site.
8.2 Solar Resource at Project Site
8.2.1 Comparison of High Resolution Available Meteorological Data Sources of the Site
SolarGIS/Global Solar Atlas
Data from SolarGIS have been used to establish the preliminary estimates of Global Horizontal Irradiation
(GHI), Optimum Tilt Angle (OPTA) and Azimuth angle for the proposed project location 10.
Figure 15: Global Horizontal Irradiation Data at Project Location from Global Solar Atlas
9 https://energydata.info/dataset/nepal-solar-radiation-measurement-data/resource/1cdd1757-a603-4d8f-b654-cd62d013c504
10 https://globalsolaratlas.info/map?s=28.452802,81.311574&m=site&c=28.345642,81.301575,10&pv=ground,180,27,1000
57
Table 9: Monthly and Daily Average Solar Resource Data at Project Location from Global Solar Atlas
Table 9 indicates the Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) in project region. According to the data, the
proposed location has an average GHI of 4.75 kWh/m2/day with the GHI as OPTA even higher at 5.199
kWh/m2/day; thus, it can be indicated that, the proposed location is suitable for developing a large-scale
solar project. Furthermore, the optimum tilt angle and azimuth angles are at 27˚ and 180˚ respectively as
shown in figure 16.
Figure 16: Optimum Tilt Angle and Solar Azimuth Data at the Proposed Project Location
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PVGIS
The data from PVGIS has been used to establish the daily average GHI on a monthly basis. Usually, these
data may vary substantially over years, for this reason; the data to be considered is measured over a decade
from 2005 to 2016 from PVGIS 11.
Table 10: Monthly and Daily Global Horizontal Irradiance Data at Project Location from PVGIS
Months No. of Normal At Optimum Tilt Angle OPTA

Days12 Monthly GHI Daily GHI Monthly GHI Daily GHI
(kWh/m²/month) (kWh/m²/day) (kWh/m²/month) (kWh/m²/day)
January 31 124.03 4.00 186.80 6.03
February 28 131.74 4.71 172.13 6.15
March 31 175.82 5.67 200.06 6.45
April 30 204.65 6.82 203.51 6.78
May 31 177.73 5.73 161.04 5.19
June 30 139.48 4.65 124.33 4.14
July 31 117.56 3.79 106.51 3.44
August 31 125.02 4.03 117.77 3.80
September 30 130.23 4.34 135.06 4.50
October 31 144.05 4.65 178.59 5.76
November 30 136.67 4.56 201.65 6.72
December 31 123.37 3.98 198.37 6.40
Daily Avg. Solar Radiation 4.75 5.45
kWh/m²/day kWh/m²/day
11 https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/#TMY
12 https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/
59
Meteonorm
Meteonorm allows access to historical time series of irradiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and
wind which contains archives of hourly data since 2010. The data from Meteonorm is used to generate the
monthly and daily GHI for the proposed site.
Figure 17: Monthly Global Horizontal Irradiance Data and Daily Sunshine Duration Hours
Table 11: Monthly and Daily Global Horizontal Irradiance Data at Project Location from Meteonorm
Months No. of Normal

Days13 Monthly GHI Daily GHI (kWh/m²/day)
(kWh/m²/month)
January 31 112.50 3.63
February 28 138.90 4.96
March 31 184.10 5.94
April 30 204.50 6.82
May 31 212.70 6.86
June 30 173.30 5.78
July 31 146.40 4.72
August 31 165.80 5.35
September 30 149.60 4.99
October 31 155.90 5.03
November 30 132.70 4.42
December 31 120.00 3.87
Daily Avg. Solar Radiation 5.20 kWh/m²/day
13 https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/
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8.2.2 Data Validation and Analysis of Solar Resource Data
Meteorological Data Source Validation (Yearly GHI Comparison, Monthly GHI Comparison, Ambient Temperature Comparison)
The insolation data finalized for the study is given below. The data given in table 12 is according to Gregorian calendar.
Table 12: Insolation Data According to Gregorian Calendar
Insolation Data According to Gregorian Calendar

Month No. of Days in a Month Monthly Average Insolation Daily Average Insolation kWh/m2
kWh/m2
January 31 112.50 3.63
February 28 138.90 4.96
March 31 184.10 5.94
April 30 204.50 6.82
May 31 212.70 6.86
June 30 173.30 5.78
July 31 146.40 4.72
August 31 165.80 5.35
September 30 149.60 4.99
October 31 155.90 5.03
November 30 132.70 4.42
December 31 120.00 3.87
Daily Average Insolation kWh/m2 5.20
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The monthly insolation data selected for the project need to be converted to distribution in terms of Nepali calendar months for the purpose of
developing the estimated contract energy table for NEA during grid connection agreement stage. This has been done as following:
Table 13: Insolation Data According to Nepali Calendar
Count of days for the conversion from English months in Nepalese month
Nepali Month Corresponding No. of Days in Daily Average Corresponding No. of Days in Daily Average No. of Monthly Daily Average
Gregorian Calendar Gregorian Insolation Gregorian Calendar Gregorian Insolation Days in a Average Insolation
Calendar kWh/m2 Calendar kWh/m2 Month Insolation kWh/m2
kWh/m2
Baisakh April 17 6.82 May 14 6.86 31 211.94 6.86

Jestha May 17 6.86 June 14 5.78 31 197.52 6.39
Asar June 16 5.78 July 16 4.72 32 167.99 5.27
Shrawan July 15 4.72 August 16 5.35 31 156.41 5.07
Bhadra August 15 5.35 September 16 4.99 31 160.01 5.18
Aaswin September 14 4.99 October 17 5.03 31 155.31 5.03
Kartik October 14 5.03 November 16 4.42 30 141.18 4.73
Mangsir November 14 4.42 December 15 3.87 29 119.99 4.16
Poush December 16 3.87 January 14 3.63 30 112.74 3.78
Magh January 17 3.63 February 12 4.96 29 121.22 4.20
Falgun February 16 4.96 March 14 5.94 30 162.51 5.44
Chaitra March 17 5.94 April 13 6.82 30 189.57 6.34
Total 188 177 365
Daily Average 5.20
Insolation
(kWh/m2)
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9. Shadow Analysis
9.1 Near Shading
Near shadings are shadings produced by near objects, which draw visible shades on the PV field. A detailed
on-site analysis and simulation-backed validation was performed to examine near shading caused by any
objects like trees, buildings, landscape etc. that lies within proximity of the project area. The analysis was
performed through Solar Pathfinder whereas HelioScope was used for simulation analysis as a means for
verification of on-site analysis data.
9.1.1 On-Site Analysis
The on-site shading analysis was conducted with the help of Solar Pathfinder which is the professional PV
installer's tool for determining the most economical and efficient photovoltaic array location and position.
Instant panoramic reflection of the site provides accurate solar and shading data throughout the year and
measure the shading of any site, allowing the user to see what could shade the system throughout the year
by means of their reflective principles. All the obstructions restraining the sunlight at the location can be
clearly seen in the reflection. The sun path diagram representing the sun’s route across the sky for each
month of the year and hour of the day is drawn on a paper which is placed underneath the dome. The
consultancy has performed the shading analysis at ten points within the proposed site.
Figure 18: Solar Pathfinder for Near Shading Analysis at the Proposed Project Location
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Table 14: Results of Shading Analysis Using Solar Pathfinder at Ten Locations
Month Percentage of monthly loss due to shading (%) Solar Nu Monthly

SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP Maxi Radiatio mbe loss sun
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 mum n r of hours
(kWh/m days (kWh/m
2/day) 2)
January 0 1 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 3.63 31 2.25
February 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4.96 28 1.39
March 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5.94 31 1.84
April 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.82 30 0.00
May 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.86 31 0.00
June 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.78 30 0.00
July 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.72 31 0.00
August 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.35 31 0.00
September 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4.99 30 1.50
October 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 5.03 31 3.12
November 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4.42 30 2.65
December 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.87 31 0.00
Average/Total 5.20 12.75
The near shading losses from physical attributes located within the proximity of the project was found to
be only 0.67 percent; this is the maximum possible near shading losses at the proposed project location
from physical attributes.
9.2 Far Shading
Far shading is defined as the shadows produced by objects distant from the system, typically this is the
horizon line which in some cases can present obstacles (such as mountains) that limit the irradiation time
on the system. The horizon line in the solstice figure below validates that there is no hindrance of far shading
at the proposed site even during winter months when the solar elevation angle is at its lowest.
Figure 19: Far Shading Analysis from Solstice Diagram and Horizon Line at Proposed site
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9.3 Simulation Analysis
To further validate the on-site results for near and far shading, a simulation based shading analysis has been
done in HelioScope. The analysis calculates the Plane of Array (POA) irradiance, which is a measure of the
total amount of solar energy that is available to an array, based on the location of the array and the direction
of the modules. POA irradiance is calculated at the module level and averaged across modules to generate
system-level values. The table below indicates the percentage of POA irradiance that is available after the
shading from row-to-row shading as well as other physical interferences from both near and far conditions.
From HelioScope the overall shading losses was found to be 3.1%. This factor has been incorporated in the
simulation performed using PVsyst while calculating the annual energy yield estimates. The analysis also
considers that all individual PV modules shows shading losses of less than 7 percent.
Figure 20: Shading Loss Analysis Performed in HelioScope
Table 15: POA Irradiance Calculated in HelioScope
Months POA (GWh) Shaded POA (GWh) %

January 1.94 1.85 95.7%
February 2.10 2.04 97.2%
March 2.55 2.52 98.8%
April 2.42 2.38 98.4%
May 2.29 2.24 97.8%
June 1.82 1.77 97.1%
July 1.53 1.48 96.6%
August 1.89 1.84 97.4%
September 1.85 1.81 97.8%
October 2.30 2.27 98.5%
November 2.24 2.14 95.9%
December 2.23 2.04 91.4%
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10. Plant Design
Designing a megawatt-scale solar PV power plant is an involved process that requires considerable technical
knowledge and experience. There are many compromises that need to be made in order to achieve the
optimum balance between performance and cost. This section highlights some of the key issues that has
been considered while designing the solar PV power plant.
For most large solar PV plants, reducing the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) is the most important design
criteria. Every aspect of the electrical system (and of the project as a whole) should be scrutinized and
optimized. The potential economic gains from such an analysis are much larger than the cost of carrying it
out. It is important to strike a balance between cost savings and quality. Otherwise, design made with a
view to reduce costs in the present could lead to increased future costs and lost revenue due to high
maintenance requirements and low performance.
The performance of a solar PV power plant can be optimized by reducing the system losses. Reducing the
total loss increases the annual energy yield and hence the revenue, though in some cases it may increase
the cost of the plant. In addition, efforts to reduce one type of loss may conflict with efforts to reduce losses
of a different type. It is the skill of the plant designer to make compromises that result in a plant with a high
performance at a reasonable cost. For plant design, there are some general rules of thumb. But specifics of
project locations—such as irradiation conditions, temperature, sun angles and shading—should be
considered in order to achieve the optimum balance between annual energy yield and cost.
10.1 Array Configurations
The preliminary assessment on PV module configuration and system design parameters for determining
the plant capacity at the proposed location has been simulated on HelioScope and devised based on
available space and best practice conditions for spacing, shading and layout considerations. The full
summary has been presented below. The proposed project area is precisely divided into a main field
segment including various keep outs. The plan for solar harvest is shown below.
Figure 21: Array Configurations and Keepouts Defined on HelioScope

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The PV plant is designed to connect 456 strings to 40 number of Sungrow string inverters with individual
unit nominal power output capacity of 125kWac, forming a modular plot of 5 MW. Each series string
comprised of 26 modules. Array Junction Box will be used to ensure the current and voltage levels match
the specification of the inverters. Trina Solar, TSM-DE18 505W monocrystalline PV module has been selected
for the simulation.
Table 16: Technical Datasheet of the selected PV Module
Description Parameter
Solar PV Module Monocrystalline
Manufacturer Trina solar
Model TSM-DE18M(II)-505
Peak Power Watts – PMAX 505WP
Maximum Power Voltage - VMPP 43.0V
Maximum Power Current - IMPP 11.75A
Open Circuit Voltage – VOC 51.9V
Short Circuit Current – ISC 12.35A
Module Efficiency 21.1%
Solar Cells 150 cells
Cell Orientation Fixed
Module Dimensions 2176*1098*35 mm
Weight 26.3 kg
Temperature Coefficient of PMAX -0.36%/C
Temperature Coefficient of VOC -0.26%/C
Temperature Coefficient of ISC 0.04%/C
Operational Temperature -40 to +85°C
Product Workmanship Warranty 12 years
Linear Power Warranty 25 years
The proposed plant comprises of keep outs for security room, storage space and control room. Additionally,
keep outs have been defined for provision of access roads required during commissioning and long-term
maintenance of the proposed solar plant.
Figure 22: Field Segment and Individual PV Frame as defined on HelioScope
Likewise, in order to minimize cable runs and associated electrical losses HelioScope has simulated the best
possible wiring routes for the solar plant. Also, adequate space for control room, storage space and security
facilities has been allocated to avoid the risk of the station shading modules behind it. The layout also
considers adequate distance from the perimeter fence to prevent shading. It has also incorporated access
routes for maintenance staff and vehicles at appropriate intervals.
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10.2 Grid Connected Inverter
The selection of inverter for the solar project has been made based on the local conditions and the system
components. Different solar PV module technologies and layouts may suit different inverter types. Care
needs to be taken in the integration of modules and inverters to ensure optimum performance and lifetime.
The most cost-effective inverter option requires an analysis of both technical and financial factors. Likewise,
the DC-AC conversion efficiency directly affects the annual revenue of the solar PV plant and varies
according to several variables, including the DC input voltage and load. The optimum value of DC-AC ratio
was determined from PVsyst. Additionally, several other factors were considered during inverter selection,
including site temperature, product reliability, maintainability, serviceability, and total cost.
From PVsyst it was analyzed that the inverter power will be strongly undersized if the number of inverters
will be less than 40. However, increasing the number to 40 with DC/AC ratio of 1.20 will make the inverter
power slightly undersized, which is both technically acceptable and economical. As a result, the consultancy
has validated to install 40 inverters. As such, the overall plant capacity is obtained as 5MWac (AC
Nameplate).
The proposed solar project comprises of Sungrow string inverters with unit nominal output power of
125kWac x 40 modules which gives a total plant capacity of 5 MW. String inverters transform the direct
current (DC) from PV panels into an alternating current (AC) that can be fed into the electrical grid.
Table 17: Technical Datasheet of the selected String Inverter Module
Description Parameter
Manufacturer Sungrow
Model SG125HV
AC output power 125 kVA
Max. AC output current 120A
Nominal AC voltage 3 / PE, 600 V
Max. PV input voltage 1500 V
Min. PV input voltage / Start-up input voltage 860 V/920 V
Nominal PV input voltage 1050 V
Max. PV input current 148 A
Dimensions 670*902*296 mm
Weight 76 kg
Sungrow is one of the very few companies that can offer assurance that spare parts, service, and technical
support will be continually available over the 20+ years life of a solar installation.
The inverter protection also includes:
 Protection against incorrect polarity for the DC cable.

 Over-voltage and overload protection.
 Islanding detection for grid connected systems (depends on grid code requirements).
The inverter provides peak efficiency above 98.9 % and is ideal for utility scale solar project and can be used
with both crystalline and thin-film modules.
The following points were considered before choosing the inverter:

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 The peak rating of the PV array

 The type of shading that occurs on the array
 The capital costs of the different inverters
 The average annual energy yield.
10.3 Safety and System Protection
Overcurrent, Overvoltage, Disconnection, and Earthing Protections have been discussed below.
10.3.1 Overcurrent Protection
When designing the over-current protection for a photovoltaic array, all sizing is based on the short circuit
current of the array. These are the two key reasons:
 The short circuit current is the greatest current a photovoltaic module can produce at a given
temperature and irradiance.
 The greatest current that an array can produce is the sum of the short circuit currents of each
string in the array.
Since the short circuit current can vary depending on the temperature of the solar modules and the
irradiance, these two important factors should be considered when designing photovoltaic systems.
HRC fuses are available in various sizes (2 to 25A). Overcurrent devices used in PV source circuits must
have no greater than the maximum series fuse rating, given in manufacturer’s datasheet.
10.3.2 String Protection
The rated trip current (ITRIP) of over current protection for the PV string is determined by the following
formula from IEC 62548: Design Requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) Arrays:
1.5 x ISC-MOD ≤ ITRIP ≤ 2.4 x ISC-MOD
Where,
ISC-MOD = short circuit current of PV modules at STC = 9.94 Amps

ITRIP = rated trip current of the fault current protection device
Therefore, 14.91 ≤ ITRIP ≤ 23.85 Amps
Fuses or Circuit Breakers can be used for string protection. Any fuses must be DC rated for use in PV
systems. Circuit Breakers may be used for string protection, but they should be:
 Rated for maximum Array DC voltages, corrected for minimum ambient temperature, as per
clause 7.2
String Fuse Voltage Rating = VOC(STC) × M × 1.15 = 1465 Vdc
 Bi-directional/non-polarized (i.e., can break DC current flowing in both directions – IEC 62548:
Design Requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) Arrays Section 7.3.4)
 Within the current rating range as described in the formula above
 Comply with all other specifications as per IEC 62548: Design Requirements for Photovoltaic (PV)
Arrays
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10.3.3 Earthing and Surge Protection
Earthing should be provided to protect against electric shock, fire hazard and lightning. By connecting to
the earth, charge accumulation in the system during an electrical storm is prevented. The earthing of the
solar PV power plant encompasses the following:
• Array frame earthing

• System earthing (DC conductor earthing)
• Inverter earthing
• Lightning and surge protection
National codes and regulations and the specific characteristics of each site location will be taken into
account when installing the earthing solution. The solution has been designed to reduce the electric shock
risk to people on site and the risk of damage and fire during a fault or lightning strike. The entire solar PV
power plant and the electrical room will be protected from lightning. Protection systems are based on early
streamer emission and lightning conductor air terminals. The air terminal will be capable of handling
multiple strikes of lightning current and will be maintenance-free after installation. These air terminals will
be connected to respective earthing stations. Subsequently, an earthing grid will be formed, connecting all
the earthing stations through the required galvanized iron tapes.
The earthing arrangements will be installed based on the following factors:
• National electricity requirements.

• Installation guidelines for module manufacturers.
• Mounting system requirements.
• Inverter requirements.
• Lightning risk.
The earthing arrangement for the solar PV plant will have followed the general guidelines given below:
• Ground rods should be placed close to junction boxes. Ground electrodes should be connected
between the ground rod and the ground lug in the junction box.
• A continuous earth path is to be maintained throughout the PV array.
• Cable runs should be kept as short as possible.
• Surge suppression devices can be installed at the inverter end of the DC cable and at the array
junction boxes.
• Many inverter models include internal surge arrestors. Separate additional surge protection
devices may also be required.
10.4 Cable Management
Over-ground cables such as module cables and string cables need to be properly routed and secured to
the mounting structure, either using dedicated cable trays or cable ties. Cables should be protected from
direct sunshine, standing water and abrasion by the sharp edges of support structures. They should be kept
as short as possible. Plug cable connectors are standard in grid-connected solar PV power plants, due to
the benefits they offer in terms of installation ease and speed. These connectors are normally touch-proof,
which means they can be touched without risk of shock. The laying of main DC cables in trenches must
follow national codes and consider specific ground conditions.
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10.4.1 Module and String Cables
Single-conductor, double-insulation cables are preferable for module connections. Using such cables helps
protect against short circuits. When sizing string cables, the number of modules and the number of strings
per array need to be considered. The number of modules defines the voltage at which the cable should be
rated. The number of strings is used to calculate the maximum reverse current that can flow through a
string. The cables should be rated to the highest temperature they may experience (for instance, 80°C).
Appropriate de-rating factors for temperature, installation method and cable configuration should also be
applied.
10.4.2 Main DC Cable
In order to reduce losses, the overall voltage drop between the PV array and the inverter should be
minimized. A benchmark voltage drops of less than 3 percent (at STC) is suitable, and cables should be sized
using this benchmark as a guide. In most cases, over-sizing cables to achieve lower losses is a worthwhile
investment.
10.4.3 Combiner Boxes
Combiner boxes are needed at the point where the individual strings forming an array are marshalled and
connected in parallel before leaving for the inverter through the main DC cable. Junctions are usually made
with screw terminals and must be of high quality to ensure lower losses and prevent overheating.
10.4.4 Determining the Size of DC and AC Cables
A well-designed PV system may have all the components sized properly and installed in safe environments,
but the system will operate correctly if the cables are correctly sized. This chapter will explain briefly on the
sizing of DC and AC cable.
The wiring of the components must follow some basic rules:
 The system must be electrically safe and safe from environmental degradation.
 The wiring must not impede the performance of the system as a whole.
Correctly sized cables in an installation will produce the following outcomes:
1. There is no excessive voltage drop (which equates to an equivalent power loss) in the cables.
2. The current in the cables will not exceed the safe current handling capability of the selected cables.
10.4.5 DC Cable Sizing
The selection and sizing of DC cables for solar PV plants should take into account the national codes. While
sizing the Cable, the following factors must be considered. Most commercially available cables could be
used in the DC wiring, but it is recommended that multi-stranded DC cables are used, as shown in figure
below. Whatever cables are used; appropriate calculations must be done to determine the suitability of the
cable for use. The majority of solar modules used in grid-connected systems are fitted with a pair of cables
pre-wired with a plug and socket to interconnect the modules in a string. These cables are known as string
cables. These cables are usually available with nominal conductor area of 2.5mm2 to 6mm2.
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10.4.5.1 Voltage Rating of the Cable
The voltage limits of the cable to which the PV string or array cable will be connected must be taken into
account. The terms, maximum Voc of PV modules and temperature factor are used to calculate the voltage
rating of the cable.
IEC 62548: Design Requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) Array states that the voltage rating of the cables used
for wiring PV arrays must be rated for PV array maximum, corrected for minimum ambient temperature,
according to Clause 7.2. They need to be rated for the temperature that they will experience and
environment in which they are installed (for Example, if the cabling is to be exposed, it should be made of
UV resistant material or housed in UV resistant conduit).
PV String Cable
Minimum voltage rating ≥ Vocmax x Nms x 1.15 = 1551.81V
Where,
Vocmax = maximum Open circuit voltage of PV module at STC
Nms = number of modules in a string
(Source: Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation, First Edition, GSES, 2017).
PV Array Cables
Minimum voltage rating ≥ Vocmax ARRAY x 1.15 = 1551.81V
(Source: Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation, First Edition, GSES, 2017).
10.4.5.2 Current Carrying Capacity (CCC)
Current Carrying Capacity (CCC) is the term which refers to the maximum amount of current a conductor
can have flowing through it without causing damage. The larger the size of a conductor is, the greater its
capacity is to carry current. The CCC is affected by,
 Cross sectional area (mm2) of the conductor

 The type of insulation around the wire
 The environment (temperature, location, number of other cables alongside that cable)
The CCC also depends on the type of circuit protection provided (fuses, circuit breakers etc.). The terms, Isc
of PV modules is used to calculate the current rating of the cable. IEC 62548: Design Requirements for
Photovoltaic (PV) Array states that the minimum cable CCC for PV systems will be based on the following:
PV String Cables (Between modules to where multiple strings junction box)
Type: DC Solar Cable with XL-LSOH Insulation and XL-LSOH Sheathing at 60°C
Details: 4 mm2, With CCC of 52 Amps, single cable on surface, Rated Maximum DC Voltage: 1800 Vdc
Maximum Current that can flow in the cable (Imax) = 15.4375 Amps
Total Derating Factor = 0.707 (Considering 2 cables from a string)
Total Derated Current Carrying Capacity = 31.108 Amps which is greater than Imax.
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DC Fuse Requirement: 18.33 Amps (20 Amps Standard)
Voltage Drop Across the cable: 0.5352%
Table 18: Excerpt of PV String Cable Sizing Tool
CALCULATING MAXIMUM CURRENT THAT CAN FLOW IN THE CABLE (Imax)

Imax=Isc*No. of parallel string*1.25, where 1.25 is design margin
Enter no. of parallel strings 1 No.
So Now Imax= 15.4375 Amps
Applicable Derating factors (DF) of DC cable
a) Variation in ambient temperature 1
b) Variation due to HDPE conduit pipe, derating factor is given by 1/√n, where n=no. of 0.707
cable in conduit , standard n=8
TOTAL DERATING FACTOR 0.707
CALCULATING DERATED CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
DCCC= DERATING FACTOR * RATED CCC
So Now DCCC = 31.108 Amps
HERE we should keep in mind that the value of DCCC should always be greater than value of Imax
(i.e., wire is suitable even after derating)
So Now DCCC = 31.108 A & Imax = 15.4375 A
PV Array Cables (From array junction box to inverter)
Type: DC Solar Cable with XLPE Insulation and UV Stabilized PVC ST2 Sheathing at 40°C
Details: 95 mm2, With CCC of 325 Amps, single cable on surface, Rated Maximum DC Voltage: 1800 Vdc
Maximum Current that can flow in the cable (Imax) = 141 Amps
Total Derating Factor = 0.514779 (Considering temp factor of 0.87, grouping factor of 0.61 and depth of
laying cable in ground of 0.97)
Total Derated Current Carrying Capacity = 167.30 Amps which is greater than Imax.
Voltage Drop Across the cable: 1.1047%
Power Loss Across the cable: 1.1042%

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Table 19: Excerpt of PV Array Cable Sizing Tool
STEP 1 Imax THAT CAN FLOW IN THIS CABLE

Imax =Imp(pv)*NO. OF PARALLEL STRINGS
ENTER THE VALUE OF Imp OF THE MODULE SELECTED = 11.75 Amps
ENTER THE NO. OFDC STRING INPUTS IN THE SMU = 12 NO.
ENTER THE NO. OF PARALLEL STRINGS IN AN ARRAY = 1 NO.
Imax = 141 Amps
STEP 2 Applicable Derating factors (DF) of DC cable
a) Variation in ambient temperature 0.87
b)DEPTH OF LAYING THE CABLE IN THE GROUND 0.97
C) GROUPING FACTOR OF THE CABLE 0.61
D) THERMAL RESISTIVITY OF THE SOIL 1
TOTAL DERATING FACTOR 0.514779
STEP 3 CALCULATING DERATED CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
DCCC= DERATING FACTOR * RATED CCC
So Now DCCC = 167.3032 Amps
HERE we should keep in mind that the value of DCCC should always be greater than
value of Imax (i.e., wire is suitable even after derating)
So Now DCCC = 167.3032 A & Imax = 141 A
10.4.6 AC Cable Sizing
The selection and sizing of AC cables for solar PV plants should consider the national codes. While sizing
the Cable, the following factors must be considered.
 The cable must be rated for the maximum expected voltage

 The conductor should be able to pass the operating and short circuit currents safely
 The conductor should be sized appropriately to ensure that losses produced by the cable are within
acceptable limits
 The conductors should be sized to avoid voltage drop outside statutory limits and equipment
performance
 Insulation should be adequate for the environment of installation
 Either copper or aluminum conductors should be chosen.
It is recommended that the maximum AC voltage drop is 5%.
LT Power Cable will be 660 V, unearthed grade, multi-core, stranded copper conductor, XLPE insulated with
PVC outer sheath made on FRLS PVC compound. The output AC current from all inverters is fed into
individual junction box that is connected (using 650/1100V XLPE cable four core copper conductor) to the
LV Panel in the control room.
The LT power cable will be of 50 mm2, with a nominal CCC of 138 Amps. With consideration of derating
factor of 0.87 the derated CCC is >120 Amps which is the maximum AC output current from inverter module.
Therefore, it is safe to use the 50 mm2 LT power cable.
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Table 20: Excerpt of AC LT Power Cable Sizing Tool (From Inverter Modules to Control Room)
MAKE POLYCAB
SIZE 50 SQ MM
RESISTANCE 0.82 ῼ/KM
CCC 138 Amps
LENGTH OF WIRE 100 meters
APPLICABLE DERATING OF CABLE
COVERED IN TRENCH 0.87
DERATED CCC OF CABLE
DCCC=DF*CCC
SO DCCC = 120.06 Amps
Likewise, the overall power loss on LT AC side is at 0.945%.
Table 21: Excerpt of AC LT Power Cable Power Loss Calculation Tool
CALCULATING POWER LOSS%

P(loss)%=(Imax²*R*L*100)/INV power
resistance R = 0.00082 ῼ/M
TOTAL INV power 125000 Watt
so P(loss)% = 0.94464 %
The output from LV Panel at 660V is connected to 660V/33kV transformer through a 905V XLPE cable with
an ACB (Air Circuit Breaker) to protect and isolate the system till junction box.
The main meter will be installed on the HT side of the 33kV transformer. From the HT panel, 33kV XLPE
cable runs to 33kV metering panel and then to 33kV single circuit transmission line with DOG conductor.
10.5 Array Mounting Structure
The power plant will consist of concrete based ground mounting and fixed tilt systems which is typically
used for large projects and are comprised of either single-post or dual-post designs. Especially for large
facilities, a fixed tilt system results in high-cost savings in terms of assembly time due to a smaller number
of posts needing to be placed. Different frame variants for different module arrangements also guarantee
a cost-effective choice of materials optimized to the desired configuration.
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Figure 23: Proposed Concrete Based PV Ground Mounting Structure
A Normal structure from the ground for mounting a planar array of photovoltaic panels to a roof is formed
from a set of parallel spaced juxtaposed rails that are intersected by a set of parallel spaced juxtaposed
runners that extend perpendicular to the rails. Both the runners and the rails are formed of sheet metal and
are shaped in cross section to partially surround a space. Both the rails and the runners have upwardly
opening apertures bordered by flanges. The flanges of the rails are coplanar with the flanges of the runners.
The photovoltaic modules rest on the flanges, thereby covering the apertures and enclosing the space
within the rails and the runners. This space serves as a protective raceway for the electrical interconnections
and wiring. Because the entire structure is a single electrical conductor, grounding of the modules is
simplified. Compared to other mounting systems, the structure is lighter in weight, simpler to install,
extremely strong, and protective of the electrical interconnections.
Table 22: Technical Details of the Proposed PV Mounting Structure
Material AL 6005-T5/SUS304/Q235B
Surface Treatment Average Anodizing Coating Thickness≥ 12μm Average
Hot-galvanized Coating Thickness≥ 65μm

Panel Type Framed & Frameless
Wind Load ≤60m/s
Snow Load 1.4KN/m2
Panel Orientation Landscape/Portrait
Tilt Angle 0°~60°
Seismic Load Lateral seismic factor: Kp=1; seismic coefficient: Z=1; Use coefficient: I=1
Standards JIS C 8955: 2017
AS/NZS 1170
DIN1055
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ASCE/SEI 7-05
International Building Code: IBC 2009
Warranty 10 years quality warranty, 25 years life span warranty
A fixed module mounting system of 27° inclinations has been chosen for the PV plant. The mounting
structures shall comply with the appropriate industrial standards and shall be capable of withstanding on-
site loading and climatic conditions. Material to be used shall be a combination of hot-dipped galvanized
mild steel and pre-galvanized cold rolled sheets sheared to form structural members for module mounting.
The pre-galvanized sheets post process shall be appropriately coated anti-corrosion compounds for the
project life cycle.
As per site weather data, the project lies in no risk zone with maximum wind speed. The withstanding wind
speed for mounting structure designs should be exceeding the upper limit of the maximum wind speed
range. The modules shall be arranged in double portrait orientation in rows to minimize the effect of
shading. 26 modules will be assembled per row of the mounting structure.
10.6 Power Evacuation System
The interconnection is guided by specific standards and procedures, which outline the technical
specifications to which an interconnection process must adhere. The requirements outlined in the
specification shall be met at the point of interconnection, although the instruments used to meet these
requirements can be located away from the point of interconnection. However, all the interconnection
system hardware and software that affect the grid are required to meet the standard regardless of their
location within the electric power system.
The standards and regulations relevant to the grid connectivity and inspection procedures are listed below.
These standards detail the requirements related to performance, operation, testing, safety and maintenance
of grid connectivity and inspection activities.
10.6.1 Substation
The in-plant substation comprises of primary and secondary electrical equipment for the central operation
of the solar plant and connection to the local electricity grid. Furthermore, equipment such as the LV/MV
transformers, MV switchgear, SCADA systems, protection and supply-side metering system will be placed
in the substation.
The Layout of the substation has been optimized for use of space while still complying with all relevant
building codes and standards. The substation will also consist of switchgear, backup generators, PCU rooms,
control rooms, storerooms, and offices with separate room as a requirement. To obtain safe/touch
potentials and earth system faults, earth mats will be installed prior to setting the foundation. Lightning
protection will be setup to alleviate the effect of lightning strikes on equipment and buildings. Further, a
trench will be provided as a means for easing the routing of power and data cables to the substation.
10.6.2 Transformer
In general, the inverters supply power at LV. But for a commercial solar power plant, grid connection is
typically made upwards of 11kV (HV levels). It is therefore necessary to step up the voltage using a
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transformer between the inverter and the grid connection point. Therefore, a 5MVA oil cooled outdoor type
transformer rated 660V/33kV will be used for stepping up the power to evacuation voltage level. The main
meter will be installed on the HT side of the 33kV transformer. From the HT panel, 33kV XLPE cable runs to
33kV metering panel and then to double circuit steel monopole structures.
The transformer will be of amorphous core type which have low losses under no-load conditions and as
such can provide cost savings in solar applications where there are significant periods of time when the
transformers are not loaded. Additionally, the transformer will follow following quality benchmarks
standards.
Guarantee: Typically, a guarantee of 18 months to 24 months

Mean time to failure: 30 years
Protection scheme:
Oil Immersed Type Buchholz relay
Pressure relief device
Over temperature protection
Oil Level Monitoring
Standards: BS EN 50464-1:2007 +A1:2012
Solar Inverters are rated for unity power factor. So, sizing of transformer has been based on unity power
factor. If inverter Capacity is rated for 5000kW, therefore during unity power factor the transformer shall
also be rated as 5000kVA.
The transformer will be designed to withstand without injury, the thermal and mechanical effect of short
circuit at its terminal with full voltage maintained behind it for a period of 1 second. The transformer will be
capable of continuous operation at the rated output under voltage and frequency variation without
injurious heating at that particular tap for all tap positions.
Phase connections will be delta on LV side and star on HV side. HV side shall be resistance earthed. HV side
shall be suitable for connection to HT panels for the respective transformers. LV side shall be suitable for
connection to LV panel. Transformer will be designed for over fluxing withstand capability of 110%
continuous and 125% for at least 1 minute. Further it shall be capable of withstanding 140% of rated voltage
at the transformer LV terminal for a period of 5 seconds to consider sudden load throw off conditions.
Overloads will be allowed within conditions defined in the loading guide of applicable standard. Under
these conditions, no limitations by terminal bushings, off circuit tap changers or other auxiliary equipment
shall apply.
10.6.3 Metering Unit
The type of meter that will be installed with a grid-connected PV system will depend on the purchasing
agreement with the electricity authority. Tariff Metering will be required to measure the export of power.
This power may be provided at the plant substation in addition to the point of connection to the grid. In
addition to the metering and monitoring arrangement in inverters, monitoring of voltage, current and
energy will be provided at the low voltage switchboards for each of the feeder sections. These meters will
conform to the grid specifications as per the laws and grid codes of Nepal.
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Similarly, HV side shall also be equipped with voltage, current, power and energy meters to correlate the
energy generation and losses. Further metering for utility shall also conform to the grid specifications as
per the laws and grid codes of Nepal.
10.6.4 Lightning Protection
Lightning protective devices are required for both direct and indirect lightning occurrences, which is
common in most areas of Nepal. The PV array needs to be connected to a lightning protection system is
determined by applying IS 2309: Code of practice for protection of building and allied structures against
lightning and IEC 62305: Lightning Protection. The protection devices will be employed on both the DC side
of the inverter (protecting from strikes on the array) and on the AC side of the inverter, (protecting from
strikes on the AC power grid).
The exact positioning of these protection devices must be in accordance with manufacturer
recommendations. The protection devices will be connected as follows:
1. On the DC side:
 Between negative and earth

 Between positive and earth
 Between positive and negative
2. On the AC side:
 Between Phase and earth

 Between neutral and earth
 Between Phase and Neutral
Early Streamer Emission (ESE) air terminals type lightning conductor will be employed in the solar plant. This
type of ESE are proactive structural lightning protection devices and are designed to activate in the
moments directly preceding an imminent direct strike. The installation of ESE air terminal provides direct
path ground of a conventional lightning protection system. The protection radius (Rp) of the ESE terminal
selected here is calculated using the NF C 17-102 standard for lightning devices. The ESE is a versatile device
capable of providing dynamic protection levels for different heights and Rp with a singular device.
Figure 24: Schematic showing the Level of Protection for Lighting Arrestor
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The power plant will employ Ionia ESE air terminal projection from Topbas Grup. The proposed solar plant
has an effective radius of approximately 240 meters. Therefore, four to five number of Ionic ESE lighting
protection will be installed at mast heights of 5 meters to provide protection for the solar power plant.
Similarly, one Ionic ESE will be installed at mast height of 4 meters above the control room which will provide
protection for the control room as well as the switchyard bay area.
Figure 25: Google Earth Image showing Radial Coverage of the Proposed Solar Plant
Table 23: Technical Datasheet of Lightning Arrestor (For different Mast Height Configurations)
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10.6.5 SCADA and Communications System
The instrumentation and control system for the solar power plant will be based on the prevailing standard
engineering practices. Design will ensure full compliances of codes and standards as applicable the field of
instrumentation and control for power plant. SCADA system provide control and status indication for the
items include in the substation and across the solar plant. The key equipment may be situated in the
substation in control and protection rooms. Air conditioning should be considered due to heat generated
by the electronic equipment in the modules.
A number of PV suppliers and/or inverter manufacturers provide separate monitoring devices that can be
remotely installed such as meters, displays, and personal displays to provide system performance
information. The SCADA system shall have the following features:
 Monitoring: Ability to control, using specially designed devices, the state & evolution of one or
various physiologic (or others) parameters to detect possible malfunctions.
 Remote control: Group of devices which allow modifying the state of the equipment and devices
of the plant, from a remote location.
The SCADA system shall be used for the following minimum tasks:
 To invoice the produced energy

 To detect the incidences and malfunctions (up to logical string level)
 To give the information at a given time interval: a) Availability, b) Performance Ratio and Energy
Production
The SCADA System will be reliable and robust, and some components need redundancy for trouble free
operation. Many larger systems have a requirement for system monitoring to show the amount of energy
produced by a system and the amount of energy consumed at a site. System monitoring will often include
solar irradiation information, PV module and ambient temperatures and wind speed, all of which may be
accessed on a local computer, over a local network or via the internet.
A computer interface is an alternative to a data logger. The advantage of data logger is that it can operate
without the full time use of the computer; although the full time use of a computer might be necessary to
allow the computer interface function to download data from the inverter.
Therefore, the computer interface will need to operate whenever the PV system is producing power to
record data. In utility scale solar PV power plants, voltage and current will typically be monitored at the
inverter, combiner box or string level, each offering more granularity than the previous. Monitoring at the
inverter is the least complex system to install.
10.7 Layout and Shading
The general layout of the plant and the distance chosen between rows of mounting structures will be
selected according to the specific site conditions. The area available to develop the plant may be
constrained by space and may have unfavorable geological or topographical features. The aim of the layout
design is to minimize cost while achieving the maximum possible revenue from the plant. In general, this
will mean:
 Designing row spacing to reduce inter-row shading and associated shading losses.
 Designing the layout to minimize cable runs and associated electrical losses.
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 Creating access routes and sufficient space between rows to allow movement for maintenance
purposes.
 Choosing a tilt angle and module configuration that optimizes the annual energy yield according
to the latitude of the site and the annual distribution of solar resource.
 Orientating the modules to face a direction that yields the maximum annual revenue from power
production. In the northern hemisphere, this will be true south.
Computer simulation software may be used to help design the plant layout. Such software includes
algorithms which describe the celestial motion of the sun throughout the year for any location on earth,
plotting its altitude and azimuth angle on a sun path diagram. This, along with information on the module
row spacing, may be used to calculate the degree of shading and simulate the annual energy losses
associated with various configurations of tilt angle, orientation, and row spacing.
10.7.1 General Layout
Minimizing cable runs and associated electrical losses may suggest positioning a low voltage (LV) or
medium voltage (MV) station centrally within the plant. If this option is chosen, then adequate space should
be allocated to avoid the risk of the station shading modules behind it. The layout should allow adequate
distance from the perimeter fence to prevent shading. It should also incorporate access routes for
maintenance staff and vehicles at appropriate intervals.
HelioScope software has been used to devise the layout of the solar plant based on all these considerations.
A setback of approximately 5 meters has been set to avoid shading from boundary wall. This will also help
to incorporate essential perimeter access roads and drainage canals. Likewise, inter-row spacing of 3.2
meters has been devised to avoid row-to-row shading between 9am and 3pm. The layout has been
optimized for minimum cable runs; both DC and AC, using HelioScope.
Figure 26: General Layout of the Proposed Solar Plant Showing Optimum Wiring Schemes
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10.7.2 Tilt Angle and Orientation
Every location will have an optimal tilt angle that maximizes the total annual irradiation (averaged over the
whole year) on the plane of the collector. For fixed tilt grid connected power plants, the theoretical optimum
tilt angle may be calculated from the latitude of the site.
The optimum tilt angle and orientation of 27° and 180° respectively, have been devised from SolarGIS.
Table 24: Selection of Optimum Tilt Angle and Orientation/Azimuth Values from SolarGIS
10.7.3 Inter Row Spacing
If a quote is needed for a PV system on a flat roof or open ground area, consideration must be given so
that one row of modules does not cast a shadow on the row behind. The PV modules will be on tilted frames
facing true South to optimize energy production. Calculations need to be done to find the minimum
distance between PV array rows to avoid winter mid-day shading.
Figure 27: Schematic Showing Calculation Parameters for Inter-Row Spacing
1. Module specifications show that the lengths of the PV module are 2176mm. Therefore, the total effective
length of row is 2 x 2176mm = 4352mm as two modules have been stacked in portrait orientation in each
row. The tilt angle for the array is 27°.
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2. The height to be calculated is Y.
Sin Tilt° = Y/Length of module
Y = sin27° x 4352mm = 1975.77mm
It is recommended that the row spacing avoids shading between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. at the Winter
Solstice (~ December 21).
3. The next required information is the spacing between rows (Y):
Row spacing (Y) = (X) x cos (azimuth angle)/tan (altitude angle)
The PV array is located in Bardiya: Latitude 27°N
From Figure below:
Azimuth = 133° (180° - 133°= 47°), Altitude = 23° at 9 a.m. on December 21 (Winter Solstice)
Figure 28: Solstice Diagram showing Solar Horizon, Elevation, and Azimuth Data
Z = Y x cos 47°/tan 23° = 1975.77mm x 1.61 = 3180.98mm = Approximately 3.2m
Therefore, the row spacing is 3.2 meters.

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11. Design Layout
11.1 Array Layout and Placement of Inverter & DC Combiner Box
The positioning and placement design of PV arrays, string inverters and string combiner box has been done
primarily for minimizing cable runs and associated electrical losses. Adequate space has been allocated to
avoid the possibility of the station shading modules behind it. The layout also allows adequate distance
from the perimeter fence to prevent shading. It also incorporates access routes for maintenance staff and
vehicles at appropriate intervals.
Dust, water and vermin proof string combiner boxes of adequate rating and adequate terminal facility made
of Fire-Resistant Plastic (FRP) will be provided for wiring. Each box shall be provided with fuses and surge
arrestors of adequate rating to protect the solar arrays from accidental short circuit. The proposed power
transformer will be installed outside next to the main control room.
Figure 29: Array Layout and Placement of Inverter & DC Combiner Box
11.2 Positioning of Control Room
With the demands of power and energy sources at construction sites and industrial units ever-increasing,
ensuring a safe and secure housing of the allied equipment is a must to ensure that they continue to serve
and deliver optimum results. The control room has been placed towards the extreme northern end of the
proposed project site to avoid any shading losses to the PV arrays. Furthermore, the control room is situated
in proximity of the switchyard bay area to minimize AC cable runs.
85
Figure 30: Positioning of Control Room
11.3 Electrical Layouts
There are total of 456 strings of 22-26 modules of 505Wp rating each The PV plant is designed to connect
to 40 number of Sungrow string inverters with individual unit nominal power output capacity of 125kWac,
forming a modular plot of 5 MW. The output AC current from all inverters is fed into individual junction box
that is connected (using 490V XLPE cable) to the LV Panel in the control room. The output from LV Panel at
660V is connected to 660V/33kV transformer through a 905V XLPE cable with an ACB (Air Circuit Breaker)
to protect and isolate the system till junction box.
The transformer is oil cooled outdoor type transformers with CT, PTs and LAs at both the LV and HT side of
the transformer. The main meter will be installed on the HT side of the 33kV transformer. From the HT panel,
33kV XLPE cable runs to 33kV metering panel and then to double circuit steel monopole structures.
11.3.1 Single Line Diagram
The single line diagram (SLD) for depicting the power evacuation scheme for the plant is given in shall be
prepared for the project. Basic components used in the SLD would include:
86
1. Air Circuit Breaker (ACB): Air Circuit Breaker is a device used to provide Overcurrent and Short Circuit
Protection for circuits ranging from 800 Amps to 10000 Amps. Air Circuit Breakers are usually used in low
voltage applications below 450 volts.
2. Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB): Vacuum Circuit Breaker used as high-level insulating medium to protect
the electrical device from over current and used above 450 volts. It has far superior arc quenching properties
than any other medium.
3. Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker (SF6): In such circuit breaker, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is
used as the arc-quenching medium. The SF6 is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb
free electrons. The SF6 circuit breakers have been found to a very effective for high power and high voltage
service. SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for voltage 115 KV to 230 KV, power rating 5 MVA.
4. Transformer: Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at
same frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage and high voltage to
low voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static induction principle. When the energy is
transformed into a higher voltage, the transformer is called step up transformer but in case of other is
known as step down transformer.
5. Current Transformer (CT): Current transformer (CT) is an electric device that produces an alternating
current (AC) in its secondary that is proportional to the AC in its primary.
6. Potential Transformer (PT): A potential transformer (PT) is a parallel-connected type of instrument

transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and have an
accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.
The plant will consist of 5 units of 1MVA 0.6kV/33kV transformers. Each transformer unit will host 8 units of
125kWac inverters. Each inverter unit will consist of 12 strings of 22-26 panels in series, with each panel
rated at 505Wp.
The protection schemes for DC side, inverter and transformer are illustrated in the SLD diagram below. The
SLD shown below only illustrates one transformer unit of the power plant. Please refer to annex for complete
SLD figure.
87
Figure 31: SLD of 1 Unit of DC Generation Unit, Inverter Unit and Transformer Unit
88
11.4 Civil Works Layouts
Stability & Structural criteria
The basic design criteria as reference for stability and structural design of project components are
general standards and codes of practices that are followed while designing the hydropower projects.
The design loads that are considered are hydrostatic pressure, silt pressure at the river/water, earth
pressure along the hillside and seismic loadings.
The following dead loads are considered for stability calculation:

Mass Concrete = 22.5 kN/m3
Plum Concrete = 21 kN/m3
Gravel Mix Soil = 16 kN /m3
Steel = 7850 kg/m3
Structural Concrete = 24kN/m3
Cement = 25kN/m3
Water = 9.81kN/m3
Stability of the structure are checked for each block separated by expansion joint. The factors of safety
considered during calculation are as follows:
FOS on Normal Emergency/Seismic

Overturning 1.5 Condition 1.2
Sliding 2.0 1.2

Bearing 2.5 1.5
Floatation 1.2 1.1
The Grade of concrete and quality for characteristics compressive strength are decided with the following
criteria based on practices on the construction of hydropower project:
Blinding and PCC: M10

Water retaining Structure: M25
Mass Concrete: M15 or
Plum Concrete: M12 with 40% plum
Concrete against abrasion & linings, grout holes: M30
General Purpose structural concrete: M20
Although reinforcement design is not carried out for structures at this stage, the reinforcement quantity
required is calculated based on per unit volume of concrete for different structure-based experiences.
89
11.4.1 Mounting Structure Foundation
Module Mounting Structures play a critical role in setting up a durable, long-lasting, and efficient solar
power plant. The first thing that should be examined before the setting up of module mounting structures,
for a ground mount solar plant, is the foundation of these structures. The foundation can be built as a pile
foundation or with ramming, among other methods. A strong foundation is the key to a stable mounting
structure.
For this case, we designed pile foundation of 12-inch dia, for the depth of 2 meter with pile cap of 100 mm
(circular) in superstructure reinforced properly as per drawing.
The details of mounting structure foundation, and cost has been forward on the cost details in Vol
2. Annexes- Calculation. The planned road is shown on the Volume 3-Feasibility Drawings.
11.4.2 Pathways and Cable Trenches
There will be requirement of transportation of goods and construction material to the project site from
Pokhara, Narayanghat and outside. The road is already opened in the project up to Security Block and
further needed to be extended to Control Room.
The pathway is first necessity for the project; this is required at the beginning because of the following
reasons:
- There will be requirement of movement of manpower and personnel

- The cost of other infrastructure will be low
- The mechanized construction and transportation can be possible saving time and efforts
- The road can be useful for the future as well for operation and maintenance
- Mainly the transportation shall be from the machine to the nearest point in the alignment.
The details of road planning, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2. Annexes-
Calculation. The planned road is shown on the Volume 3-Feasibility Drawings.
Cable trench are to be excavated manually along the proposed layout. Layout is proposed such that trench
will run below each solar module on 6” dia PVC pipe conduit. They all compile up along the access road
and supply and connected to Control Room through trench of about 2 feet depth and 2 feet wide.
The details of cable trench layout, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2.
Annexes- Calculation. The planned road is shown on the Volume 3-Feasibility Drawings.
11.4.3 Drainage System
Hydrological Analysis
Factors affecting the quantity of storm water runoff are rainfall characteristics, catchments area, its slope
and shape, soil characteristic and vegetation. Available rainfall data has been analysed to estimate rainfall
90
intensity for particular rainfall duration and return period. The criteria adopted for this analysis is discussed
in the following sections.
Rainfall Intensity
Rainfall intensity, rainfall duration and return period are correlated by regression analysis of available rainfall
data. As per available rainfall precipitation data from the similar project undertaken by the consultant is
used for the present study,
The correlation is described as;
I= 1380 (T)0'13
(t+20) 083
Where I = Rainfall intensity in mm/hr T = Return period in years T = Rainfall duration in minute
BANKE (Station Index No. 0414 )

160
Maximum daily rainfall (in mm)
140
MAX. DAILY RAINFALL (MM)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years
Figure 32: Rainfall Data (Station Index No. 0414) in Banke
Return Period
The return period to be used for design purpose depends upon the relative importance of the structure.
The land use pattern of the project area is mostly residential with semi-urban characteristics. For residential
areas with semi urban characteristic relatively higher frequency rainfall events are considered. Return period
of 25 years has been proposed for the design.
91
Runoff-Coefficient
Table 25: Maximum and Minimum Values of Runoff Coefficient
Type of surface Maximum Minimum
Watertight roofs 0.70 0.95
Asphalt cement streets 0.85 0.90

Portland cement streets 0.80 0.95
Paved driveways and walks 0.75 0.85
Gravel driveways and walks 0.15 0.30
Lawns sandy soil
2% slope 0.05 0.10
2-7% slope 0.10 0.15
>7% slope 0.15 0.20
Lawns heavy soil
2% slope 0.13 0.17
2-7% slope 0.18 0.22
>7% slope 0.25 0.35
Peak Flow Estimate
The rational method of estimating peak flow is normally used in the design of urban storm water drainage
system for area less than 3 km2. In rational method, the peak flow is calculated with the relation.
Qj = CIA/360
Where, Q = Peak flow in m3 / sec

C = Run off coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity in mm/hr
A = Catchment area in hectare
For a given drainage area peak flow thus depends upon rainfall intensity which in turn depends on rainfall
A
duration as discussed in section. Hence the peak flow depends upon estimation of rainfall duration. The
peak flow at the outlet from a given rainfall intensity will occur when the rainfall has continued for a period
sufficient to permit flow to reach the outlet from the remote point of the drainage area. Time required to
permit flow to outlet from the most remote point of the drainage area is defined as time of concentration.
The peak flow will be calculated in the following sequential order.

• Estimate catchments area and runoff coefficient of the catchments area contributing to outlet.
• Estimate time of concentration as discussed in section wise
• Calculate rainfall intensity for the return period of 5 years and rainfall duration equal to time of
concentration.
• Calculate peak flow with catchment area runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity.
92
Intensity Duration Frequency Curve
From the available rainfall data of Banke station the mean and the standard deviation of the annual series
of maximum 24 - hour rainfall has been obtained. This 24-hour rainfall depths were converted into 24-hour
intensity and the intensity of shorter duration were obtained using the formulae. The data thus obtained
are shown in table 4.2 and they are plotted in log - log scale to obtain the intensity - duration - frequency
curves as shown in figure below. These curves are used to determine the design rainfall intensity for any
duration.
K = Frequency factor
T = Return period in years
XT = 24 hr rainfall to T years frequency
X = Mean rainfall
σx = Standar Deviation of 24 hr rainfall
BANKE(STATION INDEX NO. 0414)

IDF CURVE (FOR SHORTER DURATIONS)
2 Years 5 Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years
1000
975
950
925
900
875
850
825
800
RAINFALL INTENSITY (IN MM/HR)
775
750
725
700
675
650
625
600
575
550
525
500
475
450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
RAINFALL DURATION (IN MINUTES)
Figure 33: IDF Curve (Station Index No. 0414) in Banke

93
Manning’s and rugosity
Manning’s equation is used for the hydraulic design of drain. The equation is as follows.
1
𝑉= 𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛
V= velocity of flow
n = manning’s coefficient
A = cross-sectional area
R = Hydraulic Radius
S = Hydraulic Gradient
Manning’s roughness coefficients are associated with the roughness of the conduit lining based on the
material from which the conduit is constructed and surface texture. The values commonly adopted in the
design are shown in Table below.
Manning's Coefficient
Table 26: Manning's Minimum, Roughness and Maximum Coefficients
Type of channel and description Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

minimum normal maximum
1 Closed conduit flowing partly full concrete sewer 0.013 0.015 0.017
with manholes, inlets etc.
2 Lined or built-up channel with brick masonry
Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
Cement Mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
3 Lined or built-up channel with stone masonry
Cemented Rubble 0.017 0.025 0.03
Dry Rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
Run-off computation
The rational method of estimating peak flow is normally used in design of urban storm water drainage
system for area less than 3 km2. In rational method, the peak flow is calculated with the relation.
= CIA/360
Qj
Q= peak flow in m3 / sec
C= run off coefficient
I= rainfall intensity in mm/hr
A= catchment area in hectare

94
For a given drainage area peak flow thus depends upon rainfall intensity which in turn depends on rainfall
duration as discussed in section. Hence the peak flow depends upon estimation of rainfall duration. The
peak flow at the outlet from a given rainfall intensity will occur when the rainfall has continued for a period
sufficient to permit flow to reach the outlet from the remote point of the drainage area. Time required to
permit flow to outlet from the most remote point of the drainage area is defined as time of
concentration.
 The peak flow will be calculated in the following sequential order.
 Estimate catchments area and runoff coefficient of the catchments area contributing to outlet.
 Estimate time of concentration as discussed in section wise
 Calculate rainfall intensity for the return period of 10 years and rainfall duration equal to time of
concentration.
Calculate peak flow with catchment area runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity.
Drain Size Calculation
Major formulas in calculation of drain size
𝑅𝑢𝑛 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡1 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 + 𝑅𝑢𝑛 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡2 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎1 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎2
𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦( ) ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(ℎ𝑎)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = ℎ𝑟
360
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙(𝐸) = 𝑧(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒) +
2𝑔
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
0.00032 ∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ(𝑚)1.155
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (ℎ𝑟) =
𝐻(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚)0.385
95
The calculation sheet and section are shown below:
Table 27: Summary of Drain Size Calculations
Catchment area 76310.557 m2

7.6310557 hec
Coefficient of runoff 0.44
(For Barren Land/Agricultural)
Rainfall Intensity 246.37 mm/hr
Discharge 2.297855013 m3/s
Type Trapezoidal
Total depth 0.7 m
Btm width 0.5 m
Top Width 1.7 m
Section Side Slope 1:1
N(value) 0.013
Slope (%) 1
Area 0.666 m2
Velocity 3.43 m/s
Wetted perimeter 2.2 m
Critical depth 0.7 m
Energy Grade Line (EGL) 1.2066 m
Lining 10 cm Pcc and 10 cm Soling
Solid or Grated NO
96
Figure 34: Cross Section of Drainage Channel with Elevation Profile

97
Conclusion
After detail investigation of the proposed site, drainage has to be constructed to avoid the water logging.
To drain out the water percolating inside our site, we have provided trapezoidal drain of Depth 0.7m and
Top width 1.7m, around the perimeter of the site and certain cross-section in between.
The details of drainage system, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2. Annexes-
11.4.4 Foundation for Transformer
The details of the transformer chosen are as follows.
Power, KVA = 1000

Phase = 3 Phase
For Voltage System, 33000-600V
Length, L-mm = 2250
Breadth, B-mm = 1160
Height, H-mm = 2080
Oil, Ltrs = 1030
Weight, kgs = 3550
Factored Load, Kgs = 5325
To counter the load established by the Transformer and its supporting components, after considering
seismic and wind load, following calculation is abstracted.
Length of foundation pad = 3m

Width of foundation pad = 2m
Thickness of Foundation pad = 0.3 m
Column size = 508 mm x 508 mm
Column depth, Substructure = 1m
Column height, superstructure = 0.3 m
The details of foundation for Transformer, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol
2. Annexes- Calculation. The planned road is shown on the Volume 3-Feasibility Drawings.
98
Figure 35: Proposed Foundation Structure for Transformer
11.4.5 Foundation for Electrical Equipment
The switchyard and interconnection facilities also need civil works for the foundation of switchgears,
transformers, etc. There is requirement of outdoor type of switchyard having size of 15m x 25m with the
provision of outdoor switchgears, transformers, and outgoing gantry with all the necessary concrete
foundation. The switchyard also needs cable trenches, earthing, etc.
Foundation for such electrical equipment can be adopted as same as for transformer. The details of
foundation for electrical equipment, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2. Annexes-
11.4.6 Water Supply
A water supply system generally consists of a water collection unit, units for treatment, purification, and
distribution. It is necessary to plan, prepare, and design the entire water supply scheme before constructing
the units. A proper plan will ensure that an efficient and economical system is finalized with minimum
99
expenses. The scheme should be such that it can be constructed within the allotted budget while permitting
future expansion. Either it be the construction phase or commencing phase, water supply is the integrated
part of the project.
For our project, we have designed as following:
Water Collection Unit
Deep water boring is the best possible solution for water collection. The presence of aquifer zone
determines the depth up to which water boring is to be done. Minimum of 100-meter boring should be
done to meet the demand of water for construction phase and to run the solar project.
Treatment and Purification Unit
Water from deep boring need to be treated and purified for cleaning overall module of solar panel at least
once a week. Apart from its physical and chemical characteristics, water in Terai belt of Nepal is highly
affected by heavy metals such as Fe, Mn and As, which seriously hamper solar modules. Fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP) water treatment can be adopted for the same scale.
Water Conveyance System
Water needs to be conveyed from collection unit to different zones. For the pressured flow, CPVC or PPR
pipes with all necessary fittings are considered.
The details of foundation for water supply, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2.
11.4.7 Control Room and Powerhouse
Powerhouse
Although the detail drawing and design of control room comes with solar manufacturer, a control room
based on similar project is considered for the quantity estimates. For this propose, a surface control room
has been proposed. The size of control room is 30 ft long and 25 ft wide, 26.5 ft high from plinth level. The
floor level of control room shall be at 1.5 ft from GL. Separate rooms for control panel, MV panel and battery
charger is planned.
The details of foundation for Control Room, and cost has been mentioned on the cost details in Vol 2.
11.4.8 Boundary Fencing
Boundary fence will help keep things in (pets) and other things out (burglars and unwelcome guests).
Fence must be installed on our project as our proposed site is near the Bardiya National park, it is most
vulnerable to wild animals. We have proposed the Pre-cast boundary panel with H-Post to be used around
entire perimeter of site of 6 feet height as it becomes cost effective and time saving.
100
The engineering details of the proposed fence are:
I. H-Beam (column): M25 concrete

4no 5mm rod
Size: 150 x150 mm
13-15 kg (per RFT)
II. 50mm Precast Slab: M25 concrete

5no 5mm rod
Size: 300 x50 mm
10-11 kg (per SFT)
Figure 36: Proposed Boundary Fence Design
11.4.9 Security System
A security system comprises of security room and CCTV setup for visual securities to cover overall premises.
A security room is considered near the entry gate. For this propose, a security room has been proposed. Its
dimensions are 14 feet long and 12 feet wide, 12.5 feet high from plinth level. The floor level of security
room shall be at 1.5 feet from GL.
101
12. Cost Estimate
The cost estimate of the 5 MW Solar PV project is shown in the table below,
Table 28: Detailed Breakdown of the Project Cost Estimate
S.N. Item Category Type Brand Rating Unit Quantity Rate Amount NPR. Custom (1%) VAT (13%) Total Cost
(USD) (USD)
Model:
TSM-
Mono
1 Solar PV Module Modules DE18M-(II)- 505 Wp Nos 11856 142.54 1,690,008.24 197,730,963.80 1,977,309.64 - 199,708,273.44
Crystalline
505 (Trina
Solar)
Single Model:
2 String Inverter Inverters Three SG125-HV 125 KW Nos 40 5,544.55 221,782.18 25,948,514.85 259,485.15 - 26,208,000.00
phase (Sungrow)
Four Poles
Module Mounting per
Mounting
3 Structure structure Nos 456 620.00 282,720.00 33,078,240.00 4,300,171.20 37,378,411.20
structures
(Aluminum) for 26
panels
Evacuation
cost (Cables
Transformer and
1MVA,
4 (including transformers Step Up Nos 5 19,469.03 97,345.13 11,389,380.53 1,480,619.47 12,870,000.00
0.6kV/33KV
Switchyard) including
transmission
line)
DC Solar
Evacuation
Cable with
cost (Cables
XL-LSOH
and DC cable
Insulation
5 Wires transformers (PV string 4 Sq.mm. LS 1 11,504.42 11,504.42 1,346,017.70 174,982.30 1,521,000.00
and XL-
including cables)
LSOH
transmission
Sheathing
line)
at 60°C
102
DC Solar
Evacuation Cable with
cost (Cables XLPE
and DC cable Insulation
transformers (PV Array and UV 95 Sq.mm. LS 1 19,469.03 19,469.03 2,277,876.11 296,123.89 2,574,000.00
including cables) Stabilized
transmission PVC ST2
line) Sheathing
at 40°C
Evacuation
multi-core,
cost (Cables
stranded
and
AC power copper
transformers 50 Sq.mm. LS 1 61,946.90 61,946.90 7,247,787.61 942,212.39 8,190,000.00
Cable conductor,
including
XLPE
transmission
insulated
line)
AC String Inverter
Combiner Box or As per
6 Other costs LS 1 27,686.64 27,686.64 3,239,336.55 421,113.75 3,660,450.30
LT panel, three necessary
phase
As per
7 Fire Alarm System Other costs LS 1 17,673.45 17,673.45 2,067,793.81 268,813.19 2,336,607.00
necessary
Fire Fighting As per
8 Other costs LS 1 8,849.56 8,849.56 1,035,398.23 134,601.77 1,170,000.00
Equipments necessary
Evacuation
cost (Cables
and
Power Cable from As per
9 transformers LS 1 12,341.59 12,341.59 1,443,966.37 187,715.63 1,631,682.00
LT to Transformer necessary
including
transmission
line)
Evacuation
cost (Cables
and
10 AC HT power cable transformers LS 1 12,525.66 12,525.66 1,465,502.65 190,515.35 1,656,018.00
including
transmission
line)
Lightning Arrestor
protection in plant with
11 Other costs LS 1 7,522.12 7,522.12 880,088.50 114,411.50 994,500.00
area (Lightning copper
Arrestors) Strips
103
Lighting system in As per

12 Other costs Ls 1 12,831.86 12,831.86 1,501,327.43 195,172.57 1,696,500.00
plant area necessary
AC & DC Auxiliary As per
13 Other costs LS 1 26,729.20 26,729.20 3,127,316.81 406,551.19 3,533,868.00
system necessary
Earthing System for As per
14 Other costs LS 1 29,508.85 29,508.85 3,452,535.40 448,829.60 3,901,365.00
plant area necessary
Evacuation
cost (Cables
and
HT As per In control
15 transformers No 1 40,707.96 40,707.96 4,762,831.86 619,168.14 5,382,000.00
panel/Switchgear necessary room
including
transmission
line)
Evacuation
cost (Cables
MV Switchgear unit and
As per
16 at interconnection transformers No 1 33,990.27 33,990.27 3,976,861.06 516,991.94 4,493,853.00
necessary
area including
transmission
line)
Cable tray with Pre-

As per
17 supporting Other costs Galvanized LS 1 16,363.72 16,363.72 1,914,554.87 248,892.13 2,163,447.00
necessary
Structure type
18 Spares Other costs LS 1 4,601.77 4,601.77 538,407.08 69,992.92 608,400.00

Evacuation
cost (Cables
and
19 Grounding Cable transformers LS 1 12,787.61 12,787.61 1,496,150.44 194,499.56 1,690,650.00
including
transmission
line)
Weathering Anti- Both Indoor
20 Other costs No 2 3,362.83 6,725.66 786,902.65 102,297.35 889,200.00
Monitoring Station Corrosive & Outdoor
Huawei
Real Time Smart
21 Other costs No 2 7,699.12 15,398.23 1,801,592.92 234,207.08 2,035,800.00
Monitoring Station Logger
with router
Evacuation
33 kv transmission cost (Cables DOG
22 km 4 18,584.07 74,336.28 8,697,345.13 1,130,654.87 9,828,000.00
line and conductor
transformers
104
including
transmission
line)
Civil Works: Land

preparation, access
road, boundary
fencing, security
Civil and
room, control
23 general LS 1 338,024.96 338,024.96 39,548,919.82 5,141,359.58 44,690,279.40
room, internal
works
roads, CCTVs,
watch tower, office
building, borewell,
drainage, etc.
24 Transportation Other costs LS 1 57,522.12 57,522.12 6,730,088.50 874,911.50 7,605,000.00
25 EPC charges Other costs LS 1 165,486.73 165,486.73 19,361,946.90 2,517,053.10 21,879,000.00
Preliminary
Pre-operating cost
and pre-
26 (Licese fee, Study LS 1 38,938.05 38,938.05 4,555,752.21 592,247.79 5,148,000.00
operative
cost, etc.)
expenses
27 Miscellaneous Other costs LS 1 12,912.40 12,912.40 1,510,750.59 196,397.58 1,707,148.17
Project cost (including custom & VAT): NPR. 417,151,452.51
IDC & financing fees: NPR. 12,378,547.97
Total project cost including Custom, VAT & IDC and financing fees: NPR. 429,530,000.48
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13. Estimation of Energy Yield
13.1 Calculation of Energy Yield Estimation
The annual energy yield simulation has been performed using PVsyst for the plant capacity. The details of
the energy yield simulation are as presented below.
Table 29: Summary Report from Simulation in PVsyst

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Table 30: Annual Energy Yield Production Scenario from Simulation in PVsyst
Table 31: Summary of Annual Energy Yield from Simulation in PVsyst
As per the simulation executed using PVsyst, the average annual energy yield production that is injected
into the grid is 10529 MWh/year.
Traditionally, the capacity of electrical generating plant is expressed as MW and describes the generating
plant size. Energy production is related to capacity by the Capacity Factor (CF) by the formula:
Energy produced over a period (MWh) = Capacity (MW) X Capacity Factor X Time (hours)
107
This approach is used here, recognizing that in the case of PV, the capacity of generators is based on its
‘peak’ value, which is capacity. For this reason, the comparisons in this study are based on annual energy of
10.534 GWh/a, and not capacity which is the more common basis for comparing fossil fuel and most other
technologies. Note also that the use of storage or auxiliary fuel allows a higher capacity factor for the solar
generation plant.
Capacity Utilization Factor:
Total Annual Energy Generation from Solar PV Plant 10.529 GWh
Total Annual Energy Generation from Solar PV Plant, if it is operated 24 hours and 365 days
= 5000 KWac* 24*365 = 43,800 MWh
Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF) = 24.03 %
13.2 Performance Modelling using Different Solar PV Technologies and Meteorological Data
The performance modelling has been executed using latest Solar PV software namely “PVSyst” (Version:
7.1.3). The Meteo data is derived from Meteonorm 7.3 (1981-2010) with 100% satellite date. The following
inputs has been considered during simulation, which was executed for the first year of operation.
Table 32: Major Input Parameters for Simulation
S.N. Input Parameters Remarks (If any)

1 Monocrystalline Module (Power: 505 W; Efficiency: 21.1%; Model: TSM-DE18M-(II)-505
(Trina Solar)
2 String Inverter for 1500 Vdc System Model: SG125-HV (Sungrow)
3 Pnom ratio (DC:AC) Value: 1.20
4 Array Soiling Losses Loss Fraction: 2.0%
5 LID-Light Induced Degradation Loss Fraction: 2.0%
6 Module Quality Loss Loss Fraction: -0.8%
7 Module mismatch losses Loss Fraction: 2.0% at MPP
8 Strings Mismatch Loss Loss Fraction: 0.1%
9 Module average degradation Loss Factor: 2% for 1st year;
0.4%/year (2nd year onwards)
The simulation was also executed for 10th year of operation with similar parameters as stated above and it
was found that the annual energy production was 9975 MWh/year. The sunrise and sunset of the solar site
using Meteonorm 8 for the entire year is shown in Annex I.
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13.3 Plant Performance
The simulation clearly provided the performance of the proposed solar plant as shown in table below.
Table 33: Plant Performance Summary
S.N. Parameters Value

1 Specific Yield of the System 1,759 kWh/kWp/year
2 Performance Ratio 81.96%
3 Estimation of Annual Energy Generation 10529 MWh/year
4 Capacity Utilization Factor 24.03%
13.4 Performance Summary
The results of the simulation showed that the performance of the proposed solar site is good with capacity
utilization factor of 24.05%. The utilization factor can be increased with more efficient solar PV modules.
However, considering the cost factor that option is not considered. Additionally, there is not near and far
shading in the proposed location which avoids the shading losses that is prevalent in many solar power
plants. The transmission loss up to Bhurigaun substation via 33 kV transmission line which is approximately
0.52% has not been considered. Hence, the overall analysis clearly specifies that the proposed solar power
plant is suitable for energy production.
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14. Power Evacuation Plan
14.1 Substation Information
The power generated from the proposed solar plant shall be evacuated through the nearest substation at
Bhurigaun through a 33kV overhead transmission line. The substation falls under Attaria Grid Branch having
its office located in Attaria, Godawari Municipality of Kailali district. The capacity of Bhurigaun Substation
is 38 MVA; 30MVA under 132/33kV and remaining 8MVA under 33/11kV 14. The 132kV line routes through
Kohalpur-Bhurigaun-Lumki. The Bhurigaun-Lamki (33km) and Kohalpur-Bhurigaun (55km) sections were
charged on October 24, 2019) and June 22, 2020, respectively. The Planning and Technical Services
Department (PTSD) has also been constructing Bhurigaun-Gulariya (Bardia) 72km of 33kV line under GoN
to meet the growing demand of electricity in various parts of country by rehabilitation/capacity upgradation
and new construction of 33kV lines.
The substation was also integrated in Nepal Electricity Authority’s (NEA) Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system managed by Load Dispatch Centre (LDC). Likewise, the proposed transmission
line will be approximately 4km in length from proposed powerhouse.
Figure 37: Substation in Bhurigaun in Retrospective to Nepal Power Transmission Network Map 15
14 Annual Report of Nepal Electricity Authority, Released on 2019/20, https://www.nea.org.np/annual_report

15 Rastriya Prasaran Grid Co. Ltd. (RPGCL), https://rpgcl.com/images/category/Nepal_Tranmission_Network_Map.pdf
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Figure 38: Radial Distance of Power Evacuation Substation in Bhurigaun from Project Location
14.2 Design of Proposed Transmission Line
The detailed technical design of a suitable transmission line for this scheme has been provided below.
Figure 39: Proposed Single Line Diagram for Power Evacuation

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The calculations for the proposed transmission line have been done as follows:
i. Economical Voltage Calculation

𝐿𝑡 P∗1000
𝐄𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐕𝐞𝐜𝐨 ) = 5.5 ∗ √ + -------------------- (i)
1.6 cos ∅∗𝑁𝑐∗150
Where,
Lt = Length of transmission line

P = Power to be transmitted
cos Ø = Power Factor (p.f.)
Nc = No. of circuit
First Iteration
Lt = 4 km; P = 5 MW; cos Ø = 0.98, Nc = 1

Using formula (i); Veco= 33.2345 kV
Nearest Standard Voltage = 33 kV
Surge Impedance of the overhead line (ZL) = 400/ Nc = 400 Ω

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) = V2/ ZL = 332/400 = 2.7225 MW
Plimit = Multiplying Factor (mf) x SIL ----------------------- (ii)
Where,
Multiplying Factor (mf) = 2.625

Using formula (ii); Plimit = 7.14 MW which is more than P = 5 MW
Therefore, a second iteration with Nc = 2 needs to be performed
Therefore, the transmission line for power evacuation to Bhurigaun substation is a 33kV single circuit line.
ii. Transmission Losses and Selection of Conductor

The transmission losses should be at an acceptable limit to yield maximum returns from the project.
𝐏
Line Current (I) = --------------- (iii)
√𝟑∗ 𝑽𝑳−𝑳 ∗cos Ø∗Nc
Using formula (iii); I = 89.26 Amps
Therefore, comparing this value of current with the current carrying capacities from standard ASCR
conductor table, the efficiencies for different conductor types were evaluated.
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Table 34: Transmission Line Efficiency Calculation for Different Conductor Options
Conductor Resistance Linear Resistance Total Power Loss Efficiency

at 20°C Coefficient at 65°C Resistance During
R(20) of R(65) at 65°C Transmission
(Ω/km) Expansion (Ω/km) Rt(65) (Ω) (Ploss) (MW)
(a) (10^-6)
(/°C)
MOLE 2.7057 19.31 2.708051118 10.83220447 0.258926694 95.08%
SQUIRREL 1.3677 19.31 1.368888463 5.475553852 0.130884444 97.45%
WEASEL 0.9075 19.31 0.908288572 3.633154289 0.0868448 98.29%
RABBIT 0.5425 19.31 0.542971405 2.171885622 0.051915486 98.97%
DOG 0.2733 19.86 0.273544248 1.094176993 0.026154568 99.48%
Based on the evaluations, DOG conductor is deemed ideal for the transmission line as it offers efficiency
>99 percent and offers a slight margin for increase in power exports in the future. Furthermore, it is the
most used type of conductor in a 33kV line.
14.3 Power Evacuation Scheme
The power from proposed solar plant will be evacuated through a 33kV single circuit transmission line. The
solar power will be generated by the proposed inverter at 600Vac, therefore a step-up transformer with
ratio of 0.6/33kV is required. The proposed solar inverter can deliver power at unity power factor. So, sizing
of Transformer should also be based on unity power factor. As the total inverter capacity is rated for
5000kWac; therefore, the 5 step-up transformers shall be rated each as 1000kVA or 1MVA that equals to
5000kVA or 5MVA.
A cost benefit analysis will be performed during DFS stage to determine the optimal transformer option.
Furthermore, the interconnection process, therefore, needs to comply with established standards regulating
various electrical parameters. This is to ensure the safety, quality, and stability of the grid.
The requirements outlined in the specification shall be met at the point of interconnection, although the
instruments used to meet these requirements can be located away from the point of interconnection.
However, all the interconnection system hardware and software that affect the grid are required to meet
the standard regardless of their location within the electric power system. The standards and regulations
relevant to the grid connectivity and inspection procedures are listed below. These standards detail the
requirements related to performance, operation, testing, safety and maintenance of grid connectivity and
inspection activities.
113
14.4 Single Line Diagram of the Proposed Power Evacuation Scheme
Figure 40: Single Line Diagram of the Proposed Power Evacuation Scheme
114
14.5 System Protection Configuration and Metering Scheme
The power plant protection scheme follows the Code for Design of Relaying Protection and Automatic Device
of Electric Power Installations (GB50062-2008) and Technical Code for Relaying Protection and Security
Automatic Equipment (GB/T14285-2006).
14.5.1 Protection Configuration Scheme
33 kV Line Protection
A common cabinet is provided for microcomputer-based measurement, control, and protection of 33 kV

lines, and CTs for protection and measurement are provided separately. The protection scheme should
include three-phase time-limit quick-break protection, three-section LV locking direction overcurrent
protection, automatic reclosing, small current grounding line section, and low-frequency and low-cycle load
shedding. Likewise, five current transformers will be used (three-phase), one for metering, one for
measurement, one for metering, and three for protection.
SVG Protection
A common cabinet is provided for microcomputer-based measurement, control, and protection of 33 kV

capacitors, and CTs for protection and measurement are provided separately. The following functions
should be provided: three-phase time-lime current quick-break and overcurrent protection, overload
protection, overvoltage/no-voltage protection, under-voltage protection, unbalanced voltage protection,
etc. Four CTs are required (three-phase), one for metering, one for measurement, one for metering, and two
for protection.
Fault Recorder
One 33 kV fault recorder is provided for analyzing system faults and protection actions and locating line
Faults.
33 KV Bus Protection Device
1x33 kV bus protection device is provided for 33 kV bus of the station. Percentage restraint differential
protection is performed, and the all the breakers connected to the corresponding bus are disconnected
after protection.
Frequency and Voltage Splitting Device
1 set of frequency and voltage splitting device is provided in the station for timely disconnection of the
grid-connected circuit breaker in case of any abnormal frequency or voltage of the power grid.
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Box-Type Transformer
Load switches and HV plug-in fuses are set at HV side and automatic air switches are arranged at LV side;
in case of overload or interphase short circuit of transformer, the fuses at HV side and air switches at LV
side act for automatic protection, so no additional protection devices are required.
Grid-Connected Inverter
It shall be configured with overcurrent, single-phase grounding, overload, overvoltage, undervoltage, grid
abnormality, islanding, low voltage ride through, lightning protection and grounding protection devices by
the manufacturers; after the action of protection device, inverter outlet circuit breaker trips and signals are
sent out.
14.5.2 Metering Scheme
Tariff metering will be required to measure the export of power. This may be provided at the plant
substation in addition to the point of connection to the grid. Metering arrangements in the User System
and at the Connection shall be in accordance with Chapter 9 of the NEA Grid Code. The stipulated
characteristics are as follows:
1. The metering scheme will include two incoming lines at LV side of 33 kV transformer which will be
equipped with watt-hour meters with accuracy class of 0.5.
2. On-grid energy gateway metering point of the power station will be located at the grid-connected
outgoing cabinet; the watt-hour meter of 33 kV line will be of 1+1 configuration and equipped with
one power energy collection device, and its model should be approved by local power supply
department.
3. The current and voltage transformers used at metering gateway will have the accuracy classes of
0.2S and 0.2 respectively; in which current and voltage coils are dedicated.
4. The watt-hour meter and power energy collection device jointly form one panel and will be
arranged in secondary equipment room. Watt-hour meter shall have event recording function, be
equipped with standard communication interface and capable of local communication and remote
communication through energy information acquisition terminal. Watt-hour meter shall also have
voltage loss timing function and be capable of metering bi-directional active energy and quadrant
reactive energy.
5. Likewise, for the 33 kV grid-connected power station, one Class-A power quality monitoring device
complying with General Requirements for Monitoring Equipment of Power Quality will be set in the
electronic equipment room.
6. The Check Meter shall be supplied from a secondary core of CT & PT separate from the one feeding
supply to the Main Meter.
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15. Financial Analysis and Economic Analysis
15.1 Financial Analysis Overview
Financial analysis of Tek Samundra 5 MW Solar PV project was conducted to determine the key economic
and financial performance indicators such as Project Internal Rate of Return (PIRR), Equity Internal Rate of
Return (EIRR), Net Present Value (NPV), Simple Payback Period (SPP), Specific Average Energy Cost,
Levelized cost of electricity, sensitivity analysis and Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) of the project.
A financial model was developed to analyze the financial performance of the project based on a given set
of input data and assumptions. The financial analysis and modeling exercises assess the investment costs
such as the operating revenues generated, and costs incurred by the project. To achieve this, a computer
financial model using the MS-Excel was developed considering the prevailing tax and tariff rate.
15.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
The capital expenditure (CAPEX) of the project is explained in the below sections.
15.2.1 Project Cost Breakdown
The total breakdown of project cost is shown in table below. The preliminary and pre-operative expenses
have been estimated to be 1.20 % of the total project cost. The evacuation & inverter cost have been
estimated to be 11.60 % & 6.10 % of the total project cost, respectively. The module cost has been estimated
to be 46.49 % of the total project cost. The mounting structures cost has been estimated to be 7.70% of the
total project cost and the civil and general works has estimated cost which is 10.40% of the total project
cost.
Table 35: Summary of Project Cost Breakdown
S.N. Description Total Amount (in % of Total Project cost

NPR)
1 Preliminary and pre-operative 5,148,000.00 1.20%
expenses
2 Evacuation cost (Cables and 49,837,203.00 11.60%
transformers including
transmission line)
3 Inverters 26,208,000.00 6.10%
4 Mounting structures 37,378,411.20 7.70%
5 Civil and general works 44,690,279.40 10.40%
6 Modules 199,708,273.44 46.49%

7 Other costs 54,181,285.47 12.61%
8 Interest and Financing Costs 12,378,547.97 2.88%
Total Project Cost 429,530,000

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15.2.2 Exchange Rate Assumptions
The exchange rate of USD to Nepalese Rupees is assumed to be as follows,
1 USD = 117 NPR
As per Nepal Rastra Bank report, the average buying exchange rate of 1 USD was NPR. 109.36 and NPR.
120.37 at the end of the fiscal year 2018/19 and fiscal year 2019/20 respectively. So, it is to be noted that
with the fluctuation of exchange rate the project cost might increase or decrease.
15.2.3 Applicable Taxes
There will be 0% corporate tax up to 10 years. However, there will be 10% corporate tax from 10-15 years
& 20% corporate tax after 15 years.
15.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX) Overview
The overview of operational expenditure is shown in table below.
Table 36: Operational Expenditure Overview
S.N. Particulars Description Remarks (If any)

1 O&M cost 1% of total construction cost
2 Insurance Cost 0.25% of total base cost of the project
3 Royalty No Royalty in capacity & Revenue
4 Depreciations 4% straight line per annum Annual Depreciation for 25
years
5 Reserves NPR. 10,000,000 Total maintenance reserve
6 Bonus and Welfare 2% of Net Profit
7 Major maintenance cost 625,000 Reserve/year Drawn from 5th to 20th year
8 Interest on Debt 10% Loan duration is for 10 years
15.4 Revenue
Revenue will be generated from sales of solar energy. Total Saleable energy of the project would be 10,534
kWh. The tariff rate is fixed to NPR. 7.30 per unit (i.e., NPR. 7.30 per kWh). This is fixed rate for 25 years and
there is no escalation on this rate. The rate has been fixed as per the directive of Ministry of Energy namely
“Grid Connected Alternative energy working procedure-2074” approved on 2074/10/15.
Total Revenue from Sales of Energy and total output for first 10 Years of operation is estimated as follows.
119
Table 37: Total Revenue from Energy sales for first 10 years of Operation
Year Saleable Energy (kWh) Rate/kWh (NPR.) Revenue in NPR.
1 10,534,000 7.30 76,898,200

2 10,493,000 7.30 76,598,900
3 10,452,000 7.30 76,299,600
4 10,406,000 7.30 75,963,800
5 10,349,000 7.30 75,547,700
6 10,283,000 7.30 75,065,900
7 10,207,000 7.30 74,511,100
8 10,129,000 7.30 73,941,700
9 10,050,000 7.30 73,365,000
10 9,975,000 7.30 72,817,500
15.4.1 Levelized cost of Electricity (LCOE)
Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of the project would be NPR. 4.73 per Kwh. Computation of such has been
made as follows.
Table 38: Levelized Cost of Electricity
Net Present value of all cost associated with Disc Rate @ 434,577,000
project over life of project (25 Years) (NPR.) 10%
Total output to be generated over the life of assets (25 Years) (MWh) 91,782
LCOE (per kWh) 4.73
Sales rate of energy at today's value (per kWh) (NPR.) 7.30
Average sales rate of energy is higher in amount as compared to LCOE, which indicate the project's revenue
is sufficient to justify the cost associated with the project over the life of operation. The project would be in
breakeven even if the revenue rate per kWh of the project is NPR. 4.73.
15.5 Financing
The financing of the project is planned as explained below in respective headings.
15.5.1 Debt Equity Ratio
The debt equity ratio is 70:30 wherein the total debt amount is NPR. 300,671,000 and equity is NPR.
128,859,000. The ratio is tentative which could be changed after detailed feasibility study.
15.5.2 Term Loan
The loan term is for 10 years.

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15.5.3 Working Capital Loan
Working capital will be managed by developer after operation of the project.
15.5.4 Financing Term
The interest rate for debt is 10% and discount rate is 10% as well. The bank fee payable to bank is 0.5% on
debt commitment on signing. The repayment mode is semi-annual. The inflation on local currency has been
assumed to be 3%.
15.5.5 Interest During Construction & Financing Fees
The interest during construction along with financing fees is NPR. 12,379,000 which is 2.88% of the total
project cost.
15.6 Financial Output
The financial output of the project is shown below.
Table 39: Financial Output Indices of the Project
S.N. Particulars Result

1 Project Rate of Return 15.41%
2 Equity Rate of Return 20.19%
3 Net Present Value (NPV) 143,679,000
4 B/C Ratio 1.97
5 Min DCSR 1.34
6 Max DSCR 1.42
7 Simple Payback Period 5 years
15.7 Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity Analysis has been carried out on three different variables namely: Interest Rate, O & M Cost and
Project cost which impact the financial viability of the project. In such analysis impact on project's IRR on
different scenarios are observed as follows.
Table 40: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in Project Cost)
% Change in Project Cost Impact on Project IRR % Change in IRR

0.00% 15.41%
5.00% 14.47% -6.10%
-5.00% 16.44% 6.68%
121
Table 41: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in O&M Cost)
% Change in O & M Cost Impact on Project IRR % Change in IRR

0.00% 15.41%
5.00% 15.33% -0.54%
-5.00% 15.49% 0.54%
Table 42: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in Interest Rate)
% Change in Interest rate Impact on Project IRR % of change in IRR

0.00% 15.41%
5.00% 15.42% 0.04%
-5.00% 15.41% -0.04%
As per the table 40, 41 and 42, it can be concluded that Project Cost Seems to be highly sensitive.
15.8 Conclusion
Considering the profitability of the project, favorable future cash flows, favorable equity & project IRR,
positive DSCR ratio, B/C ratio greater than 1, lower payback period, favorable LCOE ratio (i.e., very lower
than sales rate) and positive NPV, it can be concluded that the project is financially feasible wherein the
input parameters are as per the practice in solar projects and prevailing laws of Nepal. The produced energy
from the solar project will be sold to NEA at fixed tariff rate of NPR. 7.30 per kWh also justify the stability of
sales rate over the life of the project. Besides, the produced energy will be reduced by certain percentage
as per the degradation rate of solar panels which can be assumed at 2% for the first year and afterwards
the annual degradation will be 0.4%.
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16. Work Schedule
The implementation of a solar power plant can be broadly divided into four stages:
16.1 Planning & Development
Comprises surveys, preliminary design, developing the approach to the site, and getting the necessary
approvals. This Phase also comprises survey of land and soil. The type of soil could significantly impact cost
as the types of foundations for the mounting structures could differ significantly depending on whether the
soil is a loose soil or whether it is much better. Approvals is another aspect that should be considered as an
important activity during the initial stages. While most governmental approvals for solar power plant should
be easy to obtain with the significant thrust that the state and central governments are placing on solar,
approvals also include getting the necessary nods for the right of way from those who own the land along
the way from your power plant until the sub-station.
16.2 System Design
Comprises specific sections such as shadow analysis and arriving at optimal placing for the solar panels,
design, and layout of the entire power plant, for both the AC and DC sides of the solar power plant, and
design for the evacuation of power until the sub-station. This is a critical stage as well. Significant time and
efforts have been given during this stage. Analysis has been performed through sophisticated software
solutions available for design today, which has been elaborated in this report.
16.3 Procurement of Components
Procurement of both the core components such as the solar panels and inverters, as well as the balance of
systems. The specifications for major equipment like the Modules, Inverters and Transformer design shall
be drawn up at an early stage of the project. Program of design information, from the equipment suppliers,
that satisfies the overall project schedule shall be drawn up.
16.4 Construction
Main civil works, installation of the main solar power generating system, installation of the evacuation
system, and complete testing of the system. Approximate timelines for each of the stages and sub-stages
is provided below.
16.5 Testing and Commissioning
Overall testing and commissioning of the project followed by approval from NEA for grid connection.
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16.6 Project Implementation Timeline
Figure 41: Project Implementation Timeline

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17. Risk Assessment
17.1 Technical Risks
This section describes the technical risks encountered by a solar-PV power plant. There are many technical
risks that are possible to happen in the solar-PV power plant during its lifetime of 25 years which are as
follows.
PV Module Power Degradation
Normally, the PV module power degradation of multi c-Si PV modules is about 0.4% to 0.5% annually with
first year degradation of about 2%. However, it is possible to have higher PV module power degradation
rate than this range due to many causes such as Potential Induced Degradation (PID), snail trail, moisture
in the PV cell and other causes. These problems could occur from defects coming from the manufacturing
of PV module, poor design of the solar PV power plant, and incorrect installation of PV module. To minimize
this risk, the PV module should be purchased from a reliable manufacturer (Tier-1 PV manufacturers) that
complies with relevant international standards such as greenhouse gases emission verification, TUV
Rheinland-German certification, IEC61215/IEC61730/IEC61701/IEC62716/UL61730, ISO 9001: Quality
Management System, ISO 14001: Environmental Management System, ISO14064: Greenhouse Gases
Emissions Verification, ISO45001: Occupational Health and Safety Management System, etc. The solar-PV
power plant should be designed by a professional and experienced designer and installed by skilled and
experienced EPC contractor with ample of experience of installation in the local conditions and scenario.
Power Cable Insulation Degradation
Normally, when the insulation of the power cable is sufficiently done, the degradation is gradual and stable
throughout the life of cable. But the power cable insulation degradation rate could occur faster and cause
higher leaking of the current in the solar-PV power plant. Such occurrence of degradation could be caused
defect from the power cable manufacturing, poor cable and insulation design, and incorrect installation of
the power cable by inexperienced installer. To minimize this risk, the power cable should be purchased from
a reliable manufacturer with appropriate compliance to relevant national and international standards. The
components of the solar-PV power plant should be designed by a professional and experienced designer
and installed by skilled and experienced contractor.
Damaged or Underperforming Inverter
In some cases, an inverter could not operate with the maximum efficiency because of inverter defect,
Improper design, incorrect installation, or a case of the inverter operating in an improper environment.
Moreover, operating the inverter in an improper environment could lead to an inverter exploding or
catching fire. To control this risk, the inverter should be purchased from a reliable manufacturer that
complies with relevant international standards such as IEC 62109, IEC 61727, IEC 62116, IEC 60068, IEC
61683, VDE-AR-N 4110:2018, VDE-AR-N 4120:2018, IEC 61000-6-2, IEC 61000-6-4, EN 50549, UNE 206007-
1:2013, P.O.12.3, UTE C15-712-1:2013, etc. The solar-PV power plant should be designed by a professional
and experienced designer and installed by skilled and experienced contractor. In addition, the inverter
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should be operated in a proper environment. This includes proper grounding of the grounding terminal of
the inverter; installing the inverter indoor in a well-ventilated, cool, dry environment, ensuring a clean, dry,
and safe space around the inverter; etc. Regular checks should be made including checking that the
installation environment is clean, dry, free of obstacles near to the inverter and that the ambient
temperature has not risen since installation; cleaning the inverter installation space and mounting area
regularly to remove dust and dirt. This helps to prevent clogging of the cooling fan and heat sink of the
inverter; checking that cables are properly routed to the inverter. Cables should be tidy, secure and in good
condition; checking connectors are properly connected and that they are in a safe, unbroken condition;
checking that possible screw and spring terminal connections are tight.
Instability of Transmission Line
Generally, the power quality of the transmission line hovers within the standard range of the grid code when
the solar-PV power plant is feeding power into the transmission line. However, in many cases, the
transmission line cannot control the power quality, and in those cases, the solar-PV power plant cannot
feed power into the transmission line. To control this problem, the inverter should have the function to
inject reactive power into the transmission line to improve its power quality. In some case, a static VAR
compensator or storage system is required to handle the higher degree of instability in power quality.
Moreover, the solar-PV power plant operator should have a direct contact with the transmission line
operator to help each other control the transmission line power quality.
17.2 Operational Risks
This section describes the risks in operating the solar-PV power plant. There are many operational risks that
are possible to happen in the operation of the solar-PV power plant during its lifetime which are as follows.
Operator Error
Normally, the operator always monitors the operation of the solar-PV power plant and responds
immediately to any failure or abnormality. However, operator negligence could make the response time
longer and could result in a bigger failure or abnormality, damage in the solar-PV power plant component,
or reduction in the energy generated. To limit the risk of operator error, it is required to have an operator
who has the skill and experiences of the operation of a solar-PV power plant and is trained in the efficient
operational procedure of the different components of the solar PV system.
Lack of Competent Manpower
Solar-PV power plant is an emerging power generation that has become available in Southeast Asia in the
last decade or so, and the growth rate of these types has rapidly increased. Hence, the skill and experience
related to the operation of a solar-PV power plant is limited and in high demand in the labor market. The
solar market is having difficulty to find a skilled and experienced operator to meet the demand of the newly
built solar-PV power plants. To manage this risk, training should be envisaged for the prospective but
inexperienced operator in an organization or institute that provides such training. The solar-PV power plant
could also be designed to use lower operator requirement as an alternative.
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Lack of Operating Budget
Some solar-PV power plants may lack sufficient working capital during some periods which could affect the
replacement of some components that needed to be repaired or replaced or the hiring of competent
operators who need replacement. This could result in the lower system performance. To minimize this risk,
it is required that the management creates a budget plan that synchronizes with the operational plan and
provides enough reserve for such contingencies.
Natural Disaster
It is difficult, sometimes impossible, to predict disasters that may pass through the areas of the solar-PV
power plant. Any of the natural disasters such as thunderstorm, typhoon, earthquake, flood, or wildfire could
put the operation of the solar-PV power plant in trouble. System design should be able to resist natural
disasters. A recovery plan and procedure to operate the solar-PV power plant in the shortest possible time
under these situations should be prepared.
17.3 Market Risk Study
The solar-PV power plant will have one major revenue stream, which is the energy payment from the
electricity generated by the facility that will be sold to the grid. Hence, the main market risk related to the
security of realizing this revenue. Assuming that the technology and operational risks are mitigated, and
the solar-PV power plant produces the desired power output, the market risks that can be expected involve
the following:
Payment Default or Delay
The Project relies on one off-taker of power. A default on the part of the off-taker would greatly affect the
viability of the project. Even delays in payment would affect the availability of the working capital, which
would be necessary for the effective operation of the power plant. Default in payment to IPPs should be
non-existent and that the project owner is extremely confident on the enforceability of the Power Purchase
Agreement it signs with utility.
Change in Tariff Rates
Project profitability is highly dependent on, and sensitive to, the price of electricity that is agreed with the
off-taker. Having a suitable price that is fixed (possibly appropriate escalation) for a long-term duration
gives stability of returns and assurance of project viability. If the off taker will have any leeway to change or
renegotiate the tariff, the project could face the risk that the tariff would be reduced, which will make the
project less viable.
17.4 Environmental Risks
Solar-PV power plants have the advantage compared to conventional ones, and even to other RE
technologies, because they do not produce particulates, have no GHG emission, no noise, and no smell.
They do not generate ash or other by products. Depending on how they are designed, solar-PV projects,
like this project, will have no battery, and hence, there will be no issue on battery disposal. However, there
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are environmental concerns in the implementation of solar-PV projects. These include land use issues,
including use of large tracks of land, competing with uses for food, grazing, among other; impacts to soil
and water during construction; ecological impacts to vegetation and wildlife; use of pollutants and heavy
metals during solar panel construction; and disposal problems upon decommissioning. It is hoped that the
positive environmental impacts of solar-PV projects eventually outweigh the negative impacts.
17.5 Other Risks
Construction Risk
There are not many contractors who have the right experience and are able to construct solar-PV projects.
Hiring an inexperienced or improper contractor could lead to problems during construction related to
safety, quality of workmanship, performance of the system, etc. The approach to mitigate this risk is to
ensure that a competent and experienced contractor is selected on a turnkey or EPC basis. It is also
recommended that the equipment supply contract should contain provisions for performance guarantees,
liquidated damages, and appropriate warrantees.
Cost Overrun
Projects could easily incur more costs during construction than what was predicted during the feasibility
study stage or even in comparison with what is agreed in the equipment supply contract. It is advisable that
when drafting the EPC agreement, the turnkey price of the power plant should be specified on a fixed price
basis so that the risk of cost overrun is mitigated and handled by the contractor.
Wild Animal Risk
The proposed solar plant area is near to buffer zone of Bardiya National Park which possess risk of
encroachment by wild animals such as Elephant, Tiger, etc. Hence, to mitigate this, robust fencing is needed.
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18. Environmental and Social Safeguard
18.1 Initial Environmental Examination Report
Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1997, and Environmental Protection Rule (EPR), 1997 as amended
requires an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) study for generating electricity from solar PV as
mentioned in the EPR, schedule 1, Alternative energy sector related to the rule 3 of EPR and pertaining to
article 3 of EPA and it further requires approval from the relevant ministry. Since, the proposed solar project
is to generate electricity from solar PV of 5 MW, it attracts article-3 of EPA and Clause-3 of EPR. Hence, it’s
obligatory and relevant to carry out the IEE study for the proposed project and get its necessary approval
from the Ministry of Energy, Water Resource and Irrigation (MoEWRI) through Department of Electricity
Development (DoED). Moreover, the proposed site does not fall in any places of cultural, historical, and
archaeological importance/monuments, conservation areas, wildlife sanctuary area, national parks, wetland
areas, environmental sensitive and/or fragile area and any other places where the law of the land prohibits
any construction activities.
129
19. Power Purchase Agreement Aspects
19.1 Salient Features
A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) secures the payment stream for an independent power plant (IPP). It
is between the purchaser "offtaker" (often a state-owned electricity utility-NEA) and a privately owned
power producer.
A PPA is merely an instrument intended to facilitate the sale and purchase of electrical power. As such, it
only comes into being once the prospective buyer (the off taker) has made a series of important decisions.
These decisions can include the need for power, the available sources of power, the buyer's economic
ability to purchase power, the power generating technology desired, and the location of the power plant.
Before anything else, the off taker will need to assure itself of the demand for power. A study will need to
be undertaken to ascertain not only current power demand, but also any anticipated changes in demand
over time.
After identifying the need for power, the off taker must identify potential sources of power. This
determination will depend on the approximate tariff at which it can afford to purchase power, the fuel and
technology to be used, and where the power generation facility should be located. The determination
regarding the off taker’s budget will go together with the selection of power generating technology. Certain
technologies are more expensive than others but may be desirable due to their ability to supplement their
power sources when demand is greatest, or because of their perceived environmental benefits.
Government policy on the appropriate overall energy mix for the country may also affect the decision.
Finally, the off taker will also need to determine where the power source should be located. The location is
typically determined on the basis of which regions of the country need additional power. If possible, the
location will be near substations and transmission lines that can carry that power most efficiently to the
end-user. Ultimately, off takers (and producers) will want to locate the power source as close as possible
to a connection point on the power grid to avoid the cost and risk of building transmission infrastructure
and the transmission line losses. Other equally important issues that will determine location are easy access
to the fuel source to the plant, the potential social and environmental impact of any power plant on local
communities, and whether efficient or low-cost mitigants are available. Certain renewable energy
resources, such as solar or wind, may be more appropriate for remote locations and will have the added
benefit of not adding to carbon emissions. These power sources, however, do not offer the same
predictability of thermal power sources (both wind and solar are by nature more unpredictable power
sources). The choice of power generating technology is an important one for the off taker. It will have a
direct impact on the cost and reliability of power, as well as the environmental and social impacts of the
project.
In simple terms, the stepwise working of PPA can be listed below:
 Implement, develop or re-finance a project with a PPA

 Determine the structure of the contract
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 Create an RFQ and reach out for buyers

 Compare the offers received
 Negotiate the terms
 Sign the PPA contract
 Manage the energy sales and risk throughout the life of the asset
Some of the salient features are as follows.
 NEA after taking consent from Electricity Regulatory Commission (ERC) enters into an arrangement for
a private power company to establish a Solar power plant and sell on the power to the government
agency i.e., NEA, the public agency typically enters into a PPA.
 Sale of energy - the power producer agrees to make available to the Purchaser the contracted capacity
of energy (minimum 15% CUF) and deliver the energy in accordance with the PPA.
 Underperformance and delays by power producer - the PPA may provide sanctions or require the power
producer to pay liquidated damages if the power producer fails to deliver power as promised; in
particular if the construction of the project is not completed on schedule or does not perform as
required when completed. Lenders will be concerned to ensure that liquidated damages do not have
too damaging an impact on debt coverage ratios.
 Force majeure or purchaser breach of contract - the power producer is usually not required to pay
damages for delays resulting from events beyond its control.
 Termination - the PPA will need to provide for what happens on termination (whether at the end of the
term of the agreement or early termination for default etc.), including obligations of the power producer
on hand-over of assets, calculation of buyout price for IPP (if this is contemplated), what happens to
employees of power producer if IPP transferred to purchaser on termination.
 Project operation - issues typically include scheduled outages and maintenance outages, operation and
maintenance, emergencies and keeping of accounts and records.
 Change of law - PPA should address impact on tariff in event of a change in applicable law and the
mechanism for tariff adjustment. Lenders will be anxious to ensure that the cash flows of the project
required for debt service are protected against changes in law.
 Force majeure Events-the following events caused by natural disaster, radioactive contamination,
pandemic, and civil war.
 Insurance-This should be initiated prior to commercial operation for the following items: risks of
contractor (not less than total contractual amount), third party responsibility, compensation amount
that should be given to worker and employee and other insurance as per prevailing laws of Nepal.
 Review of agreement-with written mutual consent of both parties
 Yearly report-The company should submit its audited financial sheet every year.
 Monitoring of project by NEA-NEA could monitor the construction, production, and operation of solar
projects with prior notice to developer.
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)-The project developer should inform NEA about the
proceedings of CDM and its Benefit claim and if earning from Carbon Credits are obtained then this
should be divided among the developer and NEA in the ratio of 75:25.
 Duration of agreement-The PPA agreement will be valid from the date of signing. The duration of
agreement starting from the commercial operation date will be valid for 25 years or for the duration of
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generation license. However, among these two the duration of PPA will be for the period whichever is
less.
 If the overall system of the solar project has to be dismantled after the completion of PPA then this
would be the responsibility of the developer and the developer will not claim for any such expenses.
 Dispatch Risk-There are two structures generally accepted by lenders for mitigating the risk that the off
taker may not dispatch the generating facility. Take or Pay: The off taker pays a fixed tariff comprising
a capacity charge (a fixed amount that is paid for available capacity - no dispatch required) and an
output charge (an amount paid in respect of energy actually delivered). This permits the power producer
to cover its fixed costs with the capacity charge, including debt service, fixed operating costs, and an
agreed equity return. Take and Pay (typical for wind and solar): The off taker must take and pay a fixed
tariff for all energy delivered (no dispatch required). If energy cannot be physically taken by the off taker
and output is “curtailed,” energy will be calculated and paid for on a “deemed” delivered basis.
 Fixed Tariff-It is important that the revenue of any PPA, whether “take or pay” or “take and pay,” be a
fixed amount per kWh generated to adequately cover the cost of operating the facility, repay the debt
and provide a reasonable return on equity.
 Foreign Exchange-In order to avoid subjecting the power producer to currency risk, the PPA should be
either denominated in or linked to an exchange rate of the currency of the power producer’s debt, and
there should be no limitation or additional approvals required to transfer funds to offshore accounts as
required.
 Dispute Resolution-The agreement should provide for offshore arbitration, in a neutral location, under
rules generally acceptable to the international community (e.g., UNCITRAL or LCIA or ICC).
 Termination and Termination Payments -The PPA should set out clearly the basis on which either party
may terminate the PPA. Termination by the off taker may leave the project with no access to the market
and thus should be limited to significant events. The agreement should provide that if the PPA is
terminated for any reason, then in case of transfer of the facility to the off taker, the off taker shall
provide a termination payment at least equal to the full amount of the power producer’s outstanding
bank debt, and in the case of the off taker’s default, a return on equity.
 Assignment-The PPA should allow collateral assignment of the agreement to the power producer’s
lenders with the right to receive notice of any default and to cure such default. Additional step-in rights
are generally set forth in a separate direct agreement between the lenders and the off taker.
 Off taker-Payment Support Depending upon the size of the project and the creditworthiness of the off
taker and the development of the energy sector in a certain country, short term liquidity instrument, a
liquidity facility and/ or a sovereign guaranty will be required to support the off taker’s payment
obligations.
 Transmission or Interconnection Risk-The PPA should indicate which party bears the risk of connecting
the facility with the grid and transmitting power to the nearest substation. The more significant these
risks (due to terrain, distance, populated areas), the more the lenders will require the off taker to bear
all or a significant portion thereof.
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20. Conclusions and Recommendations
Solar energy technology is an emerging technology, with a high potential for significant technological
advances in future. For a country like Nepal that is grappling energy deficit and is forced to import energy
from India even during daytime, especially during dry season, solar energy proves to be a viable alternate
model. Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt. Ltd. with the intention of addressing this issue, wants to install solar
plant of 5 MW in Ward No. 2, Thakurbaba Municipality of Bardiya.
Based on this detailed feasibility study report, the solar power plant is well suited and highly viable. With a
performance ratio of 81.96 percent and CUF of 24.03 percent, with total project cost of NPR 429.53 million.
The projects yield a lucrative internal rate of return of 20.19 percent on equity and 15.41 percent on from
the entire project perspective.
133
List of Annexure
Annex I: Set of Detailed Civil Design Drawings

Annex II: Solar Power Plant Single Line Diagram
Annex III: Simulation Result of Estimated Annual Energy Generation
Annex IV: Site Pictures
Annex V: Data Sheet of Inverter
Annex VI: Data Sheet of PV Module
Annex VII: Soil Information of Site
Annex VIII: Layout of Drainage
Annex IX: Financial Analysis of the Project
Annex X: Sunrise and Sunset Time of Proposed Solar Project Site
Annex XI: Breakdown of Costs for Civil Work
Annex XII: Table of Content for ToR of IEE
Annex XIII: ToR for Detailed Feasibility Study and Environmental Study

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DETAILED FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT

Tek Samundra 5 MW Solar PV Project

Nepal Electricity Authority

Government of Nepal, Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation

Tek Samundra Khetibari Pvt. Ltd.

Invest and Infra Pvt. Ltd.

4.13 Local Regulations/Land Use Policy .................................................................................................. 35

11.3 Electrical Layouts ............................................................................................................................ 85

15.5 Financing ....................................................................................................................................... 119

Annex VIII: Layout of Drainage.................................................................................................................. 133

Table 1: Salient Features of the Project ...................................................................................................... 17

Table 40: Sensitivity Analysis (% Change in Project Cost) ......................................................................... 120

Figure 1: Accessibility Map to the Project Site ........................................................................................ 29

Abbreviations and Acronyms

GHI Global Horizontal Irradiation

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Table 1: Salient Features of the Project

S.N. Heading Particulars Description

Auxiliary Transformer Rated Capacity (if 1MVA 0.6/33 kV

1. Introduction to Project Developer

1.1 Background of the Project Developer

1.2 Legal Entity and Credential

Table 2: Shareholders Nomination of the Developer Company

S.N. Name of Shareholder No. of Shares

1 Tilak Bahadur Rawal 15,000

2 Binay Rawal 51,000

3 Rita Rawal 15,000

4 Bibek Rawal 15,000

1.4 Rationale to Build a Solar PV Plant

2. Solar PV Sector in Nepal

2.1 The Context

2.2 Overview of Grid Connected Solar PV Projects in Nepal

2.3 Major Utility Scale Solar PV Projects Developed by IPPs

2.4 Regulatory Framework and Support Mechanism

3.1 Background of the Project

3.2 Objectives of Study

The objective of this pre-feasibility study are as follows:

3.3 Scope of work

3.4 Approach and Methodology of the Study

4.1 Site Selection Criteria

4.2 Site Identification Methodology

Available Land Area

4.3 Description of Project Site

Figure 1: Accessibility Map to the Project Site

4.5 Land Availability

4.6 Topography and Orientation

4.7 Present Use of Land

4.8 Climatic Characteristics

3Indo-Gangetic Plain, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain

5 Indo-Gangetic Plain Map. https://alchetron.com/Indo-Gangetic-Plain

Figure 4: Precipitation Data at the Proposed Project Site

7 Global Wind Atlas. https://globalwindatlas.info/

4.9 Right of Way for Transmission Line

4.10 Availability of Water and Water Quality

4.11 Grid Connection and Interconnection Voltage

4.12 Distance to Evacuation Point

8 Annual Report of Nepal Electricity Authority, Released on 2019/20, https://www.nea.org.np/annual_report

4.13 Local Regulations/Land Use Policy

Land Use Policy 2015