Lesson 1.

Fibers and Fabrics

OBJECTIVES:
● To be able to identify what is fabric and fiber.
● To gain some information about their classifications or types.
● To acknowledge their distinctive characteristics.
● To take note of their differences.

A Fiber is defined as a thin, threadlike structure that combines to form animal or plant
tissue, or a thin threadlike structure made synthetically or from minerals. Fibers are the
strongest of the three different forms of polymers. Plastics, rubbers, and fibers, for example,
have the greatest intermolecular forces of attraction. Hydrogen bonding is responsible for
these forces.

Characteristics
★ Fibers have very little flexibility.
★Has a good strength
★ These polymers' molecules are long, thin, and threadlike.
★ The molecules or chains are tightly packed.
★Fibers have a high absorbency and are able to take in moisture.

Animal Fibers
The fibers which are obtained from animals. Wool and silk are common examples of animal
fibers. They are made up of protein molecules. The basic elements in the protein molecules
are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

Examples:
● WOOL: Wool is the fiber derived from the fur of animals. It has the highest moisture
regain.
● SILK: Is a natural fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the
cocoon of the silkworm larva. In the process known as sericulture.

CLASSIFICATIONS

Textiles
The word textile is derived from the Latin term "texture" for woven fabrics. Thus, by textiles
we understand those objects which have been prepared by weaving.
Yarns
Are long continuous lengths of interlocked fibers suitable for the production of textiles,
sewing, crochet knitting and rope making. They are produced by twisting or spinning of the
textile fibers and in turn fabric is a structure produced by interlacing or interloping of the
yarns.

Natural fibers
Made from plant, animal and mineral sources.

Cotton
A soft fiber that grows around the seed of the cotton plant. Cotton fiber grows in the seed
pod of the cotton plant. Each fiber is a single elongated cell that is a flare twisted and
ribbon like with a wider inner hollow lumen.

Bast
Bast fiber or skin fiber is fiber collected from the Phloem (the bast surrounding the stem of a
certain plant) yarns.

Mineral
They are the inorganic materials shaped into fibers and are mainly used in the fireproof
fabrics. Asbestos is an example of mineral fiber. Mineral fibers are fireproof, resistant to
acids and are used for industrial purposes.

EXAMPLES:
● Glass Fibers - is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation
glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile
processing.
● Ceramic Fibers - is a man-made synthetic fiber produced from small-dimension
filament composed of high purity aluminosilicate materials.

Man-made
Fibers that are not naturally present in nature and are made artificially by man.
characteristics. Examples are viscose rayon, nylon and polyester. They have high strength,
strong when wet low moisture absorption

EXAMPLES:
● Rayon - Is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic fiber. It is the first man made
fiber. It has a serrated round shape with a smooth surface.
● Polyester - Polyester is a category of polymers which contain ester. The term
"polyester" is most commonly used to refer to polyethylene terephthalate. (PET).
Metallic
They are manufactured fibers composed of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-gold and
silver have been used for fabric decoration.

Fabrics
A fabric refers to any material that refers to the many applications such as garments. Shoes,
carpets and much more. These are formed by nature and some are synthetic. There are two
types, natural fabric known as woven and man-made named as “nonwoven fabric.”

Fabrics from Natural Fibers

● Cotton fabric
● Silk fabric
● Linen fabric
● Jute fabric
● Wool fabric

Man-made Fabrics
● Polyester fabric
● Rayon fabric
● Denim fabric
● Vinyl fabric
● Fiberglass fabric
● Polyethylene fabric

Applications
• These are used in the dust collector fabric purpose
• These are used for clothing purpose
• They are applicable in the civil site purpose
• The fabric are applicable in the industrial field
• These are widely used in the daily use purpose

Carpets
Carpets are often referred to as soft floor coverings. They can be categorized by their
construction, patterns & types of yarn used. A good carpeted floor usually enhances the
look & appearance of your premises.
Uses
• Carpet adds beauty and style
• Carpet improves indoor air quality
• Carpet provides warmth and comfort
• Carpet softens slips and falls
• Carpet reduces noise

Leathers
The natural cloth leather is manufactured from tanned animal skin. Leather, thought to be
the earliest cloth made by human hands, has developed substantially over millennia.
Leather, on the other hand, remains one of the most sought-after textile items due to its
durability, water resistance, insulative characteristics, and sensual softness. Leather is one
of the most diverse natural textiles, available in a wide range of styles, grades, and colors.

Uses
• Leather is used for fashion businesses
• Can be used in Homewares
• Used in making accessories
• Leather is often used to bind or finish books
• Leather wrist watch straps are very common, as well as bangles and other jewelry.

Papers
A thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging It is
produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood,
rags, or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.

Uses
• Paper is generally used for writing purposes.
• It is used to produce eco-friendly and reusable carry bags
• It is used for packaging and wrapping objects
• It has applications in different construction and industrial procedures
• Is used as a cleaning product
Lesson 2. Types of Paints

Water-Based Paints

Properties
● Versatile - Water-based paints are the most common type of paint used for interior
and exterior walls. They come in a variety of finishes and can be easily applied with
a brush or roller.
● Quick Drying - Water-based paints dry faster than oil-based paints, usually within a
few hours. This means you can apply multiple coats in one day and finish your
project faster.
● Environmentally Friendly - Water-based paints are low in volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), which means they have a minimal impact on indoor air quality
and the environment.
● Less Durable - Water-based paints are not as durable as oil-based paints and may
need to be reapplied more often, especially on high-traffic surfaces like doors and
cabinets.

Oil-based Paints
● Benefits: Oil-based paints are highly durable and can withstand wear and tear, heat,
and UV light. They also create a smooth and glossy finish that's perfect for furniture
and cabinetry.
● Challenges: Oil-based paints take longer to dry and have a strong odor, which
means they need to be applied in a well-ventilated area. They're also more difficult
to clean up and require solvents like mineral spirits.
● Recommendations: Oil-based paints are ideal for outdoor projects, wood surfaces,
and areas that require a lot of cleaning like kitchens and bathrooms. Use them for a
long-lasting and professional fini
● Expert Tip: Professional artists often use oil-based paints for their vivid colors and
blending capabilities. If you're working on a fine art project, consider experimenting
with oil-based paints.

Acrylic Paints
● Acrylic paints are water-based and dry quickly to a flexible and durable finish.
They're perfect for beginners because they're easy to apply and clean up with water
and soap.
● Uses: Acrylic paints can be applied to a variety of surfaces, such as canvas, paper,
wood, ceramics, and fabric. They're also highly pigmented and come in a range of
colors.
● Techniques: You can use acrylic paints to create a range of techniques, such as
blending, layering, and brush stroke effects. You can also use them for mixed media
projects and to add texture and depth to your work.
Enamel Paints

Features Recommendations

Enamel paints create a hard and glossy Use enamel paints for intricate and detailed
finish that's perfect for small surfaces like projects that require precision and control.
trim, cabinets, and models.

Enamel paints are highly durable and can Use enamel paints for surfaces that require
withstand water and abrasion, making a strong and long-lasting finish.
them ideal for outdoor furniture, gutters,
and appliances.

Enamel paints come in a range of colors Choose enamel paints that match the style
and finishes, including matte, satin, and and functionality of your project, and apply
high gloss. them in a well-ventilated area that's free
from dust and debris.

Specialty Paints

● Heat-Resistant: Heat-resistant paints are designed to withstand high temperatures

without cracking or peeling. They're ideal for metal surfaces like grills, ovens, and
fireplaces.
● Anti-Mold: Anti-mold paints prevent the growth of mold and mildew on surfaces like
bathrooms, kitchens, and basements. They're perfect for humid and damp areas.
● Metallic: Metallic paints contain metallic flakes or pigments that create a
shimmering and reflective effect on surfaces like walls, furniture, and accessories.
● Chalkboard: Chalkboard paints transform any smooth and non-porous surface into
a functional chalkboard. They're perfect for kids' rooms, kitchens, and offices.

Choosing the Right Type of Paint

Surface Type : Consider the surface you'll be painting and choose a paint that's
compatible with it. For example, use oil-based paints on wood and metal surfaces, and
water-based paints on drywall and plaster surfaces.

Environment : Consider the environmental impact of the paint and choose a low-VOC or
zero-VOC paint if you're painting an indoor space. If you're painting an outdoor space,
choose a paint that's resistant to weather and UV light.

Application : Consider the application method and tools you'll need and choose a paint
that's easy to apply and that you're comfortable with. Keep in mind the drying time,
cleanup, and number of coats required.

Waxes: A Versatile Painting Medium

Waxes are a unique and versatile medium that can be used in many types of artwork. They
come in a variety of forms, from solid blocks to fluid paints, and can be used on a variety of
surfaces. Waxes can add texture and depth to your artwork, and can be used alone or in
combination with other media. Consider experimenting with waxes to add interest and
dimension to your next piece!

Gesso: The Essential Primer for Your Artwork

Gesso is a versatile primer used to prepare surfaces for painting. It creates a smooth, even
base that helps paint adhere better and last longer.

Did you know?

You can easily make your own gesso in just a few steps! All you need is a:
● Baby Powder
● Water
● White Poster/Acrylic Paint

Mix them all together and there you have it!

An affordable gesso that you can make in just a step.

What Are Candles?

Candles are a versatile and decorative lighting option that have been used for centuries.
They are typically made from wax and a wick, and can be used for ambiance, fragrance, or
even as a source of heat. Candles come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colors, and can
be made from a variety of materials including beeswax, paraffin wax, and soy wax. Whether
you're looking to create a cozy atmosphere or add a decorative touch to your home,
candles are a great choice.
Step-by-Step Guide: Making Your Own Wax Candles

First Step: Gather the materials needed

● Wax
● Wicks
● A container for melting the wax,
● Thermometer
● Any fragrance or color additives you want to use.

Second Step: Melt the Wax

You can do this in a:
● Double boiler
● Dedicated candle wax melting pot

Be sure to monitor the temperature with a thermometer and stir the wax occasionally to
ensure it melts evenly. Once the wax is melted, you're ready to move on to the next step!

Third Step: Add Fragrance and Color

● Essential oils
● Candle fragrance oils to add scent
● Liquid or dye chips to add color

Be sure to stir the fragrance and color into the wax thoroughly for even distribution.

Fourth Step: Pour the Wax

● With your fragrance and color mixed into the melted wax, it's time to pour it into
your candle containers.
● Be sure to center and straighten the wick before pouring the wax.
● Allow the candles to cool and solidify overnight before trimming the wick and
enjoying your beautiful handmade candles.
Lesson 3. Composition of Adhesives

Adhesives
Adhesives are substances that are used to bind two or more surfaces together by surface
attachment and cohesive strength. Adhesives come in various forms such as liquids,
pastes, films, and tapes, and can be made from natural or synthetic materials. It works by
creating bonds between two surfaces either through chemical reactions or physical
mechanisms.

Types
Natural Adhesives: Natural adhesives are adhesives that are made from naturally occurring
materials. Examples include plant-based resins, animal-based glues, and bio-based
polymers.
a. Plant-based Adhesives: These are adhesives that are made from plant-based
materials such as tree sap, starch, and vegetable gum.
b. Animal-based Adhesives: These are adhesives that are made from animal-based
materials such as animal hide, bones, and tendons.
c. Bio-based Adhesives: These are adhesives that are made from renewable
resources such as corn, soybeans, and sugarcane.

Synthetic Adhesives: Synthetic adhesives are adhesives that are made from synthetic
materials such as polymers, resins, and synthetic rubbers. They are widely used in various
industries such as construction, automotive, and electronics due to their strong bonding
properties and versatility.

Hybrid Adhesives: Hybrid adhesives are a type of adhesive that combines the properties of
both synthetic and natural adhesives. They are made by blending a synthetic polymer with
natural materials such as resins, oils, or waxes.
a. Polyurethane hybrid adhesives: These adhesives are made by blending
polyurethane with natural or renewable materials such as plant oils or soybeans.
They are known for their excellent bonding strength and flexibility.
b. Silicone hybrid adhesives: These adhesives are made by blending silicone with
natural materials such as resins or plant oils. They are known for their excellent
resistance to heat and chemicals.
c. MS polymer hybrid adhesives: These adhesives are made by blending MS polymer
with natural materials such as resins or waxes. They are known for their excellent
bonding strength and resistance to weathering.
Examples
CYANOACRYLATE ADHESIVES (SUPERGLUE): They are based on a fast-acting
cyanoacrylate resin. They are known for their fast curing time, high strength, and ability to
bond a wide range of materials. Cyanoacrylate adhesive is known for its fast-setting
properties and ability to bond a wide range of materials, including metal, plastic, and wood.

EPOXY ADHESIVES: Epoxy adhesives are two-component adhesives that consist of a

resin and a hardener. They are known for their high strength, toughness, and resistance to
chemicals and heat. They offer excellent resistance to water, chemicals, and heat, and can
be used to bond a wide range of materials.

POLYURETHANE ADHESIVES: It is a type of synthetic adhesive that is commonly used in

construction, woodworking, and automotive industries. They are known for their strong
bonding capabilities, flexibility, and resistance to water and chemicals.

CONTACT ADHESIVES: Contact adhesive is a type of synthetic adhesive that is commonly

used in woodworking, construction, and automotive industries. It is a fast-acting adhesive
that works by bonding two surfaces together upon contact. Contact adhesive typically
comes in a solvent-based or water-based formulation and is applied to both surfaces that
need to be bonded.

HOT MELT ADHESIVES: Hot melt adhesive is a type of synthetic adhesive that is
commonly used in packaging, woodworking, and product assembly. It is a thermoplastic
adhesive that is melted and applied to a surface using a hot glue gun or other heating
device.

PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVES: Pressure sensitive adhesive, or PSA, is a type of

synthetic adhesive that is commonly used in labels, tapes, and other adhesive products. It
is a non-reactive adhesive that forms a bond with a surface upon application of pressure.

SILICONE ADHESIVES: Silicone adhesive is a type of adhesive that is based on silicone

polymers. It is a versatile adhesive that can be used to bond a variety of surfaces, including
metals, plastics, glass, and ceramics.

ACRYLIC ADHESIVES: Acrylic adhesive is a type of adhesive that is based on acrylic

polymers. It is also a versatile adhesive that can be used to bond a variety of surfaces,
including plastics, metals, glass, and ceramics.

RUBBER ADHESIVES: Rubber adhesive is a type of adhesive that is based on natural or

synthetic rubber polymers. Rubber adhesive is known for its strong bonding properties,
flexibility, and resistance to heat and moisture.
SOLVENT-BASED ADHESIVES: Solvent-based adhesive is a type of adhesive that is
based on a solvent carrier.Solvent-based adhesive is known for its strong bonding
properties, fast curing time, and resistance to heat and moisture. Solvent-based adhesive
comes in a range of formulations, including contact adhesives, pressure-sensitive
adhesives, and specialty adhesives.

Compositions
Polymers: These are the main components of most adhesives and provide the adhesive
with its bonding properties. A polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating units called
monomers. Polymers used in adhesives can be synthetic or natural, and they provide the
adhesive with its bonding properties.

Solvents: These are used to dissolve the polymers and make them easier to apply. Solvents
are liquids that are used to dissolve or thin out the polymer in adhesives. They make it
easier to apply the adhesive and help it to penetrate the surface of the material being
bonded.

Fillers: Fillers are materials that are added to adhesives to improve their properties and
performance. Fillers can be organic or inorganic, and they can be natural or synthetic.

Fillers can be added to adhesive formulations for various reasons, including:

● To improve the strength and stiffness of the adhesive
● To improve the viscosity and thixotropy of the adhesive
● To reduce the cost of the adhesive
● To improve the thermal and acoustic insulation properties of the adhesive.

Plasticizers: Plasticizers are materials that are added to adhesives to improve their
flexibility and adhesion properties. They are typically added to polymer-based adhesives to
reduce their viscosity and make them more pliable.

Catalysts: Catalysts are materials that are added to adhesives to speed up or initiate the
chemical reaction that causes the adhesive to bond with the substrate. Catalysts are
typically added to two-part adhesives, which consist of a resin and a hardener that are
mixed together just before application.

Stabilizers: Stabilizers in adhesives are chemical compounds added to the adhesive

formulation to prevent degradation or deterioration of the adhesive properties over time.
They help to maintain the adhesive's performance by preventing oxidation, UV degradation,
and other forms of chemical breakdown. Stabilizers can also improve the shelf life of the
adhesive and protect it from environmental factors such as heat, moisture, and humidity.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Adhesives

CHEMICAL
 ● Polymerization: Adhesives are made up of long-chain molecules called polymers.
The chemical reaction that links these molecules together to form a solid adhesive is
called polymerization. It is the process by which small molecules called monomers
combine to form long-chain molecules called polymers.
● Curing: It refers to the process by which an adhesive undergoes a chemical or
physical change to become a solid and durable material. The curing process can
affect various properties of adhesives, such as their strength, flexibility, and curing
time.
● Toxicity: Some adhesives contain chemicals that can be harmful if inhaled,
ingested, or absorbed through the skin.
● Flammability: Some adhesives can be flammable or combustible, meaning they can
ignite and burn easily when exposed to heat, sparks, or flames

PHYSICAL
● Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. In the context of
adhesives, viscosity refers to the thickness or consistency of the adhesive.
Adhesives with a high viscosity are thicker and more resistant to flow, while those
with a low viscosity are thinner and more fluid.
● Adhesive strength: Adhesive strength is the ability of an adhesive to bond two
surfaces together and resist separation. It is a measure of the force required to pull
apart two bonded surfaces.
● Drying time: The drying time of adhesives can vary depending on the type of
adhesive, the temperature and humidity of the environment, the substrate being
bonded, and the thickness of the adhesive layer applied.
● Shear strength: Shear strength is the ability of the adhesive to resist sliding or
shearing forces applied parallel to the substrate surface. Shear strength is an
important property of adhesives because it determines the strength and durability of
the bond.
● Temperature resistance: It measures the ability of adhesives to maintain their
strength and integrity when exposed to high or low temperatures. Adhesives can be
designed to withstand a wide range of temperatures, from extreme cold to high heat.

Application
- Construction - Furniture
- Sports equipment - Aerospace
- Automotive - Medical
- Packaging - Electronics
Lesson 4. Recycled Materials to Produce New Materials
Recycling
Recycling is the process of converting waste materials, that would usually be thrown away,
into new materials and objects. Recycling waste reduces the amount of harmful materials
produced and reduces energy usage, therefore benefiting the environment.

Examples
Paper: Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing
cellulose fibers derived from wood, rags, grasses.
Glue: A substance that is sticky and can bind two or more objects together is called glue.
Either oil-based chemicals or plant or animal parts can be used to make glue.

Paper production out of recycled materials

● Water
● Scrap Papers
● Plastic storage tub or vat
● Kitchen blender
● Mold & Deckle (a screen attached to a frame)
● Wood boards OR sponge & rolling pin
● Towels, wool blankets, cloth, pellon, Sham-wows, or other absorbent material

Step 1: Cut the paper

Step 2: Blend it and make a vat of pulp
Step 3: Pull some sheet
Step 4: Couching
Step 5: Pressing
Step 6: Drying

Glue production out of recycled materials

● Glass jar with lid (preferably tight-sealing)
● Acetone
● Mixing stick, or any sort of stick that can be used to mix substances
● Styrofoam (preferably old pieces of styrofoam meant to be thrown away)

Step 1: Prepare the styrofoam

Step 2: Add Acetone
Step 3: Mix
Step 4: Transform
Step 5: Store
Step 6: Use

Glue is a sticky all-natural product created by boiling parts of animals to make a brown,
translucent, and viscous substance. Protein colloids is extracted from the skin and bones of
animals through a boiling process that causes hydrolysis to the collagen. While many glues
are safe, certain kinds of glue contain strong-smelling chemicals. Some people sniff these
glues to get high. Sometimes people breathe in the vapors by mistake. This is a very bad
idea because these chemicals are often poisonous and may cause brain damage or illness.

The earliest glues were made from various plant-based materials. The oldest known
compound glue was made from plant gum and red ochre approximately 70,000 years BC,
and was found in South Africa, so our ancestors were figuring out ways to stick two things
together a long, long time ago. The first glues may have been natural liquids that come out
of trees when they are cut. Later, people learned to make glue by boiling animal feet,
cartilage or bones. Some very strong glues were first made from fish bones, rubber or milk.

Some Uses of Glues

● A simple glue can be made at home by mixing wheat, flour and water. This glue will
stick pieces of paper together. Many kinds of art can be made using glue. A collage
is a work of art made by using glue to stick coloured things onto paper.
● Some glues can be used to keep water out of boats, buildings or vehicles. In this
case, the glue may be called caulk. Some man-made materials, including wood-like
materials, are made using glues to bind together small pieces of material or
powders.

Materials:
1. glass jar with lid (preferably tight-sealing)
2. pure orange oil
3. mixing stick, or any sort of stick that can be used to mix substances (ex. popsicle
sticks)
4. styrofoam (preferably old pieces of styrofoam meant to be thrown away)

Step 1: Preparing the Styrofoam

Step 2: Adding the Orange Oil
Step 3: Mixing
Step 4: Transformation
Step 5: Finished Product
Step 6: Using Your Glue

Some Tips
Make sure you are using PURE orange oil! Any additives in the oil will prevent the glue from
forming properly.

Glue consistency depends on the amount of orange oil you add to the styrofoam. The more
orange oil it contains, the more viscous it will be.
The texture of, and way of applying, the glue is similar to rugby. Compared to rugby, the
smell of orange oil is more pleasant, making it easier to work with.

It can be used for various purposes, such as a clear protective coating for wood, adhesive
for various objects, and sticky sheet for catching bugs (effective because of its lengthy
drying period, thus it remains sticky for a long amount of time). In the right quantities, it can
also be used to make figures and models because of its malleability and shape-retainability.

The glue should be clear and hard when dry.

The drying time of the glue takes longer than rugby. It's maximum drying time can go up to
12 hours, though it is already quite solid after a couple of minutes.

If you do not have orange oil, there are several instructions online that can show you how to
make your own.