Saudi Aramco

Climate risk
initial screening

November 2019
Table of content
Table of content ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Executive summary ................................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 5
Temperature............................................................................................................................................ 6
Origin and nature of risks .................................................................................................................... 6
Projected warming by 2020-2050 ....................................................................................................... 7
Local temperature change .................................................................................................................. 7
Impact on productivity and work conditions ...................................................................................... 8
Sea level rise ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Origin and nature of risks .................................................................................................................... 9
Significant risks and costs as soon as 2030 ......................................................................................... 9
Flood ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Origin and nature of risks .................................................................................................................. 11
Motiva refinery in Port Arthur (USA) ................................................................................................ 11
Possible increase in flood risks .......................................................................................................... 11
Fresh water resources ........................................................................................................................... 14
Origin and nature of risks .................................................................................................................. 14
The Saudi Arabian water-energy nexus ............................................................................................ 14
Projected changes in precipitations and aridity ................................................................................ 16
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Methodological annex ........................................................................................................................... 19

Copyright
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to share and reuse this material as long as you quote its original source.

Disclaimer
The information contained in this report is of a general nature only. It is not meant to be comprehensive and
does not constitute the rendering of any professional advice or service. Callendar has no obligation to
update the information it contains. Accordingly, Callendar, its employees and/or agents accept no
responsibility or liability for any loss, damage or expense arising from the use of this report.
Executive summary
In the prospectus published prior to its initial public offering, Saudi Aramco acknowledges
that climate change may have damaging impacts on its activity and financial results. This
report's aim is to provide an overview of the nature and scale of these risks by 2035. It is
based on a bibliographical study and previously unpublished quantitative elements
provided by projections made by 7 climate models.

The report shows that Saudi Aramco's operations in Saudi Arabia and around the world
are vulnerable to weather events. Some of these risks have already materialized in several
cases and even been taken into account in the decisions and operation of the company.
These include:
 Floods that affected refineries operated by Saudi Aramco, notably in Yanbu (Saudi
Arabia) or Port Arthur (USA),
 Extreme heat and the damages it can cause to equipment and personnel.

Other risks are likely to appear or be amplified by climate change and it is unclear whether
or not the company recognizes and tries to mitigate them. These include:
- Sea level rise and its impact on coastal facilities,
- The effect of temperature increase on yield, valorization and availability of process,
particularly in refining.
Climate change is forcing these phenomena leading to more frequent or more severe
occurrence and can make it more difficult for Saudi Aramco to operate. As the company
is active in areas that are particularly prone to hazards like floods and extreme heat, this
trend may degrade its competitiveness compared to others, less exposed oil and gas
companies. In addition, it indirectly exacerbates geopolitical, environmental, regulatory
and reputational risks.

In the medium term, the aridification of the Saudi climate could restrict Saudi Aramco's
development. In a context of growing demand and gradual depletion of fossil water
resources, access to fresh water, which is essential for refining, will have to rely more and
more on desalination plants. Desalination already consumes a significant part of Saudi
hydrocarbon production, thus degrading the financial and energy return on investment of
its exploitation. This specificity could create a physical limit to the adoption of techniques
with high water consumption and/or low energy return on energy invested ratio such as
hydraulic fracturing and as result prevent Saudi Aramco from fully exploiting its oil and gas
reserves.

Finally, this study identifies needs for further research to better assess the impact of
climate change on the medium and long-term value of Saudi Aramco.
Introduction
Launched on November 3, 2019, the IPO process of the Saudi national oil company, Saudi
Aramco, is expected to be one of the largest financial transactions in history.

If the Saudi government is aiming for a valuation of $2 trillion, the value of the company is
uncertain: Goldman Sachs estimates it between $1.6 and $2.3 trillion, Bank of America
between $1.2 and $2.3 trillion and Bernstein between $1.2 and $1.5 trillioni.

Regardless of the model used, these assessments are based on a projection of the
company's earnings over the next few decades. They incorporate many hypotheses,
including in highly uncertain areas such as oil prices or the changing geopolitical situation
in the Persian Gulf.

The effects of climate change on hydrocarbon production, transport and processing does
not appear to have been factored among the trends that may influence Saudi Aramco's
long-term profitability. The existence of material risks is nonetheless confirmed by recent
events, such as the unavailability of nearly a quarter of U.S. refining capacity as a result of
Hurricane Harvey in 2017ii or an estimated production loss of 500,000 barrels per day
during the Niger Delta flood in 2012iii.

In the prospectus published on November 10, Saudi Aramco acknowledges that climate
change can have negative effects on its activity and financial results1 but without providing
further details on the nature of the risks and their magnitudes.

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the physical risks caused by climate
change to Saudi Aramco's activity by 2035. This assessment is based on a bibliographical
study and previously unpublished quantitative elements provided by projections made by
7 climate models2.

"Existing and future climate change concerns and impacts, including physical impacts to infrastructure […]
1

could […] have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business, financial position and results of
operations."
2
See methodological annex for details.
Temperature
Origin and nature of risks
The ambient temperature influences the proper functioning and performance of
hydrocarbon production, transportation and refining facilities. Temperature-sensitive
equipment includes, for example, compressors, Joule-Thompson low temperature
separation and slug catchersiv, v as well as power lines and electrical equipment. Heat also
accelerates corrosion especially in saline environments.

Beyond the unavailability of temperature-sensitive equipment and increased maintenance

costs, heat can cause incidents affecting operations. It appears, for example, to have
caused the fire of an electrical transformer in July 2017 at the SAMREF refinery in Yanbu, a
joint venture of Saudi Aramco and Exxonvi.

Gas production and transport are particularly sensitive to external temperature. LNG
liquefaction trains must bring natural gas to a temperature of -162°C to condense it. The
first stage of the LNG train is particularly sensitive to abnormal heat but each stage of the
cooling process is dimensioned according to the site characteristics including a maximum
temperature estimated on the basis of past weather records. If this "design temperature" is
reached, the plant operator may to some extent reduce throughput to increase
refrigeration capacity, but beyond certain thresholds flow reductions run into other
technical problems without a simple solution. Once these thresholds have been exceeded,
adapting the facilities or even processes to an increase of the maximum temperature is
possible but requires generally costly investments, especially if the new pressure required
exceeds the maximum allowed pressures for the equipment.

A similar problem exists for refineries: refrigeration is needed to condense and liquefy LPG
production. Recent developments in refineries to improve conversion yield have led to the
saturation of condensation units for light components. Any increase in maximum
temperature therefore results in a loss of value either by reducing flow or by decreasing
the splitting capacity and thus the valorization of crude oil or condensate.

Increased frequency and intensity of heat waves can also have indirect effects through the
degradation of roads and asphalt pavements, rail tracks and freight facilities, vehicles and
buildings. The health status of workers can also be affected: over the course of the century,
temperatures in Saudi Arabia could rise to exceed thresholds for human body adaptation vii.
 Projected warming by 2020-2050
Weather observations indicate an increase in temperature in Saudi Arabia in the order of
0.5°C per decade between 1985 and 2010viii. Over the next few decades, this trend is
expected to continue and accelerate if greenhouse gases emissions are not reduced. The
increase in temperatures is expected to be particularly pronounced in on-shore oil-rich
areas exploited by Saudi Aramco (Ghawar, Khurais, and Shaybah).

Figure 1: Mean temperature change between 2020 and 2049 compared to 1976-2005
without (left) and with (right) emissions reductions

The increase in temperature is generally higher between February to September, including during
the summer period which is already the warmest.

Local temperature change

The table below details the temperature changes expected for some important sites in Saudi Aramco’s
business in Saudi Arabia:

Baseline scenario Attenuation scenario

Median Higher Lower Median Higher Lower
projection projection projection projection projection projection
Ras Tanura
+1.5°C +2.3°C +1.2°C +1.4°C +1.8°C +1.2°C
Refinery and terminal
Yanbu
+1.6°C +2.2°C +1.2°C +1.3°C +1.8°C +1.1°C
Refinery and terminal
Ghawar
+2.0°C +2.5°C +1.3°C +1.7°C +2.1°C +1.3°C
World largest oil field
Safaniyah
+1.6°C +2.3°C +1.2°C +1.4°C +2.0°C +1.2°C
Off-shore oil field
Figure 2: Temperature change between 2020 and 2049 compared to 1976-2005 in annual average,
median projection, more pessimistic projection and more optimistic projections
Impact on productivity and work conditions
The negative effect of high temperatures on labor productivity is widely documented.
Temperature above 35°C especially with a high humidity causes heat stress and restricts workers’
physical function and capabilities and as a result productivity. In an optimistic emission scenario
(RCP2.6), the International Labor Organization estimates that by 2030 the heat will cause
Saudi industry to lose the equivalent of 0.8% of working hours (compared to 0.3% in 1995) ix.
These losses will be higher for outdoor work, with for example 1.6% of the hours lost in
construction, and in coastal areas due to higher humidity. In addition extreme heat during work
is an occupational hazard: it increases the risk of accident and can lead to heatstrokex, xi.

As a result high temperatures add a constraint on the organization of work and can limit or even
completely eliminate outdoor interventions capabilities during heat waves. As heat stress
increases rapidly in the summer as soon as the sun risesxii, strenuous work must be carried out
early in the morning or even before sunrise. Heavy interventions that cannot be interrupted for 8
hours must be suspended during heat waves. It is notable that Saudi regulations prohibit outdoor
work between 12pm and 3pm except in the oil sectorxiii.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has also taken regulatory measures to prevent work when
temperatures exceed 50 degrees Celsius. This once rarely reached threshold is expected to
be exceeded several times a year by 2035 on the eastern coast where a large part of Saudi
Aramco's operations are located.

Figure 3: Yearly average number of days with maximum temperature of 50°C or higher between 2020 and 2050
without (left) and with (right) emissions reductions

For instance, in the Ghawar region, the country's largest oil field, the median projection indicates that
the 50°C threshold will be exceeded 2 days per year on average between 2020 and 2050 in the
baseline scenario. However, several models give a significantly higher frequency, between 6 and 10
days per year on average. A more detailed statistical study would be needed to accurately assess this
phenomenon.
Sea level rise
Origin and nature of risks
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the average rise in ocean
levels was 3.6 mm per year between 2006 and 2015. This increase is expected to continue
to reach 4 to 15 mm per year in 2100 depending on greenhouse gases emissionsxiv.

This global rise is not evenly distributed and can vary locally according to non-climatic
factors such as natural land movement, land subsidence due to extraction of underground
resources and sediment transport induced by natural or anthropogenic factors. Local data
indicate that sea levels are rising rapidly in the Persian Gulfxv and that the Saudi coasts are
vulnerable due to their low elevationxvi.

In addition to the prospect of permanent submersion, sea level rise raise more immediate
risks for coastal installations: temporary flooding, erosion, salt water intrusion and
groundwater rise... These risks are already materializing in Saudi Arabia: floods and rising
groundwater are regularly observed in Dammam Industrial City I and II, damaging roads
and building's foundationsxvii.

For oil installations, these phenomena carry risks comparable to those of floods, including
soil erosion and exposure of underground pipeline. The salt content of the water also
makes even short-term submersions particularly damaging to industrial infrastructure and
equipment.

Significant risks and costs as soon as 2030

Sea level rise is expected to be quick in the Arabic sea, where many of Saudi Aramco's
operations are located, compared to other coastal areas in the world. On the east coast of
Saudi Arabia, the most cited projectionxviii indicates an median sea level rise of 14 cm in
2030 compared to 2000 for the baseline scenario with a 90% confidence interval between
2 cm to 26 cm and a median increase of 13 cm [+4, +22] in the mitigation scenario.
Recent assessmentsxix including more accurate modeling of ice sheet behavior confirm this
order of magnitude.

The vulnerability of coastal facilities to this phenomenon depends on their elevation above
sea level. According to bias-corrected elevation dataxx, sea level rise could significantly
alter the environment of some facilities operated by Saudi Aramco. The Ras Tanura region
in particular may be largely submerged as soon as 2030, including the northern part of the
peninsula where all existing accesses, the airport and some of the company's buildings are
located. The area around the Yanbu refineries, including access roads to the south and
part of the city could also be permanently submerged. The city of Jizan faces a similar
threat.

Regarding Saudi Aramco's facilities themselves, the Ras Tanura refinery and terminal and
some of Yanbu facilities, including the Luberef site, could face temporary flooding with a
return time of about one year. Outside Saudi Arabia, the Motiva refinery in Port Arthur
(USA) and FREP in Quanzhou (China) are also exposed to more frequent flooding.

In addition to flood damage and production losses, rising sea levels will necessarily result
in significant protection and adaptation costs and higher insurance premiums for coastal
facilities.

Uncorrected elevation data tend to show much lower risks. However, these data, based on
satellite observations, frequently overestimate elevation. It would be useful to conduct
local surveys in order to accurately assess the risk and to devise an adaptation strategy.
 Flood
Origin and nature of risks
Flooding is the main natural hazard in Saudi Arabiaxxi. Despite an arid climate and the
absence of a permanent river, Saudi Arabia has many wadis. These intermittent streams
are characterized by violent floods sometimes accompanied by mudslides.

Theses hazards pose a significant risk to oil facilities and infrastructure in general. In the oil
sector, a flood risk requires the implementation of unit shutdown procedures. These
precautionary shutdowns are intended to avoid an unplanned shutdown, which would be
much more costly in terms of pollution and equipment damage: the cost of such an
incident is rarely less than $10 million. This procedure was implemented during the 2011
floods at a refinery in Yanbu, on the west coast of Saudi Arabiaxxii.

Floods are also a threat for transportation facilities. Exposed pipeline sections, including
valves, pumping stations and river crossings are particularly vulnerable. Underground
sections can also be damaged, especially if high water speed can cause soil erosion and
lead to exposure of buried pipes. This kind of accidents occurred for example in Portugal
in 2000xxiii or in Texas in 1994xxiv.

Motiva refinery in Port Arthur (USA)

Outside of Saudi Arabia, the risk of flooding is particularly high for the Port Arthur refinery, which is 100%
owned by Saudi Aramco since 2017 through its subsidiary Motiva. The refinery, the largest in North
America with a capacity of 600,000 barrels per day, was flooded in 2017xxv and 2016xxvi. The risk is
significant enough to have been taken into account in investment decisions: Motiva want to reach a
refining capacity of 1 to 1.5 million barrels per day in the United States, but the company dropped
plans to expand the Port Arthur refinery in 2018 and is looking for another sitexxvii.

Possible increase in flood risks

A study of Saudi Arabia's 50-years flood plainsxxviii allows to distinguish two
types of risk: a direct risk to the Yanbu petrochemical complex and an indirect
risk, notably to the Ras Tanura terminal and refinery, Jizan refinery and the
Riyadh refinery. The East-West Pipeline, linking Ras Tanura to Yanbu, is also likely to
be exposed to flood damage.
 Figure 4: Map of 50-year flood zones in Saudi Arabia and key sites exploited by Saudi Aramco

The Yanbu petrochemical complex on the Red Sea is bordered to the north by a flood
zone. The complex includes 3 refineries exploited by Saudi Aramco in joint-ventures with
foreign oil companies, for a total capacity of 1,200,000 barrels per day. Its operations have
already been suspended during previous floods.

The Ras Tanura and Riyadh refineries are also located near flood zones. Even without
directly threatening the facilities, floods can have an indirect impact by affecting the
infrastructure (roads, power lines, pipelines…) adjacent to these refineries. This is
particularly the case for the Ras Tanura refinery and terminal as they are located on a
peninsula whose access is partially closed by a flood zone. A new refinery in Jizan, due to
become fully operational this year, is also bordered by a flood plain on its south and east
side.

The highly irregular hydrological regime of wadis is almost entirely linked to precipitation.
As a result the evolution of flood hazards in Saudi Arabia in the context of climate change
is linked to changes in precipitation patterns, especially in the frequency and intensity of
high or prolonged rain events. An intensification of wet-season rain events has already
been registered in weather observationsxxix. Climate models show that this trend will
probably continue in Jizan area and more broadly in the Assir massif along the Red Sea
where rainfalls during the 5% wettest days are expected to increase significantly.
Projections do not give clear signal for the rest of Saudi Arabia.
Fresh water resources
Origin and nature of risks
Water is essential to the oil industry, especially at the production and refining stages. In
production, water is used to cool machines, such as drills, and evacuate sludge and debris.
Water can also be injected into wells to increase pressure and stimulate hydrocarbon
recovery, a technique that is commonly used in Saudi Arabia. Hydraulic fracturing is also
very water-intensive, Saudi Aramco has recently invested in this technique, including by
building a new desalinization plantxxx.

Roughly one ton of water is required to produce one ton of refined products. Any
restriction on the ability to draw groundwater or to desalinize seawater therefore reduce
refining capacity or requires investments in improving steam condensate recycling or even
improving efficiency of strippers.

The Saudi Arabian water-energy nexus

Due to the aridity of the climate and to limited fossil water resources, Saudi Arabia relies
on desalination plants for approximately 70% of its water consumptionxxxi. This creates a
very strong dependence between sea water desalination and hydrocarbon production:

 Desalination requires energy, usually in the form of electricity. In Saudi Arabia,

approximately two thirds of the electricity is produced from oil and one third from
natural gas. As a result, desalination plants are responsible for a large part of the
domestic oil consumptionxxxii. The availability and price of water are therefore
correlated with those of hydrocarbons.

 Oil production, on the other hand, is the country's second largest consumer of
water after agriculture. Desalinated water is also needed to cool the turbines used
in electricity generation.

This relation forms a water-energy system with a rate of energy return on energy invested
(EROEI) lower than that of the oil chain alone. It can hinder the use of techniques with low
EROEI, such as hydraulic fracturing.

According to some analysis, this system is not sustainable in the medium term: even
without taking into account the effects of climate change, Saudi oil production may not be
sufficient to meet the growth of its water needs within two decadesxxxiii. In any case, by
abandoning wheat production after decades of efforts to achieve self-sufficiencyxxxiv, Saudi
Arabia gave a clear signal of conflicting interests at play for water access and of the
priority it intend to give to industrial needs and residential sectors on agriculture.

The efficiency of the thermal power plants used to generate the electricity needed for
desalinization decreases as the temperature rises. Rising water temperatures above 30°C
and increasing salt concentrations can also degrade the efficiency of desalination plants
and increase their energy consumptionxxxv, xxxvi. Assuming unchanged technology, global
warming should therefore lead to an increase in the amount of energy needed to produce
desalinated water and a deterioration of the efficiency of the Saudi water-energy system.
Projected changes in precipitations and aridity
Climate change is expected to result on average in increased rainfall in Saudi Arabia with
local declines in coastal regions and the north of the country.

Figure 5: Change in yearly precipitations between 2020 and 2049 compared to 1976-2005 (mm/m².year)
without (left) and with (right) emissions reduction

However, the increase of temperature and therefore evaporation is projected to

compensate the increase in precipitation. According to climate models, without emissions
reductions, aridity should increase almost everywhere in Saudi Arabia between 2020 and
2050. In the mitigation scenario, aridity is projected to increase in the northern half of the
country and along the Red Sea.

Figure 6: Change in the Martonne aridity index between 2020 and 2049 compared to 1976-2005
without (left) and with (right) emissions reduction

As a result, the surface water resource is expected to decline in both quantity and
qualityxxxvii. This trend could contribute to increased water stress and conflicts of use.
However, given the small share of surface water in Saudi consumption, its direct effects on
Saudi Aramco's activity in the country should be limited.
 Conclusion
This preliminary screening shows that climate change is going to be a significant challenge
over the course of the next two decades for Saudi Aramco. Rising temperatures and
extreme events, mostly floods, have the potential to damage facilities and reduce their
availability and yields especially in refining. Extreme heat may become disruptive for
workers and equipments alike. Competition for the access to fresh water and sea level rise
will probably create additional costs and may limit the company future development.

Production Refining
Ghawar Safaniyah Ras Tanura Yanbu Port Arthur
Reserves : Reserves : Capacity : Capacité : Capacité :
58 billion barrels 34 billions barrels 550 000 barrels/d 1,200,000barrels/d 600 000 barrels/d
Working Medium Medium
High exposure High exposure Low exposure
conditions exposure exposure
Temperature

Plants Medium Medium Medium Medium

Low exposure
availabilty exposure exposure exposure exposure
Plants Exposition Exposition Medium
High exposure High exposure
efficiency modérée modérée exposure
Plants Medium Medium
Low exposure Low exposure High exposure
availability exposure exposure
Rainfall

Fresh water No direct

High exposure High exposure High exposure High exposure
availability exposure
Damage to No direct No direct Medium Medium
High exposure
Sea level rise

coastal facilities exposure exposure exposure exposure

Permanent No direct No direct
High exposure High exposure Low exposure
submersion exposure exposure
Figure 7 : Climate risks exposure for Saudi Aramso's key assets

This report also identifies gaps in currently available information and needs for further
research. In particular, it would be useful to:

 Map safe operating temperatures for production, transport and refining

equipments in order to identify, and potentially adapt, the processes that are the
most likely to be disrupted by rising temperature,
 Assess more precisely the frequency and magnitude of future extreme rain events
and heat waves,
 Conduct local elevation surveys to evaluate the vulnerability of coastal facilities and
evaluate the feasibility and cost to protect them against sea level rise,
 Assess the level of convergence of models and tails of probability in order to
identify less likely but potentially more damaging events,
 Expand the study to indirect risks that could affect Saudi Aramco, for example,
through its stakeholders or regional instability.
We believe that addressing these gaps would help determining Saudi Aramco long-term
value. In addition, it may prove beneficial for the company as it would give it a chance to
start adapting its operation to future climate change impacts.
Methodological annex
Unless otherwise specified, the values presented in this report are the median projections
computed from a sample of 7 datasets from the CORDEX experiment. These projections
are made by combining two models: a general climate model (GCM), which simulates
global climate change based on the chosen emissions scenario, and a regional climate
model (RCM), which provides a better spatial resolution. The spatial resolution of the
projections used is 0.44 degrees, or about 50km.

The following datasets were used:

GCM RCM Time step

CNRM-CERFACS-CM5 SMHI-RCA4 Daily
IPSL-CMA5-MR SMHI-RCA4 Daily
MIROC-MIROC5 SMHI-RCA4 Daily
MOHC-HadGEM2-ES SMHI-RCA4 Daily
NCC-NorESM1-1 SMHI-RCA4 Daily
NOAA-GFDL-ESM2M SMHI-RCA4 Daily
QCCCE-CSIRO-Mk3-6-0 SMHI-RCA4 Daily

The use of multiple models is aimed at reducing the uncertainty associated with modeling
imperfections. The median is preferred to the average as it is less affected by outliers and
skewed data. When necessary, extremes projections were mentioned to give an order of
magnitude of the uncertainties.
Two emission scenarios from the IPCC's 5th report were used to take into account the
uncertainty about future actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:
 The RCP8.5 scenario ("baseline scenario") representative of a continuation of
current emissions growth without additional efforts to constrain them resulting in a
CO2 concentration of more than 1370 ppm in 2100 (compared to about 280 in
1750).
 The RCP4.5 scenario ("mitigation scenario") which leads to a stabilization of the
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere around 650 ppm in 2100 and implies
significant efforts to transform energy systems, land use and the global economy.

The values presented in this report are averages over a 30-year period (January 1, 1976 -
December 31, 2005 for the reference period, January 1, 2020 - December 31, 2049 for
projections). This long period is intended to limit uncertainties related to natural climate
variability.
Bibliography:

Giorgi & al. (2009). Addressing climate information needs at the regional level: the
CORDEX framework. WMO Bulletin.

Hawkins & al. (2010). The potential to narrow uncertainty in projections of regional
precipitation change. Climate Dynamics

Kreienkamp & al. (2012). Good practice for the usage of climate model simulation results -
a discussion paper. Environmental Systems Research.
i
Financial Times. (04/11/2019). Wall St banks give Saudi Aramco vast valuation range. [available online]
ii
Callendar. (29 décembre 2017). Adaptation et vulnérabilité climatique : Houston face à l'ouragan Harvey. [available online]
iii
Udie, J. & al. (2018). A Conceptual Framework for Vulnerability Assessment of Climate Change Impact on Critical Oil and Gas Infrastructure
in the Niger Delta. Climate, 6, 11; doi:10.3390/cli6010011
iv
Udie, J. & al. (2018). A Conceptual Framework for Vulnerability Assessment of Climate Change Impact on Critical Oil and Gas Infrastructure
in the Niger Delta. Climate, 6, 11; doi:10.3390/cli6010011
v
Karimi, A. & al. (2009). Selective dehydration of high-pressure natural gas using supersonic nozzles.Chem. Eng. Process. 48, 560–568.
vi
Al Arabiya. (23/07/2017). Saudi refinery operations not affected by transformer fire. [available online]
vii
Pal, J. & al. (2016). Future temperature in southwest Asia projected to exceed a threshold for human adaptability. Nature Climate Change,
vol. 6. [available online]
viii
Almazroui, M. & al. (2013). Urbanization effects on the air temperature rise in Saudi Arabia. Climatic Change 120: 109.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0796-2
ix
International Labour Organization. (2019). Increase in heat stress predicted to bring productivity loss equivalent to 80 million jobs.
[available online]
x
Joshi, S. & al. (2011).Health problems of Nepalese migrants working in three Gulf countries. BMC International Health and Human Rights
volume 11. [available online]
xi
Noweir, M. A. & al. (2008). Study of summer heat exposure at the ground services operations of a main international airport in Saudi
Arabia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Volume 145, Issue 1–3, pp 103–111
xii
Al-Bouwarthan, M. & al. (2019). Assessment of Heat Stress Exposure among Construction Workers in the Hot Desert Climate of Saudi
Arabia. Annals of Work Exposures and Health, Volume 63, Issue 5, June 2019, Pages 505–520. [available online]
xiii
BBC. (15/06/2014). Saudi Arabia law to protect outdoor workers from sun. [available online]
xiv
IPCC. (2019). Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. [available online]
xv
Ayhan, M. & al. (2009). Sea level rise within the west of Arabian Gulf using tide gauge and continuous GPS measurements. Geophysical
Research Abstracts. 11.
xvi
Suresh Babu, D.S. (2011). Need for adaptation strategy against global sea level rise: an example from Saudi coast of Arabian gulf. Mitig
Adapt Strateg Glob Change 17:821–836
xvii
Suresh Babu, D.S. (2011). Need for adaptation strategy against global sea level rise: an example from Saudi coast of Arabian gulf. Mitig
Adapt Strateg Glob Change 17:821–836
xviii
Kopp, R. & al.(2014). Probabilistic 21st and 22nd century sea‐level projections at a global network of tide‐gauge sites.Earth Future
Volume2, Issue8 Pages 383-406 [available online]
xix
Kopp, R. & al.(2017). Evolving Understanding of Antarctic Ice‐Sheet Physics and Ambiguity in Probabilistic Sea‐Level Projections. Earth
Future Volume5, Issue12 Pages 1217-1233. [available online]
xx
Kulp, S. & al. (2019). New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding. Nature
Communications volume 10, Article number: 4844. [available online]
xxi
Alamri, Y. (2010). Emergency Management in Saudi Arabia: Past, Present and Future. Comparative Emergency Management:
understanding disaster policies, organizations and initiatives from around the world. Federal Emergency Management Agency. [available
online]
xxii
Bloomberg. (02/02/2011). Saudi Aramco says Jeddah refinery not affected by heavy floods. [available online]
xxiii
Cruz, A.M. & al. (2013). Vulnerability of the oil and gas sector to climate change and extreme weather events. Climatic Change 121:41–53
xxiv
National Transportation Safety Board. (1996). Pipeline Special Investigation Report: Evaluation of Pipeline Failures during Flooding and of
Spill Response Actions, San Jacinto River near Houston, Texas, October 1994 (PB96-917004, NTSB/SIR-96/04).
xxv
CNBC. (30/08/2017). Motiva shuts Port Arthur Texas refinery due to flooding. [available online]
xxvi
Reuters. (18/08/2016). Exxon, Motiva refineries continue reduced operations amid floods. [available online]
xxvii
Reuters. (04/06/2018). Exclusive: Hurricane worries prompt refiner Motiva to shift expansion plans. [available online]
xxviii
EC Joint Research Centre. (2018). Saudi Arabia - Flood Hazard 50 yr Return Period. [available online]
xxix
Subyani, A. M. & al. (2016). Rainfall analysis in the context of climate change for Jeddah area, Western Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci 9: 122.
xxx
Bloomberg. (29/04/2019). Saudi Aramco Sees Shale Gas as Kingdom's Next Energy Bonanza. [available online]
xxxi
Rambo, K. A. & al. (2017). Water-Energy Nexus in Saudi Arabia. Energy Procedia 105: 3837–3843 [available online]
xxxii
Ali Mahmoud, M.S. & al. (2013). Water-demand management in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for enhancement environment. Comp Eng
Intel Syst, 4, pp. 26-49
xxxiii
Rambo, K. A. & al. (2017). Water-Energy Nexus in Saudi Arabia. Energy Procedia 105: 3837–3843 [available online]
xxxiv
World Grain. (18/03/2016). Saudi Arabia ends domestic wheat production program. [available online]
xxxv
Wilf, M. & al. (2005). Optimization of seawater RO systems design. Desalination Volume 173, Issue 1, 1 Pages 1-12. [available online]
xxxvi
Suresh Babu, D.S. (2011). Need for adaptation strategy against global sea level rise: an example from Saudi coast of Arabian gulf. Mitig
Adapt Strateg Glob Change 17:821–836
xxxvii
Chowdhury, S. & al. (2013). Implications of Climate Change on Water Resources in Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal for Science and
Engineering, Volume 38, Issue 8, pp 1959–1971.
 Authors
Thibault Laconde is the CEO and founder of Callendar, a Paris-based startup
leveraging open data to assess current and future impacts of climate change
and help companies reduce their vulnerabilities.

Before he specialized in climate change risks mitigation, he worked as an

analyst for the French ministry of Defense then in natural disaster and
humanitarian emergency response. He holds a master's degree in political
Contact mail  science (Paris Sorbonne) and graduated from Supelec, an engineering school
where he has been in charge of the "climate transition" lecture since 2017.

Francis d'Auriac, graduated from Centrale Paris and MIT, has held a wide
range of responsibilities in the oil and gas sector: process engineering, energy
consumption optimization, automation, management control, wholesale sale
and purchase and logistics of petroleum products, electricity and natural gas…
In particular he served as CFO of a Total-Aramco joint venture, CEO of
cogeneration profit center and senior VP for biomass strategy of Total. He has
founded Energie Conseil Plus in 2016, consultant for projects and business
Contact mail  developers and investors on improving energy efficiency, introducing
renewable energies and developing multi-energy multi-stakeholder smart
grid projects.

Contact :
[email protected]
www.callendar.climint.com