UNIT 1 1.3.

1 Physical Work Systems

As a physical entity, a work system is a system
INTRODUCTION TO WORK STUDY AND WORK
consisting of humans, information, and equipment
MEASUREMENT
that is designed to perform useful work, as illustrated
Overview in Figure 1.2. The result of the useful work is a
contribution to the production of a product or the
Nearly all of us have to work during our lives. We reach delivery of a service.
adulthood and seek employment, and then we work for the
next 30-50 years. Work is our primary means of livelihood. It
serves an important economic function in the global world of
commerce. It creates opportunities for social interactions and
friendships. And it provides the products and services that
sustain and improve our standard of living.

This unit examines the principles and programs that allow work
to be performed most efficiently and safely, and it discusses the
techniques used to measure and manage work. The common
denominator in the analysis, design, and measurement of work
is time.

DISCUSSION 1.3.1 Physical Work Systems

1.1 The Nature of Work Examples of work systems include the following:
Work is defined as an activity in which a person exerts
• A worker operating a production machine in a factory
physical and mental effort to accomplish a given task or
• An assembly line consisting of a dozen workers at
perform a duty. The task or duty has some useful
separate workstations along a moving conveyor
objectives. It may involve one or more steps in making a
• A robotic spot-welding line in an automobile final
product or delivering a service. The worker performing the
assembly plant performing spot welding operations
task must apply certain skills and knowledge to complete
on sheet metal car bodies
the task or duty successfully.
• A receptionist in an office directing visitors to
There is usually a commercial value in the work activity,
personnel in the office and answering incoming
and the worker is compensated for performing it. By
telephone calls
commercial value, we mean that the task or duty
contributes to the buying and selling of something (e.g., a A work system can include one or more human workers. It can
product or service), which ultimately provides the means also include automated systems that operate for extended
of paying for the work. Work is also performed in periods of time without human attention. Sooner or later,
government, but its value is surely measured on a scale automated systems require the attention of human workers for
other than commercial. purposes of maintenance or reprogramming or other reasons.
1.2 The Pyramidal Structure of Work
A work system can include one or more human workers. It can
also include automated systems that operate for extended
periods of time without human attention. Sooner or later,
automated systems require the attention of human workers for
purposes of maintenance or reprogramming or other reasons.

1.3.2 Work Systems as a Field of Professional Practice

As a field of professional practice, work systems
include:
A. Work methods
Work consists of tasks. A task is an amount of work that is B. Work measurement
assigned to a worker or for which a worker is responsible. C. Work Management
The task can be repetitive (as in a repetitive operation in
mass production) or nonrepetitive (performed
periodically, infrequently, or only once). A. Work methods
A task can be divided into its constituent activities, which The term work science is often used for this
form the pyramidal structure shown in figure 1.1. professional practice. The field of work methods
Just as a task can be divided into its component activities consists of the analysis and design of tasks and jobs
(work elements each consisting of multiple basic motion involving human work activity. Terms related to work
elements), the typical job of a worker is likely to consist of methods include operations analysis and methods
more than one task. Thus, the job adds a next higher level engineering.
to the existing pyramid.
The term motion study is also used, but its scope is
1.3 Defining Work Systems usually limited to the physical motions, tools, and
A work system can be defined as workplace layout used by a worker to perform a task.
1. a physical entity and
2. a field of professional practice. B. Work measurement
Work measurement is the analysis of a task to
Both definitions are useful in studying the way work is determine the time that should be allowed for a
accomplished. qualified worker to perform the task. The time thus
determined is called the standard time. Among its
many applications, the standard time can be used to
compute product costs, assess worker performance,
 and determine worker requirements (e.g., how many purchased a computerized title search system that will
workers are needed to accomplish a given workload). allow the processing of 14 titles per day. Although the
staff, their works hours, and pay will be same, the
Because of its emphasis on time, work measurement overheads expenses are now $ 800 per day. Compute the
is often referred to as time study. Time study covers labor productivity.
any and all work situations in which it is necessary to
determine how long it takes to accomplish a given
unit of work, whether the work unit is concerned with
the production of a product or the delivery of a
service.

Time is important because it equates to money ("time

is money." as the saying goes), and money is a limited
resource that must he well managed in any
organization. Example 2 Labor Productivity
A company that processes fruits and vegetables is able to
C. Work Management produce 400 cases of canned peaches in one half hour
Work management refers to the various with four workers. What is the labor productivity?
organizational and administrative functions that must
he accomplished to achieve high productivity of the
work system and effective supervision of workers.

Work management includes functions such as

• Organizing workers to perform the specialized tasks
that constitute the workload in each department of Example 3 Labor Productivity
the company or other organization Academia Co. is firm that accepts typing jobs with staff
• Motivating workers to perform the tasks members of 4, each working 8 hours per day. If the firm
• Evaluating the jobs in the organization so that each can finish 8 jobs per day, what is the labor productivity?
worker is paid an appropriate wage or salary
commensurate with the type of work performed.
• Appraising the performance of workers to reward
betterperforming workers appropriately, and
compensating workers using a rational payment
system for the work they perform.

1.4 Productivity Multi-factor productivity is defined by the following ratio. This

Productivity is defined as the level of output of a given type of productivity is expressed in units per dollar.
process relative to the level of input. The term process can Example 4 Multifactor Productivity
refer to an individual production or service operation, or it Collins Little Company has a stuff of 4, each working 8
can be used in the context of a national economy. hours per day (for a payroll cost of $ 640/day) and
overhead expenses of $ 400 / day. Collins processes and
Productivity is an important metric in work systems closes on 8 titles each day. The company recently
because improving productivity is the means by which purchased a computerized title search system that will
worker compensation can be increased without increasing allow the processing of 14 titles per day. Although the
the costs of the products and services they produce. This staff, their works hours, and pay will be same, the
leads to more products and services at lower prices for overheads expenses are now $ 800 per day. Compute
consumers, which improves the standard of living for all. multifactor productivity.

The general formula for productivity is

Productivity measures can be classified as single factor Example 5 Multifactor Productivity

productivity measures (relating a measure of output to a A wrapping paper company produced 2,000 rolls of paper
single measure of input, e.g. labor productivity) or one day. Standard price is $1/roll. Labor cost was $ 160,
multifactor productivity measures (relating a measure of material cost was $ 50, and overhead was $ 320.
output to a bundle of inputs, e.g. multifactor productivity Determine the multifactor productivity.

The most common single factor productivity measure is

labor productivity, defined by the following ratio:

1.4.1 Productive Work Content

Example 1 Labor Productivity
In general, the task is associated with the production
Collins Little Company has a stuff of 4, each working 8
of a product or the delivery of a service. The basic
hours per day (for a payroll cost of $ 640/day) and
productive work content is the theoretical minimum
overhead expenses of $ 400 / day. Collins processes and
amount of work required to accomplish the task,
closes on 8 titles each day. The company recently
 where the amount of work is expressed in terms of
time. Thus, the time required to perform the basic
productive work content is the theoretical minimum.
It cannot be further reduced.

The excess non-productive activities in the task are

the extra physical and mental actions performed by
the worker that do not add any value to the task, nor
do they facilitate the productive work content that
does add value.

The excess non-productive activities take time, They

add to the basic productive work content time to
make up the total time needed to perform the task.
2. Fish Diagrams
The excess non-productive activities can be classified
Fish diagrams, also known as cause-and-effect
into three categories, as illustrated in the time line in
diagrams, were developed by Ishikawa in the early
Figure 1.3:
1950s while he was working on a quality control
project for Kawasaki Steel Company. The method
consists of defining an occurrence of a typically
undesirable event or problem, that is, the effect, as
the “fish head” and then identifying contributing
factors, that is, the causes, as “fish bones” attached to
a backbone and the fish head.
3. Histograms
Histogram is a statistical graph consisting of bars
representing different members of a population, in
UNIT 2 which the length of each bar indicates the frequency
or relative frequency of each member.
BASIC DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS TOOLS

OVERVIEW

A good methods engineering program will follow an orderly

process, starting from the selection of the project and ending
with the implementation of the project. The first, and perhaps
most crucial, step—whether designing a new work center or
improving an existing operation—is the identification of the
problem in a clear and logical form. This unit provides a variety
of such problem-solving tools and its specific applications.
A useful tool because the analyst can quickly visualize
DISCUSSION the features of the data, such as:
Data collection and analysis tools are defined as a series of – Shape of the distribution
charts, maps, and diagrams designed to collect, interpret, and – Any central tendency in the distribution
present data for a wide range of applications and industries. – Approximations of the mean and mode
Various programs and methodologies have been developed for – Amount of scatter in the data
use in nearly any industry, ranging from manufacturing and 4. Graphs
quality assurance to research groups and data collection Graphs are simple tools for organizing, summarizing
companies. and visual display of statistical data. It shows
information quickly without looking at the actual
1. Pareto Analysis data.
In Pareto analysis, items of interest are identified and Circle Graph (Pie Chart):
measured on a common scale and then are ordered in To show the percentage contribution of the elements
descending order, as a cumulative distribution. of a population
Typically, 20 percent of the ranked items account for
80 percent or more of the total activity; consequently,
the technique is sometimes called the 80-20 rule.
For example, 80 percent of the total inventory is
found in only 20 percent of the inventory items, or 20
percent of the jobs account for approximately 80
percent of the accidents (Figure 2.1), or 20 percent of
the jobs account for 80 percent of the workers’
compensation costs. Conceptually, the methods
analyst concentrates the greatest effort on the few
jobs that produce most of the problems.
 Line Graph • To be used only when both items being measured can
To show changes across time; when measuring be measured together, in pairs
several different items, to show how they change
relative to one another; when measuring progress
towards a goal, to show the relative improvement

UNIT 3

CHARTING AND DIAGRAMMING TECHNIQUES FOR

OPERATIONS ANALYSIS
5. Check Sheet:
OVERVIEW

Charting and diagramming techniques are useful for analyzing

a work process because they graphically illustrate and
summarize the activities in that process. Pertinent factual
information— such as the production quantity, delivery
schedules, operational times, facilities, machine capacities,
special materials, and special tools—may have an important
bearing on the solution of the problem, and such information
A manual data gathering and data organizing tool. needs to be recorded.
Check sheet is used when:
Once the facts are presented clearly and accurately, they are
• data is to be recorded manually while ensuring that it
examined critically, so that the most practical, economical, and
is accurate and is easy to use later, either for direct
effective method can be defined and installed. This unit
interpretation or for transcription
discusses the important charting and diagramming techniques
• recording involves counting, classifying, checking or
used in methods engineering and operations analysis.
locating
• it is useful to check each measurement as it is DISCUSSION
recorded, for example that it is within normal bounds
Methods Study
• it is useful to see the distribution of measures as they
are built up A systematic recording of existing and proposed ways of doing
in order to simplify the job. Method study enables the
industrial engineer to subject each operation to systematic
6. Defect Concentration Diagram: analysis. The main purpose of method study is to eliminate the
Defect Concentration Diagram is a drawing of the unnecessary operations and to achieve the best method of
product (all relevant views), onto which the locations performing the operation.
and frequencies of various defect types are added.
Method study is also called methods engineering or work
This is useful for analyzing the causes of product or
design. Method study is essentially concerned with finding
part defects and. By analyzing the defect types and
better ways of doing things. It adds value and increases the
corresponding locations, the underlying causes of the
efficiency by eliminating unnecessary operations, avoidable
defects can possibly be identified.
delays and other forms of waste. The improvement in
An example defect concentration diagram is shown
efficiency is achieved through:
below.
a. improvement of procedures
b. improvement of layout
c. reduction of human fatigue
d. improvement in the use of materials,
machines, and labor e. improvement in
physical workplace

Steps in Methods Study

The basic approach to method study consists of the following

7. Scatter Diagrams: four steps. The detailed procedure for conducting the method
Scatter diagram is a graph that shows the strength of study is shown in the following figure.
relationship between two sets of variables, say x and
y. The relationship is expressed in terms of
correlation. Scatter diagrams are used when:
• it is suspected that the variation of two items is
connected in some way, to show any actual
correlation between the two
• it is suspected that one item may be causing another,
to build evidence for the connection between the two
 • • Used to represent
▪ Work elements in assembly line balancing
▪ Work activities in CPM and PERT
• Two-way flows (movement of materials): Maximum
number of arrows = n(n -1)
• One-way arrows (precedence):
Maximum number of arrows = 𝑛(𝑛−1)/2

Example: critical path method (CPM) network diagram used in

project scheduling

SELECT the work to be studied and define its boundaries. Select

the project to be studied –consider

o economic considerations –“bottleneck” 2. Traditional IE Charts and Diagrams

operations, medical costs, long distances The operation process chart shows the chronological
o technical considerations –rework, quality sequence of all operations, inspections, time
issues allowances, and materials used in a manufacturing or
o human factors –medical injuries, repetitive business process, from the arrival of raw material to
work, worker experiences the packaging of the finished product. The chart
o using exploratory tools –Pareto Analysis, depicts the entrance of all components and
Fishbone Diagram, Gantt Chart e. using subassemblies to the main assembly.
general Job/Worksite Analysis Guide

RECORD the relevant facts about the job by direct observation

and collect such additional data as may be needed from
appropriate sources.

EXAMINE the way the job is being performed and challenge its
purpose, place sequence and method of performance.

DEVELOP the most practical, economic and effective method,

drawing on the contributions of those concerned.

Record the present method using a chart.

1. Charts indicating sequence (order) but not time

o operation (outline) process chart

o flow process chart
o two-hand process chart

2. Charts using a time scale (interaction of events shown

better)

o Multiple activity chart (worker-machine

Operation process chart
chart, gang chart)
Just as a blueprint displays such design details as fits,
o Simo(simultaneous motion) chart
tolerances, and specifications, the operation process
o operator process (two-hand process) chart
chart gives manufacturing and business details at a
3. Diagrams indicating movement glance. Two symbols are used in constructing the
operation process chart: a small circle denotes an
o flow (string) diagram operation, and a small square denotes an inspection.
o travel chart An operation takes place when a part being studied is
o chronocyclegraph, motion analysis (Vision intentionally transformed or when it is being studied
3000) or planned prior to productive work being performed
Categories of Charts and Diagrams on it. An inspection takes place when the part is being
examined to determine its conformity to a standard.
1. Network Diagrams consist of: Vertical lines indicate the general flow of the process
• Nodes representing operations, work elements, or as work is accomplished, while horizontal lines
other entities. feeding into the vertical flow lines indicate material,
• Arrows connecting the nodes indicating relationships either purchased or worked on during the process.
among the nodes. Parts are shown as entering a vertical line for
▪ Direction of work flow between nodes assembly or leaving a vertical line for disassembly.
▪ Precedence among nodes
 Materials that are disassembled or extracted are lines, indicating the movement of the material from one
represented by horizontal material lines drawn to the activity to the next. A pictorial representation of the layout of
right of the vertical flow line, while assembly floors and buildings, showing the locations of all activities on
materials are shown as horizontal lines drawn to the the flow process chart, is a flow diagram.
left of the vertical flow line. A typical completed
When constructing a flow diagram, analysts identify each
operation process chart illustrating the manufacture
activity by symbols and numbers corresponding to those
of telephone stands is shown in Figure 3.1.
appearing on the flow process chart. The direction of flow is
Process Charts. indicated by placing small arrows periodically along the flow
lines. The flow diagram is a helpful supplement to the flow
In general, the flow process chart contains considerably greater
process chart because it indicates backtracking and possible
detail than the operation process chart. Consequently, it is not
traffic congestion areas, and it facilitates developing an ideal
usually applied to entire assemblies but rather for each
plant layout.
component of an assembly. The flow process chart is especially
valuable in recording nonproduction hidden costs, such as
distances traveled, delays, and temporary storages. Once these
nonproduction periods are highlighted analysts can take steps
to minimize them and hence their costs.

In addition to recording operations and inspections, flow

process charts show all the moves and storage delays
encountered by an item as it goes through the plant. Flow
process charts therefore need several symbols in addition to
the operation and inspection symbols used in operation
process charts. The five symbols (see Figure 3.2) are the
standard set of process chart symbols (ASME, 1974). Several
other nonstandard symbols may sometimes be utilized for
clerical or paperwork operations and for combined operations,
as shown in Figure 3.3.

Activity Charts

Activity charts are listing of activities of one or more subjects

(e.g., workers, machines) plotted against a time scale to
indicate graphically how much time is spent on each activity.
These activities are generally repetitive. Types of activity
charts:

• Right-hand/left-hand activity chart (a.k.a. workplace

activity chart)
• Worker-machine activity chart
• Gang activity chart (a.k.a. multiworker activity chart)

Instead of using symbols for the work activities, as in the other

charts, the activities are indicated by vertical lines or bars.
PROCESS CHART When bars are used, they are shaded or colored to indicate the
kind of the activity being performed.
This tool facilitates the elimination or reduction of the hidden
costs of a component. Since the flowchart clearly shows all
transportations, delays, and storages, the information it
provides can lead to a reduction of both the quantity and
duration of these elements. Also, since distances are recorded
on the flow process chart, the chart is exceptionally valuable in
showing how the layout of a plant can be improved.

Flow Diagram

Although the flow process chart gives most of the pertinent

information related to a manufacturing process, it does not
show a pictorial plan of the flow of work. Sometimes this
Activity charts usually have more than one time scale e.g.,
information is helpful in developing a new method. For
activity time and cumulative time
example, before a transportation can be shortened, the analyst
needs to see or visualize where room can be made to add a
facility so that the transportation distance can be shortened.

Likewise, it is helpful to visualize potential temporary and

permanent storage areas, inspection stations, and work points.
The best way to provide this information is to take an existing
drawing of the plant areas involved and then sketch in the flow
 Gang activity chart.

Right-hand/left-hand activity chart. The gang process chart is, in a sense, an adaptation of the
worker and machine chart. A worker and machine process
The Left and Right Hand Chart is a process chart in which the chart helps determine the most economical number of
activities of a worker’s hands (or limbs) are recorded in their machines one worker can operate.
relationship to one another. It is a specialized form of process
chart because it shows the two hands (and sometimes the feet) However, several processes and facilities are of such
of the operative moving or static in relation to one another, magnitude that instead of one worker operating several
usually in relation to a time scale. machines, several workers are needed to operate one machine
effectively. The gang process chart shows the exact relationship
One advantage of incorporating a time scale in the chart form between the idle and operating cycles of the machine and the
is that the symbols for what the two hands are doing at any idle and operating times per cycle of the workers who service
given moment are brought opposite each other. The two- that machine. This chart reveals the possibilities for
handed process chart is generally used for repetitive improvement by reducing both idle operator time and idle
operations, when one complete cycle of the work is to be machine time.
recorded

Worker-machine activity chart.

The worker and machine activity chart is used to study, analyze,

and improve one workstation at a time. The chart shows the
exact time relationship between the working cycle of the
person and the operating cycle of the machine. These facts can
lead to a fuller utilization of both worker and machine time,
and a better balance of the work cycle.

The completed worker and machine process chart clearly

shows the areas in which both idle machine time and idle
worker time occur (see figure 3.10). These areas are generally
a good place to start in effecting improvements. However, the
analyst must also compare the cost of the idle machine with
that of the idle worker. It is only when total cost is considered
that the analyst can safely recommend one method over
another

3. Block diagrams and process maps

Block Diagram is a graphic consisting mostly of blocks
and arrows to portray the relationships among
components of a physical system. It is a graphical
representation of a system – it provides a functional
view of a system. Block diagrams give us a better
understanding of a system’s functions and help create
interconnections within it.
 Block diagrams derive their name from the
rectangular elements found in this type of diagram.
They are used to describe hardware and software
systems as well as to represent processes. Block
diagrams are described and defined according to their
function and structure as well as their relationship
with other blocks.
Block diagrams are generally used when the Cross-functional process map – block diagram showing how
visualization of information or control flows is the steps of a process are accomplished by various
important – or when processes are involved. In this departments (see figure 3. 16)
way we can represent complex algorithms or flows of
• Departments listed as rows separated by dashed lines
information or communication among individual
• Also called a swim-lane chart
components within a large system as with, for
example, in a facility designed for mass production. A
graphical representation is often easier to understand
than a textual representation. An example of a block
diagram is shown in figure 3.13.

Process Maps
A process is a sequence of tasks that add value to
inputs to produce outputs. Basic process map is a
block diagram showing the steps in a process (see
figure 3.14). UNIT 4

MOTION STUDY AND WORK DESIGN

OVERVIEW

This unit focuses on the traditional industrial engineering

topics of motion study and work design. The traditional
approaches in motion study and work design are based on the
findings of researchers such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the
Process map symbols: early part of the twentieth century (Historical Note 1.1). The
(a) beginning/ending point of the process, approaches include common sense “principles of motion
(b) task or activity step, economy” that are used to simplify and improve the efficiency
(c) decision point Symbols are connected by arrows to and effectiveness of manual work. Today, these principles are
indicate sequence widely used not only by industrial engineers but also by
workers themselves who in recent years are increasingly being
given greater responsibility for designing their own work
methods.

DISCUSSION

Motion study involves the analysis of the basic hand, arm, and
Process Maps
body movements of workers as they perform work. Work
Process maps are widely applied to business
design involves the methods and motions used to perform a
processes. Also applicable to production, logistics,
task. This design includes the workplace layout and
and service operations Levels of detail: High-level
environment as well as the tooling and equipment (e.g., work
process map – macroscopic view of process and
holders, fixtures, hand tools, portable power tools, and
includes only the most important steps
machine tools). In short, work design is the design of the work
Low-level process map – used to map each of the
system. Work design is commonly associated with manual
steps in a high-level process map
work, the type of work done in production and logistics.
Alternative Forms of Process Maps
Basic Motion Elements
Relationship process map – block diagram that shows the
As indicated on the pyramidal structure of work, any manual
input-output connections among departments (or other
task is composed of work elements, and the work elements can
functional components) of an organization (see figure 3. 15)
be further subdivided into basic motion elements. In this
section, we define the basic motion elements and how they
can be used to analyze work.
Therbligs

Frank Gilbreth was the first to catalog the basic motion

elements. He called each motion a therblig (Gilbreth spelled
backward except for the “th”).Watch the movie “Frank & Lillian
Gilbreth” at https://youtu.be/ZsQ7KPO6DOw. A list of
Gilbreth’s 17 therbligs is presented in Table 4.1 along with the
letter symbol he used for each as well as a brief description.
Therbligs are the basic building blocks of virtually all manual
work performed at a single workplace and consisting primarily
of hand motions. The therbligs in a manual task can be classified in several ways
that are useful in analyzing the work cycle. One possible
Therbligs are relatively few in number, but they are performed classification is shown in Table 4.2, in which therbligs are
over and over, often in very similar sequences, during a given classified (1) as to their physical or mental emphasis and (2)
task. For example, a common hand motion sequence in whether they are effective or ineffective. Methods analysis at
repetitive assembly work is to reach for a part in the work area, the therblig level seeks to eliminate or reduce ineffective
grasp it, move and position it, and then release it. This therbligs.
sequence may be repeated many times in a work cycle,
depending on how many parts are assembled in the cycle. Work Analysis Using Therbligs
Therbligs include mental elements as well as physical therblig represents time and energy expended by a worker to
elements. perform a task. If the task is repetitive, of relatively short
1. Transport empty (TE) – reach for an object with duration, and will be performed many times, it may be
empty hand – today we call it “reach” appropriate to analyze the therbligs that make up the work
2. Grasp (G) – grasp an object by contacting and closing cycle as part of the work design process.
the fingers until control has been achived The term micromotion analysis is sometimes used for this type
3. Transport loaded (TL) – move an object with hand of analysis. For example, the activities of the right and left
and arm – today we call it “move” hands when performing a manual task can be specified in
4. Hold (H) – hold an object with one hand terms of therbligs. Figure 4.1 illustrates this kind of analysis.
5. Release load (RL) – release control of an object The following general objectives are involved in micromotion
6. Use (U) – manipulate/use a tool (use screwdriver or analysis:
hammer)
7. Pre-position (PP) – position object for next operation.
8. Position (P) – position object in defined location
9. Assemble (A) – join two parts
10. Disassemble (DA) – separate multiple parts that were
previously joined
11. Search (Sh) – attempt to find an object using eyes or
hand
12. Select (St) – choose among several objects in a group
(hand-eye coordination is involved)
13. Plan (Pn) – decide on an action (a short pause or
hesitation ‫ تردد‬in the motions)
14. Inspect (I) – determine quality of object using the
eyes
15. Unavoidable delay (UD) – waiting due to factors
beyond worker control (e.g., waiting for a machine to • Eliminate therbligs that are ineffective if possible: for
complete its feed motion) example, eliminate the need to search for parts or tools by
16. Avoidable delay (AD) – worker waiting (e.g., use the positioning them in a known and fixed location in the
mobile) workplace.
17. Rest (R) – resting to overcome fatigue • Avoid the use of a hand for holding parts; use a work holder
instead.

• Combine therbligs where possible; for example, perform

right-hand and lefthand motions simultaneously.

• Simplify the overall method; for example, resequence

therbligs in the cycle.

• Reduce the time required for the motion; for example,

shorten distances of therbligs such as transport empty and
transport loaded.

Principles of Motion Economy and Work Design

The principles of motion economy have been developed over

many years of practical experience in work design. They are
guidelines that can be used to help determine the work
method, workplace layout, tools, and equipment that will
maximize the efficiency and minimize the fatigue of the worker.

The principles of motion economy can be organized into three

categories:
 • Principles that apply to the use of the human body The reason behind this principle is that the straight-
• Principles that apply to the workplace arrangement line path sequence includes start and stop actions
• Principles that apply to the design of tooling and (accelerations and decelerations) that consume the
equipment worker’s time and energy.
Motions consisting of smooth continuous curves
Principles that apply to the use of the human body
minimize the lost time in starts and stops.
The principles of motion economy that are related to the use 6. Use momentum to facilitate task
of the human body can be used to design the most appropriate When carpenters strike a nail with a hammer, they are
methods and motions of the human worker in performing a using momentum, which can be defined as mass
given task. They are mast applicable to manual work, either times velocity. Imagine trying to apply a static force to
repetitive or nonrepetitive. press the nail into the wood.
Not all work situations provide an opportunity to use
• Both hands should be fully utilized. momentum as a carpenter uses a hammer, but if the
• The natural tendency of most people is to use their opportunity is present, use it. The previous principle
preferred hand (right hand for right-handed people dealing with smooth continuous curved motions
and left hand for lefthanded people) to accomplish illustrates a beneficial use of momentum to make a
most of the work. task easier.
• The other hand is relegated to a minor role, such as 7. Take advantage of gravity – Don’t oppose it
holding the object, while the preferred hand works on Less time and energy are required to move a heavy
it. This first principle states that both hands should be object from a higher elevation to a lower elevation
used as equally as possible. than to move the object upward. The principle is
1. The two hands should begin and end their motions usually implemented by proper layout and
at the same time. arrangement of the workplace, and so it is often
This principle follows from the first. To implement, it associated with the workplace arrangement
is sometimes necessary to design the method so that principles of motion economy.
the work is evenly divided between the right-hand 8. Method should achieve a natural cadence of the
side and the left-hand side of the workplace. In this motions involved
case, the division of work should be organized Rhythm refers to motions that have a regular
according to the following principle. recurrence and flow from one to the next. Basically,
2. The motions of the hands and arms should be the worker learns the rhythm and performs the
symmetrical and simultaneous. motions without thinking, much like the natural and
This will minimize the amount of hand-eye instinctive motion pattern that occurs in walking.
coordination required by the worker. And since both 9. Use lowest classification of hand and arm motion
hands are doing the same movements at the same (five classifications)
time, less concentration will be required than if the The five classifications of hand and arm motions are
two hands had to perform different and independent presented in Table 4.3.
motions.
3. The work should be designed to emphasize the
worker’s preferred hand.
The preferred hand is faster, stronger, and more
practical. If the work to be done cannot be allocated
evenly between the two hands, then the method
should take advantage of the worker’s best hand.
For example, work units should enter the workplace
on the side of the worker’s preferred hand and exit With each lower classification, the worker can
the workplace on the opposite side. The reason is that perform the hand and arm motion more quickly and
greater hand-eye coordination is required to initially with less effort. Therefore, the work method should
acquire the work unit, so the worker should use the be composed of motions at the lowest classification
preferred hand for this element. Releasing the work level possible.
unit at the end of the cycle requires less coordination. This can often be accomplished by locating parts and
4. The worker’s two hands should never be idle at the tools as close together as possible in the workplace.
same time. This can often be accomplished by locating parts and
The work method should be designed to avoid tools as close together as possible in the workplace.
periods when neither hand is working. It may not be The two remaining human body principles of motion
possible to completely balance the workload between economy are recommendations for using body
the right and left hands, but it should be possible to members other than the hands and arms.
avoid having both hands idle at the same time. 10. Minimize eye focus and travel
In work situations where hand-eye coordination is
The next five principles of motion economy attempt to utilize
required, the eyes are used to direct the actions of the
the laws of physics to assist in the use of the hands and arms
hands. Eye focus occurs when the eye must adjust to
while working.
a change in viewing distance—for example, from 25
5. Method should consist of smooth continuous curved in. to 10 in. with little or no change in line of sight.
motions rather than straight motions with sudden Eye travel occurs when the eye must adjust to a line-
changes in direction of-sight change—for example, from one location in
It takes less time to move through a sequence of the workplace to another, but the distances from the
smooth continuous curved paths than through a eyes are the same. Since eye focus and eye travel each
sequence of straight paths that are opposite in take time, it is desirable to minimize the need for the
direction, even though the actual total distance of the worker to make these adjustments as much as
curved paths may be longer (since the shortest possible. This can be accomplished by minimizing the
distance between two points is a straight line). distances between objects (e.g., parts and tools) that
are used in the workplace.
 11. The method should be designed to utilize the the amount of searching required and detracts from
worker’s feet and legs when appropriate. the rhythm of the work cycle.
The legs are stronger than the arms, although the feet Figure 4.3 shows the top view of a workplace layout
are not as practical as the hands. The work method that illustrates these first three principles. Note that
can sometimes be designed to take advantage of the the layout in (b) locates bins in a more accessible
greater strength of the legs, for example, in lifting pattern that is consistent with the sequence of work
tasks. elements.

Principles that apply to the workplace arrangement

The principles of motion economy in this section are directed

at the design of the workplace—for example, the layout of the
workstation and the arrangement of tools and parts in it. The
first three principles deal with the immediate work area and
contribute to a natural rhythm in the work cycle. The other
principles cover the use of gravity and the general conditions
of the workplace.

4. Use gravity feed bins to deliver small parts and

fasteners
A gravity feed bin is a container that uses gravity to
move the items in it to a convenient access point for
the worker. One possible design is shown in Figure (a).
It generally allows for quicker acquisition of an item
than a conventional rectangular tray shown in Figure
(b).

1. Locate tools and materials in fixed positions within

the work area
As the saying goes, “a place for everything, and
everything in its place.” The worker eventually learns
the fixed locations, allowing him to reach for the
object without wasting time looking and searching. 5. Use gravity drop chutes (channels, tubes) for
2. Locate tools and materials close to where they are completed work units where appropriate
used The drop chutes should lead to a container adjacent
This helps to minimize the distances the worker must to the worktable. The entrance to the gravity chute
move (travel empty and travel loaded) in the should be located near the normal work area,
workplace. In addition, any equipment controls permitting the worker to dispose of the finished work
should also be located in close proximity. This unit quickly and conveniently. They are most
guideline usually refers to a normal and maximum appropriate for lightweight work units that are not
working area, as shown in Figure 4.2 and further fragile.
clarified in Table 4.4. It is generally desirable to keep 6. Provide adequate illumination
the parts and tools used in the work method within The issue of illumination is normally associated with
the normal working area, as defined for each hand ergonomics. However, illumination has long been
and both hands working together. known to be an important factor in work design.
If the method requires the worker to move beyond Illumination is especially important in visual
the maximum working area, then the worker must inspection tasks.
move more than just the arms and hands. This 7. A proper chair should be provided for the worker
expends additional energy, takes more time, and • This usually means an adjustable chair that can be
ultimately contributes to greater worker fatigue. fitted to the size of the worker. The adjustments
3. Locate tools and materials to be consistent with usually include seat height and back height. Both the
sequence of work elements seat and back are padded.
Items should be arranged in a logical pattern that • Many adjustable chairs also provide a means of
matches the sequence of work elements. Those items increasing and decreasing the amount of back
that are used first in the cycle should be on one side support.
of the work area, the items used next should be next • The chair height should be in proper relationship with
to the first, and so on. the work height. An adjustable chair for the workplace
The alternative to this sequential arrangement is to is shown in Figure 4.4.
locate items randomly in the work area. This increases
 6. Design equipment controls for operator convenience
and error avoidance
Equipment controls include dials, cranks, levers,
switches, push buttons, and other devices that
regulate the operation of the equipment. All of the
controls needed by the operator should be located
within easy reach, so as to minimize the body motions
required to access and activate them.
7. Hand tools and portable power tools should be
designed for operator comfort & convenience
• For example, the tools should have handles or grips
that are slightly compressible so that they can be held
and used comfortably for the duration of the shift.
• The location of the handle or grip relative to the
working end of the tool should be designed for
maximum operator safety, convenience, and
Principles that apply to the design of tooling and equipment effectiveness of the tool. If possible, the tool should
accommodate both right-handed and left-handed
The principles of motion economy in this section are helpful for workers.
designing special tools and controls on equipment used in the 8. Mechanize or automate manual operations if
workplace. economically and technically feasible
• Mechanized or automated equipment and tooling
1. Work-holding devices should be designed for the
that are designed for the specific operation will
task
almost always outperform a worker in terms of speed,
• A mechanical work holder with a fast-acting clamp
permits the work unit to be loaded quickly and frees repeatability, and accuracy. This results in higher
production rates and better quality products.
both hands to work on the task productively.
• The economic feasibility depends on the quantities to
• Typically, the work holder must be custom-designed
be produced. In general, higher quantities are more
for the work part processed in the task.
likely to justify the investment in mechanization and
2. Hands should be relieved of work elements that can
automation.
be performed by the feet using foot pedals
• Foot pedal controls can be provided instead of hand
controls to operate certain types of equipment.
Sewing machines are examples in which foot pedals
are used as integral components in the operation of
the equipment.
• As our examples suggest, training is often required for
the operator to become proficient in the use of the
foot pedals.
3. Combine multiple functions into one tool where
possible
Many of the common hand tools implements this
principle, such as head of a claw hammer is designed
for both striking and pulling nails. Nearly all pencils
are designed for both writing and erasing. Less time is
usually required to reposition such a double-function
tool than to put one tool down and pick another one
up.
4. Perform multiple operations simultaneously rather
than sequentially
• A work cycle is usually conceptualized as a
sequence of work elements or steps.
• The steps are performed one after the other by
the worker and machine.
• In some cases, the work method can be designed
so that the steps are accomplished at the same
time rather than sequentially.
• Special tooling and processes can often be
designed to simultaneously accomplish the
multiple operations.
5. Where feasible, perform operation on multiple parts
simultaneously
This usually applies to cases involving the use of a
powered tool such as a machine tool. A good example
is the drilling of holes in a printed circuit board (PCB).
The PCBs are stacked three or four thick, and a
numerically controlled drill press drills each hole
through the entire stack in one feed motion.