Phenotypic Evolution

PHENOTYPIC EVOLUTION
Phenotype
 observable traits:
o physical appearance
o behavior
o mode of reproduction
Phenotypic Variations
 differences among organism in the observable traits

 variability in phenotypes that exist in a population
GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES
 discrete: variation in DNA

 height: affected by thousands of loci and environmental (nongenetic influences)
 genes  mRNA  polypeptide (protein)  phenotype
Phenotypic Variance
 measures variation in quantitative traits that are visible (e.g., height)

 results from both genetic and environmental
 environmental factors: cause of differences between identical twins (from a single zygote)
o differences: nutrition, blood pressure, position in the womb and the growth rate of the
fingers at the end of the first trimester
Quantitative Traits
 traits that vary continuously over a range of measurements (variance)

o polygenic traits: numerous genes confer the phenotypic expression
o numerical data
o example: height, weight, life span, size, yield
Qualitative Traits
 traits that are discrete (easy to measure values)

o monogenic/polygenic traits: one or few genes confer the phenotypic expression
o categorical data
o example: color, shape, presence or absence
HOW PHENOTYPIC VARIANCE IS INTERPRETED?

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• Mean:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• Variance: the average squared deviation of the observations from the mean
  variance = data points are very spread out from the mean
Fitness Functions
 quantifies how selection acts on quantitative traits

o horizontal axis: value of trait
o vertical axis: survival rate for individuals with that phenotype
 used to explain the 3 types of natural selection
MODES OF SELECTION
1. Directional Selection - one extreme phenotype is favored

 favors individuals at one extreme of the normal range
 most phenotypic differences we see among species are the result of this selection
 example: drought in Galapagos Islands  very strong directional selection on bills of the
finches
2. Stabilizing Selection - both extreme phenotypes are eliminated
 favors individuals with average phenotype
 individuals at the middle of the curve are selected
 individuals that are much smaller or much larger than the mean =  fitness
 example: birth weight
3. Disruptive Selection - average or intermediate phenotypes are eliminated
 favors individuals at both extreme

 splits a population into 2 separate groups, and make intermediate individuals less
common
o can lead to formation of new species
 example: the probability of survival to adulthood in the black-bellied seedcracker
(Pyrenestes ostrinus) depends on an individual’s lower mandible length, a measure of bill
size
Correlational Selection
 selection that favors particular combination of traits

 example: northwestern garter snake (Thamnophis ordinoidese)
MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
 evolutionary changes in means are often caused by directional selection

o important to quantify its strength
 Selection gradient (β)
o measures the strength of directional selection
 2 components:
1. Relative Fitness (ω)
- average number of surviving descendants of the original phenotype compared
to the competitive phenotype
• survival or reproductive rate of one the competing phenotype / survival
or reproductive rate of original phenotype
2. Trait Value
- amount of trait (e.g., number)
Selection Gradient (β)
 computed using regression (performed when there is a correlation between 2 variables)

o selection gradient value = slope (regression coefficient )
 if the selection gradient value is:
o (+) positive: favors the mean phenotype to increase
o (-) negative: favors the mean phenotype to decrease
o (0) zero: no directional selection is acting
Artificial Selection
 humans selectively breeding plants and animals for millennia to improve food production
o selection by humans of a deliberately chosen trait (or combination of traits) in a
population
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON EVOLUTION BASED ON ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
 almost traits evolved when selected

- most traits in diverse species immediately respond to selection (at least within a year)
 selection can cause a trait to evolve far beyond its original range of variation
- changes in allele frequencies can cause a quantitative trait to evolve far beyond
 large populations evolve faster and farther than small populations
- large populations have more genetic variations than small populations
•  genetic variation =  individuals survive
 strong selection on 1 trait often has negative side effects on other traits
- evolutionary side effects (trade-offs )
- artificial selection in cows:  production of milk =  in fertility
Phenotypic Plasticity
 individual’s phenotype changes due to gene expressions caused by environmental cue

- usually improves individual fitness and most are quantitative traits
- can be irreversible (developmental and immobile organisms) and reversible (mobile
organisms)
 example: a carnivorous tadpole cannibalizes a typical tadpole of the spadefoot toad (Spea
bombifrons)
 example: reaction norms for pigmentation in the water flea (Daphnia melanica) differ between lakes
with and without predators
Plasticity VS Adaptation: How can you tell if a trait is a plasticity?
1. not heritable (not inherited epigenetic inheritance is an exception)

2. short term or developmental response within a single generation
3. arises through differential gene expression or other regulatory mechanism rather than natural
selection
Can we locate quantitative traits in a chromosome?
 yes, through Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping

 Quantitative Trait Loci - regions of the genome that affect a quantitative trait
o from a single nucleotide to a segment of chromosome that contains many genes
 QTL mapping shows the specific location of the trait in the chromosome
 QTLs are mapped by identifying which molecular markers (e.g., SNPs or AFLPs)
correlate with an observed trait

Phenotypic Evolution

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Phenotypic Evolution

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Phenotypic Evolution

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHENOTYPIC EVOLUTION

 differences among organism in the observable traits

GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES

 discrete: variation in DNA

 measures variation in quantitative traits that are visible (e.g., height)

 traits that vary continuously over a range of measurements (variance)

 traits that are discrete (easy to measure values)

HOW PHENOTYPIC VARIANCE IS INTERPRETED?

 quantifies how selection acts on quantitative traits

1. Directional Selection - one extreme phenotype is favored

 favors individuals at both extreme

 selection that favors particular combination of traits

MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF DIRECTIONAL SELECTION

 evolutionary changes in means are often caused by directional selection

Selection Gradient (β)

 computed using regression (performed when there is a correlation between 2 variables)

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON EVOLUTION BASED ON ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

 almost traits evolved when selected

 individual’s phenotype changes due to gene expressions caused by environmental cue

Plasticity VS Adaptation: How can you tell if a trait is a plasticity?

1. not heritable (not inherited epigenetic inheritance is an exception)

Can we locate quantitative traits in a chromosome?

 yes, through Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping

You might also like