HERIDITY,

VARIATION &
EVOLUTION
OBJECTIVES
◦ Explain how genetic variation arises;
◦ Explain why genetic variation is important;
◦ Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation in populations;
◦ Explain how natural selection plays a role in biological evolution;
◦ Distinguish between natural and artificial selection;
◦ Discuss natural selection as a mechanism of evolution;
◦ Explain how natural selection may be an agent of constancy or an agent of change;
◦ Explain how environmental factors act as forces of natural selection;
VARIATION
◦ The passing on the various traits from parents ◦ The differences may be a result of genetic
to their offspring is called heredity. And the differences, the influence of the environment
traits passed on from reproductive processes of a combination of both.
give rise to new individuals that are similar, ◦ There are two types of variation:
but subtly different; no two people are the
same. -Continuous

◦ The differences among individuals in a -Discontinuous

population or species are called variation.
◦ It describes the difference in characteristics
shown by organism belonging to the same
natural population or species.
 Types of Variation
Continuous Discontinuous

◦ These are traits that can be measured on a scale or ◦ These are traits that are discrete or definite and
deal with a spectrum of phenotypes ranging from one cannot be graded or measured; there are a few clear-
extreme to another such as height, weight and skin cut phenotypes such as blood group (A, B, AB or O),
color etc. fingerprint, tongue rolling, earlobe shape, eye color.
◦ These traits are usually quantitative and can be ◦ Are usually qualitative (cannot be measured or
measured, they cannot be grouped into distinct and graded), has distinct categories/phenotypes.
discrete categories/phenotypes. ◦ These traits are controlled either one or a few genes
◦ These traits tend to be controlled by many genes with a distinct effect.
having an additive effect together as well as the
environment.
Variation – graphical representation
Importance of Variation
◦ Contributes to genetic diversity. Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics
in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes
the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. Genetic diversity serves as a way for
populations to adapt to changing environments.
◦ Genetic diversity is important because it helps maintain the health of a population, by
including alleles that may be valuable in resisting diseases, pests and other stresses.
Maintaining diversity gives the population a buffer against change, providing the flexibility to
adapt. If the environment changes, a population that has a higher variability of alleles will be
better able to evolve to adapt to the new environment. In extreme situations (e.g. drought,
disease epidemics) diversity could even mean the survival of the population.
How is variation created?
◦ We’ve seen that via reproduction (meiosis) a mix of traits can be passed form parent to offspring, via
recombination crossing over, independent assortment, (the random mixing of DNA caused by crossing
over) however there are other processes that can determine what traits exist in a population/community
as well as how they are expressed and their variability:
◦ Evolution
◦ Natural selection (diversity) (Speciation)
◦ Mutation
◦ Environment
 EVOLUTION
◦ In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually
change over time.
◦ OR
◦ Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These
characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction
◦ The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859,
is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits.
Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring.
◦ The theory has two main points - all life on Earth is connected and related to each other, and this diversity of life is
a product of "modifications of populations by natural selection, where some traits were favored in and environment
over others.
 Evidence of Evolution?
Evidence of relevance to the theory of evolution is provided from many sources, the main ones being:

1. Geographical Distribution
2. Comparative anatomy
3. Molecular biology
4. Embryology
5. Taxonomy
6. Palaeontology
 Evidence of Evolution?
Comparative anatomy
◦ Comparative anatomy refers to the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy of
two species. Generally, it involves comparing the body structures of two species.
Analogous Structures and Homologous Structures are two main concepts of the comparative
anatomy.
◦ Analogous Structures
◦ Analogous structures are the similar structures seen in different organisms. They appear the
same, performing the same functions. For example, the wings of insects and birds – both
perform the same function, taking a flight, however, structurally they are not similar. The wings
of the birds are structurally similar to human hands compared to the wings of insects.
◦ They evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common
ancestor
 Evidence of Evolution?

1. Comparative anatomy
◦ Homologous Structures
◦ Homologous structures are similar in two entities having similar ancestors, however,
functionality may or may not be the same. For example, birds, whales and humans have the
same structure of the arm bone.
◦ One more example of homologous structure is the forelimb structure which is same as that of
cats and whales. It is believed that several million years ago, there thrived ancestors which
were similar to whales and humans both. The evolved progeny was a new species. Further,
even newer species evolved from such species.
Evidence of
Evolution?

1. Comparative anatomy
Evidence of
Evolution?

1. Comparative anatomy
Evidence of
Evolution?

1. Comparative anatomy
Evidence of
Evolution?

1. Comparative anatomy
Evidence of
Evolution?

1. Embryology
Evidence of Evolution?
Comparative Biochemistry
Comparative biochemistry - the study of evolutionary relationships or study of differences and similarities in biological or
physiological processes among living organisms. For evolutionary studies, comparative biochemistry employs genes,
proteins and enzymes.
◦ The genetic code is universal!
◦ All cells in ALL organisms have the same organic compounds: nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.
◦ In all organism, reactions involving these organic compounds are controlled by enzymes
◦ In all cells proteins are synthesized from about 20 amino acids
◦ All cells contain DNA
◦ All organisms have similar cellular processes and structural components
◦ Some organisms share similar numbers of chromosomes. For example, humans possess 23 pairs of chromosomes, while apes
possess 24 pairs.
Evidence of Evolution?
Comparative Biochemistry
◦ Different species of organisms may contain
the same genes with slight variations in
sequences. For example, the coding for
cytochrome c is very similar in humans,
chickens, mice and horses. The sequence of
amino acids in the same part of haemoglobin
molecules is identical between humans and
gorillas, and these similarities would suggest
common ancestry.
CHARLES DARWIN
◦ What did Darwin do?
1. He provided evidence to support the proposition that species change over time. This was not a new idea but Darwin “put it
on a sound scientific basis.”
2. He put forward a plausible theory to explain the mechanism by which species have changed – natural selection.
This theory he had put forward with another scientist named Alfred Russel Wallace. They proposed that natural selection is the
mechanism by which new species arise pre-existing species. This hypothesis/theory is based on three observations and two deductions
1. Individuals within a population to produce on average more offspring than are needed to replace themselves.
2. The numbers of individuals in the population remain approximately constant.
1. Deduction 1: Many individuals fails to survive or reproduce. There is a struggle for existence
3. Variation exists within all populations
1. Deduction 2: In the struggle for existence those individuals showing variations best adapted to heir environment have a
reproductive advantage and produce more offspring that less-well adapted organisms.
 EVOLUTION
◦ Evolution tests and modifies the fitness of animals. Fitness simply means reproductive success and reflects how
well an organism is adapted to its environment. Therefore, animals that have successful progeny that survive their
environment and/or adapt to it are said to be ‘fit’ i.e., the survival of the ‘fittest’.
◦ Fitness describes how good a particular genotype is at leaving offspring in the next generation relative to how
good other genotypes are at it. A genotype's fitness depends on the environment in which the organism lives. The
fittest genotype during an ice age, for example, is probably not the fittest genotype once the ice age is over. The
fittest individual is not necessarily the strongest, fastest, or biggest. A genotype's fitness includes its ability to
survive, find a mate, produce offspring — and ultimately leave its genes in the next generation.
Selection

Selections basically tests fitness.

The brown beetles that have a
successful progeny that survive
their environment and/or adapt
to it are said to be ‘fit’ since they
were not selected against like
the green beetles.
Green beetles may have had
traits that may them easier to be
caught in comparison to the
brown. * Environment specific.*
Selection
◦ Selection, in biology, the preferential survival and reproduction or preferential elimination of individuals with certain
genotypes (genetic compositions), by means of natural or artificial controlling factors
◦ Types of Selection:
1. Natural selection is the process by which a population retains those genes which makes it adapted to its habitat. This occurs
naturally and is based on the conditions of the organism habitat as well as other factors related to it such as population size,
predators etc.
◦ Natural selection can change a species in small ways, causing a population to change color or size over the course of several
generations. This is called "microevolution.“ But natural selection is also capable of much more. Given enough time and
enough accumulated changes, natural selection can create entirely new species, known as "macroevolution." It can turn
dinosaurs into birds, amphibious mammals into whales and the ancestors of apes into humans.
◦ Natural selection that depends on an organism's success at attracting a mate, a process known as sexual selection
Types of Selection
2. Artificial Selection
◦ Selective breeding/Artificial breeding is the
process by which humans use animal breeding
Fresian Cow Selectively bred for milk
and plant breeding to selectively develop
particular phenotypic traits by choosing which
typically animal or plant males and females will
sexually reproduce and have offspring together.
◦ Different varieties of plants and animals with
desired characteristics can be developed by
selective breeding. For example:
◦ cows that produce lots of milk
◦ chickens that produce large eggs
◦ wheat plants that produce lots of grain
Artificial Selection
NATURAL SELECTION
Graph showing trait that is normally distributed
within a population

◦ Selection does not always lead to a change but

many times it maintains populations over
time.
◦ There are three kinds of natural selection:
1. Stabilising selection
2. Directional selection
3. Disruptive selection
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

◦ Stabilising selection
• Stabilising selection is natural selection that keeps allele frequencies relatively constant over generations
•This means things stay as they are unless there is a change in the environment. This occurs when the environment
doesn't change. Changes in the environment presents selective pressure.
•Stabilizing selection occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of the phenotypic distribution are selected against. This
narrows the range of variation.
•In a stable environment there is “no selective pressure” and therefore the population will remain fairly constant.
• Stabilising selection selects for the average phenotypes and against more extreme phenotypes. This type of selection
occurs in populations where environmental conditions remain constant for long periods. Therefore, this selection form
keeps allele frequencies relatively steady over generations and maintains (keeps stable) an intermediate phenotype.
• A classic example of stabilising selection can be seen in human birth weights
• Very-low and very-high birth weights are selected against.Babies that are very large or very small at birth are
less likely to survive. This keeps birth weight within a relatively narrow range
TYPES OF
NATURAL
SELECTION
Graph showing the effect of
stabilizing selection on a
population
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
◦ Directional selection
• Directional selection is natural selection that produces a gradual change in allele frequencies over several generations
• This usually happens when there is a change in environment / selection pressures or a new allele has appeared in the population that is
advantageous
• For example: A recent finding has shown that climate change is having an effect on fish size in certain habitats
• The increase in temperature is selecting for a smaller body size and against a larger body size
• Warmer seas cause fish metabolism to speed up and so increases their need for oxygen; oxygen levels are lower in warmer seas
• Larger fish have greater metabolic needs than smaller fish, and so they feel the effect of increased temperatures more strongly
• Organisms are sensitive to changes in temperature primarily because of the effect that temperature can have on enzyme activity
• Fish with a smaller body size are therefore fitter and better adapted to living in seas experiencing increased temperatures
• Fish body size is determined by both genetic and environmental factors
• Fish of a smaller size are more likely to reproduce and pass on their alleles to offspring
• Over generations, this leads to an increase in the frequency of alleles that produce a small body size and a decrease in the frequency of alleles that
produce a larger body size
TYPES OF
NATURAL
SELECTION
Directional selection
Graph showing the effect of
directional selection of a
population
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

◦ Directional selection
• For traits that display continuous variation, populations are often generally distributed around an optimum phenotype.
However, when the environment changes, the optimum value for survival might also change. Individuals on either side of the
mean might possess alleles that result in the new optimal phenotype. As a result, a directional selection pressure might occur,
resulting in the mean phenotype moving to either the left or right of its original position. Directional selection would lead
to one extreme phenotype being selected for rather than the other.
• Occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for. This shifts the distribution toward that extreme.
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

◦ Directional selection
◦ Directional selection can be seen in peppered moths. The peppered moth has a lighter morph and a darker melanic morph.
Against lichen-covered trees, lighter moths can blend in well, whereas melanic moths stand out, making them vulnerable to
predation from insectivorous birds. As a result, the population underwent directional selection favouring lighter moths; thus,
melanic moths only made up a small fraction of the population in the early 1800s.
◦ However, about 50 years later, many more melanic moths were recorded in industrial areas where trees and buildings were
blackened by soot. Here, melanic moths can blend in and light moths cannot, making the latter much more vulnerable. This
time, the population underwent selection in the opposite direction, favouring darker moths. By the end of the century, the
overwhelming majority of the pepper moth population was composed of melanic moths.
Directional
Selection
Examples: The peppered moth
and the Galapagos island
finches (commonly called
Darwin’s finches for which
were the birds he studied that
helped him develop his theory
of Evolution)
Natural Selection: Directional Selection
GALAPAGOS FINCHES
◦ Also known as Galapagos finches, these little birds where of particular interest to Darwin while he was on his
famous discovery expedition. Darwin noticed that the species on different islands where remarkably varied, while
undeniably coming from the same source. In recent years, scientist Peter and Rosemary Grant have been studying
the finches. In the past thirty years, they have witness all sorts of selection on the finches and the evolution that
ensued. In one very drastic example of directional selection the Grants observed as birds with larger beaks were
selected for, after only one season of an extremely drastic form of directional selection.
◦ In the Galapagos, certain plant species that produce seeds rely on a very wet rainy season to supply their many
seeds with water. In drought years, the plants produce fewer, larger, and tougher seeds. During a drought in
1977, the Grants were actively studying the finches on one of the island. The drought indeed caused the seeds to
become larger and stronger. In the population of finches before the drought, beak sizes ranged from very large to
very small. Birds with small beaks were apt at handling small seeds, but larger seeds presented a challenge. The
drought, and resulting increase in seed size and strength, put a directional selection the finches. Birds with small
beaks were no longer able to eat, while birds with large beaks could survive on the large, tough seeds. This
directional selection caused the resulting population of finches to have a much larger average beak size than the
population before the drought. The Grants have documented many cases such as this in the finches, and have
effectively shown evolution happening at a population level, from year to year,
TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
◦ Disruptive selection
◦ also known as diversifying selection, favours several extreme phenotypes rather than intermediate phenotypes and is the least
common form of selection. This type of selection occurs when the extreme phenotypes are more successful than intermediate
forms within the same habitat.
• Disruptive selection is natural selection that maintains high frequencies of two different sets of alleles
• In other words, individuals with intermediate phenotypes or alleles are selected against

• Disruptive selection causes polymorphism: the continued existence of two or more distinct phenotypes in species
• This can occur in an environment that shows variation
• For example, birds that live on the Galapagos Islands use their beaks to forage for different sized seeds
• The size of the bird's beaks are either small or large with the intermediate medium-sized beak selected against
• The reason for this is that the different types of seed available are more efficiently foraged by a shorter or longer beak
TYPES OF
NATURAL
SELECTION
Disruptive selection

Graph showing the effect of

stabilising selection on a
population
SICKLE-CELL ANAEMIA
◦   People homozygous for this recessive allele usually die before reproducing.  Their red blood cells contain abnormal haemoglobin which
makes them become sickle-shaped and stick in their capillaries.  
◦ People heterozygous for the allele should be at a disadvantage, because their red cells can sickle during exercise – the allele should
therefore be selected against and rare
◦ However, its frequency is high in parts of the world where malaria is common – in some populations over 20% carry the allele (as
heterozygotes).  People heterozygous for sickle-cell anaemia are more resistant to malaria than people homozygous for the normal allele
◦ Where malaria is found, people heterozygous for sickle-cell have an advantage and are likely to survive, reproduce and pass on the
allele. 
◦  People without the allele also have an advantage, because their red cells behave normally.  
◦ This produces populations with an equilibrium for numbers of people heterozygous for sickle-cell and non-carriers (balances
polymorphism

  
SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
ENVIRONMENT
◦ Environmental change is any change in an environment to which an organism must adapt. Change can be gradual, such as
when mountains or deserts form, other species die out, or new species evolve. These things can take millions of years. Change
to an environment can also be quick, such as floods, volcanoes, or earthquakes. It can also be caused not by change to the
environment itself, but by the organism's movement to a different environment.

◦ The effects of the environment are not always heritable. Different environment would result
differing forms of variation.
ENVIRONMENT
◦ This penguin's ancestors looked much like
other birds. As their environment became
colder and wetter (possibly because of their
migration), the birds evolved many traits to
help them survive in the changed
environment.
 Speciation
◦ Evolution, natural selection, mutations as well as the environment can all lead to the creation of a new species.
◦ A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can
produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction
◦ Speciation - the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
 Speciation
TWO TYPES:
◦ Speciation caused by physical geographic separation such as a river forming, colonizing a new island or rise of a mountain range
(occurs with loss of habitat or the formation of new habitat) makes it impossible for them to breed with one another. - allopatric
speciation. It occurs when a species separates into two separate groups which are isolated from one another. Each species develops
differently based on the demands of their unique habitat or the genetic characteristics of the group that are passed on to offspring.
◦ Speciation caused by ecological and behavioral differences such as courtship behavior/ differences in coloration - sympatric
speciation. A new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously. The theory is
that some individuals become dependent on certain aspects of an environment—such as shelter or food sources—while others do not.
◦ Note: Over time, species can also go extinct due to hunting/habitat loss/disease, for example, Caribbean Monk Seal
◦ Artificial speciation is the creation of new species by people. This is achieved through lab experiments, where scientists mostly
research insects like fruit flies.
 Allopatric Speciation
◦ Allopatric Speciation
• Allopatric speciation occurs as a result of geographical isolation
• It is the most common type of speciation
• A species population splits into one or more groups which then become separated from each other by geographical barriers
• The barrier could be natural like a body of water, or a mountain range
• It can also be man-made (like a motorway)

• This separation creates two populations of the same species who are isolated from each other, and as a result, no genetic exchange can
occur between them
• If there is sufficient selection pressure or genetic drift acting to change the gene pools within both populations then eventually these
populations will diverge and form separate species
• The changes in the alleles/genes of each population will affect the phenotypes present in both populations
• Over time, the two populations may begin to differ physiologically, behaviourally and morphologically (structurally)
Allopatric Speciation
◦ Example of Allopatric Speciation in Trees
• Imagine there is a population of trees that are all one species
• A new mountain range forms that divides the population into two
• The natural barrier prevents the two groups from interbreeding, so there is no gene flow between them
• The two populations experience different selection pressures and genetic drift
• Over thousands of years the divided populations form two distinct species that can no longer interbreed
Sympatric Speciation
◦ Sympatric Speciation
• Sympatric speciation takes place with no geographical barrier
• A group of the same species could be living in the same place but in order for speciation to take place there must exist two
populations within that group and no gene flow occurs between them
• Something has to happen that splits or separates the population:
• Ecological separation: Populations are separated because they live in different environments within the same area
• For example, soil pH can differ greatly in different areas. Soil pH has a major effect on plant growth and flowering
• Behavioural separation: Populations are separated because they have different behaviours
• For example differences in feeding, communication or social behaviour
Sympatric Speciation
◦ Example of Sympatric Speciation in Fish
• A species of fish lives in a lake
• Some individuals within the population feed on the bottom while others remain higher up in the open water
• The different feeding behaviours separates the population into different environments
• Behavioural separation leads to ecological separation

• The separated groups experience different selection pressures

• Long jaws are advantageous for bottom-feeding whereas shorter jaws are advantageous for mid-water feeding

• Over time natural selection causes the populations to diverge and evolve different courtship displays
• They can no longer interbreed; they are separate species
Speciation
◦ Allopatric Speciation ◦ Sympatric Speciation
◦ There’s a geographic barrier that separates the ◦ Prezygotic
species. -Behavioral Isolation
-Temporal Isolation
-Habitat Isolation
◦ Postzygotic barriers
-Weak offspring/Reduced hybrid viability
-Reduced hybrid fertility
-Hybrid breakdown