UNIT 3

COMPUTER NETWORKS
XII INFORMATICS PRACTICES
 CHAPTER 7
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKS
XII INFORMATICS PRACTICES
 COMPUTER NETWORK
■ The collection of interconnected computers is called a computer network. Two
computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and
exchanging information
■ A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share their
resources
Advantages
■ Facilitate communication through email /
instant messaging or any other mode.
■ hardware devices like a printer or scanner
■ Enable file sharing
■ Share software or operating programs
■ Share information
■ Reliability Factor - means to keep the copy
of a file on two or more different machines,
so if one of them is unavailable then its
other copy can be used.)
■ Cost Factor - Cost factor means it greatly
reduces the cost since the resources can be
shared
Basic Terminology

■ Nodes (Workstations):- The term nodes refer to the computers that are
attached to a network and are seeking to share the resources.
■ Server:- A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and
hardware resources on the network.
■ MAC Address: A (Media access Control) address is a hardware identification
number that uniquely identifies each device on a network (assigned to a NIC
by the manufacturer).
■ IP Address: Each computer on internet is identified by a unique number called
IP Address. E.g: 192.168.1.1
PAN

■ PAN (Personal Area Network): A PAN is a

network of communicating devices
(Computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player,
Camera etc.) organized around an
individual person. A PAN can be set up
using guided media (USB cable) or
unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared).
■ A network of devices such as computer,
Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc.
Transferring songs from one cell phone
to another is a PAN of two phones.
Transferring files from a PC to an MP3
player is a PAN between the two.
LAN

■ LAN (Local Area Network): A Local Area

Network (LAN) is a network that is
limited to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area
such as a school building, office or a
university campus. It is generally
privately owned networks over a distance
not more than 5 Km.
■ A networked office building, school or
home. Sometimes one building can
contain a few small LANs (Like some
schools have independent LANs in each
computer lab.).
MAN

■ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): MAN is

the networks that cover a group of nearby
corporate offices or a city and might be
either private or public.
■ A network of schools, or banks, or
Government offices etc. within a city. A
MAN is usually formed by interconnecting
a number of LANs and individual
computers.
WAN

■ WAN (Wide Area Network): These

are the networks spread over large
distances, say across countries or
even continents through cabling or
satellite uplinks are called WAN.
E.g. Internet
■ A network of ATMs, BANKs, National
Government Offices, International
Organizations' Offices etc., spread
over a country, continent, or
covering many continents.
NETWORK DEVICES
■ Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or
any other electronic device to a computer network are called network
devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way with
some specific functionality over same or different networks.
■ Some devices are installed on the computer, like Internal modem, NIC card or
RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch,
etc.
Modem

■ A modem (modulator/demodulator)
is a hardware device that allows a
computer to send and receive
information over telephone lines.
When sending a signal, the modem
converts (modulates) digital data to
an analog signal and transmit it over
a telephone line. Similarly when an
analog signal is received, the modem
converts it back (demodulates) to a
digital signa
HUB
■ HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN network of one
workgroup. Generally HUBs are available with 4,8,12,24,48 ports. When a hub
receives signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that signal from
all ports except the port on which the signal arrived. In below diagram
leftmost node try to send signal to rightmost node ,but signals are distributed
to all ports(nodes).
■ There are two types of HUB
– Passive HUB:- It only forwards the signal on all ports without amplifying
the signal.
– Active HUB:- it forwards the signal with improvement in the quality of
data signal by amplifying it. That why such hubs need additional power
supply.
Switch
■ Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN
workgroup, just like hub. Switches are available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports.
Switch makes their switching decisions by using application specific integrated
circuits (ASICs).Due to switching decision capability, switch sends signal to
recipient only and that’s why switches are called as intelligent hub. In below
diagram leftmost node sending signal to rightmost node.
Repeater
■ Repeater – In a network signal travels a long distance in transmission media.
Due to resistance of media signal becomes weak. Repeater is a networking
device which regenerates the signal and forwards these signal with more
power.
■ Usually you need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network
cable exceeds 100 meters
Router
■ Router is a networking device which
chooses the best optimal path from
available pats to send the signals. It
interconnects different networks. The
simplest function of a router is to
received packets from one connected
network and pass them to second
connected network
■ Responsible for finding the shortest
route, based on an internal routing table
and the address of the destination
network in the incoming packet, the
router determines whether to send the
packet out (in other network) or keep it
or forward within the own network.
Gateway
■ A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks
■ It is capable to convert protocols so that two different network architecture based
system can communicate with each other. It works as protocol convertor.
NIC & RJ45

■ NIC(Network Interface Card – This is at top■ RJ-45 (Registered Jack – 45) is an eight
among other networking devices and wired connector that is used to connect
mostly used networking device. This is computers on a local area network (LAN),
also known as network adapter card, especially Ethernet.
Ethernet Card and LAN card. It allows our
PC to communicate with other PCs.
Network Topology

■ The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices along with

communication channel is known as Network structure or Network topology.

■ Star Topology
■ Bus Topology
■ Tree Topology
■ Mesh Topology
■ Ring Topology
■ Hybrid Topology
 STAR
■ A STAR topology is based on a central node which acts as a hub. In star
topology each node is directly connected to a Hub/Switch.
■ Advantages:
– Easy to troubleshoot
– A single node failure does not affect the entire network.
– Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier.

■ Disadvantages:-
– In case hub fails, the entire network stop working.
– Difficult to expand.
– Longer cable is required.
– The cost of the hub and the longer cables makes it little expensive over
others.
 BUS
■ Bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes are
connected to a single cable(backbone cable). The starting and ending point of cable is
called terminator.

■ ADVANTAGES
– It is easy to install.
– It requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
– Failure of a node does not affect the network.
■ DISADVANTAGES T T
– In case of cable or terminator fault, the entire network breaks down.
– At a time only one node can transmit data.
– Not suitable for large number of computers.
TREE
■ Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies. It is used to combine
multiple star topology networks. All the stars are connected together like a bus using
backbone cable.
■ Advantages of Tree Topology
– Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
– Extension of bus and star topologies.
– Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
– Easily managed and maintained.
■ Disadvantages of Tree Topology
– Heavily cabled.
– Costly.
– If more nodes are added maintenance is difficul t.
– Central hub fails, network fails.
 MESH
■ Mesh topology is a group of nodes which are all
connected to each other and many types of connections
are possible in a mesh topology.
■ Advantage of Mesh Topology
– Most Reliable Network
– Better security due to dedicated lines
– The arrangement of the network nodes is such that
it is possible to transmit data from one node to
many other nodes at the same time.
– Fault is diagnosed easily.
■ Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
– Installation and configuration is difficult.
– Cabling cost is more.
– Bulk wiring is required.
 RING & HYBRID
■ In ring topology every computer is ■ Hybrid topology use a combination of any
connected to the next computer in the ring two or more topologies in such a way that
and each transmit the signal ,what it the resulting network does not exhibit one
receives from the previous computer. The of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star,
messages flow around the ring in one ring, etc.)
direction.
 DESIGNING NETWORK
■ The network layout can be best which provide less installation and
maintenance cost as well as easy installation and maintenance. It is only
possible when it is properly designed, design with shortest cable length and
fulfil our network requirements.
■ Server location can be decided by seeing the number of computers/nodes
required in each block of network. Server must be installed at the wing/block
with Maximum number of Computers due to maximum load/requirement of
services in that block in whole network
■ We need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network
cable(Twisted pair) exceeds 100 meters (328 feet). We need a repeater when
the total length of a single span of network cable(Coaxial cable) exceeds 500
meters.
■ Satellite link is required when network blocks/wings are too much far from
each other or where installation of cable is hard.
■ For data security, firewall can be installed in network.
CASE STUDY
QUESTION
SAMPLE
 CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION TO
INTERNET & WEB
XII INFORMATICS PRACTICES
INTERNET
Internet (INTERconnection NETwork): The Internet is a worldwide network of
computer networks. It is not owned by anybody. The internet has evolved from
ARPANET. ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork): In 1969, The US
govt. formed an agency named ARPANET to connect computers at various
universities and defence agencies. The internet is a globally connected network
system that utilizes TCP/IP to transmit information.

TCP/IP

Transmission control
Protocol and Internet
Protocol
ARPANET was the network where the
Internet protocol suite, TCP/IP, was
developed and first used. NSFNET followed
behind ARPANET and was designed as a
network of research centres and
supercomputers communicating over a
TCP/IP network

TCP is used in conjunction with IP in order to

maintain a connection between the sender
and the target and to ensure packet order.
The Internet emerged in the United States in the 1970s but did not become visible to the
general public until the early 1990s. By 2020, approximately 4.5 billion people, or more than
half of the world’s population, were estimated to have access to the Internet. In general
sense we can say that internet is network of networks ,an example of wide area
network(WAN). Means Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other
electronic devices. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information,
communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more. following services are
instantly available through internet : Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services,
Online movies and gaming , Data transfer/file-sharing, Instant messaging , Internet forums ,
Social networking , Online shopping ,Financial services
How does it works ?
■ Our computer or smartphone may be link to the internet using phone
line/Mobile ISP(Internet Service Provider).Our computer may be part of
LAN.
■ Then LAN will be connected to ISP using a high speed phone line. where
as normal phone line or modem typically handle 30000 t0 50000 bits
per second.
■ ISPs then connect to larger ISP and the largest ISPs maintain fiber optic
backbones for an entire region. Backbones around the world are
connected through fiber optic lines, under sea cables or satellite links.
■ In this manner every computer on internet is connected to every other
computer on internet. So we can say that it is a kind of WAN ,working
with the help of various networking devices and the protocols(specially
TCP/IP) to forward data from source to destination devices without
constraints of dissimilar devices and architecture.
 Internet Services/Applications
■ WWW/Web
■ Email
■ Chat
■ VoIP

The Internet is a global network of networks while the

Web, also referred formally as World Wide Web (www) is
collection of information which is accessed via the Internet.
Another way to look at this difference is; the Internet is
infrastructure while the Web is service on top of that
infrastructure
 World Wide WEB

■ The World Wide WEB (WWW) or ‘Web’ is a collection of Web Pages found
over the internet. Web browser uses the internet to access the ‘Web’.
■ The internet is a huge network of computers all connected together. Our web
browser uses the internet to access the web. The World Wide Web is a way of
exchanging information between computers on the Internet, tying them
together into a vast collection of interactive multimedia resources.
■ The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed
via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may
contain text, images, videos and other multimedia and navigate between them
via hyperlinks.
URL
■ URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is nothing more than the
address of a given unique resource on the Web or address of a website. The
URL is an address that matches users to a specific resource online, such as
webpage.
■ The elements in a URL: Protocol://server's address/filename
■ Example: http://www.google.com/index.html
■ Example: https://apsasc.edu.in/?page_id=128

Protocol Path/File
/Page
Domain/Host/
Server Name
 Chat

■ Chat: Chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet that
offers a real-time transmission of text messages from sender to receiver. Chat
messages are generally short in order to enable other participants to respond
quickly.
■ For each chat window a session is created at chat server to message send and
receive among the clients of common window. Each session works as a thread
at chat server. There may be multiple threads/chat session at chat server
■ Examples:
– MSN Messenger
– Yahoo Messenger
– IRC – Internet Relay Chat
– Pidgin
E-mail

■ e-mail: email (or e-mail) is defined as the transmission of messages over

communications networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from keyboard
and sent over internet using computer or mobile.
– send and receive mail messages
– save your messages in a file
– print mail messages
– reply to mail messages
– attach a file to a mail message

■ SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (To Send)

■ POP3 : Post Office Protocol 3rd Version, IMAP: Internet Message Access Protocol (To
Receive)
■ An email client is a computer program used to manage a user's email.
 VOIP
■ Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice calls
using a Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line. VoIP services
convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If you are calling a
regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before it
reaches the destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer.
■ Examples of Voip:- Whatsapp, Skype etc.
■ Advantages:
– Less Cost
– Accessibility
– Flexibility
– Extra/Less Expensive Features
■ Disadvantages:
– Reliable Internet Connection Required
– Power Outages/Emergencies
– Latency
 Website
■ A collection of web pages which are grouped together and usually
connected together in various ways. Often called a "web site" or simply
a site.
■ Webpage is a document or html document commonly written in HTML,
that is viewed in an Internet browser
■ The websites are utilized for various purposes like Web surfing, Email
and chatting, Social Networking, Videos, Online Business, Searching
Jobs, News and Information, Classified Ads, Blogs, Downloads, Online
payments, Online Banking, File sharing, Online games etc.
Web Page v/s Website
Static vs Dynamic Webpages
Web Server
a web server is a computer that stores web server software and a website's
component files (e.g. HTML documents, images, CSS style sheets, and JavaScript
files). When client sends request for a web page, the web server search for the
requested page if requested page is found then it will send it to client with an
HTTP response. If the requested web page is not found, web server will the send
an HTTP response :Error 404 Not found.
Web Server
■ Stores and secures website data
■ Provides web database access
■ Serve the end user requests
■ Bandwidth controlling to regulate network traffic
■ Virtual hosting
■ Server side web scripting
Web Hosting
Web hosting is an online service that enables you to publish your website or web
application on the internet. When you sign up for a hosting service, you basically
rent some space on a server on which you can store all the files and data
necessary for your website to work properly.
Web Browser

■ A browser is the software application that is used

to search for, reach and explore websites. The
primary function of a web browser is to render
HTML code (the code used to design or "mark up"
webpages).
■ Each time a web browser loads a web page
received from web server, it processes the HTML,
which may include text, links, and references to
images and other items, such as cascading style
sheets and JavaScript functions.
■ The browser processes these items, then renders
them in the browser window.
 Commonly Used Browsers
■ Internet Explorer (IE) is a product from software giant Microsoft. This is the most
commonly used browser in the universe. This was introduced in 1995 along with
Windows 95 launch and it has passed Netscape popularity in 1998.
■ Google Chrome is developed by Google and its beta version was first released on
September 2, 2008 for Microsoft Windows. Today, chrome is known to be one of the
most popular web browser with its global share of more than 50%.
■ Mozilla Firefox is a open source browser derived from Mozilla. It was released in 2004
and has grown to be the second most popular browser on the Internet.
■ Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. and included in Mac OS X. It was first
released as a public beta in January 2003. Safari has very good support for latest
technologies like XHTML, CSS2 etc.
■ Opera is a multi-platform web browser for Microsoft Windows, Android, iOS, macOS,
and Linux operating systems developed by Opera Software. Opera is a Chromium-
based browser using the Blink layout engine. It distinguishes itself from other
browsers through its user interface and other features
plugins and add-ons
■ Web browser plugins and add-ons(extenstions) are programs integrated into
your web browser and extending its capabilities. For example, you can use
them to view media content on a web page, receive news and mail, download
files, block undesired pop-up windows, and so on.
 Plugin v/s Add-on
■ Plug-in is the term that is usually used when referring to third party software that is
meant to interact with a certain program. With respect to web browser, these are the
programs which work along with browser to extent it’s capability
■ E.g.: Flash Player, Java
■ An Add-on also extends the functionality of a certain program but they are usually
meant to function on a certain program. add-ons that are meant for Firefox would
only work inside Firefox and so would for other browsers.
■ E.g.: Adblockers, Google Translate, Dictionary, Screen Capture, Anti-virus

■ The main difference between add-on and plug-in is that add-on is not a complete
program, it is generally used to add certain features or functionality to a
browser..Plug-ins, on the other hand, is complete program that is used in the time
of referring to any third-party software and used to interact with a certain
program.
 Cookies

cookies are small files which are stored on a user’s computer and contains
information like which Web pages visited in the past, logging details Password
etc. They are designed to hold a modest amount of data specific to a particular
client and website and can be accessed by the web server or the client
computer.

■ Cookies store your login state. Without them, you wouldn’t be able to log into
websites. Websites use cookies to remember and identify you.
■ Cookies store preferences on websites. You couldn’t change settings and have
them persist between page loads without cookies.
■ Cookies allow websites to provide personalized content. For example, if
you’re shopping on Amazon, Amazon can remember the products you’ve
browsed and recommend similar products – even if you’re not logged in.
Browser Settings
■ Internet browser has settings you can
change, including privacy options, search
engine preferences, autofill and
autocomplete behavior, and more.
– Font and Sizing -
chrome://settings/fonts
– Review Passwords -
chrome://settings/passwords
– Customize Startup Pages -
chrome://settings/onStartup
■ Mozilla firefox browser settings –
– Homepage,font&color,downloads
– Searchbar and search engine
– Forms,passwords,history,cookies,secu
rity
 How to enable/Disable Cookies
■ At the top right, click More. Settings.
■ Under "Privacy and security," click Site settings.
■ Click Cookies.
■ From here, you can: Turn on cookies