COMMENTARY

Decline in Independent Activity as a Cause of Decline in Children’s Mental

Well-being: Summary of the Evidence
Peter Gray, PhD1, David F. Lancy, PhD2, and David F. Bjorklund, PhD3

I
t is no secret that rates of anxiety and depression among Decline in Children’s Opportunities for
school-aged children and teens in the US are at an all- Independent Activity
time high. Recognizing this, the American Academy of
Pediatrics, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- Those of us old enough to have been children in the 1970s or
chiatry, and Children’s Hospital Association issued, in 2021, earlier know from experience that children then had far more
a joint statement to the Biden administration that child freedom to roam, play, and engage in various activities inde-
and adolescent mental health be declared a “national pendently of adults than do children today. Research has
emergency.”1 confirmed that our memories are not distorted. For example,
Although most current discussions of the decline in youth Rutherford analyzed hundreds of articles and advice columns
mental health emphasize that which has occurred over the about childrearing that appeared in popular magazines from
past 10-15 years, research indicates that the decline has the early 20th century onward.4 She found that earlier articles
been continuous over at least the last 5 or 6 decades.2,3 portrayed a world in which children spent much time with
Although a variety of causes of this decline have been pro- other children away from adults, walked or biked to school
posed by researchers and practitioners (some discussed alone or with friends from as young as age 5 years, contrib-
near the end of this Commentary), our focus herein is on a uted meaningfully through chores to the household econ-
possible cause that we believe has been insufficiently re- omy, and by age 11 or 12 years often had part-time jobs,
searched, discussed, and taken into account by health practi- such as babysitting and paper routes, performed without
tioners and policy makers. direct adult oversight. Over time, however, beginning in
Our thesis is that a primary cause of the rise in mental dis- the 1960s and accelerating in the 1980s, the implicit under-
orders is a decline over decades in opportunities for children standing shifted from that of children as competent, respon-
and teens to play, roam, and engage in other activities inde- sible, and resilient to the opposite, as advice focused
pendent of direct oversight and control by adults. Such inde- increasingly on children’s needs for supervision and protec-
pendent activities may promote mental well-being through tion.4 Rutherford noted, as have other reviewers,5 that in
both immediate effects, as a direct source of satisfaction, some respects—such as freedom to choose what they wear
and long-term effects, by building mental characteristics or eat—children have gained autonomy over the decades.
that provide a foundation for dealing effectively with the What has declined specifically is children’s freedom to engage
stresses of life. in activities that involve some degree of risk and personal re-
We develop the thesis by summarizing evidence for, sponsibility away from adults.
respectively, (1) a large decline over decades in children’s op- Books on the history of childhood in America have likewise
portunities for independent activity; (2) a large decline over documented the decline of both free play and children’s inde-
the same decades in young people’s mental health; (3) effects pendent, responsible contributions to family and community.
of independent activity on children’s immediate happiness; Chudacoff describes the first half of the 20th century as “the
and (4) effects of independent activity in building long- golden age of unstructured play” and shows how children’s
term psychological resilience. Then, we discuss the relation free play, especially outdoors, declined from about 1960 on.6
of independent activity to well-being from the perspectives Mintz supports the premises that “contemporary children
of self-determination theory and evolutionary mismatch. In are more regimented and constrained than ever before” and
2 final sections, we briefly review the evidence cited, have “fewer socially valued ways to contribute to their family’s
comment on some other putative causes of declining mental well-being or to participate in community life.”7 In systematic
health in youth, and offer some suggestions for pediatric surveys, parents have reported that their children play inde-
practice. Unless otherwise noted or obvious, we use the pendently outdoors far less than they themselves did as chil-
word “children” throughout this article to refer to people dren and that they limit their children’s freedom outdoors
younger than age 18 years. largely because of fears of crime and traffic.8-10

From the 1Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Newton,

MA; 2Department of Anthropology, Utah State University, Logan, UT; and
3
Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL
CIM Children’s independent mobility The authors report no conflict of interest.
LOC Locus of control
SDT Self-determination theory 0022-3476/$ - see front matter. ª 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2023.02.004

1
THE JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS  www.jpeds.com Volume 260  September 2023

Considerable research, mostly in Europe, has focused on depression in high school students from 1950 to 2002, as as-
children’s independent mobility (CIM), defined as children’s sessed by the Depression scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic
freedom to travel in their neighborhood or city without adult Personality Inventory-Adolescent.3 Looking at the scores
accompaniment. That research has revealed significant de- another way, Twenge and her colleagues found that over the
clines in CIM, especially between 1970 and 1990, but also last half of the 20th century, the percentage of young people
some large national differences. For example, surveys who scored above the level that generally signifies an anxiety
regarding the “licenses” (permissions) parents grant to their or depressive disorder, by current Diagnostic and Statistical
children attending elementary school revealed that, in En- Manual of Mental Disorders criteria, increased 5- to 8-fold.3
gland, license to walk home alone from school dropped More recent studies using a variety of measures have shown
from 86% in 1971 to 35% in 1990 and 25% in 2010, and li- continued increases in children’s anxiety and depression in the
cense to use public buses alone dropped from 48% in 1971 early 21st century.18,19 One survey, the Youth Risk Behavior
to 15% in 1990 to 12% in 2010.11 In another study, Surveillance System, conducted annually by the Centers for
comparing CIM in 16 different countries (US not included), Disease Control and Prevention, revealed that, by 2019,
conducted from 2010 to 2012, Finland stood out as allowing 36.7% of high school students ages 14-18 years reported persis-
children the greatest freedom of movement.12 The authors tent feelings of sadness or hopelessness over the past year.18
wrote: “At age 7, a majority of Finnish children can already Perhaps the most compelling and disturbing evidence
travel to places within walking distance or cycle to places comes from studies of suicide and suicidal thoughts. Data
alone; by age 8 a majority can cross main roads, travel compiled by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
home from school and go out after dark alone, by age 9 a ma- indicate that the rate of suicide among children younger than
jority can cycle on main roads alone, and by age 10 a majority age 15 years rose 3.5-fold between 1950 and 2005 and by
can travel on local buses alone.” Although we have found no another 2.4-fold between 2005 and 2020.20,21 No other age
similar studies of parental permissions for US children, other group showed increases nearly this large. By 2019, suicide
data indicate that the US is more like the United Kingdom was the second leading cause of death for children from age
concerning children’s independent mobility than like 10 through 15 years, behind only unintentional injury.21
Finland. For example, National Personal Transportation Sur- Moreover, the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System
veys revealed that only 12.7% walked or biked to school in survey revealed that during the previous year 18.8% of US
2009 compared with 47.7% in 1969.13 high school students seriously considered attempting suicide,
Another constraint on independent activity derives from 15.7% made a suicide plan, 8.9% attempted suicide one or
the increased time children must spend in school and on more times, and 2.5% made a suicide attempt requiring med-
schoolwork at home. Between 1950 and 2010, the average ical treatment.18 We are clearly experiencing an epidemic of
length of the school year in the US increased by 5 weeks.14 psychopathology among young people.
Homework, which was once rare or nonexistent in elemen- What we have described so far is a correlation over decades
tary school, is now common even in kindergarten. One study between declines in children’s independent activity and mental
revealed that the average amount of time that US children in well-being. Correlation, of course, does not prove causation,
school, ages 6-8 years, spent at school plus school homework but is a first step in hypothesizing causation. Through most of
increased by 11.4 hours per week between 1981 and 2003, the rest of this Commentary, we present converging evidence,
equivalent to adding a day and half to an adult’s work from a wide variety of sources, supporting this causal hypothesis.
week.15 Increased school time was often accompanied by
decreased recess. By 2014, the average time spent in recess Immediate Effects of Independent Activity on
(including any recess associated with the lunch period) for Mental Well-Being
elementary schools was just 26.9 minutes a day, and some
schools had no recess at all.16 A major category of independent activity, especially for
young children, is play. Research, as well as everyday observa-
Decline in Children’s Mental Well-Being tion, indicates that play is a direct source of children’s happi-
ness. In one study, for example, 6- to 8-year-old children
Over the same decades that children’s opportunities for inde- were asked to depict activities that made them happy, with
pendent activity have declined greatly, so has children’s mental the result that almost all the depicted activities were identi-
health. One line of evidence comes from cross-temporal meta- fied as play.22 Reviews, including one that is part of an official
analyses of scores on clinical assessment questionnaires that statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics,23 have
were administered to normative or quasi-normative groups summarized evidence for the value of play in promoting chil-
of young people in unchanged form over decades. For example, dren’s mental well-being. Similarly, a recent review of
one such analysis revealed that average scores on the Children’s research on the effects of adding more recess time in elemen-
Manifest Anxiety Scale, for children mostly ages 9-11 years, tary schools revealed consistent findings of improved social
increased by a full SD between 1956 and the late 1980s.17 A and emotional well-being with no loss and sometimes gain
change this large means that roughly 85% of children by the in academic performance.24 Less well-known and discussed,
late 1980s were more anxious than the average child in 1956. however, is evidence that children’s play-like activity appears
A change of roughly this same magnitude was found for to be most satisfying and to fit most closely with children’s

2 Gray, Lancy, and Bjorklund

September 2023 COMMENTARY

own concept of play when it occurs away from adult over- play groups at parks, so opportunities for collaborative play
sight and intervention. among friends were reduced; and (4) the parks afforded fewer
Part of the definition of play favored by many, if not most, ways of playing than the neighborhoods because of the
play researchers, is that it is activity initiated and directed by greater variety of playthings in neighborhoods, where chil-
the players themselves, not by an outside authority.25 This dren could bring out equipment from their homes.
also appears to be a major part of children’s concept of Beyond play, other forms of independent activity also
play. A review of 12 studies in which young children were in- appear to promote young people’s immediate well-being.
terviewed about what is or isn’t play concluded that children For example, an Australian study revealed that active travel
understood play to be an activity “that took place with other to school (walking, cycling, or scootering) correlated posi-
children with little or no involvement from adults.”26 In one tively with a measure of psychological well-being in primary
study, for example, kindergarteners who were shown pictures school children.32 Another study, also in Australia,
of children engaged in activities that looked fun generally concluded that high-school students who held part-time
identified the activity as play only if no adult appeared jobs felt more independent and happier, overall, than those
in the picture.27 They apparently assumed that if an adult without such jobs.33 These feelings were reported to derive
was present, the adult was controlling the activity, so it not just from the money earned, but also from improvements
wasn’t play. in their social lives and enjoyment of the work itself. A recent
In another study, young children were induced to engage article in Nature summarized evidence that independent ad-
in an activity under 1 of 2 conditions.28 In the “like play” con- ventures and active contributions to the welfare of the family
dition the activity was offered as a choice and no adult was or community increase mental well-being in teens.34
nearby during the activity. In the “not like play” condition, Other research has compared indices of stress and psycho-
the children were given no choice about participation, and pathology in students during the school year with those dur-
an adult was directly present during the activity. The result ing summer vacation, when most students have more
was that those in the “like play” condition showed signifi- opportunity for independent activity. A 2014 study of “Stress
cantly more evidence of engagement and happiness (for in America,” conducted by the American Psychological Asso-
example, they leaned into the activity more and smiled ciation, found that teenagers in school were the most stressed
more) than those in the “not like play” condition. Much of people in the US, and 83% of them attributed their stress at
what adults call “play” in schools, including closely super- least partly, if not fully, to school.35 When the survey was
vised recesses, fits the pattern that in this study would be conducted during summer vacation, the percentage report-
the “not like play” condition. ing recent severe stress was cut in half compared with when
Observational studies in natural settings have likewise school was in session. Other research reveals that for young
documented an inhibiting effect of the presence of adults people of school age, but for no other age group, the rates
on children’s play.29 In one, researchers observed children of emergency mental health admissions, attempted suicides,
(including teens) on multiple occasions in 20 different parks and actual suicides are roughly twice as high during weeks
in Durham, North Carolina.30 They found, after controlling when school is in session compared with vacation weeks.36-38
for other variables (such as age and number of children in the
group), that children without an adult caregiver obviously Long-Term Effects of Independent Activity
present were far more likely to be involved in vigorous play on Mental Well-Being
than children who were being monitored by an adult.
Even more telling is a study conducted in Zurich, Beyond promoting immediate mental well-being, children’s
Switzerland, in the early 1990s that compared 5-year-olds independent activity also may help build mental capacities
living in neighborhoods where children of that age were still and attitudes that foster future well-being. One way of
allowed to play unsupervised outdoors to 5-year-olds living thinking about this involves the concept of internal vs
in economically similar neighborhoods where, because of external locus of control (LOC). Internal LOC refers to a per-
traffic, such freedom was denied.31 Parents in the latter group son’s tendency to believe they have control over their life and
were much more likely than those in the former to take their can solve problems as they arise, in contrast to external LOC,
children to parks, where they could play under parental su- which is a tendency to believe their experiences are ruled by
pervision. The main findings were that those who could circumstances beyond their control. Many research studies,
play freely in neighborhoods spent, on average, twice as mostly cross-sectional but some longitudinal, have shown
much time outdoors, were much more active while outdoors, that a low internal LOC, assessed by a standard question-
had more than twice as many friends, and had better motor naire, is highly predictive of anxiety and/or depression in
and social skills than those deprived of such play. The both children and adults.39-43 In addition to documenting
researcher concluded further that trips to the park with par- dramatically increased anxiety and depression among young
ents failed to compensate for lost neighborhood freedom people over the last 4 decades of the 20th century, Twenge
because (1) parents did not have patience or time to stay and her colleagues also documented a dramatic decline in in-
long at the park, so play was constricted in time; (2) parental ternal LOC among them over that same period.44 Logically, it
monitoring reduced children’s freedom to play in vigorous, seems likely that a decline in internal LOC was a mediating
challenging, risky ways; (3) there were usually no consistent cause of the decline in mental well-being.
Decline in Independent Activity as a Cause of Decline in Children’s Mental Well-being: Summary of the 3
Evidence
THE JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS  www.jpeds.com Volume 260

It also seems likely that play and other independent activ- pioneered by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci. The theory’s
ities, where young people must make their own decisions fundamental premise is that people of all ages perform better
and solve their own problems, would promote the develop- and live happier, more satisfying lives when they experience
ment of a strong internal LOC. If children have little experi- themselves as living in accordance with their own internal de-
ence taking control of their own lives, they are unlikely to sires and decisions rather than being driven from outside
develop a strong sense that they can exert such control. And sources by rewards, punishments, and demands from others.
so, we have a cause–effect sequence that plausibly contributes Hundreds of studies support this premise and elaborate on
to the relationship between children’s independent activity it.54,55
and their mental well-being: Experiences of having control Much research within SDT has focused on the psycholog-
/ internal LOC / mental well-being.2 The only study we ical foundations that enable self-determination. This has re-
know of directly assessing the relationship between children’s sulted in a subtheory of SDT referred to as basic
experiences and LOC is one in which young children whose psychological needs theory, which posits that a prerequisite
mothers were more autonomy supportive (as assessed by for a healthy sense of self-determination and, hence, for
observing them as their child worked on a problem-solving mental well-being, is the fulfillment of 3 basic psychological
task) scored greater on internal LOC than did children whose needs: those for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.54
mothers were more controlling or provided unsolicited help.45 The logic of the theory is straightforward. To feel in charge
Several studies have examined relationships between the of one’s life, one must feel free to choose one’s own paths (au-
amount of time young children have for self-directed activ- tonomy); feel sufficiently skilled to pursue those paths
ities at home and psychological characteristics predictive of (competence); and have friends and colleagues for support,
future well-being. These have revealed significant positive including emotional support (relatedness).
correlations between amount of self-structured time (largely Empirical evidence for basic psychological needs theory
involving free play) and (1) scores on 2 different measures of derives from dozens of studies, across cultures and with chil-
executive functioning46,47; (2) indices of emotional control dren as well as adults, showing that fulfillment of these basic
and social ability48; and (3) scores, 2 years later, on a measure needs is highly predictive of mental well-being and success in
of self-regulation.49 There is also evidence that risky play, various life pursuits.56 Research with children has supported
where children deliberately put themselves in moderately the view that the influence of autonomy-supportive
frightening situations (such as climbing high into a tree) parenting on mental well-being is mediated by increases in
helps protect against the development of phobias and reduces self-perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness.57,58
future anxiety by increasing the person’s confidence that they Again, this is consistent with what we would expect logically.
can deal effectively with emergencies.29,50 Play and other self-directed activities are, by definition,
Studies with adults involving retrospections about their autonomous; such activities build skills in endeavors that
childhood experiences provide another avenue of support the children care about, so they promote competence; and
for the idea that early independent activity promotes later such activities are a primary means by which children make
well-being. In one such study, those who reported much friends, so they support relatedness.
free and adventurous play in their elementary school years
were assessed as having more social success, greater self- The Problem from an Evolutionary
esteem, and better overall psychological and physical health Perspective
in adulthood than those who reported less such play.51 In
another very similar study, amount of reported free play in Another way to understand the link between the decline in
childhood correlated positively with measures of social suc- children’s independent activity and decline in their mental
cess and goal flexibility (ability to adapt successfully to well-being involves the concept of evolutionary mismatch,
changes in life conditions) in adulthood.52 Also relevant the contrast between the ancestral conditions in which chil-
here are studies in which adults (usually college students) dren’s innate tendencies and needs would have evolved and
rated the degree to which their parents were overprotective the conditions provided for children’s development today.59
and overcontrolling (a style that would reduce opportunity A survey of hundreds of ethnographic accounts of children in
for independent activity) and were also assessed for their cur- indigenous communities, which are likely more similar to the
rent levels of anxiety and depression. A systematic review of communities of our ancestors than are our developed com-
such studies revealed, overall, positive correlations between munities, revealed that normal childhood in such commu-
the controlling, overprotective parenting style and the mea- nities always entailed much independent activity, personal
sures of anxiety and depression.53 responsibility, and self-initiated exploration and learning.60
Children’s freedom to travel independently in such com-
The Problem from the Perspective of munities is endemic to the roles they are expected to play.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Toddlers, after weaning, are typically passed on to regular
care by older siblings and cousins, who bring them along in
A useful perspective for thinking about the relation between their own active and geographically wide-ranging play. A tod-
independent activity and mental well-being is that of SDT, a dler’s introductions to the animal corrals, fields, nearby river,
rapidly growing domain of psychological research and theory forest, and whole village commonly occur under the eye of a
4 Gray, Lancy, and Bjorklund
September 2023 COMMENTARY

sibling caregiver, not an adult. Indigenous pedagogy is driven from anthropological research supporting the idea of an
by the child’s eagerness to acquire useful skills and become an evolutionary mismatch between the conditions in which
integral part of the community, abetted by the adults’ granting children’s natural tendencies would likely have evolved
the child full access to the community.61 Parents acknowledge and conditions today.
the risks in such hands-off childrearing, but see it is as essential We are not suggesting that a decline in opportunities for in-
to the child’s education.62 As Hewlett noted regarding one dependent activity is the sole cause of the decline in young
foraging society, “Aka mothers express regret when their in- people’s mental well-being over decades, only that it is a cause,
fants cut themselves while playing with knives, but they possibly a major cause. The decline in mental well-being may
don’t want to restrain their exploration and learning.”63 have resulted from a variety of social changes, some of which
In many indigenous societies, children as young as age 5 are intertwined with the decline in independent activity. As
years are expected to contribute to the domestic economy noted earlier, students themselves report that their schooling
and are eager to do so, and there is widespread acknowledg- experiences are a major cause of their psychological distress.35
ment by observers that children’s psychological well-being is That is further supported by evidence that teens in what have
enhanced by these opportunities.64-66 Children are typically been labeled “high-achievement schools,” where pressure for
assigned chores consistent with their level of development. high test scores and ultimate acceptance into elite colleges is
Some of the early assignments involve running errands, to especially high, suffer from anxiety and depression at greater
ever greater distances. The errand-runners will need to navi- levels than is true for teens in schools where such pressures
gate, and thereby learn about, their own neighborhood, the are lower.67,68 The increase in school time and pressure over
larger community, and the surrounding bush (to fetch water, decades may have impacted mental health not just by detract-
firewood, and edible and medicinal plants). ing from time and opportunity for independent activities but
Assuming that conditions in indigenous groups today are also because fear of academic failure, or fear of insufficient
similar to ways of living that predominated throughout hu- achievement, is a direct source of distress.68
man biological history, it is no wonder that natural selection It is also possible that societal changes in childcare other
would have created in children strong drives to become than constraints on children’s independent activity may
involved in the real activities of the community, to learn have contributed to declines in mental well-being. From
through direct experience, and to seek increasing levels of the perspective of evolutionary mismatch, it is noteworthy
trust and independence as they grow, beginning in early that childcare among hunter-gatherers included not only
childhood. Decades ago, in the US and other modern na- much freedom for independent activity as children grew
tions, children still had reasonable opportunities to satisfy beyond toddlerhood but also highly intensive caregiving of
such drives, but that has changed as children have become infants and toddlers, which included almost continuous
ever-more-closely monitored and supervised by adults. Chil- holding, immediate responsiveness to signs of distress, and
dren have remarkable capacities to adapt to prevailing condi- prolonged breastfeeding on demand in a community of care-
tions, but for many this may occur at considerable takers, beyond just the mother.69 There is evidence that de-
psychological cost, including increased anxiety, depression, partures from such care in modern societies can, through
and a reduced sense of agency. epigenetic mechanisms, alter physiological processes in
ways that predispose the child for heightened reactions to
Discussion stressors and mental disorders throughout life, depending
on the degree of such departures.70-72 The question of
We have provided here evidence from a wide variety of sour- whether such departures have increased over the decades
ces that independent activities promote children’s immediate considered in this article is worthy of study.
and future mental well-being. Most of the studies are neces- Much recent discussion of young people’s mental health
sarily correlational and cannot, by themselves, prove causal has focused on the role of increased use of digital technolo-
direction. The power of the argument lies in the converging gies, especially involvement with social media. However, sys-
findings from such a large variety of studies. tematic reviews of research into this have provided little
We have reviewed research showing correlations between support for the contention that either total screen time or
children’s independent activity and mental well-being over time involved with social media is a major cause of, or
decades, across cultures, across neighborhoods, across even correlate of, declining mental health. One systematic re-
context (school vs out of school), across parenting styles, view concluded that research on links between digital tech-
and across immediate conditions of control vs freedom. It nology use and teens’ mental health “has generated a mix
is reasonable to suggest that many of these correlations of often conflicting small positive, negative and null associa-
involve two-way causation, with increased freedom pro- tions.”73 Another, a “review of reviews” concluded that “the
moting increased well-being and increased well-being pro- association between digital technology use, or social media
moting increased freedom, but it would be hard to argue use in particular, and psychological well-being is, on average,
that this is true for all of them (some were experimental in negative but very small” and noted some evidence, from lon-
design) or that the reverse causal direction accounts for gitudinal research, that negative correlations may result from
the bulk of the findings. Moreover, as we have shown, the declining mental health leading to more social media use
findings are consistent with expectations from SDT and rather than the reverse.74
Decline in Independent Activity as a Cause of Decline in Children’s Mental Well-being: Summary of the 5
Evidence
THE JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS  www.jpeds.com Volume 260

Implications for Pediatric Practice At the broader societal level, pediatricians might bring
their stature and knowledge to bear in discussions with edu-
All in all, the evidence convinces us that the decline in chil- cators, social workers, city planners, legislators, and commu-
dren’s independent activity and, hence, in mental well- nity leaders about policies and programs that limit or expand
being is a national and international health crisis and should children’s opportunities for independent activities. The
be treated as such. Unlike other crises, such as the coronavi- nonprofit organization Let Grow has been working effec-
rus disease 2019 epidemic, it has crept up on us gradually, tively for several years, with some success, to bring free play
over decades, so many have barely noticed it. Some young and other independent adventures into public schools, to
parents are unaware that 5 or 6 decades ago, when their alter state laws to give parents more freedom to make their
own parents were children, those as young as 5 or 6 years own reasoned judgments about what is safe for their children,
were largely free to explore and play away from direct adult and to provide a catalog for parents and teachers of ways and
oversight, and children and teens suffered far less than they reasons to allow children more independence.79 (For full
do today from anxiety and depression. Moreover, unlike disclosure, we note that the lead author of this article is on
other health crises, this one is not the result of a malignant the board of directors of Let Grow.) Pediatricians might
virus or unsanitary conditions but is the result of good inten- introduce this resource as well as others to policy makers
tions carried too far—intentions to protect children and pro- and parents. n
vide what many believed to be better (interpreted as more)
schooling, both in and out of actual schools. The authors thank Michael Yogman, MD, and Diane Redleaf, Esq, for
their helpful comments on an early draft. Neither has funding related
Parents today are regularly subject to messages about the to this work, but Redleaf serves as legal counsel for Let Grow.
dangers that might befall unsupervised children and the value
of high achievement in school.75 However, they hear little of
Reprint requests: Peter Gray, PhD, Department of Psychology and
the countervailing messages that if children are to grow up Neuroscience, Boston College, 17 Dean St, Millis, MA 02054. E-mail: grayp@
well-adjusted, they need ever-increasing opportunities for in- bc.edu
dependent activity, including self-directed play and mean-
ingful contributions to family and community life, which References
are signs that they are trusted, responsible, and capable.
They need to feel they can deal effectively with the real world, 1. American Academy of Pediatrics. AAP-AACAP-CHA declaration of
not just the world of school. Even parents who recognize that a national emergency in child and adolescent mental health. 2021.
their children are capable of and would benefit from more in- Accessed August 15, 2022. https://www.aap.org/en/advocacy/child-and-
adolescent-healthy-mental-development/aap-aacap-cha-declaration-of-a-
dependence, and would not be seriously endangered, are national-emergency-in-child-and-adolescent-mental-health/
often reluctant to allow it because of realistic fears that they 2. Gray P. The decline of play and rise of psychopathology in childhood and
might be accused of negligence by neighbors or, worse, by po- adolescence. Am J Play 2011;3:443-63.
lice and child protective services.76,77 3. Twenge JM, Gentile B, DeWall CN, Ma D, Lacefield K, Schurtz DR. Birth
What can pediatricians do to ameliorate this crisis? They cohort increases in psychopathology among young Americans, 1938-
2007: a cross-temporal meta-analysis of the MMPI. Clin Psychol Rev
might talk with parents about their children’s opportunities 2010;30:145-54.
for independent, confidence-building activities. They might 4. Rutherford MB. Adult supervision required: private freedom and public
present an overview of the findings of studies such as those constraints for parents and children. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Uni-
described in this report, explain concepts such as locus of versity Press; 2011.
control and basic psychological needs, and ask parents about 5. Dutton YC, G€ urcan-Yildirim D. Growing gaps in enacted and ideational
independence. In: Mahmoudi H, Mintz S, eds. Children and globaliza-
their children’s independent activities and the constraints tion: multidisciplinary perspectives. New York: Routledge; 2019. p.
and fears that limit those freedoms. They might brainstorm 165-200.
with parents about how to overcome the constraints and 6. Chudacoff HP. Children at play: an American history. New York: New
dampen the fears, given the child’s maturity, the neighbor- York University Press; 2007.
hood, and the family’s living conditions. Parents in some 7. Mintz S. Huck’s raft: a history of American childhood. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press; 2006. preface p x.
neighborhoods have worked together to create places and 8. Clements R. An investigation of the status of outdoor play. Contemp Is-
times where children can play freely with other children, sues Early Child 2004;5:68-80.
with an adult present just for safety, not to manage the play.78 9. Faulkner G, Mitra R, Buliung R, Fusco C, Stone M. Children’s outdoor
Pediatricians might also talk with parents about how to playtime, physical activity, and parental perceptions of the neighbour-
teach children to be safe in their independent activities— hood environment. Int J Play 2015;4:84-97.
10. O’Brien J, Smith J. Childhood transformed? Risk perceptions and the
how to cross streets, the safety rules for bicycling, the advan- decline of free play. Br J Occup Ther 2002;65:123-8.
tages of moving about with siblings or friends rather than 11. Shaw B, Watson B, Frauendienst B, Redecker A, Jones T, with
alone (there is safety in numbers), how to ask for help Hillman M. Children’s independent mobility: a comparative study in
when needed, and the like—as an alternative to depriving England and Germany (1971-2010). London: Policy Studies Institute;
them of such activities. Children as young as 5 or 6 years 2013.
12. Shaw B, Bicket M, Elliott B, Fagan-Watson B, Mocca E, with Hillman M.
are capable of understanding and abiding by such rules and Children’s independent mobility: an international comparison and rec-
even developing new safety rules of their own. ommendations for action. London: Policy Studies Institute; 2015.

6 Gray, Lancy, and Bjorklund

September 2023 COMMENTARY

13. McDonald NC, Brown AL, Lauren M, Marchetti LM, Pedroso MS. US 35. American Psychological Association. Stress in America: are teens adopt-
school travel, 2009: an assessment of trends. Am J Prev Med 2011;41: ing adults’ stress habits? 2014. Accessed August 15, 2022. https://www.
146-51. apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2013/stress-report.pdf
14. Column Five. Infographic: American schools: 1950s vs. today. Column five 36. Hansen B, Lang M. Back to school blues: seasonality of youth suicide and
media. Column five. 2022. Accessed August 15, 2022. https://www. the academic calendar. Econ Educ Rev 2011;30:850-1.
columnfivemedia.com/work/infographic-americas-schools-1950s-vs-today/ 37. Lueck C, Kearl L, Lam CN, Claudiu I. Do emergency pediatric psychiat-
15. Juster T, Ono H, Stafford FP. Changing times of American youth: 1981- ric visits for danger to self or others correspond to times of school atten-
2003. University of Michigan Institute for Social Research Child Devel- dance? Am J Emerg Med 2015;33:682-4.
opment Supplement. 2004. Accessed August 15, 2022. http://ns.umich. 38. Plemmons G, Hall M, Doupnik S, Gay J, Brown C, Browning W, et al.
edu/Releases/2004/Nov04/teen_time_report.pdf Hospitalization for suicide ideation or attempt: 2008-2015. Pediatrics
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. School health policies and 2018;141:e20172426. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-2426
practices study: 2014 overview. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health 39. Sullivan SA, Thompson A, Kounali D, Lewis G, Zammi S. The longitu-
and Human Services; 2015. dinal association between external locus of control, social cognition and
17. Twenge JM, Foster JD. The age of anxiety? Birth cohort changes in anx- adolescent psychopathology. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol
iety and neuroticism, 1952-1993. J Pers Soc Psychol 2000;79:1007-21. 2017;52:643-55.
18. Bitsko RH, Claussen AH, Lichstein J, Black LI, Jones SE, Danielson ML, 40. Cheung CCS, Chio JH, Chan MS. Cultural meaning of perceived control:
et al. Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2013- a meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across
2019. MMWR Suppl 2022;71:1-42. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr. 18 cultural regions. Psychol Bull 2013;139:152-88.
su7102a1 41. Gallagher MW, Bentley KH, Barlow DH. Perceived control and vulner-
19. Twenge J, Cooper AB, Jointer TE, Duffy ME, Binau SG. Age, period, and ability to anxiety disorders: a meta-analytic review. Cogn Ther Res
cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes 2014;38:571-84.
in a nationally representative dataset, 2005-2017. J Abnorm Psychol 42. Groth N, Schnyde N, Kaess M, Markovic A, Rietschel L, Moser S, et al.
2019;128:185-99. Coping as a mediator between locus of control, competence beliefs,
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Death rates for suicide, 1950- and mental health: a systematic review and structural equation model-
2010. Infoplease. Accessed August 15, 2022. https://www.infoplease.com/ ling meta-analysis. Behav Res Ther 2019;121:103442. https://doi.org/
us/health-statistics/death-rates-suicide-1950-2010#axzz0zVy5PKaL 10.1016/j.brat.2019.103442
21. Garnett MF, Curtin SC, Stone DM. Suicide mortality in the United 43. Weems CF, Silverman WK. An integrative model of control: implica-
States, 2000-2020. NCHS data brief, no 433. Hyattsville, MD: National tions for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in child-
Center for Health Statistics; 2022. hood anxiety. J Affect Disord 2006;91:113-24.
22. Moore A, Lynch H. Understanding a child’s conceptualisation of well- 44. Twenge JM, Zhang L, Im C. It’s beyond my control: a cross-temporal
being through an exploration of happiness: the centrality of play, people meta-analysis of increasing externality in locus of control, 1960-2002.
and place. J Occup Science 2018;25:124-41. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 2004;8:308-19.
23. Yogman M, Garner A, Hutchinson J, Hirsh-Pasek K, Golinkoff RM. The 45. Carton JS, Nowicki S, Balser GM. An observational study of antecedents
power of play: a pediatric role in enhancing development in young chil- of locus of control of reinforcement. Int J Behav Dev 1996;19:161-75.
dren. Pediatrics 2018;142:1-16. 46. Barker JE, Semenov AD, Michaelson L, Provan LS, Snyder HR,
24. Burson SL, Castelli DM. How elementary in-school play opportunities Munakata Y. Less-structured time in children’s daily lives predicts self-
relate to academic achievement and social-emotional wellbeing: system- directed executive functioning. Front Psychol 2014;5:593. https://doi.
atic review. J Sch Health 2022;92:945-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh. org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00593
13217 47. Stucke NJ, Stoet G, Doebel S. What are the kids doing? Exploring young
25. Gray P. Definitions of play. Scholarpedia 2013;8:30578. https://doi.org/ children’s activities at home and relations with externally cued executive
10.4249/scholarpedia.30578 function and child temperament. Dev Sci 2022;25:e13226. https://doi.
26. Goodhall N, Atkinson C. How do children distinguish between ‘play’ org/10.1111/desc.13226
and ‘work’? Conclusions from the literature. Early Child Dev Care 48. Lehrer JS, Petrakos HH, Venkatesh V. Grade 1 students’ out-of-school
2019;189:1695-708. play and its relationship to school-based academic, behavior, and crea-
27. Howard J, Jenvey V, Hill C. Children’s categorisation of play and tivity outcomes. Early Educa Dev 2014;25:295-317.
learning based on social context. Early Child Dev Care 2006;176:379-93. 49. Colliver Y, Harrison LJ, Brown JE, Humburg P. Free play predicts
28. Howard J, McInnes K. The impact of children’s perception of an activity self-regulation years later: longitudinal evidence from a large Australian
as play rather than not play on emotional well-being. Child Care Health sample of toddlers and preschoolers. Early Child Res Q 2022;59:
Dev 2012;39:737-42. 148-61.
29. Gray P. Risky play: why children love it and need it. In: Loebach J, 50. Kennair L, Sandseter E, Ball D. Risky play and growing up: how to un-
Little S, Cox A, Owens PE, eds. Fostering the inclusion of youth in the derstand the overprotection of the next generation. In: Kaufman A, ed.
public realm: design processes, practices, and policies for the creation Pseudoscience: the conspiracy against science. Cambridge, MA: MIT
of youth-inclusive public outdoor environments. New York: Routledge; Press; 2018. p. 171-94.
2020. p. 39-51. 51. Greve W, Thomsen T, Dehio C. Does playing pay? The fitness-effect of
30. Floyd M, Bocarro J, Smith W, Baran P, Moore R, Cosco N, et al. Park- free play during childhood. Evol Psychol 2014;12:434-47.
based physical activity among children and adolescents. Am J Prev 52. Greve W, Thomsen T. Evolutionary advantages of free play during child-
Med 2011;41:258-65. hood. Evol Psychol 2016;14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704916675349
31. H€ uttenmoser M. Children and their living surroundings: empirical in- 53. Vigdal JS, Bronnick KK. A systematic review of “helicopter parenting”
vestigations into the significance of living surroundings for the everyday and its relationship with anxiety and depression. Front Psychol
life and development of children. Child Envir 1995;12:403-13. 2022;13:872981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872981
32. Stark J, Meschik M, Singleton PA, Schutzhofer B. Active school travel, 54. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Self-determination theory: basic psychological needs
attitudes, and psychological well-being of children. Transport Res Part in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford; 2017.
F 2018;56:453-65. 55. Ryan RM, Huta V, Deci EL. Living well: a self-determination theory
33. Robinson L. The effects of part-time work on school students. Victoria, perspective on eudaimonia. J Happiness Stud 2008;9:139-70.
Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research, Ltd; 1999. 56. Vansteenkiste M, Ryan R, Soenens B. Basic psychological needs theory:
34. Fuligni AJ, Galvan A. Young people need experiences to boost their advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivat Emot
mental health. Nature 2022;620:253-6. 2020;44:1-31.

Decline in Independent Activity as a Cause of Decline in Children’s Mental Well-being: Summary of the 7
Evidence
THE JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS  www.jpeds.com Volume 260

57. Kaap-Deeder J, Vansteenkiste M, Soenens B, Mabbe E. Children’s daily 69. Gleason TR, Narvaez D. Childhood environments and flourishing. In:
well-being: the role of mothers’, teachers’, and siblings’ autonomy sup- Narvaez D, Valentino K, Fuentes A, McKenna JJ, Gray P, eds. Ancestral
port and psychological control. Dev Psychol 2017;53:237-51. landscapes in human evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2014.
58. Veronneau M, Koestner RF, Abela JRZ. Intrinsic need satisfaction and p. 335-8.
well-being in children and adolescents: an application of the self- 70. Tarsha MS, Narvaez D. Effects of adverse childhood experience and
determination theory. J Soc Clin Psychol 2005;24:280-92. physiological regulation are moderated by evolved developmental niche
59. Bjorklund DF. How children invented humanity: the role of develop- history. Hist Philos Logic 2022;35:488-500.
ment in human evolution. New York: Oxford University Press; 2021. 71. Hambrick EP, Brawner TW, Perry BD, Brand K, Hofmeister C,
60. Lancy DF. The anthropology of childhood: cherubs, chattel, changelings, Collins JO. Beyond the ACE score: examining relationships between
3rd ed.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2022. timing of developmental adversity, relational health and developmental
61. Lancy DF. Learning without lessons: pedagogy in indigenous commu- outcomes in children. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 2019;33:238-47.
nities. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2023. 72. Wrigley ILCM, Mascheroni E, Bonichini S, Montirosso R. Epigenetic
62. Lancy DF. Playing with knives: the socialization of self-initiated learners. protection: maternal touch and DNA-methylation in early life. Cur
Child Dev 2016;87:654-65. Opin Behav Sci 2022;43:111-7.
63. Hewlett BL. Listen, here is a story. New York: Oxford University Press; 73. Odgers CL, Jensen MR. Annual research review. Adolescent mental
2013. p. 65-6. health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. J Child Psy-
64. Lancy DF. Child helpers: a multidisciplinary perspective. Cambridge: chol Psychiatry 2020;61:336-84.
Cambridge University Press; 2020. 74. Orben A. Teenagers, screens and social media: a narrative review of re-
65. Leavitt S. The bikhet mystique: masculine identity and patterns of rebel- views and key studies. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2020;55:
lion among Bumbita adolescent males. In: GH Herdt GH, Leavitt S, eds. 407-14.
Adolescence in Pacific Island societies. Pittsburgh, PA: University of 75. Skenazy L. Free-range kids: how parents and teachers can let go and let
Pittsburgh Press; 1998. p. p173-94. grow, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass; 2021.
66. White B. Changing childhoods: Javanese village children in three gener- 76. Redleaf DL. “Reasonable childhood independence” laws expand chil-
ations. J Agrar Change 2012;12:81-97. dren’s rights to sometimes be alone—when they are ready. Guardian
67. Ebbert AM, Kumar NL, Luthar SS. Complexities in adjustment patterns 2021;43:19-21.
among the “best and the brightest”: risk and resilience in the context of 77. Redleaf DL. The challenge of changing amorphous, limitless neglect laws
high achieving schools. Res Hum Dev 2019;16:21-34. in a family surveillance society. FIJ Quarterly 2022;1:120-31.
68. Luthar S, Kumar N, Zillmer N. High-achieving schools connote risks for 78. Lanza M. Playborhood: turn your neighborhood into a place for play.
adolescents: problems documented, processes implicated, and directions Menlo Park, CA: Free Play Press; 2012.
for interventions. Am Psychol 2020;75:983-95. 79. Let grow. Accessed August 15, 2022. https://letgrow.org/

8 Gray, Lancy, and Bjorklund