SYLLABUS

Class – B.C.A. III Sem.

Subject – Management Information System

UNIT – I The meaning and use MIS, System View of Business, Process of
MIS, Development of MIS within the organization, Management
Process, Information Needs, System Approach in Planning
Organizing and Controlling MIS.

UNIT – II Planning, Implementation and Controlling of Management

Information System.

UNIT – III Fundamentals of Data Processing, Computer Operation of Manual

Information System, Components of Computer Systems, Flow
Chart, Conversion of Manual to Computer Based Systems, Computer
Systems Software, Application Software, Telecommunication
Modem.

UNIT – IV Managerial Decision Making, characteristics and components of

Decision Support System.

UNIT – V System Design: System design consideration, input/output design,

forms design, file organization and database, data management,
file design, program design, control and security.

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 INTRODUCTION TO MIS
Definition of MIS
A system that collects, process, stores the data and distributes information to help in decision
making for managerial function. It is also defined as the integrated user machine system for
providing information to supports the decision-making operations & achieving organizational goal.
According to Jerome “A system that aids management in making, carrying out and controlling
decisions”.
According to Kelley, “A combination of human and computer-based resources which results in
collection, storage, retrieval, communication and use of efficient management of operations and for
business planning”.

Right Information→To the right person →At the right place→At the right time→ In the right
form→At the right cost

MIS

Management Information System

Management: - Management covers the planning, control and administration of the operations of
aconcern.
Information: - Information, in MIS, means the processed data that helps the management in
planning, controlling and operations.
System: - data is processed into information with the help of a system.

Need of MIS
MIS helps the management at various levels and it is mean of communication where data are
collected, processed, stored and retrieved for making decisions regarding planning, operation and
control of an organization.

Characteristics of MIS
Management Oriented
Management Directed
Integrated System
Avoid Redundancy
Common Data Flow
Heavy Planning Element
Subsystem Concept
Common Database
Flexibility
Computerization

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 Components of MIS
Management information system refers to the data, hardware and the computer programs that are
used to develop information for managerial use.
People – it is the only living component of MIS which operates, controls the other
components of MIS.
Procedure – procedure explain people how to operate the computer hardware.
Data – Data provide interface between the user and computer.
Hardware – It is the machine part of the system which executes the instruction in programs.
Programs – The program is the set of instruction written in logical order for performing
specific task related to information production.

Functions of MIS
It is used to collect the data and present the information to the managers. MIS is the combination of
computer and procedures for providing information that manager’s use in making decision.
Collect Data – Data can be obtained from sources within organization and outside world.
Store & Process Data – After creation of the data, a database must be stored and process in
the form useful to manager’s data is generally stored to CD ROM or hard disk.
Present Information to Managers – After collection, storing and processing of data, the next
step is to present information to the managers.

Role of MIS
1 MIS ensure that appropriate and relevant data is collected from various sources, processed and is
sent further to the needy destination.
2 It fulfills the need of individual, workgroup and management.
3. MIS satisfies the diverse need of various systems like query, Analysis, Modeling, DSS.
4 MIS helps in strategic planning, management control, operational control and transaction
processing level.
5 MIS play important role in information generation, communication, problem identification and
decision-making administration.
6 With good MIS support marketing, finance, production, and personal functions increases
efficiently.
7 MIS helps in streamlining of the operations.
8 MIS creates structured database and therefore saves the time.
9 MIS bring clarity in communication and understanding this help in bringing high degree of
professionalism.
10 MIS helps in systemization of business operation through tools and techniques of the computer,
which makes task simpler, accurate and faster.

Process of MIS
The process of MIS starts by knowing MIS objectives. The objectives of MIS should be compatible
with the company’s objectives.
Management comprises process or activities they are as follows: -
1. Recognition of a problem and an opportunity
2. Define problem or opportunity
3. Develop alternative course of action
4. Decision
5. Implementation of plan
6. Control performance against plan

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For its smooth functioning and achieving of its predetermined goals through optimal utilization of
its resources like men, money, material and machines.

System View of Business

The systems approach provides an overall view of an organization’s activities whereby an
organization is separated into identifiable subsystems or departments. All such departments are
interdependent and perform specific tasks of work which contribute to the organization’s goals. The
simplest model of a business system consists of basic elements, they are input, processes, output and
feedback.
Systems view regards business operations as systems embedded within a larger environmental
setting. It‟s an abstract way of thinking, but it has potential value to the manager. The systems view:
1. reduces complexity
2. requires good objectives
3. emphasizes working together
4. acknowledges interconnections
5. values feedback
Eg. Computer
Elements of computer are: - Monitor, CPU, Printer etc
Basic goals: Data Processing

Development of MIS within the Organization

If MIS is to assist managerial decision making at all level of company, then low organization level
information systems must be integrated in MIS. Next stage is planning & control. Next stage of MIS
development is integration of subsystems. Management plans to integrate existing sub system to
unified system. The management focuses attention to database administration. Next stage is MIS
maturity. This is to state when MIS department is agreed up to plan future needs for organization.

Management Process
Management comprises process or activities via planning, organizing, controlling, directing and
initiating operation of an organization. For its smooth functioning and achieving of its
predetermined goals through optimal utilization of its resources like men, money, material and
machines.

Concept of Data & Information

Data – Data is a set of characters or symbols like numeric, alphabetic or alphanumeric, audio, video,
images or any combination of these. Raw facts & figure are known as data.

Information –Processed data is known as information.

System – System is set of components which interact with each other to accomplish a specific goal.
1 Human body and its subsystem could be nervous system, digestive system and cardiac system
etc
2 Computer system and it has various subsystem like ALU, CU, Memory, Input unit and Output
unit etc.

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 Characteristics of system
Every system has a purpose.
Every system is made up of components like input process output, feedback and control etc.
System is made up of subsystem, whose goals are referred to as sub goals.
Goal of a system is more important than subsystem goal.
Systems whether open or closed have an element of control associated with them.

Types of System
There are several ways of classifying systems that emphasizes the differences. Classification of
systemis as follows-

Open & Closed Systems –An open system interfaces and interacts with other system. An open
system needs to receive feedback to change and continue to exist in its environment. Example – A
marketing system is an open system.
A closed system does not exchange the information with its environment. It does not have any
connection to the other system. Example – Research & development of organization, ICU dept. of
hospital, etc.

Physical & Abstract System – Physical system are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in
operations. For example, the physical parts of the computer center are the computers, desk, chair,
etc. that facilitate operation of the computer.

Abstract systems are conceptual and non-physical entities. They may be formulas of relationship
among set of variables or models, software / program.

Deterministic & Probabilistic System – A deterministic system works with certainty in predictable
manner. The interaction among its subsystem is known in advance. One state of the system determines
the next state of the system.
Example – A computer system which works on the principal GIGO.
A probabilistic system operates with uncertainty as certain degree of error is always attached with
prediction of what the system will do.
Example – A student admission system in a college is probable in nature.
Systems approach is an organized way of dealing with a problem.

Information system
Information system are a set of people, procedure and resources that collects, transforms and
disseminates information in an organization
There are six building block of information system, is the input, output, technology, models,
database and control.
Types of Information System- there are two types of information system.
1 Operation Information system – it processes the data generated by and used in business
operation.It is of two types: -
Transaction processing system
Office Automation system
2 Management information System – MIS provide information to support management decision
making.
Decision Support System
Executive Information System

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 Business organization as a system
An organization is an open, adaptive system in a business environment. A business consists of
following system component –
1 Input 2 Processing 3 Outputs
4 Feedback 5 Control 6 Environment

Information Needs
There are different levels of the organization and the information requirement is different for the
different layers.
At the organizational level, information requirements define an overall structure for the
information system and specific applications and database.
Application-level requirements include social or behavioral- covering work organization
objectives, individual roles and responsibility assumptions, and organizational policies and
technical, which are based on the information needed for the job to be performed.
At the user level, database requirement can be classified as perceived by the user or as
required for physical design of the database.

System approach in planning, organizing & Controlling MIS

System Approach in Planning – The important function of management is planning. Planning
means deciding in advance, what has to be done, who has to do it, when is to be done and how it is
to be done. The planning process consist of two steps –
1) Developing the strategic
2) Formulating the steps, timing and cost, required to achieve the strategy.

System Approach in Organizing – Organizing is important to manager because it helps in effective

group action. It also helps in maintaining the people to work together. It consists of following
points
–
1 The formal organization system as described in chart policies and procedure.
2 The informal organizing.
3 The individual as a system
4 The organizational communication system.
5 The power system.
6 The functional system.
7 The management process system.
8 The material logistic system.

The different phases of organizing are:

Develop a technical organization
Start with total company objectives and develop a hierarchy of systems required.
Involve specialists in developing a team, matrix or a system.

System Approach in Controlling – Controlling is important because it is needed to achieve the

desire result. The most common process consists of three step-
1 Setting standard for performance – It involves what level of performance we need. These
criteria can be quantitative or qualitative.

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 2 Measuring performance against this standard – once standard has been established it is
necessary to measure performance against standards.
3 Deviation Control – we know that for measuring the deviation, first comparison of
standard with actual performance is made.

Why MIS Fails?

MIS failures can be expensive and bring bad publicity to all parties. They can arise due
to:
Inadequate analysis- problems, needs and constraints aren’t understood in the early stages.
Lack of management involved in the design – wrong expectations of a new system / no-one
understands the system.
Emphasis on the computer system – Need procedures for handling input and output / select
the right hardware and software
Concentration on low-level data processing – Information must be easily accessible and
understood
Lack of management knowledge of ICT systems and capabilities – managers know what
they want from the system but don’t understand the technology
Lack of teamwork – An ICT manager must co-ordinate the accounts, marketing, sales etc.
departments and help everyone understand the benefits of the system
Lack of professional standards – All systems need clear documentation that all users can
understand (not just the ICT literate)

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 Unit II
General Business Planning

Starting point for MIS planning is general business planning. No MIS department can decide what they
should do or how they should do it without the groundwork provided by objectives and plans for the
company they are supporting.

General Business Item Importance

Statement of mission or purpose Clearly defines the business of the firms.
Objectives set goals for the company in all key performance areas
Strategic plans Provide general guidance on how to get to the long-
Range objective
Operating plans provide detailed guidance on how to get to the short-
term objectives

Statement of Objectives
Mission and Marketing
Innovation
Human
organization
Financial resources
Physical resources
Productivity
Social
responsibility

General Specific High Lower- Very

Needs and Needs and Level Plan Level Plan detailed
Objective Objective plan
Strategic Operating
Plans Plans

High Level Lower Level Very Detailed

Implementatio Implementatio Implementatio
n n n

The following items should certainly be included to understand what planning constitute-
1. Summary statement of the problem being solved by this project is required.
2. A breakdown of the work to be done (as detailed as practical) is required. Also estimates of how
long each piece will take are needed. Documentation, testing, and maintenance efforts should be
included.
3. A list of dependencies on outside groups with target dates for “delivery” of services or equipment
is required.
4. A list of outside group that depend on this project with target dates for delivery is required.
5. A list of interdependencies of various pieces within this project with dates of need/delivery is
required.
6. The skills needed to complete the project should be listed. Eventually, the people who work on
the project must match this list exactly.

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 7. Other resources needed to complete the project must be identified (e.g., space, computer
hardware, and telephones). Dates these items are needed must be specified.
8. A budget covering salary, rent, capital expenditure, and so on must be part of the plan.
9. A statement of the reporting and tracking system to be used must be included.
10. A schedule of activities reflecting all the above work and interdependencies is required.
11. A backup plan if any piece of the plan fails must be supplied.

Planning Techniques
Most of the techniques and tools have been borrowed from engineering project management theory and
practice, where they originated.

Work Breakdown structure

A fundamental concept in project management is the work breakdown structure, which starts with the
total end result desired and terminates with the individual detailed tasks. The project breakdown
structure is a natural decomposition of the project end result. It is created in a level-by-level breakdown
from –
1. System to subsystem
2. Subsystem to task
3. Task to subtask
4. Subtask to work package

Sequence Planning
The relationships among tasks must be set forth by a chronological ordering, starting with the terminal
task of the project and working backward. As each task is set down, it is necessary to determine what
immediately preceding tasks must first be completed. When a network of events has been established,
estimates of the time required to complete each event, based upon the work package information, may
be entered. There are a number of time paths through a network that run from the starting event to the
terminal event. The longest is called the critical path.

Master Program Schedule

The master program schedule (MPS) is a management document giving the calendar dates for milestones
(major tasks and critical path minors tasks), thus providing the control points for management review.
The MPS may be in the form of a Gantt chart for small MIS projects or in machine (computer) printout for
large projects whose networks have been programmed for computer analysis and reporting.

Budgeting
The establishment of cost and resource targets for a planned series of periods in advance is project
budgeting. Although cost constraints may be applied in a top-down fashion during planning, such
constraints must be reconciled with a bottom-up approach through the work breakdown structure.

Reporting and controlling

Control of the project means control of performance/cost/time (P/C/T). These elements, P/C/T, must
be reported in a way that ties them all together, otherwise the report is meaningless.

Reporting Techniques
The reporting system for a project is its own MIS. Some methods of project reporting are
1. Integrated P/C/T charts as shown in Figure 6-4
2. Financial schedules and variance reports.
3. Time-scaled network plans and computerized based on them.
4. Problem analysis and trend charts
5. Project control room and computerized room and computerized graphic systems.

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 Implementation of MIS
There are four basic methods for implementing the MIS once the design has been completed. This are–
1. Cut off the old system and install the new. This produces a time gap during which no system. Small
is n operation. It is practical only for small companies or small systems where installation
required one or two dates. An exception to this would be the installation of a larger system during
a plant’s vacation shut down or some other period of inactivity.
2. Cut over by segments. This method is also referred to as “phasing in” the new system. Small parts
or subsystems are substituted for the old. If this method is possible, some careful questions
should be asked about the design of the new system. Is it really just an automation of isolated
groups of clerical activities? Generally, new systems are not substitutable piece by piece for
previous non systems. However, in the case of upgrading old system, this may be a very desirable
method.
3. Operate in parallel and cut over. The new system is installed and operated in parallel with the
current system until it has been checked out; then the current system is cut out. This method is
expensive because of personnel and related costs. However, it is required in certain essential
systems, such as payroll or customer billing. Its big advantage is that the system is fairly well
debugged when it becomes the essential information system of the company.

Identity the Implementation Tasks

The major implementation tasks, or milestones, usually consist of
1. Planning the implementation activities.
2. Acquiring and laying out facilities and offices
3. Organizing the personnel for implementation
4. Developing procedures for installation and testing
5. Developing the training program for operating personnel
6. Completing the system’s software
7. Acquiring required hardware
8. Generating files
9. Designing forms
10. Testing of the entire system
11. Completing cutover to the new system
12. Documenting the system
13. Evaluating the MIS
14. Providing system maintenance (debugging and improving)

Planning the implementation activities

Establish Relationships among Tasks
Establish a schedule
Prepare a Cost schedule Tied to tasks and time
Establish a reporting and control system

Acquire Floor space and Plan space layout

To replace a current one may require a major revision of facilities as well as completely new office,
computer room, and production layouts. The MIS project manager must prepare rough layouts and
costumes of particular floor areas he or she feels will be needed. The manager should then prepare cost
estimates and submit a proposal for management’s approval. Facilities and space planning should begin
as soon as approval of gross space allocations has been obtained.

Organize for implementation

Once the implementation tasks have been defined in the planning phase, management usually assign a
project manager to guide the implementation. A manager of management information systems may

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assume this responsibility by virtue of a permanent assignment. In smaller companies, someone from the
finance.

Development Procedures for implementation

The project leader has available the network plan for proceeding with the implementation. The leader
must now call upon key people in the project to prepare more detailed procedures for system installation.

Train the operating personnel

Should be developed to impress upon management and support personnel the nature and goals of the
MIS and to train operating personnel in their new duties.

Computer-related Acquisitions
The management of automation of logic, communication, and display is important as a basis for systems
design and as a factor in system implementation. One complicating factor in system installation is that a
new computer is often required along with the new MIS.
Acquisition consists of bringing on site
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Personnel
4. Materials

Development forms for data collection and information dissemination

A vast amount of detailed data, both external and internal to the company, must be collected for input to
the MIS. If control marketing is to be exercised or sales forecasting is carried out, then somewhere, every
day, a salesperson must sit in a room and fill out a form summarizing the day’s activities.

Develop the Files

The specification for the files has been developed in the detailed design stage. In the implementation
stage, the actual data must be obtained and recorded for the initial testing and operation of the system.
This collection of data used in routine operations is often called the master file.

Test the System

Each part of the total system is installed, test should be performed in accordance with the teat
specifications and procedures describes earlier. Tests during the installation stage consist of component
tests, subsystem tests, and total system acceptance test. Components may consist of –
1. Equipment, old or new
2. New forms’
3. New software programs
4. New data collection methods
5. New work procedure
6. New reporting formats

Cutover
Cutover is the point at which the new component replaces the old component or the new system replaces
the old system. This usually involves a good deal of last-minute physical transfer of files, rearrangement
of office furniture, and movement of work stations and people. Old forms, old files and old equipment are
suddenly out of date.

Document the system

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“Documentation” of the MIS means preparation of written description of the scope, purpose, information
flow components and operating procedures of the system. Documentation is not a frill; it is a necessity –
for troubleshooting, for replacement of subsystems, for interfacing with other systems, for training new
operating personnel, and also for evaluating and upgrading systems.

Evaluate the MIS

After the MIS has been operating smoothly for a short period of time, an evaluation of each step in the
design and of the final system performance should be made.

Control and Maintain the System

Control and maintenance of the system are the responsibilities of the line managers. Control of the system
means the operation of the system as it was designed to operate. Maintenance is closely related to control.
Maintenance is that ongoing activity that keeps the MIS at the highest levels of effectiveness and efficiency
within cost constraints.

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 Unit III
BCA III
SEM
Management Information System

Data: - Raw facts and figures are known as data.

Information: - Processed data is known as information.

Process
DATA INFORMATION

Data Processing – it is basically concern with converting raw data in to well order information.
Need for data processing – it reduces the paper work for increasing volume of data.
Data processing Activities: -

Collection Conversion Manipulation Storage Communication

Originating Coding Sorting Storing Reproduction

Measuring Classifying Calculating Retrieving
Recording Verifying Summarizing
Comparing Transforming Comparing

1. Collection – Data originates in the form of events transactions or some observations. This
data is then recorded in some usable form.
2. Conversion – once the data is collected, it is converted from its source document to a form
that is more suitable for processing.
3. Manipulation – Once data is collected and converted it is ready for manipulation functions
which convert data into information. Manipulation consists of following activities –
a. Sorting
b. Calculating
c. Summarizing
d. Comparing
4. Managing the output result – Once data has been captured and manipulated following
activities may be carried out
a. Storing
b. Retrieving
5. Communication – It is a process of sharing information.

Data processing cycle & Function –

a. Originating
b. Input
c. Manipulation- it consists of sorting, classification, calculating, scanning etc.
d. Output – output is concern with reporting, retrieval, storage etc.

Component of data processing

a. Data Input
b. Data Processing
c. Maintaining Files & Record

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 d. Data Procedure & Instruction
e. Output

Data Processing System

The activity of data processing can be viewed as a "system". According to James O’Brien a system
can be defined as "a group of interrelated components that seeks the attainment of a common goal
by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organized process".
For example, a production system accepts raw material as input and produces finished goods as
output.
Similarly, a data processing system can be viewed as a system that uses data as input and processes
this data to produce information as output.

Types of data processing: -

Data processing applications very considerable and although different data processing applications
are not quite the same yet it is still possible to identify a number of distinct, types of data processing
systems. Data processing system may be categorized under three main types:
1. Systems where processing is done periodically
2. Real-time systems
3. Database systems

These three types of systems are further divided into sub-categories.

Systems where processing is done periodically/ Batch Processing: -
The main feature of such system is that they handle large amount of data. The data, which these
systems handle, is of the same type. As the volume of data is of an identical type. The data may be
processes in batches in one time. It should be noted that the stored in the form of files. This helps to
standardize the data. This is the reason these systems are also referred to as file processing systems.
e.g. payroll system.

Real-time systems
In real time processing the computer keeps pace with some external process. Small quantities of
data are processed in one operation. The delay in processing the data, which vary from a fraction of
a second to a couple of minutes, is acceptable to the user of the system. Three types of real time
system may be identified, through the distinction between them is not very apparent.

The three types are

Process control
Information storage and retrieval
Transaction processing
Database systems
Database systems use one store of information to support all data processing. The database is
independent of any individual

Manual data processing system – Data processor is Human being, input received through hearing
& seeing sense and output record in files.
There are many kinds of data processing systems. A manual data processing system is one that
utilizes tools like pens, and filing cabinets.
A system which does not use any computer devices, all data would be kept in other ways, mainly
paper. As a few examples: Before accounts, payroll and spreadsheet applications, people would

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have worked out this kind of information on paper. People would have handwritten letters or used
typewriters.
Instead of word processors, Graphs and diagrams would have been drawn by hand instead of using
computer software to do them.

Advantages of manual data processing system: -

No training cost
No set up cost
Less indirect cost (electricity bill)

Disadvantages of manual data processing system: -

Inconsistency in data entry, room for errors, mis keying
information.Large ongoing staff training cost.
System is dependent on good individuals.
Reduction in sharing information and customer services.
Time consuming and costly to produce reports.
Lack of security.
Duplication of data entry.

Electronic data processing system – It is computerized system which process data automatically. A
mechanical data processing system uses devices such as typewriters, calculating machines and
book-keeping machines. Finally, electronic data processing uses computers to automatically process
data.

Advantages of computer data processing system: -

Faster and efficient
Automatic generation of documents
Timely
Provides Reports
Disadvantages of computer data processing system: -

Power failure, computer viruses and hacking are inherent problem.

security
Steps required for converting manual information system into Computerized System – The
following steps are involved: -
a. System Description: -
After preliminary investigation and definition of the problem, the system
description is generally prepared. It is essentially a statement of the major inputs,
outputs, processing operations and files needed. Its purpose is to show the logical
flow of information and the logical operations necessary to carry out the
particular design alternative chosen.
It is in two forms: -
Narrative: -
It is general English depiction of the operation of the system. It should describe
inputs, outputs, files and operations

Pictorial: -
It provides a visual overview of the entire operation

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 b. Input document: -
After the completion of the system description, it is very necessary to specify how
the information should be put into a form that is acceptable to the computer.

c. Output Document: -
It is the output document with which management is almost exclusively
concerned and because of its critical nature, care should be taken in its design.
Output format represents the purpose or objective of the entire operation

d. File Design
The logic required to control the flow of data through the system is a part of
systems design, and the flow is in turn depended upon the design of data files.
These two steps are also associated.

e. Program Logic
The program flowchart is the programmer’s logic of the detailed, step by step
representation of how the computer program will accomplish the job. It is the
„blueprint‟ of a program.

f. System verification
After the program has been written and run through the compilation process, it is
placed in memory in „machine readable‟ form and is ready to process the terminal
input, update the master file on the disk and print the required report. The
computer will execute the instructions of the program in sequence until a program
comes to a halt.

g. Documentation
System failure is due to lack of adequate documentation generally, three types of
documentation are needed: -
▪ For those providing input, a clear description of what input is expected and
what input is not acceptable.
▪ For these running and maintaining the system, all the technical
documentation generated during the development process.
▪ For those the output, a clear description of what the output means and about
its limitations.

Conversion Method – There are four ways to convert from manual to computerized system –
a. Parallel Conversion - running both old & new computerized systems
b. Phased Conversion - install new system only into a department or branch office.
c. Pilot Conversion – implement only in one department then implemented in whole
organization.
d. Direct Conversion - stop working on old system & completely adopt new system.

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 Software

Computer software is also known as computer programs. Software is the non-tangible component
of computers. Computer software communicates with hardware and get the work done.
Computer software includes all computer programs regardless of their architecture; for
example, executable files, libraries and scripts are computer software.

Types of Software
The computer software can broadly divide into two types. They are as follows: -
System software
Application software

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System software is a program that manages and supports the computer resources and operations of
a computer system while it executes various tasks such as processing data and information,
controlling hardware components, and allowing users to use application software.

Systems software works as a bridge between computer system hardware and the application software.
Systems software is of three types. They are as follows: -
System management programs: -
These are programs that manage the application software, computer hardware, and data
resources of the computer system.
System support programs: -
These are the programs that help the operations and management of a computer system. They
provide a variety of support services to let the computer hardware and other system programs
run efficiently. The major system support programs are system utility programs, system
performance monitor programs, and system security monitor programs
System development programs

These are programs that help users develop information system programs and prepare user
programs for computer processing. These programs may analyze and design systems and program
itself. The main system development programs are programming language translators,
programming environment programs, computer-aided software engineering packages.

Application software
Application software consists of programs that direct computers to perform specific information
processing activities for end users. Application software is further divided into two types they are
as follows: -
General purpose software
Application specific software

Flowchart: -
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes
of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic
representation illustrates a solution to a given problem. Process operations are represented in these
boxes, and arrows; rather, they are implied by the sequencing of operations. Flowcharts are used in
analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.
◼ A schematic representation of a sequence of operations, as in a manufacturing process or
computer program.
◼ A graphical representation of the sequence of operations in an information system or
program. Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents

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through the computer to final distribution to users. Program flowcharts show thesequence
of instructions in a single program or subroutine.

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Symbols:-
Different symbols are used to draw each type of flowchart.
Name Symbol Use in Flowchart

Oval Denotes the beginning or end of the program

Parallelogram Denotes an input operation

Rectangle Denotes a process to be carried out

e.g. addition, subtraction, division etc.

Diamond Denotes a decision (or branch) to be made.

The program should continue along one of
two routes. (e.g. IF/THEN/ELSE)

Hybrid Denotes an output operation

Flow line Denotes the direction of logic flow in the program

2. Additional Symbols
Related to more advanced programming

Preparation (may be used with "do loops" explained later)

Refers to separate flowchart ("Subprograms"(explained later) are shown in separate flowcharts).

Types of flowcharts: -
Stern Eckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modeled from the perspective of different user
groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks) and that there are four general types:
Document flowcharts, showing controls over a document-flow through a system
Data flowcharts, showing controls over a data-flow in a system
System flowcharts showing controls at a physical or resource level
Program flowchart, showing the controls in a program within a system

Program Flowchart - shows the sequence of instructions in a program or subroutine. These

instructions are followed to procedure the needed output.

20
 START

INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

DECISION

END

Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to convert the length in feet to centimeter

Advantages and limitation of flowchart: -

1. Better communication
2. Proper program documentation
3. Efficient coding
4. Systematic debugging
5. Systematic testing

Disadvantages of using flowcharts: -

21
 1. Complex logic: - Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case, flowchart
becomes complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Modifications: - If alterations are required the flowchart may require re-
drawing completely.
3. Reproduction: - As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of flowchart
becomes a problem.
4. The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is done.

Limitation of flowchart: -
1. Flowchart are very time consuming and laborious to draw.
2. There are no standards determining the amount of detail that should be included in
flowchart.
3. Owing to the symbol-string nature of flowcharting, any change or modification in the
program logic will usually require a completely new flowchart.

Data communication - Exchange of data between two devices through any physical medium.
Characteristics –
a. Delivery
b. Accuracy
c. Timeliness

Attributes of data communication

a. Message – information to be communicated
b. Sender - device that sends data
c. Receiver – Device that receive massage
d. Medium – physical medium by which messages travel. Ex. Coaxial cable, twisted pair
cable
e. Protocol – Set of rules that governs data communication

Network & its types – multiple computers are connected in a manner to enable meaningful
transmission. It is of 3 types -
a. LAN – Computers are connected in building or in a small organization is local area
network.
b. WAN - Computers are connected in large geographical area like internet is wide area
network.
c. MAN – The network that shares some characteristics of both LAN & WAN network.

Topology: -
The topology of a network is the geographical representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices to each other.

The five basic topologies are as follows:

Bus
Ring
Tree
Star
Mesh

22
Telecommunication is of two types –
a. Wired - Communication is done with the help of physical wired.
b. Wireless - Communication is done without any physical medium. Ex. Internet.

Transmission mode:
The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of signal flow between two linked
devices.
There are three types of transmission modes:
Simplex
Half duplex
Full duplex

Modem: -
Anyone who has surfed the internet, logged on to an office computer from home, or field a news
story from a word processor over the phone line has used a modem
The external or internal signal generated by the computer into an analog signal to be carried by a
public access phone line.
It is also the device that converts the analog signals received over a phone line into digital signal
usable by your computer.
The modem is a composite word that refers to the two functional entities that make up the device: -
A signal modulator
A signal demodulator

“Modem stands for Modulation/ Demodulation.”

A modulator converts digital signal into analog signal.

A demodulator converts analog to digital signal

Modem standards: -
Bell modem: -
The first commercial modem was produced by the bell telephone company in the early
1970s

• 103/113 Series • 201 Series

• 202 Series • 208 Series
• 212 Series • 209 Series

ITU modem: -
• v.21 • v.33
• v.22 bis • v.34
• v.32 • v.42
• v.32 bis • v.42 bis
• v.32 terbo

23
 Unit: IV -Decision Support System

Types of Decision:

1. Structured or programmable Decision- A decision can be programmed, if it follows

decision rule, decision procedure or specified sequence of activity is performed
[Algorithm]. This can be expressed as a flowchart, a decision table or a formula. The
decision procedure will also specify the information to be acquired before the decision
can be pre-specified; many of these decisions can be handled by lower-level personnel
with little specialized knowledge. For example, inventory recording decision or the
decision rule for granting credit.

The important characteristics of programmed decision are-

These decisions can be delegated.

The cost of taking such decision is not as high as that of non-programmed once.
These decisions can be made with the help of computer systems.

2. Non-programmed or unstructured decision- This type of decision is occasional and

unique in nature. There are no predefined procedures available to solve these problems and
a new analysis is required for each occurrence. Production scheduling, advertising budget,
taking of capital projects i.e., capital executives have to make use of problem- solving
methodology, which itself depends on subjective human judgments. The risk involved in
taking decision to solve the problems in this manner is usually high. The important features
of non-programmed decision are:
These decisions cannot be delegated.
The best of taking decision in comparison with programmed decision is quite high.

3. Semi-structured- Semi structured decisions are such type of decision procedures that
can be pre-specified, but not enough to lead to a definite recommended decision.

Decision Making
Decision making is a cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action among
several alternative scenarios.
Decision making is a daily activity for any human being. There is no exception about that. When it
comes to business organizations, decision making is a habit and a process as well.
Effective and successful decisions make profit to the company and unsuccessful ones make losses.
Therefore, corporate decision-making process is the most critical process in any organization.
In the decision-making process, we choose one course of action from a few possible alternatives. In
the process of decision making, we may use many tools, techniques and perceptions.
In addition, we may make our own private decisions or may prefer a collective decision.
Usually, decision making is hard. Majority of corporate decisions involve some level of
dissatisfaction or conflict with another party.

Decision Making Process:

Following are the important steps of the decision-making process. Each step may be supported by
different tools and techniques.

24
Process and Modeling in Decision Making
There are two basic models in decision making:
Rational models
Normative model

Dimensions and characteristics of managerial decision making:

it is sequential in nature
it is exceedingly complex due to risks and tradeoffs
managerial decisions are influenced by personal values

Decision Support system (DSS)

The decision support system is an interactive computer-based system, which helps
decision-makers to utilize data and models to solve unstructured problems. The DSS is designed to
facilitate the solutions of problem of structured than those of MIS and TPS which are less
structured. The nature of decision taken by DSS is of non-routine and less structured. The DSS is a
collection of data and data processing tools used to creatively manipulate data to answer unknown
and often unexpected questions. DSS is a coordinated collection off data, system, tools and
techniques with the necessary, S/W and computer H/w through which an organization gathers

25
and interprets relevant information from the business and environment and turns into information
that acted upon. In the end, we can say that- DSS aims at supporting the decision maker by
providing the information with the aid of quantitative techniques.

Attributes of a DSS
Adaptability and flexibility
High level of Interactivity
Ease of use
Efficiency and effectiveness
Complete control by decision-makers.
Ease of development
Extendibility
Support for modeling and analysis
Support for data access
Standalone, integrated and Web-based

Characteristics of a DSS
Support for decision makers in semi structured and unstructured problems.
Support for managers at various managerial levels, ranging from top executive to line
managers.
Support for individuals and groups. Less structured problems often require theinvolvement
of several individuals from different departments and organization level.
Support for interdependent or sequential decisions.
Support for intelligence, design, choice, and implementation.
Support for variety of decision processes and styles
DSSs are adaptive over time.

Application of D.S.S.
The applications of DSS are as follows-

1. An airline DSS –developed by American Airlines but is used by other airlines, aircraft
manufacturers and airlines financial analysis consultants and associations.

2. A Marketing DSS – BRAND AID is used for marketing planning, especially in the packaged
goods industries. It helps brand managers to make pricing, sales effort, promotion, advertising and
budgeting decision for products, product line and brand of products.

3. Government DSS- GADS (Geodata-Analysis and Display System) was develo9ped by IBM. It
constructs and displays maps and other graphics display that support decisions affecting the
geographic distribution of people and other resources.

4. Banking DSS-MAPP (Managerial analysis for profit planning) is a DSS developed by citi-bank.
It was designed to support decisions involved in the financial planning, budgeting costing and
pricing of bank products, It helps bank executives define banking products and services, It also
helps to determine, how resources should be shifted among bank products and services and it
prepares budgets for the bank department producing each banking product.

26
Architecture of DSS

Data from the organizations, TPS and MIS applications

are input to the DSS programs, along with data from
external sources and DSS model data. As stated, the DSS
may store and later reprocess its own model data as well.
The user interacts with the DSS online, requests aremade,
models are created or adjusted and data is manipulated
etc. The outputs of the DSS program can be either text,
structured reports or graphics. A variety of programs
supported by the DSS include spreadsheet programs,
personal data base management systems, model base
management systems, word processing packages and
other special purpose programs.

Benefits of DSS
Improves efficiency and speed of decision-making activities
Increases the control, competitiveness and capability of futuristic decision making of the
organization
Facilitates interpersonal communication
Encourages learning or training
Since it is mostly used in non-programmed decisions, it reveals new approaches and sets
up new evidences for an unusual decision
Helps automate managerial processes

Components of a DSS
Following are the components of the Decision Support System:

Database Management System (DBMS) : To solve a problem the necessary data may come from
internal or external database. In an organization, internal data are generated by a system such as
TPS and MIS. External data come from a variety of sources such as newspapers, online data
services, databases (financial, marketing, human resources).

Model Management system: It stores and accesses models that managers use to make decisions.
Such models are used for designing manufacturing facility, analyzing the financial health of an
organization. Forecasting demand of a product or service etc.

Support Tools: Support tools like online help; pull down menus, user interfaces, graphical analysis,
error correction mechanism, facilitates the user interactions with the system.

Classification of DSS
There are several ways to classify DSS. Hoi Apple and Whinstone classify DSS in following:

27
 Text Oriented DSS
Database Oriented DSS
Spreadsheet Oriented DSS
Solver Oriented DSS
Rules Oriented DSS
Rules Oriented DSS
Compound DSS

The tools of decision support systems

Decision support system’s tools are programs or codes which are the foundation used to create
the generations and in turn specific DSS.

Decision support tools may involve the following: -

(a) Material requirement planning (MRP) – MRP is a method for ordering and maintaining
materials in stock. It is a systematic approach to identify cost-beneficial ways of storing
materials.
(b) Linear programming – Linear programming assists in solving problems which involves
allocation off limited resources and evaluation of alternatives to achieve objectives.
(c) Queuing theory – Queuing theory is used in planning the activities of the organization to
determine economically beneficial queues e.g., production of goods.
(d) Descriptive statistics- Descriptive statistics are used to estimate parameter and the
dispersion of values associated with that parameter. These estimates are made for the
various critical environmental factors to plan the day-to-day operations of the
organizations.
(e) Correlation analysis- Correlation analysis is made to calculate relationship between
values for particular parameters, such parameters value describing current conditions.
(f) Variance analysis- Variance analysis is used to describe variance between two or more
variables.
(g) Network analysis- Network analysis is a pictorial tool for identifying and sequencing
tasks. Those analysis help manager in controlling tasks necessary for successful operation
of organization.
(h) Transportation p r o b l e m s - T r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems are used for planning and
distribution of various facilities and resources.
(i) Maximum flow or distance – Program flow or distance is a tool for identifying the most
economically beneficial flow through, or distances between, particular objects, this
facilitates in determining the most preferred flow of goods or services through an object
for which the organization must conduct business.
(j) Dynamic programming – Dynamic programming is a tool to enable that appropriate
course of action and top-level management are being followed by managers at operational
level.
(k) Regression analysis- The regression analysis can be used to estimate particular values on
the basis of known values for variables. It may be used to estimate the value of known
variables which may influence plans for implementing the decision of top-level managers.
(l) Markov processes – Markov processes are tools used to determine global associated with
the occurrences of the related to changing probabilities of particular object. These global
probabilities can then be used to determine more appropriate courses of action for the
organization.

28
 Unit V
System Design

System – System is set of components which interact with each other to accomplish a specific goal.
1 Human body and its subsystem could be nervous system, digestive system and cardiac system
etc
2 Computer system and it has various subsystem like ALU, CU, Memory, Input unit and Output
unit etc.
Characteristics of system
Every system has a purpose.
Every system is made up of components like input process output, feedback and control etc.
System is made up of subsystem, whose goals are referred to as sub goals.
Goal of a system is more important than subsystem goal.
Systems whether open or closed have an element of control associated with them.

Types of System
There are several ways of classifying systems that emphasizes the differences. Classification of
systemis as follows-
Open & Closed Systems –An open system interfaces and interacts with other system. An open
system needs to receive feedback to change and continue to exist in its environment. Example – A
marketing system is an open system.
A closed system does not exchange the information with its environment. It does not have any
connection to the other system. Example – Research & development of organization, ICU dept. of
hospital, etc.
Physical & Abstract System – Physical system are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in
operations. For example, the physical parts of the computer center are the computers, desk, chair,
etc. that facilitate operation of the computer.
Abstract systems are conceptual and non-physical entities. They may be formulas of relationship
among set of variables or models, software / program.
Deterministic & Probabilistic System – A deterministic system works with certainty in predictable
manner. The interaction among its subsystem is known in advance. One state of the system determines
the next state of the system.
Example – A computer system which works on the principal GIGO.
A probabilistic system operates with uncertainty as certain degree of error is always attached with
prediction of what the system will do.
Example – A student admission system in a college is probable in nature.
Systems approach is an organized way of dealing with a problem.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

System development life cycle has 6 phases. They are
1. Recognition of need
2. Feasibility study
3. Analysis
4. Design
5. Implementation
6. Post-implementation and maintenance

System Design is a solution. It tells the approach to the creation of a new system. It provides the
methods to implement the system given in the feasibility study. Emphasis is placed on

29
transforming the performance requirements to design specifications. Design is done both logically
and physically.

PROCESS AND STAGE OF SYSTEM DESIGN

The design phase focuses on the detailed implementation of the system recommended in the
feasibility study. The design phase is a transition from a user-oriented document to a document
oriented to the programmers or data base personnel.

System design goes through two phases of development

Logical design Physical design

Design concept
The fundamental concepts are as measured: -
Abstraction Control hierarchy
Refinement Structural partitioning
Modularity Data structure
Software architecture Information hiding

Design considerations: -
There are many aspects to consider in the design of a piece of software. They are as follows:
Compatibility Reliability
Extensibility Reusability
Fault Tolerance Robustness
Maintainability Security
Modularity Usability
Packaging

Design methodologies aim at the following

Improve productivity of the analysts and programmers.
Improve documentation.
Cut down costs.
Improve communication among users, analysts, designers and the programmers.
Simplify the design by segmentation.

The main objective of general system design:

Specify the logical design
Support business activities
Ensure that system meets user requirements
Easy to use
Provide detailed software development specification
Conform to design standards

30
Input/output design: -
OUTPUT DESIGN
The term output necessarily implies to information printed or displayed by an information system.
Following are the activities that are carried out in the output design stage:

Identification of the specific outputs required to meet the information requirements.

Selection of methods required for presenting information.
Designing of reports, formats or other documents that acts as carrier of information.

The most important source of information is the output, efficient, intelligible output design should
improve the system’s relationship with the user and help in decision making.
Objectives of output design: -
Carry information about past activities, current affairs or projection of the future
Mark important events
Take an action
Confirm an action

Principles of output design: -

Too many details should be avoided
Design should be used from top to bottom approach
All pages must have heading and page number
All column must be labeled
Abbreviations should be avoided

Types of output
Report
Document
Message

PRESENTATION OF OUTPUT
The presentation of an output represented either in tabular or graphical form or in both forms. A
tabular format is preferred in the following conditions:
When the details dominate the content of the output
When the contents of the output are classified in groups
When the output design are to be compared.
A tabular format is also preferred for the detailed reports.

Graphical representation is used to improve the effectiveness of the output because some users
prefer to view information in graphic form rather than in rows and columns of the tables. The tabular
and graphical formats may be combined together to enhance the presentation of theoutput.

OUTPUT DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

The specifications for the output design should be considered first while designing any output. The
main points in the output design specifications are:
Paper size: Special forms:

31
Multiple copies of output Summaries and totals
Turnaround documents: Page title, number and date
Headings and date Notes and comments
Data and details Column headings and data type

A system designer may design multiple screens or special windowing capabilities such as pop-up
windows for designing screens. Such design will enhance readability for the visual displays.

INPUT DESIGN
The data base is the data that must be obtained and stored for later retrieval for managerial decision
making. The most common cause of error during the data processing is inaccurate input. The
inaccurate input is entered by data entry operators but it can be controlled by input design.

Objectives of input design:

Avoiding errors in data
Avoiding delay
Avoiding duplication of data
Avoiding extra steps
Controlling the amount of input required
Keeping the process simple

Activities involved in input design:

Collection of data
Conversion of the input data to computer acceptable form
Checking the conversion
Transmitting the data to computer
Checking the input data
Correct the error if error occur

Similar to the output design, input design is equally important for a system designer. This is because
output from a system is regarded as the foremost determinant for defining the performance of a
system. The output of the system greatly affects the input design of the system.

Input layout
The layout of the input design must contain the following items.
Headings and date of data entry.
Data heading and value
Data type and width of the column
Initials of data entry operator

Form design
Form design is a specific component of user interface design and involves the creation of a system
used by people to interact with an object such as a microwave, cell phone, or computer. Form
design ergonomic factors, ease of use, and understandability are all combined to create the science
of user interface design.

Poor form designs can cause frustration, mistakes, fatigue, and actual physical damage such as eye
strain and carpal tunnel syndrome.

32
Form design recommendations:-
Form Colors Form Buttons
Form Fonts Form Navigation
Form Layout

Requirements of form design:

Form design follows analyzing forms. Since the purpose of a form is to communicate effectively
through forms design, there are several major requirements.
1. Identification and wording:
2. Maximum readability and use:
3. Physical factors:
4. Order of data items:
5. Ease of data entry:
6. Size and arrangement:
7. Use of instructions:
8. Efficiency considerations:
9. Type of report:

Classification of forms:
A printed form is generally classified by what it does in the system. There are three primary
classifications
1. Action: This type of form requests the user to do something.

Example: purchase orders.

2. Memory: This form is a record of historical data that remains in a file, is used for reference, and
serves as control on key details.

Example: Inventory records, purchase records

3. Report: This form guides supervisors and other administrators in the activities. It provides data
on a project or a job.
Example: profit and loss statements, sales analysis report

Types of forms:-
Flat form:
A flat form is single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on any grade ofpaper.
For additional copies of the original, carbon paper is inserted between copies. It is the easiest form to
design, print, and reproduces; it has a low-volume use; and it is the least expensive. Often a pad of the
flat forms is printed identical to the original copy of a unit set.

2. Unit-set/Snap out forms:

These forms have an original copy and several copies with one–time carbon paper interleaved
between them. The set is glued into a unit for easy handling. The carbon paper is approximately 3/8
inch shorter than the copies. The copies are perforated at the glue margin for tearing out, although
the carbon is not perforated. Because of the perforation and the shorter carbon, the formscan be
easily snapped out after completion.

33
3. Continuous strip/fanfold forms:
These are multiple – unit forms joined together in a continuous strip with perforations between
each pair of forms. One–time carbon is inter-leaved between copies, which are stacked in a fanfold
arrangement. The fanfold is the least expensive construction for large volume use. Computer
printouts are invariably produced on them; they are virtually part of system design.

4. NCR (No Carbon Required) paper:

Several copies can be made by pressing a chemical undercoating on the top sheet into a claylike
coating on the top of the second sheet. The writing pressure forms an image by the coating material.
The same process applies to the back of the second sheet for producing a carbon copy on the face of
the succeeding sheet, and so on. It offers cleaner and long-lasting copies. One problem with NCR is
the sensitivity of chemicals. It shows every scratch. It is costly.

File organization:-
A file is organized to ensure that records are available for processing. There are four methods of
organizing files:

1) Sequential organization:
Sequential organization means storing and sorting in physical, contiguous blocks within files
on tape or disk. Records are also in sequence within each block. To access a record previous records
within the block are scanned. In a sequential organization, records can be added only at the end of
the file. It is not possible to insert a record in the middle of the file without rewriting the file.

In a sequential file update, transaction records are in the same sequence as in the master file. Records
from both the files are matched, one record at a time, resulting in an updated master file. In a personal
computer with two disk drives, the master file is loaded on a diskette into drive A , while the
transaction file is loaded on another diskette into drive B. Updating the master file transfers data from
drive B to A controlled by the software in memory.

Advantages:
1. Simple to design
2. Easy to program
3. Variable length and blocked records available
4. Best use of storage space

Disadvantages:
1. Records cannot be added at the middle of the file.
2) Indexed sequential organization:
Like sequential organization, keyed sequential organization stores data in physically
contiguous blocks. The difference is in the use of indexes to locate records. There are three areas in
disk storage: prime area, overflow area and index area.

The prime area contains file records stored by key or id numbers. All records are initially stored in
the prime area.

The overflow area contains records added to the file that cannot be placed in logical sequence in
the prime area

34
The index area is more like a data dictionary. It contains keys of records and their locations on the
disk. A pointer associated with each key is an address that tells the system where to find a record.

Advantages:
1. Indexed sequential organization reduces the magnitude of the sequential search and provides
quick access for sequential and direct processing.
2. Records can be inserted in the middle of the file.

Disadvantages:
1. It takes longer to search the index for data access or retrieval.
2. Unique keys are required
3. Periodic reorganization is required.

3) Inverted list organization:

Like the indexed- sequential storage method the inverted list organization maintains an index. The
two methods differ, however, in the index level and record storage. The indexed sequential method
has a multiple index for a given key, where as the inverted list method has a single index for each
key type. In an inverted list, records are not necessarily stored in a particular sequence. They are
placed in the data storage area, but indexes are updated for the record key and location. The inverted
keys are best for applications that request specific data on multiple keys. They are ideal forstatic files
because additions and deletions cause expensive pointer updating.

Advantages:
1. Used in applications requesting specific data on multiple keys.

35
4) Direct access organization:
In direct access file organization, records are placed randomly throughout the file. Records need not
be in sequence because they are updated directly and rewritten back in the same location. New
records are added at the end of the file or inserted in specific locations based on software
commands.

Records are accessed by addresses that specify their disk locations. An address is required for
locating a record, for linking records, or for establishing relationships. Addresses are of two types:
1. Absolute
2. Relative.

An absolute address represents the physical location of the record. It is usually stated in the format
of sector/track/record number. One problem with absolute address is that they become invalid
when the file that contains the records is relocated on the disk.

A relative address gives a record location relative to the beginning of the file. There must be fixed length
records for reference. Another way of locating a record is by the number of bytes it is fromthe
beginning of the file. When the file is moved, pointers need not be updated because the relative location
remains the same.

Advantages:
1. Records can be inserted or updated in the middle of the file.
2. Better control over record allocation.

Disadvantages:

36
1. Calculating address required for processing.
2. Impossible to process variable length records.

5) Chaining:
File organization requires that relationships be established among data items. It must show how
characters form fields, fields form files and files relate to each other. Establishing relationship is
done through chaining. It uses pointers.

Example: The file below contains auto parts that is a indexed sequential file sequenced by part no. A record
can be retrieved by part no. To retrieve the next record, the whole file has to be searched. This can be avoided by
the use of pointers.

File design:-
Some of the basic terms used to describe the file hierarchy are as follows
Byte: A byte is an arbitrary set of eight bits that represent a character. It is the smallest addressable
unit in today’s computers.

Data item (element): One or more bytes are combined into a data item to describe an attribute of an
object. Sometimes referred as a field.

Record: The data items related to an object are combined into a record. There are two types of
records
Logical record maintains o logical relationship among all items in the record.
Physical record is the way in which records are stored in a storage medium.

File: A collection of related records makes up a file. The size of a file is limited by the size of
memory or the storage medium. There are two characteristics denoting the way files are organized
Activity specifies the percentage of actual records processed in a single run.
Volatility addresses the properties of record changes.

Attributes of file design:-

File name Lock flag
Type Hidden flag
Size System flag
Location Maximum size
Protection Record length
Time and date

Program design:-

37
Data base: The highest level in the hierarchy is the database. It is a set of interrelated files for real time
processing.

A program now requests data through the Data Base Management System (DBMS), which
determines data sharing.

Objectives of data base:

A data base is a collection of interrelated data stored with minimum redundancy to serve many
users quickly and efficiently. The general objective is to make information access easy, quick,
inexpensive and flexible for the user. In data base design several specific objectives are considered:
1. Controlled redundancy: 5. Accuracy and integrity:
2. Ease of learning and use: 6. Recovery from failure:
3. Data independence: 7. Privacy and security:
4. More information at low cost: 8. performance:

The terms that are normally used in DBMS are

1. User’s view is a profile that the user expects to see on the report.
2. Processing refers to the changes made.
3. Data model is a framework of the user’s view.
4. Data file is the area where the file is stored.

To manipulate the operations on the DB, a set of programs are maintained called Data Base
management System (DBMS). The Main advantages of DB are
1. File consolidation 5. Program development
2. Program & file independence 6. Program maintenance
3. Access versatility 7. Special information
4. Data Security

In a data base environment, the DBMS is the software that provides the interface between the data
file on disk and the program that requests processing. DBMS stores and manages data. The
procedure is as follows:
1. The user requests a sales report through the application program. The application program uses a
data manipulation language (DML) to tell the DBMS what is required.

2. The DBMS refers to the data model, which describes the view in a language called the data
definition language (DDL). The DBMS uses DDL to determine how data must be structured to
produce the user’s view.

3. The DBMS requests the input/output control system (IOCS) to retrieve the information from
physical storage as specified by the application program. The output is the sales report

Functions performed by the DBMS:

1. Storing, retrieving, and updating data.
2. Creating program and data independence. Either one can be altered independently of the other.
3. Enforcing procedures for data integrity.
4. Reducing data redundancy. Data are stored and maintained only once.
5. Proving security facilities for defining users and enforcing authorizations. Access is limited to
authorized users by passwords or similar schemes.

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6. Reducing physical storage requirements by separating the logical and physical aspects of the
database.

System Security:
Security of a Computer System
A state of being free from
1. unauthorized use of the system and its resources,
2. misuse of the system and its resources, and
3. disturbance of the system's operations
The field of study about techniques for achieving and maintaining such a secure state
Approaches to Security
Prevention of Threats → Policies
Exclusion of Unknown Entities → Identification and Authentication
Hiding Important Information → Cryptography
Detection of Potential Threats → Monitoring, Auditing, Detection, and Confinement
No single approach is sufficient for the security of the entire system.
→ Combine them in balance of their pros & cons
Aspects on Security
Component Level
o Hardware
o Software
o Human
System Level
o Integration
o Consistency
Organization Level
System security refers to the technical innovations and procedures applied to the hardware and
operating systems to protect against deliberations or accidental damage from a defined threat.

System integrity refers to the proper functioning of hardware and programs, appropriate physical
security and safety against external threats such as eaves dropping and wiretapping.

Privacy defines the rights of the users or organizations to determine what information they are
willing to share with or accept from others and how the organization can be protected against
unwelcome, unfair, or excessive dissemination of information about it.

Confidentiality is a special status given to sensitive information in a database to minimize the

possible invasion of privacy.

An organization that depends heavily on the use of databases requires special controls to maintain
viable information. These controls are classified into three general categories:
1. Physical security or protection from fire, flood, and other physical damage.
2. Database integrity through data validation techniques.
3. Control measures through passwords, encryption, and monitoring users on a regular basis.

A procedure for protecting systems makes sure that the facility is physically secure, provides a
recovery/restart capability, and has access to backup files. The potential threats within a firm are :
1. Errors and omissions
2. Disgruntled and dishonest employees.

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 3. Fire.
4. Natural disasters.
5. External attack.

Control measures:-
1 Identification
2. Access controls
3. Audit controls
4. System integrity

1.Identification :
There are three schemes for identifying persons to the computer. They are :

1. Password : A password is the most commonly used means for authenticating the identity to the
people. Passwords should be hard to guess and easy to remember.

2. Something you are, such as fingerprints or voice prints. Voice prints is a reliable method for
verifying authorized users. The technique essentially analyzes a person’s voice against prerecorded
voice patterns of the same person. An exact match allows access to the system.

3. Something you have, such as the credit card, key, or a special terminal. Magnetic stripe credit card
readers on terminals identify the operator to the system. The card along with a password gives added
assurance of the authentication of the user.

2. Access Control :
Various steps have been taken to control the access to a computer facility. One way is to use an
encoded card system with a log-keeping capability. The card serves as a key to unlock doors,
including tape storage and other classified areas. The card is essentially a magnetic key and a

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“Keyport” is a lock. Inserting the card into the lockport unlocks the door. A card that includes a
photograph of the bearer may double as an employee ID badge.

Encryption :
An effective and practical way to safeguard data transmitted over the telephone lines is by
encryption. Data are scrambled during transmission from one computer or terminal to the other. A
plaintext message is transmitted over an unprotected communications channel. To prevent
unauthorized acquisition of the message, it is enciphered with a reversible transformation to
produce a cryptogram or ciphertext. When it arrives at an authorized receiver, it is decrypted back
to the plaintext data form.

3. Audit Controls:
Audit controls protect a system from external security breaches and internal fraud or
embezzlement.
Neither the auditor nor the user can verify the system activities adequately, so the system must
check itself. The internal controls required mean that programmers and analysts build controls into
every system.

4. System Integrity :
The most costly software loss is the program error. It is possible to eliminate such error through
proper testing routines. Parallel runs should be implemented whenever possible. Physical security
provides safeguards against the destruction of the hardware, databases, and the documentation; fire
, flood, theft, sabotage, and eavesdropping; and the loss of power through proper backup.

Recovery/Restart Requirements:
Restoring a damaged database is done by roll forward or rollback procedure.

Roll forward method involves updating a valid copy of the database with the necessary changes to
produce a current version of the database.

Rollback method starts with the current invalid state and removes the records of the activity to
produce the prior valid state of the database.

Backup is essential for recovery/restart procedure. If the database is physically damaged then it
cannot be rolled back. Only roll forward can be done. For a sequential file a grandfather-father-son
approach is followed. In a database environment, master files are not copied as they are updated.
Instead, transactions are posted directly to the file which replaces the original data. So to recover
documents in such type of storage, backup is required.

System failures and recovery:

There are three types of failures:-
1. catastrophic failure is one where part of the database is unreadable. To restore use, roll forward
method of recovery.

2. Logical error occurs when the activity of the database is interrupted with no chance to complete
the current transactions. So, when the system runs again, it is not sure if the changes have been
updated or not. Data though available may be inaccurate. To restore the original contents, rollback
method is used.

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3. Structural damage. An example is a pointer incorrectly stored in a record that points to a unrelated
or nonexistent data. If the problem cannot be corrected by software utility, then the database must be
recovered to the most recent up-to-date point before the damage occurred.

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