GREEN ENERGY

Solar Cell and Solar Power Plant

I WAYAN MUDERAWAN
[email protected]
Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences

GANESAHA UNIVERSITY of EDUCATION

JL. UDAYANA NO 11 SINGARAJA BALI 81117
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 Outline Course
Introduction: Green Energy, Solar Energy, and
Conversion of Solar Energy into Electricity
Photovoltaic Cell: Semiconductor, Band Gap,
Silicon-Based Photovoltaic Cells, Chalcogenide
Photovoltaic Cells, Perovskite Photovoltaic Cells,
Organic Photovoltaic Cells
 Solar Power

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 INTRUDUCTION

The second thing, after water, that is very

important for our live is energy. We need
energy for our activities.

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Green Energy
Green energy is any energy type that is generated
from natural resources, such as sunlight, wind or
water.

Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that
is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal
energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and
artificial photosynthesis. 4
 The Solar System

E = mc2

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Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
Note: 1PW = 1015 W

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The annual potential of solar energy was
1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ, 1EJ = 1018 Joule)).
The large magnitude of solar energy available
makes it a highly appealing source of
electricity.
The development of affordable, inexhaustible and
clean solar energy technologies will have huge
longer-term benefits. It will increase countries'
energy security through reliance on an indigenous,
inexhaustible, and mostly import-independent
resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution,
and lower the costs of mitigating global warming.
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How to convert solar energy into electricity?

SUN

Solar Power Plant

?
Material Chemistry

Electricity

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Conversion of Solar to Electrical Energy
• A solar power plant is based on the
conversion of sunlight into electricity, either
directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly
using concentrated solar power (CSP).
• Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use
lenses, mirrors, and tracking systems to focus
a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
• Photovoltaic (PV) directly converts light into
electric current through the photoelectric
effect.
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PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

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 Photovoltaic Cells
• Device directly converting light into electric
current known as photovoltaic or solar cell.
• A solar cell is a semiconductor device able to
convert solar energy into electricity through
the photoelectric effect.
• The common single junction silicon solar cell
can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage
(Voc) of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKxrkht7CpY

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 Photovoltaic Cell

A photovoltaic cell (PV),

commonly called a solar cell, is the DC LOADS
technology used to convert solar
energy directly into electrical
power.

AC LOADS INVENTER

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Structure of Solar Cell

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From sunlight to electricity
 Photovoltaic solar panels absorb this energy from the Sun
and convert it into electricity
 A solar cell is made from two layers of silicon—one ‘doped’
with a tiny amount of added phosphorus (n-type: ‘n’ for
negative), the other with a tiny amount of boron (p-type: ‘p’
for positive)
 The doping ingredients create extra electrons in the n-type
layer and ‘holes’ (missing electrons) in the p-type layer
 When photons (light) hit the solar cell, they excite electrons
in the n-type layer loose and they travel across to the p-type
layer
 These electrons can then travel back to the n-type layer,
through wires connecting them to an external device, as an
electric current that does useful work 19
Semiconductor
• Semiconductors are materials which have a
conductivity between conductors (generally metals)
and nonconductors or insulators (such as most
ceramics).
• Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon
or germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide
or cadmium selenide.
• In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities
are added to pure semiconductors causing large
changes in the conductivity of the material.
• The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a
small amount (of the order of 1 in 108) of pentavalent
(antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron,
gallium, indium) atoms.
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A semiconductor can be either of a single element, such as Si or
Ge, a compound, such as GaAs, InP or CdTe, or an alloy, such as
SixGe(1-x) or AlxGa(1-x)As, where x is the fraction of the particular
element and ranges from 0 to 1.
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Silicon-Based Solar Cells
The basic component of a solar cell is pure
silicon, which has been used as an electrical
component for decades. Silicon solar panels
are often referred to as '1st generation'
panels, as the silicon solar cell technology
gained ground already in the 1950s.
Currently, over 90% of the current solar cell
market is based on silicon.

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Silicon (Si)
Silicon is a chemical element with the
symbol Si and atomic number 14.

face-centered diamond-cubic

It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a

blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a
tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor.
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Silicon (Si)

sp3

The outermost electrons in silicon atoms form covalent bonds with each other,
creating a lattice structure.
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• Pure crystalline silicon is a poor conductor of electricity as it is a
semiconductor material at its core.
• To address this issue, the silicon in a solar cell has impurities—
meaning that other atoms are purposefully mixed in with the silicon
atoms in order to improve silicon’s ability to capture the sun’s
energy and convert it into electricity.
• For instance, an atom of boron (B) has one less electron than an
atom of silicon, while an phosphorous atom (P) has one electron
more.
• When phosphorous atoms are put in between lots of silicon atoms,
there will be extra electrons in the structure; so an electron-rich
layer will be created.
• When using boron atoms instead, there will be a lack of electrons,
meaning that an electron-poor layer will be produced.
• In a solar cell, the layers are positioned next to each other and that
way an electric field is created.
• When the sunlight hits the solar cell, the energy stimulates
electrons that leave holes behind. These migrate to the electrodes
in the cell because of the presence of the electric field. In this way,
electricity is generated.
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Doped Silicon

When silicon is doped with elements that have extra electrons in

their outermost shell, it produces an n-type material. 28
Doped Silicon

When silicon is doped with elements that have fewer electrons in

their outermost shell, it produces a p-type material. 29
How current flows in p-type semiconductors

Electrons are drawn to the

positive (+) pole and move to
close holes. Then, as the electrons
move to vacant holes, new holes
are created and then the adjacent
electrons move to the new vacant
holes again.
As this process is repeated,
electrons move toward the
positive (+) pole, and at the same
time, the holes appear to move
toward the negative (-) pole.
Only electrons are actually
moving, but the holes can be
considered as having positively
charged particles.
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Silicon-Based Solar Cell

Holes diffuse into the n-type layer, and electrons diffuse into the p-type
layer. This creates an electric field at the junction of the two layers.
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 Types of Silicon Solar Cells
• Monocrystalline Solar Cells. Monocrystalline
solar cells, also called "single crystalline" cells are easily
identified by their dark black colour. Monocrystalline
solar cells are made from a very pure type of silicon,
which makes them the most efficient material for
converting sunlight into electricity.
• Polycrystalline Solar Cells. Polycrystalline solar
cells, also known as polysilicon and multi-silicon cells.
Polycrystalline cells do not undergo the cutting process
used for monocrystalline cells. Instead, the silicon is
melted and poured into a square mould, hence the
square shape of polycrystalline.
• Amorphous Solar Cells. The word 'amorphous'
literally means shapeless. The silicon is not structured
or crystallised on a molecular level as many other
types of silicon-based solar cells are.
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Band Gap

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Utilisation of Band Gap Energy

where JPH is the photo

current density arising
from irradiance, and J0 is
the current density
arising from the diode
leakage current in the
dark.

The actual energy for voltage generation comes from qVoc. This energy arises from
the splitting of the quasi Fermi levels, and is always smaller than the total band
gap energy under normal operation conditions. So, Voc is dependent on doping.
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Fig. p-n junction: (a) before contact, (b) after contact and (c) Junction under
illumination Qi B, Wang J. Open-circuit voltage in organic solar cells. Journal of
Materials Chemistry, 2012; 22(46), 24315-24325.
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Band diagram of a solar cell, corresponding to very low current (horizontal
Fermi level), very low voltage (metal valence bands at same height), and
therefore very low illumination.
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Band diagram of a solar cell, corresponding to very low current (horizontal
Fermi level), very low voltage (metal valence bands at same height), and
therefore very low illumination.
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The upper curve is a normal diode corresponding to a photovoltaic in the
dark. The lower curve is the photovoltaic when illuminated. 38
Solar cell efficiency is the ratio
of the electrical output of a
solar cell to the incident energy
in the form of sunlight.
Solar cell efficiency refers to the
portion of energy in the form of
sunlight that can be converted via
photovoltaics into electricity by
the solar cell.

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Thin-Film Solar Cell
A thin-film solar cell is a second generation
solar cell that is made by depositing one or
more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of
photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as
glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are
commercially used in several technologies,
including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper
indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and
amorphous thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).

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Chalcogenide Photovoltaic Cell
• A chalcogenide is a chemical compound
consisting of at least one chalcogen anion and at
least one more electropositive element.
• The term chalcogenide is more commonly
reserved for sulfides (S), selenides (Se), tellurides
(Te), and polonides (Po).
• Chalcogenides are highly interesting for their use
as light absorber layers in solar cells due to their
uniquely high absorbance, bandgap tenability and
defect chemistry.
• Chalcogenide thin-film photovoltaic cells are
based on chalcogenide absorbers, like CdTe,
Cu(In,Ga)Se2, or Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4.
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 ... continued

• CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGSe) solar cells have

achieved remarkable efficiencies exceeding 20%.
• However, elements such as indium and tellurium
are rare, and cadmium is quite toxic, which may
limit the implementation of these devices at the
terawatt scale.
• In recent years, Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), Cu2ZnSnSe4
(CZTSe), and Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4 (CZTSSe) have
emerged as replacement materials for thin-film
PV due to promising optoelectronic properties
and the use of nontoxic, earth-abundant
elements.

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Structures of CZTSSe

Crystal structures of semiconductor materials. (Courtesy of Dr. Bryce Walker)

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Scanning electron microscope image of the cross section of a coevaporated
Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cell with antireflection coating

Fig 1. (a) Physical structure of chalcogenide solar cells; (b) electronic band diagram
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of a Cu(InGa)Se2 cell.
Basic structure of CZTS-based thin film solar cell and two Typical architecture of a
proposed structures; structure A with inserting p+-CZTS CZTSSe-based solar cell.
intermediate layer and structure B dual layer with p+pn
junction

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Perovskite Solar Cells
Perovskite structure: ABX Crystal Structure
A and B are cations and X is an anion. A cations with radii between 1.60 Å and 2.50 Å
were found to form perovskite structures.

Crystal Lattice of Perovskite, SrTiO3

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A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell which includes a
perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-
inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active
layer.
The most commonly studied
perovskite absorber is
methylammonium lead trihalide
(CH3NH3PbX3, where X is a
halogen ion such as iodide,
bromide or chloride), with an
optical bandgap between ~1.55
and 2.3 eV depending on halide
content.
Crystal structure of CH3NH3PbX3
perovskites (X=I, Br and/or Cl). The
methylammonium cation (CH3NH3+) is
surrounded by PbX6 octahedra.
Eames C, at al. Ionic transport in hybrid lead iodide perovskite solar cells.
Nature Communications. 2015; 6: 7497.
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 Perovskite Solar Cell - Frontier Energy Solution
Solar cell efficiencies of devices using perovskites have increased from 3.8% in 2009
to 25.5% in 2020 in single-junction architectures,[5] and, in silicon-based tandem cells,
to 29.15%.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdpQgPJ1Plk 50
ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS
Organic solar cells are a third-generation
photovoltaic technology using organic
materials to harvest energy from light,
outdoor as well as indoor.

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Emerging research topics and pre-industrial
technology in solar cells

Light-absorbing dyes (DSSC)

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are made
of low-cost materials and do not need
elaborate equipment to manufacture, such
as chlorophyll

Quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs)

Quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs) are based on the Gratzel
cell, or dye-sensitized solar cell, architecture but employ
low band gap semiconductor nanoparticles, fabricated
with such small crystallite sizes that they form quantum
dots (such as CdS, CdSe, Sb2S3, PbS, etc.), instead of
organic or organometallic dyes as light absorbers.
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Polymer solar cells
Polymer solar cells are a relatively novel technology that are built from thin
films (typically 100 nm) of conducting polymers, such as polyphenylene
vinylene

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Chlorophyll

N N
2+
Mg
N N

MeO 2C O

O O
phytol group

Chlorophyll a

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 Conductivity of different materials
Pb at 4K
(Superconduction) 1026

Pt 106
Au, Ag, Cu
Hg-Fe, Al 104
102
Si, Ge
100
10-2 n
Si, Ge (Intrinsic) PA
C (Graphite) N n
10-4
S n H
10-6 PPY
n PTH
10-8
PPP
10-10
Glass, Cotton
10-12
10-14
Nylon
10-16
Polystyrene 10-18
Polyethylene
Quartz 10-20

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Organic Photovoltaic Cells
• An organic photovoltaic (OPV) cell or organic solar cell (OSC) is a
type of photovoltaic that uses organic electronics, a branch of
electronics that deals with conductive organic polymers or small
organic molecules, for light absorption and charge transport to
produce electricity from sunlight by the photovoltaic effect.
• Most organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells are polymer solar cells.
• OPV solar cells have been the focus of much research as they are
lightweight, flexible, inexpensive, highly tuneable and potentially
disposable.

Fig. 1. Schematic of OPV cells. PET – polyethylene terephthalate, ITO – indium tin
oxide, PEDOT:PSS – poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), active layer (usually a
polymer:fullerene blend), Al – aluminium.
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 Polyethylene terephthalate Reaction in the production of PET

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) Polystyrene sulfonate

(PEDOT) (PSS)
PEDOT:PSS

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Sulfonation of polystyrene

addition SO3
polymerization sulfonation

Styrene
Polystyrene
Polystyrene sulfonic acid

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Zhang Z, et al. Organic Solar Cells Based on Polymer Acceptor and Small Molecule Donor with
High Open-Circuit Voltage. J. Mater. Chem. C, 2017; 10.1039.C7TC01996C.
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Complete roll-to-roll processing of flexible
organic tandem solar cells achieved for the
first time.
Scientists in Denmark have devised a rapid,
scalable and industrially viable way to
manufacture large sheets of flexible organic
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tandem solar cells.
The Advantages of OPV

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SOLAR POWER

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 Solar Power
• Solar power is the conversion of energy from
sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using
concentrated solar power, or a combination.

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How Do Solar Panels Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RjGHmlOu58

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Menteri ESDM Jero wacik didampingi Bupati Karangasem, Wayan Geredeg, meninjau
lokasi panel surya Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Surya di Karangasem Bali. 68
 System size: 3 MW (3,000 kW)
Using a whopping 11,000 solar panels, Lincoln Financial Field,
home to the Philadelphia Eagles takes the top spot for the largest
solar power system in use at any football stadium in America.
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Dragon-Shaped Solar Stadium in Taiwan
is 100% Powered by the Sun 70
The Largest Floating Indonesian Solar Power Plant with
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capacity of 200 MW.
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Space-based solar power
Space Solar Cell

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Chinese Space-based Solar Power Stations

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Chinese Space-based Solar Power Stations
• Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar
power in outer space and distributing it to Earth.
• Chinese scientists believe that solar energy directly from outer space
would be much more effective than that harvested from Earth.
• China has announced plans to build a solar power plant that
gravitates around the Earth.
• The Chinese space-based solar power stations could weigh around
one thousand tons.
• The country, with the second largest budget allocated to a space
program, intends to send into orbit a giant solar farm by 2025.
• Full exploitation could be considered for 2050.
• Hence the idea of launching several small power plants in the
stratosphere, between 2021 and 2025, before crossing the level of
the megawatt in 2030 and that of the gigawatt by 2050.
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