Unit 9 – Foundation Design.

Introduction

A building is generally composed of a superstructure above the ground and a substructure

which forms the foundations below ground.

The foundations transfer and spread the loads from a structure's columns and walls into
the ground.

The safe bearing capacity of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive settlement
may occur, resulting in damage to the building and its service facilities such as water.

Foundation failure can also affect the overall stability of a structure so that it is liable to
slide, to lift vertically, or even overturn.

The earth under the foundations is the most variable of all the materials that are
considered in the design and construction of an engineering structure. Under one
small building the soil may vary from a soft clay to a dense rock. Also the nature
and properties of the soil will change with the seasons and the weather.

It is important to have an engineering survey made of the soil under a proposed structure
so that variations in the strata and the soil properties can be determined. Drill holes or
trial pits should be sunk, in situ tests such as the penetration test performed and samples
of the soil taken to be tested in the laboratory. From the information gained it is possible
to recommend safe earth bearing pressures and, if necessary, calculate possible
settlements of the structure. Representative values of the safe bearing pressures for
typical soils are listed in table 9.1.

In the design of foundations, the areas of the bases in contact with the ground should be
such that the bearing pressures will not be exceeded. Settlement takes place during the
working life of the structure, therefore the design loading to be considered when
calculating the base areas should be those that apply to the serviceability limit state, and
typical values that can be taken are

1. dead plus imposed load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk

2. dead plus wind load= 1.OGk + 1.OWk
3. dead plus imposed plus wind load= 1.OGk + 0.8Qk + 0.8Wk

These partial factors of safety are suggested as it is highly unlikely that the maximum
imposed load and the worst wind load will occur simultaneously.
Table 9.1 Typical allowable bearing values

Where the foundations are subject to a vertical and a horizontal load the following rule
can be applied.

V/Pv + H/Ph < 1.0

where V = the vertical load

H = the horizontal load
Pv = the allowable vertical load
Ph = the allowable horizontal load

The allowable horizontal load would take account of the passive resistance of the ground
in contact with the vertical face of the foundation plus the friction and cohesion along the
base.

The calculation's to determine the structural strength of the foundations, that is the
thickness of the bases and the areas of reinforcement, should be based on the loadings
and the resultant ground pressures corresponding to the ultimate limit state.

Figure 9.1 Uplift on footing

With some structures, such as the type shown in figure 9.1, it may be necessary to check
the possibility of uplift on the foundations and the stability of the structure when it is
subjected to lateral loads. To ensure adequate safety, the stability calculations should also
be for the loading arrangements associated with the ultimate limit state. The critical
loading arrangement is usually the combination of maximum lateral load with minimum
dead load and no live load, that is 1.4Wk + 1.0Gk. Minimum dead load can sometimes
occur during erection when many of the interior finishes and fixtures may not have been
installed.

Figure 9.2 Pressure distribution under footing

For most designs a linear distribution of soil pressures across the base of the footing is
assumed as shown in figure 9.2a. This assumption must be based on the soil acting as
an elastic material and the footing having infinite rigidity. In fact, not only do most soils
exhibit some plastic behaviour and all footings have a finite stiffness, but also the
distribution of soil pressure varies with time.

The actual distribution of bearing pressure at any moment may take the form shown in
figure 9.2b or c, depending on the type of soil and the stiffness of the base and the
structure. But as the behaviour of foundations involves many uncertainties regarding the
action of the ground and the loading, it is usually unrealistic to consider an analysis
which is too sophisticated.

Pad footings

The footing for a single column may be made square in plan, but where there is a large
moment acting about one axis it may be more economical to have a rectangular base.

Assuming there is a linear distribution the bearing pressures across the base will take
one of the three forms shown in figure 9.3 below, according to the relative magnitudes of
the axial load N and the moment M acting on the base.
 Figure 9.3 Pad footing – pressure distribution

1. In figure 9.3a there is no moment and the pressure is uniform

p = N/BD …….(9.1)

2. With a moment M acting as shown, the pressures are given by the equation for
axial load plus bending. This is provided there is positive contact between the
base and the ground along the complete length D of the footing, as in figure 9.3b
so that

where I is the second moment of area of the base about the axis of bending and y
is the distance from the axis to where the pressure is being calculated.

Substituting for I = BD3 /12 and y = D /2, the maximum pressure is

p1 = N/BD + 6M/BD2 …….(9.2)

 and the minimum pressure is

p2 = N/BD - 6M/BD2 …….(9.3)

There is positive contact along the base if p2 from equation 9.3 is positive. When
pressure p2 just equals zero

p2 = N/BD - 6M/BD2 = 0

6M/BD2 = N/BD

M/N = D/6

So that for p2 to always be positive, M / N - or the effective eccentricity, e – must

never be greater than D/6. In these cases the eccentricity of loading is said to lie
within the 'middle third' of the base.

3. When the eccentricity, e, is greater than D/6 there is no longer a positive pressure
along the length D and the pressure diagram is triangular as shown in figure 9.3c.

Balancing the downward load and the upward pressures.

½(pBY) = N

therefore

maximum pressure p = 2N/BY

where Y is the length of positive contact. The centroid of the pressure diagram
must coincide with the eccentricity of loading in order for the load and reaction to
be equal and opposite.

Thus

Y/3 = D/2 – e

or

Y = 3(D/2 – e)

therefore in this case of e > D/ 6

maximum pressure p = 2N /3B(D/2 – e) ….(9.4)

A typical arrangement of the reinforcement in a pad footing is shown in figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 Pad footings – reinforcement details

With a square base the reinforcement to resist bending should be distributed uniformly
across the full width of the footing. For a rectangular base the reinforcement in the short
direction should be distributed with a closer spacing in the region under and near the
column, to allow for the fact that the transverse moments must be greater nearer the
column. If the footing should be subjected to a large overturning moment so that there is
only partial bearing, or if there is a resultant uplift force, then reinforcement may also be
required in the top face.

Dowels or starter bars should extend from the footing into the column in order to provide
continuity to the reinforcement. These dowels should be embedded into the footing and
extend into the columns a full lap length. Sometimes a 75mm length of the column is
constructed in the same concrete pour as the footing so as to form a 'kicker' or support for
the column shutters. In these cases the dowel lap length should be measured from the top
of the kicker.

The critical sections through the base for checking shear, punching shear and bending
are shown in figure 9.5. The shearing force and bending moments are caused by the
ultimate loads from the column and the weight of the base should not be included in these
calculations.

The thickness of the base is often governed by the requirements for shear resistance.
Figure 9.5 Critical sections for design

The principal steps in the design calculations are as follows.

1. Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing pressure and
the critical loading arrangement for the serviceability limit state.

2. Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading arrangement at
the ultimate limit state.

3. Assume a suitable value for the thickness (h) and effective depth (d). Check that
the shear stress at the column face is less than 5 N/mm2 or 0.8√fcu, whichever is
the smaller.

4. Check the thickness for punching shear. assuming a probable value for the
ultimate shear stress, vc from table 3.8 BS 8110.

5. Determine the reinforcement required to resist bending.

6. Make a final check of the punching shear, having established lle precisely.

7. Check the shear stress at the critical sections.

8. Where applicable, foundations and structure should be checked for overall
stability at the ultimate limit state.

Reinforcement to resist bending in the bottom of the base should extend at least a full
tension anchorage length beyond the critical section for bending.

Punching Shear

What is Punching Shear?

Punching shear is a type of failure of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to high localized
forces. In flat slab structures this occurs at column support points. The failure is due to
shear:
Punching Shear Design

The design to prevent punching shear failure proceeds as:

1. Check if the concrete is strong enough alone;

2. If not, check if the amount of reinforcement is reasonable;
3. Design reinforcement if reasonable, if not, change form of structure.

Changing the form of structure includes deepening the slab, making the column larger,
introducing drop panels or flared column heads. There is also the possibility to adapt
foreign codes of practice which are more liberal!

The reinforcement put in is usually vertical and traverses the potential failure line. Of
course, we don’t know where the failure plane might be, so we must reinforce each
possible failure plane as shown:
Note that bars may be common to two failure planes and that as we move away from the
column the (shaded) area over which the load is spread increases and so the stress
reduces. Eventually we reach a point where the concrete is sufficiently strong alone.

EXAMPLE

Design of a pad footing

The footing (figure 9.7) is required to resist characteristic axial loads of 1000 kN dead
and 350 kN imposed from a 400 mm square column. The safe bearing pressure on the
soil is 200kN/m2 and the characteristic material strengths are fcu = 35 /mm2 and
fy = 460N/mm2

Solution

Assume a footing weight of 15% of dead load = 150 kN so that the total dead load is
1150 kN

(a) For the serviceability limit state

Total design axial load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk
 = 1150 + 350 = 1500 kN

required base area = 1500/200 = 7.5 m2

Provide a base 2.8 m square, area= 7.8m2

(b) For the ultimate limit state

Column design axial load = 1.4Gk+l6Qk
= l.4 x1000 +1.6 x 350 = 1960 kN

earth pressure = 1960/(2.8 x 2.8) = 250 kN/m2

(c) Assume a 600 mm thick footing and with the footing constructed on a blinding
layer of concrete the minimum cover is taken as 50 mm. Therefore take mean
effective depth d = 520 mm.

At the column face

shear stress, vc = N/ (column perimeter x d)

= 1960 x 103/(1600 x 520)
= 2.36 N/mm2 < 0.8√fcu

(d) Punching shear - see figure 9.5

critical perimeter = column perimeter + 8 x 1.5d { or 2(c1+3d)+2(c2+3d)}

= 4 x 400 + 12 x 520 = 7840 mm

area within perimeter = (400+3d)2

= (400 + 1560) 2= 3.84 x106mm2 (3.84m2 )

therefore

punching shear force V = 250(2.82 - 3.84) = 1000 kN

punching shear stress v = V / Perimeter x d

= 1000 x 103 / 7840 x 520 = 0.25 N/mm2

From table 3.8 this ultimate shear stress is not excessive, therefore h = 600 mm
will be suitable.
Figure 9.6 Critical sections

(e) Bending reinforcement - see figure 9.7a

At the column face which is the critical section

M = (250 x 2.8 x 1.2) x 1.2/2 =504 kNm

for the concrete

Mu = 0.156fcubd2
= 0.156 x 35 x 2800 x 5202 x 10-6
= 4133 kNm > 504
As = M/0.95fyz

la = 0.95d. Therefore

As = 504 x 106/0.95 x 460 x (0.95 x 520) = 2335mm2

Provide nine T20 bars at 330 mm centres, As = 2830 mm2. Therefore

100As/bh = 100 x 2830/2800 x 600 = 0.17 > 0.13 as required

Maximum spacing = 750 mm. Therefore the reinforcement provided meets the
requirements specified by the code for minimum area and maximum bar spacing in a
slab.

(f) Final check of punching shear

From table 3.8, for fcu = 35 and 100As/bd = 0.19

ultimate shear stress. vc = 0.4 N/mm2

 punching shear stress was 0.25 N/mm2, therefore a 600 mm thick pad is adequate.

(g) Shear stress - see figure 10.7b

At the critical section for shear, 1.0d from the column face

V = 250 x 2.8 x 0.68 = 476 kN

v =V/bd = 476 x 103 / 2800 x 520
= 0.33 N/mm2 < 0.4

Therefore the section is adequate in shear.

Figure 9.7 Pad footing example

Combined footings

Where two columns arc close together it is sometimes necessary or convenient to

combine their footings to form a continuous base. The dimensions of the footing should
be chosen so that the resultant load passes through the centroid of the base area. This
may be assumed to give a uniform bearing pressure under the footing and help to
prevent differential settlement.

For most structures the ratios of dead and imposed loads carried by each column are
similar so that if the resultant passes through the centroid for the serviceability limit state
then this will also be true - or very nearly - at the ultimate limit state, and hence in these
cases a uniform pressure distribution may be considered for both limit states.

The shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal as shown ill figure 9.8
The trapezoidal base has the disadvantage or detailing and cutting varying lengths of
reinforcing bars: it is used where there is a large variation in the loads carried by the two
columns and there are limitations on the length of the footing. Sometimes in order to
strengthen the base and economise on concrete a beam is incorporated between the two
columns so that the base is designed as an inverted T-section.
The proportions of the footing depend on many factors. If it is too long, there will be
large longitudinal moments on the lengths projecting beyond the columns, whereas a
short base will have a larger span moment between the columns and the greater width
will cause large transverse moments. The thickness of the footing must be such that the
shear stresses are not excessive.

Figure 9.8 Combined bases

EXAMPLE

Design of a combined footing

The footing supports two columns 300 mm square and 400 mm square with characteristic
dead and imposed loads as shown in figure 9.9. The safe bearing pressure is 300 kN/m2
and the characteristic material strengths are fcu = 35 N/mm2 and fy= 460N/mm2
 Figure 9.9 Combined footing example

1. Base area: allow, say, 250 kN for the self-weight of the footing. At the
serviceability limit state

total load = 250 + 1000 + 200 + 1400 + 300 = 3150 kN

area of base required = 3150/300 = 10.5 m2

provide a rectangular base, 4.6 m x 2.3 m, area = 10.58 m2

2. Resultant of column loads and centroid of base: taking moments about the
centre line of the 400 mm square column

.x = 1200 x 3/(1200 + 1700) = 1.24 m

The base is centred on this position of the resultant of the column loads as shown
in figure 9.9.

3. Bearing pressure at the ultimate limit state:

column loads = 1.4 x 1000 + 1.6 x 200 + 1.4 x 1400 + 1.6 x 300
= 1720 +2440 = 4160 kN

therefore

earth pressure = 4160/2.3 x4.6 = 393 kN/mm2

4. Assuming an 800 mm thick base with d = 740 mm for the longitudinal bars and
with a mean d = 730 mm for punching shear calculations:

At the column face

shear stress, v = N /column perimeter x d

For 300 mm square column

v = 1720 X 103/(1200 x 730) = 1.47 N/mm2 < 0.8√fcu

For 400 mm square column

v = 2440 X 103/(1600 x 730) = 2.09 N/mm2 < 0.8√fcu

5. Longitudinal moments and shear forces: the shear-force and bending-moment

diagrams at the ultimate limit state and for a net upward pressure of 393 kN/m2
are shown in figure 9.10.

6. Shear: punching shear cannot be checked, since the critical perimeter l.5d from
the column face lies outside the base area. The critical section for shear is taken
l.0d from the column face. Therefore with d = 730 mm

V = 1482 - 393 x 2.3(0.74 +0.2)

= 632 kN
thus
 shear stress v = V/bd = 632 x 103/ 2300 x 730

= 0.38 N/mm2

which from table 3.8 is just satisfactory for grade 35 concrete

Figure 9.10 Shear force and bending moment diagrams

7. Longitudinal bending

(i) Mid-span between columns

As = M/0.95fyz = 708 x 106 / 0.95 x 460 x 0.95 x 740

= 2830mm2
 Provide nine T20 bars at 270 mm centres, As = 2830 mm2, top.

(ii) at the face of the 400mm square column

M = 393 x 2.3 x (1.06 – 0.2)2/2

= 334 kNm

As = M/0.95fyz = 334 x 106 / 0.95 x 460 x 0.95 x 740

= 1087mm2

but

minimum As = 0.13bh/100 = 0.13 x 2300 x 800 / 100

= 2392 mm2

Provide nine T20 bars at 270 mm centres, As = 2830 mm2, bottom.

8. Transverse bending

M = 393 x 1.15 x 1.15/2 =260 kNm/m

As = M/0.95fyz = 260 x 106 / 0.95 x 460 x 0.95 x 720

= 870mm2/m

but

minimum As = 0.13bh/100 = 0.13 x 1000 x 800 / 100

= 1040 mm2

Provide T16 bars at 180 mm centres, A, = 1117 mm2 per metre.